Yale University Library

39002002976380

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Gift of
Prof, Charles H. Smith
1910

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WASHINGTON AND HIS COUNTRY

BEING

IRVING'S LIFE OF WASHINGTON
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WITH INTRODUCTION AND CONTINUATION, GIVING A BRIEF OUTLINE
OF UNITED STATES HISTORY FROM THE DISCOVERY OF
AMERICA TO THE END OF THE CIVIL WAR

JOHN FISKE

otojoo 

BOSTON
PUBLISHED BY GINN & COMPANY
I88S

Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1887, by
GINN & COMPANY,
in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington.

J. S. Cushing & Co., Printers, Boston.

PUBLISHERS' PREFACE.

It is generally conceded, we believe, that the results of the
study of history in our schools are very unsatisfactory. The
pupils neither receive very distinct impressions nor acquire a love
for the study of history that wih lead them in after years to pursue
the subject further. The attempt to enumerate all the minor
events of history has obliged editors so to condense their state
ments, to keep th^j books within the proper limits, as to rob them
of that easy flow of language so necessary to any work of general
interest or literary merit. The study thus becomes tedious and
confusing to the child, who is not able to make a proper distinc
tion between important and unimportant events. The present
book proceeds on an entirely different plan. At the outset, by
omitting freely the unessential points, room is given for a more
careful and extended view of the leading facts, interspersed with
anecdote and biography, the side hghts so necessary for an inter
esting presentation of a country's history.
The life of Washington, a type of the noblest manhood, the
central figure' in the greatest epoch of our history, will tend
especially to fix in the reader's mind the important events of
this period.
Although this volume is so much abridged, it preserves the
inimitable language of Irving and retains the vivid interest of the
original. The work as a whole possesses a wonderful degree
of unity. It well deserves to be cahed a Classic History of the
United States, and to stand, on account of its subject-matter and
dicjien, by the side of the other great masterpieces of hterature
in our series of " Classics for Children."
Constant study of such great classic models wih tend to the
cultivation of a taste for good reading and a ready use of the
mother tongue. GINN & CO.
November, 1887.

PUBLISHERS' NOTE.

Through the courtesy of Messrs. G. P. Putnam's Sons we are
allowed the use of Irving's Life of Washington from which to make
this abridgment.

PREFATORY NOTE.

It is some time since my friends, the pubhshers of this
book, urged upon me the desirableness of making an abridg
ment of Irving's Life of Washington, such as might prove
useful as a reading-book in schools, and of supplementing the
story by a brief introduction and continuation presenting the
most instructive points in the history of the United States,
from the first settlement of the country by Europeans down to
the close of the Civh War. In fohowing this suggestion, I have
not simply abridged Irving's work, but have occasionally inter
woven text of my own with his, in view of results that had not
been reached in his time. I have done this but sparingly,
however. The introduction and continuation make no pretence
to completeness, even as outhnes. I have sought in them only
to arrange some of the cardinal events of American history in
suchwise as to illustrate, in view of what went before it and
came after it, the significance of Washington's career. JOHN FISKE.
Cambridge,
March is, 1887.

CONTENTS.

INTRODUCTION.
DISCOVERY AND COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA.
section page
I. The Discovery . . ....  i
2. French Pioneers  7
3. The English in Virginia . . .  12
4. The Dutch in New Netherland  24
5. The Beginnings of New England .  27
6. The Later Colonies ... ... .... .46
- 7. The Struggle between England and France  49

LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
I. Before the French War  55
. 2. The Great French War .  . 68
3. Beginnings of the Revolution ... . . .... 130
4. Preliminary Campaigns or the Revolutionary War . . . 148
5. First Great Defensive Campaign  207
6. The Northern Invasion ....  274
7. First Great Triumph — Saratoga  298
8. Americans asSVme the Offensive  339
9. The Disasters of 1780 . . . .  368
10. Second Great Triumph — Yorktown .  421
II. Return of Peace  484
CONTINUATION.
how the united states became a nation.
The Period of Weakness  507
Second War with Great Britain  528
3. Rise of the Democracy  535
4. The Slave Power ... ....  548
The Civil War  557

LIST OF MAPS.

TO FACE PAGE
I. Braddock's Route, 1755  82
2. Boston, with its Environs, 1775 and 1776 .... 159
3. The Invasion of Canada, 1775  i7S
4. Battle of Long Island, Aug. 27, 1776  209
5. New York and Vicinity in 1776  227
6. Washington's Campaigns in New Jersey and Pennsylvania,. 247
7. Burgoyne's Campaigns  281
8. Battle of the Brandywine, Sept. ii, 1777 .... 301
9. Battle of Germantow.n', Oct. 4, 1777  326
10. Battle of Monmouth, June 28, 1778  346
II. Battle of Camden, Aug. 16, 1780  396
12. Greene and Cornwallis in the Carolinas, Jan.-April, 1781, 441
13. Cornwallis and Lafayette in Virginia, May-July, 1781 . 458
14. Washington's March upon Cornwallis, Aug.-Sept., 1781 . 464
15. Acquisition of Territory by the United States, 1783-1868, 524

INTRODUCTION.
DISCOVERY AND COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA.
§ I. The Discovery.
The Northmen. — The time when people from the civilized
countries of the Old World first visited the shores of America is
not positively known. Vague stories have been current of voyages
to America made long ago by Phoenicians, by Irishmen, by Welsh
men ; some persons have thought that our western coast was visited
by Chinese junks a thousand years before Columbus. It may per
haps have been so, but the evidence is very slender, and the
stories have but little value. The case is quite different, however,
when we come to the stories about the Northmen.
The Northmen were people in whom Americans have much
reason for feeling interested. They were one of the finest and
strongest races of men ever known in the world, and they were
the ancestors of most of us. They lived in the countries now
known as Norway, Sweden, and Denmark, and the adjacent regions
of northern Germany, and have been cahed by various names.
Under the name of Angles, or Enghsh, they conquered and settled
Britain in the fifth century ; under the name of Danes, they partly
conquered it again in the ninth. At the same time they con
quered the northern part of Gaul, where they were known as
Normans ; and under this name they again invaded England in
the eleventh century, and formed an aristocracy there, and placed
their great leader, Wihiam the Conqueror, upon the throne which
his descendant, Queen Victoria, occupies to-day. They were
skhful and daring sailors. From the innumerable bays and fiords
which indent the Scandinavian coasts, their bold sea-rovers, known

2 DISCOVERY AND COLONIZATION
as Vikings, or " men of the bay," sahed forth in their httle ships,
not much larger than modern yachts, but strongly and neatly built,
and urged along partly by oars and pardy by sails \ and in such
little craft they visited ah the coasts of Europe, disputed with the
Saracens the supremacy of the" Mediterranean, and even ventured
far out into the trackless ocean, without compass or aught save the
stars for guides. Thus they settled in the Orkney and Shetland
Islands, and thence, about the year 874, they made their way to
Iceland, where they founded a thriving state. In 981 they dis
covered Greenland, and planted a colony there, which lasted about
"four hundred years, unth it was swept away by the Black Death.
In the year 1000 Leif Ericsson sailed southwesterly from
Greenland and landed in a pleasant and well-wooded country,
which he called Vinland because of its abundance of grapes.
Other explorers fohowed him, of whom the most famous was
Thorfinn Karlsefni. They had fights with the savage natives of
Vinland, who, from the descriptions, are supposed to have been
Eskimos. Trees are scarce in Greenland and Iceland, and voyages
for timber seem to have been made from time to time to Vinland
as late as the fourteenth century. But the Northmen had no idea
that they had found a new world ; they thought Greenland and
Vinland were appendages of Europe ; they had reached these
places without crossing a wide ocean j and their voyages along
these remote coasts attracted no serious attention in Europe,
though the Pope duly appointed a missionary bishop for Vinland.
There are many reasons for supposing that Vinland may have been
some part of the coast of New England, perhaps the region about
Narragansett and Buzzard's bays; but it is possible that it may
have lain as far north as Nova Scotia. It is not likely that the
Northmen made any settlements in Vinland. Where they did
settie, as in Greenland, they have left abundant remains of ruined
houses and churches. No such vestiges have been found on the
coasts of Nova Scotia or New England. The stone buhding at
Newport, which has raade so much talk, is undoubtedly a wind-
miU buht on the estate of Benedict Arnold, governor of Rhode
Island, after the pattern of one with which he had been famihar

OF NORTH AMERICA. 3
near his old home in England. The inscription on Dighton rock
is apparently an Indian- inscription, simhar to those found in
New Mexico and elsewhere. There is no evidence of the visits of
the Northmen to America, except their own Icelandic records ;
and the truth of these there is no good reason for doubting.
Columbus. — It was a long time after the year looo before the
people of Europe turned their attention to distant maritime enter
prises. By and by the East India trade became a source of
wealth to many European cities, especially to such as Genoa, Pisa,
and Venice, which kept great fleets upon the Mediterranean. The
Italian cities produced a set of able navigators, who were also men
of learning and high scientific attainments, and their services were
often put at the disposal of any government which would furnish
them with the means of carrying out their bold enterprises. Spain
and Portugal were very desirous of finding a passage by sea all the
way to India, so that they might rival the commerce of the Italian
cities. Portugal took the lead in this work during the fifteenth
century. Portuguese captains kept venturing farther and farther
down the west coast of Africa, unth at last, in 1497, Vasco de
Gama rounded the Cape of Good Hope and crossed the Indian
Ocean to Hindustan. But several years before this it had occurred
to Columbus that, since the earth is round like a ball, the easiest
way to get to India would be to strike out boldly to the west, and
sail straight across the Atlantic Ocean. Learned men had long
known that the earth is round, but people generally did not be
lieve it, and it had not occurred to anybody that such a voyage
would be practicable. People were afraid of going too far out into
the ocean. A ship which disappears in the offing seems to be go
ing down hill ; and many people thought that if they were to get
too far down hhl, they could not get back. Other notions, as
absurd as this, were entertained, which made people dread the
" Sea of Darkness," as the Adantic was often cahed. Accordingly
Columbus found it hard to get support for his scheme. At length,
in 1492, Queen Isabeha of Spain fitted out an expedition for him,
consisting of three littie vessels, only one of which had a deck.
Early in October of that year, after a ten weeks' voyage, he discov-

4 DISCOVERY AND COLONIZATION
ered the islands of San Salvador and Hayti, and returned to Spain
to teh of his success.
About fifteen years before this Columbus seems to have visited
Iceland, and some have supposed that he then heard about the
voyages of the Northmen, and was thus led to his belief that land
would be found by sailing west. He may have thus heard about
Vinland, and may have regarded the tale as confirming his theory.
That theory, however, was based upon his belief in the rotundity of
the earth. The best proof that he was not seriously influenced by
the Norse voyages, even if he had heard of them, is the fact that he
never used them as an argument. In persuading people to furnish
money for his enterprise, it has been well said that an ounce of
Vinland would have been worth a pound of talk about the shape
of the earth.
Columbus made three other voyages, in the course of which he
discovered other islands, and in 1498 sailed along the northern
coast of South America. He supposed these lands to be a part of
Asia, and called their swarthy inhabitants Indians, a name which
will always cling to them, though really they are no more Indians
than we are Chinese. Columbus made a mistake in calculating the
circumference of the earth, and got it only about half as great as
it really is, thus leaving out the Pacific Ocean and the width of the
American continent. According to this calculation, when he had
crossed the Atlantic he seemed to have sailed just far enough to
reach Asia. He died in 1506, without even suspecting that he
had discovered a New World.
Cabot and Vespucci. — The example of Columbus was soon
followed by other skilful and learned navigators. John Cabot and
his son Sebastian were Venetians in the employ of Henry VIL,
king of England. In 1497 they sahed due west from England to
Newfoundland and Labrador, and were thus the discoverers of the
North American continent. Next year the father died, and Sebas
tian made another voyage, in which he fohowed the American
coast as far south as Florida.
Amerigo Vespucci was a Florentine in the service of Spain. It
is not quite certain whether he made his first voyage to America

OF NORTH AMERICA. S
in 1497 or in 1499. It is certain that in the latter year he discov
ered Brazil, and followed the coast down to within about a hundred
miles of the strait of Magellan. People would naturally have sup
posed this coast to be that of the great Asiatic peninsula which
has been known since ancient times as Farther India. But Ves
pucci's voyage showed that this was a very different looking coast,
and that it extended much farther to the south. It was accord
ingly supposed that this must be the coast of a new Asiatic penin
sula to the eastward of Farther India. In a map made in those
days Asia is depicted with four great peninsulas jutting southward,
— ¦ first Arabia, then Hindustan, then Farther India, then America.
It was natural that Vespucci's name should be given to that part
of the world which he reahy did discover ; and it was not strange
that this name, first applied to the southern part of the New
World, which for a long time was better known than the northern,
should by and by get applied to the whole. Some people have
talked and written very foohshly about the brave and high-minded
Vespucci, as if he had laid claim to honor not justly due him, as
if it were through some fraud of his that the New World came to
be called America instead of Columbia. But Vespucci was in
nowise responsible for this ; and it would not have occurred to
any one at that time to name any country after Columbus, because
he was not supposed to have discovered a new country, but only
a new way of getting to an old one. But if the great Genoese
sahor has not had fuh justice done him on the map, he will forever
rank as the most illustrious explorer of ah time. His voyage in
1492 was a scientific triumph of the first order ; and in view of its
historic consequences, it must be cahed the most important event
since the birth of Christ.
Magellan. — The work of discovering the New World was not
yet completed. The first success of Columbus made Portugal very
jealous of Spain. The two kingdoms were ready to quarrel over
their anticipated good fortune, each wishing to get the whole.
The affair was referred to Pope Alexander VI., who drew an imag
inary hne through the Atiantic Ocean from north to south, 370
leagues west of tbe Azores, and decreed that ah heathen lands

6 DISCOVERY AND COLONIZATION
which should be discovered west of this hne should belong to
Spain, and all east of it to Portugal. The coast of Brazh happens
to come east of this line, and thus fell to Portugal, while ah the
rest of America feh to Spain. Portuguese ships, after once cross
ing the Indian Ocean, kept sahing farther to the east and into the
Pacific, unth it began to become clear that the coast discovered
by Vespucci was not the coast of an Asiatic peninsula, but that
there was water to the west of it ; how much water nobody knew
or dreamed. In 1513 Vasco Nuiiez de Balboa first saw the Pacific
Ocean from the top of a lofty hill in the isthmus of Darien. He
naturally cahed it the South Sea, and it was known by that name
for a very long time. There now came upon the scene the heroic
man who finished what Columbus had begun, and showed that
America was really a New World. This was Ferdinand Magehan,
a native of Portugal, but engaged in the service of Spain. In
dividing things between these two kingdoms the Pope had not
said anything about the opposite side of the globe. Magehan had
heard of the Molucca islands which might be reached by sailing
eastward. He was authorized to reach them by sahing westward,
and thus secure them for Spain. This gave him a chance to
settle forever the question of the earth's rotundity. As long as
America was supposed to be Asia, Columbus was thought to have
settled it. But now it began to look as if America had nothing to
do with .A.sia, and there was thus fresh room for doubt, which
could only be finally cleared away by circumnavigating the globe.
On this tremendous expedition Magellan started in 15 19 with five
small vessels. Crossing the Atlantic, he sahed down the coast of
South America searching for a westerly passage, until he found
the strait which bears his name. Passing through this, he came
out upon the ocean whose waves seemed to him so smooth and
pleasant that he named it Pacific. Now his trials began. As they
sahed month after month alone on this wide waste of waters, with
out seeing trace of land or sail, the courage of many gave out.
Every day, they thought, showed more clearly that the earth was
not round, after ah, but that their captain was taking thera out over
an endless flat space, away from the world entirely. Their food

OF NORTH AMERICA. 7
gave out and their sufferings were dreadful, but they had come so
far that it was hopeless to turn back, and so, in spite of starvation
and mutiny, Magellan kept on, and after such a record of endur
ance as the world has never seen surpassed, he reached the
Ladrone islands, and met with traders who had come there by
sailing eastward from Sumatra. Then Magehan knew that he had
proved the earth to be round. He was soon after slain in a skir
mish with some savages, but Elcano, his lieutenant, took posses
sion of the Moluccas and kept on across the Indian Ocean and
around the Cape of Good Hope, reaching Spain in the autumn of
1522, with only one of his five ships afloat.
This wonderful voyage showed the true position of America with
reference to the rest of the world. But it was a long time before
much was known about North America, except a few points on
the Atlantic coast. It is barely a hundred years since our Pacific
coast was first carefully explored by the famous Captain Cook. It
is less than a century and a half since the northwestern corner of
our continent was discovered and taken possession of by the
Russian navigator Behring. In the sixteenth century the atten
tion of the Spaniards was confined to conquering the Indian king
doms in Mexico and Peru, to colonizing various parts of South
America and the West Indies, and to mining for precious metals,
using the Indians as slaves and treating them with diabolical
cruelty. Spain was then the strongest nation in the world, but
France and England were her eager rivals, and neither paid any
heed to the papal decree which assigned to her the dominion over
North America. § 2. French Pioneers.
Cartier and Ribaut. — France was first in the field. King
Francis I. sent word to the Emperor Charles V. " that since he
and the king of Portugal had divided the earth between them
selves, without giving him a share of it, he should like them to
show him our father Adam's wih, in order to know if he had
made them his sole heirs." Meanwhhe he should feel at perfect
liberty to seize upon all he could get. The French had already

Missing Page

OF NORTH AMERICA. 9
every one, and returned to France, leaving Florida to its native
Indians. Champlain. — It was not unth the religious wars had been
brought to an end by Henry IV. that the French succeeded in
planting a colony in America. They now began to be interested
in the northwestern fur trade as weh as in the Newfoundland
fisheries; and in 1603 the Sieur de Monts obtained permission to
colonize a vast tract of land extending from New York harbour to
Cape Breton, and known as Acadie, a name which gradually
became restricted to the northeastern part of this region. A
monopoly of the fur trade within these limits was granted by the
king to a company of which De Monts was the head. The enter
prise, so far as De Monts was concemed, was a failure ; but one
of his companions, Poutrincourt, succeeded in 1607 in establish
ing the first permanent French settlement in America at Port
Royal in Nova Scotia. Another of the party, Samuel de Cham
plain, made a settlement at Quebec in the following year, and
became the founder of Canada. Champlain was one of the most
remarkable Frenchmen of his day, — a beautiful character, devout
and high-minded, brave and tender. Like Columbus and Magel
lan, like Baker and Livingstone in our own time, he had the scien
tific temperament. He was an excellent naturalist, and he has left
the best descriptions we have of the Indians as they appeared
before they had been affected by contact with white men. Cham
plain explored our northeast coast very minutely, and gave to many
places the names by which they are stih known ; as, for example.
Mount Desert, which has kept its traditional French pronunciation,
whh the accent on the final syhable. He was the first white man
to sah on the beautiful lake which now bears his name, and he
pushed his explorations so far into the interior as to discover lakes
Ontario and Huron. He was made the first viceroy of Canada, and
held that position unth his death in 1635, by which time the new
colony had come to be large and flourishing. In 1611 Jesuit mis
sionaries came over to convert the Indians, and laboured to that
end with wonderful zeal and success. Missions were established as
far inland as the Huron country, and the good priests often dis-

10 DISCOVERY AND COLONIZATION
tinguished themselves as brave and intelligent explorers. The fur
trade began to assume large dimensions, and French rovers formed
alliances with the Indian tribes in the neighbourhood of the Great
Lakes. The French usually got on weh with the Indians ; they
knew how to treat them so as to secure their friendship ; they
intermarried with them, and adopted many of their ways.
The North American Indians. — Nevertheless in one quarter
the French offended the Indians, and raised up for themselves a
powerful enemy who had much to do with their failure to secure a
permanent foothold in America. In the sixteenth century the
territory bounded by the Rocky Mountains, the Great Lakes, the
Atlantic Ocean, and the Gulf of Mexico, seems to have been occu
pied by five varieties or races of Indians. These were, i. in the
northwest, beyond the Mississippi river, the Dakotahs ; 2. in the
southwest, the Natchez ; 3. in the south, the Mobhians, comprising
the Choctaws, Cherokees, Creeks, Seminoles, etc. ; 4. in the north,
from the Mississippi to the Atlantic coast, the Algonquins ; 5 . in the
centre of the Atlantic region, the Iroquois. Of these the Algon
quins and Iroquois played by far the most important part in the
development of American history. The Algonquins comprised
such tribes as the Pequots, Mohegans, Narragansetts, and Wam
panoags in New England ; the Delawares, to the south of the
Susquehanna ; the Shawnees of the Ohio, the Miamis, Pottawato-
mies, Ojibwas, and Ottawas. Of the Iroquois the most famous
tribes were the so-called Five Nations, dwelling in central New
York ; to the south of them were the Susquehannocks ; the Fries
lived on the southern shore of the lake which bears their name,
and the northern shore was occupied by a tribe known as the
Neutral Nation. To the north of these came the Hurons. One
Iroquois tribe — the Tuscaroras — lay quite apart from the rest, in
North Carolina; but in 1715 this tribe migrated to New York
and joined the famous Iroquois league, which was henceforth
known as the Six Nations.
Between the Algonquins and the Iroquois were many important
differences. They differed in their speech, in their modes of
bmlding their wigwams and fortifying their villages, and in their

OF NORTH AMERICA. 11
knowledge of agriculture. The Iroquois were superior to the
Algonquins and looked down upon them with immeasurable con
tempt. Of ah the Iroquois the bravest in war and most for
midable in numbers were the Five Nations, — the Mohawks,
Oneidas, Onondagas, Cayugas, and Senecas. For ferocious cruelty
they have scarcely been equalled by any other race of men known
to history. Their confederated strength made them more than a
match for all their rivals, and during the seventeenth century they
became the terror of the whole country, from the Atlantic to the
Mississippi, and from Canada to North Carolina. In 1649 they
overwhelmed and nearly destroyed their kindred the Hurons, put
ting the Jesuit missionaries to death with frightful tortures ; then
they exterminated the Neutral Nation. In 1655 they massacred
most of the Fries, and incorporated the rest among their own
numbers ; and in 1672, after a terrible war of twenty years, they
effected the ruin of the Susquehannocks. While they were doing
these things, they were also carrying the firebrand and tomahawk
among the Algonquins in every direction. They drove the
Ottawas westward into Michigan, laid waste the country of the
Ihinois, and reduced the Shawnees and Delawares to the condition
of vassals. There is no tehing how far they might have carried
this career of conquest if the white man had not appeared upon
the scene.
It was these formidable Iroquois whom the French at the very
outset made their enemies. It was natural that Champlain should
court the friendship of the Algonquin tribes on the St. Lawrence.
He undertook to defend them against their hereditary foes, and
accordingly in 1 609 he attacked the Mohawks near Ticonderoga
and won an easy victory over savages who had never before seen
a white man or heard the report of a musket. But the victory
was a fatal one for the French. From that time forth the Iroquois
hated them with implacable hatred, and when the English caine,
these powerful savages entered into ahiance with them. Even
alone the Iroquois were capable of doing enormous damage to the
Canadian settlements. In 1689 they even attacked Montreal, and
roasted and devoured their prisoners in fuh sight of the terror-

12 DISCOVERY AND COLONIZATION
Stricken town. This hostility of the Iroquois kept the French
away from the Hudson river until it was too late for them to con
tend successfully for the mastery of New York. But for this cir
cumstance the French might have succeeded in possessing New
York, and thus separating the New England colonies from those in
the south. § 3. The English in Virginia.
Sir Walter Raleigh. — As John Cabot had discovered the North
American continent for the English, they claimed it as their prop
erty ; but many years elapsed before they came to take possession.
From the reign of Henry VII. to that of Elizabeth their attention
was absorbed by affairs at home. During Elizabeth's reign the
great struggle between Catholic and Protestant assumed the form
of an international contest, in which the gigantic power of Spain
was pitted against England and the Netherlands, while France was
divided within itself In 1588 the defeat of the Invincible Armada
marked the overthrow of Spanish supremacy and the triumph of
Protestantism. England had prepared the way for this glorious
victory by training up such a set of naval captains as has never
been surpassed in any age or country. The most famous of these
were Sir Francis Drake, Sir Martin Frobisher, Sh John Hawkins,
Sir Thomas Cavendish, Sir Humphrey Gilbert, Lord Howard of
Effingham, and Sir Walter Raleigh. They began as buccaneers
and raiders upon the Spanish possessions in ah parts of the globe ;
they ended as colonizers ; while from first to last they were explor
ers. Drake and Cavendish carried the British flag into the Pacific,
visited the coast of California, and circumnavigated the earth.
Frobisher, in quest of a northwestern passage to India, entered the
Arctic Ocean and explored a part of it. Hawkins — to our shame
and sorrow in later days — began the practice of kidnapping ne
groes on the Guinea coast and selling them as slaves. At length
Gilbert and his half-brother Raleigh attempted to found colonies in
America. Gilbert was wrecked and perished in the sea. Raleigh
obtained from the queen a grant of the vast region included be
tween the 34th and 45 th parahels of latitude, which the maiden

OF NORTH AMERICA. 13
queen cahed, in honor of herself, Virginia. For several years
Raleigh worked earnestiy to establish a colony somewhere in this
region, sending out a number of expeditions under skilful captains,
though arduous duties at home prevented his going in person. At
one moraent, in 1585-87, he seeraed on the point of succeeding
with a settlement which had been begun on Roanoke Island ; but
the Invincible Armada absorbed too much attention. The colony
was inadequately supported and perished miserably. Nevertheless
the work which Raleigh did was so important in directing the ener
gies of the English toward colonizing North Araerica that he must
be ranked first in the long series of great men who have founded
the United States.
London and Plymouth Companies. — After having lost ;^40,ooo
in these attempts, finding the task too great for his unaided ener
gies, Raleigh assigned all his interests in Virginia to a joint-stock
company of merchants and adventurers. For some years nothing
was accomplished ; but at last in 1606 sorae of these same people,
interested in Raleigh's schemes, organized two companies for set
tling and trading in Araerica. These were known as the London
and Plymouth companies. The region cahed Virginia was divided
into two parts. The London corapany was to control everything
north of Florida as far as the 40th parahel, while everything be
tween this and Canada was to be controhed by the Plyraouth
corapany. On New Year's Day, 1607, three ships of the London
corapany sailed from the Downs, and on the 26th of April they
reached Chesapeake Bay. At Jamestown they laid the founda
tions of the first perraanent English colony in America. Beside the
crews, which numbered 39, there were 105 persons, of whora 5 2 were
classed as " gentlemen," the restas mechanics and tradesmen. There
seem to have been no farraers or persons skilled in agriculture.
For the first year there were no women. Many of them enter
tained a vague hope of finding gold, and few of them had any idea
how to go to work to found a colony. Their food gave out, the
savages were unfriendly, and fever attacked them. In about four
months half their number were dead. There can be httle doubt
that the colony would have perished like its predecessors, had it

14 DISCOVERY AND COLONIZATION
not been for the energy and determination of Captain John
Smith. John Smith. — This remarkable man was one of the raost pic
turesque figures of his time. His adventures in various parts of
the worid, as recounted by himself, were so extraordinary that he
has sometimes been accused, and perhaps with justice, of stretching
the truth. He had a romantic temperament, and was fond of hear
ing and telling wonderful stories ; yet, after making all allowances,
his career was very remarkable. He had been captured by Bar
bary pirates, left for dead on a battiefield in Hungary, sold into
slavery in Turkey, and made his way on foot through the Russian
wilderness. He was full of shifts and expedients, and in the early
colony at Jamestown was the only man capable of taking the lead.
He sailed up and down the coast, explored the great rivers, coaxed
or buhied the Indians, and got supplies of food from them. A
few houses were built, and a few patches of ground were cleared
and sowed with corn. But even Smith's energy found it hard to
keep the colony in existence for two years.
Lord Delaware. — In 1609 Lord Delaware was appointed gov
ernor of Virginia, and a new expedition was sent out, consisting of
nine ships, with 500 men, under command of two worthy soldiers.
Sir Thomas Gates and Sir George Somers. As they were nearing
their destination they were "caught in the tah ofa hurricane," and
the good ship Sea- Venture, with both the coramanders on board,
was driven far away from the rest, and cast upon the Bermuda
islands. It has been supposed that it was this wreck of the Sea-
Venture which suggested Shakespeare's " Tempest.'' Deprived of
their leaders, the colonists reached Jamestown only to make confu
sion more hideous. They were a wretched set, for the most part
the sweepings of Enghsh jails, or ruffians picked up about the
streets. When things were at their worst. Smith met with an acci
dent which made it -necessary for him to return to England and
the Indians laid a plan for exterminating the colony. About this
time Gates and Somers, having built a boat with their own hands
and escaped from the Bermudas, arrived upon the scene and found
the outlook so desperate that they decided to abandon the enter-

OF NORTH AMERICA. IS
prise and take all the settiers back to England. Out of nearly
500 only 60 were left ahve, and stress of hunger had made some
of them cannibals. On the Sth of June, 16 10, they had actually
embarked for home and sailed a little way down the Jaraes river,
when Lord Delaware arrived with three well-raanned ships and
abundant supplies, and fahing on his knees on the sandy beach
thanked God for the relief of Virginia.
Sir Thomas Dale. — Lord Delaware was a man of energy. He
buht forts, defeated the Indians, and repressed disorders. But
his health soon gave out, and the fohowing spring he returned to
England. His successor. Sir Thomas Dale, was a stern soldier,
who set up gallows, pillory, and whipping-post ; and slew or hum
bled the evil-doers, till peace and decorum reigned throughout
the little colony. The fortunate accident of a marriage between
John Rolfe, a leading settler, and Pocahontas, a favourite daughter
of the sachem Powhatan, secured for a time the friendship of the
Indians. This was important, but something which Sir Thomas
Dale did was far more important. Hitherto the system under which
the colonists had hved was one of communism, — a system under
which a few noisy simpletons in our time think every society ought
to hve. Land was owned in common, and whatever food any one
raised, or whatever property was got by trading with the Indians,
was thrown into a common stock, to be evenly distributed among
the settlers. This system put a premiura on laziness. The task
of supporting the colony was thrown upon a few industrious peo
ple, while the rest drank rum and made mischief. The sagacious
Dale changed all this. Henceforth every man was to cultivate his
own tract of land, and bring two barrels and a half of corn to the
public granary for public purposes ; whatever he should raise or
earn beyond this was to be his private property. The effect of
this change was magical ; even the lazy began to think it worth
while to work, and crime was repressed more effectually than pil
lory and gallows could do it. When Pale returned to England in
1616, the colony had become fairly established. He had done
more than any other man to found the great state of Virginia.
For the next three years the colony was governed in turn by the

16 DISCOVERY AND COLONIZATION
humane and upright George Yeardley and the shameless buccaneer
Samuel Argah. In 1619 Yeardley again became governor, and
that year was raarked by two very notable events ; the introduction
of negro slavery, and the beginnings of a free popular government.
Tobacco and Slavery. — For the production of tobacco the soil
of Virginia is unsurpassed in the world. In 1 6 1 2 its systematic
cultivation was begun by John Rolfe, and the demand from Europe
made this employment so profitable that by 1616 the settlers had
begun to give almost exclusive attention to it. As soon as the
wise measures of Dale had made Virginia a place where respecta
ble people could hve, thrifty planters began to come over by hun
dreds to raise tobacco and make their fortunes. In 1619 raore
than 40,000 pounds were shipped to England ; by 1 640 the aver
age yearly export had reached 1,500,000 pounds; by 1670 it had
reached 12,000,000 pounds. The rapid growth of this industry
created a greater demand for labour than could possibly be sup
plied by free immigration ; and hence it led to the introduction of
slave labour. In August, 1619, there came in, says Rolfe, "a
Dutch man-of-war that sold us twenty negars." In those days
people had no more scruples of conscience in buying and sehing
black men than they had in buying and sehing horses or cows ;
and the African slave trade, thus begun, was carried on for nearly
two hundred years. At first, however, it did not go on so briskly
as afterwards, because a certain form of white slavery was stih in
vogue. When the prisons in England were cumbered with crimi
nals, a clearance was sometimes effected by sending shiploads of
them to Virginia to be sold into slavery for a term of years. Gyp
sies, vagabonds, and orphan chhdren were kidnapped and disposed
of in the same way. Such people were .known as " indentured
servants," because the terms and conditions of their servitude were
prescribed by indentures, as in the case of apprentices in England.
When after a while they got their freedom, those who were capa
ble and enterprising soraetimes acquired plantations and becarae
respectable members of society; but the greater part either re
cruited the ranks of the criminal classes or went out to the frontier
and led half-savage lives there. After the end of the seventeenth

OF NORTH AMERICA. 17
century there was but little more of this buying and selhng of
wretched white raen. Work on the plantations was done entirely
by negroes, and their nurabers went on increasing until they be
came a source of anxiety to their masters, as is shown by many
cruel laws in the statute-book.
Free Government. —By July, 1619, there were four thousand
white inhabitants in Virginia, distributed among eleven boroughs.
The charter of the London Company was araended so as to limit
the authority of the governor by a Council and an Assembly.
The assembly was to consist of two burgesses or representatives
from each borough, to be freely elected by the inhabitants. It
soon came to be known as the House of Burgesses, and was in
fact a miniature House of Comraons for the colony of Virginia.
It could pass any laws for the governraent of the colony, provided
they should not conflict with the laws of England, — a somewhat
vague provision which, while it retained a veto power in the. hands
¦ of the British government, at the same time ahowed great freedom
of legislation to the colonists. Thus Virginia, within a dozen years
frora the first settlement of Jamestown, became to all intents and
purposes a self-governing coraraunity. In accordance with Yeard-
ley's instructions, the first representative asserably ever held in
Araerica raet in the chancel of the little church at Jamestown on
Friday, July 30, 16 19.
Fall of the London Company. — Free government was a strange
thing to obtain from such an obstinate and tyrannical sovereign as
James I. The new charter, indeed, had been wrung from the
king sorely against his will. The London Company had come to
be a powerful corporation, with more than one thousand stock
holders, including fffty noblemen and some of the wealthiest mer
chants in the kingdom. Under its liberal leaders, Sir Edwin
Sandys, and Shakespeare's friend the Earl of Southampton, it was
beginning to become a formidable power in pohtics. Its meetings,
as the Spanish ambassador truly told James, were " the seminary
to a seditious parliament " ; but James needed no such warning.
He made up his mind that the London Company must fah, and
accordingly he accused it of misraanagement and brought "suit

18 DISCOVERY AND COLONIZATION
against it in the courts. The judges were timid and time-serving,
as was often the case in those days, and the case was decided in
favour of the king. In the suraraer of 1624 the charter of the
corapany was annulled ; and James set to work with his own pen
to write out a code of laws for Virginia. But while he was about
it he died, in March, 1625, and his son Charles succeeded to the
throne. Virginia under Charles I. — The legal basis on which the free
government of Virginia had rested was now destroyed, and the
new king, Charles I., was just as unscrupulous and tyrannical as
his father. But the death of James happened opportunely for the
Virginians. Wishing to govern without parliaments, Charles natu
rally was at his wit's end to devise ways of getting raoney without
summoning a parliament to grant funds for the expenses of gov
ernment. Among other things he wished to get a monopoly of
the tobacco trade, and this desire led him to deal courteously
with the Virginians and recognize their miniature parliament. In
1628 he directed the governor of Virginia to convene the House
of Burgesses for the purpose of granting him such a monopoly.
But the assembly vindicated its independence by higgling about
the price, and the monopoly was not granted. After this the king
found so much to occupy him at home in his chronic quarrel with
the people that he was unable to interfere with fatal effect in Vir
ginia. In 1629 he sent over a wretched govemor. Sir John Har
vey, who not only put on airs and insulted the people, but stole
the public money, and even went so far as to seh lands which were
the private property of individual planters. This was more than
human nature could bear, and in 1635 the Virginians deposed Sir
John Harvey and appointed a provisional governor in his stead.
This bold act enraged the king. He cahed it rebehion, refused to
hear a word against the unjust mler, and reinstated him in office ;
but after a short time things had come to such a pass with Charles
that he deemed it prudent not to make too many enemies, and
Harvey was recahed to England. In 1642, just as the thunder
clouds of civh war were breaking over the mother-country. Sir
Whham Berkeley carae over as governor, and was the most con-

OF NORTH AMERICA. V)
spicuous figure in the history of Virginia for the next five-and-
thirty years.
The Palatinate of Maryland. — In 1630 an unwelcome visitor
came to Virginia. This was the excehent George Calvert, a York
shire gentieman whom James I. had raised to the peerage as Lord
Baltimore. The fact that he was a Roman Catholic did not pre
vent his standing high in the good graces of the Stuart kings. He
had been a member of the London Company, and after its disso
lution Charles I. had desired him to remain as one of a provisional
council for the governraent of Virginia. But he had a different
aira in view. Catholics were raade uncomfortable in England, and
Lord Baltimore wished to found a colony in Araerica where they
raight live unmolested. He had tried to settle such a colony in
Newfoundland, but the enterprise fahed. On his visit to Virginia
in 1630 he was rudely treated, as a Catholic and as an interloper.
He sailed up Chesapeake Bay, explored part of the country north
of the Potomac, and returning to England, obtained a grant of it
from Charles I. In compliment to the queen Henrietta Maria,
the country was called Maryland. The privileges granted to Lord
Baltimore were the raost extensive ever conferred upon a British
subject, and araounted almost to raaking him an independent sov
ereign. Maryland was made a palatinate, or independent princi
pality, saving only the feudal supremacy of the crown. With this
sole reservation, the Lord Proprietary had all the rights of a sover
eign, and his powers and dignities were hereditary in his family.
Parliament could not tax the Maryland colonists, or legislate for
them ; they were also allowed to trade freely with ah foreign ports.
Lord Baltimore died before he had founded a colony under this
remarkable charter ; but in 1634 the work was begun under his son
and successor, Cecilius Calvert. The leaders of the emigration
were mostly Roman Catholics, but a raajority of the settlers were
Protestants, and this made a pohcy of general toleration necessary.
In view of the almost regal powers wielded by the Lord Proprie
tary, it was not easy for the Protestant settlers to oppress the Cath
olics ; while, on the other hand, if the Cathohc settlers had been
allowed to annoy the Protestants, it would forthwith have raised

20 DISCOVERY AND COLONIZATION
such a storm in England as would have overwhelmed the Lord
Proprietary and blasted his enterprise. The policy of toleration,
which circumstances thus forced upon both ruler and people, soon
began to draw men of ah creeds to Maryland, and the colony grew
rapidly in population and wealth. In particular, a great number
of Puritans came, and presentiy, encouraged by the growing
strength of their party in England, they began to show themselves
intolerant of.the Catholics, and took measures to undermine their
ascendency in the colony. In this they were at first aided, but
afterwards opposed, by the action of Virginia.
Virginia and Maryland. — From the first the Virginians were
indignant at the grant to Lord Baltimore, because it took away
from them a territory which they regarded as rightfully their own.
But in 1634 they had Sir John Harvey on their hands, and were
in no condition to pick too many quarrels with the king's govern
ment. There was one Virginia gentleman, however, who had a
claim which he was in nowise disposed to yield. This was William
Clayborne, who had settled at Kent Island, in the Chesapeake,
and resisted the Maryland settlers with armed force. In 1634 he
was defeated in a little naval figh^ on the Potomac river, and
driven from Kent Island. But he nursed his wrath, and in 1645,
while the great rebellion was at its height in England, he invaded
Maryland, and succeeded for a moment in overturning the propri
etary government. His success was due to his having made him
self a leader of the Puritan party ; but this turned against him the
Virginians and their Cavalier governor. Sir Wihiam Berkeley. From
the beginning the religion of Virginia had been that of the Estab
lished Church, and although many Puritans had settled in that
colony since 1619, they were never welcome there. Berkeley now
took sides against Clayborne, and the government of the Calverts
was re-estabhshed in Maryland. But the contest was not yet
ended. In January, 1649, King Charles was beheaded. It was now the
Puritans who were uppermost in England, whhe it was the king's
friends who were seeking to better their fortunes by leaving the
country. Many of these Cavaliers carae to Virginia, and while they

OF NORTH AMERICA. 21
were coming, the Puritans in that colony were leaving it and flock
ing into Maryland. Thus, as Virginia was given up more and
more to the Cavaliers, the Puritan party increased in Maryland
unth it raade another attempt to get control of the government,
again under the lead of Clayborne. On the 25th of March, 1654,
a bloody battle was fought near the site of Annapolis, and the
Puritans were victorious. But their triumph was short-lived. In
1658 the death of Cromwell deprived tliem of their chief support,
'and the government of the Calvert family was again restored.
During the reigns of Charles II. and James II. the career of
Maryland was peaceful ; but on the accession of Wihiam and Mary
new laws enacted by Parliaraent against Catholics annuhed the
charter of the Calverts, and their governraent suddenly fell to the
ground. From 1692 to 17 14 Maryland was ruled by governors
appointed by the crown. In the latter year the fourth Lord Balti
more turned Protestant, and his proprietary rights were revived.
Maryland reraained a sort of hereditary monarchy until, in 1776,
the rule of the sixth Lord Baltimore was terminated by the Decla
ration of Independence.
Virginia under Charles II. — In spite of her dishke of Puritans,
Virginia subraitted gracefully to Oliver Crorawell, by whora she
was allowed to choose her own governors. In 1652 Sir William
Berkeley, after ten years in office, was succeeded by a governor
chosen by the House of Burgesses. In 1660, when the Stuart
dynasty was restored to the throne in the person of Charles II. ,
the Burgesses shrewdly elected Berkeley again to be their governor,
and the king confirmed hira. Berkeley was a fine gentleraan of
the old school, an aristocrat every inch of him, a man of velvet
and gold lace, a gahant soldier, an author whose plays were per
formed on the London stage, a devoted husband, a chivalrous
friend, and withal a bigoted upholder of kingship and a stern and
merchess judge. Before the end of his rule the little colony of
John Sraith had come to be a considerable state. In 1670 the
population numbered 40,000 souls, and the tobacco crop had come
to be a source of great wealth. There were no large towns.
The planters lived apart on their vast estates on the banks of the

22 DISCOVERY AND COLONIZATION
broad creeks and rivers with which the country is intersected. For
the most part, they had their own wharves, where they dealt di
rectiy with European traders, shipping their cargoes of tobacco in
exchange for imported merchandise. Hence there were very few
manufactures in the colony, few merchants, few schools, few roads.
Each planter on his estate was like a lord surrounded by depend
ents, and the state of society was very simple, while at the same
time there was considerable luxury and elegance.
During this period a great many gentlemen of the Cavalier party
came and settled in Virginia. Among them were the ancestors of
the most famous Virginians engaged in the American Revolution,
such as Washington, Jefferson, Patrick Henry, the Randolphs, the
Lees, Madison, Mason, and Pendleton. Frora 1650 to 1670 these
raen came in such numbers as to give a well-defined character to
Virginian society.
In spite of this, the foolish and wicked Charles II. treated the
Virginians little better than if they had been his eneraies. Laws and
regulations interfering with their trade, kept them in a chronic state
of discontent, thl at length in 1673 the king capped the climax by
granting the whole country to two of his favourites. Lords Arlington
and Culpepper, as coolly as if it were all a wilderness without any
white inhabitants !
Bacon's Rebellion. — Even with a king to back them, it was not
easy for two raen to take possession of a country with 40,000
inhabitants, and this wonderful grant carae to nothing; but it
aroused fierce indignation throughout the colony. Whhe affairs
were in this inflammable state, the Indians becarae troublesome.
In the early days of the colony they had threatened its very
existence. They had slain 400 people in a fearful massacre in
1622; and in 1644 they had again taken the war-path, but had
been completely vanquished by Berkeley. Now in 1675 they rose
in arms again, and began burning and laying waste the outlying
plantations and murdering their inhabitants. But Berkeley was
now afraid to cah out the mhitary force of the colony, lest in the
prevailing disaffection it might be tumed against himself At
length, after nearly 400 scalps had been taken^by the sav-

OF NORTH AMERICA. 23
ages, the people raised a sraall volunteer force without authority
frora the governor, and put it under the leadership of Nathaniel
Bacon, a young Enghshraan of good family and liberal education,
who had lately corae to Virginia. As Bacon raarched against the
Indians, Berkeley proclaimed hira a rebel, and started with a sraall
force in pursuit of him. This conduct aroused the whole country
to rebehion, and the governor was obliged not only to retreat, but
to issue writs for a general election, and to promise a redress of
grievances. Bacon was elected to the new assembly, and under
his lead an eloquent memorial was sent to the king, recounting
the oppressions under which his faithful subjects in Virginia had
suffered. Once more Bacon raarched against the savages, when
in- the raidst of a brihiant campaign he learned that Berkeley had
again proclaimed him a rebel. Leaving his work on the fron
tier, he instantly marched upon Jamestown and took possession of
the government, while Berkeley fled in dismay. A third time,
after settling affairs at the capital, did Bacon set forth to over
whelm the Indians, and no sooner had he got out of sight than
Berkeley came forward and resumed the administration of the
colony. Again Bacon returned to Jamestown, captured the score
of houses of which the capital consisted, and burned them to the
ground, that the town raight no longer afford a shelter to the tyrant.
A few days afterward he was seized with a malarial fever, and died,
and the rebellion forthwith collapsed for want of a leader.
Twenty-two of his principal followers were tried by court martial,
and hanged as soon as sentence was pronounced. Charles II.
deemed it prudent to disavow this cruel conduct of Berkeley. The
too zealous governor was recalled in disgrace, but the Virginians
gained nothing by the rebelhon. Their eloquent memorial passed
unheeded. Frora Bacon's death to the Declaration of Independ
ence was just a hundred years ; and for all that time the politi
cal history of Virginia is mainly the story of a protracted brawl
between the governors appointed by the crown and the assemblies
chosen by the people. Under such influences were the Vhginians
educated for the great part which they played in the American
Revolution,

24 DISCOVERY AND COLONIZATION
§ 4. The Dutch in New Netherland.
Founding of New Netherland. — The year 1609 is an interest
ing year to the student of American history. The summer of
1609 witnessed that fatal victory of Champlain over the Mohawks,
which set the strongest Indian power on the continent in deadly
hostihty to the French. At the same moraent John Smith, on
the upper waters of the Chesapeake, was holding friendly parley
with a host of the same formidable savages in theh bark canoes.
The first Frenchman ever seen by these tawny lords of the New
York wilderness came as an enemy, the first Englishman as a
friend. It was in 1609 that Spain, after a fruitless struggle of
more than forty years, consented to the independence of the
Netherlands, so that the raaritirae energies of the Dutch were set
free for the work of colonization in East and West. It was also
in 1609 that Spain, by banishing a raihion of her most intelligent
and industrious citizens on account of their Moorish origin,
inflicted upon herself such a terrible wound that she was no
longer able to compete with the other colonizing nations of
Europe. It was now England, France, and Holland that were
foremost in the race for colonial empire ; and curiously enough, it
was in this same eventful year that the Dutch came to North
America and interposed themselves between the French and the
English, in the commanding region ruled by the Iroquois. In the
suraraer of 1609 the great English saUor Henry Hudson, then in
the service of the Dutch East India Company, sailed along the
American coast in his little ship the Half-Moon, entered the noble
river which bears his name, and ascended it as far as the head of
tide-water at the site of Albany. He was looking for a northwest
passage to India ; what he found was the finest comraercial and
railitary situation on the Atlantic coast of North America, and the
raost direct avenue to the fur trade of the interior. By 16 14
the Dutch had begun to settie on the island of Manhattan, on
the southern end of which a smah town soon grew up, which they
called New Amsterdam. As their object was trade rather than
agriculture, their posts were soon estabhshed along the Hudson

OF NORTH AMERICA. 25
river and toward the valley of the Mohawk, in the hne of travel
marked out by the traffic in peltries. In 1621 the Dutch West
India Corapany was estabhshed, to superintend the colonization
of New Netherland. To encourage the founding of perraanent
estates, it was provided that any member of the Company who
should bring fifty settlers thither should be entitled to an estate
with sixteen railes frontage on the Hudson river. This ahowed
room for about ten such estates on each bank between New
Amsterdam and Fort Orange, which stood on the site of Albany.
The right of holding manorial courts and other feudal privileges
were attached to these grants ; and thus was created the class of
patroons — the Schuylers, Van Rensselaers, Courtlandts, and
others — whose position was very much like that of a European
nobility, as it was based upon landlordship and lipon the exercise
of a local territorial jurisdiction. The patroons brought many
colonists with them, they acquired immense fortunes by trade, and
their descendants have to this day continued to form a conspicu
ous and iraportant element in New York society.
The colony founded by the Dutch in 16 14 remained in their
hands for just fifty years, and at the end of this period the popu
lation had reached about 8000. Of this number, abdht 1500
were inhabitants of New Amsterdam, a town which in those days
was already cosmopolitan. The Dutch pursued a policy of tolera
tion, and hence, in that cruel age of religious turmoil, they drew
settlers frora almost every country in Europe. It is said that in
1640 eighteen different languages were spoken on Manhattan
Island. Its Overthrow. — The Dutch were fortunate enough to win the
friendship of the powerful Iroquois, but with the Algonquins of
Connecticut and Long Island their relations were far from peace
ful. In 1643-45 there was a terrible war with these tribes, which
at times seemed even to threaten the existence of the Dutch
colony. These wars were partly due to the wretched misgovem-
raent of the colony. There was no self-government here, as in
Virginia. The settlers could neither make their own laws nor
assess tjieir owii taxes, Ordinarily the governor, who was

26 DISCOVERY AND COLONIZATION
appointed by the West India Company, exercised supreme power ;
though occasionally he found it necessary to consult with an
advisory board of from eight to twelve men who were chosen by
the settiers. The fifth governor, William Kieft (1638-47) was a
foolish tyrant who nearly ruined the colony. Under his successor,
the famous Peter Stuyvesant, who was also a tyrant, but a sensible
one, things went on more prosperously. During his administration
the population and wealth of the colony were more than doubled.
In 1637 a small party of Swedes had taken possession of the
raouth ofthe Delaware river and made settlements there ; 4n 1655
Stuyvesant overcame and annexed this little colony. But it was
soon the turn of the Dutch themselves to be swallowed up by a
greater power. From its geographical relations with the interior,
the Hudson river was the most commanding military position in
North Araerica, and the English had no mind to leave it in the
hands of their rivals the Dutch. They got possession of New
Amsterdam by an act of high-handed treachery quite character
istic of King Charles II. In the summer of 1664, at a time of
profound peace between England and Holland, he fitted out a
secret expedition, under command of Col. Richard Nichols, and
sent it dVer to New Amsterdam to demand the surrender of the
colony. Stuyvesant, taken by surprise, had only 250 soldiers
wherewith to defend the town against 1000 English veterans aided
by the 90 guns of the fleet. The people, moreover, were weary of
Stuyvesant's arrogant rule, and ready to lend a willing ear to the
offer of English liberties. Accordingly, in spite of the governor's
rage, the town was surrendered. New Netherland passed without
a blow into the hands of the English, and becarae the proprietary
domain of the king's brother, the Duke of York. He sold the
portion between the Hudson and Delaware — or, as they were
often called, the North and South — rivers to Sir George Car
teret, who had won distinction as governor of the island of Jersey.
In honour of Carteret this new domain was called New Jersey,
while the rest of New Netherland was cahed New York, in honour
of the duke. The region between the Delaware river and Mary-

OF NORTH AMERICA. 27
land, which has since become the state of Delaware, remained for
some time an appendage of New York.
§ 5. The Beginnings of New England.
Earliest Ventures. — The country now known as New England,
together with the region west of it and as far south as the Dela
ware river, was for some tirae called " North Virginia." The first
atterapt to found a colony here was raade by Bartholoraew Gos
nold in 1602. He discovered and named Cape Cod, Martha!s
Vineyard, and the Ehzabeth islands, and buht a house on the
httle islet of Cuttyhunk, but want of provisions drove him back to
England. Further unsuccessful atterapts were raade by Martin
Pring in 1603, and by George Wayraouth in 1606. We have
already seen how the London and Plyraouth Companies for the
colonization of North Araerica were incorporated in 1606. In the
following year — the same which saw the building of Jamestown —
an expedition was made to " North Virginia," under the auspices
of the Plyraouth Company. , Sir Ferdinando Gorges, a gentleraan
of Somersetshire, and Sir John Pophara, chief justice of the King's
Bench, were the persons chiefly interested in this enterprise. The
settlers built some huts near the mouth of the Kennebeck river
and spent the winter of 1607-8 there, half- frozen and half-
starved. Next spring they returned home and reported that the
country was too cold to be habitable by Englishmen.
In the spring of 16 14 the famous John Sraith carae over with
two ships, and explored the coast very minutely from the mouth of
the Penobscot to Cape Cod. He made an interesting raap of the
coast and named the country New England, and at his instance
the king's second son, afterward Charles I., gave names to raore
than thirty places on the raap ; of these Cape Ann, Charles River,
and Plymouth stih remain as originally given. Next year Smith
started with a second expedition, but was defeated and taken pris
oner by a French squadron. In 16 16 Gorges sent out a party
which stayed all winter by the river Saco. In June, 1620, one of
Smith's captains, naraed Dermer, landed at Plymouth and pro
nounced it a good place for a settlement, if only fifty or more

28 DISCOVERY AND COLONIZATION
people could be got together for that purpose. Within five raonths
more this idea was to be realized in an extraordinary and quite
unforeseen raanner.
The Puritans. — The Protestant reformation, set on foot in
England in the reign of Henry VIIL, was secured in 1588 by the
defeat of the great Spanish Armada. After this triumph, attention
was soon called to a division which had for sorae tirae been grow
ing up in the ranks of the Protestants. Sorae of the Reforraers
wished to go to much greater lengths than those who under Edward
VI. and Elizabeth had established the Church of England. Their
extreme views were partly an inheritance frora the Lohards, or
disciples of the great reformer Wiclif, and partly the result of
contact whh the followers of John Calvin. During the persecution
under Mary, many Englishmen had taken refuge in Switzerland
and becorae Calvinists ; and on their return they found the reforms
of Elizabeth not extensive enough to suit them. They wished to
simplify the government of the church and do away with many of
its forms and ceremonies, so as to make it (as one of their oppo
nents angrily observed) a " church of the Purity " ; and from this
sneer, it has been supposed, was derived the glorious narae of
Puritan,, by which these people will always be known. During
Elizabeth's reign the Puritans became numerous in all parts of
England ; but they were especially numerous in the eastern coun
ties of Lincoln, Norfolk, Suffolk, and Essex, and in the southwest
ern shires of Somerset, Dorset, and Devon, so famous for their
share in the raaritirae adventures of that wonderful tirae. These
parts of rural England should on one account have an especial
interest for Americans, for among their picturesque villages and
smiling fields once dwelt the forefathers of nearly twenty mihions
of our fellow-countrymen.
The Pilgrim Fathers. — ^ During the reigns of Elizabeth and
James I. the Puritans generally did not wish to leave the Church
of England, but to stay in it and reform it according to their own
notions. But as early as 1567 a smah number of ministers, de
spairing of accomplishing what they wanted, made up their minds
to separate from the church and to hold rehgious services in pri-

OF NORTH AMERICA. 29
vate houses. In 1580 a Norfolk clergyman named Robert Brown
went about advocating this policy of separation, and those who
adopted it were known as Separatists or Brownists. They were
accused of sedition and persecuted. Many were thrown into jail,
some were hanged ; Brown fled to the Netherlands. The persecu
tion was kept up intermittently for the next thirty years.
At Scrooby, a hamlet in Nottinghamshire near the edge of
Lincoln, there was a congregation of Separatists who listened to
the eloquent preaching of John Robinson. In 1608 they fled in a
body to Hohand, where they maintained themselves for a while at
Leyden. But the prospect of losing their English speech and
nationality in a foreign land did not please them, and after ten
years they made-up their minds to migrate to America. They
sent agents to England, obtained a grant from the London Com
pany, and petitioned the king for a charter. James refused them
a charter, but raade no objections tp their going; and on the i6th
of Septeraber, 1620, the Mayflower set sail from Plymouth, in Dev
onshire, with 102 passengers on board. They aimed at the coast
of New Jersey, but when they sighted land on the 19th of Novem
ber it was the peninsula of Cape Cod. After spending sorae time
in exploring the coast, they landed at length, on the 21st of Decem
ber, at the spot already marked on Smith's map as Plymouth. The
principal leaders of this migration were Wihiam Brewster, Wihiam
Bradford, John Carver, and Miles Standish. They made a treaty
with Massasoit, the sachem of the Warapanoag Indians, who lived
in the neighborhood, and this treaty was observed for fifty-four
years. Yet though relieved of danger from this source, their suf
ferings were great. More than half their number died the first
year, and after ten years they had only increased to 300. Their
grant from the London Company was useless, as their settleraent
was beyond its limits ; but in 1621 they got a new grant from the
Plymouth Company. After 1630 they began to profit by the great
emigration set on foot by the Company of Massachusetts Bay, and
their nurabers increased rauch more rapidly. In 1640 the popu
lation of the Plyraouth colony had reached nearly 3000; in 1670
it had reached 8000, distributed among twenty towns.

30 DISCOVERY AND COLONIZATION
Company of Massachusetts Bay. — In 1627 the project of col
onizing New England was taken up afresh by a remarkable body
of men of wealth, culture, and high social position, including many
leaders of the Puritan party, which had now come to be very
powerful in England. They purchased a large tract of land of the
Plymouth Company, and got a charter frora Charles I., incorporat
ing them as the Company of Massachusetts Bay. The affairs of
this new company were to be managed by a governor, deputy-gov
ernor, and eighteen assistants, to be elected annually by the mem
bers of the company. They could make any laws they liked for
their settlers, provided they did not contravene the laws of England.
But the place where the company was to hold its meetings was not
mentioned in the charter. Accordingly in 1629 the corapany de
cided to take its charter over to New England and found a self-
governing community there. The king and his friends bore no good
wih to these men, but no atterapt was made to interfere with their
proceedings. At this moment the king was not unwilling to have
a nuraber of leading Puritans go away from England. In the at
tempt to found a colony they raight perish or wreck their fortunes,
as so many had already done. Should they succeed and become
troublesome, Charles I. was not the man to let a charter stand in
the way of his dealing with them as he liked. He never felt bound
to keep his word about anything, — a trait of character which was
by and by to cost him his head.
Settlement of Massachusetts. — The name " Massachusetts " is an
Algonquin word meaning " Great Hihs," and is said to have been first
applied to the Blue Hihs in Mhton, and to the tribe of Indians dweh-
ing in that neighbourhood. As a territorial designation, itwas first
given by the English settlers to the Massachusetts Fields, near the
mouth of the Neponset river. By 1630 a group of settlements had
been begun in this neighbourhood, at Dorchester, Roxbury, Boston,
Charlestown, and Watertown. John Endicott had come to Salem
two years earlier. During the year 1630 more than a thousand
persons came over to Massachusetts. John Winthrop, a wealthy
gentleraan from Groton, in Suffolk, was the first governor of the
company ; and Thomas Dudley, a distant relative of Queen Eliza-

OF NORTH AMERICA. 31
beth's favorite, the Earl of Leicester, accompanied him as deputy-
governor. At first it was thought that pubhc business could be
transacted by a primary assembly of ah the freemen in the colony
meeting four times a year ; but the number of freemen increased
so fast that this was very soon found to be irapracticable. Accord
ingly the colonists fell back upon the old English rural plan of
electing deputies or representatives to a general court. For a few
years the deputies sat in the same chamber with the assistants, but
in 1644 they were forraed into a second charaber with increased
powers ; and this was the origin of the Araeriean systera of legisla
tion by two houses, a senate and a house of representatives. The
chamber of assistants answered partly to the council and partly to
the senate of later times. The whole system was a sort of minia
ture copy of the English system, the governor answering to the
king, the assistants, to the upper house of parliaraent, and the
representatives, to the lower house.
The Puritans who now carae to Massachusetts had not formally
separated from the Church of England, as the settlers of Plyraouth
had done, but the separation was soon effected. Two clergymen
at Salem consecrated each other, and drew up a confession of
faith and a church covenant ; and thirty persons joining in this
covenant constituted the first Congregational church in America.
A committee of their number then formally ordained the two
ministers by the laying on of hands. These proceedings gave um
brage to two of the Salem party, who tried forthwith to set up a
church in conformity with Episcopal models. These two raen were
immediately sent back to England, and so the principle was virtually
laid down that the Episcopal forra of worship would not be tol
erated in the colony. The settlers, who had been so grievously
annoyed by Episcopacy in England, considered this exclusiveness
necessary for their self- protection, and in 1631 they carried it still
further. They decided that "no man shah be admitted to the
freedom of this body politic but such as are [w] members of some
of the churches within the liraits of the sarae." If any of the
dreaded emissaries of Strafford and Laud — the advisers and abet
tors of the despotic policy of Charles I. — were to come to Massa-

32 DISCOVERY AND COLONIZATION
chusetts, this measure would prevent their voting or taking any
active part in pubhc affairs.
By the year 1634 nearly 4000 settlers had arrived; about 20
vhlages had been founded; the building of permanent houses,
roads, fences, and bridges had begun to go on quite briskly ; lumber,
furs, and salted fish were sent to England in exchange for manufac
tured articles ; several thousand goats and cattie grazed in the
pastures, and swine innumerable rooted in the clearings and
helped to make ready the land for the ploughman. Amid this
hurry of pioneer work, the interests of education were not for
gotten. So many of the leaders of the emigration were univer
sity men, mostly frora Carabridge, that it was not long before a
university began to seem indispensable to the colony. A few
comraon schools were already in existence, when in 1636 the
General Court appropriated ^^400 toward the estabhshraent of a
college at Newtown, three miles west of Boston. Two years later
John Harvard, a young clergyraan at Charlestown, dying childless,
bequeathed his books and half his estate to the new cohege, which
was forthwith called by his narae ; while in honour of the mother
university the name of the town was changed to Cambridge.
Threatened Dangers. — This appropriation of public money for
a cohege was a wonderful thing in 1636, for in that year the infant
colony was threatened with formidable perils. The king and his
party did not like the liberties which the men of Massachusetts
were taking with things ecclesiastical and political, and it was re
solved to destroy their charter. They had bitter enemies, too,
among the members of the old Plymouth Company. An attempt
was made to seize the Massachusetts charter and to divide up the
territory of the colony among half a dozen hosthe noblemen. As
soon as the men of Massachusetts heard of this, they meditated
armed resistance. They began buhding forts in and about Boston
harbour, mihtia companies were put in training, and a beacon was
set up on the highest hih in Boston, to give the alarm in case of
the approach of an enemy. But the danger was postponed by
events in England. The king issued his_ famous writ of ship-
money, and Archbishop Laud undertook to irripose his new liturgy

OF NORTH AMERICA. 33
upon Scotland. These things soon raised such a storm in the old
country that Massachusetts was for a time forgotten and went on
thriving and managing its own affairs.
Rhode Island. — Whhe the colonists were kept in alarm by the
ih wih of the home government, there were causes of strife at
work at their very doors, of which they were fain to rid themselves
as soon as possible. Among those who came over in 163 1 was a
remarkable young graduate of Oxford named Roger Williams, one
of the noblest men of his tirae. In 1633 he became pastor of a
church in Salem. He was an advocate of religious freedom in
the modern sense, of the entire separation of church from state,
and of the equal protection of all forms of religious faith. At
that tirae very few people held such liberal views. The Puritans of
Massachusetts made no pretence to any such liberality. They did
not cross the ocean in order to found a state in which every one
might believe and behave according to his own notions of what was
right. They carae in order to found a state in which everything
might be cut and dried in accordance with the notions which they
held as a coraraunity. If anybody disagreed with them, let him
imitate their example, and go away and found a state for himself;
there was room enough in the American wilderness. Such being
their views, it was irapossible for the strict Puritans to look with
approval upon Roger Williams. But presently he made himself
odious by a pohtical pamphlet in which he denied the right of the
colonists to the lands which they held in New England under the
king's grant. Such a doctrine at such a time was not to be
endured, and Wihiams was ordered to return to England. He
escaped to the woods and passed a winter with the Indians about
Narragansett Bay, learning their language and acquiring a great
personal influence over them. In the spring of 1636 he learned
that though the Massachusetts people would not have him preach
ing among them, they made no objection to his moving off and
setting up a church and state of his own ; and under such circura
stances the beginnings of the state of Rhode Island were made at
Providence. In this same eventful year, 1636, a very bright and capable lady

34 DISCOVERY AND COLONIZATION
frora Lincolnshire, named Mrs. Anne Hutchinson, carae to Boston
and gave lectures there. She entertained peculiar views about
"justification," and many of her hearers forsook the teachings of
the regular ministers, to fohow her. There was fierce excitement
araong the people ofthe little half-buih town in the wilderness.
Mrs. Hutchinson found defenders among people of- high position,
among them the famous Sir Henry Vane, who was for that year
governor of Massachusetts, but soon returned to England, to
become one of the greatest of Protestant statesmen, and ultimately
to die on the scaffold. Sir Henry was a friend to freedom of
speech, but the men of Massachusetts were not mistaken in main
taining that Mrs. Hutchinson was dangerous to the colony. An
Indian war was at hand, and so hot had the theological quarrel
grown that raany raen were ready to refuse to serve in the mihtia
because they entertained doubts as to the soundness of the chap
lain's opinions. Accordingly Mrs. Hutchinson was expelled from
the colony. Of her friends and adherents some, going northward,
founded the towns of Exeter and Hampton, near Portsmouth and
Dover, which had already been settied by followers of Sir Fer
dinando Gorges. In 1641 these four towns were added by their
own consent to the domain of Massachusetts, and so the matter
stood unth 1679, when Charles II. marked them off as the royal
province of New Hampshire.
Mrs. Hutchinson herself, however, with the rest of her adherents,
bought the island of Aquidneck from the Indians, and there, in
1639, made the beginnings of Newport. Soon afterward Mrs.
Hutchinson moved into New Netherland, and in 1643 was
murdered by Indians. One of her descendants was Thomas
Hutchinson, the faraous Tory governor of Massachusetts, at the
time of the Boston Tea- Party.
The colony of Rhode Island, thus founded by exhes from Mas
sachusetts, continued to practise universal toleration and became a
refuge for heretical and oppressed people. At the same time
society was for many years extremely turbulent there, and the
colony was regarded with strong disfavour by its neighbours.
Connecticut. — During the same eventful year, 1636, the foun-

OF NORTH AMERICA. 35
dations of Connecticut were laid. A few Plymouth men had already
estabhshed themselves on the site of Hartford, and the younger
John Winthrop had built a fort at Saybrook, commanding the
mouth of the river. In fhe course of 1635 twenty vessels came
frora England to Massachusetts, bringing 3000 colonists. The
land near the coast was as yet by no raeans crowded, but there
were many people who disapproved the course of Massachusetts
in ahowing none but church-members to vote, and these feelings
would seem to have had something to do with the migration to the
Connecticut valley. The towns of Windsor, Hartford, and Weth
ersfield were founded in 1636, and in the colony which thus arose
there was no restriction of the right of suffrage to church-members.
The Fequot War. — It was now sixteen years since the landing
of the Pilgrims, yet none of the little colonies had been molested
by the Indians. The treaty with Massasoit had been strictly main
tained in the east, and had kept things quiet there. As settlers
now moved westward they encountered other Indians. To the
west of the Wampanoags dwelt the Narragansetts, and to the west
of these the formidable Pequots, in what is now the vahey of the
Thames. North of the Pequots, in the highlands of Worcester
county, were the Nipmucks, while the Connecticut valley was the
home of the Mohegans. The Pequots buhied and browbeat the
other tribes, and were the terror of the New England forests.
They soon came into collision with the settlers of Connecticut,
and their chief sachem, Sassacus, tried to persuade all the tribes
to uhite in a grand cmsade against the English, and drive them
into the ocean. But the Narragansetts and Mohegans hated the
Pequots too bitterly for this, and they made ahiances with the
white men. For several months the Pequots prowled around the
Connecticut settiements, murdering and kidnapping, until the
wrath of the Enghsh was kindled, and they made up their rainds to
strike a blow that would be long reraembered. On a moonlit
night of May, 1637, Captains Underhih and Mason, with a force of
77 white men and 400 friendly Indians, stormed the principal
pahsaded vihage of the Pequots, burned it to the ground, and
massacred ah but five of its 700 inhabitants. The miserable rem-

36 DISCOVERY AND COLONIZATION
nant of the Pequot tribe was- soon wiped out of existence, and there
was peace in the land for forty years.
Colony of New Haven. — About a month after this terrible ven
geance, a company of wealthy London merchants arrived in
Boston. Their minister, John Davenport, had drawn upon him
self the especial enmity of Archbishop Laud. It was their desire
to put into practice a Puritan ideal of society even stricter than
that of Massachusetts, and after a year they sahed up Long Island
Sound, and settied New Haven, and presently Mhford and Guil
ford. These towns united to form a commonwealth which was for
some time distinct from Connecticut. In the colony of New
Haven none but church-members were allowed to vote, and in
many respects it was the most puritanical of the New England
colonies. It was in New Haven that the famous " Blue Laws ''
were said to have been enacted, forbidding people to kiss their
children on Sunday, or to make mince-pies, or to play on any
musical instrament except a drum, tmmpet, or jew's-harp. People
speaking carelessly, are wont to allude to these wonderful edicts
as the " Blue Laws bf Connecticut." But in truth there never were
any "Blue Laws" at all. The story was invented in 1781 by Dr.
Peters, a Tory refugee in London, in order to cast ridicule upon
the Puritans of New England.
End of the Exodus to New England. — Ever since the year
1629, when the Company of Massachusetts Bay was chartered.
King Charles I. had contrived by hook or by crook to get along
without cahing a parliament. In doing so, he had iraposed ihegal
taxes upon the Enghsh people, and interfered with their freedom
in various ways, and more especially with their freedom of worship,
until their patience was worn out; and at length, in 1640, when
the king, for want of money, was obliged to summon a pariiament,
the day of reckoning began. Before granting money, it was the
custom of parhaments to demand a redress of grievances, and this
parliament found so much of that sort of work to do, that it came
to be known as the Long Parliament. It conducted a great war
beheaded the king, and saw the government of Cromwell rise and

OF NORTH AMERICA. 37
fall, before it finahy ended its existence in 1660, after the strangest
career that a legislative body has ever had since history began.
The meeting of the Long Parliament was the end of the Puritan
exodus to New England. The Puritans had now so much work
to do in the raother country that their annual raigrations across
the Atiantic abruptly ceased. More than 20,000 had come to New
England between 1630 and 1640^ and as many as 5000 chhdren
born in the new country were growing to maturity. During the
next hundred years probably raore people went back to England
than carae thence to the New England colonies. For raore than
a century the Puritan states in America pursued their career in
remarkable seclusion from other communities, and developed a
supple and sturdy type of character, which has already proved to
be of great value to the world. It was not unth after the Revolu
tionary war that these people began anew to take up theit west
ward march into the state of New York and beyond, until now,
after another century, we see some of their descendants dwelling in
a Portland and a Salem on the Pacific coast.
The New England Confederacy. — With a view to raore efficient
self-defence against the Indians, the French of Canada, and the
Dutch, a confederation of New England colonies was forraed at
Boston in 1643. Massachusetts, Plymouth, New Haven, and
Connecticut formed themselves into a league, under the style of
"The United Colonies of New England." The Rhode Island
plantations were not admitted to the league because of their
disorderly condition and the prejudice against them on the part
of the other colonies. The administration of the league was put
into the hands of eight Federal Commissioners, two from each
colony, and this board had entire control over ah dealings with
the Indians or with foreign powers. It was to hold its raeetings
once a year, or oftener, should occasion require it. This confed
erate government did not work so well as it might have done,
because Massachusetts, being stronger than the other three colo
nies together, was sometimes inclined to domineer. But it did
excehent service for forty years, and the details of its political
history are extreraely interesting.

38 DISCOVERY AND COLONIZATION
This confederation of the four colonies was an act of sovereignty
performed without consulting the home government, and it was
regarded with jealousy in England. But Charies I. had too much
on his hands to interfere with these bold Puritans, and their friend
Cromwell was not disposed to interfere with them. So the con
federacy flourished in peace till after Charles II. had got back
from his wanderings and taken his seat upon the throne which he
was to disgrace. There were plenty of malcontents in England
who had been sent back there because the Puritans of the New
World did not like their society. Such persons poured their
grievances into the royal ear. They said that the people of New
England were all rebels at heart ; and if it was meant by this that
they were bent upon having their own way without regard to the
wishes of the home government, there was a great deal of truth in
it. Men who had crossed the ocean and encountered the hard
ships of the wilderness, in order to secure the priceless treasure of
self-government, were likely to insist upon keeping what they had
won at such great cost.
ftuakers in Boston. — The Puritans, however, were very far from
being always in the right. We have seen that they were by no
means tolerant of those who disagreed with them in opinion. For
a whhe they got along by banishing such people or sending them
back to England ; but at length their exclusive scherae of govern
raent was put to the test by a set of people as resolute as them
selves, who persisted in coraing araong thera and would not go
away when they were told to go. These resolute people were the
Quakers, — one of the noblest of Christian sects, but in their
origin, like other sects, the object of much contumely. They
believed in private inspiration, and the Puritans were extremely
afraid of such a doctrine because they thought it raust lead to
looseness of living. The Quakers came over from England not so
much to escape persecution as to preach their doctrines. Accord
ingly they were not satisfied with staying in Rhode Island, where
tliey were tolerated, but insisted on coming into Massachusetts.
Those who came were banished under penalty of death ; but they
returned, and at length four were hanged on a gallows erected on

OF NORTH AMERICA. 39
Boston Common. This was the most disgraceful thing that ever
happened in New England. The tragedy ended in 1661 with the
victory of the Quakers, when one of their number, the brave
Wenlock Christison, came into court and threatened the judges.
"I am come here to warn you," said he, "that ye shed no more
innocent blood." He was arrested and condemned to death ;
but the people had come to be shocked at the severity of the
magistrates, and the sentence was not executed. The persecution
of Quakers, however, continued for a while in a milder form, and,
thirty or more were imprisoned or whipped.
It was the policy of Charles II. to be tolerant toward Quakers.
Catholics and Quakers were the two kinds of Christians whom ah
other sects agreed in considering as outside the pale of toleration.
Charles was secretly a Catholic, and wished to advance Catholic
interests in England, and he could only do this by pursuing a
general policy of which Quakers as well as Catholics got the
benefit. In 1661 he issued an order in council forbidding the
General Court of Massachusetts to inflict bodily punishment upon
Quakers, and directing it to send them to England for trial. But
to send people to England for trial was a hurailiation to which
Massachusetts would never subrait, and she now not merely disre
garded the king's message, but defied it by enacting ^resh laws
against the Quakers.
Coining Money. — The enemies of the New England people,
while dhating upon this rebehious disposition of Massachusetts,
could also remind the king that for several years that colony had
been coining and circulating shihings and sixpences with the name
"Massachusetts" and a tree on one side, and the name "New
England" with the date on the other. There was no recognition
of England upon this coinage, which was begun in 1652 and kept
up for more than thirty years. Such pieces of money used to be
cahed "pine-tree shillings" ; but, so far as looks go, the tree might
be anything, and an adroit friend of New England once assured
the king that it was meant for the royal oak in which his majesty
hid himself after the battle of Worcester !
The Connecticut Charter. — Against the colony of New Haven

40 DISCOVERY AND COLONIZATION
the king bore a special grudge. Two of the regicide judges, who
had sat in the tribunal which condemned his father, had found
refuge in that colony, and the bold minister Davenport had openly
aided and comforted thera. Moreover New Haven had delayed
more than a year in recognizing the restoration of Charles II. to
the throne. So the king was naturally very angry with New Haven,
when circurastances enabled him to punish this disloyal colony,
to snub Massachusetts, and to deal a blow at the Confederacy, aU
at one and the same time.
Massachusetts and New Haven had agreed in allowing only
members of the Congregational church to vote. The main object
of this was to keep out Episcopahans, but there were many
who disapproved of such exclusiveness. Connecticut disapproved
of it, and had some controversy with New Haven about the matter.
None of the colonies save Massachusetts had a charter, and Con
necticut was very anxious to obtain one. Perhaps this raay have
helped to raake her prompt in recognizing the king's restoration.
In 1 66 1 the younger Winthrop went over to England to apply for
a charter for Connecticut. The king thought it an excellent idea
to weaken Massachusetts by raising up a rival state by her side
and sowing dissensions between thera. To suppress New Haven
and forchjjy annex her to Connecticut would be just the thing.
Accordingly a charter of extraordinary hberality was granted to
Connecticut, and she was given possession of ah the territory of
New Haven. At the same time, as if further to irritate Massa
chusetts, an equally liberal charter was granted to Rhode Island.
It was with great reluctance that the people of New Haven sub
mitted to the enforced union with Connecticut. Many of the
people, indeed, would not submit, but in 1667 migrated to New
Jersey and laid the foundations of Newark.
The suppression of one of its four members was a serious blow
to the New England Confederacy, but it continued its work, with
its constkution amended, so as to make it a league of three states
instead of four.
Visit of the Royal Commissioners. — In the summer of 1664
the king sent a couple of ships of war to Boston harbor, with 400

OF NORTH AMERICA. 41
troops under coraraand of 'Col. Richard Nichols, who had been
appointed with three others as royal commissioners, to look after
the affairs of the New World. Colonel Nichols took his ships to
New Amsterdam, and captured that important town. After his
returii the coraraissioners held meetings at Boston, and for a time
the Massachusetts charter seemed in danger. But the Massachu
setts lawyers were shrewd, and raonths were frittered away to no
purpose. Presently the Dutch raade war upon England, and the
king felt it to be unwise to irritate the people of Massachusetts
beyond endurance. The turbulent state of English pohtics which
fohowed still further absorbed his attention, and New England
had another respite of nearly twenty years.
King Philip's War. — In 1660 the sachem Massasoit died, and
was succeeded by his son Warasutta, whom the English called
Alexander. After two years Warasutta died and was succeeded by
his brother Metacom, whora the Enghsh cahed Phihp. Since the
annihilation of the Pequots there had been no outbreak of Indian
hostilities, though the Narragansetts had been with rauch reason
suspected of plotting against the white raen. As a rule the settlers
had treated the natives with justice and kindness. The learned
John Eliot had translated the Bible into their language, and had
converted many by his preaching. In 1674 there were 4000
Christian Indians in New England. Schools were introduced
araong them, and many learned to read and write. The English
as yet showed no disposition to encroach upon the Indians, and
they scrupulously paid for the land which they occupied.
Nevertheless the Indians dreaded and disliked this formidable
power, which had so rapidly grown up among them. In the
presence of the white raen they were no longer lords of the forest ;
they were obhged to recognize a master whora they hated and
would gladly destroy. For a long time the terrible destruction of
the Pequots held thera in awe, but that wholesome feehng had
begun to fade away. The red man had now become expert in
the use of fire-arms, and no longer seeraed so unequal a raatch for
his white neighbor. Under these circumstances, Phhip seems to
have formed a scheme for uniting the native tribes against the

42 DISCOVERY AND COLONIZATION
English, and utterly destroying them. It was a scheme hke that
which Sassacus had entertained in 1636, and long afterward, in
1763, Pontiac cherished a similar design. For several years the
magistrates of Plymouth and Massachusetts were made uneasy by
rumors of Philip's intrigues. At length, in June, 1675, the horri
ble work began with an attack upon the town of Swansea. Massa
cres followed at Dartmouth, Middleborough, and Taunton. Vic
tims were flayed alive, or tied to trees and scorched to death
with firebrands. Driven from his own haunts by the colonial
troops, Philip fled to the Nipmucks, and they attacked Brookfield,
and came near destroying the vihage, but after a three days' fight
they were defeated by troops from Lancaster. Captain Lothrop
was overwhelmed near Deerfield by 700 Nipmucks, and of his
force of 90 picked men only eight escaped the tomahawk. The
Connecticut valley was ravaged from Northfield down to Springfield.
In this desperate state of affairs, it became evident that the Narra
gansetts also were meditating hostilities. They could muster 3000
warriors, and were the most formidable of the New England tribes
since the extermination of the Pequots. The Federal Commis
sioners made up their minds to be beforehand and strike at the
principal fortress or stockaded vihage of the Narragansetts. In
December this stronghold was attacked by Governor Winslow, of
Plymouth, with 1000 men. It stood on a rising ground in the
middle of a great swamp ; it was surrounded by rows of pahsades,
which made a wail twelve feet in thickness ; and the only approach
to its single door was over the trunk of a felled tree two feet in
diameter, and slippery with snow and ice. Victory under such
circumstances was not easy to achieve, but the Puritan army did
its work with a thoroughness that would have won the praise of
Cromwell. After a desperate struggle they stormed the vihage,
with a loss of one-fifth of their number. To the Indians no quar
ter was given, and on that day the Narragansett tribe was virtually
swept from the face of the earth.
Rough as this work was, it was much easier to deal with the
Indians when crowded behind palisades, than to catch them when
scattered about in the trackless forest. They were skhful in elud-

OF NORTH AMERICA. 43
ing pursuit, and in dealing their blows in unexpected places. The
war was kept up several months longer by the Nipmucks, until
Captain Turner surprised and slew the flower of their warriors at
the falls of the Connecticut which have since borne his name.
This heavy blow (in May, 1676) broke the strength of the savages.
In August, Phihp was hunted down and kihed, and his severed
head was mounted on a pole in the town of Plymouth. By this
tirae the Tarrateens in the northeast had caught the war fever, and
during the next year most of the vhlages between the Piscataqua
and the Kennebec were laid in ashes, and their inhabitants massa
cred. In April, 1678, after a three years' reign of terror, the war
came to an end. Of 90 towns in Massachusetts and Plymouth, 1 2
had been quite destroyed, and 40 others had been the scene of fire
and slaughter. More than 600 white men had lost their lives,
besides the hundreds of women and children butchered in cold
blood. The war-debt of Massachusetts was very heavy, and that
of Plymouth was reckoned to exceed the total amount of personal
property in the colony ; yet in course of tirae every farthing of
this indebtedness was paid. Fearful as was the damage done to
the settlers, however, it was to the Indians that the destruction
was fatal and final. Of disturbances wrought by them in central
and southern New England we hear no more. Their power here
was annihilated, and henceforth their atrocities were wrought
chiefly on the frontier, in concert with the French of Canada.
The Massachusetts Charter annulled. — During this deadly
struggle the men of New England had sought no help from beyond
sea and had got none. So far from helping them, it was just this
moraent of weakness and danger that Charles II. chose for wreak
ing his spite upon Massachusetts. Other circumstances favored
his design. There was a considerable party in the colony which
was disgusted with ^the ihiberal policy which restricted the rights
of citizenship to members of the Congregational church. The
leader of this party was Joseph Dudley, an able man, son of the
Dudley who had been lieutenant to Winthrop. Then there were
in England the inheritors of the grudge of Gorges and his friends
against the colony, and the malcontents who had suffered frora the

44 DISCOVERY AND COLONIZATION
Stern pohcy of the Puritans, and ah these men found a bold and
able leader in Edward Randolph, who even went So far as to pro
pose that the Church of England should be estabhshed in Massa
chusetts, and that none but Episcopal clergymen should be ahowed
to solemnize marriages there. This was like the policy which the
king was trying to impose upon Scotland, and which for the next
ten years was to fih that noble country with slaughter and weeping.
It was in 1679, just when ah New England was groaning under
the bereavements and burdens entailed by Phhip 's war, that the
Stuart govemment began its final series of assaults upon Massa
chusetts. First the Piscataqua towns were taken away and raade
into a royal province under the name of New Harapshire. There
was a difficulty of long standing between Massachusetts and the
heirs of Gorges about the territory of Maine, which had lately been
araicably adjusted : the king now annuhed the arrangeraent that
had been made. He also comraanded trfe government of Massa
chusetts to abolish its pecuhar restriction upon the right of suf
frage, and to allow Episcopal forms of worship. Much wrangling
went on for the next five years, when at length, on June 21, 1684,
the dispute was suraraarily ended by a decree in chancery annuUing
the charter of Massachusetts.
Tyranny of Sir Edmund Andros. — Now it was on this charter
that not only ah the cherished institutions of the colony, but even the
titles of individuals to their lands and homes, were supposed to be
founded. By taking away the charter the king meant that the
crown resumed ah its original claim to the land, and might grant
it over again to other people if it felt so inclined. In February,
1685, a stroke of apoplexy carried off Charies IL, and his equally
wicked but rauch less able brother, the Duke of York, ascended
the throne as James II. Sh Edmund Andros, a great favorite
with the new king, was sent over to America to act as viceroy on
a great scale. AH the New England colonies were lumped to
gether with New York and New Jersey, and puc under his rule.
In 1687 the charters of Connecticut and Rhode Island were
rescinded ; but the decree was never formally enrolled. In Octo
ber of that year Andros went to Hartford to seize the charter

OF NORTH AMERICA. 45
but failed to find it. According to local tradition it was hidden in
the hollow trunk of an oak-tree.
Andros was a coarse and unscrupulous man, and the two years
of his government were the most wretched years in the history of
New England. For the moraent it seeraed as if an end was about
to be put to American freedora. The governor imposed arbitrary
taxes, seized upon private estates, encroached upon coraraon lands,
and suspended the writ of habeas corpus. It was announced that
all titles were to be ransacked, and that he who wished to keep
his property raust pay a quit-rent, which under the circurastances
amounted to blackmail. The Old South Meeting-House was
seized and used as an Episcopal church. The General Court was
abolished, and a censorship of the press was set up. Such a bare
faced tyranny was'hardly ever seen before or since in any commu
nity speaking the English language. If it had lasted much longer.
New England would have rebelled ; there would have been war.
Fall of the Stuart Dynasty. — But the tyranny of Andros in
America was but the counterpart of the tyranny which his royal
master was trying to establish in England. The people of England
rebelled, and the tyrant fled across the Channel. In April,
16S9, it becarae known in Boston that the Prince of Orange had
landed in England. The signal-fire was hghted on Eeacon Hill,
a meeting was held at the Town House, drums beat to arms,
rahitia began to pour in from the country, and Andros, disguised
in woman's clothes, was arrested as he was trying to escape to a
ship in the harbor. Five weeks afterward, the new sovereigns,
William and Mary, were proclaimed in Boston, and the days of
Stuart insolence were at an end.
Massachusetts becomes a Royal Province. — From a Dutch
Calvinist, hke Wihiam IIL, the Puritans had littie to fear on the
score of rehgion"; yet the king had no great hking for such a
republican forra of government as that of the New England colo
nies. The defiance with which Massachusetts had treated the
Stuarts looked too much like a challenge of the royal prerogative
in general; but the smaher colonies, having been less annoyed,
had been less intractable, and now found favor with the king.

46 DISCOVERY AND COLONIZATION
Connecticut and Rhode Island were allowed to keep theh old
charters, by which they were, to ah intents and purposes, inde
pendent republican governments. Both states hved under these
charters tih long after the Revolution, — Connecticut unth 1818,
Rhode Island unth 1843. New Hampshire was again erected
into a royal province. Plymouth was annexed to Massachusetts,
and so were Maine and Nova Scotia. But along with this vast
territorial extension there went a considerable curtahment of the
political independence of Massachusetts. By the new charter,
granted in 1691, the right of the people to be governed by a
legislature of their own choosing was expressly confirmed ; but aU
laws passed by the legislature were ,to be sent to England to
receive the royal approval ; the governor was henceforth to be
appointed by the crown ; no qualification of church-merabership
was to be required of voters ; and all forras of worship were to be
tolerated except the Roraan Catholic.
From the accession of William and Mary to the accession of
George III. the history of the internal politics of Massachusetts is,
for the raost part, like the history of Virginia, the chronicle of a
protracted brawl between the governors appointed by the crown
and the legislatures chosen by the people. Thus these two great
colonies, unhke each other in so many respects, were graduaUy
preparing to unite in opposition to any undue assertion of author
ity on the part of the home govemment.
§ 6. The Later Colonies.
The Carolinas. — During the seventeenth century the only
Enghsh colonies which figure conspicuously in American history
are Virginia and Maryland, New York, and the colonies of New
England. In the latter half of the century the foundations of the
other English colonies were gradually laid. In order to provide
for some of his loyal friends whose property had suffered in the great
rebelhon, Charies II. in 1663 made a grant of the land between
Virginia and Florida to a company of eight noblemen, to hold as
absolute proprietors, saving only a formal allegiance to the crown.
This created a proprietary form of government somewhat similar

OF NORTH AMERICA. 47
to that of Maryland, save that, instead of the semi-royal lord pro
prietary, an oligarchy of noblemen was to stand at the head of the
adrainistration. The country had already been naraed Carolina
a century before by the unfortunate Jean Ribaut, in honor of his
king, Charles IX. -of France ; and the name served equally weh
for a colony founded by Charies II. of England. An elaborate
aristocratic constitution was drawn up for the colony by John
Locke, the phhosopher, but it was never put in practice. Imrai-
gration went on for half a century, and two colonies grew up
vnthout much regard to the concerted scheme. The proprietary
government was very unpopular. In 1729 South Carolina volun
tarily became a royal province, and two years later North Carolina
followed her example.
The differences between these two colonies were iraportant and
striking. All the colonies we have hitherto considered, except
New York, were purely English in blood. In the Carolinas there
were a great many French Huguenots, Germans, Swiss, Scotch,
and Scotch-Irish ; but in North Carolina this non-English element
was by no means so great as in South Carolina, where it formed
more than half t^he white population. The English eleraent in
North Carolina was at first of a very low character, consisting
largely of "poor whites" and border mfifians escaped or driven
frora Virginia. Tobacco was cultivated in large quantities, but
oftener on sraall estates than on vast plantations. Agriculture was
ruder than in any of the other colonies, and society was in a more
disorderly condition. Slavery existed frora the outset, but there
were fewer slaves than in Virginia, and the slavery was of a raild
type. The white people were generally poor and uneducated, and
knew comparatively little of what was going on beyond their
borders. Yet in spite of these disadvantages North Carolina im
proved greatly during the eighteenth century, and by the time of
the Revolution was becoming a coraparatively thrifty and well-
ordered state.
South Carolina, on the other hand, was a coraparatively wealthy
community. The plantations were large, and the negro population
greatly outnumbered the whites. The chief source of wealth was

48 DISCOVERY AND COLONIZATION
the cultivation of rice and indigo, and in these occupations an
able-bodied negro could earn so much more in a single year than
the cost of his purchase that it was more profitable to work him
to death than to take care of him. Accordingly slavery was of a
far raore cruel type than in Virginia and North Carolina, and the
negro population remained more barbarous than in those colonies.
The estates were mostiy managed by overseers, and the planters
usually congregated in Charleston, where ah owned houses. Thus
Charleston, alone among many southern towns before the Revo
lution, came to rival the chief northern towns in size and in trade.
It was in 1776 the fifth city in the United States, with a population
of 15,000. The chhdren of the rich planters were educated in
Europe, and society in Charleston was cultivated and brilliant.
Pennsylvania. — Everywhere except in turbulent Rhode Island
the Quakers raet with such an inhospitable reception that, hke
other sects, they were raoved to found a colony according to their
own notions. In 1677 a great nuraber came to New Jersey and
raade settleraents in the western part of the country. Then the
raatter was taken up by a very reraarkable man, the most cele
brated of Quakers, who happened to be on ternis of pecuhar
friendship and intimacy with the royal family. Wihiam Penn, son
of a distinguished admiral, had been entmsted by his dying father
to the especial care of the Duke of York ; and here the interests
of Jaraes were such as to keep him faithful to his trast. As already
observed, Catholics and Quakers were the two sects which nobody
tolerated, and so the Cathohc Stuarts, in order to protect their
own friends, were obliged to pursue a course which incidentally
benefited the Quakers. Penn inherited the claim to a debt of
;^i 6,000 due from the crovra to his father, and there was no way
in which such a debt could more easily be paid than by a grant of
unsettled territory in America. Accordingly in 168 1 Penn obtained
a grant of 40,000 square mhes of territory comprised between the
domain of Lord Baltimore and that of the Duke of York. Penn
would have cahed this princely domain New Wales, but the king
insisted upon naming it Pennsylvania. Of ah the colonies this
was the only one that had no sea-coast, and as Penn wanted free

OF NORTH AMERICA. 49
access to the ocean he proceeded to secure the proprietorship of
Delaware, which for some years had been an appendage of New
York. Throughout the remainder of the colonial period Pennsyl
vania and Delaware continued under the same proprietary govern
ment, though after 1702 they were distinct provinces, each with
its own legislature. Penn's charter was drawn up in imitation of
Lord Baltimore's, but differed frora it in two iraportant points.
Laws passed by the assembly of Maryland were vahd as soon as
confirraed by Lord Baltimore, and did not even need to be seen
by the king or his privy council ; but the colonial enactments of
Pennsylvania were required to be sent to England for the royal
approval. In the Maryland charter the right of the crovm to
impose taxes within the hmits of the province was expressly
denied ; in the Pennsylvania charter it was expressly affirraed.
In shaping the pohcy of his new colony Penn was allowed the
widest latitude, and never was a colony founded on more liberal
principles. Absolute freedom of conscience was guaranteed to
every one, the laws were extreraely humane, and land was offered to
immigrants on very easy terms. Within three years from its foun
dation, Pennsylvania contained Sooo inhabitants, and it was not
long in outgrowing all the other colonies, except Virginia and Mas
sachusetts. Of the white population scarcely half were English ;
about one-third were Germans, and the remainder chiefly Irish.
In 1776 Phhadelphia was the largest city in the United States,
with a population of 30,000, and in literary activity and general cul
ture it was^ second only to Boston.
§ 7. The Struggle between England and France.
Discovery of the Great West. —Whhe the settiement of Penn
sylvania was filhng up the gap between the northern and southern
English colonies, and was thus consohdating the English power
upon the Atlantic seaboard, a gallant French explorer was adding
vast domains in the interior to the empire of Louis XIV. Robert
de la Salle was a man of iron if ever there was one. He did more
than any one else to extend the dorainion of France in the New
World. In 1541 Ferdinand de Soto had discovered the Missis-

50 DISCOVERY AND COLONIZATION
sippi river in the lower part of its course, but the Spaniards had
done nothing more in this quarter, and De Soto's discovery had
lapsed nearly or quite into oblivion. In 1639 and fohowing years
the French began to approach the great river from the north, the
Jesuit missionaries taking the lead. In 1673 Marquette and Johet
reached the Mississippi by way of the Wisconsin, and sahed over
its waters as far down as the mouth of the Arkansas. La SaUe
had already begun his work in 1669 ; and at length in 1682, after
several unsuccessful attempts, in which he showed such indomi
table pluck and perseverance as has never been surpassed, he
explored the great river to its mouth in the Gulf of Mexico, took
possession of the country drained by it in the name of the king of
France, and named it after hira Louisiana. But before he had
been able to carry out his design of estabhshing a colony at the
mouth of the river, after a long series of terrible hardships, he was
waylaid in the forest, and murdered by sorae mutinous wretches of
his own party.
Border Wars. — At the tirae of La Salle's death in 1687 the
deadly rivalry between the French and the Enghsh colonies was
already becoraing pronounced. The northward and westward
growth of New England, and the English conquest of New Nether
land, had brought the two great rivals face to face. The savage
stmggle between the French and the Iroquois had now been kept
up for many years. In 1689 the Iroquois attacked Montreal, and
for a moment it seeraed as if they raight prove more than a match
for the French and their Algonquin alhes. But in 1693 and 1696
they received a terrible chastisement at the hands of Count Fron
tenac, who was one of the ablest of the viceroys sent from France
to govern Canada. Frontenac marched through the Mohawk
valley from Lake Ontario, burning towns, laying waste the country,
and seizing upon the principal war-chiefs as hostages. Between
1690 and 1697 the Iroquois confederacy lost more than half its
warriors, and never recovered from the blow, although it sthl
remained a formidable power until after the Revolutionary War.
The great struggle between France and England began, both in
the Old World and in the New, in 1690, on the occasion of the

OF NORTH AMERICA. 51
accession of Louis XIV.'s arch-enemy, Wihiam of Orange, to the
English throne. In 1690 a party of Frenchmen and Algpnquins
surprised the frontier town of Schenectady and slaughtered sixty
of the inhabitants. During the next seven years they perpetrated
shocking massacres at Salmon Falls and Durham in New Hamp
shire, at York and Fort Loyal (on the site of Portiand) in Maine,
and at Groton and Haverhill in Massachusetts. In 1690 the
Massachusetts militia, under Sir Williara Phips, sailed up the St.
Lawrence and laid siege to Quebec, while the Connecticut forces,
under Winthrop, marched against Montreal ; but these generals
were no match for Frontenac, and both expeditions ended disas
trously. In the following year the French were defeated in a bloody
battle by the New York rahitia and Mohawks under Peter Schuyler.
But, on the whole, as long as Frontenac lived, the English had the
worst of it. He died at Quebec in 1698, just after the Peace of
Ryswick had for a raoment put an end to hostihties.
Peace was of very brief duration. In 1 702 began the War of
the Spanish Succession, which was known in America as Queen
Anne's War. For eleven years New York and New England were
harassed by barbarous foes. There \vas an atrocious massacre at
Deerfield in 1 704, and another at Haverhih in 1 708, and at all
times there was terror on the frontier. In this war the French
were worsted, and at the Peace of Utrecht, in 1713, Acadia was
ceded to England.
After twenty-eight years of peace between the two great rivals,
the War of the Austrian Succession broke out in 1741 and lasted
tih 1748. In Araerica this was known as King George's War.
Its principal incident was the capture of the great stronghold of
Louisburg on Cape Breton Island by 4000 New England troops
under Wilhara Pepperell, in 1745. This fortress coraraanded the
fisheries and the approaches to the St. Lawrence, and its capture
saved New England from a contemplated French invasion. The
gilded iron cross which stands over the entrance to Harvard Col
lege Library was taken from the market-place of Louisburg on this
occasion. At the Peace of Aix-la-Chapehe, in 1748, greatly to
the disgust of New England, Louisburg was restored to the French,

S2 DISCOVERY AND COLONIZATION
m exchange for Madras, in Hindustan, which France had taken
from England.
Settlement of Georgia. — The southern colonies took httie or
no part in these eariier wars against the French. It was the Span
iards with whom they had to contend. The Spaniards laid claim
to the Carolinas as part of Florida, and kept inciting the Indians
to hostihties toward the settiers. During the first quarter of the
eighteenth century the southern frontier witnessed many massacres
of settiers by the Indians. The great multitude of negro slaves,
too, in South Carolina, ever ripe for insurrection, made the neigh
borhood of the hostile Spaniards especially dangerous. In 1732
this wretched state of affairs attracted the attention of a gallant
Enghsh soldier, James Oglethorpe, who conceived the plan of
establishing a new colony which might serve as a military outpost
against the Spaniards. The land between the Savannah river and
the Spanish settlements in Florida was raade over to a board of
trustees, and naraed Georgia, in honor of the reigning king. The
governraent was in the proprietary forra, the trustees standing in
the place of the lord proprietary. Oglethorpe was appointed gov
ernor, and he obtained his first corapany of colonists by setting
free the insolvent debtors who crowded the prisons of England
after the failure of the South-sea Bubble and other wild specula
tions. Germans and Scotchmen came over in considerable num
bers, and a few people from New England joined in the enterprise,
and founded the town of Sunbury. In 1739 England and Spain
were at war, and Oglethorpe's mihtary colony quite justified the
foresight of its founder. In 1742 the Spaniards were defeated,
with great slaughter, in the decisive battle of Frederica; and in
the following year Oglethorpe invaded Florida, and might have
conquered it if he had been properly supported. After Ogle
thorpe's return to England, the proprietary govemment became
so unpopular that in 1752 Georgia was made a crown colony.
Slavery, which had at first been prohibited, was then introduced,
and the colony became in its social characteristics similar to South
Carolina, though it was long before it outgrew the hhterateness
and barbarism of a wild frontier community. At the time of the

OF NORTH AMERICA. S3
Revolution it was the smallest of the thirteen colonies, with a
population of 50,000, of which one-half were slaves.
Completion of the Contact between New France and the
English Colonies. — The work of establishing a French colony
at the mouth of the Mississippi, interrupted by the untimely death
of the heroic La Salle, was taken up again in 1699 by Iberville.
In the course of his operations Mobhe was founded in 1702, and
in 1 718 a French company made the beginnings of the city of
New Orleans. The boundary between the French and English
colonies was now a very long hne, running ah the way from New
Orleans to Montreal. It was a vague and undetermined line, no
where fixed by treaty, but everywhere subject to the arbitrament of
war. To guard their possessions, the French erected a chain of
some sixty fortresses along this hne. The general position and
direction of this chain is raarked by the sites of the towns or
cities of New Orleans, Natchez, Vincennes, Fort Wayne, Toledo,
Detroit, Ogdensburgh, and Montreal.
Thus at the moment when George Washington entered upon
his pubhc career, the contact between New France and the Eng
lish colonies had just been completed ah along the hne. France
hoped to estabhsh, in the interior of North America, a Cathohc
and despotic empire, after the pattern of the Old Regime in the
mother country ; and she had made up her mind that the sway
of the English race in America raust be confined to the narrow
strip of territory between the Atlantic and the Aheghanies. Ah of
the continent west of this raountain range was to become a New
France, and no English colonist must be ahowed to cross the bar
rier. The struggle between the two great rivals was thus extended
over the whole country, so that Virginia began to play a foremost
part in it. For the first time the English colonies, north and
south, began to act in concert against a coraraon foe ; and in over
throwing the enemy, they first began to feel their own strength
when united. Out of this great war immediately grew the dis
puted questions which formed the occasion of the American Revo
lution. The causes having been long at work, the development of
the crisis was sudden and prodigious. Men old enough to vote in

54 DISCOVERY OF NORTH AMERICA.
town-meeting at the time of Braddock's defeat were not yet fifty
when Cornwalhs surrendered his army at Yorktown. But in pass
ing from 1755 to 1 781, we enter a new world, and the man who
did more than any other toward bringing about this wonderful
change is the hero of our story, — the modest, brave, far-sighted,
iron-willed, high-minded general and statesman, whose fame is one
of the most precious possessions of the human race, — George
Washington.

LIFE OF WASHINGTON.

§ I. Before the French War.
Ancestry. — The Washington family is of an ancient Enghsh
stock, the genealogy of which has been traced up to the century
immediately succeeding the Norman Conquest. The name is
that of the village and manor of Wessyngton or Wassengtone in
the county of Durham, where for centuries the forefathers of
George Washington were lords of the manor. iThere were several
instances of mihtary abhity in the faraily. In the Great Rebellion
Sir Henry Washington fought with distinguished valor on the
side of King Charles ; and his two uncles, John and Andrew, after
the death of the king, migrated to Virginia, which was becoming
a favorite resort of the persecuted Cavaliers. In 1657 the Wash
ington brothers settled on the Northern Neck, between the Po
tomac and Rappahannock rivers, and there at the homestead on
Bridges Creek John's grandson, Augustine, was born in 1694. He
was twice married. By his first wife he had two sons, Lawrence
and Augustine, who grew to maturity. By his second wife, the
beautiful Mary Ball, he had four sons, George, Samuel, John
Augustine, and Charles; and two daughters, Ehzabeth and Mil
dred. Childhood and Youth. — George, the eldest, was bom on the
22d of Febmary, 1732, in the homestead on Bridges Creek; but
while he was sthl an infant his father raoved to an estate in Staf
ford County, opposite Fredericksburg.
In those days the raeans of instraction in Virginia were limited,
and it was the custora among the wealthy planters to send their
sons tP England tp cpjnplete their education. This was done

56 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
by Augustine Washington whh his eldest son Lawrence, then
about fifteen years of age, and whom he no doubt considered the
future head of the family. George was yet in eariy childhood : as
his intehect dawned he received the rudiments of education in
the best estabhshraent for the purpose that the neighborhood
afforded. It was what was called, in popular pariance, an "old
field school-house " ; humble enough in its pretensions, and kept
by one of his father's tenants naraed Hobby, who raoreover was
sexton of the parish. The instruction doled out by him must
have been of the simplest kind, reading, writing, and ciphering,
perhaps ; but George had the benefit of mental and moral culture
at home, from an excellent father.
When George was about seven or eight years old his brother
Lawrence retumed from England, a well-educated and accom
phshed youth. There was a difference of fourteen years in their
ages, which may have been one cause of the strong attachment
which took place between them. Lawrence looked down with a
protecting eye upon the boy whose dawning intehigence and per
fect rectitude won his regard ; while George looked up to his
manly and cultivated brother as a model in mind and manners.
Lawrence Washington had soraething of the old mihtary spirit
of the family, and circumstances soon called it into action. Span
ish depredations on British commerce had recently provoked repri
sals. Admiral Vernon, commander-in-chief in the West Indies,
had accordingly captured Porto Bello, on the Isthmus of Darien.
The Spaniards were preparing to revenge the blow ; the French
were fitting out ships to aid them. Troops were embarked in
England for another campaign in the West Indies ; a regiment of
four battahons was to be raised in the colonies and sent to join
them at Jamaica. There was a sudden outbreak of mihtary ardor
in the province ; the sound of drum and fife was heard in the vil
lages, with the parade of recruiting parties. Lawrence Washington,
now twenty-two years of age, caught the infection. He obtained
a captain's commission in the newly raised regiment, and embarked
with it for the West Indies in 1740. He served in the joint expe
ditions of Admiral Vernon and General Wentworth, in the land

BEFORE THE FRENCH WAR. 57
forces commanded by the latter, and acquired the friendship and
confidence of both of those officers. He was present at the siege
of Carthagena, when it was bombarded by the fleet, and when the
troops atterapted to escalade the citadel. It was an ineffectual
attack ; the ships could not get near enough to throw theh shehs
into the town, and the scaling ladders proved too short. That part
of the attack, however, with which Lawrence was concerned, dis
tinguished itself by its bravery. The troops sustained unflinching
a destructive fire for several hours, and at length retired with honor,
their sraall force having sustained a loss of about six hundred in
khled and wounded.
We have here the secret of that martial spirit so often cited of
George in his boyish days. He had seen his brother fitted out for
the wars. He had heard by letter and otherwise of the warlike
scenes in which he was mingling. All his amusements took a mili
tary turn. He made soldiers of his schoolraates ; they had their
mimic parades, reviews, and sham fights ; a boy naraed Wilham
Bustle was sometiraes his corapetitor, but George was coramander-
in-chief of Hobby's school.
Lawrence Washington returned home in the auturan of 1742,
the carapaigns in the West Indies being ended, and Admiral Vernon
and General Wentworth having been recahed to England. It was
the intention of Lawrence to rejoin his regiment in that country,
and seek promotion in the army, but circumstances completely
altered his plans. He formed an attachment to Anne, the eldest
daughter of the Honorable Williara Fairfax, of Fairfax County ; his
addresses were weh received, and they became engaged. Their
nuptials were delayed by the sudden and untimely death of his
father, which took place on the 1 2th of April, 1 743, after a short
but severe attack of gout in the stomach, and when but forty-nine
years of age. George had been absent frora home on a visit dur
ing his father's illness, and just returned in tirae to receive a parting
look of affection.
Augustine Washington left large possessions, distributed by wih
among his chhdren. To Lawrence feh the estate on the banks of
the Potomac, with other real property, and several shares in iron

58 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
works ; to Augustine, the second son by the first marriage, the old
homestead and estate in Westraoreland. The chhdren by the
second marriage were severally weh provided for, and George,
when he became of age, was to have the house and lands on the
Rappahannock. In the month of July the marriage of Lawrence with Miss Fair
fax took place. He now gave up ah thoughts of foreign service,
and settied himself on his estate on the banks of the Potomac, to
which he gave the name of Mount Vernon, in honor of the
Admiral. George, now eleven years of age, and the other children of the sec
ond marriage, had been left under the guardianship of their mother,
to whom was intrusted the proceeds of ah their property until they
should severally come of age. She proved herself worthy of the
trust. Endowed with plain, direct good sense, thorough conscien
tiousness, and prompt decision, she governed her family strictly,
but kindly, exacting deference whhe she inspired affection. George
being her eldest son, was thought to be her favorite, yet she never
gave him undue preference, and the implicit deference exacted
from hira in childhood continued to be habitually observed by him
to the day of her death. He inherited from her a high temper
and a spirit of command, but her early precepts and example
taught hira to restrain and govern that temper, and to square his
conduct on the exact principles of equity and justice.
Tradition gives an interesting picture of the widow, with her little
flock gathered round her, as was her daily wont, reading to them
lessons of religion and morality out of some standard work. Her
favorite volume was Sir Matthew Hale's Contemplations, moral and
divine. The admirable maxims therein contained, for outward
action as well as self-government, sank deep into the mind of
George, and, doubtiess, had a great influence in forming his char
acter. They certainly were exemplified in his conduct throughout
life. This mother's manual, bearing his mother's name, Mary
Washington, written with her own hand, was ever preserved
by him with filial care, and may still be seen in the archives
of Mount Vernon. A precious document ! Let those who

BEFORE THE FRENCH WAR. 59
wish to know the moral foundation of his character consult its
pages. Having no longer the benefit of a father's instructions at home
and the scope of tuhion of Hobby, the sexton, being too hrahed
for the growing wants of his pupil, George was now sent to reside
whh Augustine Washington, at Bridges Creek, and enjoy the bene
fit ofa superior school in that neighborhood, kept by a Mr. Wihiams.
His education, however, was plain and practical. He never at
terapted the learned languages, nor manifested any inclination for
rhetoric or behes-lettres. His object, or the object of his friends,
seems to have been confined to fitting him for ordinary business.
His manuscript school-books still exist, and are models of neatness
and accuracy. One of them, it is true, a ciphering-book preserved
in the library at Mount Vernon, has some school-boy attempts at
cahigraphy : nondescript birds, executed whh a flourish of the pen,
or profiles of faces, probably intended for those of his schoolraates ;
the rest are all grave and business-like. Before he was thirteen
years of age he had copied into a volurae forms for all kinds of
mercanthe and legal papers; bihs of exchange, notes of hand,
deeds, bonds, and the like. This early self-tuition gave him
throughout life a lawyer's skill in drafting documents, and a mer
chant's exactness in keeping accounts ; so that all the concerns of
his various estates, his dealings with his domestic stewards and
foreign agents, his accounts with government, and all his financial
transactions are to this day to be seen posted up in books, in
his own handwriting, monuments of his method and unwearied
accuracy. He was a self- disciplinarian in physical as well as mental raatters,
and practised hiraself in all kinds of athletic exercises, such as
mnning, leaping, wrestling, pitching quoits, and tossing bars. His
frame even in infancy had been large and powerful, and he now
excelled most of his playmates in contests of aghity and strength.
As a proof of his muscular power, a place is still pointed out at
Fredericksburg, near the lower ferry, where, when a boy, he flung
a stone across the Rappahannock. In horsemanship, too, he al
ready excelled, and was ready to back and able to manage the

60 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
most fiery steed. Traditional anecdotes remain of his achievements
in this respect.
Above all, his inherent probity and the principles of justice on
which he regulated all his conduct, even at this early period of
life, were soon appreciated by his schoolmates ; he was referred to
as an umphe in their disputes, and his decisions were never re
versed. As he had formerly been military chieftain, he was now
legislator of the school ; thus displaying in boyhood a type of the
future man.
The attachraent of Lawrence Washington to his brother George
seeras to have acquired additional strength and tenderness on their
father's death ; he now took a truly paternal interest in his con
cerns, and had him as frequently as possible a guest at Mount
Vemon. Lawrence had deservedly becorae a popular and leading
personage in the country. He was a member of the House of
Burgesses, and adjutant-general of the district, with the rank of
major, and a regular salary. A frequent sojourn with him brought
George into familiar intercourse with the faraily of his father-in-
law, the Honorable Whliara Fairfax, who resided at a beautiful seat
called Belvoir, a few miles below Mount Vernon, and on the same
woody ridge bordering the Potomac.
Wihiam Fairfax was a man of liberal education and intrinsic
worth ; he had seen rauch of the world, and his raind had bden
enriched and ripened by varied and adventurous experience. Of
an ancient English faraily in Yorkshire, he had entered the army
at the age of twenty-one ; had served with honor both in the East
and West Indies, and officiated as Governor of New Providence,
after having aided in rescuing it from pirates. For some years
past he had resided in Virginia, to manage the immense landed
estates of his cousin. Lord Fairfax, and lived at Belvoir in the
style of an Enghsh country gentieman, surrounded by an intelh
gent and cultivated family of sons and daughters.
An intimacy with a family like this, in which the frankness and
simplicity of rural and colonial life were united with European
refinement, could not but have a beneficial effect in moulding the
character and manners of a somewhat home-bred school-boy. It

BEFORE THE FRENCH WAR. 61
was probably his intercourse with them, and his arabition to acquit
himself well in their society, that set him upon compiling a code
of morals and manners which still exists in a manuscript in his
own handwriting, entitied " Rules for Behavior in Company and
Conversation." It is extremely minute and circumstantial. Some
of the rules for personal deportment extend to such trivial matters,
and are so quaint and formal as almost to provoke a sraile ; but in
the main, a better manual of conduct could not be put into the
hands of a youth. The whole code evinces that rigid propriety
and self-control to which he subjected himself, and by which he
brought ah the impulses of a somewhat ardent temper under
conscientious government.
Returning to school George continued his studies for nearly two
years longer, devoting himself especially to mathematics, and ac
complishing himself in those branches calculated to fit him either
for civil or military service. Among these, one of the most im
portant in the actual state of the country was land surveying. In
this he schooled himself thoroughly, using the highest processes of
the art ; making surveys about the neighborhood, and keeping
regular field-books, some of which we have examined, in which
the boundaries and measureraents of the fields surveyed were care
fully entered, and diagrams made, with a neatness and exactness
as if the whole related to important land transactions instead of
being mere school exercises. Thus, in his earliest days, there was
perseverance and completeness in ah his undertakings. Nothing
was left half done, or done in a hurried and slovenly manner.
The habit of mind thus cultivated continued throughout life ; so
that however complicated his tasks and overwhelming his cares,
in the arduous and , hazardous situations in which he was often
placed, he found time to do everything, and to do it well. He
had acquired the magic of method, which of itself works wonders.
In one of these manuscript memorials of his practical studies
and exercises, we have come upon some documents singularly in
contrast with all that we have just cited, and with his apparently
unromantic character. In a word, there are evidences in his own
handwriting, that, before he was fifteen years of age, he had con-

62 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
ceived a passion for some unknown beauty, so serious as to disturb
his otherwise weh-regulated mind, and to make him reahy unhappy.
Why this juvenile attachment was a source of unhappiness we have
no positive means of ascertaining. Perhaps the object of it raay
have considered him a mere school-boy, and treated hira as such ;
or his own shyness may have been in his way, and his " rules for
behavior and conversation " may as yet have sat awkwardly on
him, and rendered him formal and ungainly when he most sought
to please. Even in later years he was apt to be silent and embar
rassed in female society. " He was a very bashful young raan,"
said an old lady, whom he used to visit when they were both in
their nonage. " I used often to wish that he would talk more."
The object of this early passion is not positively known. Tra
dition states that the "lowland beauty" was a Miss Griraes, of
Westmoreland, afterwards Mrs. Lee, and mother of General Henry
Lee, who figured in Revolutionary history as Light Horse Harry,
and was always a favorite with Washington, probably from the
recollections of his early tenderness for the mother.^
Whatever may have been the soothing effect of the female
society by which he was surrounded at Belvoir, the youth found a
more effectual remedy for his love melancholy in the company of
Lord Fairfax, who was a staunch fox-hunter, and kept horses and
hounds in the English style. The neighborhood abounded with
sport ; but fox-hunting in Virginia required bold and skilful horse
manship. He found Washington as bold as hiraself in the saddle,
and as eager to fohow the hounds. He forthwith took him into
peculiar favor ; made him his hunting companion ; and it was
probably under the tuition of this hard-riding old nobleman that
the youth imbibed that ( fondness for the chase for which he was
afterwards remarkable.
Their fox-hunting intercourse was attended with more import
ant results. His lordship's possessions beyond the Blue Ridge
had never been regularly settled nor surveyed. Lawless intmders
— squatters, as they were cahed — were planting themselves along
1 " Light Horse Harry " was father of the great southern general Robert
Edward Lee.

BEFORE THE FRENCH WAR. 63
the finest strearas and in the richest valleys, and virtually taking
possession of the country. It was the anxious desire of Lord
Fairfax to have these lands examined, surveyed, and portioned
out into lots, preparatory to ejecting these interlopers or bringing
thera to reasonable terras. In Washington, notwithstanding his
youth, he beheld one fit for the task — having noticed the exer
cises in surveying which he kept up while at Mount Vernon, and
the aptness and exactness with which every process was executed.
He was weh calculated, too, by his vigor and activity, his courage
and hardihood, to cope with the wild country to be surveyed, and
with its stih wilder inhabitants. The proposal had only to be
offered to Washington to be eagerly accepted. It was the very
kind of occupation for which he had been dihgently training him
self All the preparations required by one of his simple habits
were soon made, and in a very few days he was ready for his first
expedition into the wilderness.
It was in the month of March (1748), and just after he had
completed his sixteenth year, that Washington set out on horse
back on this surveying expedition, in company with George William
Fairfax, eldest son of the proprietor of Belvoir. In the course of
this journey, Washington traversed and surveyed a considerable
portion of the Shenandoah valley, acquired his first experience in
woodcraft, and began to make acquaintance with the Indians.
The manner in which he had acquitted hiraself in this arduous
expedition, and his accounts of the country surveyed, gave great
satisfaction to Lord Fairfax, who shortly afterwards moved across
the Blue Ridge, and took up his residence at the place heretofore
noted as his " quarters." Here he laid out a manor^ containing
ten thousand acres of arable grazing lands, vast meadows, and
noble forests, and projected a spacious manor house, giving to the
place the name of Greenway Court.
It was probably through the influence of Lord Fairfax that
Washington received the appointment of pubhc surveyor. This
conferred authority on his surveys, and entitied them to be re
corded in the county offices ; and so invariably correct have these
surveys been found that, to this day, wherever any of them stand
on record, thev receive imnlicit credit.

64 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
For three years he continued in this occupation, which proved
extremely profitable, from the vast extent of country to be surveyed
and the very limited number of public surveyors. It made him
acquainted, also, with the country, the nature of the soil in various
parts, and the value of localities ; ah which proved advantageous
to him in his purchases inafter years. Many of the finest parts of
the Shenandoah Valley are yet owned by members of the Washing
ton family.
Three or four years were thus passed by Washington, the greater
part of the time beyond the Blue Ridge, but occasionally with his
brother Lawrence at Mount Vernon. His rugged and toilsome
expeditions in the mountains, among rude scenes and rough people,
inured him to hardships, and made him apt at expedients ; whhe
his intercourse with his cultivated brother, and with the various
merabers of the Fairfax famhy, had a happy effect in toning up his
mind and manners, and counteracting the careless and self-indulgent
habits of the whderness.
His Mission to Venango. — During the tirae of Washington's
surveying campaigns among the mountains, a grand colonizing
scheme had been set on foot, destined to enlist him in hardy
enterprises, and in some degree to shape the course of his future
fortunes. The long rivalry between France and England was soon
to culminate in a decisive war for the sovereignty over North
America. All the country between the Aheghanies and the Mis
sissippi river was claimed by the French, on the strength of the
discoveries of La Salle ; but the Enghsh were in nowise inclined
to admit this claim, and in 1749 an association known as "the
Ohio Company" was chartered for the purpose of proraptly and
quietly occupying the great Ohio valley. Many of the most intel
ligent and enterprising men of Virginia and Maryland belonged
to this company, and Lawrence Washington was its chief manager.
But while they were busily engaged in their preparations, the
French were already in the field. They sent expeditions from
Canada to the southern shore of Lake Erie, and established forts
at Presque Isle, where the city of Erie now stands, and at Venango
on the Aheghany river ; while their emissaries were busy in stirring

BEFORE THE FRENCH WAR. 65
up the Indians of the frontier and detaching them from their
alliances with the English. This caused a stir of warlike prepara
tion in the English colonies, and especially in Virginia, where
Washington, at the age of nineteen, was made adjutant-general of
his district, with the rank of major. About this time he accom
panied his brother Lawrence on a journey to the Barbadoes in quest
of health. The journey was fruitless, the noble Lawrence return
ing home in July, 1752, just in time to die under his own roof
Soon afterward Governor Dinwiddle made up his mind to send
a commissioner to Venango, to warn off the French intruders and
to secure the allegiance of the Indian tribes. Nothing in ah
Washington's career is more remarkable than the fact that, while
a mere boy of twenty-one, he was chosen for such a difficult
and dangerous enterprise. His woodland experience fitted him
for it, and as the confidant and executor of his deceased brother
he was especiahy weh acquainted with the affairs of the Ohio Com
pany. After an adventurous joumey he reached Venango and
presented Governor Dinwiddle's letter to the Chevalier St. Pierre,
the French commandant. Dinwiddle complained of the intrusion
of French forces into the Ohio country and requested the com
mandant to depart peaceably. St. Pierre after much deliberation
entrusted Washington with a sealed reply. The retum of the young
envoy was fraught with peril. His footsteps were dogged by hostile
Indians, and an attempt was raade to draw him into an ambush.
But all the dangers were surmounted, and ah that forest diplomacy
could do was done. The friendly Indians were confirmed in their
allegiance, hosthe chiefs were browbeaten, and when Washington
reached home in January, 1754, he found himself already famous.
From that moment he was the rising hope of Virginia.
His First Campaign. — St. Pierre's reply to Dinwiddle's letter
proving evasive and unsatisfactory, the governor decided to send
troops at once to the frontier and occupy the important point
where the waters of the Aheghany and Monongahela rivers unite to
form the Ohio. The sagacious eye of Washington had selected this
position as the commanding one for the whole disputed territory,
and the Ohio Company had already begun buhding a fort there.
/

66 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
Dinwiddle's schemes made slow progress, for the Virginia legislature
was loth to grant the necessary money, and many of the members
were unable to see an inch beyond their noses, or to beheve that
the people of Virginia could ever possibly have any interest in what
might go on behind the Aheghany mountains. After much trouble
300 troops were raised and placed under Colonel Joshua Fry,
while Washington was made second in command, with the rank of
lieutenant-colonel. But whhe these slow preparations were raaking,
the French stmck their blow. Captain Contrecceur had embarked
1000 men with field-pieces in a fleet of sixty light boats, and 300
canoes, dropped down the river from Venango, and suddenly made
his appearance before the fort, which was not yet half corapleted.
The whole garrison did not exceed fifty raen, and the only privilege
they could obtain was permission to depart with their working
tools. The stronghold was soon finished by the French and named
Fort Duquesne, in honor of the nobleman who was then govemor
of Canada. Onthe 29th of April, 1754, Washington started with
a smah force to break a path over the Aheghanies and do what he
could to check the progress of the Frenchmen. After crossing the
Great Savage Mountain he became aware that eneraies were prowl
ing about him and seeking to draw him into an ambuscade. At an
open space known as the Great Meadows, on the 26th of May, he
surprised and routed this smah force, losing one man kihed and
three wounded. Of the French ten were kihed, one wounded, and
twenty-one captured. Their coramander Jumonvihe was slain at
the first fire. A few days after, in a letter to one of his brothers,
Washington made his often-quoted remark, "I heard the buhets
whistle, and, beheve rae, there is something charming in the sound."
This remark reached the ears of George II. , who dryly observed,
" He would not say so if he had been used to hear many." Horace
Walpole, for some time after this, ridiculed Washington as a fire-
eating braggart. It is interesting as an hlustrationof honest youth
ful enthusiasm. Being asked raany years afterward whether he
had ever really made such a remark, Washington simply rephed,
"If I said so, it was when I was young."
In spite of this little success, Washington's position, so far

BEFORE THE FRENCH WAR. 67
advanced in the wilderness, was a perilous one ; and before pro
ceeding further he built a palisaded fortress, cahed Fort Necessity,
to secure his retreat in case of disaster. By the death of Colonel
Fry, the chief command of ah the frontier troops devolved upon
him. He was reinforced by a smah company of arthlery, with
nine swivels, which were dragged with infinite difficulty over the
rough crags and bowlders. After advancing thirteen mhes from
Fort Necessity he learned of the approach of a large French force
from Fort Duquesne, under Captain Villiers. He iraraediately
retreated to Fort Necessity, where Vihiers came up with hira, and
a fight ensued in which the Virginians lost twelve kihed and forty-
three wounded, while the French, who were attacking entrenched
positions, suffered a rauch greater loss. As Washington, however,
was outnumbered four to one, and was almost destitute of provis
ions, he was obliged to surrender the fort. His troops were ahowed
to march out with the honors of war, drums beating and colors
flying, with all their effects and mhitary stores excepting the
arthlery ; and they raade their way homeward unmolested. This
surrender took place on the 4th of July, 1754.
Meanwhile a frontier stronghold known as Fort Cumberland
was built near Wihs' Creek, within the limits of Maryland. Rein
forcements arrived in the shape of independent companies from
New York and the two Carolinas, and iraraediately there arose
hot disputes about precedence, which Governor Dinwiddle under
took in his wisdora to settle. With new recruits he increased the
Virginia force to ten companies, and reduced all these to the rank
of independent companies ; so that there would be no officer in a
Virginia regiment above the rank of captain. This shrewd meas
ure, which Dinwiddle confidently thought would put an end to ah
trouble, at once drove Washington out of the service ; for he veiy
properly refused to accept a lower commission than that under which
his conduct had already gained him a vote of thanks from the
legislature.

LIFE OF WASHINGTON.

§ 2. The Great French War.
Braddock's Expedition. — Having resigned his coraraission, and
disengaged himself from pubhc affairs, Washington's first care was
to visit his mother, inquire into the state of doraestic concerns, and
attend to the welfare of his brothers and sisters. In these raatters
he was ever his mother's adjunct and counsehor, discharging faith
fully the duties of an eldest son, who should consider himself a
second father to the family.
He now took up his abode at Mount Vernon, and prepared to
engage in those agricultural pursuits, for which, even in his youth
ful days, he had as keen a relish as for the profession of arms.
Scarcely had he entered upon his rural occupations, however, when
the service of his country once more called him to the field.
The disastrous affair at the Great Meadows, and the other acts
of French hostility on the Ohio, had roused the attention of the
British ministry. Their ambassador at Paris was instructed to com
plain of those violations of the peace. The court of Versailles
amused him with general assurances of amity, and a strict adher
ence to treaties. Their ambassador at the court of St. James, the
Marquis de Mirepoix, on the faith of his instructions, gave the
same assurances. In the meantime, however, French ships were
fitted out, and troops embarked, to carry out the schemes of the
government in America. So profound was the dissimulation of the
court of Versailles, that even their own ambassador is said to have
been kept in ignorance of the hostile game they were playing, while
he was exerting himself in good faith, to lull the suspicions of Eng
land, and maintain the international peace.
The British government now prepared for mhitary operations in
America ; none of them professedly aggressive, but rather to resist
and counteract aggressions. A plan of campaign was devised for
1755, having four objects.
To eject the French from the lands which they held unjustly, in
the province of Nova Scotia.
To dislodge them from a fortress which they had erected at

THE GREAT FRENCH WAR. 69
Crown Point, on Lake Champlain, within what was claimed as
British territory.
To dispossess them of the fort which they had constracted at
Niagara, between Lake Ontario and Lake Erie.
To drive them from the frontiers of Pennsylvania and Virginia,
and recover the vahey of the Ohio.
The Duke of Cumberland, captain-general of the British array,
had the organization of this carapaign ; and through his patronage
Major-general Edward Braddock was intmsted with the execution
of it, being appointed general-in-chief of ah the forces in the
colonies. Braddock was a brave and experienced officer ; but his expe
rience was that of routine, and rendered him pragmatical and
obstinate, impatient of novel expedients "not laid down in the
books," but dictated by emergencies in a "new country," and his
military precision, which would have been brilliant on parade, was
a constant obstacle to alert action in the whdemess.
Braddock was to lead in person the grand enterprise ofthe cam
paign, that destined for the frontiers of Virginia and Pennsylvania.
He landed onthe 20th of February, 1755, at Hampton, in Virginia,
and proceeded to Wilharasburg to consult with Governor Dinwid
dle. Shortly afterwards he was joined there by Commodore Kep-
pel, whose squadron of two ships-of-war, and several transports,
had anchored in the Chesapeake. On board of these ships were
two prime regiments of about five hundred men each ; one com
manded by Sir Peter Halket, the other by Colonel Dunbar;
together with a train of artillery, and the necessary munitions of
war. The regiraents were to be augmented to seven hundred men
each, by men selected frora Virginia companies recently raised.
Alexandria was fixed upon as the place where the troops should
disembark, and encamp. The ships were accordingly ordered up
to that place, and the levies directed to repair thither.
' The plan of the campaign included the use of Indian alhes.
Govemor Dinwiddle gave Braddock reason to expect at least four
hundred Indians to join him at Fort Cumberland. He laid before
him also contracts that he had made for cattie, and promises that

70 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
the Assembly of Pennsylvania had made of flour; these, with
other supplies, and a thousand barrels of beef on board of the
transports, would furnish six months' provisions for four thousand
men. General Braddock apprehended difficulty in procuring wagons
and horses sufficient to attend him in his march. Two Dutch
settiers, at the foot of the Blue Ridge, had engaged to furnish two
hundred wagons, and fifteen hundred carrying horses, to be at
Fort Cumberland early in May. Governor Sharpe was to furnish
above a hundred wagons for the transportation of stores, on the
Maryland side of the Potomac.
Keppel furnished four cannon from his ships, for the attack on
Fort Duquesne, and thirty picked seamen to assist in dragging
them over the mountains ; for " soldiers," said he, " cannot be as
weh acquainted with the handling of tackles as seamen." They
were to aid also in passing the troops and artillery on floats or in
boats, across the rivers, and were under the command of a mid
shipman and lieutenant.
Trusting to these arrangements, Braddock proceeded to Alex
andria. The troops had ah been disembarked before his arrival,
and the Virginia levies were arrived. There were beside two com
panies of carpenters ; six of rangers ; and one troop of light horse.
The levies, having been clothed, were ordered to march imme
diately for Winchester, to be armed, and the general gave them in
charge of Ensign Allen, of the 44th, " to make them as like sol
diers as possible." The light horse were retained by the general
as his escort and body-guard.
The din and stir of warlike preparation disturbed the quiet of
Mount Vernon. Washington looked down from his rural retreat
upon the ships-of-war and transports, as they passed up the Poto
mac, with the array of arms gleaming along their decks. The
booming of cannon echoed among his groves. Alexandria was
but a few mhes distant. Occasionally he mounted his horse, and
rode to that place ; it was like a garrisoned town, teeming with
troops, and resounding with the drum and fife. A brihiant cam
paign was about to open under the auspices of an experienced

THE GREAt FRENCH WAR. 71
general, and with ah the means and appurtenances of European
warfare. How different from the starveling expeditions he had
hitherto been doomed to conduct I What an opportunity to efface
the raemory of his recent disaster ! All his thoughts of rural life
were put to flight. The mihtary part of his character was again
in the ascendant ; his great desire was to join the expedition as a
volunteer. It was reported to General Braddock. The latter was apprised
by Governor Dinwiddle and others, of Washington's personal mer
its, his knowledge of the country, and his experience in frontier
service. The consequence was, a letter frora one of Braddock's
aides-de-carap, inviting Washington to join his staff.
Such a situation offered no eraoluraent or comraand, and would
be attended with considerable expense, besides a sacrifice of his
private interests, having no person in whom he had confidence, to
take charge of his affairs in his absence ; still he did not hesitate a
moraent to accept the invitation. In the position offered to hira,
ah the questions of military rank which had hitherto annoyed hira,
would be obviated. He could indulge his passion for arms with
out any sacrifice of dignity, and he looked forward with high anti
cipation to an opportunity of acquiring military experience in a
corps well organized, and thoroughly disciplined, and in the family
of a commander of acknowledged skill as a tactician.
On arriving at Alexandria, he was courteously received by the
general, who expressed in flattering terms the irapression he had
received of his merits. Washington soon appreciated Braddock's
character. ¦ He found him stately and somewhat haughty, exact in
matters of mhitary etiquette and discipline, positive in giving an
opinion, and obstinate in maintaining it ; but of an honorable and
generous, though somewhat irritable nature.
There were at that time four governors, besides Dinwiddle,
asserabled at Alexandria, at Braddock's request, to concert a plan
of railitary operations — Shirley of Massachusetts, Delancey of New
York, Sharpe of Maryland, and Morris of Pennsylvania. A grand
counch was held on the 14th of April, composed of General Brad
dock, Commodore Keppel, and the governors, at which the

72 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
general's commission was read, as were his instructions from the
king, relating to a common fund, to be established by the several
colonies, toward defraying the expenses of the campaign. The
governors were prepared to answer on this head, letters to the
same purport having been addressed to them by Sir Thomas
Robinson, one of the king's secretaries of state, in the preceding
month of October. They informed Braddock that they had
apphed to their respective Assembhes for the establishment of
such a fund, but in vain, and gave it as their unanimous opinion,
that such a fund could never be estabhshed in the colonies without
the aid of Parliament. They had found it impracticable, also, to
obtain from their respective governments the proportions expected
from them by the crown toward military expenses in America ; and
suggested that ministers should find out sorae raode of compehing
them to do it ; and that, in the meantirae, the general should
make use of his credit upon government, for current expenses, lest
the expedition should come to a stand.
In discussing the campaign, the governors were of opinion that
New York should be made the centre of operations, as it afforded
easy access by water to the heart of the French possessions in
Canada. Braddock, however, did not feel at hberty to depart
from his instructions, which specified the recent establishments of
the French on the Ohio as the objects of his expedition.
Niagara and Crown Point were to be attacked about the same
time with Fort Duquesne, the former by Governor Shirley, with his
own and Sir William Peppereh's regiments, and some New York
companies ; the latter by Colonel Wilhara Johnson, sole manager
and director of Indian affairs ; a personage worthy of especial
note. He was a native of Ireland, and had corae out to this country in
1 734, to manage the landed estates owned by his uncle. Commo
dore Sir Peter Warren, in the Mohawk country. He had resided
ever since in the vicinity of the Mohawk river, in the province of
New York. By his agency, and his deahngs with the native tribes,
he had acquired great wealth, and become a kind of potentate in
the Indian country. His influence over the Six Nations was said

THE GREAT FRENCH WAR. 73
to be unbounded ; and it was principally with the aid of a large
force of their warriors that it was expected he would accomplish
his part of the campaign. The end of June was fixed upon as
the time when the several attacks upon Forts Duquesne, Niagara,
and Crown Point should be carried into execution ; and the too
sanguine Braddock anticipated an easy accomplishment of his
plans. The expulsion of the French from the lands wrongfully held by
them in Nova Scotia, was to be assigned to Colonel Lawrence,
lieutenant-governor of that province ; we will briefly add, in antici
pation, that it was effected by him, with the aid of troops from
Massachusetts and elsewhere, led by Lieutenant-colonel Monck-
ton. The business of the council being finished, General Braddock
would have set out for Frederick, in Maryland, but few wagons or
tearas had yet corae to remove the artillery. Washington had
looked with wonder and dismay at the huge paraphernalia of war,
and the world of superfluities to be transported across the moun
tains, recollecting the difficulties he had experienced in getting
over them with his nine swivels, and scanty supplies. " If our
march is to be regulated by the slow movements of the train,"
said he, "it will be tedious, very tedious, indeed." His predic
tions excited a sarcastic smile in Braddock, as betraying the
limited notions of a young provincial officer, little acquainted with
the raarch of armies.
Governor Morris sepured for the expedition the services of a
band of hunters, resolute men, well acquainted with the country,
and inured to hardships. They were under the command of Cap
tain Jack, one of the most remarkable characters of Pennsylvania.
He was known as the "Black Hunter," the "Black Rifle," the
" Wild Hunter of the Juniata." Some years before, he had entered
the woods with a few enterprising companions, built his cabin,
cleared a httle land, and amused himself with the pleasures of
fishing and hunting. One evening when he returned from a day
of sport, he found his cabin bumt, his wife and children murdered.
From that moment he forsook every occupation save that of pro-

74 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
tecting the frontier inhabitants from the Indians. He was the
terror of the Indians and the consolation of the whites. On one
occasion, near the Juniata, in the middle of a dark night, a family
were suddenly awakened from sleep by the report of a gun ; they
jumped from their beds, and by the glimmering light from the
chimney saw an Indian fall to rise no raore. The open door
exposed to view the whd hunter. " I have saved your lives," he
cried, then turned and was buried in the gloom of night. Captain
Jack was at present protecting the settiements on the Cono-
cocheague ; but promised to march by a circuitous route and join
Braddock with his hunters.
General Braddock set out from Alexandria on the 20th of April.
Washington remained behind a few days to arrange his affairs, and
then rejoined him at Frederick, in Maryland. The troubles of
Braddock had already commenced. The Virginian contractors
failed to fulfil their engagement ; of all the iramense means of
transportation so confidently proraised, but fifteen wagons and
a hundred draft-horses had arrived, and there was no prospect of
raore. There was equal disappointment in provisions, both as to
quantity and quality ; and he had to send round the country to
buy cattle for the subsistence of the troops.
Fortunately while the general was venting his spleen in anath
emas against army contractors, Benjamin Franklin arrived at Fred
erick. That eminent man, then about forty-nine years of age, had
been for many years member of the Pennsylvania Assembly, and
was now postmaster-general for America. The Assembly under
stood that Braddock was incensed against them, supposing them
adverse to the service of the war. They had procured Franklin
to wait upon him, not as if sent by them, but as if he came in his
capacity of postmaster-general, to arrange for the sure and speedy
transmission of dispatches between the commander-in-chief and
the governors of the provinces.
He was well received, and became a daily guest at the general's
table. In his autobiography he gives us an instance of the bhnd
confidence and fatal prejudices by which Braddock was deluded
throughout this expedition. " In conversation with him one day,"

THE GREAT FRENCH WAR. 1^
writes Franklin, " he was giving me some account of his intended
progress. 'After taking Fort Duquesne,' said he, 'I am to proceed
to Niagara; and, having taken that, to Frontenac, if the season
wih allow time ; and I suppose it will, for Duquesne can hardly
detain rae above three or four days ; and then I can see nothing
that can obstruct my raarch to Niagara.'
"Having before revolved in my mind," continues Frankhn, "the
long line his army must make in their raarch by a very narrow
road, to be cut for them through the woods and bushes, and also
what I had heard of a forraer defeat of fifteen hundred French,
who invaded the Ihinois country, I had conceived some doubts
and some fears for the event of the campaign ; but I ventured
only to say, 'To be sure, sir, if you arrive well before Duquesne
with these fine troops, so weh provided with artillery, the fort,
though completely fortified, and assisted with a very strong gar
rison, can probably make but a short resistance. The only danger
I apprehend of obstruction to your march is frora the ambuscades
of the Indians, who, by constant practice, are dexterous in laying
and executing them ; and the slender line, nearly four miles long,
which your army must make, may expose it to be attacked by
surprise on its flanks, and to be cut like thread into several pieces,
which, from their distance, cannot come up in time to support one
another.' "He smiled at ray ignorance, and replied : 'These savages may
indeed be a formidable enemy to raw Araeriean railitia, but upon
the king's regular and disciplined troops, sir, it is irapossible they
should make an impression.' I was conscious of an impropriety
in ray disputing with a rahitary raan in raatters of his profession,
and said no more."
As the whole delay of the army was caused by the want of con
veyances, Franklin observed one day to the general that it was a
pity the troops had not been landed in Pennsylvania, where almost
every farmer had his wagon. "Then, sir," rephed Braddock, "you
who are a man of interest there can probably procure them for me,
and I beg you will." Franklin consented. An instruraent in writ
ing was drawn up, empowering him to contract for one hundred

T6 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
and fifty wagons, with four horses to each wagon, and fifteen hun
dred saddle or pack horses for the service of His Majesty's forces,
to be at Wills' Creek on or before the 20th of May; and he proraptly
departed for Lancaster to execute the coniraission.
After his departure, Braddock, attended by his staff and his guard
of light horse, set off for Wills' Creek by the way of Winchester, the
road along the north side of the Potomac not being yet made.
"This gave him," writes Washington, "a good opportunity to see
the absurdity of the route, and of damning it very heartily."
Three of Washington's horses were completely used up before they
reached Winchester, and he had to purchase others.- This was a
severe drain of his campaigning purse ; fortunately he was in the
neighborhood of Greenway Court, and was enabled to replenish it
by a loan from his old friend Lord Fairfax.
The discomforts of the rough road were increased with the gen
eral by his travelling witli some degree of state in a chariot which
he had purchased of Governor Sharpe. In this he dashed by Dun
bar's division of the troops, which he overtook near Wihs' Creek ;
his body-guard of hght horse galloping on each side of his chariot,
and his staff accompanying him ; the drums beating the Grenadier's
March as he passed. In this style, too, he arrived at Fort Cum
berland, amid a thundering salute of seventeen guns. By this
time the general discovered that he was not in a region fitted for
such display, and his travelling chariot was abandoned at Fort
Cumberland ; otherwise it would soon have become a wreck among
the mountains beyond.
By the 19th of May, the forces were assembled at Fort Cumber
land. The two royal regiments, originahy one thousand strong,
were now increased to fourteen hundred, by men chosen from the
Maryland and Virginia levies ; two provincial companies of car
penters, or pioneers, thirty men each, with subalterns and cap
tains ; a company of guides, composed of a captain, two aids, and
ten men ; the troop of Virginia light horse, commanded by Cap
tain Stewart ; the detachment of thirty sailors with their officers,
and the remnants of two independent companies from New York,
one of which was commanded by Captain Horatio Gates, of whom
we shall have to speak hereafter.

THE GREAT FRENCH WAR. 77
At Fort Curaberland, Washington had an opportunity of seeing
a force encaraped according to the plan approved of by the coun
cil of war ; and mihtary tactics, enforced with all the precision of
a martinet. The roll of each company was called over morning,
noon, and night. There was strict examination of arras and ac
coutrements ; the commanding officer of each corapany being
answerable for their being kept in good order. The general was
very particular in regard to the appearance and drih of the Vir
ginia recruits and companies, whom he had put under the rigor
ous discipline of Ensign Ahen. " They performed their evolutions
and firings as well as could be expected," writes Captain Orme,
" but their languid, spiritless, and unsoldier-like appearance, cora
bined with the lowness and ignorance of most of their officers,
gave little hopes of their future good behavior.'' He doubtless
echoed the opinion of the general ; how completely were both to
be undeceived as to their estiraate of these troops I
The general held a levee in his tent every raorning frora ten
to eleven. He was strict as to the raorals of the camp. Drunken
ness was severely punished. Divine service was performed every
Sunday, at the head of the colors of each regiraent, by the chap
lain. Convivial life was also maintained even in the wilderness ;
for the general is said to have been somewhat of a high liver,
and to have had with him " two good cooks, who could raake an
excellent ragout out of a pair of boots, had they but raaterials to
toss thera up with."
There was great detention at the fort, caused by the want of
forage and supplies, the road not having been finished from Phila
delphia. Mr. Richard Peters, the secretary of Govemor Morris,
was in carap, to attend to the matter. He had to bear the brunt
of Braddock's complaints. The general declared he would not stir
frora Wills' Creek unth he had the governor's assurance that the
road would be opened in time. Mr. Peters requested guards to
protect the men whhe at work, frora attacks by the Indians. Brad
dock swore he would not furnish guards for the wood-cutters, —
" let Pennsylvania do it!" He scoffed at the talk about danger
from Indians. Peters endeavored to raake him sensible of the

78 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
peril which threatened him in this respect. Should an army of
them, led by French officers, beset him in his march, he would
not be able, with ah his strength and mhhary skih, to reach Fort
Duquesne without a body of rangers, as weh on foot as horseback.
The general, however, " despised his observations." Still, guards
had ultimately to be provided, or the work on the road would
have been abandoned.
Braddock, in fact, was completely chagrined and disappointed
about the Indians. The Cherokees and Catawbas, whom Dinwid
dle had given him reason to expect in such nurabers, never
arrived. The Delaware chiefs promised the general they would
cohect their warriors together, and meet him on his march, but
they never kept their word.
During the halt of the troops at Wihs' Creek, Washington had
been sent to Williamsburg to bring on ;^4000 for the mhitary
chest. He returned after a fortnight's absence, escorted from
Winchester by eight men, " which eight men," writes he, "were
two days assembling, but I believe would not have been raore than
as many seconds dispersing, if I had been attacked."
He found the general out of all patience and temper at the
delays and disappointments in regard to horses, wagons, and
forage, making no allowances for the difficulties incident to a new
country, and to the novel and great deraands upon its scanty and
scattered resources. He accused the army contractors of want of
faith, honor, and honesty ; and in his moments of passion, which
were many, extended the stigma to the whole country. This stung
the patriotic sensibility of Washington, and overcame his usual
self-command, and the proud and passionate commander was
occasionally surprised by a well-merited rebuke from his aide-de
camp. Washington, moreover, represented to him the difficulties he
would encounter in attempting to traverse the mountains with such
a train of wheel-carriages, assuring him it would be the most
arduous part of the campaign ; and recommended, frora his own
experience, the substitution, as much as possible, of pack-horses.
Braddock, however, had not been sufficiently harassed by frontier

THE GREAT FRENCH WAR. 79
campaigning to depart frora his European modes, or to be swayed
in his military operations by so green a counsehor.
At length the general was relieved frora present perplexities by
the arrival of the horses and wagons which Franklin had under
taken to procure. That eminent raan, with his characteristic
proraptness and unwearied exertions, and by his great personal
popularity, had obtained them frora the reluctant Pennsylvania
farraers, being obliged to pledge his own responsibility for their
being fuhy remunerated. He performed this laborious task out
of pure zeal for the pubhc service, neither expecting nor receiving
emoluraent; and, in fact, experiencing subsequently great delay
and erabarrassrnent before he was reheved from the pecuniary
responsibhities thus patriotically incurred.
The arrival of the conveyances put Braddock in good humor
with Pennsylvania. "I hope," said he, in a letter to Governor
Morris, " that we shah pass a merry Christmas together." On
the loth of June, he set out from Fort Cumberland with his
aides-de-camp, and others of his staff, and his body-guard of light
horse. Sir Peter Halket, with his brigade, had raarched three
days previously ; and a detachment of six hundred men had been
employed upwards of ten days in cutting down trees, reraoving
rocks, and opening a road.
The march over the mountain proved, as Washington had fore
told, a "tremendous undertaking." It was with difficulty the
heavily laden wagons could be dragged up the steep and rugged
roads, newly made, or imperfectly repaired. Often they extended
for three or four miles in a straggling and broken line, with the
soldiers so dispersed, in guarding them, that an attack on any side
would have thrown the whole into confusion.
By the time the advanced corps had struggled over two moun
tains, and through the intervening forests, and reached (i6th June)
the Little Meadows, General Braddock had become aware of the
difference between campaigning in a new country, or on the old
well-beaten battle-grounds of Europe. He now of his own accord
turned to Washington for advice, though it must have been a sore
trial to his pride to seek it of so young a raan ; but he had by this

80 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
tirae sufficient proof of his sagacity, and his knowledge of the
frontier. Thus unexpectedly cahed on, Washington gave his counsel with
becoming modesty, but with his accustomed clearness. There
was just now an opportunhy to strike an effective blow at Fort
Duquesne, but h might be lost by delay. The garrison, according
to credible reports, was weak ; large reinforcements and supphes,
which were on their way, would be detained by the drought, which
rendered the river by which they must come low and unnavigable.
The blow must be struck before they could arrive. He advised
the general, therefore, to divide his forces ; leave one part to come
on with the stores and baggage, and ah the cumbrous appurte
nances of an army, and to throw himself in the advance with the
other part, composed of his choicest troops, lightened of everything
superfluous that might impede a rapid march.
His advice was adopted. Twelve hundred men selected out of
ah the companies, and furnished with ten field-pieces, were to form
the first division, their provisions and other necessaries to be car
ried on pack-horses. The second division, with all the stores,
munitions, and heavy baggage, was to be brought on by Colonel
Dunbar. The least practicable part of the arrangement was with regard to
the officers of the advance. Washington had urged a retrench
ment of their baggage and camp equipage, that as many of their
horses as possible might be used as pack-horses. Here was the
difficulty. Brought up, many of them, in fashionable and luxurious
life, or the loitering indulgence of country quarters, they were so
encumbered with what they considered indispensable necessaries,
that out of two hundred and twelve horses generahy appropriated
to their use, not raore than a dozen could be spared by thera for
the pubhc service. Washington, in his own case, acted up to the
advice he had given. He retained no more clothing and effects
with him than would about half fih a portmanteau, and gave up his
best steed as a pack-horse — which he never heard of afterwards.
During the halt at the Little Meadows, Captain Jack and his
band of forest rangers, made their appearance in the camp ; armed

THE GREAT FRENCH WAR. 81
and equipped with rifle, knife, hunting-shirts, leggings, and mocca
sins, and looking almost like a band of Indians as they issued from
the woods. The captain asked an interview with the general, by
whom, it would seem, he was not expected. Braddock received
him in his tent, in his usual stiff and stately manner. The " Black
Rifle " spoke of himself and his followers as men inured to hard
ships, and accustomed to deal with Indians, who preferred stealth
and stratagem to open warfare. He requested his corapany should
be eraployed as a reconnoitering party to beat up the Indians in
their lurking-places and arabuscades. Braddock, who had a sov
ereign conterapt for the chivalry of the woods, and despised their
boasted strategy, replied to the hero of the Pennsylvania settle
ments in a raanner to which he had not been accustomed. " There
was time enough," he said, " for making arrangeraents ; and he
had experienced troops, on whom he could completely rely for all
purposes.'' Captain Jack withdrew, indignant at so haughty a reception,
and informed his leathern-clad followers of his rebuff. They forth
with shouldered their rifles, turned their backs upon the camp,
and, headed by the captain, departed in Indian file through the
woods, for the usual scenes of their exploits, where raen knew
their value, the banks of the Juniata or the Conococheague.
On the 19th of June Braddock's first division set out, with less
than thirty carriages, including those that transported araraunition
for the arthlery, ah strongly horsed. The Indians marched with
the advanced party.
Washington was disappointed in his anticipations of a rapid
raarch. The general, though he had adopted his advice in the
main, could not carry it out in detail. His military education was
in the way ; he could not stoop to the raake-shift expedients of a
new country, where every difficulty is encountered and mastered
in a rough-and-ready style. " I found," said Washington, " that
instead of pushing on with vigor, without regarding a littie rough
road, they were halting to level every molehih, and to erect
bridges over every brook, by which means we were four days in
getting twelve miles."

82 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
For several days Washington had suffered from fever, accom
panied by intense headache, and his illness increased in violence
to such a degree that he was unable to ride, and had to be con
veyed for a part of the tirae in a covered wagon.
At the great crossings of the Youghiogheny the general assigned
him a guard, provided him with necessaries, and requested him to
reraain, under care of his physician, Dr. Craik, until the arrival of
Colonel Dunbar's detachment, which was two days' raarch in the
rear ; giving him his word of honor that he should, at all events,
be enabled to join the main division before it reached the French
fort. This kind solicitude on the part of Braddock shows the real
estimation in which Washington was held by that officer. But
notwithstanding these kind assurances, it was with gloomy feelings
that Washington saw the troops depart, fearful he might not be
able to rejoin thera in time for the attack upon the fort, which, he
assured his brother aide-de-camp, he would not miss for five hun
dred pounds.
Leaving Washington at the Youghiogheny, we will follow the
march of Braddock. In the course of the first day (June 24th),
he came to a deserted Indian camp ; judging frora the number of
wigwams, there raust have been about one hundred and seventy
warriors. The next morning at daybreak, three men venturing
beyond the sentinels were shot and scalped ; parties were imme
diately sent out to scour the woods, and drive in the stray horses.
The day's march passed by the Great Meadows and Fort Neces
sity, the scene of Washington's capitulation. Several Indians were
seen hovering in the woods, and the hght horse and Indian allies
were sent out to surround them, but did not succeed. In crossing
a mountain beyond the Great Meadows, the carriages had to be
lowered with the assistance of the sailors, by means of tackle. The
camp for the night was about two miles beyond Fort Necessity.
Several French and Indians endeavored to reconnoiter it, but
were fired upon by the advanced sentinels.
The following day (26th) there was a laborious raarch of but
four miles, owing to the difficulties of the road. The evening

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THE GREAT FRENCH WAR. 83
halt was at another deserted Indian carap, strongly posted on a
high rock, with a steep and narrow ascent; it had a spring in
the middle, and stood at the termination of the Indian path to
the Monongahela. By this pass the party had come which
attacked Washington the year before, in the Great Meadows.
The Indians and French too, who were hovering about the army,
had just left this camp. The fires they had left were yet burning.
The French had inscribed their names on some of the trees with
insulting bravadoes, and the Indians had designated in triumph
the scalps they had taken two days previously. A party was sent
out with guides, to follow their tracks and fall on them in the
night, but again without success. In fact, it was the Indian boast,
that throughout this march of Braddock, they saw him every day
from the mountains, and expected to be able to shoot down his
soldiers " like pigeons."
The march continued to be toilful and difficult ; on one day it
did not exceed two miles. In clearing their guns the men were
ordered to draw the charge, instead of firing it off. No fire was to
be lighted in front of the pickets. At night the men were to take
their arms into the tents with them. Further on the precautions
became still greater. On the advanced pickets the men were
in two divisions, relieving each other every two hours. Half
remained on guard with fixed bayonets, the other half lay down by
their arms. The picket sentinels were doubled. On the 4th of
July they encaraped at Thicketty Run. The country was less
mountainous and rocky, and the woods, consisting chiefly of white
pine, were more open. The general now supposed himself to be
within thirty mhes of Fort Duquesne. Ever since his halt at the
deserted camp on the rock beyond the Great Meadows, he had
endeavored to prevail upon his Indians to scout in the direction
of the fort, and bring hira intelligence, but never could succeed.
They had probably been deterred by the number of French and
Indian tracks. This day, however, two consented to reconnoiter ;
and shortly after their departure, Christopher Gist, the resohite
pioneer, who acted as guide to the general, likewise set off as a
scout.

84 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
The Indians returned on the 6th. They had been close to
Fort Duquesne. There were no additional works there ; they saw
a few boats under the fort, and one with a white flag coraing down
the Ohio ; but there were few men to be seen, and few tracks of
any. They came upon an unfortunate officer, shooting within
half a raile of the fort, and brought back his scalp. None
of the passes between the camp and fort were occupied ; they
believed there were few men abroad reconnoitering. Gist re
turned soon after them. His account corroborated theirs ; but
he had seen a smoke in a vahey between the camp and the fort,
made probably by some scouting party. He had intended to
prowl about the fort at night, but had been discovered and pur
sued by two Indians, and narrowly escaped with his life.
Washington now considered himself sufficiently recovered to
rejoin the troops, and his only anxiety was lest he should not be
able to do it in time for the great blow. He was rejoiced, there
fore, on the 3d of July, by the arrival of an advanced party of one
hundred men convoying provisions. Being stih too weak to mount
his horse, he set off with the escort in a covered wagon ; and after
a most fatiguing journey, over mountain and through forest,
reached Braddock's camp on the 8th of July. It was on the east
side of the Monongahela, about two miles frora the river, and
about fifteen miles from Fort Duquesne.
In consequence of adhering to technical rules and military
forms. General Braddock had consumed a raonth in marching
littie more than a hundred miles. The tardiness of his progress
was regarded with surprise and impatience even in Europe, where
liis patron, the Duke of Brunswick, was watching the events of the
campaign he had planned. "The Duke," writes Horace Walpole,
" is much dissatisfied at the slowness of General Braddock, who
does not march as if he was at all impatient to be scalped." The
insinuation of the satirical wit was unmerited. Braddock was a
stranger to fear ; but in his movements he was fettered by system.
Washington was warmly received on his arrival. He was just
in tirae, for the attack upon Fort Duquesne was to be made on
the fohowing day. The neighboring country had been reconnoi-

THE GREAT FRENCH WAR. 85
tered to deterraine upon a plan of attack. The fort stood on the
same side of the Monongahela with the camp ; but there was a
narrow pass between them of about two miles, with the river on
the left and a very high mountain on the right, and in its present
state quite impassable for carriages. The route determined on
was to cross the Monongahela by a ford iramediately opposite to
the camp ; proceed along the west bank of the river for about five
railes, then reeross by another ford to the eastern side, and push
on to the fort. The river at these fords was shallow, and the
banks were not steep.
According to the plan of arrangeraent. Lieutenant-colonel Gage,
with the advance, was to cross the river before daybreak, raarch
to the second ford, and recrossing there, take post to secure the
passage of the raain force. The advance was to be composed of
two companies of grenadiers, one hundred and sixty infantry, the
independent company of Captain Horatio Gates, and two six-
pounders. Washington, who had already seen enough of regular troops to
doubt their infalhbility in whd bush-fighting, and who knew the
dangerous nature of the ground they were to traverse, ventured to
suggest, that on the fohowing day the Virginia rangers, being ac
customed to the country and to Indian warfare, might be thrown
in the advance. The proposhion drew an angry reply from the
general, indignant very probably, that a young provincial officer
should presume to school a veteran like himself
Eariy next morning (July gth), before daylight. Colonel Gage
crossed with the advance. He was fohowed, at some distance,
by Sir John St. Clair, quartermaster-general, with a working party
of two hundred and fifty men, to make roads for the artihery and
baggage. They had with them their wagons of tools, and two
six-pounders. A party of about thirty savages rushed out of the
woods as Colonel Gage advanced, but were put to flight before
they had done any harm.
By sunrise the main body turned out in full uniform. At the
beating of " the general," their arms, which had been cleaned the
night before, were charged with fresh cartridges. The officers

86 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
were perfectly equipped. Ah looked as if arrayed for a fete,
rather than a battie. Washington, who was still weak and unwell,
mounted his horse, and joined the staff of the general, who was
scrutinizing everything with the eye of a martinet. As it was sup
posed the enemy would be on the watch for the crossing of the
troops, it had been agreed that they should do it in the greatest
order, with bayonets fixed, colors flying, and drums and fifes beat
ing and plajdng. They accordingly raade a gahant appearance as
they forded the Monongahela, and wound along its banks, and
through the open forests, gleaming and glittering in morning sun
shine, and stepping buoyantly to the " Grenadiers' March."
Washington, with his keen and youthful relish for military
affairs, was delighted with their perfect order and equipment, so
different from the rough bush-fighters, to which he had been
accustomed. Roused to new hfe, he forgot. his recent ailments,
and broke forth in expressions of enjoyment and admiration, as
he rode in " company with his fellow aides-de-camp, Orme and
Morris. Often, in after hfe, he used to speak of the effect upon
him of the first sight of a well-disciplined European army, march
ing in high confidence and bright array, on the eve of a battle.
About noon they reached the second ford. Gage, with the
advance, was on the opposite side of the Monongahela, posted
according to orders ; but the river bank had not been sufficiently
sloped. The artillery and baggage drew up along the beach and
halted until one o'clock, when the second crossing took place, drums
beating, fifes playing, and colors flying as before. When all had
passed, there was again a halt close by a small stream called
Frazier's Run, until the general arranged the order of march.
First went the advance, under Gage, preceded by the engineers
and guides, and six light horsemen. Then, Sir John St. Clair and
the working party, with their wagons and the two six-pounders.
On each side were thrown out four flanking parties. Then, at
some distance, the general was to follow with the main body, the
artillery and baggage were preceded and flanked by light horse
and squads of infantry ; while the Virginian and other provincial
troops were to form the rearguard.

THE GREAT FRENCH W.4R. 87
The ground before them was level until about half a mhe from
the river, where a rising ground, covered with long grass, low
bushes, and scattered trees, sloped gently up to a range of hills.
The whole country, generahy speaking, was a forest, with no clear
opening but the road, which was about twelve feet wide, and
flanked by two ravines, concealed by trees and thickets.
Had Braddock been schooled in the warfare of the woods, or
had he adopted the suggestions of Washington, which he rejected
so impatiently, he would have thrown out Indiai^ scouts or Vir
ginian rangers in the advance, and on the flanks, to beat up the
woods and ravines ; but, as has been sarcastically observed, he
suffered his troops to march forward through the centre of the
plain, with merely their usual guides and flanking parties, " as if in
a review in St. James' Park."
It was now near two o'clock. The advanced party and the
working party had crossed the plain and were ascending the rising
ground. Braddock was about to fohow with the main body and
had given the word to raarch, when he heard an excessively quick
and heavy firing in front. Washington, who was with the general,
surmised that the evh he had apprehended had come to pass.
For want of scouting parties ahead, the advance parties were sud
denly and warmly attacked. Braddock ordered Lieutenant-colonel
Burton to hasten to their assistance with the vanguard of the
main body, eight hundred strong. The residue, four hundred,
were halted, and posted to protect the artillery and baggage.
The firing continued with fearful yelling. There was a terrible
uproar. By the general's orders an aide-de-camp spurred forward
to bring him an account of the nature of the attack. Without
waiting for his return the general himself, finding the turmoil
increase, moved forward, leaving Sir Peter Halket with the com
raand of the baggage.
The van of the advance had indeed been taken by surprise.
It was composed of two companies of pioneers to cut the road,
and two flank companies of grenadiers to protect them. Sud
denly the engineer who preceded thera to raark out the road gave
the alarm, " French and Indians ! " A body of them was approach-

88 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
ing rapidly, cheered on by a Frenchman in gayly fringed hunting-
shirt, whose gorget showed him to be an officer. There was
sharp firing on both sides at first. Several of the enemy fell;
among them their leader ; but a murderous fire broke out from
among trees and a ravine on the right, and the woods resounded
with unearthly whoops and yehings. The Indian rifle was at work,
levelled by unseen hands. Most of the grenadiers and many of
the pioneers were shot down. The survivors were driven in on
the advance. •
Gage ordered his men to fix bayonets and form in order of bat
tle. They did so in hurry and trepidation. He would have scaled
a hih on the right whence there was the severest firing. Not a
platoon would quit the line of march. They were more dismayed
by the yells than by the rifles of the unseen savages. The latter
extended themselves along the hill and in the ravines ; but their
whereabouts was only known by their demoniac cries and the puffs
of smoke from their rifles. The soldiers fired wherever they saw
the smoke. Their officers tried in vain to restrain them until they
should see their foe. All orders were unheeded ; in their fright
they shot at random, kihing some of their own flanking parties,
and of the vanguard, as they came running in. The covert fire
grew more intense. In a short time most of the officers and
many of the men of the advance were killed or wounded. Colonel
Gage himself received a wound. The advance feh back in dis
may upon Sir John St. Clair's corps, which was equally dismayed.
The cannon belonging to it were deserted. Colonel Burton had
come up with the reinforcement, and was forming his men to face
the rising ground on the right, when both of the advanced detach
ments feh back upon him, and all now was confusion.
By this time the general was upon the ground. He tried to
rally the men. " They would fight," they said, " if they could see
their eneray ; but it was useless to fire at trees and bushes, and
they could not stand to be shot down by an invisible foe." The
colors were advanced in different places to separate the men of
the two regiments. The general ordered the officers to form the
men, tell them off into small divisions, and advance with them ;

THE GREAT FRENCH WAR. 89
but the soldiers could not be prevailed upon either by threats or
entreaties. The Virginia troops, accustomed to the Indian mode
of fighting, scattered themselves, and took post behind trees,
whence they could pick off the lurking foe. In this way they, in
some degree, protected the regulars. Washington advised Gen
eral Braddock to adopt the same plan with the regulars ; but he
persisted in forraing them into platoons ; consequently they were
cut down frora behind logs and trees as fast as they could advance.
Several attempted to take to the trees, without orders, but the
general stormed at them, called them cowards, and even struck
them with the flat of his sword. Several of the Virginians, who
had taken post and were doing good service in this manner, were
slain by the fire of the regulars, directed wherever a smoke ap
peared among the trees.
The officers behaved with consummate bravery ; and Washing
ton beheld with admiration those who, in camp or on the march,
had appeared to him to have an almost effeminate regard for per
sonal ease and convenience, now exposing themselves to imminent
death, with a courage that kindled with the thickening horrors.
In the vain hope of inspiriting the raen to drive off the enemy
from the flanks and regain the cannon, they would dash forward
singly or in groups. They were invariably shot down; for the
Indians aimed from their coverts at every one on horseback, or
who appeared to have comraand.
Some were killed by random shot of their own men, who,
crowded in masses, fired with affrighted rapidity, but without aim.
Soldiers in the front ranks were kihed by those in the rear. Be
tween friend and foe, the slaughter of the officers was terrible.
Ah this while the woods resounded with the unearthly yehings of
the savages, and now and then one of them, hideously painted,
and ruffling with feathered crest, would rush forth to scalp an
officer who had fallen, or seize a horse gahoping wildly without a
rider. Throughout this disastrous day, Washington distinguished him
self by his courage and presence of mind. His brother aides,
Orme and Morris, were wounded and disabled early in the action.

90 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
and the whole duty of carrying the orders of the general devolved
on him. His danger was imminent and incessant. He was in
every part of the field, a conspicuous mark for the murderous rifle.
Two horses were shot under him. Four buhets passed through
his coat. His escape without a wound was almost miraculous.
Dr. Craik, who was on the field attending to the wounded, watched
him with anxiety as he rode about in the most exposed raanner,
and used to say that he expected every moment to see him fall.
At one time he was sent to the main body to bring the artihery
into action. All there was likewise in confusion ; for the Indians
had extended themselves along the ravine so as to flank the
reserve and carry slaughter into the ranks. Sir Peter Halket had
been shot down at the head of his regiraent. The men who should
have served the guns were paralyzed. Had they raked the ravines
with grapeshot the day might have been saved. In his ardor
Washington sprang from his horse, wheeled and pointed a brass
field-piece with his own hand, and directed an effective discharge
into the woods ; but neither his efforts nor example were of avah.
The men could not be kept to the guns.
Braddock still remained in the centre of the field, in the desper
ate hope of retrieving the fortunes of the day. The Virginia
rangers, who had been most efficient in covering his position,
were nearly all kihed or wounded. His secretary, young Shirley,
had fallen by his side. Many of his officers had been slain within
his sight, and many of his guard of Virginia light horse. Five
horses had been killed under him ; still he kept his ground, vainly
endeavoring to check the flight of his men, or at least to effect
their retreat in good order. At length a bullet passed through his
right arm, and lodged itself in his lungs. He fell from his horse,
but was caught by Captain Stewart of the Virginia guards, who,
with the assistance of another American, and a servant, placed
him in a tumbrh. It was with much difficulty they got him out
ofthe field — in bis despair he desired to be left there.
The rout now became complete. Baggage, stores, artihery,
everything was abandoned. The wagoners took each a horse out
of his team, and fled. The officers were swept off with the men

THE GREAT FRENCH WAR. 91
in this headlong flight. It was rendered more precipitate by the
shouts and yells of the savages, numbers of whom rushed forth
frora their coverts, and pursued the fugitives to the river side,
kihing several as they dashed across in turaultuous confusion.
Fortunately for the latter, the victors gave up the pursuit in their
eagerness to collect the spoil.
The shattered army continued its flight after it had crossed the
Monongahela, a wretched wreck of the brihiant httle force that
had recently gleamed along its banks, confident of victory. Out
of eighty-six officers, twenty-six had been khled, and thirty-six
wounded. The number of rank and file kihed and wounded
was upwards of seven hundred. The Virginia corps had suffered
the most ; one company had been almost annihilated ; another,
besides those khled and wounded in the ranks, had lost all its offi
cers, even to the corporal.
About a hundred men were brought to a halt about a quarter
of a mile from the ford of the river. Here was Braddock, with
his wounded aides-de-camp and some of his officers, Dr. Craik
dressing his wounds, and Washington attending him with faithful
assiduity. Braddock was stih able to give orders, and had a faint
hope of being able to keep possession of the ground until rein
forced. Most of the men were stationed in a very advantageous
spot about two hundred yards from the road ; and Lieutenant-
colonel Burton posted out small parties and sentinels. Before an
hour had elapsed most of the men had stolen off. Being thus
deserted, Braddock and his officers continued their retreat; he
would have mounted his horse, but was unable, and had to be
carried by soldiers. Orme and Morris were placed on litters home
by horses. They were subsequently joined by Colonel Gage with
eighty raen whom he had rallied.
Washington, in the meantime, notwithstanding his weak state,
being found most efficient in frontier service, was sent to Colonel
Dunbar's' carap, forty railes distant, with orders for hira to hurry
forward provisions, hospital stores, and wagons for the wounded,
under the escort of two grenadier companies. It was a hard and
a melancholy ride throughout the night and the following day.

92 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
The tidings of the defeat preceded him, bome by the wagoners,
who had mounted their horses, on Braddock's fall, and fled from
the field of battie. They had arrived, haggard, at Dunbar's camp
at mid-day, the Indian yehs stih ringing in their ears. "AO
was lost 1 " they cried. " Braddock was kihed I They had seen
wounded officers bome off from the field in bloody sheets ! The
troops were ah cut to pieces ! " A panic feh upon the camp.
The drums beat to arms. Many of the soldiers, wagoners, and
attendants, took to flight ; but most of them were forced back by
the sentinels.
Washington arrived at the camp in the evening, and found the
agitation still prevailing. The orders which he brought were exe
cuted during the night, and he was in the saddle early in the
morning accompanying the convoy of supplies. At Gist's planta
tion, about thirteen railes off, he raet Gage and his scanty force
escorting Braddock and his wounded officers. Captain Stewart
and a sad remnant of the Virginia light horse sthl accompanied
the general as his guard. The captain had been unremitting in
his attentions to hira during the retreat. There was a halt of one
day at Dunbar's camp for the repose and relief of the wounded.
On the 13th they resuraed their raelancholy march, and that night
reached the Great Meadows.
The proud spirit of Braddock was broken by his defeat. He
remained silent the first evening after the battle, only ejaculating
at night, "Who would have thought it ! " He was equally shent
the following day ; yet hope stih seemed to linger in his breast,
from another ejaculation : " We shall know better how to deal
with them another timfe ! "
He was grateful for the attentions paid to him by Captain
Stewart and Washington, and more than once, it is said, expressed
his admiration of the gallantry displayed by the Virginians in the
action. It is said, moreover, that in his last moments, he apolo
gized to Washington for the petulance with which he had rejected
his advice, and bequeathed to him his favorite charger and his
faithful servant, Bishop, who had helped to convey him from the
field.

THE GREAT FRENCH WAR. 93
He died on the night of the 13th, at the Great Meadows, the
place of Washington's discomfiture in the previous year. His
obsequies were performed before break of day. The chaplain
having been wounded, Washington read the funeral service. All
was done in sadness and without parade, so as not to attract the
attention of lurking savages, who might discover and outrage his
grave. It is doubtful even whether a vohey was fired over it, that
last mhitary honor which he had recently paid to the remains of
an Indian warrior. The place of his sepulture, however, is still
known, and pointed out.
Reproach spared him not, even when in his grave. The failure
of the expedition was attributed, both in England and America,
to his obstinacy, his technical pedantry, and his military conceit.
He had been continually warned to be on his guard against am
bush and surprise, but without avail. Had he taken the advice
urged on him by Washington and others, to employ scouting par
ties of Indians and rangers, he would never have been so signally
surprised and defeated. Still his dauntless conduct on the field
of battle shows him to have been a raan of fearless spirit ; and he
was universally allowed to be an accomplished disciplinarian. His
melancholy end, too, disarms censure of its asperity. Whatever
raay have been his faults and errors, he in a raanner expiated thera
by the hardest lot that can befall a brave soldier, ambitious of
renown — an unhonored grave in a strange land, a meraory clouded
by misfortune, and a name forever coupled with defeat.
The obsequies of the unfortunate Braddock being finished, the
escort continued its retreat with the sick and wounded. On the
17th, the sad cavalcade reached Fort Cumberland, and were re
heved from the incessant apprehension of pursuit. Dunbar arrived
shortly afterward with the remainder of the army. No one seems
to have shared more largely in the panic than that officer. From
the moment he received tidings of the defeat, his camp had be
come a scene of confusion. At Cumberland his forces araounted
to fifteen hundred effective men; enough for a brave stand to
protect the frontier, and recover some of the lost honor ; but he
merely paused to leave the sick and wounded under care of two

94 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
Virginia and Maryland companies, and then continued his hasty
flight through the country, not thhiking himself safe, as was sneer
ingly intimated, until he arrived in Phhadelphia, where the inhab
itants could protect him.
The true reason why the enemy did not pursue the retreating
army was not known until sorae tirae afterwards, and added to the
disgrace of the defeat. They were not the main force of the
French, but a mere detachment of 72 regulars, 146 Canadians,
and 637 Indians, 855 in ah, led by Captain de Beaujeu. Contre
cceur, the commander of Fort Duquesne, had received information,
through his scouts, that the English, three thousand strong, were
within six leagues of his fort. Despairing of making an effectual
defence against such a superior force, he was balancing in his mind
whether to abandon his fort without awaiting their arrival, or to
capitulate on honorable terms. In this dilemma Beaujeu prevailed
on him to let him sally forth with a detachment to form an ambush,
and give check to the enemy. Beaujeu was to have taken post
at the river, and disputed the passage at the ford. For that pur
pose he was hurrying forward when discovered by the pioneers of
Gage's advance party. He was a gahant officer, and feh at the
beginning of the fight. The whole number of killed and wounded
of French and Indians did not exceed seventy.
Such was the scanty force which the imagination of the panic-
stricken army had magnified into a great host, and from which
they had fled in breathless terror, abandoning the whole frontier.
No one could be more surprised than the French commander
himself, when the ambuscading party retumed in triumph with a
long train of pack-horses laden with booty, the savages uncouthly
clad in the garments of the slain, grenadier caps, officers' gold-
laced coats, and ghttering epaulettes; flourishing swords and
sabres, or firing off muskets, and uttering fiendlike yells of victory.
But when Contrecceur was inforraed of the utter rout and destruc
tion of the much dreaded British army, his joy was complete.
He ordered the guns of the fort to be fired in triumph, and sent
out troops in pursuit of the fiigitives.
The affair of Braddock remains a memorable event in American

THE GREAT FRENCH WAR. 95
history, and has been characterized as " the most extraordinary
victory ever obtained and the furthest flight ever made." It struck
a fatal blow to the deference for British prowess, which once
amounted almost to bigotry throughout the provinces. "This
whole transaction," observes Franklin, in his autobiography, " gave
us the first suspicion that our exalted ideas of the prowess of Brit
ish regular troops had not been weh founded."
Washington arrived at Mount Vemon on the 26th of July, stih
in feeble condition from his long illness. His campaigning, thus
far, had trenched upon his private fortune, and impaired one of the
best of constitutions. But though under the saddening influence
of debihty and defeat he raight count the cost of his campaigning,
the martial spirit stih burned within hira. His connection with
the army, it is true, had ceased at the death of Braddock, but his
mihtary duties continued as adjutant-general of the northern divis
ion of the province, and he iraraediately issued orders for the
county lieutenants to hold the rahitia in readiness for parade and
exercise, foreseeing that, in the present defenceless state of the
frontier, there would be need of their services. Tidings of the
rout and retreat of the army had circulated far and near, and
spread consternation throughout the country. Immediate incur
sions both of French and Indians were apprehended ; and volun
teer companies began to forra, for the purpose of raarching across
the mountains to the scene of danger. It was intimated to Wash
ington that his services would again be wanted on the frontier.
He declared instantly that he was ready to serve his country to the
extent of his powers ; but never on the same terms as heretofore.
On the 4th of August, Governor Dinwiddle convened the
Assembly to devise raeasures for the public safety. The sense" of
danger had quickened the slow patriotism of the burgesses ; they
no longer held back supphes ; ^^40,000 were promptiy voted, and
orders issued for the raising of a regiment of one thousand men.
Washington was appointed coraraander-in-chief of ah the forces
raised, or to be raised, in the colony. The Asserably also voted
_;£'300 to him, and proportionate suras to the other officers, and to
the privates of the Virginia companies, in consideration of their
gallant conduct, and their losses in the late battie.

96 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
It is worthy of note that the early popularhy of Washington was
not the resuh of brilliant achievements or signal success ; on the
contrary, it rose among trials and reverses, and raay almost be
said to have been the fruh of defeats. It remains an honorable
testimony of Virginian intelligence, that the sterling, enduring, but
undazzhng quahties of Washington were thus early discerned and
appreciated, though only heralded by misfortunes. The admi
rable manner in which he had conducted hiraself under these mis
fortunes, and the sagacity and practical wisdom he had displayed
on ah occasions, were universally acknowledged; and it was
observed that, had his modest counsels been adopted by the un
fortunate Braddock, a totally different result might have attended
the late campaign.
An instance of this high appreciation of his merits occurs in a
sermon preached on the 17th of August by the Rev. Samuel
Davis, wherein he cites hira as " that heroic youth. Colonel Wash
ington, whom I cannot but hope Providence has hitherto preserved
in so signal a manner for some important service to his country T
The expressions of the worthy clergyman may have been deemed
enthusiastic at the time ; viewed in connection with subsequent
events they appear almost prophetic.
Johnson's Victory. — The defeat of Braddock paralyzed the ex
pedition against Niagara. Deferring the completion of the enter
prise until the fohowing year, Shirley returned to Albany with the
main part of his forces, leaving about seven hundred men to garri
son the fortifications he had comraenced at Oswego.
To General Whhara Johnson, it wih be recollected, had been
confided the expedition against Crown Point. He had vtith him
bttween five and six thousand troops of New York and New
England, and a host of Mohawk warriors, loyally devoted to him.
A French force of upwards of three thousand raen, under the
Baron Dieskau, an old general of high reputation, had recently
arrived at Quebec, destined against Oswego. The baron had
proceeded to Montreal, and sent forward thence seven hundred
of his troops, when news arrived of the army gathering on Lake
George for the attack on Crown Point, perhaps for ar inroad into

THE GREAT FRENCH WAR. 97
Canada. The pubhc were in constemation; yielding to their
importunities, the baron took post at Crown Point for its defence.
Besides his regular troops, he had with him eight hundred Cana
dians, and seven hundred Indians of different tribes, under the
general command of the Chevalier de St. Pierre, the officer to
whom Washington had dehvered the dispatches of Govemor Din
widdle on his diplomatic mission to the frontier. The chevalier
was a raan of great influence among the Indians.
In the meantime Johnson remained encamped at the south end
of Lake George, awaiting the arrival of his bateaux. The camp
was protected in the rear by the lake, in front by a bulwark of
fehed trees ; and was flanked by thickly wooded swamps.
An attack on Fort Edward was apprehended. Scouts had seen
the French within four miles of the carrying-place. In the mom
ing Colonel Williaras was detached with one thousand men, and
two hundred Indians, to intercept the enemy. Within two hours
after their departure a heavy fire of musketry, in the midst of the
forest, about three or four miles off, told of a warm encounter.
The drums beat to arms ; all were at their posts. The firing grew
sharper and sharper, and nearer and nearer. Wihiaras was evi
dently retreating. Colonel Cole was sent with three hundred
men to cover his retreat. The breastwork of trees was manned.
Some heavy cannon were dragged up to strengthen the front. A
number of raen were stationed with a field-piece on an erainencc
on the left flank.
In a short time fugitives made their appearance ; first singly,
then in masses, flying in confusion, with a rattling fire behind
them, and the horrible Indian war-whoop. Consternation seized
upon the camp, especiahy when the French emerged from the
forest in battle array, led on by the Baron Dieskau, the gallant
commander of Crown Point. Had all his troops been as daring
as himself, the camp might have been carried by assault ; but the
Canadians and Indians held back, posted themselves behind trees,
and took to bush-fighting. The baron was left with his regulars
(two hundred grenadiers) in front of the carap. He kept up a
fire by platoons, but at too great a distance to do rauch mischief;

98 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
the Canadians and Indians fired from their coverts. The artillery
played on them in retum. The camp, having recovered from its
panic, opened a fire of musketry. The engagement became gen
eral. The French grenadiers stood their ground bravely for a
long time, but were dreadfully cut up by the artillery and small
arras. The action slackened on the part of the French, until, aftei
a long contest, they gave way. Johnson's men and the Indians
then leaped over the breastwork, and a chance-medley fight ensued,
that ended in the slaughter, rout, or capture of the enemy.
The Baron de Dieskau had been disabled by a wound in the
leg, and, left alone in the retreat, was found by the pursuers lean
ing against the stump of a tree. He was conveyed a prisoner to
the camp, but ultimately died of his wounds. In the encounter
with the detachment under Williams, the brave Chevalier de St.
Pierre lost his life. Johnson received a slight wound early in the
action. He did not follow up the victory by advancing against
Crown Point, but erected a stockaded fort, which received the
narae of William Henry ; and having garrisoned it, returned to
Albany. His services were rewarded by government with ;!^5ooo
and a baronetcy ; and he was made Superintendent of Indian
Affairs. Troubles on the Frontier. — On the 4th of February, 1756,
Washington set out for Boston, to consult with Major-general
Shirley, who had succeeded Braddock in the general command
of the colonies.
In those days the conveniences of travelling, even between our
main cities, were few, and the roads execrable. The party, there
fore, ttavehed in Virginia style, on horseback, attended by their
black servants in livery. In this way they accomplished a journey
of five hundred miles in the depth of winter, stopping for some
days at Philadelphia and New York. Those cities were then com
paratively smah, and the arrival of a party of young Southern
officers attracted attention. The last disastrous battle was still
the theme of every tongue, and the honorable way in which these
young officers had acquitted themselves in it made them objects
of universal interest. Washington's fame, especially, had gonf

THE GREAT FRENCH WAR. 99
before him, having been spread by the officers who had sei-ved
with him, and by the pubhc honors decreed him by the Virginia
Legislature. "Your name," wrote his former fellow-campaigner.
Gist, in a letter dated in the preceding autumn, "is more talked
of in Phhadelphia than that of any other person in the army, and
everybody seems wihing to venture under your command."
With these prepossessions in his favor, when we consider Wash
ington's noble person and demeanor, his consummate horsemanship,
the admirable horses he was accustomed to rfde, and the aris
tocratic style of his equipments, we may imagine the effect pro
duced by himself and his little cavalcade, as they clattered through
the streets of Philadelphia, and New York, and Boston. Their
sojourn in each city was a continual fete.
From General Shirley he learnt that the main objects of the
ensuing campaign would be the reduction of Fort Niagara, so as
to cut off the communication between Canada and Louisiana, the
capture of Ticonderoga and Crown Point, as a measure of safety
for New York, the besieging of Fort Duquesne, and the menacing
of Quebec by a body of troops which were to advance by the Ken
nebec river.
The official career of Shirley was drawing to a close. Though a
man of good parts, he had always, until recently, acted in a civh
capacity, and proved incompetent to conduct mihtary operations.
He was recalled to England, and was to be superseded by General
Abercrombie, who was coming out with two regiments.
The general coramand in America, however, was to be held by
the Earl of Loudoun, who was invested with powers alraost equal
to those of a viceroy, being placed above all the colonial governors.
Besides his general command, the Earl of Loudoun was to be
governor of Virginia. The campaign would open on his arrival,
which, it was expected, would be early in the spring ; and brilliant
results were anticipated.
Washington remained ten days in Boston, attending, with great
interest, the meetings of the Massachusetts Legislature, in which
the plan of military operations was ably discussed. After receiving
the most hospitable attentions from the polite and intelligent so-

100 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
ciety of the place, he returned to Virginia, for the French had
made another sortie from Fort Duquesne, accorapanied by a band
of savages, and were spreading terror and desolation through the
country. Horrors accumulated at Winchester. Every hour brought hs
tale of terror, true or false, of houses burnt, famihes massacred, or
beleaguered and famishing in stockaded forts. The danger ap
proached. A scouting party had been attacked in the Warm
Spring Mountain, about twenty railes distant, by a large body of
French and Indians, raostly on horseback. The captain of the
scouting party and several of his raen had been slain, and the rest
put to flight.
An attack on Winchester was apprehended, and the terrors of
the people rose to agony. They turned to Washington as their
raain hope. The women surrounded him, holding up their chil
dren, and imploring him with tears and cries to save them from
the savages. The youthful commander looked round on the sup
pliant crowd with a countenance beaming with pity, and a heart
wmng with anguish. A letter to Governor Dinwiddle shows the
conflict of his feelings. " I am too little acquainted with pathetic
language to attempt a description of these people's distresses.
But what can I do ? I see their situation ; I know their danger,
and participate in their sufferings, without having it in my power to
give them further relief than uncertain promises." — " The supph-
cating tears of the women, and moving petitions of the men, melt
rae into such deadly sorrow, that I solemnly declare, if I know my
own mind, I could offer myself a willing sacrifice to the butcher
ing enemy, provided that would contribute to the people's ease."
The unstudied eloquence of this letter drew from the governor
an instant order for a militia force from the upper counties to his
assistance. The Legislature, too, began at length to act, but timidly and
inefficiently. " The country knows her danger," writes one of the
members, " but such is her parsimony that she is willing to wait
for the rains to wet the powder, and the rats to eat the bowstrings
of the enemy, rather than attempt to drive them from her fron-

THE GREAT FRENCH WAR. 101
tiers." The measure of relief voted by the Assembly was an
additional appropriation of ^^ 20,000, and an increase of the
provincial force to fifteen hundred men. Throughout the sum
mer of 1756, Washington exerted hiraself dhigentiy in carrying
out measures determined upon for frontier security. A great
fortress was buht at Winchester, and cahed Fort Loudoun, in
honor of the commander-in-chief, whose arrival in Virginia was
hopefully anticipated. The sites of the frontier posts were decided
upon by Washington and his officers ; parties were sent out to
work on them, and raen recruited, and railitia drafted to garrison
them. Washington visited occasionally such as were in progress,
and near at hand. It was a service of some peril, for the raoun
tains and forests were stih infested by prowling savages, especially
in the neighborhood of these new forts. At one tirae when he
was reconnoitering a wild part of the country, attended raerely by
a servant and a guide, two men were raurdered by the Indians in a
solitary defile shortly after he had passed through it. In the
autumn, he made a tour of inspection along the whole line, and
found repeated proofs of the inefficiency of the militia system.
In one place he attempted to raise a force with which to scour
a region infested by roving bands of savages. After waiting sev
eral days, but five men answered to his suraraons. In another
place, where three companies had been ordered to the relief of
a fort attacked by the Indians, all that could be mustered were a
captain, a lieutenant, and seven or eight men.
When the militia were drafted, and appeared under arras, the
case was not much better. It was now late in the autumn ; their
terra of service, by the act of the legislature, expired in December
— half of the time, therefore, was lost in raarching out and home.
Their waste of provisions was enormous. To be put on allowance,
like other soldiers, they considered an indignity. They would
sooner starve than carry a few days' provisions on their backs.
On the raarch, when breakfast was wanted, they would knock
down the first beeves they met with, and, after regaling theraselves,
march on tih dinner, when they would take the same method;
and so for supper, to the great oppression of the people. For the

102 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
want of proper mhitary laws, they were obstinate, self-whled, and
perverse. Every individual had his own crude notion of things,
and would undertake to direct. If his advice were neglected, he
would think himself shghted, abused, and injured, and, to redress
hiraself, would depart for his horae.
The garrisons were weak for want of men, but more so from
indolence and irregularity. Not one was in a posture of defence ;
few but raight be surprised with the greatest ease. At one fort,
the Indians rushed frora their lurking-place, pounced upon several
chhdren playing under the wahs, and bore them off before they
were discovered. Another fort was surprised, and many of the
people massacred in the same manner. In the course of Washing
ton's tour, as he and his party approached a fort, he heard a quick
firing for several minutes ; concluding that it was attacked, they
hastened to its relief, but found the garrison were raerely amusing
themselves firing at a mark, or for wagers. In this way they would
waste their ammunition as freely as they did their provisions. In
the meantime, the inhabitants of the country were in a wretched
situation, feeling the little dependence to be put on railitia.
Successes of Montcalm. — While the Virginia frontier was thus
harassed, military affairs went on tardily and heavily at the north.
The carapaign against Canada, which was to have opened early in
the year, hung fire. The armament coming out for the purpose,
under Lord Loudoun, was delayed through the want of energy
and union in the British cabinet. General Abercrombie set sail
in advance for New York with two regiments, but did not reach
Albany, the head-quarters of mihtary operation, until the 25 th of
June. He bhleted his soldiers upon the town, much to the dis
gust of the inhabitants, and talked of ditching and stockading it,
but postponed all enterprises until the arrival of Lord Loudoun ;
then the campaign was to open in earnest.
On the 1 2th of July, came word that the forts Ontario and
Oswego, on each side of the mouth of the Oswego river, were
menaced by the French. They had been imperfectly constmcted
by Shirley, and were insufficiently garrisoned, yet contained a great
amount of mihtary and naval stores, and protected the vessels
which cruised on Lake Ontario.

THE GREAT FRENCH WAR. 103
Major-general Webb was ordered by Abercrombie to hold himself
in readiness to march with one regiraent to the relief of these forts,
but received no further orders. Everything awaited the arrival at
Albany of Lord Loudoun, which at length took place, on the 29th
of July. There were now at least ten thousand troops, regulars and
provincials, loitering in an idle camp at Albany, yet relief to Oswego
was still delayed. Lord Loudoun was in favor of it, but the gov
ernments of New York and New England urged the immediate re
duction of Crown Point, as necessary for the security of their fron
tier. After much debate, it was agreed that General Webb should
march to the relief of Oswego. He left Albany on the 12th of
August, but had scarce reached the carrying-place, between the
Mohawk river and Wood Creek, when he received news that
Oswego was reduced, and its garrison captured. Whhe the British
commanders had debated, Field-marshal the Marquis of Mont
calm, newly arrived frora France, had acted. He was a different
kind of soldier from Abercrombie or Loudoun. A capacious mind
and enterprising spirit animated a smah, but active and untiring
frame. Quick in thought, quick in speech^ quicker stih in action,
he comprehended everything at a glance, and moved from point to
point of the province with a celerity and secrecy that completely
baffled his slow and pondering antagonists. Crown Point and
Ticonderoga were visited, and steps taken to strengthen their
works, and provide for their security ; then hastening to Montreal,
he put himself at the head of a force of regulars, Canadians, and
Indians ; ascended the St. Lawrence to Lake Ontario ; blocked
up the mouth of the Oswego by his vessels, landed his guns, and
besieged the two forts ; drove the garrison out of one into the
other ; khled the coraraander, and compehed the garrisons to sur
render, prisoners of war. With the forts was taken an immense
amount of military stores, araraunition, and provisions ; one hun
dred and twenty-one cannon, fourteen mortars, six vessels of war,
and three chests of money. His blow achieved, Montcalm re
tumed in triumph to Montreal, and sent the colors of the captured
forts to be hung up as trophies in the Canadian churches.
The season was now too far advanced for Lord Loudoun to enter

10-t LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
upon any great mhitary enterprise ; he postponed, therefore, the
great northern campaign, so much talked of and debated, until the
following year ; and having taken measures for the protection of his
frontiers, and for more active operations" in the spring, returned
to New York, hung up his sword, and went into comfortable winter
quarters. Next year (1757) the great plan of operations at the north was
again doomed to fahure. The reduction of Crown Point was laid
aside and the capture of Louisburg substituted, as an acquisition
of far greater importance. This was a place of great consequence,
situated on the isle of Cape Breton, and strongly fortified. It
commanded the fisheries of Newfoundland, overawed New Eng
land, and was a main bulwark to Acadia. In the course of July,
Lord Loudoun set sail for Halifax with about six thousand men,
to join Admiral Holbourne, who had just arrived with eleven ships
of the line, a fire-ship, bomb-ketch, and fleet of transports, having
on board six thousand men. With this united force Lord Loudoun
anticipated the certain capture of Louisburg.
Scarce had the tidings of his lordship's departure reached Can
ada, when the active Montcalm again took the field. Fort William
Henry, which Sir Whliam Johnson had erected on the southern
shore of Lake George, was now his object ; it comraanded the lake,
and was an iraportant protection to the British frontier. A brave
old officer. Colonel Monro, with about five hundred men, formed
the garrison ; more than three times that number of militia were
entrenched near by. Collecting his forces from Crown Point,
Ticonderoga, and the adjacent posts, with a considerable number
of Canadians and Indians, altogether nearly eight thousand men,
Montcalm advanced up the lake, on the ist of August, in a fleet
of boats, with swarms of Indian canoes in the advance. The fort
came near being surprised ; but the troops encamped without it
abandoned their tents and hurried within the works. A summons
to surrender was answered by a brave defiance. Montcalm in
vested the fort, made his approaches, and battered it with his
arthlery. For five days its veteran coraraander kept up a vigorous
defence, trusting to receive assistance from General Webb, who

TIIE GREAT FRENCH WAR. 105
had failed to relieve Fort Oswego in the preceding year, and who
was now at Fort Edward, about fifteen railes distant, with upwards
of five thousand men. Instead, of this, Webb, who over-rated the
French forces, sent him a letter, advising him to capitulate. The
letter was intercepted by Montcalm, but still forwarded to Monro.
The obstinate old soldier, however, persisted in his defence, until
most of his cannon were burst, and his ammunition expended.
At length, in the month of August, he hung out a flag of truce,
and obtained honorable terms from an enemy who knew how to
appreciate his valor. Montcalm demolished the fort, carried off
ah the artillery and munitions of war, with vessels employed in the
navigation of the lake, and having thus completed his destruction
of the British defences on this frontier, returned once raore in
triumph with the spoils of victofy, to hang up fresh trophies in the
churches of Canada.
Lord Loudoun in the raeantirae formed his junction with Admi
ral Holbourne at Halifax, but the French were again too quick for
thera. Adrairal de la Mothe had arrived at Louisburg, with a
large naval and land force ; it was ascertained that he had seven
teen ships of the line, and three frigates, quietly raoored in the
harbor ; that the place was well fortified and supplied with provis
ions and ammunition, and garrisoned with six thousand regular
troops, three thousand natives, and thirteen hundred Indians.
Sorae hot-heads would have urged an atterapt against ah such
array of force, but Lord Loudoun was aware of the probability of
defeat, and the disgrace and ruin that it would bring upon British
arras in America. He wisely, though ingloriously, returned to
New York. Admiral Holbourne was overtaken by a hurricane, in
which one of his ships was lost, eleven were dismasted, others had
to throw their guns overboard, and ah returned in a shattered con
dition to England. Thus ended the northern campaign by land
and sea, a subject of great mortification to the nation, and ridicule
and triumph to the enemy.
During these unfortunate operations to the north, Washington
was stationed at Winchester, and left with seven hundred men to
defend a frontier of more than three hundred and fifty miles in

106 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
extent. The capture and demolition of Oswego by Montcalm had
produced a disastrous effect. The frontiers of Pennsylvania,
Maryland, and Virginia were harassed by repeated inroads of
French and Indians, and Washington had the mortification of see
ing the noble valley of the Shenandoah almost deserted by its
inhabitants, and fast relapsing into a wilderness.
The year wore away on his part in this harassing service, and
the vexations he experienced were heightened by continual mis
understandings with Governor Dinwiddle, whose administration,
however, was now about to end. He set sail for England in
January, 1758, leaving a character overshadowed by the imputa
tion of avarice and extortion. He was a sordid, narrow-minded,
and arrogant man ; prone to meddle with raatters of which he was
profoundly ignorant, and absurdly unwilling to have his ignorance
enlightened. Mr. Francis Fauquier had been appointed his suc
cessor, and, until he should arrive, Mr. John Blair, president of the
council, had, from his office, charge of the government. In the
latter, Washington had a friend who appreciated his character and
services, and was disposed to carry out his plans.
The general aspect of affairs, also, was more animating. Under
the able and intrepid administration of William Pitt, who had con
trol of the British cabinet, an effort was made to retrieve the dis
graces of the late American campaign, and to carry on the war
with greater vigor. Lord Loudoun was relieved from a command
in which he had attempted so much and done so little. His
friends aheged that his inactivity was owing to a want of unanimity
and co-operation in the colonial governments, which paralyzed all
his well meant efforts. Franklin, it is probable, probed the mat
ter with his usual sagacity when he characterized him as a man
"entirely made up of indecision." — "Like St. George on the
signs, he was always on horseback, but never rode on."
Campaign of 1758. — The general command in America de
volved on Abercrombie, and the forces were divided into three
detached bodies ; one, under Major-general Amherst, was to oper
ate in the north with the fleet under Boscawen, for the reduction
of Louisburg ; another, under Abercrombie himself, was to pro-

THE GREAT FRENCH WAR. 107
ceed against Ticonderoga and Crown Point ; and the third, under
Brigadier-general Forbes, who had the charge of the middle and
southern colonies, was to undertake the reduction of Fort Du
quesne. It was with the greatest satisfaction Washington saw his favor
ite measure at last adopted. He was stih commander-in-chief of
the Virginia troops, now augmented to two regiments of one thou
sand raen each ; one led by himself, the other by Colonel Byrd ;
the whole destined to make a part of the army of General Forbes
in the expedition against Fort Duquesne. Before we proceed
with this narrative, however, we will briefly notice the conduct of
the two other important expeditions of the year.
Capture of Louisburg. — Major-general Amherst embarked with
twelve thousand raen, in the fleet of Adrairal Boscawen, and set
sail from Halifax about the end of May. Along with him went
Brigadier-general James Wolfe, an officer young in years, but a
veteran in mhitary experience, and destined to gain a romantic
celebrity. He may almost be said to have been bom in the camp.
When a lad, he had witnessed the battles of Dettingen and Fon-
tenoy ; and now, after having been eighteen years in the service,
he was but thirty-one years of age. In America, however, he was
to win his lasting laurels.
Louisburg was garrisoned by two thousand five hundred regulars,
and three hundred mhitia, subsequently reinforced by upwards of
four hundred Canadians and Indians. In the harbor were six
ships of the line, and five frigates ; three of which were sunk
across the raouth. For several days the troops were prevented
from landing by boisterous weather, and a heavy surf
On the Sth of June, before daybreak they were embarked in
boats in three divisions. Whhe several frigates scoured the beach
with their shot, Wolfe pulled for shore with his division ; the others
distracting the attention of the enemy, by making a show of land-
hig in other parts. The surf stih ran high, the enemy opened fire,
many boats were upset, many raen slain, but Wolfe pushed for
ward, sprang into the water when the boats grounded, dashed
through the surf with his men, stormed the enemy's breastworks

108 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
and batteries, and drove them from the shore. The other divis
ions effected a landing after a severe conflict ; arthlery and stores
were brought on shore, and Louisburg was formally invested.
The Chevalier Drucour, who commanded at Louisburg, kept up
a desperate defence unth all the ships were taken or destroyed ;
forty, out of fifty-two pieces of cannon dismounted, and his works
mere heaps of ruins. When driven to capitulate, he refused the
terms proposed, as being too severe, and, when threatened with a
general assault, by sea and land, determined to abide it, rather
than submit to what he considered a humiliation. The prayers and
petitions of the inhabitants, however, overcame his obstinacy. The
place was surrendered, and he and his garrison became prisoners of
war. The youthful Wolfe, who returned shortly after the victory to
England, was hailed as the hero of the enterprise.
Battle of Ticonderoga. — At the beginning of July, Abercrom
bie was encaraped on the borders of Lake George, with nearly
seven thousand regulars, and upwards of nine thousand provincials
from New England, New York, and New Jersey. Major Israel
Putnam of Connecticut, who had served on this lake, under Sir
Wilham Johnson, had been detached with a scouting party to
reconnoiter the neighborhood. After his return and report, Aber
crombie prepared to proceed against Ticonderoga, situated on a
tongue of land in Lake- Champlain, at the mouth of the strait com
municating with Lake George.
On the 5 th of July, the forces were erabarked in one hundred
and twenty-five whale-boats, and nine hundred bateaux, with the
artihery on rafts. The vast flotiha proceeded slowly down the
lake, with banners and pennons fluttering in the summer breeze ;
arms glittering in the sunshine, and martial music echoing along
the wood-clad raountains. With Abercrorabie went Lord Howe,
a brave and enterprising young nobleman, endeared to the sol
diery by the generosity of his disposition and the sweetness of his
manners. The next day they landed on the western shore, just at the
entrance of the strait leading to Lake Champlain. Here they
were forraed into three columns, and pushed forward. They soon

THE GREAT FRENCH WAR. 109
came upon the enemy's advanced guard, a battalion encamped
behind a log breastwork. The French set fire to their camp, and
retreated. The columns kept their form, and pressed forward,
but, through the ignorance of their guides, became bewildered in
a dense forest, and fell into confusion. Lord Howe pressed on
with the van of the right centre column. Putnam, who was with
hira, and raore experienced in forest warfare, endeavored in
vain to inspire hira with caution. After a tirae they came upon a
detachment of the retreating foe, who, like theraselves, ha4 lost
their way. A severe conflict ensued, in which Lord Howe was
kihed at the onset ; but the enemy were routed. Nothing further
was done that day. With Lord Howe expired the master spirit
of the enterprise. His loss was bewailed by the American people.
The point near which the troops had landed stih bears his name ;
the place where he fell is still pointed out; and Massachusetts
voted him a monument in Westrainster Abbey.
Montcalm had cahed in all his forces, between three and four
thousand men, and was strongly posted behind deep entrench^
ments and breastworks eight feet high ; with an abatis, of felled
trees, in front of his lines, presenting a horrid Carrier, with their
jagged boughs pointing outward. Abercrorabie was deceived as
to the strength of the French works ; against the opinion of his
most judicious officers, he gave orders to Storra thera. Never
were rash orders raore gallantly obeyed. The raen rushed for
ward with fixed bayonets, and attempted to force their way through
the abatis, under a sheeted fire of swivels and musketry. Some
even reached the parapet, where they were shot down. The
breastwork was too high to be surmounted, arid gave a secure
covert to the eneray. Repeated assaults were made, and as often
repelled, with dreadful havoc. After four hours Abercrorabie gave
up the ih-judged atterapt, and withdrew to the landing-place, with
the loss of nearly two thousand in kihed and wounded. Had not
the vastly inferior force of Montcalra prevented him from sallying
beyond his trenches, the retreat of the British raight have been
pushed to a headlong and disastrous flight.
Abercrorabie had still nearly four tiraes the nuraber of the

uo LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
enemy, and all the means of carrying on a siege, with every pros
pect of success ; but the failure of this rash assault seems com
pletely to have dismayed hira. The next day he re-embarked all
his troops, and returned across that lake where his disgraced ban
ners had recently waved so proudly.
While the general was planning fortifications on Lake George,
Colonel Bradstreet succeeded in reducing Fort Frontenac, the
stronghold of the French on the north side of the entrance of Lake
Ontario. This post was not only a central point of Indian trade,
but a raagazine for the more southern posts, among which was
Fort Duquesne.
Capture of Fort Duc[uesne. — Operations went on slowly in that
part of the year's carapaign in which Washington was immediately
engaged. Brigadier-general Forbes, who was commander-in-chief,
was detained at Phhadelphia by those delays and cross-purposes
incident to military affairs in a new country. Colonel Bouquet, who
was to command the advanced division, took his station, with a
corps of regulars, at Raystown, in the centre of Pennsylvania.
There slowly assembled troops frora various parts. Three thou
sand Pennsylvanians, twelve hundred and fifty South Carohnians,
and a few hundred men from elsewhere. •
Washington, in the meantirae, gathered together his scattered
regiments at Winchester. The force thus assembling was in want
of arms, tents, field-equipage, and almost every requisite. Wash
ington was now ordered to repair to Wilharasburg, and lay the
state of the case before the counch. He set off proraptly on
horseback, attended by Bishop, his well-trained railitary servant,
who had served the late General Braddock. It proved an event
ful joumey, though not in a mhitary point of view. In crossing a
ferry of the Pamunkey river, he fell in company with a Mr. Cham-
berlayne, who lived in the neighborhood, and who, in the sphit of
Virginian hospitality, claimed him as a guest. It was with difficulty
Washington could be prevailed on to halt for dinner, so impatient
was he to arrive at Williamsburg.
Arnong the guests at Mr. Chamberlayne's was a young and
blooming widow, Mrs. Martha Custis, daughter of Mr. John Dan-

THE GREAT FRENCH WAR. Ul
dridge, both patrician names in the province. Her husband, John
Parke Custis, had been dead about three years, leaving her with
two young children, and a large fortune. She is represented as
being rather below the middle size, but extremely well shaped,
with an agreeable countenance, dark hazel eyes and hair, and
frank, engaging manners. Washington's heart appears to have
been taken by surprise. The dinner, which in those days was an
earlier raeal than at present, seeraed all too short. The aftemoon
passed away like a dreara. Bishop was punctual to the orders
he had received on halting ; the horses pawed at the door ; but
for once Washington loitered in the path of duty. The horses
were countermanded, and it was not until the next morning that
he was again in the saddle, spurring for Williamsburg. His time
for courtship was brief Mihtary duties called him back almost
iraraediately to Winchester ; but he improved his brief opportu
nity to the utmost. The blooming widow had many suitors, but
Washington was graced with that renown so ennobling in the eyes
of woman. Before they separated, they had mutually plighted
their faith, and the marriage was to take place as soon as the cam
paign against Fort Duquesne was at an end.
On July 2 Washington arrived at Fort Cumberland, and pro
ceeded to open a road between that post and head-quarters, at
Raystown, thirty miles distant, where Colonel Bouquet was stationed.
His troops were scantily supplied with regimental clothing. The
weather was oppressively warm. He now conceived the idea of
equipping them in the hght Indian hunting garb, and even of adopt
ing it himself. Such was probably the origin of the American rifle
dress, afterwards so rauch worn in warfare.
The army was now annoyed by scouting parties of Indians hov
ering about the neighborhood. Expresses passing between the
posts were fired upon ; a wagoner was shot down. Washington
sent out counter-parties of Cherokees, but he earnestly discounte
nanced a proposition of Colonel Bouquet, to make an irmption
into the enemy's country with a strong party of regulars. Such a
detachment, he observed, could not be sent without a cumbersome
train of supplies, which would discover it to the enemy, who must

112 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
at that time be cohecting his whole force at Fort Duquesne ; the
enterprise, therefore, would be hkely to terminate in a miscarriage,
if not in the destruction of the party. We shah see that his opin
ion was oracular.
As Washington intended to retire from mihtary life at the close
of this campaign, he had proposed hiraself to the electors of Fred
erick County as their representative in the House of Burgesses.
The election was coraing on at Winchester; his friends pressed
him to attend it, and Colonel Bouquet gave him leave of absence ;
but he declined to absent himself from his post for the promotion
of his political interests. There wete three competitors in the
field, yet so high was the public opinion of his raerit, that, though
Winchester had been his head-quarters for two or three years past,
and he had occasionally enforced martial law With a rigorous hand,
he was elecfed by a large majority.
On the 2 ist of July the tidings of the fall of Louisburg increased
Washington's impatience at the delays of the expedition with
which he was connected. He wished to rival these successes by a
brhliant blow in the South. He soon learnt to his surprise that
the road to which his men were accustomed, and which had been
worked by Braddock's troops in his campaign, was not to be
taken in the present expedition, but a new one opened through
the heart of Pennsylvania, on the track generally taken by the
northern traders. The first of September found him stih encamped
at Fort Cumberland, his troops sickly and dispirited, and the
brilliant expedition which he had anticipated dwindling down into
a tedious operation of road-making. At length, he received orders
from General Forbes to join him with his troops at Raystown,
where he had just arrived. He was received by the general with
the highest marks of respect. On ah occasions, that commander
treated his opinions with the greatest deference. He adopted a
plan drawn out by Washington for the march of the army ; and
also an order of battle, which still exists, furnishing a proof of his
skih in frontier warfare.
It was now the middle of September; yet the great body of
men engaged in opening the new mihtary road, after incredible

THE GREAT FRENCH WAR. 113
toil, had not advanced above forty-five miles, to a place cahed
Loyal Hannan. Colonel Bouquet, who commanded the division
of nearly two thousand men sent forward to open this road, had
halted at Loyal Hannan to estabhsh a military post! He was up
wards of fifty railes from Fort Duqu^ne, and was tempted to
adopt the measure, so strongly discountenanced by Washington,
of sending a party on a foray into the enemy's country. He ac
cordingly detached Major Grant with eight hundred picked men,
sorae of them Highlanders, others, Virginians in Indian garb,
under command of Major Lewis.
Grant's instructions were merely to reconnoiter the country in
the neighborhood of Fort Duquesne, and ascertain the strength
and position of the enemy. He conducted the enterprise with the
foolhardiness of a man eager for notoriety. Arriving at night in the
neighborhood of the fort, he posted his men on a hill, and sent
out a party of observation, who set fire to a log house near the
walls and returned to the encampment. As if this were not suffi
cient to put the enemy on the alert, he ordered the reveille to be
beaten in the morning in several places ; then, posting Major
Lewis with his provincial troops in the rear to protect the baggage,
he marshalled his regulars in battle array, and sent an engineer,
with a covering party, to take a plan of the works in fuh view of
the garrison.
Not a gun was fired by the fort ; the silence was mistaken for
fear, and increased the blind security of the British commander.
At length, when he was thrown off his guard, there was a sudden
sally of the garrison, and an attack on the flanks by Indians hid in
ambush. A scene now occurred similar to that at the defeat of
Braddock. The British officers marshalled their men according to
European tactics, and the Highlanders for sorae time stood their
ground bravely ; but the destructive fire and horrid yells of the
Indians soon produced panic and confusion. Major Lewis, at the
first noise of the attack, left Captain Bulhtt, with fifty Virginians,
to guard the baggage, and hastened with the main body of his
men to the scene of action. The contest was kept up for some
time, but the confusion was irretrievable. The Indians sahied

114 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
from their concealment, and attacked with the tomahawk and scalp-
ing-knife. Lewis fought hand to hand with an Indian brave,
whom he laid dead at his feet, but was surrounded by others, and
only saved his life by surrendering himself to a French officer.
Grant surrendered hiraself in like manner. The whole detachment
was put to rout with dreadful camage.
Captain Bulhtt rahied several of the fugitives, and made a barri
cade with the baggage wagons, behind which he posted his men.
As the savages, having finished the havoc and plunder of the field
of battle, were hastening in pursuit of the fugitives, Bullitt suffered
them to come near, when, on a concerted signal, a destmctive fire
was opened frora behind the baggage wagons. They were checked
for a time ; but were again pressing forward in greater numbers,
when Bullitt and his men held out the signal of capitulation, and
advanced as if to surrender. When within eight yards of the enemy,
they suddenly levehed their arms, poured a most effective volley,
and then charged with the bayonet. The Indians fled in dismay,
and Buhitt took advantage of this check to retreat with all speed,
collecting the wounded and the scattered fugitives as he advanced.
The routed detachraent carae back in fragments to Colonel Bou
quet's camp at Loyal Hannan, with the loss of about three hun
dred killed and taken. If Washington could have taken any pride
in seeing his presages of misfortune verified, he might have been
gratified by the result of this rash "irmption into the enemy's
country," which was exactly what he had predicted. In his letters
to Governor Fauquier, however, he bears lightly on the error of
Colonel Bouquet. Buhitt was soon after rewarded with a major's
commission. It was the 5 th of November before the whole army assembled
at Loyal Hannan. Winter was at hand, and fifty railes of whder
ness were still to be traversed, by a road not yet raade, before they
could reach Fort Duquesne. In a counch of war it was deter
mined to be impracticable to advance further with the army that
season. Three prisoners, however, who were brought in, gave such
an account of the weak state of the garrison at Fort Duquesne,
its want of provisions, and the defection of the Indians, that it was

THE GREAT FRENCH WAR. 115
determined to push forward. The march was accordingly resumed,
but without tents or baggage, and with only a light train of arthlery.
Washington stih kept the advance. As they approached Fort
Duquesne the bones of those raassacred in the defeat of Braddock
still lay scattered about the battle-field, whitening in the sun.
At length the army arrived in sight of Fort Duquesne, advancing
with great precaution, and expecting a vigorous defence ; but that
formidable fortress, the terror and scourge of the frontier, and the
object of -such warlike enterprise, fell without a blow. The recent
successes of the English forces in Canada, particularly the capture
and destrnction of Fort Frontenac, had left the garrison without
hope of reinforcements and supplies. The whole force, at the
time, did not exceed five hundred men, and the provisions were
nearly exhausted, The coraraander, therefore, waited only until
the Enghsh array was within one day's raarch, when he embarked
his troops at night in bateaux, blew up his magazines, set fire to
the fort, and retreated down the Ohio, by the light of the flames.
On the 25th of Noveraber, Washington, with the advanced guard,
marched in, and planted the British flag on the yet smoking rains.
One of the first offices of the army was to cohect and bury, in
one common tomb, the bones of their fellow-soldiers who had
fallen in the battles of Braddock and Grant. The ruins of the
fortress were then put in a defensible state, and garrisoned by
two hundred men from Washington's regiment; the name was
changed to that of Fort Pitt, in honor of the hlustrious minister,
whose measures had given vigor to this year's carapaign ; it has
since been modified into Pittsburg, and designates one of the most
busy and populous cities of the interior.
The reduction of Fort Duquesne terminated, as Washington had
foreseen, the troubles and dangers of the southem frontier. The
French doraination of the Ohio was at an end ; the Indians, as
usual, paid horaage to the conquering power, and a treaty of peace
was concluded with ah the tribes between the Ohio and the lakes.
With this campaign ended, for the present, the mihtary career
of Washington. His great object was attained, the restoration of
quiet and security to his native province; accordingly, he gave

116 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
up his commission at the close of the year, and retired from the
service, fohowed by the applause of his fehow-soldiers, and the
admiration of all his countrymen.
His marriage with Mrs. Custis took place shortiy after his -return.
It was celebrated, on the 6th of January, 1759, at the residence of
the bride, in the good old hospitable style of Virginia-, amid a
joyous assemblage of relatives and friends.
Conquest of Canada. — Before following Washington into the
retirement of domestic life, we think it proper to notice the events
which closed the great struggle between England and France for
empire in America. In that struggle he had first become prac
tised in arms, and schooled in the ways of the world ; and its
results wih be found connected with the history of his later years.
General Abercrombie had been superseded as commander-in
chief of the forces in America' by Major-general Amherst, who had
gained great favor by the reduction of Louisburg. According to
the plan of operations for 1 759, General Wolfe, who had risen to
fame by his gallant conduct in the same affair, was to ascend the
St. Lawrence in a fleet of ships-of-war, with eight thousand men,
as soon as the river should be free of ice, and lay siege to Quebec.
General Amherst, in the meantime, was to reduce Ticonderoga
and Crown Point, cross Lake Champlain, push on to the St. Law
rence, and co-operate with Wolfe.
A third expedition, under Brigadier-general Prideaux, was to
attack Fort Niagara, which controlled the whole country of the
Six Nations, and commanded the navigation of the great lakes,
and the intercourse between Canada and Louisiana. Having re
duced this fort, he was to traverse Lake Ontario, descend the St.
Lawrence, capture Montreal, and join his forces with those of
Amherst. The last mentioned expedition was the first executed. Prideaux
embarked at Oswego on the first of July, with a large body of
troops. He was accompanied b;J' Sir William Johnson, and his
Indian braves of the Mohawk. Landing at an inlet of Lake
Ontario, within a few mhes of Fort Niagara, he proceeded to
invest it. The garrison, six hundred strong, made a resolute de-

THE GREAT FRENCH WAR. , 117
fence. On the 20th of July, Prideaux, in visiting his trenches,
was kihed by the bursting of a cohorn. The siege was conducted
by Sir Wihiam Johnson with courage and sagacity. Being in
formed by his scouts that twelve hundred regular troops, with a
number of Indian auxiliaries, were hastening to the rescue, he
detached' a force of grenadiers and light infantry, with some
of his Mohawk warriors, to intercept them. They came in
sight of each other on the road, between Niagara Fahs and the
fort, within the thundering sounds of the one, and the distant
view of the other. Johnson's " braves " advanced to have a par
ley with the hosthe redskins. The latter received them with a
warwhoop, and Frenchman and savage made an impetuous onset.
Johnson's regulars and provincials stood their ground firmly, whhe
his red warriors feh on the flanks of the enemy. After a sharp
conflict, the French were broken, routed, and pursued through the
woods, with great carnage. The next day Sir Wilham Johnson
sent a trumpet, summoning the garrison to surrender, to spare the
effusion of blood, and prevent outrages by the Indians. They were
permitted to march out with the honors of war. Thus was secured
the key to the communication between Lakes Ontario and Erie,
and to the vast interior region connected with them.
In the raonth of July, General Amherst embarked on Lake
George with nearly twelve thousand men, and proceeded against
Ticonderoga. Montcalm was no longer in the fort ; he was absent
for the protection of Quebec. The garrison did not exceed four
hundred men. Bourlamaqui, the brave officer who coraraanded,
disraantled the fortifications, as he did likewise those at Crown
Point, and retreated down the lake, to raake a stand at thS Isle
aux Noix, for the protection of Montreal. Instead of fohowing
him up, and hastening to co-operate with Wolfe, General Amherst
proceeded to repair the works at Ticonderoga, and erect a new
fort at Crown Point, though neither were in present danger of
behig attacked, nor would be of use if Canada were conquered.
'Amherst was one of those raen, who, in seeking to be sure, are apt
to be fatahy slow. His delay enabled the enemy to rahy their
forces at JsJe aux Noix^ and call in Canadian reinforcements.

118 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
while it deprived Wolfe of that co-operation most essential to the
success of the campaign.
Wolfe, with eight thousand men, ascended the St: Lawrence in
June. The grenadiers of the army were commanded by Colonel
Guy Carleton, and part of the light infantry by Lieutenant- colonel
William Howe, both destined to celebrity in the annals of the
American Revolution. Colonel Howe was brother of the gallant
Lord Howe, whose fall in the preceding year was so generally
lamented. Among the officers of the fleet, was Jervis, the future
admiral, and ultimately Earl St. Vincent, and the master of one of
the ships was Jaraes Cook, afterwards renowned as a discoverer.
About the end of June, the troops debarked on the Isle of
Orleans, and encamped in its ferthe fields. Quebec, the citadel
of Canada, was strong by nature. It was built round the point of
a rocky promontory, and flanked by precipices. The crystal cur
rent of the St. Lawrence swept by it on the right, and the river
St. Charles flowed along on the left, before mingling with that
mighty stream. Montcalm's troops were more numerous than the
assailants ; but the greater part were Canadians and savages.
They were entrenched along the northern shore below the city,
from the river St. Charles to the Falls of Montmorency.
The night after the debarkation of Wolfe's troops a furious
storm caused great damage to the transports, and sank some of
the smah craft. While it was stih raging, a number of fire-ships,
sent to destroy the fleet, came driving down. They were boarded
intrepidly by British seamen, and towed out of the way. After
much resistance, Wolfe estabhshed batteries at the west point of
the Isle of Orleans, and at Point Levi, on the right (or south)
bank of the St. Lawrence, within cannon range of the city. From
Point Levi bombshehs and red-hot shot were discharged ; many
houses were set on fire in the upper town ; the lower town was
reduced to rubbish ; the main fort, however, remained unharmed.
Anxious for a decisive action, Wolfe, on the 9th of July, crossed
over in boats from the Isle of Orleans, to the north bank of the
St. Lawrence, and encamped below the Montmorency. It was an
ih-judged position, for there was still that tumultuous stream, with

THE GREAT FRENCH WAR. 119
its rocky banks, between hira and the camp of Montcalm ; but
the ground he had chosen was higher than that occupied by the
latter, and the Montmorency had a ford below the fahs, passable
at low tide. Another ford was discovered, three miles within land,
but the banks were steep and shagged with forest. At both fords
the vigilant Montcalm had throvra up breastworks, and posted
troops. On the I Sth of July, Wolfe raade a reconnoitering expedition
up the river. He passed Quebec unharraed, and carefuhy noted
the shores above it. Rugged cliffs rose alraost from the water's
edge. Above them, he was told, was an extent of level ground,
called the Plains of Abraham, by which the upper town might be
approached on its weakest side ; but how was that plain to be
attained, when the cliffs, for the most part, were inaccessible, and
every practicable place fortified ?
He retumed to the Montmorency disappointed, and resolved to
attack Montcalra in his camp, but his orders were misunderstood,
and confusion was the consequence. A sheeted fire mowed down
his grenadiers, and he at length gave up the attack, and withdrew
across the river, having lost upwards of four hundred men.
Wolfe, of a delicate constitution and sensitive nature, was deeply
mortified by this severe check. The difficulties multipljang around
hira, and the delay of Araherst in hastening to his aid, preyed on
his spirits and brought on a fever, which for some time incapaci
tated him from taking the field. In the raidst of his illness he
called a council of war, in which the whole plan of operations was
altered. It was determined to convey troops above the town, and
endeavor to make a diversion in that direction, or draw Montcalm
into the open field.
The brief Canadian suraraer was over ; they were in the raonth
pf September. The carap at Montmorency was broken up. The
troops were transported to Point Levi, leaving a sufficient number
to man the batteries on the Isle of Orleans. On the fifth and
sixth of SeptQjaber the embarkation took place above Point Levi.
Montcalm detached Bougainville with fifteen hundred men to keep
along the north shore above the town, watch the movements of

120 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
the squadron, and prevent a landing. To deceive hira. Admiral
Holmes moved with the ships of war three leagues beyond the
place where the landing was to be attempted. He was to drop
down, however, in the night, and protect the landing. Cook, the
future discoverer, was employed to sound the river and place
buoys opposite the camp of Montcalra, as if an attack were raedi-
tated in that quarter.
Wolfe was still suffering under the effects of his late fever. When
embarked in his midnight enterprise, the presentiment of death
seems to have cast its shadow over him. A midshipraan who was
present^ used to relate that, as Wolfe sat among his officers, and
the boats floated down silently with the current, he recited, in low
and touching tones, Gray's Elegy in a Country Churchyard, then
just published. One stanza may especially have accorded with
his melancholy mood.
" The boast of heraldry, the pomp of power.
And all that beauty, all that wealth e'er gave.
Await alike the inevitable hour.
The paths of glory lead but to the grave."
" Gentlemen," said he, when he had finished, " I would rather
be the author of that poem than take Quebec."
The descent was made in flat-bottomed boats, past raidnight,
on the 13th of September. They dropped down silently with the
swift current. "Qui va la ? " (who goes there?), cried a sentinel
from the shore. "La France," replied a captain in the first boat,
who understood the French language. "A quel regiment?" was
the demand. " De la Reine" (the queen's), replied the captain,
knowing that regiment was in Bougainvihe's detachment. For
tunately, a convoy of provisions was expected down from Bou
gainville's, which the sentinel supposed this to be. " Fasse" cried
he, and the boats glided on Avithout further challenge. The land
ing took place in a cove near Cape Diamond, which still bears
Wolfe's name. He had observed that a cragged path straggled
up frora it to the Heights of Abrahara, which mi^ht be climbed,
I Afterwards Professor John Robinson of Edinburgh.

THE GREAT FRENCH WAR. 121
though with difficulty, and appeared to be slightly guarded at top.
Wolfe was among the first that landed and ascended the steep and
narrow path, where not more than two could go abreast. Colonel
Howe, at the same time, with the light infantry and Highlanders,
scrambled up the woody precipices, helping theraselves by the
roots and branches, and putting to flight a sergeant's guard posted
at the summit. Wolfe drew up the raen in order as they raounted ;
and by the break of day found hiraself in possession of the fateful
Plains of Abrahara.
Montcalra was thunderstruck when word was brought to him in
his camp that the English were on the heights, threatening the
weakest part of the town. Abandoning his entrenchments, he
hastened across the river St. Charles and ascended the heights,
which slope up gradually frora its banks. His force was equal in
number to that of the English, but a great part was made up of
colony troops and savages. When he saw the formidable host
of regulars he had to contend with, he sent off swift raessengers to
summon Bougainville with his detachraent to his aid ; and Vau-
dreuil to reinforce hira with fifteen hundred men frora the carap.
The French, in their haste, thinking they were to repel a raere
scouting party, had brought but three light field-pieces with thera ;
the English had but a single gun, which the sailors had dragged
up the heights. With these they cannonaded each other for a
time, Montcalm sthl waiting for the aid he had suraraoned. At
length, about nine o'clock, losing all patience, he led on his dis
ciplined troops to a close conflict with sraall arms, the Indians
to support them by a gahing fire from thickets and corn-fields.
The French advanced gahantly, but irregularly ; firing rapidly, but
with little effect. The Enghsh reserved their fire until their assail
ants were within forty yards, and then delivered it in deadly volleys.
They suffered, however, from the lurking savages, who singled out
the officers. Wolfe, who was in front of the line, a conspicuous
mark, was wounded by a ball in the wrist. He bound his handker
chief round the wound and led on the grenadiers, with fixed bay
onets, to charge the foe, who began to waver. Another bah stmck
him in the breast. He felt the wound to be mortal, and feared

122 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
his fah might dishearten the troops. Leaning on a heutenant for
support, " Let not my brave fellows see me drop," said he faintly.
He was borne off to the rear ; water was brought to quench his
thirst, and he was asked if he would have a surgeon. " It is need
less," he replied ; " it is ah over with me.'' He desired those about
him to lay him down. The lieutenant seated himself upon the
ground, and supported him in his arms. " They run ! they run !
see how they run !" cried one of the attendants. "Who run?"
demanded AVolfe, earnestly, like one aroused frora sleep. "The
enemy, sir ; they give way everywhere." The spirit of the expiring
hero flashed up. " Go, one of you, my lads, to Colonel Burton ;
tell hira to march Webb's regiment with all speed down to Charles'
river, to cut off the retreat by the bridge." Then turning on his
side, " Now, God be praised, I will die in peace I " said he, and
expired. The centre of the enemy was broken, and the Highlanders were
making deadly havoc with their claymores, driving the French
into the town or down to their works on the river St. Charles. By
this time Bougainville appeared at a distance in the rear, advanc
ing with two thousand fresh troops, but he arrived too late to
retrieve the day. The gahant Montcalra had received his death-
wound near St. John's Gate, while endeavoring to rally his flying
troops, and had been borne into the town. When told by his
surgeon that he could not survive above a few hours, " So much
the better," replied he ; "I shah not live to see the surrender of
Quebec." He then cahed for his chaplain, who, with the bishop
of the colony, remained with hira through the night. He expired
early in the morning, dying like a brave soldier and a devout
Catholic. Never did two worthier foes mingle their life-blood on
the battle-field than Wolfe and Montcalm.
Preparations were now made by army and fleet to make an
attack on both upper and lower town ; but the spirit of the garri
son was broken, and the inhabitants were clamorous for the safety
of their wives and children. On the 17th of September, 1759,
Quebec capitulated, and was taken possession of by the British.
A garrison of six thousand effective men was placed in it, under
the command of Brigadier-general Murray.

THE GREAT FRENCH WAR. 123
Had Araherst fohowed up his success at Ticonderoga, the year's
campaign would have ended, as had been projected, in the subju
gation of Canada. His cautious delay gave Levi, the successor
of Montcalm, time to rally the scattered French forces, and struggle
for the salvation of the province. In the following spring, as soon
as the river St. Lawrence opened, he approached Quebec, and
landed at Point au Tremble, about twelve miles off. The garrison
had suffered dreadfully during the winter frora excessive cold, want
of vegetables and of fresh provisions. Many had died of scurvy,
and many more were ill. On hearing that Levi was advancing
with ten thousand men and five hundred Indians, Murray sallied
out with his diminished forces of not raore than three thou
sand. English soldiers, he boasted, were habituated to victory.
More brave than discreet, he attacked the vanguard of the eneray ;
the battle which took place was fierce and sanguinary. Murray's
troops had caught his own headlong valor, and fought until near
a third of their number were slain. They were at length driven
back into the town, leaving their artillery on the field. Levi
opened trenches before the town the same evening. By the nth
of May, he had one bomb battery and three batteries of cannon
in operation. Murray, equally alert within the walls, strengthened
his defences and kept up a vigorous fire. His garrison was now
reduced to two hundred and twenty effective raen, and he was
driven alraost to despair, when a British fleet arrived in the river.
The whole scene was now reversed. One of the French frigates
was driven on the rocks above Cape Diamond ; another ran on
shore, and was burnt ; the rest of their vessels were either taken
or destroyed. The besieging army retreated in the night, leaving
provisions, impleraents, and artihery behind thera ; and so rapid
was their flight, that Murray, who sahied forth on the following
day, could not overtake them.
A last stand for the preservation of the colony was now made
by the French at Montreal, where Vaudreuh fortified himself, and
called in ah possible aid, Canadian and Indian. But when
Amherst presented hiraself before the town, Vaudreuh found him
self threatened by an army of nearly ten thousand men, and a

124 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
host of Indians, for Amherst had cahed in the aid of Sir Wihiam
Johnson and his Mohawk braves. To withstand a siege in an
almost open town against such superior force was out of the ques
tion, especially as Murray from Quebec was at hand with addi
tional troops. A capitulation accordingly took place on the Sth
of September, including the surrender not merely of Montreal, but
of all Canada.
Thus ended the contest between France and England for
dominion in America, in which, as has been said, the first gun was
fired in Washington's encounter with De Jumonvihe. A French
statesman, the Count de Vergennes, consoled himself by the per
suasion that it would be a fatal triumph to England. It would
remove the only check by which her colonies were kept in awe.
" They wih no longer need her protection," said he ; " she will
call on them to contribute toward supporting the burdens they
have helped to bring on her, and they will answer by striking off
ah dependence"
Washington at Home. — For three months after his marriage,
Washington resided with his bride at the " White House.'' Dur
ing his sojourn there, he repaired to Williamsburg, to take his seat
in the House of Burgesses. By a vote of the House, it had been
determined to greet his installation by a signal testimonial of re
spect. Accordingly, as soon as he took his seat, Mr. Robinson,
the Speaker, in eloquent language, returned thanks, on behalf of
the colony, for the distinguished mihtary services he had rendered
to his country. Washington rose to reply ; blushed — stammered
— trembled, and could not utter a word. " Sit down, Mr. Wash
ington," said the Speaker, with a sraile ; " your raodesty equals
your valor, and that surpasses the power of any language I
possess." Such was Washington's first launch into civil life, in which he
was to be distinguished by the sarae judgment, devotion, courage,
and magnanimity exhibited in his military career. He attended
the House frequently during the remainder of the session, after
which he conducted his bride to his favorite abode of Mount
Vemon.

THE GREAT FRENCH WAR. 125
Mr. Custis, the first husband of Mrs. Washington, had left
large landed property, and ^^45,000 in money. One-third fell
to his widow in her own right ; two-thirds were inherited equally
by her two children, — a boy of six, and a girl of four years of
age. By a decree of the General Court, Washington was intrusted
with the care of the property inherited by the children ; a sacred
and delicate trust, which he discharged in the most faithful and
judicious manner; becoming more like a parent than a mere
guardian to them.
Frorn a letter to his correspondent in England, it would appear
that he had long entertained a desire to visit that country. Had
he done so, his acknowledged merit and military services would
have insured him a distinguished reception ; but his marriage had
put an end to all travehing inclinations. In his letter from Mount
Vemon, he writes : " I ara now, I believe, fixed in this seat, with
an agreeable partner for life, and I hope to find raore happiness
in retireraent than I ever experienced in the wide and bustling
world." This was no Utopian dream transiently indulged, amid
the charms of novelty. Throughout the whole course of his
career, agricultural life appears to have been his beau ideal of ex
istence, which haunted his thoughts even amid the stern duties of
the field. Mount Vemon was his harbor of repose, where he re
peatedly furled his sail, and fancied himself anchored for hfe. No
impulse of ambition tempted hira thence ; nothing but the call of
his country, and his devotion to the public good. The place was
endeared to hira by the remembrance of happy days passed there,
in boyhood, with his brother Lawrence ; but it was a delightful
place in itself The mansion was beautifully situated on a swelling
height, crowned with wood, and commanding a magnificent view
up and down the Potomac. The grounds iraraediately about it
were laid out in the English taste. The estate was apportioned
into separate farms, devoted to different kinds of culture, each
having its allotted laborers. Much, however, was stih covered with
wild woods, seamed with deep dehs and runs of water, and in
dented with inlets ; haunts of deer, and lurking-places of foxes.
The whole woody region along the Potomac, from Mount Vernon

126 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
to Belvoir, and far beyond, with its range of forests and hihs, and
picturesque promontories, afforded sport of various kinds, and was
a noble hunting-ground. Washington had hunted through it with
old Lord Fairfax in his stripling days ; we do not wonder that his
feelings throughout life incessantly reverted to it.
These were, as yet, the aristocratic days of Virginia. The
estates were large, and continued in the sarae famhies by entails.
Many of the wealthy planters were connected with old families in
England. The young men, especially the elder sons, were often
sent to finish their education there, and on their retum brought
out the tastes and habits of the mother country. The govemors
of Virginia were from the higher ranks of society, and maintained
a corresponding state. The " Established,"- or Episcopal Church,
predominated throughout the ancient " dominion," as it was
termed ; each county was divided into parishes, as in England, —
each with its parochial church, its parsonage and glebe. Wash
ington was vestryman of two parishes, Fairfax and Truro ; the
parochial church of the former was at Alexandria, ten miles from
Mount Vernon ; of the latter, at Pohick, about seven railes. The
church at Pohick was rebuilt on a plan of his own, and in a great
measure at his expense. At one or other of these churches he
attended every Sunday, when weather and roads permitted.
The Virginian houses in those days were spacious, coraraodious,
hberal in all their appointments, and fitted to cope with the free
handed, open-hearted hospitality of the owners. Nothing was
more common than to see handsome services of plate, elegant
equipages, and superb carriage horses — all imported from Eng
land. The Virginians have always been noted for their love of
horses, and the rich planters vied with each other in their studs,
importing the best English stocks.
Washington, by his marriage, had added above one hundred
thousand dollars to his already considerable fortune, and was
enabled to live in ample and dignified style. His intimacy with
the Fairfaxes, and his intercourse with British officers of rank,
had perhaps their influence on his mode of living. He had his
chariot and four, with black postilions in livery, for the use of Mrs.

THE GREAT FRENCH WAR. 127
Washington and her lady visitors. As for hiraself, he always
appeared on horseback. His stable was weh fihed and adrairably
regulated. His stud was thoroughbred and in excellent order.
His household books contain registers of the naraes, ages, and
marks of his various horses ; such as Ajax, Blueskin, Valiant,
Magnolia (an Arab), etc. Also his dogs, chiefly fox- hounds,
Vulcan, Singer, Ringwood, Sweetiips, Forester, Music, Rockwood,
Tmelove, etc.
A large Virginia estate, in those days, was a httle empire. The
mansion-house was the seat of governraent, with its numerous
dependencies, such as kitchens, smoke-houses, workshops, and
stables. In this mansion the planter ruled supreme ; his steward
or overseer was his prime minister and executive officer ; he had
his legion of house negroes for domestic service, and his host of
field negroes for the culture of tobacco, Indian corn, and other
crops, and for other out of door labor. Their quarter forraed a
kind of hamlet apart, composed of various huts, with little gardens
and poultry yards, all well stocked, and swarms of little negroes
gambolling in the sunshine. Then there were large wooden
edifices for curing tobacco, the staple and most profitable pro
duction, and mills for grinding wheat and Indian corn, of which
large fields were cultivated for the supply of the family and the
maintenance of the negroes.
Among the slaves were artificers of all kinds, tailors, shoe
makers, carpenters, smiths, wheelwrights, and so forth ; so that
a plantation produced everything within itself for ordinary use :
as to articles of fashion and elegance, luxuries, and expensive
clothing, they were imported from London ; for the planters on
the main rivers, especially the Potomac, carried on an immediate
trade with England. Their tobacco was put up by their own
negroes, bore their own marks, was shipped on board of vessels
which carae up the rivers for the purpose, and consigned to sorae
agent in Liverpool or Bristol, with whom the planter kept an
account. The Virginia planters were prone to leave the care of their
estates too much to their overseers, and to think personal labor

128 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
a degradation. Washington carried into his mral affairs the same
method, activity, and circumspection that had distinguished him
in mihtary hfe. He kept his own accounts, posted up his books
and balanced them with mercantile exactness. The products of
his estate became so noted for the faithfulness, as to quahty and
quantity, with which they were put up, that it is said any barrel of
flour that bore the brand of George Washington, Mount Vernon,
was exempted from the customary inspection in the West India
ports. He was an early riser, often before daybreak in the winter when
the nights were long. On such occasions he lit his own fire, and
wrote or read by candle-light. He breakfasted at seven in sum
mer, at eight in winter. Two small cups of tea and three or four
cakes of Indian meal (called hoe-cakes) formed his fragal repast.
Immediately after breakfast he mounted his horse and visited
those parts of the estate where any work was going on, seeing to
everything wdth his own eyes, and often aiding with his own hand.
He treated his negroes with kindness ; attended to their comforts ;
was particularly careful of thera in sickness ; but never tolerated
idleness, and exacted a faithful perforraance of ah their allotted
tasks. He had a quick eye at calculating each man's capabilities.
Dinner was served at two o'clock. He ate heartily, but was
not critical about his food. His beverage was small beer or
cider, and two glasses of old Madeira. He took tea, of which
he was very fond, early in the evening, and retired for the night
about nine o'clock.
Washington delighted in the chase. In the hunting season,
when he rode out early in the morning to visit distant parts of the
estate where work was going on, he often took some of the dogs
with him for the chance of starting a fox, which he occasionally
did, though he was not always successful in killing him. He was
a bold rider and an admirable horseman, though he never claimed
the merit of being an accomplished fox-hunter. In the height of
the season, however, he would be out with the fox-hounds two or
three times a week, accompanied by his guests at Mount Vemon
and the gentiemen of the neighborhood, especially the Fairfaxes

THE GREAT FRENCH WAR. 129
of Belvoir. On such occasions there would be a hunting dinner
at one or other of those establishments, at which convivial repasts
Washington is said to have enjoyed himself with unwonted hilarity.
The waters of the Potomac also afforded occasional amusement in
fishing and shooting. The fishing was sometimes on a grand scale,
when the herrings came up the river in shoals, and the negroes of
Mount Vernon were marshalled forth to draw the seine. Canvas-
back ducks abounded at the proper season, and the shooting of
them was one of Washington's favorite recreations.
Occasionally he and Mrs. Washington would pay a visit to
Annapohs, at that tirae the seat of government of Maryland, and
partake of the gayeties which prevailed during the session of the
legislature. The society of these seats of provincial government
was always polite and fashionable, and more exclusive than in
these republican days, being, in a manner, the outposts of the
Enghsh aristocracy, where all places of dignity or profit were se
cured for younger sons, and poor, but proud relatives. During
the session of the legislature, dinners and balls abounded, and
there were occasional attempts at theatricals. The latter was an
amusement for which Washington always had a rehsh, though he
never had an opportunity of gratifying it effectually. Neither was
he disinclined to mingle in the dance, and we reraeraber to have
heard venerable ladies, who had been belles in his day, pride
themselves on having had him for a partner, though, they added,
he was apt to be a ceremonious and grave one.
In this round of rural occupation, rural amusements, and social
intercourse, Washington passed several tranquil years, the halcyon
season of his life. His already established reputation drew many
visitors to Mount Vernon ; sorae of his early -companions in arms
were his occasional guests, and his friendships and connections
linked hira with some of the most prominent and worthy people
of the country, who were sure to be received with cordial, but
siraple and unpretending hospitality. His doraestic concems and
social enjoyments, however, were not permitted to interfere with
his pubhc duties. He was active by nature, and eminently a man
of business by habit. As judge of the county court, and member

130 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
of the House of Burgesses, he had numerous cahs upon his tirae
and thoughts, and was often drawn from home ; for whatever trust
he undertook, he was sure to fulfil with scrupulous exactness.
Pontiac's War. —Tidings of peace gladdened the colonies in
the spring of 1763. The definitive treaty between England and
France had been signed at Fontainebleau. Now, it was trasted,
there would be an end to those horrid ravages that had desolated
the interior of the country. "The desert and the silent place
would rejoice, and the wilderness would blossom like the rose."
The month of May proved the fahacy of such hopes. In that
month the famous insurrection of the Indian tribes broke out,
which, frora the narae of the chief who was its prirae mover and
master spirit, is coramonly called Pontiac's W^ar. The Delawares
and Shawnees, and other of those tribes of the Ohio, among
whom Washington had nhngled, were foremost in this conspiracy.
Some of the chiefs who had been his alhes, had now taken up the
hatchet against the Enghsh. The plot was deep-laid, and conducted
with Indian craft and secrecy. At a concerted time an attack
was made upon all the posts from Detroit to Fort Pitt (late Fort
Duquesne). Several of the small stockaded forts, the places of
refuge of woodland neighborhoods, were surprised and sacked with
remorseless butchery. The frontiers of Pennsylvania, Maryland,
and Virginia, were laid waste ; traders in the wilderness were plun
dered and slain ; hamlets and farm-houses were wrapped in flames,
and their inhabitants massacred. It needed all the influence of
Sir Wihiam Johnson to keep the Six Nations from joining this for
midable conspiracy ; had they done so, the triumph of the toma
hawk and scalping-knife would have been complete ; as it was, a
considerable tirae elapsed before the frontier was restored to toler
able tranquihity. § 3. Beginnings of the Revolution.
The Stamp Act. — Public events were now taking a tendency
which, without any political aspiration or forethought of his own,
was destined gradually to bear Washington away from his quiet

BEGINNINGS OF THE REVOLUTION. 131
home and pursuits, and launch hira upon a grander and wider
sphere of action than any in which he had hitherto been engaged.
The prediction of the Count de Vergennes was in the process
of fulfilment. The recent war of Great Britain for dominion
in America, though crowned with success, had engendered a
progeny of discontents in her colonies. From the beginning, the
commercial pohcy of Great Britain toward the colonies had
been wholly restrictive. " It was 'the systera of a monopoly."
Her navigation laws had shut their ports against foreign vessels ;
obhged thera to export their productions only to countries belong
ing to the British crown ; to import European goods solely frora
England, and in Enghsh ships ; and had subjected the trade be
tween the colonies to duties. Ah manufactures, too, in the colo
nies that might interfere with those of the raother country had been
either totally prohibited, or subjected to intolerable restraints.
The acts of Parliaraent, imposing these prohibitions and restric
tions, had at various times produced sore discontent and oppo
sition on the part of the colonies, especially among those of New
England. There was nothing, however, to which the jealous sen-
sibihties of the colonies were more alive than to any attempt of
the mother country to draw a revenue from them by taxation.
Frora the earliest period of their existence, they had raaintained
the principle that they could only be taxed by a legislature in
which they were represented.
During the progress of the French war, various projects were
discussed in England with regard to the colonies, which were to
be carried into effect on the return of peace. The open avowal
of sorae of these plans, and vague rumors of others, raore than
ever irritated the jealous feelings of the colonists.
In 1760, there was an attempt in Boston to cohect duties on
foreign sugar and molasses imported into the colonies. Writs of
assistance were applied for by the custom-house officers, author
izing them to break open ships, stores, and private dwellings, in
quest of articles that had paid no duty ; and to call the assistance
of others in the discharge of their odious task. The merchants
opposed the execution of the writ on constitutional grounds. The

132 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
question was argued in court, where James Otis spoke so eloquently
in vindication of American rights, that ah his hearers went away
ready to take arms against writs of assistance. " Then and there,"
says John Adaras, who was present, " was the first scene of oppo
sition to the arbhrary claims of Great Britain. Then and there
American Independence was bom."
Another ministerial measure was to instract the provincial gov
ernors to commission judges, not as theretofore "during good
behavior," but "during the king's pleasure." New York was the
first to resent this blow at the independence of the judiciary. The
lawyers appealed to the pubhc through the press against an act
which subjected the hahs of justice to the prerogative. Their
appeals were felt beyond the bounds of the province, and awakened
a general spirit of resistance. Thus raatters stood at the conclu
sion of the war.
In March, 1 765, the Parliaraent passed George Grenvihe's Stamp
Act, according to which ah instruments in writing were to be ex
ecuted on stamped paper, to be purchased from the agents of the
British government. What was more : ah offences against the
act could be tried in any royal, marine, or adrairalty court through
out the colonies, however distant from the place where the offence
had been coraraitted ; thus interfering with that most inestimable
right, a trial by jury.
It was an ominous sign that the first burst of opposition to this
' act should take place in Virginia. That colony had hitherto been
slow to accord with the republican spirit of New England. More
over, it had not so many pecuniary interests involved in these
questions as had the people of New England, being an agricultural
rather than a comraercial province ; but the Virginians are of a
quick and generous spirit, readily aroused on all points of honor
able pride, and they resented the stamp act as an outrage on their
rights. Washington occupied his seat in the House of Burgesses, when,
on the 29th of May, the stamp act became a subject of discussion.
Among the burgesses sat Patrick Henry, a young lawyer who
had recently distinguished himself by pleading against the exercise

BEGINNINGS OF THE REVOLUTION. 133
of the royal prerogative in church matters, and who was now for
the first time a member of the House. Rising in his place, he
introduced his celebrated resolutions, declaring that the General
Assembly of Virginia had the exclusive right and power to lay
taxes and impositions upon the inhabitants, and that whoever
maintained the contrary should be deemed an enemy to the col
ony. The Speaker, Mr. Robinson, objected to the resolutions, as
inflammatory. Henry vindicated them; went into an able and
constitutional discussion of colonial rights, and an eloquent expo
sition of the raanner in which they had been assahed ; wound up
by one of those daring flights of declamation for which he was
remarkable, and startied the House by a warning flash from his
tory : " Caesar had his Bmtus, Charles his Croraweh, and George
the Third — ('Treason ! treason ! ' resounded frora the neighbor
hood of the Chair) — raay profit by their exaraples," added
Henry. " Sir, if this be treason (bowing to the Speaker) , raake
the raost of it ! " The resolutions were raodified, to accommodate
them to the scruples of the Speaker and some of the raerabers, but
their spirit was retained. The Lieutenant-governor (Fauquier),
startled by this patriotic outbreak, dissolved the Asserably, and
issued writs for a new election ; but the clarion had sounded.
The resolves of the Assembly of Virginia gave the signal for a
general outcry over the continent, and roused one legislative body
after another to follow the exaraple of that of Virginia. At the
instigation of Massachusetts, a Congress was held in New York in
October, composed of delegates from Massachusetts, Rhode Island,
Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware,
Maryland, and South Carolina. In this they denounced the acts
of Parliament imposing taxes on thera without their consent, and
extending the jurisdiction of the courts of admiralty, as violations
of their rights and liberties as natural born subjects of Great
Britain, and prepared an address to the king, and a petition to
both Houses of Parliament, praying for redress.
The very preparations for enforcing the stamp act called forth
popular tumults in various places. In Boston the stamp distribu
ter was hanged in effigy ; his windows were broken ; a house in-

134 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
tended for a stamp office was pulled down, and the effigy burnt in
a bonfire made of the fragments. The stamp officer next day
publicly renounced the perilous office. The ist of November, the
day when the act was to go into operation, was ushered in with por
tentous solemnities. At Boston the ships displayed their colors
at half-mast. Many shops were shut; funeral knells resounded
frora the steeples, and there was a grand auto-da-f6, in which the
promoters of the act were paraded, and suffered martyrdora in
effigy. At New York the printed act was carried about the streets
on a pole surmounted by a death's head, with a scroh bearing the
inscription, " The folly of England and min of Araerica." No one
would venture to carry the starap act into execution. In fact no
stamped paper was to be seen ; all had been either destroyed or
concealed. All transactions which required stamps to give them
validity were suspended, or were executed by private compact.
The courts of justice were closed, unth at length sorae conducted
their business without stamps. Union was becoming the watch
word. The merchants of New York, Philadelphia, Boston, and
such other colonies as had ventured publicly to oppose the stamp
act, agreed to import no more British manufactures after the ist of
January unless it should be repealed. So passed away the year
1765- Revenue Acts of 1767. — On the i8th of March, 1766, the act
was repealed, to the great joy of the sincere friends of both coun
tries, and to no one more than to Washington. Still, there was a
fatal clause in the repeal, which declared that the king, with the
consent of Parliament, had power and authority to raake laws and
statutes of sufficient force and validity to " bind the colonies, and
people of America, in ah cases whatsoever." As the people of
America were contending for principles, not mere pecuniary in
terests, this reserved power of the Crown and Parliament left the
dispute stih open. Further aliment for public discontent was fur
nished by other acts of Parliament. One imposed duties on glass,
pasteboard, white and red lead, painters' colors, and tea; the
duties to be cohected on the arrival of the articles in the colonies ;
another empowered naval officers to enforce the acts of trade and
navigation.

BEGINNINGS OF THE REVOLUTION. 135
Boston continued to be the focus of what the ministerialists
termed sedition. The General Court of Massachusetts, not con
tent with petitioning the king for relief against the recent measures
of Parliament, drew up a circular, calling on the other colonial
legislatures to join with them in suitable efforts to obtain redress.
In the ensuing session, Governor Bernard called upon them to
rescind the resolution on which the circular was founded, — they
refused to comply, and the General Court was consequently dis
solved. The governors of other colonies required of their legis
latures an assurance that they would not reply to the Massachusetts
circular, — these legislatures likewise refused compliance, and were
dissolved. All this added to the growing excitement.
In consequence of repeated cohisions between the people of
Boston and the coramissioners of customs, two regiraents of sol
diers were sent to that town and encamped on the Common, to
the great indignation of the public, who were grievously scandalized
at seeing field-pieces planted in front of the state-house and sen
tinels stationed at the doors ; and, above ah, at having the sacred
quiet of the Sabbath disturbed by dmm and fife.
Early in 1770 an important change took place in the British
cabinet. The reins of government passed into the hands of Lord
North, a man of considerable capacity, btlt a favorite of the king,
and subservient to his narrow colonial policy. His administration,
so eventful to America, comraenced with an error. In the raonth
of March, an act was passed, revoking ah the duties laid in 1767,
excepting that on tea. This single tax was continued, as he ob
served, " to raaintain the pariiamentary right of taxation," — the very
right which was the grand object of contest. In this, however, he
was in fact yielding, against his better judgment, to the stubborn
tenacity of the king. He endeavored to reconche the opposition,
and perhaps himself, to the measure, by plausible reasoning. An
impost of threepence on the pound could never, he alleged, be
opposed by the colonists, unless they were deterrained to rebel
against Great Britain.
Here was the sturabhng-block at the threshold of Lord North's
administration. In vain the members of the opposition urged that

136 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
this single exception, while it would produce no revenue, would
keep alive the whole cause of contention ; that so long as a single
external duty was enforced, the colonies would consider theh
rights invaded and would remain unappeased. Lord North was
not to be convinced ; or rather, he knew the royal wih was inflex
ible, and he comphed with its behests. "The properest time to
exert our right to taxation," said he, "is when the right is refused.
To temporize is to yield ; and the authorhy of the mother country,
if it is now unsupported, wih be relinquished forever : a total repeal
cannot be thought of till America is prostrate at our feet."
On the very day (March 5, 1770) in which this ominous bih was
passed in Parliament, a sinister occurrence took place in Boston.
Some of the young men of the place insulted the mhitary; the
latter resented it; the young men, after a scuffle, were put to
flight, and pursued. The alarm bells rang ; a mob assembled ;
the custom-house was threatened; the troops in protecting it
were assailed with clubs and stones, and obliged to use their fire
arms, before the turault could be quelled. Five of the populace
were killed, and six wounded, two of them mortally. The troops
were now removed from the town, which remained in the highest^
state of exasperation ; and this untoward occurrence received the
opprobrious and extravagant name of "the Boston massacre."
The colonists, as a matter of convenience, resuraed the con-
suraption of those articles on which the duties had been repealed ;
but continued, on principle, the rigorous disuse of tea, excepting
such as had been smuggled in. New England was particularly
earnest in the raatter ; many of the inhabitants, in the spirit of
their Puritan progenitors, made a covenant, to drink no raore of
the forbidden beverage until the duty on tea should be repealed.
The Boston Tea-Party. — This covenant operated disastrously
against the interests of the East India Corapany, and produced an
immense accumulation of the proscribed article in their ware
houses. To remedy this. Lord North brought in a bih (1773), by
which the Company were ahowed to export their teas from England
to any part whatever, without paying export duty. This, by
enabling them to offer their teas at a low price in the colonies

BEGINNINGS OF THE REVOLUTION. 137
wouldj he supposed, tempt the Americans to purchase large quan
tities, thus relieving the Company, and at the same time benefiting
the revenue by the impost duty. Confiding in the wisdom of this
pohcy, the Company disgorged their warehouses, freighted several
ships with tea, and sent thera to various parts of the colonies.
This brought matters to a crisis. One sentiraent, one determina
tion pervaded the whole continent. Taxation was to receive its
definitive blow. Whoever submitted to it was an enemy to his
country. From New York and Philadelphia the ships were sent
back, with their cargoes, to London. In Charleston the tea was
unloaded, and stored away in cellars and other places, where it
perished. At Boston the action was still more decisive. The
ships anchored in the harbor. Some small parcels of tea were
brought on shore, but the sale of them was prohibited. The cap
tains of the ships, seeing the desperate state of the case, would
have made sail back for England, but they could not obtain the
consent of the consignees, a clearance at the custom-house, or a
passport from the governor to clear the port. It was evident the
tea was to be forced upon the people of Boston, and the principle
of taxation established.
To settle the raatter corapletely, and prove that, on a point of
principle, they were not to be trifled with, a number of the inhabi
tants, disguised as Indians, boarded the ships in the evening
(i6th December), broke open ah the chests of tea, and emptied
the contents into the sea. This was no rash and interaperate pro
ceeding of a mob, but the weh-considered, though resolute act, of
sober, respectable citizens, men of reflection, but determination.
The whole was done calmly, and in perfect order ; after which the
actors in the scene dispersed without tumult, and returned quietly
to their horaes.
The general opposhion of the colonies to the principle of taxation
had given great annoyance to the governraent, but this individual
act concentrated ah its wrath upon Boston. A bhl was forthwith
passed in Pariiaraent (coramonly called the Boston port bill), by
which ah lading and unlading of goods, wares, and merchandise,
were to cease in that town and harbor on and after the ist of

138 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
June, 1774, and the seat of government was to be transferred to
Salem. Another law, passed soon after, altered the charter of the prov
ince, decreeing that all counsehors, judges, and raagistrates should
be appointed by the Crown, and hold office during the royal
pleasure. This was followed by a third, intended for the suppression of
riots ; and providing that any person indicted for murder or other
capital offence, committed in aiding the magistracy, raight be sent
by the governor to some other colony, or to Great Britain, for trial.
Such was the bolt of Parliamentary wrath fulminated against the
devoted town of Boston. Before it feh, there was a session in May
of the Virginia House of Burgesses. All things were going on
smoothly there, when a letter brought intelligence of these vindic
tive raeasures of Parliaraent. The letter was read in the House
of Burgesses, and produced a general burst of indignation. Ah
other business was thrown aside, and this becarae the sole subject
of discussion. A protest against this and other recent acts of
Parliament was entered upon the journal of the House, and a
resolution was adopted, on the 24th of May, setting apart the ist
of June as a day of fasting, prayer, and hurailiation ; in which the
divine interposition was to be implored, to avert the heavy calaraity
threatening destruction to their rights, and ah the evils of civh
war ; and to give the people one heart and one mind hi firmly
opposing every injury to American liberties.
On the following morning, while the Burgesses were engaged in
animated debate, they were summoned to attend Lord Dunmore
in the council chamber, where he made them the following laconic
speech ; " Mr. Speaker, and Gentleraen of the House of Burgesses :
I have in my hand a paper, published by order of your House,
conceived in such terms as reflect highly upon His Majesty, and
the Parliament of Great Britain, which makes it necessary for me
to dissolve you, and you are dissolved accordingly."
As on a former occasion, the Assembly, though dissolved, was
not dispersed. The raembers adjourned to the long room of the
old Raleigh tavern, and passed resolutions, denouncing the Boston

BEGINNINGS OF THE REVOLUTION. 139
port bill as a most dangerous atterapt to destroy the constitutional
liberty and rights of ah North America; recommending their
countrymen to desist from the use, not raerely of tea, but of all
kinds of East Indian commodities ; pronouncing an attack on one
of the colonies, to enforce arbitrary taxes, an attack on ah ; and
ordering the committee of correspondence to communicate with
the other corresponding committees, on the expediency of appoint
ing deputies frora the several colonies of British America, to meet
annually in General Congress, at such place as might be deemed
expedient, to deliberate on such measures as the united interests
of the colonies might require.
This was the first recommendation of a General Congress by
any public assembly, though it had been previously proposed in
town meetings at New York and Boston. A resolution to the same
effect was passed in the Assembly of Massachusetts before it was
aware of the proceedings of the Virginia Legislature. The meas
ure recommended raet with prompt concurrence throughout the
colonies, and the 5 th day of Septeraber next was fixed upon for
the first Congress, which was to be held at Philadelphia.
On the ist of June the harbor of Boston was closed, and all
business ceased. The two other Parliamentary acts altering the
charter of Massachusetts were to be enforced. No public meeting,
excepting the annual town meetings in March and May, were to
be held without permission of the governor. General Thomas Gage,
who had recently been appointed to the mhitary command of
Massachusetts. He was the same officer who had led the advance
guard on the field of Braddock's defeat. Fortune had since gone
weh with him. Rising in the service, he had been governor of
Montreal, and had succeeded Amherst in the command of the
British forces on this continent. He was linked to the country
also by doraestic ties, having married into one of the most respect
able famhies of New Jersey. In the various situations in which
he had hitherto been placed he had won esteem, and rendered
himself popular. Not much, however, was expected from him in
his present post by those who knew him weh. With all Gage's
experience in America, he had formed a most erroneous opinion

140 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
of the character of the people. " The Americans," said he to the
king, " whl be hons only as long as the Enghsh are lambs ; " and
he engaged, with four regiments, to keep Boston quiet ! The
manner in which his attempts to enforce the recent acts of Parlia
ment were resented, showed how egregiously he was in error.
From the time of taking comraand at Boston he was perplexed
how to manage its inhabitants. Had they been hot-headed and
prone to paroxysm, his task would have been easy ; but it was the
cool, shrewd common sense, by which all their movements were
regulated, that confounded him.
High-handed measures failed of the anticipated effect. Their
harbor had been thronged with ships ; their town with troops.
The port bill put an end to commerce ; wharves were deserted,
warehouses closed ; streets grass-grown and shent. The rich were
growing poor, and the poor were without employ ; yet the spirit
of the people was unbroken. There was no uproar, however;
everything was awfully systematic and according to rule. Town
meetings were held, in which public rights and public meas
ures were eloquently discussed by John Adams, Josiah Quincy, and
other eminent men. Over these meetings Samuel Adams presided
as moderator ; a man clear in judgment, calm in conduct, inflex
ible in resolution ; deeply grounded in civil and political history,
and infallible on all points of constitutional law.
Alarmed at the powerful influence of these assemblages, govern
ment issued an act prohibiting them after the ist of August. The
act was evaded by convoking the meetings before that day, and
keeping them alive indefinitely. Gage was at a loss how to act.
It would not do to disperse these assemblages by force of arms ;
for the people who composed them mingled the soldier with the
polemic ; and, like their prototypes, the Covenanters of yore, if
prone to argue, were as ready to fight. So the meetings continued
to be held pertinaciously. Faneuil Hall was at times unable to
hold them, and they swarmed from that revolutionary hive into the
Old South Church. The liberty- tree became a rallying place for
any popular moveraent, and a flag hoisted on it was saluted by ah
processions as the emblem of the popular cause.

BEGINNINGS OF THE REVOLUTION. 141
The Continental Congress. — Congress assembled on Monday,
the sth of September, in a large room in Carpenter's Hall, Phila
delphia. There were fifty-one delegates, representing all the colo
nies excepting Georgia. Washington was one of the delegates
from Virginia. The meeting has been described as " awfully sol
emn." The most eminent raen of the various colonies were now
for the first tirae brought together ; they were known to each other
by fame, but were, personally, strangers. The object which had
cahed them together was of incalculable magnitude. The liberties
of no less than three mihions of people, \vith that of ah their pos
terity, were staked on the wisdom and energy of their counchs.
Owing to closed doors, and the want of reporters, no record
exists of the discussions and speeches made in the first Congress.
The first public measure was a resolution declaratory of their
feelings with regard to the recent acts of Parliament, violating the
rights of the people of Massachusetts, and of their determination
to combine in resisting any force that might attempt to carry those
acts into execution. A committee of two from each province re
ported a series of resolutions, which were adopted by Congress, as
a " declaration of colonial rights." In this were enumerated their
natural rights to the enjoyment of life, liberty, and property ; and
their rights as British subjects. Among the latter was participation
in legislative councils. This they could not exercise through rep
resentatives in Parliament ; they claimed, therefore, the power of
legislating in their provincial Assemblies, consenting, however, to
such acts of Parliament as might be essential to the regulation of
trade ; but excluding all taxation for raising revenue in America.
Then followed a specification of the acts of Parliament, passed
during the reign of George III., infringing and violating their rights.
" To these grievous acts and measures," it was added, " Americans
cannot subrait ; but in hopes their fellow-subjects in Great Britain
whl, on a revision of them, restore us to that state in which both
countries found happiness and prosperity, we have, for the present,
only resolved to pursue the following peaceable raeasures : —
" ist. To enter into a non-importation, non-consumption, and
non-exportation agreement, or association.

142 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
" 2d. To prepare an address to the people of Great Britain, and
a memorial to the inhabitants of British America.
" 3d. Td prepare a loyal address to His Majesty."
The above-mentioned association was accordingly formed, and
committees were to be appointed in every county, city, and town,
to maintain it vigilantly and strictly.
The Congress remained in session fifty-one days. The papers
issued by it have deservedly been pronounced masterpieces of
practical talent and political wisdora. Chatham, when speaking
on the subject in the House of Lords, could not restrain his en
thusiasm. " When your lordships," said he, " look at the papers
transmitted to us from America ; when you consider their decency,
firmness, and wisdom, you cannot but respect their cause, and
wish to make it your own. For myself, I must declare and avow
that, in the master states of the world, I know not the people, or
senate, who, in such a complication of difficult circumstances, can
stand in preference to the delegates of America assembled in
General Congress at Philadelphia."
From the secrecy that enveloped its discussions, we are igno
rant of the part taken by Washington in the debates ; but when
Patrick Henry was asked, on his return horae, whom he considered
the greatest man in Congress, he replied : " If you speak of elo
quence, Mr. Rutledge, of South Carolina, is by far the greatest
orator ; but if you speak of solid information and sound judgment.
Colonel Washington is unquestionably the greatest man on that
floor." Massachusetts in Rebellion. — The pubhc mind, in Boston and
its vicinity, had been rendered excessively jealous and sensitive by
the landing of artillery upon the Common, the planting of four
large field-pieces on Boston Neck, the only entrance to the town
by land. The country people were arming and disciplining them
selves in every direction, and collecting and depositing arms and
ammunition in places where they would be at hand in case of
emergency. The commissions were arrived for those civil officers appointed
by the Crown under the new modifications of the charter : many.

BEGINNINGS OF THE REVOLUTION. 143
however, were afraid to accept of them. Those who did soon
resigned, finding it impossible to withstand the odium of the peo
ple. The civil government throughout the province became ob-
stracted in all its operations. Gage on the ist of September
issued writs for an election of an Asserably to raeet at Salem in
October ; seeing, however, the irritated state of the public raind,
he now countermanded the same by proclamation. The people,
disregarding the countermand, carried the election, and ninety of
the new merabers thus elected raet at the appointed time. They
waited a whole day for the govemor to attend, administer the
oaths, and open the session ; but as he did not make his appear
ance, they voted themselves a provincial Congxess, and chose for
president of it John Hancock — a raan of great wealth, and emi
nent from his social position. This self-constituted body adjourned
to Concord, quietly assuraed supreme authority, and issued a
remonstrance to the governor, virtually calling him to account for
his mihtary operations in fortifying Boston Neck, and cohecting
warhke stores about him, thereby alarming the fears of the whole
province, and menacing the lives and property of the Bostonians.
The provincial Congress conducted its affairs with the order and
systera so forraidable to General Gage. Having adopted a plan
for organizing the militia, it had norainated general officers, two
of whom, Arteraas Ward and Seth Pomeroy, had accepted. The
executive powers were vested in a committee of safety. This was
to determine when the services of the mihtia were necessary ; was
to cah them forth ; to nominate their officers to the Congress ; to
commission them, and direct the operations of the army. Under
such auspices, the mhitia went on arming and disciplining itself
in every direction.
Arrangements had been raade for keeping up an active corre
spondence between different parts of the country, and spreading
an alarm in case of any threatening danger. Under the direction
of the committee of safety, large quantities of railitary stores had
been collected and deposited at Concord and at Worcester.
Araong other portentous signs, war-hawks began to appear above
the horizon. Mrs. Cushing, wife of a member of Congress, writes

144 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
to her husband, " Two of the greatest military characters of the
day are visiting this distressed town ; General Charles Lee, who
has served in Poland, and Colonel Israel Putnam, whose bravery
and character need no description." As these two raen wih take
a prominent part in coming events, we pause to give a word or
two concerning them.
Israel Putnam was a soldier of native growth ; one of the mih
tary productions of the French war ; seasoned and proved in
frontier campaigning. He had served at Louisburg, Fort Du
quesne, and Crown Point ; had signalized himself in Indian war
fare ; been captured by the savages, tied to a stake to be tortured
and burnt, and had only been rescued by the interference, at the
eleventh hour, of a French partisan of the Indians. Since the
peace, he had returned to agricultural life, and was now a farmer
at Pomfret, in Connecticut, where the scars of his wounds and the
tales of his exploits rendered him a hero in popular estimation.
The war spirit yet burned within him. He was now chairman of
a committee of vigilance, and had come to Boston in discharge of
his political and serai-belligerent functions.
A Soldier of Fortune. — General Charles Lee was a mihtary
man of a different stamp. He was the son of a British officer.
Lieutenant-colonel John Lee, of the dragoons, who married the
daughter of Sir Henry Bunbury, and afterwards rose to be a
general. Lee was born in 1731, and may almost be said to have
been cradled in the army, for he received a commission when
eleven years old. At the age of twenty-four, he commanded a
company of grenadiers, and served in the French war in America,
where he was brought into military companionship with Sir William
Johnson's Mohawk warriors, whom he used to extol for their manly
beauty, their dress, their graceful carriage and good breeding. In
fact, he rendered himself so much of a favorite among them, that
they adopted him into the clan of the Bear, giving him an Indian
narae, signifying " Boiling Water.'' At the battle of Ticonderoga,
Lee was shot through the body, whhe leading his men against the
French breastworks. He was present at the siege of Fort Niagara,
and at the surrender of Montreal. In 1762, he bore a colonel's

BEGINNINGS OF THE REVOLUTION. 145
commission, and served under Brigadier-general Burgoyne in Por
tugal. The war over, he returned to England, bearing testimonials
of bravery and good conduct from his commander-in-chief, and
from the king of Portugal.
Wielding the pen as weh as the sword, Lee undertook to write
on questions of colonial policy, relative to Pontiac's war, in which
he took the opposition side. This lost him the favor of the min
istry, and with it ah hope of further promotion. He now deter
mined to offer his services to Poland, supposed to be on the verge
of a war. His military reputation secured him the favor of Ponia-
towsky, recently elected king of Poland, with the name of Stanis
laus Augustus, who adraitted him to his table, and made him one
of his aides-de-camp. In 1769, he was raised to the rank of
major-general in the Polish army, and left Warsaw to join the
Russian force, which was advancing into Moldavia. He arrived
in time to take part in a severe action between the Russians and
Turks, in which the Cossacks and hussars were terribly cut up by
the Turkish cavalry. Lee never retumed to Poland, but for some
time led a restless life about Europe — visiting Italy, Sicily, Malta,
and the south of Spain ; troubled with attacks of rheumatisra,
gout, and the effects of a " Hungarian fever." He had become
more and more cynical and irascible, and had more than one
"affair of honor," in one of which he killed his antagonist. His
splenetic feelings, as weh as his political sentiments, were occa
sionally vented in severe attacks upon the ministry, full of irony
and sarcasm. In the questions which had risen between England
and her colonies, he had strongly advocated the cause of the
latter ; and it was the feelings thus excited, and the recoHections,
perhaps, of his early campaigns, that had recently brought him to
America. His caustic attacks upon the ministry; his conversa
tional powers and his poignant sahies, had gained him great repu
tation ; but his military renown rendered him especially interesting
at the present juncture. A general, who had served in the famous
campaigns of Europe, commanded Cossacks, fought with Turks,
and been aide-de-camp to the king of Poland, was regarded as a
prodigious acquisition to the patriot cause ! On the other hand,

146 LIFE OF' WASHINGTON.
his visit to Boston was looked upon with uneasiness by the British
officers, who knew his adventurous character. It was surraised
with some truth that he was exciting a spirit of revolt, with a view
to putting himself at its head.
The semi-behigerent state of affairs in Massachusetts produced
a general restiessness throughout the land. Mihtary measures,
hitherto confined to New England, extended to the middle and
southern provinces, and the roll of the drum resounded through
the vihages. Virginia was among the first to buckle on its armor.
It had long been a custom among its inhabitants to form them
selves into independent companies, equipped at their ovm expense,
having their own peculiar uniform, and electing their own officers,
though holding themselves subject to mhitia law. They had
hitherto been self-disciplined ; but now they continually resorted
to Washington for instruction and advice ; considering him the
highest authority on military affairs. Mount Vernon, therefore,
again assumed a military tone as in former days, when he took his
first lessons in the art of war. Two occasional and important
guests in this momentous crisis were General Charles Lee and
Major Horatio Gates. The latter was the son of a captain in the
British army. He had received a liberal education, and had
served in the campaign of Braddock, and afterwards in the West
Indies. Being dispatched to London with tidings of the victory
at Martinico, he was rewarded by the appointment of major. His
promotion did not equal his fancied deserts. He wanted some
thing more lucrative ; so he sold out on half-pay and became an
applicant for some profitable post under the government, which
he hoped to obtain through the influence of some friends in the
aristocracy. Thus several years were passed, partly with his family
in retirement, partly in London, paying court to patrons and men
in power, until finding there was no likelihood of success, and
having sold his commission and half-pay, he emigrated to Virginia
in 1772, a disappointed man; purchased an estate in Berkeley
County, beyond the Blue Ridge ; espoused the popular cause, and
renewed his old campaigning acquaintance with Washington. He
was now about forty-six years of age, of a florid complexion and

BEGINNINGS OF THE REVOLUTION. 147
goodly presence, though a httie inchned to corpulency ; social and
insinuating in his manners, with a strong degree of self-approba
tion. A long course of solicitation, haunting public offices and
ante-chambers, and "knocking about town," had taught him, it is
said, how to wheedle and flatter, and accommodate himself to the
humors of others, so as to be the boon corapanion of gentiemen,
and " hail-fellow well met " with the vulgar.
Lee, who was an old friend and former associate in arms, had
recently been induced by hira to purchase an estate in his neigh
borhood in Berkeley County, with a view to raaking it his abode,
having a moderate competency, a claim to land on the Ohio, and
the half-pay of a British colonel. Both of these officers, disap
pointed in the British service, looked forward, probably, to greater
success in the patriot cause. Lee had been at Philadelphia since
his visit to Boston, and had made himself acquainted with the
leading merabers of Congress during the session. He was evi
dently cultivating an intimacy with every one likely to have influ
ence in the approaching struggle.
To Washington the visits of these gentlemen were extremely
welcorae at this juncture, from their railitary knowledge and ex
perience, especially as much of it had been acquired in America,
in the sarae kind of warfare in which he himself had mingled.
It is doubtful whether the visits of Lee were as interesting to
Mrs. Washington as to the general. He was whimsical, eccentric,
and at times rude ; negligent also, and slovenly in person and
attire ; for though he had occasionally associated with kings and
princes, he had also campaigned with Mohawks and Cossacks, and
seems to have relished their "good breeding." What was stih
more annoying in a well regulated mansion, he was always fol
lowed by a legion of dogs, which shared his affections with his
horses, and took their seats by him when at table. " I must have
some object to embrace," said he, raisanthropicahy. " When I
can be convinced that raen are as worthy objects as dogs, I shall
transfer ray benevolence, and becorae as staunch a philanthropist
as the canting Addison affected to be."
In the month of March the second Virginia convention was

148 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
held at Richmond. Washington attended as delegate frora Fair
fax County. In this assembly, Patrick Henry, with his usual ardor
and eloquence, advocated measures for arming and disciplining a
rahitia force, and providing for the defence of the colony. " It is
useless," said he, " to address further pethions to government, or
to await the effect of those already addressed to the throne. The
time for supplication is past ; the time for action is at hand. We
must fight, Mr. Speaker," exclaimed he, emphatically; "I repeat
it, sir, we must fight ! An appeal to arms, and to the God of
Hosts, is ah that is left us ! " Washington joined him in the
conviction, and was one of a committee that reported a plan for
carrying those measures into effect. " It is my full intention, if
needful," writes he to his brother, "to devote my life and fortune
to the cause."
§ 4. Preliminary Campaigns of the Revolutionary War.
Lexington. — While the sphit of revolt was daily gaining strength
and determination in America, a strange infatuation reigned in the
British councils. While the wisdom and eloquence of Chatham
were exerted in vain in behalf of American rights, an empty brag
gadocio, elevated to a seat in Parliament, was able to captivate
the attention of the members, and influence their votes by gross
misrepresentations of the Americans and their cause. This was
no other than Colonel Grant, the same shallow soldier who had
been guhty of a foolhardy bravado before the walls of Fort Du
quesne, which brought slaughter and defeat upon his troops. He
entertained Parhament with ludicrous stories of the cowardice of
Americans. He had served with them, he said, and knew them
weh, and would venture to say they would never dare to face an
English army. With five regiments, he could march through all
America ! The counchs of the arrogant and scornful prevahed ;
and instead of Chatham's proposed bill, further raeasures of a
stringent nature were adopted, ruinous to the trade and fisheries
of New England.
At length the bolt, so long suspended, fell ! The troops at

PRELIMINARY CAMPAIGNS. 149
Boston had been augmented to about four thousand men. Alarmed
by the energetic raeasures of the whigs. General Gage now re
solved to surprise and destroy their magazine of mihtary stores at
Concord, about twenty miles from Boston. Preparations were
made with great secrecy. On the iSth of April officers were sta
tioned on the roads leading from Boston, to prevent any inteUi
gence of the expedition getting into the country. At night orders
were issued by General Gage that no person should leave the
town. About ten o'clock, from eight to nine hundred men, com
manded by Lieutenant-colonel Sraith, embarked in boats at the
foot of Boston Common, and crossed to Lechraere Point, in Cam
bridge, whence they were to march shentiy to the place of desti
nation. The measures of General Gage had not been shrouded in all
the secrecy he imagined. Dr. Joseph Warren, one of the commit
tee of safety, had observed the preparatory disposition of the boats
and troops, and surraised some sinister intention. A design on
the magazine at Concord was suspected, and the committee of
safety ordered that the cannon collected there should be secreted,
and the stores reraoved. On the night of the iSth, Dr. Warren
sent off two raessengers by different routes to give the alarm that
the king's troops were actually sallying forth. In the meantime
Colonel Smith set out on his nocturnal raarch by an unfrequented
path across raarshes, where at tiraes the troops had to wade through
water. He had proceeded but a few railes when alarm guns, and
the clang of vhlage bells, showed that the news of his approach
was travehing before him. He now sent baqk to General Gage
for a reinforcement, while Major Pitcairn was detached with six
companies to press forward, and secure the bridges at Concord.
Pitcairn advanced rapidly, capturing every one he raet or over
took. By the tirae he entered the vihage of Lexington, about
seventy of the yeomanry, in railitary array, were mustered on the
green near the church. Pitcairn halted his men within a short
distance and ordered them to prime and load. The major, riding
forward, waved his sword, and ordered the rebels, as he termed
them, to disperse, The orders were disregarded. A scene of con

150 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
fusion ensued, with firing on both sides ; eight of the patriots were
killed, and ten wounded, and the whole put to flight. Colonel
Smith soon arrived with the residue of the detachment, and they
ah marched on towards Concord. About seven o'clock, they
entered that village in two divisions by different roads. Concord
is traversed by a river of the same name, having two bridges, the
north and the south. The grenadiers took post in the centre of
the town, while strong parties of light troops were detached to
secure the bridges and destroy the mhitary stores. Two hours
were expended in the work of destruction without much success,
so much of the stores having been removed or concealed. During
all this time the yeomanry from the neighboring towns were hurry
ing in with such weapons as were at hand. About ten o'clock, a
body of three hundred undertook to dislodge the British from the
north bridge. As they approached, the latter fired upon them,
killing two, and wounding a thhd. The patriots returned the fire
with spirit and effect. The British retreated to the main body,
the Americans pursuing them across the bridge.
About noon Colonel Smith comraenced his retrograde raarch
for Boston. It was high tirae. His troops were jaded by the
night march, and the morning's toils and skirmishings. Along the
open road, they were now harassed incessantly by rustic marks
men, who took deliberate aim from behind trees, or over stone
fences. Where the road passed through woods, the British found
themselves between two fires, dealt by unseen foes, the minute
men having posted themselves on each side among the bushes.
It was in vain they threw out flankers, and endeavored to dislodge
their assailants ; each pause gave time for other pursuers to come
within reach, and open attacks from different quarters. For several
miles they urged their way along woody defiles, or roads skirted
with fences and stone walls, the retreat growing more and more
disastrous. Before reaching Lexington, Colonel Sraith received a
severe wound in the leg, and the situation of the retreating troops
was becoraing extremely critical, when, about two o'clock, they
were raet by Lord Percy, with a brigade of one thousand raen, and
two field-pieces. His lordship had been detached from Boston

PRELIMINARY CAMPAIGNS. 151
about nine o'clock by General Gage, in compliance with Colonel
Smith's urgent call for a reinforcement, and had marched gayly
through Roxbury to the tune of " Yankee Doodle," in derision of
the "rebels." He now found the latter a more formidable foe
than he had anticipated. Opening his brigade to the right and
left, he received the retreating troops into a hohow square ; where,
fainting and exhausted, they threw themselves on the ground to
rest. His lordship showed no disposition to advance upon their
assailants, but contented himself with keeping them at bay with
his field-pieces, which opened a vigorous fire from an eminence.
Hitherto the provincials, being hasty levies, without a leader,
had acted frora individual irapulse, without rauch concert; but
now General Heath was upon the ground. He was one of those
authorized to take coraraand when the rainute raen should be
cahed out. Doctor Warren, also, arrived on horseback, having
spurred from Boston on receiving news of the skirmishing. In
the subsequent part of the day, he was one of the most active and
efficient men in the field. Lord Percy, having allowed the troops
a short interval for repose and refreshment, continued the retreat
toward Boston. As soon as he got under march, the gahing as
sault by the pursuing yeomanry was recommenced in flank and
rear. There was occasional sharp skirmishing, with bloodshed on
both sides, but in general a dogged pursuit, where the retreating
troops were galled at every step. Their raarch became more and
raore impeded by the number of their wounded. Lord Percy
narrowly escaped death from a musket-ball, which struck off a
button of his waistcoat. One of his officers remained behind,
wounded in West Cambridge. His ammunition was faihng as he
approached Charlestown. The provincials pressed upon him in
the rear, others were advancing frora Roxbury, Dorchester, and
Mhton ; Colonel Pickering, with the Essex mihtia, seven hundred
strong, was at hand ; there was danger of being intercepted in the
retreat to Charlestown. The sharpest firing of the provincials was
near Prospect Hhl, as the harassed enemy hurried along the
Charlestown road, eager to reach the Neck, and get under cover
of their ships. The pursuit terminated a little after sunset, at

152 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
Chariestown Common, where General Heath brought the minute
men to a halt. Within half an hour more, a powerful body of
men, from Marblehead and Salem, came up to join in the chase.
" If the retreat," writes Washington, " had not been as precipitate
as it was, — and God knows it could not weh have been more so,
— the ministerial troops must have surrendered, or been totally
cut off."
In this memorable affair, the British loss was two hundred and
seventy-three kihed, wounded, and missing. Among the slain were
eighteen officers. The loss of the Americans was ninety-three.
The cry of blood from the field of Lexington went through the
land. Bodies of militia, and parties of volunteers from New Hamp
shire, Rhode Island, and Connecticut, hastened to join the minute
men of Massachusetts in forming a camp in the neighborhood of
Boston. With the troops of Connecticut, came Israel Putnam,
having recently raised a regiment in that province, and received
from its Asserably the coraraission of brigadier-general. The com
mand of the camp was given to General Arteraas Ward, already
mentioned. He was a native of Shrewsbury, in Massachusetts, and
a veteran of the Seven Years' War — having served as lieutenant-
colonel under Abercrombie.
Ticonderoga. — As affairs were now drawing to a crisis, and war
was considered inevitable, some bold spirits in Connecticut con
ceived a project for surprising the old forts Ticonderoga and
Crown Point, already famous in the French war. Their situation
on Lake Champlain gave them the command of the main route to
Canada; they were feebly garrisoned and abundantly fumished
with artillery and military stores, so much needed by the patriot
army. This scheme was set on foot in the provincial Legislature
of Connecticut, then in session. It was not openly sanctioned by
that body, but secretly favored, and money lent from the treasury
to those engaged in it. Sixteen men were thus enlisted in Connec
ticut, a greater number in Massachusetts, but the greatest accession of
force was from the country forming the present State of Vermont.
It had long been a disputed territory, claimed by New York and
New Hampshire. George II. had decided in favor of New York :

PRELIMINARY CAMPAIGNS. 153
but the Governor of New Harapshire had made grants of between
one and two hundred townships in it, whence it had acquired the
name of the New Hampshire Grants. The settiers on those grants
resisted the attempts of New York to eject them, and formed
theraselves into an association, cahed "The Green Mountain
Boys." Resolute, strong-handed fellows they were, with Ethan
Ahen at their head, a native of Connecticut, but brought up among
the Green Mountains. He and his lieutenant, Seth Warner, were
outlawed by the Legislature of New York, and rewards offered for
their apprehension. They and their associates armed themselves,
set New York at defiance, and swore they would be the death of
any one who should attempt their arrest. Thus Ethan Allen was
becoming a kind of Robin Hood among the mountains, when at
the present crisis he at once stepped forward and volunteered with
his Green Mountain Boys to serve in the popular cause. He was
well fitted for the enterprise in question, by his experience as a
frontier champion, his robustness of mind and body, and his fear
less spirit. He had a kind of rough eloquence, also, that was very
effective with his followers. " His style," says one, who knew him
personally, " was a singular compound of local barbarisms. Scrip
tural phrases, and oriental whdness ; and though unclassic, and
sometimes ungrammatical, was highly animated and forcible.''
Washington, in one of his letters, says there was " an original some
thing in him which coramanded admiration."
Thus reinforced, the party, now two hundred and seventy strong,
pushed forward to Castleton, a place within a few mhes of the head
of Lake Champlain. Here a counsel of war was held on the 2d of
May, and here at this juncture, another adventurous spirit arrived.
This was Benedict Arnold, since so sadly renowned. He, too, had
conceived the project of surprising Ticonderoga and Crown Point,
and had proposed the scheme to the Massachusetts committee of
safety. They had given him a colonel's coraraission, authorized
hira to raise a force in western Massachusetts, and furnished hira
with money and means. Arnold had enhsted but a few officers
and men when he heard of the expedition from Connecticut being
on the march. He instantly hurried on with one attendant to

154 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
overtake it, and laid claim to the supreme command. His claims
were disregarded by the Green Mountain Boys, who would follow
no leader but Ethan Ahen. As they formed the majority of the
party, Arnold was fain to acquiesce, and serve as a volunteer.
The party arrived at Shoreham, opposite Ticonderoga, on the
night of the 9th of May. There were but few boats at hand, with
which the transportation was commenced. It was slow work ; the
night wore away ; day was about to break, and but eighty-three
men, with Ahen and Arnold, had crossed. Should they wait for
the residue, day would dawn, the garrison wake, and their enter
prise might fail. Ahen drew up his men, addressed them in his
own emphatic style, and announced his intention to make a dash
without waiting for more force. They mounted the hih briskly,
but in shence, guided by a boy from the neighborhood. The day
dawned as Allen arrived at a sally-port. A sentry pulled trigger
on him, but his piece missed fire. He retreated through a covered
way. Ahen and his men followed, reached the quarters of the
commandant, thundered at the door, and demanded the surrender
of the fort. The commandant appearing at his door half-dressed,
gazed at Allen in bewildered astonishment. " By whose authority
do you act? " exclaimed he. " In the name of the great- Jehovah,
and the Continental Congress ! " replied Ahen, with a flourish of
his sword. There was no disputing the point. The fortress was
surrendered, with a great supply of railitary and naval stores, so
important in the present crisis. Seth Warner, who had brought
over the residue of the party from Shoreham, was now sent with a
detachment against Crown Point, which surrendered on the 12th
of May, without firing a gun. Here were taken upward of a hun
dred cannon.
Thus a partisan band had, almost without the loss of a man,
won for the patriots the command of Lakes George and Cham
plain, and thrown open the great highway to Canada.
Washington Commander-in-chief. — The second General Con
gress assembled at Philadelphia on the loth of May. Peyton
Randolph was again elected as president ; but being obliged to
return, and occupy his place as Speaker of the Virginia Assembly,

PRELIMINARY CAMPAIGNS. 155
John Hancock of Massachusetts was elevated to the chair. A
lingering feeling of attachment to the mother country, struggling
with the growing spirit of self-government, was manifested in the
proceedings of this remarkable body. Many of those raost active
in vindicating colonial rights, and Washington araong the number,
stih indulged the hope of an eventual reconciliation, while few as
yet entertained the idea of complete independence. A second
" humble and dutiful " petition to the king was raoved, but Con
gress, in face of it, went on to assurae and exercise the powers of
a sovereign authority.
They ordered the enlistraenr of troops, the construction of forts
in various parts of the colonies, the provision of arms, araraunition,
and railitary stores ; while to defray the expense of these, and other
raeasures, avowedly of self-defence, they authorized the eraission
of notes to the amount of three mihions of dollars, bearing the in
scription of "The United Colonies " ; the faith of the confederacy
being pledged for their redemption. A retaliating decree was
passed, prohibiting all supplies of provisions to the British fisheries ;
and another, declaring the province of Massachusetts Bay absolved
from its compact with the Crown, by the violation of its charter,
and recoraraending it to form an internal government for itself
The situation of the New England army, actually besieging Bos
ton, became an early and absorbing consideration. It was without
munitions of war, without arms, clothing, or pay ; unless sanctioned
and assisted by Congress, there was danger of its dissolution.
If dissolved, what would there be to prevent the British frora sahy-
ing out of Boston, and spreading desolation throughout the coun
try? Ah this was the subject of much discussion. The disposition
to uphold the army was general ; but the difficult question was,
who should be commander-in-chief ? There was a southern party
which could not brook the idea of a New England array, com
raanded by a New England general. On the other hand, Mr.
Hancock had an ambition to be appointed commander-in-chief
Charles Lee also was at that tirae in Phhadelphia. The active
interest he had manifested in the cause was weh known, and the
public had an extravagant idea of his mihtary quahfications. He

156 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
was of foreign birth, however, and it was deeraed iraproper to
confide the supreme command to any but a native-born American.
The opinion evidently inchned in favor of Washington ; it was
John Adams who brought the members of Congress to a decision.
Rising in his place, he moved that Congress should adopt the
army at Cambridge, and appoint a general. Though this was not
the time to nominate the person, " yet," adds he, " as I had reason
to beheve this was a point of some difficulty, I had no hesitation
to declare, that I had but one gentleman in ray mind for that
important command, and that was a gentleman from Virginia, who
was among us and very weh known to all of us ; a gentleman,
whose skih and experience as an officer, whose independent
fortune, great talents, and excellent universal character would
command the approbation of ah America, and unite the cordial
exertions of ah the colonies better than any other person in the
Union. Mr. Washington, who happened to sit near the door, as
soon as he heard me allude to him, from his usual modesty, darted
into the library-room. Mr. Hancock, who was our president,
which gave me an opportunity to observe his countenance, while
I was speaking on the state of the colonies, the army at Cam
bridge, and the enemy, heard me with visible pleasure ; but when
I came to describe Washington for the commander, I never
remarked a more sudden and striking change of countenance.
Mortification and resentment were expressed as forcibly as his face
could exhibit them."
The subject was postponed to a future day. On the 15th of
June, the army was regularly adopted by Congress. Many sthl
clung to the idea, that in ah these proceedings they were merely
opposing the measures of the ministry and not the authority of the
crown, and thus the army before Boston was designated as the
Continental Army, in contradistinction to that under General Gage,
which was cahed the Ministerial Array. In this stage of the busi
ness, Mr. Johnson of Maryland rose, and nominated Washington
for the station of commander-in-chief The election was by bal
lot, and was unanimous.
He declared, when he accepted the mighty trust, that he would

PRELIMINARY CAMPAIGNS. 1S7
lay before Congress an exact account of his expenses, and would
not accept a shilling of pay. General Ward was elected the second
in command, and Lee the third. The other two major-generals were
Phhip Schuyler of New York, and Israel Putnam of Connecticut.
Eight brigadier-generals were likewise appointed ; Seth Pomeroy,
Richard Montgomery, David Wooster, William Heath, Joseph
Spencer, John Thomas, John Sullivan, and Nathaniel Greene.
At Washington's express request, his old friend, Major Horatio
Gates, then absent at his estate in Virginia, was appointed adju-
tantrgeneral, with the rank of brigadier. Adams, according to his
own account, was extremely loth to admit Lee or Gates into the
American service, " but," adds he, " considering the earnest desire
of General Washington to have the assistance of those officers, and
the reputation they would give to our arms in Europe, and espe
cially with the ministerial generals and army in Boston, I could
not withhold my vote from either.''
The reader wih possibly call these circumstances to mind when,
on a future page, he finds how Lee and Gates requited the friend
ship to w^hich chiefly they owed their appointments.
Bunker Hill. — Meanwhile events had been drawing to a crisis
in the excited region about Boston. The provincial troops which
blockaded the town prevented supplies by land, the neighboring
country refused to furnish them by water, and Boston began to
experience the privations of a besieged city. On the 5 th of May
arrived ships of war and transports frora England, bringing large
reinforcements, under Generals Howe, Burgoyne, and Clinton,
commanders of high reputation. As the ships entered the harbor,
and the " rebel camp " was pointed out, — ten thousand yeomanry
beleaguering a town garrisoned by five thousand regulars, — Bur
goyne could not restrain a burst of surprise and scorn. " What ! "
cried he, " ten thousand peasants keep five thousand king's troops
shut up ! Weh, let us get in, and we'll soon find elbow-room."
Inspirited by these reinforcements. General Gage determined
to take the field. Previously, however, he issued a proclamation
(i2th June), putting the province under martial law, threatening
to treat as rebels and traitors all malcontents who should continue

158 LIFE OF WASHINGTON,
under arras, together whh their aiders and abettors ; but offering
pardon to ah who should lay down their arms and return to their
allegiance. From this proffered amnesty, however, John Hancock
and Samuel Adams were especially excepted ; their offences being
pronounced "too flagitious not to meet with condign punish
ment." This proclamation only served to put the patriots on the alert
against such measures as might be expected to follow. The besieg
ing force amounted to about fifteen thousand men distributed at
various points. Its character and organization were peculiar. It
could not be called a national army, for, as yet, there was no nation
to own it ; it was, in fact, a fortuitous assemblage of four distinct
bodies of troops, belonging to different provinces, and each having
a leader of its own election. About ten thousand belonged to
Massachusetts, and were under the command of General Artemas
Ward, whose headquarters were at Cambridge. Another body of
troops, under Colonel John Stark, came frora New Hampshire.
Rhode Island fumished a third, under the comraand of General
Nathaniel Greene. A fourth was from Connecticut, under the
veteran Putnam.
These bodies of troops, being from different colonies, were inde
pendent of each other. Those from New Hampshire were in
stmcted to obey General Ward as commander-in-chief; with the
rest, it was a voluntary act, rendered in consideration of his being
mhitary chief of Massachusetts, the province which, as ahies, they
came to defend. There was, in fact, but little organization in the
army. Nothing kept it together, and gave it unity of action, but
a common feeling of exasperated patriotism.
The troops knew but littie of mhitary discipline. Alraost ah
were familiar with the use of fire-arms in hunting and fowhng ;
raany had served in frontier campaigns against the French, and in
" bush-fighting " with the Indians. There was a regiment of artil
lery, partly organized by Colonel Gridley, a skhful engineer, and
furnished with nine field-pieces ; but the greater part of the troops
were without military dress or accoutrements ; raost of them were
hasty levies of yeomanry, some of whom had seized their rifles and

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To face oage 159,

PRELIMINARY CAMPAIGNS. 159
fowling-pieces, and turned out in their working clothes and horae-
spun country garbs. It was an array of volunteers, subordinate
through inchnation and respedt to officers of their own choice, and
depending for sustenance on supphes sent from their several towns.
Such was the array spread over an extent of ten or twelve miles,
and keeping watch upon the town of Boston, containing at that
tirae a population of seventeen thousand souls, and garrisoned with
more than ten thousand British troops, disciplined and experienced
in the wars of Europe.
We have already mentioned the peninsula- of Charlestown, which
lies opposite to the north side of Boston. The heights, which
swell up in rear of the village, overlook the town and shipping.
It was deterrained to seize and fortify these heights on the night
of Friday, the i6th of June. A httle before sunset the troops,
about twelve hundred in all, assembled on the comraon, in front
of General Ward's quarters. They carae provided with packs,
blankets, and provisions for four-and-twenty hours, but ignorant
of the object of the expedition. Being all paraded, prayers were
offered up by the reverend President Langdon of Harvard Cohege,
after which they all set forward on their silent raarch. Colonel
Wilham Prescott, a veteran of the French war, had been chosen by
General Ward to conduct the enterprise. His written orders were
to fortify Bunker Hih, and defend the works until he should be
relieved. It was understood that reinforcements and refreshments
would be sent to the fatigue party in the morning. The detach
ment left Cambridge about nine o'clock. Colonel Prescott taking
the lead, preceded by two sergeants with dark lanterns. At
Charlestown Neck they were joined by General Putnam ; and here
were the wagons laden whh entrenching tools, which first gave the
raen an indication of the enterprise.
Chariestown Neck is a narrow isthmus, connecting the peninsula
with the main land ; having the Mystic river, about half a mile
wide, on the north, and a large embayment of Charies river on
the south or right side. It was now necessary to proceed with the
utmost caution, for they were coming on ground over which
the British kept jealous watch. They had erected a battery at

160 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
Boston on Copp's Hill, immediately opposite to Chariestown.
Five of their vessels of war were stationed so as to bear upon the
peninsula from different directions, and the guns of one of them
swept the isthmus, or narrow neck just mentioned. Across this
isthmus. Colonel Prescott conducted the detachment undiscovered,
and up the ascent of Bunker Hih. This commences at the Neck,
and slopes up for about three hundred yards to its summit, which
is about one hundred and twelve feet high. It then declines
toward the south, and is connected by a ridge with Breed's Hhl,
about sixty or seventy feet high. The crests of the two hills are
about seven hundred yards apart.
On attaining the heights, a question rose which of the two they
should proceed to fortify. Bunker Hih was specified in the writ
ten orders given to Colonel Prescott by General Ward, but Breed's
Hih was nearer to Boston, and had a better command of the
town and shipping. It was therefore deterrained on. Gridley
raarked out the lines for the fortifications ; the men stacked their
guns ; threw off their packs ; seized their trenching tools, and set
to work with great spirit ; but so much time had been wasted in
discussion, that it was midnight before they struck the first spade
into the ground.
So spiritedly, though shentiy, was the labor carried on, that by
raorning a strong redoubt was thrown up as a raain work, flanked
on the left by a breastwork, partly cannon-proof, extending down
the crest of Breed's Hill to a piece of marshy ground called the
Slough. To support the right of the redoubt, some troops were
thrown into the village of Charlestown, at the southem foot of the
hih. At dawn of day, the Americans at work were espied by the sail
ors on board of the ships of war, and the alarm was given. The
captain of the Lively, the nearest ship, without waiting for orders,
opened a fire upon the hih. The other ships and a floating battery
followed his example. Their shot did no mischief to the works,
but the cannonading roused the town of Boston. Gage could
scarcely believe his eyes when he beheld on the opposite hih a
fortification fuh of men, which had sprang up in the course of the

PRELIMINARY CAMPAIGNS. 161
night. He called a council of war. The Americans evidently
intended to cannonade Boston from this hih. It was unanimously
resolved to dislodge them. How was this to be done? A major
ity advised that a force should be landed on Charlestown Neck,
under the protection of their batteries, so as to attack the Ameri
cans in rear, and cut off their retreat. Gage objected that it would
place his troops between two arraies ; one at Carabridge, superior
in numbers, the other on the heights, strongly fortified. He was
for landing in front of the works, and pushing directly up the hih ;
a plan adopted through a confidence that raw militia would never
stand their ground against the assault of veteran troops — another
instance of undervaluing the American spirit, which was to cost the
eneray a lamentable loss of life.
The sound of drum and trumpet, the clatter of hoofs, the rattling
of gun-carriages, and ah the other mihtary din and bustle in the
streets of Boston, soon apprised the Araericans on their rudely for
tified height of an impending attack. They were ih fitted to with
stand it, being jaded by the night's labor, and want of sleep ;
hungry and thirsty, having brought but scanty supplies, and
oppressed by the heat of the weather. Prescott sent repeated
messages to General Ward, asking reinforcements and provisions.
Putnam seconded the request in person, urging the exigencies of
the case. Ward hesitated. He feared to weaken his main body
at Cambridge, as his mhitary stores were deposited there, and it
might have to sustain the principal attack. At length, having taken
advice of the counch of safety, he issued orders for Colonel Stark,
then at Medford, to march to the rehef of Prescott with his New
Hampshire troops. The orders reached Medford about 1 1 o'clock.
Ammunition was distributed in ah haste ; two flints, a gifl of powder,
and fifteen balls to each raan. The bahs had to be suited to the
different calibres of the guns ; the powder to be carried in powder-
horns or loose in the pocket, for there were no cartridges prepared.
It was tJie rade turn-out of yeoraan soldiery destitute of regular
accoutrements. Meanwhhe, the Americans on Breed's Hhl continued strengthen
ing their position until about 1 1 o'clock, when they ceased to work,

162 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
piled their entrenching tools in the rear, and looked out anxiously
for the anticipated reinforcements and supplies. A large part of
the tools were carried to Bunker Hhl, and a breastwork com
menced by order of General Putnam. The importance of such a
work was afterwards made apparent.
About noon the Americans descried twenty-eight barges crossing
from Boston. They contained a large detachraent of grenadiers
and light infantry, commanded by General Howe. They made a
splendid and formidable appearance with their scarlet uniforms,
and the sun flashing upon muskets and bayonets and brass field-
pieces. A heavy fire from the ships and batteries covered their
advance ; but no attempt was made to oppose them, and they
landed about one o'clock at Moulton's Point, a httle to the north
of Breed's Hill. Here General Howe made a pause, while the
Americans took advantage of the delay to strengthen their position.
The breastwork on the left of the redoubt extended to what was
called the Slough, but beyond this, the ridge of the hih and the
slope toward Mystic river were undefended, leaving a pass by
which the eneray raight turn the left flank of the position and seize
upon Bunker Hhl. Putnam ordered Captain Knowlton to cover
this pass with his Connecticut troops. A novel kind of rampart
was suggested by the rustic general. About six hundred feet in
the rear of the redoubt, and about one hundred feet to the left of
the breastwork, was a post-and-rail fence, set in a low foot- wall of
stone, and extending down to Mystic river. The posts and rails
of another fence were hasthy puhed up, and set a few feet in
behind this, and the intermediate space was filled up with new-
mown hay from the adjacent meadows. This double fence proved
an important protection to the redoubt, although there stih
remained an unprotected interval of about seven hundred feet.
While Knowlton and his men were putting up this fence, Put
nam proceeded with other troops to throw up the work on Bunker
Hih. By this time the veteran Stark made his appearance with
the New Hampshire troops, five hundred strong. Putnam de
tained some of Stark's men to aid in throwing up the work on
Bunker Hill, and directed him to reinforce Knowlton with the

PRELIMINARY CAMPAIGNS. 163
rest. About two o'clock, Warren arrived on the heights. He
had recently been elected a major-general, but had not received
his commission ; he was cheered by the troops as he entered the
redoubt, and Colonel Prescott tendered him the coraraand. He
declined. " I have corae to serve only as a volunteer, and shall
be happy to learn from a soldier of your experience.''
The British now prepared for a general assault. The left wing,
commanded by General Pigott, was to mount the hill and force the
redoubt, while General Howe, with the right wing, was to push on
between the fort and Mystic river, turn the left flank of the Amer
icans and cut off their retreat.
General Pigott, accordingly, advanced up the hhl under cover of
a fire from field-pieces and howitzers planted on a small height
near the landing-place on Moulton's Point. His troops com
menced a discharge of musketry while yet at a long distance from
the redoubt. The Araericans within the works, obedient to strict
comraand, retained their fire until the enemy were within thirty or
forty paces, when they opened upon them with a tremendous
volley. Being ah marksmen, accustomed to take deliberate aim,
the slaughter was imraense, and especiahy fatal to officers. The
assailants fell back in some confusion ; but, rallied on by their
officers, advanced within pistol shot. Another vohey, more effec
tive than the first, made them again recoh. To add to their con
fusion, they were gahed by a flanking fire from the handful of
provincials posted in Charlestown. Shocked at the carnage, and
seeing the confusion of his troops. General Pigott gave the word
for retreat.
In the meantime, Howe advanced along Mystic river toward
the fence where Stark and Knowlton were stationed, thinking to
carry this slight breastwork with ease, and so get in the rear of the
fortress. His artihery proved of httle avail, being stopped by a
swampy piece of ground, while his columns suffered from two or
three field-pieces with which Putnam had fortified the fence.
When the British arrived within thirty paces a sheeted fire opened
upon them from rifles, muskets, and fowling-pieces, ah levelled with
deadly aim. The carnage, as in the other instance, was horrible.

164 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
The British were thrown into confusion and feh back ; some even
retreated to the boats.
After a considerable pause they again ascended the hih to storm
the redoubt. Charlestown which had annoyed them by a flanking
fire, was in flames, by shells thrown frora the ships ; the crash of
burning buildings and the dense voluraes of smoke obscured the
summer sun. The American troops reserved their fire, as before,
until the eneray was close at hand, when they again poured forth
repeated volleys with the fatal aim of sharpshooters. The British
stood the first shock, and continued to advance ; but the incessant
stream of fire staggered them. Their officers remonstrated, threat
ened, and even attempted to goad them on with their swords, but
the havoc was too deadly ; whole ranks were mowed down ; many
of the officers were either slain or wounded, and among them
several of the staff of General Howe. The troops again gave way
and retreated down the hill.
All this passed under the eye of thousands of spectators of both
sexes and all ages, watching from afar every turn of a battle in
which the lives of those most dear to them were at hazard. The
British soldiery in Boston gazed with astonishment at the resolute
and protracted stand of raw militia whora they had been taught to
despise, and at the havoc made among their own veteran troops.
Every convoy of wounded brought over to the town increased
their constemation ; and General Clinton, who had watched the
action from Copp's Hill, embarking in a boat, hurried over as a
volunteer, taking with him reinforcements.
A third attack was now deterrained on, though some of Howe's
officers remonstrated, declaring it would be downright butchery.
A different plan was adopted. General Howe made a feint of at
tacking the fortified fence ; but, while a part of his force was thus
engaged, the rest brought some of the field-pieces to enfilade the
breastwork on the left of the redoubt. A raking fire soon drove
the Americans out of this exposed place into the enclosure. The
troops were now led on to assail the works. The Araericans again
reserved their fire until their assailants were close at hand, and
then made a murderous vohey, by which several officers were laid

PRELIMINARY CAMPAIGNS. 165
low, and Howe hiraself was wounded in the foot. The Americans,
however, had fired their last round, their ammunition was ex
hausted ; and now succeeded a desperate and deadly struggle,
hand to hand, with bayonets, stones, and the stocks of their
muskets. At length, as the British continued to pour in, Prescott
gave the order to retreat. His men had to cut their way through
two divisions of the enemy who were getting in rear of the redoubt,
and they received a destructive volley from those who had formed
on the captured works. By that volley fell the patriot Warren,
who had distinguished himself throughout the action. He was
among the last to leave the redoubt, and had scarce done so when
he was shot through the head with a musket-ball, and fell dead on
the spot.
At the rah fence, the resistance was kept up after the troops in
the redoubt had given way, and until Prescott had left the hill ;
thus defeating Howe's design of cutting off the retreat of the main
body. Having effected their purpose, the brave associates at the
fence abandoned their weak outpost, retiring slowly, and disputing
the ground inch by inch, with a regularity remarkable in troops
many of whom had never before been in action.
The main retreat was across Bunker Hill where Putnam had
endeavored to throw up a breastwork. It was impossible, how
ever, to bring the troops to a stand. They continued on down
the hhl to the Neck and across it to Somervihe, exposed to a rak
ing fire from the ships and batteries, and only protected by a single
piece of ordnance. The British were too exhausted to pursue
them ; they contented themselves with taking possession of Bun
ker Hih.
According to their own returns, their killed and wounded, out
of a detachment of three thousand men, amounted to one thou
sand and fifty-four, and a large proportion of them officers. The
loss of the Americans did not exceed four hundred and fifty.
To the latter this defeat had the effect of a triumph. It gave
thera confidence in themselves and consequence in the eyes of
their enemies. They had proved to themselves and to others that
they could measure weapons with the disciplined soldiers of Europe,
and inflict the most harm in the conflict.

166 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
Washington at Cambridge. — General Washington set out from
Phhadelphia for Boston on horseback on the 21st of June, having
for mihtary companions Major-generals Lee and Schuyler, and
being accompanied for a distance by several private friends.
General Schuyler was a man erainently calculated to sympathize
with Washington in all his patriotic views and feelings, and became
one of his raost faithful coadjutors. Sprung from one of the earli
est and raost respectable Dutch families which colonized New
York, he had received a good education ; applied hiraself at an
early age to the exact sciences, and becorae versed in finance,
military engineering, and political economy. When twenty-two
years of age he commanded a company of New York levies under
Sir Williara Johnson, which gave him an early opportunity of be
coming acquainted with the Indian tribes, their country, and their
policy. In 175 8 he was in Abercrombie's expedition against
Ticonderoga. Since the close of the French war he had served
his country in various civil stations, and been one of the most
zealous and eloquent vindicators of colonial rights.
The joumey may be said to have been a continual counch of
war between Washington and the two generals. The contrast in
character of the two latter made them regard questions from dif
ferent points of view. Schuyler, a warm-hearted patriot, with
everything staked on the cause ; Lee, a soldier of fortune, indif
ferent to the ties of home and country, drawing his sword without
enthusiasm ; more through resentment against a government which
had disappointed him, than zeal for liberty or for colonial rights.
One of the most frequent subjects of conversation was the province
of New York. Its position rendered it the great link of the con
federacy; what measures were necessary for its defence, and most
calculated to secure its adherence to the cause? A lingering
attachment to the Crown, kept up by the influence of British mer
chants, and mihtary and civil functionaries in royal pay, had ren
dered it slow in coming into the colonial compact.
The population of New York was more varied in its eleraents
than that of almost any other of the provinces, and had to be
cautiously studied. The descendants of the old Dutch and Hu-

PRELIMINARY CAMPAIGNS. 167
guenot famhies, the earliest settiers, were stih among the soundest
and best of the population. They inherited the love of liberty, civil
and religious, of their forefathers, and were those who stood foremost
in the present struggle for popular rights. Many of the more modern
famihes, dating from the downfah of the Dutch government in
1664, were English and Scotch, and among these were many loyal
adherents to the Crown. There was a power, too, within the inte
rior of the province, which was an object of much solicitude.
This was the "Johnson Family." We have already had occasion
to speak of Sir Williara Johnson, His Majesty's general agent for
Indian affairs : of his great wealth, and his alraost sovereign sway
over the Six Nations. He had originally received that appoint
ment through the influence of the Schuyler faraily, and both
Schuyler and Lee, when young men, had campaigned with hira.
Sir Wihiam naturally favored the government which had enriched
and honored him, but he had viewed with deep concern the acts
of Parliament which were goading the colonists to armed resistance.
In the height of his solicitude, he received dispatches ordering
him, in case of hostilities, to enlist the Indians in the cause of gov
ernraent. To the agitation of feelings produced by these orders
many have attributed a stroke of apoplexy, of which he died, on
the nth of July, 1774, about a year before the time of which we
are treating.
His son and heir, Sir John Johnson, and his sons-in-law. Colonel
Guy Johnson and Colonel Claus, felt none of the reluctance of
Sir Wihiam to use harsh measures in support of royalty. They
lived in a rade feudal style in stone mansions capable of defence,
situated on the Mohawk river and in its vicinity ; they had many
Scottish Highlanders for tenants ; and among their adherents were
violent men, such as the Butiers of Tryon County, and Brant, the
faraous Mohawk sachera. They had gone about with armed re
tainers, overawing and breaking up patriotic assemblages. Recent
accounts stated that Sir John was fortifying the old famhy hah at
Johnstown with swivels, and had a hundred and fifty Highlanders
quartered in and about it, ah armed and ready to obey his orders.
Colonel Guy Johnson had fortified his stone mansion on the

168 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
Mohawk, called Guy's Park, and assembled there his adherents, to
the number of five hundred. He held a great Indian council
there likewise, in which the chiefs of the Six Nations recalled
the friendship of the late Sir William, and avowed their determina
tion to stand by and defend every branch of his faraily. As yet it
was uncertain whether Colonel Guy really intended to take an
open part in the appeal to arms. Should he do so, he would carry
with him a great force of the native tribes, and might almost
domineer over the frontier. Tryon, the governor of New York,
was a Tory, and his talents and address gave him great influence
over an important part of the community. Should he and the
Johnsons co-operate, the one controhing the bay and harbor of
New York and the waters of the Hudson by means of ships and
land forces ; the others overrunning the valley of the Mohawk and
the regions beyond Albany with savage hordes, this great central
province might be wrested from the confederacy, and ah inter
course broken off between the eastern and southern colonies.
All these circumstances rendered the coramand of New York a
post of especial importance, and deterrained AVashington to confide
it to General Schuyler. He was peculiarly fitted for it by his mhi
tary talents, his intimate knowledge of the province and its con
cerns, and his experience in Indian affairs.
At New York, Washington learned the detahs of the battie of
Bunker Hill ; they quickened his impatience to arrive at the camp.
The provincial Congress of Massachusetts, then in session at
Watertown, sent on a deputation which raet him at Springfield,
and provided escorts and accommodations for him along the
road. Thus honorably attended from town to town, he arrived at
Watertown on the 2d of July, and presently proceeded to the head
quarters provided for him at Cambridge, three miles distant. As
he entered the confines of the camp, the shouts of the multitude
and the thundering of artihery gave note to the eneray belea
guered in Boston of his arrival.
On the next morning, the 3d of July, Washington took formal
comraand of the army. It was drawn up on the common about
half a mile from head-quarters, A multitude had asserabled there.

PRELIMINARY CAMPAIGNS. 169
for as yet mhitary spectacles were novelties, and the camp was full
of visitors who had relatives among the yeoman soldiery. An
ancient elm is stih pointed out, under which Washington, as he
arrived from head-quarters accompanied by General Lee and a
numerous suite, wheeled his horse, and drew his sword as com
mander-in-chief of the armies. Accorapanied by the soldier of
fortune, on whose military judgment he placed too much rehance,
Washington visited the different American posts, and rode to the
heights, commanding views over Boston and its environs, being
anxious to make himself acquainted with the strength and relative
position of both armies : and here we will give a few particulars
conceming the distinguished commanders with whom he was
brought iraraediately in competition.
The first here alluded to was the Honorable William Howe, next
in comraand to Gage. He was a man of fine presence, six feet
high, and of graceful deportment. His affability of manner and
generous disposition raade hira popular with both officers and
soldiers. There was a sentiment in his favor even among Araeri
cans. It was reraerabered that he was brother to the gallant
youth. Lord Howe, whose untiraely death had been laraented
throughout the colonies. A mournful feeling had gone through
the country, when General Howe was cited as one of the British
commanders who had most distinguished themselves in the bloody
battle of Bunker Hih. Congress spoke of it with generous sensi
bility. " America is amazed," said they, " to find the narae of
Howe on the catalogue of her enemies — she loved his brother!"
Henry Clinton, next in comraand, was grandson of the Earl of
Lincoln, and son of George Clinton, who had been governor of the
province of New York for ten years, from 1743. The general had
seen service on the continent in the Seven Years' War. He was
of short stature, and inclined to corpulency ; with a fuh face and
prominent nose. His manners were reserved, and altogether he
was in strong contrast with Howe, and by no means so popular.
Burgoyne, the other Brhish general of note, was a natural son of
Lord Bingley, and had entered the army at an eariy age. Whhe
yet a subaltern, he had made a runaway match with a daughter of

170 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
the Earl of Derby, who threatened never to admh the offenders to
his presence. In 1758, Burgoyne was a heutenant-colonel of light
dragoons. In 1 761, he was sent with a force to aid the Portuguese
against the Spaniards, and signalized himself by surprising and
capturing the town of Alcantara. He had since been elected to
Parliament for the borough of Middlesex, and displayed consider
able talents. In 1772, he was made a major-general His taste,
wit, and intelligence, and his aptness at devising and proraoting
elegant amusements, made him for a time a leader in the gay
world ; though Junius accuses hira of unfair practices at the gaming
table. His reputation for talents and services had gradually molli
fied the heart of his father-in-law, the Earl of Derby. In 1 774, he
gave celebrity to the marriage of a son of the Earl with Lady Betty
Hamilton, by producing an elegant dramatic trifle, entitled, " The
Maid of the Oaks," afterwards performed at Drary Lane, and hon
ored with a biting sarcasm by Horace Walpole. " There is a new
puppet-show at Drury Lane," writes the wit, " as fine as the scenes
can make it, and as dull as the author could not help making it."
It is but justice to Burgoyne's memory to add, that in after years
he produced a dramatic work, " The Heiress," which extorted even
Walpole's approbation, who pronounced it the genteelest comedy
in the English language.
Such were the three British coramanders at Boston ; and they
had with thera eleven thousand veteran troops, well appointed and
well disciplined.
The American troops were irregularly distributed in a kind of
semicircle eight or nine miles in extent ; the left resting on Winter
Hill, the most northern post ; the right extending on the south to
Roxbury and Dorchester Neck. The semi-circular line which
linked the extreme posts, was formed of rudely constmcted works,
far too extensive for the troops which were at hand to man them.
The camps were as different in their forms, as the owners in their
dress ; sorae of the tents made of boards, and some of sah-cloth ;
others were made of stone and turf, brick and brash ; others
curiously wrought with wreaths and withes. One of the encamp
ments, however, was in striking contrast with the rest, and might

PRELIMINARY CAMPAIGNS. 171
vie with those of the British for order and exactness. Here
were tents pitched in the Enghsh style ; soldiers well drihed and
weh equipped ; everything had an air of discipline and subordi
nation. It was a body of Rhode Island troops, which had been
raised, drilled, and brought to the camp by Brigadier-general
Greene, of that province, whose subsequent renown entitles him
to an introduction to the reader.
Nathaniel Greene was born in Rhode Island, on the 26th of
May, 1742. His father was a miher, an anchor-smith, and a
Quaker preacher. Greene, in his boyhood, followed the plough,
and occasionally worked at the forge of his father. Having an
early thirst for knowledge, he applied himself sedulously to various
studies, while subsisting by the labor of his hands. Nature had
endowed hira with quick parts, and a sound judgment, and his
assiduity was crowned with success. In the late tum of public
affairs, he had caught the warlike spirit prevalent throughout the
country. Plutarch, and Csesar's Commentaries became his delight.
He apphed himself to mihtary studies, for which he was prepared
by sorae knowledge of mathematics. His arabition was to organ
ize and discipline a corps of railitia to which he belonged. For
this purpose, during a visit to Boston, he had taken note of every
thing about the disciphne of the British troops. In the month of
May, he had been elected coramander of the Rhode Island con
tingent of the army of observation, and in June hati conducted to
the lines before Boston three regiments, which were pronounced
the best in the army.
Greene made a soldier-like address to Washington, welcoming,
him to the camp. His appearance and manner were calculated
to make a favorable impression. He was thirty-three years of
age, nearly six feet high, weh built and vigorous, with an open,
animated, intehigent countenance, and a frank, manly demeanor.
He may be said to have stepped at once into the confidence of
the commander-in-chief, which he never forfeited, but became one
of his most attached, faithful, and efficient coadjutors throughout
the war.
Colonel Mifflin was the first person who officiated as Washing-

172 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
ton's aide-de-camp. He was a Philadelphia gentleman of high
respectabihty, who had accompanied him from that city, and re
ceived his appointment shortly after their arrival at Cambridge.
The second aide-de-camp was John Trumbull,^ son of the govemor
of Connecticut ; he had caught the favorable notice of Washington
by some drawdngs which he had made of the enemy's works.
The member of Washington's famhy most deserving of mention
at present, was his secretary, Mr. Joseph Reed. With this gentle
man he had formed an intimacy in the course of his visits to Phh
adelphia, to attend the sessions of the Continental Congress. Mr.
Reed was an accomplished man, had studied law in America, and
at the Teraple in London, and had gained a high reputation at
the Phhadelphia bar. He had been highly instramental in rous
ing the Philadelphians to co-operate with the patriots of Boston.
Washington's friendship towards him was frank and cordial, and
the confidence he reposed in him full and implicit.
The hazardous position of the army from the great extent and
weakness of its lines, was what most pressed on the immediate
attention of Washington ; and he now hastened to improve the
defences ofthe camp, strengthen the weak parts of the line, and
throw up additional works round the main forts. About seven
hundred men were distributed in the small towns and villages
along the coast, to prevent depredations by water; and horses
were kept ready saddled at various points of the widely extended
lines, to convey to head-quarters intelligence of any special move
raent of the enemy. The army was distributed by Washington
into three grand divisions. One, forming the right wing, and
stationed on the heights of Roxbury, was commanded by Major-
general Ward, who had under him Brigadier-generals Spencer and
Thomas. Another, forming the left wing under Major-general
Lee, having whh hira Brigadier-generals Sullivan and Greene, was
stationed on Winter and Prospect Hihs ; while the centre, under
Major-general Putnam and Brigadier-general Heath, was stationed
at Cambridge. At Washington's recommendation, Joseph Tram-
1 In after years distinguished as a historical painter.

PRELIMINARY CAMPAIGNS. 173
buh, the eldest son of the governor, received, on the 24th of July,
the appointment of comraissary-general of the continental army.
Nothing excited more gaze and wonder among the rastic visitors
to the camp, than the arrival of several rifle companies, fourteen
hundred men in all, from Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Virginia ;
such stalwart fellows as Washington had known in his early cam
paigns. .Stark hunters and bush fighters ; many of them upwards
of six feet high, and of vigorous frame ; dressed in fringed frocks,
or rifle shirts, and round hats. Their displays of sharpshooting
were soon among the marvels of the camp. We are told that
while advancing at quick step, they could hit a mark of seven
inches diameter, at the distance of two hundred and fifty yards.
One of these corapanies was coraraanded by Captain Daniel Mor
gan, a native of New Jersey, whose first experience in war had
been to accompany Braddock's army as a wagoner. He had since
carried arms on the frontier and obtained a command. He and
his riflemen in coming to the camp had marched six hundred
mhes in three weeks. They will be found of signal efficiency in
the sharpest conflicts of the war.
Invasion of Canada. — The project of an invasion of Canada,
urged by Allen and Arnold, had at first met with no favor, the
Continental Congress having formahy resolved to raake no hostile
attempts upon that province. Intelligence subsequently received
induced it to change its plans. Carleton was said to be strength
ening the fortifications and garrison at St. John, and preparing to
launch vessels on the lake wherewith to regain command of it,
and retake the captured posts. Powerful reinforcements were
coming from England and elsewhere. Guy Johnson was stirring
up the Six Nations to hostility. On the other hand, Canada was
fuh of rehgious and political dissensions. The late exploits of the
Americans on Lake Champlain had produced a favorable effect on
the Canadians, who would flock to the patriot standard if unfurled
among them by an imposing force. Now was the time to strike a
blow to paralyze all hostility from this quarter ; now, whhe Carle-
ton's regular force was weak, and before the arrival of additional
troops. Influenced by these considerations. Congress now deter-

174 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
mined to extend the Revolution into Canada, but it was an enter
prise too important to be intrusted to any but discreet hands.
General Schuyler was accordingly ordered, on the 27th June, to
proceed to Ticonderoga, and, " should he find it practicable and
not disagreeable to the Canadians, immediately to take possession
of St. John and Montreal, and pursue such other measures in
Canada as might have a tendency to promote the peace and
security of these provinces."
Schuyler was on the alert. He had learnt that there were about
seven hundred king's troops in that province ; three hundred of
them at St. John, about fifty at Quebec, the remainder at Mon
treal, Chambly, and the upper posts. Colonel Guy Johnson was
at Montreal with three hundred men, raostly his tenants, and a
number of Indians. Now was the tirae, according to his inform
ants, to carry Canada. It might be done with great ease and
little cost. While awaiting further orders Schuyler repaired to
Albany, to hold a conference with the warriors of the Six Nations,
whom he had invited to meet him at that place. General Mont
gomery was to remain in command at Ticonderoga, during his
absence, and to urge forward the military preparations.
Richard Montgomery was of a good faraily in the north of Ire
land, where he was born in 1736. He entered the array when
about eighteen years of age ; served in America in the French
war ; won a lieutenancy by gallant conduct at Louisburg ; followed
General Amherst to Lake Champlain, and, after the conquest of
Canada, was promoted to a captaincy for his services in the West
Indies. After the peace of Versaihes he resided in England ; but,
about three years before the breaking out of the Revolution, he
sold out his commission in the army and migrated to New York.
Here he married the eldest daughter of Robert Livingston, and
took up his residence on an estate on the banks of the Hudson.
Being known to be in favor of the popular cause, he was drawoi
reluctantiy from his rural abode, to represent his county in the
first convention of the province ; and on the recent organization
of the army, his military reputation gained him the unsought com
mission of brigadier-general. At this time Montgomery was about

ADiaay

INVASIONo-'CANADA -:- ^ -i-
MDntgomery/ArnoId.

To face page 175,

PRELIMINARY CAMPAIGNS. 175
thirty-nine years of age, and the beau ideal of a soldier. His forra
was weh proportioned and vigorous ; his countenance expressive
and prepossessing; he was cool and discrirainating in council,
energetic and fearless in action. His principles commanded the
respect of friends and foes, and he was noted for winning the
affections of the soldiery.
Before Schuyler's return to Ticonderoga, Montgomery had re
ceived intelligence that Carleton had completed his armed vessels
at St. John, and was about to send them into Lake Champlain
by the Sorel river. No time, therefore, was to be lost in getting
possession of the Isle aux Noix, which commanded the entrance
to that river. Montgomery hastened to embark with about a
thousand men, which were as many as the boats now ready could
hold, taking with him two pieces of artillery ; with this force he
set off down the lake. A letter to General Schuyler explained the
cause of his sudden departure, and entreated him to follow on in
a whaleboat, leaving the residue of the artihery to come on as soon
as conveyances could be procured. Schuyler arrived at Ticon
deroga on the night of the 30th of August, but too ill of a bilious
fever to push on in a whaleboat. He caused a bed to be prepared
for him in a covered bateau, and, ill as he was, continued forward
on the following day. On the 4th of September he overtook
Montgomery at the Isle la Motte, where he had been detained by
contrary weather, and, assuming command of the littie army, kept
on the same day to the Isle aux Noix, about twelve miles south of
St. John.
In the meantime, as it was evident the enemy in Boston did
not intend to corae out, but were only strengthening their defences
and preparing for winter, Washington was enabled to turn his
attention to the expedition to be sent into Canada by the way of
the Kennebec river. A detachment of about eleven hundred
men, chosen for the purpose, was soon encamped on Cambridge
Common. There were ten companies of New England infantry,
some of them from General Greene's Rhode Island regiments ;
three rifle companies frora Pennsylvania and Virginia, one of thera
Captain Morgan's famous company ; and a number of volunteers ;

176 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
among whom was Aaron Burr, then but twenty years of age, and
just commencing his brilliant but unfortunate career.
The proposed expedition was wild and perilous, and required a
skilful and intrepid leader. Such a one was at hand. Benedict
Arnold was at Cambridge, and Washington considered hira the
very man for the enterprise. He had shown aptness for military
service, whether on land or water. He was acquainted, too, with
Canada, and especially with Quebec, having, in the course of his
checkered life, traded in horses between that place and the West
Indies. With these considerations Washington intrusted him with
the command of the expedition, giving him the commission of
lieutenant-colonel in the continental army. In the general letter
of instructions, Washington inserted the following clause. " If
Lord Chatham's son should be in Canada, and in any way fall into
your power, you are enjoined to treat him with ah possible defer
ence and respect. You cannot err in paying too much honor to
the son of so illustrious a character and so true a friend to
Araerica." Arnold was furnished with handbills for distribution
in Canada, setting forth the friendly objects of the present expe
dition, as well as of that under General Schuyler ; and cahing on
the Canadians to fumish necessaries and accommodations of every
kind ; for which they were assured ample compensation.
On the 13th of September Arnold struck his tents, and set out
in high spirits. Washington enjoined upon him to push forward,
as rapidly as possible, success depending upon celerity; and
counted the days as they elapsed after his departure, impatient to
receive tidings of his progress up the Kennebec, and expecting
that the expedition would reach Quebec about the middle of
October. In the interim came letters from Schuyler, giving par
ticulars of the main expedition.
For some time past General Schuyler had been struggling with a
complication of maladies, but exerted hiraself to the utraost in the
harassing business of the camp, stih hoping to be able to move
with the army. When everything was nearly ready, he was
attacked in the night by a severe access of his disorder, which
confined him to his bed, and compelled him to surrender the

PRELIMINARY CAMPAIGNS. 177
conduct of the expedition to General Montgomery. Since he
could be of no further use, therefore, in this quarter, he caused his
bed to be placed on board a covered bateau, and set off for Ticon
deroga, to hasten forward reinforcements and supphes. On the
1 6th of September, the day after his departure, Montgomery pro
ceeded to carry out the plans which had been concerted between
them. Detaching a force of five hundred raen, araong whora were
three hundred Green Mountain Boys under Seth Warner, to take
a position at the junction of two roads leading to Montreal and
Charably, so as to intercept relief frora these points, he now pro
ceeded to invest St. John. A battery was erected on a point of
land commanding the fort, the ship-yards, and the armed schooner.
Another was thrown up in the woods on the east side of the fort,
at six hundred yards' distance, and furnished with two smah mor
tars. All this was done under an incessant fire from the enemy,
which, as yet, was but feebly returned. St. John had a garrison
of five or six hundred regulars and two hundred Canadian militia.
Its commander. Major Preston, made a brave resistance. Mont
gomery had not proper battering cannon ; his mortars were defec
tive ; his artillerists unpractised, and the engineer ignorant of the
first principles of his art. The siege went on slowly, until the
arrival of an arthlery company under Captain Lamb, expedited from
Saratoga by General Schuyler. Lamb, who was an able officer,
immediately bedded a thirteen-inch mortar, and commenced a
fire of shot and shells upon the fort. The distance, however, was
too great, and the positions of the batteries were ill chosen. A
flourishing letter was received by the General from Ethan Ahen,
giving hope of further reinforcement. " I am now," writes he,
" at the Parish of St. Ours, four leagues from Sorel to the south.
I have two hundred and fifty Canadians under arms. As I march,
they gather fast. You may rely on it, that I shah join you in
about three days, with five hundred or more Canadian volunteers.
I could raise one or two thousand in a week's tirae ; but I wih first
visit the array with a less nuraber, and, if necessary, go again
recruiting. Those that used to be eneraies to our cause corae,
cap in hand, to me ; and I swear by the Lord, I can raise three

178 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
times the nuniber of our army in Canada, provided you continue
the siege. . . . The eyes of ah America, nay, of Europe, are or
wih be on the economy of this army and the consequences attend
ing it."
Allen was actually on his way toward St. John, when, between
Longueh and La Prairie, he met Major Brown with a party of
Americans and Canadians. Brown assured him that the garrison
at Montreal did not exceed thirty men, and might easily be sur
prised. Allen's partisan spirit was instantly excited. Here was a
chance for another bold stroke equal to that at Ticonderoga. A
plan was forthwith agreed upon. Allen was to return to Longueh,
which is nearly opposite Montreal, and cross the St. Lawrence in
canoes in the night, so as to land a little below the town. Brown,
with two hundred men, was to cross above, and Montreal was to
be attacked simultaneously at opposite points. All this was
arranged and put in action without the consent or knowledge of
Montgomery ; Allen was again the partisan leader, acting from
individual impulse. His late letter to Montgomery would seem
to have partaken of fanfaronade ; for the whole force with which
he undertook his part of this inconsiderate enterprise was thirty
Americans and eighty Canadians. With these he crossed the
river on the night of the 24th of September, the few canoes found
at Longueh having to pass to and fro repeatedly, before his petty
force could be landed. Guards were stationed on the roads to
prevent any one passing and giving the alarm in Montreal. Day
dawned, but there was no signal of Major Brown having performed
his part of the scheme. The enterprise seems to have been as ih
concerted as it was ih advised. The day advanced, but still no
signal; itwas evident Major Brown had not crossed. Allen would
gladly have recrossed the river, but it was too late. An alarm had
been given to the town, and he soon found himself encountered by
about forty regular soldiers and a hasty levy of Canadians and
Indians. A smart action ensued; most of Allen's Canadian re
cruits gave way and fled, a number of Araericans were slain, and
he at length surrendered to the British officer. Major Campbell,
being promised honorable terms for himself and thirty-eight of his

PRELIMINARY CAMPAIGNS. 179
men, who remained with him, seven of whom were wounded. The
prisoners were marched into the town and delivered over to Gen
eral Prescott, the coraraandant. Theh rough appearance and rude
equipments were not hkely to gain them favor in the eyes of the
military tactician, who doubtless considered them as littie better
than a band of freebooters on a maraud. Their leader, albeit a
colonel, raust have seemed worthy of the band; for Allen was
arrayed in rough frontier style — a deer-skin jacket, a vest and
breeches of coarse serge, worsted stockings, stout shoes, and a
red woollen cap.
We give Ahen's own account of his reception by the British
officer. " He asked me my name, which I told him. He then
asked me whether I was that Colonel Allen who took Ticonderoga.
I told him I was the very man. Then he shook his cane over my
head, calling me many hard names, among which he frequently
used the word rebel, and put himself in a great rage."
Ethan Allen, according to his own account, answered with be
coming spirit. Indeed he gives somewhat of a melodramatic
scene, which ended by his being sent on board of the Gaspee
schooner of war, heavily ironed, to be transported to England for
trial ; Prescott giving him the parting assurance, sealed with an
emphatic oath, that he would grace a halter at Tyburn.
The conduct of Ahen was severely censured by Washington.
" His misfortune," said he, " wih, I hope, teach a lesson of pru
dence and subordination to others who may be ambitious to out
shine their general officers, and, regardless of order and duty, rush
into enterprises which have unfavorable effects on the public, and
are destructive to themselves."
Shortly after writing the above, and whhe he was fuh of solicitude
a"bout the fate of Amold, Washington received a dispatch frora the
latter dated October 13, from the great portage or carrying-place
between the Kennebec and Dead river. "Your Excellency,"
writes Amold, " may possibly think we have been tardy in our
march, as we have gained so httie ; but when you consider the
badness and weight of the bateaux, and large quantities of pro
visions, etc., we have been obliged to force up against a very rapid

180 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
Streara, where you would have taken the men for amphibious ani
mals, as they were a great part of the time under water : add to
this the great fatigue in the portage, you wih think I have pushed
the men as fast as they could possibly bear."
The tohs of the expedition up the Kennebec river had indeed
been excessive. Part of the men of each division managed the
boats — part marched along the banks. Those on board had to
labor against swift currents; to unload at rapids; transport the
cargoes, and sometimes the boats themselves, for some distance
on their shoulders, and then to reload. They were days in making
their way round stupendous cataracts ; several times their boats
were upset and filled with water, to the loss or damage of arms,
ammunition, and provisions. Those on land had to scramble over
rocks and precipices, to struggle through swamps and fenny
streams ; or cut their way through tangled thickets, which reduced
their clothes to rags. With all their efforts, their progress was but
from four to ten mhes a day. At night, the men of each division
encamped together. By the time they arrived at the place whence
the letter was written, fatigue, swamp fevers, and desertion had
reduced their numbers to about nine hundred and fifty effective
men. Arnold, however, wrote in good heart. " The last division,"
said he, " is just arrived ; three divisions are over the first carry
ing-place, and as the men are in high spirits, I make no doubt of
reaching the river Chaudifere in eight or ten days, the greatest
difficulty being, I hope, already past." He had some days previ
ously dispatched an Indian, whom he considered trusty, with a
letter for Schuyler, apprising him of his whereabouts, but as yet
had received no intelligence either of or from the general, nor did
he expect to receive any until he should reach Chaudiere Pond.
There he calculated to meet the return of his express, and then to
determine his plan of operations.
Burning of Falmouth. — While the two expeditions were
threatening Canada from different quarters, the war was going on
along the seaboard. The British in Boston, cut off frora supplies
by land, fitted out smah armed vessels to seek them along the
coast of New England. The inhabitants drove their cattle into

PRELIMINARY CAMPAIGNS. 181
the interior, or boldly resisted the aggressors. Parties landing to
forage were often repulsed by hasty levies of the yeomanry.
Scenes of ravage and violence occurred. Stonington was cannon
aded, and further measures of vengeance were threatened by
Captain Wallace of the Rose man-of-war, a naval officer, who
>had acquired an alraost piratical reputation along the coast, and
had his rendezvous in the harbor of Newport, domineering over
the waters of Rhode Island. To check these maraudings, and to
capture the enemy's transports laden with supplies, the provinces
of Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut, fitted out two
armed vessels each, at their own expense, without seeking the
sanction or aid of Congress. Washington, also, on his own re
sponsibflity, ordered several to be equipped for like purpose,
which were to be manned by hardy mariners, and commanded by
able sea captains, actually serving in the army. One of these
vessels was dispatched as soon as ready, to cruise between Cape
Ann and Cape Cod. Two others were fitted out with all haste,
and sent to cruise in the waters of the St. Lawrence, to intercept
two unarmed brigantines which Congress had been informed had
sailed from England for Quebec, with ammunition and rahitary
stores. Araong the sturdy little New England seaports, which had
become obnoxious to punishment by resistance to nautical exac
tions, was Falmouth (now Portland), in Maine.
On the evening of the nth of October, Lieutenant Mowatt, of
the royal navy, appeared before it with several arraed vessels, and
sent a letter on shore, apprising the inhabitants that he was come
to execute a just punishraent on them for their " premeditated at
tacks on the legal prerogatives of the best of sovereigns." Two
hours were given them " to remove the human species out of the
town," at the period of which, a red pendant hoisted at the main
top-gallant masthead, and a gun, would be the signal for destrnc
tion. The letter brought a deputation of three persons on board.
The heutenant inforraed thera verbally, that he had orders from
Admiral Graves to set fire to all the seaport towns between Boston
and Hahfax ; and he expected New York, at the present moraent,
was in ashes. With much difficulty, and on the surrendering of

182 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
some arms, the committee obtained a respite unth nine o'clock the
next morning, and the inhabitants eraployed the interval in reraov
ing their famhies and effects. The next raorning the coraraittee
returned on board before nine o'clock. The lieutenant now of
fered to spare the town on certain conditions, which were refused.
About half-past nine o'clock the red pendant was mn up to the
masthead, and the signal gun fired. Within five minutes several
houses were in flames, from a discharge of bombshells, which
continued throughout the day. The inhabitants, " standing on
the heights, were spectators of the conflagration, which reduced
many of them to penury and despair." One hundred and thirty-
nine dwelling-houses and two hundred and twenty-eight stores are
said to have been burnt. All the vessels in the harbor, likewise,
were destroyed or carried away as prizes. Having satisfied his
sense of justice with respect to Falmouth, the gallant lieutenant
left it a smoking ruin, and made sail, as was said, for Boston,
to supply himself with more ammunition, having the intention to
destroy Portsmouth also.
The conflagration of Falmouth was as a bale fire throughout the
country. Under the feeling roused by it, the General Court of
Massachusetts, exercising a sovereign power, passed an act for
encouraging the fitting out of armed vessels to defend the sea
coast of America, and for erecting a court to try and condemn all
vessels that should be found infesting the same. This act, grant
ing letters of marque and reprisal, anticipated any measure of the
kind on the part of the General Govemment, and was pronounced
by John Adams, "one of the most important documents in his
tory." Whatever part General Gage may have had in this discreditable
measure, he did not remain long enough in the country to see it
carried into effect. He sailed for England on the i oth of October,
and never returned to America. The raeasures which his succes
sor. General Howe, adopted after taking comraand in Boston re
joiced the royalists. He proceeded to strengthen the works on
Bunker Hih and Boston Neck, and to clear away houses and
throw up redoubts on emhiences within the town. The patriot

PRELIMINARY CAMPAIGNS. 183
inhabitants were shocked by the desecration of the Old South
Church, which for raore than a hundred years had been a favorite
place of worship, where sorae of the raost erainent divines had
officiated. The pulpit and pews were now removed, the floor was
covered with earth, and the sacred edifice was converted into a
riding-school for Burgoyne's light dragoons. To excuse its dese
cration, it was spoken of scoffingly as a " meeting-house, where
sedition had often been preached." The North Church, another
" meeting-house," was entirely demohshed and used for fuel.
Washington had recentiy been incensed by the burning of Fal
mouth ; the measures of General Howe seeraed of the same harsh
character, and he determined to retaliate by seizing Tories.
The season was fast approaching when the bay between the
camp and Boston would be frozen over, and military operations
might be conducted upon the ice. Washington felt the necessity,
therefore, of guarding the camps wherever they were most assail
able ; he had been embarrassed throughout the siege by the want
of artillery and ordnance stores ; but never more so than at the
present moment. In this juncture, Mr. Henry Knox stepped
forward, and offered to proceed to the frontier forts on Cham
plain in quest of a supply. Knox was one of those providential
characters which spring up in emergencies, as if they were formed
by and for the occasion. A thriving bookseher in Boston, he had
left his business to take up arms for the liberties of his country.
He had fought on Bunker Hill, and had since aided in planning
the defences of the camp before Boston. The talent here dis
played by hira as an artillerist, had induced Washington to
recoraraend hira to Congress for the coramand of the artillery in
place of the veteran Gridley, who was considered too old for active
employment. In the mean time Washington availed himself of
the offered services of Knox in the present instance. He was in
stmcted to hasten to New York, procure and forward all the artil
lery and ammunition that could be had there ; and thence proceed
to the head-quarters of General Schuyler, who was requested to
aid hira in obtaining further supplies frora the forts at Ticonderoga
and Crown Point. Knox set off on his errand with proraptness

184 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
and alacrity, and shortly afterwards the commission of colonel of
the regiment of artillery which Washington had advised, was for
warded to him by Congress.
The re-enhstment of troops actually in service was now attempted,
and proved a fraitful source of perplexity. Half of the officers of
the rank of captain were inclined to retire ; and it was probable
their example would influence their men. Of those who were dis
posed to remain, the officers of one colony were unwilling to mix
in the sarae regiraent with those of another. The difficulties were
still greater with the soldiers. They would not enlist unless they
knew their colonel, lieutenant-colonel, and captain ; Connecticut
men being unwilling to serve under officers frora Massachusetts,
and Massachusetts raen under officers from Rhode Island ; so
that it was necessary to appoint the officers first.
" Such dearth of pubhc spirit," wrote Washington to Reed, " and
such want of virtue, such stock-jobbing, and ferthity in all the low
arts to obtain advantage of one kind or another in this great change
of military arrangement, I never saw before, and I pray God's
mercy that I may never be witness to again. What will be the end
of these manoeuvres is beyond my scan. I tremble at the pros
pect. We have been till this time (Nov. 28) enlisting about three
thousand five hundred men. To engage these, I have been
obliged to allow furloughs as far as fifty men to a regiment, and the
officers I am persuaded indulge many more. The Connecticut
troops will not be prevailed upon to stay longer than their terai,
saving those who have enhsted for the next campaign, and are
mostly on furlough ; and such a mercenary spirit pervades the
whole, that I should not be surprised at any disaster that may
happen. . . . Could I have foreseen what I have experienced and
am likely to experience, no consideration upon earth should have
induced me to accept this command."
Arnold's March through the Wilderness. — The transportation
of troops and effects across the carrying-place between the Kenne
bec and Dead rivers, had been a work of severe toh to Arnold and
his men, but was performed with admirable spirit. There were
ponds and strearas fuh of trout and salraon, which furnished them

PRELIMINARY CAMPAIGNS. 185
with fresh provisions. Launching their boats on the sluggish waters
of the Dead river, they navigated it in divisions to the foot of
snow-crowned mountains. Here, while Arnold and the first division
were encaraped to repose theraselves, heavy rains set in, and they
came near being swept away by sudden torrents from the moun
tains. Several of their boats were overturned, rauch of their food
was lost, the sick hst increased, and the good spirits which had
hitherto sustained them began to give way. They were on scanty
allowance, with a prospect of harder times, for there were still
twelve or fifteen days of wilderness before thera, where no supphes
were to be had. A council of war was now held, in which it was
determined to send back the sick and disabled. Arnold wrote to
the commanders of the other divisions to press on with as many of
their raen as they could furnish with provisions for fifteen days,
and to send the rest back to a place on the route called Norridge-
wock. This order was raisunderstood, or misinterpreted, by Colo
nel Enos, who comraanded the rear division ; he gave all the
provisions he could spare to Colonel Greene of the third division,
retaining raerely enough to supply his own corps of three hundred
raen, on their way back to Norridgewock, whither he iraraediately
returned. Letters frora Arnold and Enos apprised Washington of this
grievous flaw in the enterprise. He regarded it, however, as usual,
with a hopeful eye. " Notwithstanding this great defection," said-
he, " I do not despair of Colonel Arnold's success. He wih have,
in all probability, many more difficulties to encounter, than if he
had been a fortnight sooner ; as it is likely that Govemor Carleton,
wih, with what forces he can cohect after the surrender of the rest
of Canada, throw hiraself into Quebec, and there make his last
effort." Washington was not mistaken in the confidence he had placed
in the energy of Arnold. Though the latter found his petty force
greatly reduced by the retrograde move of Enos and his party,
and although snow and ice rendered his raarch still raore bleak
araong the mountains, he kept on with unflinching spirh unth he
arrived at the ridge which divides the streams of New England

186 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
and Canada. Here, at Lake Megantic, the source of the Chau
diere, he met an emissary whom he had sent in advance to
ascertain the feelings of the French yeomanry, in the fertile vaUey
of that stream. His report being favorable, Arnold shared out
among the different companies the scanty provisions which re
mained, directing them to raake the best of their way for the
Chaudiere settlements ; while he, with a light foraging party,
would push rapidly ahead, to procure and send back supphes.
He accordingly ernbarked with his little party in five bateaux and
a birch canoe, and launched forth without a guide on the swift
current of the Chaudifere. It was little better than a mountain
torrent, full of rocks and rapids. Three of their boats were dashed
to pieces, the cargoes lost, and the crews saved with difficulty.
At one time, the whole party came near being precipitated over a
cataract, where all might have perished ; at length they reached
Sertigan, the first French settlement, where they were cordially
received. Here Arnold bought provisions, which he sent back by
the Canadians and Indians to his troops. The latter were in a
state of starvation. Some had not tasted food for eight-and-forty
hours ; others had cooked two dogs, followers of the camp ; and
others had boiled their moccasins, cartouch boxes, and other
articles of leather, in the hope of rendering them eatable.
Arnold halted for a short time in the hospitable -valley of the
Chaudiere, to give his troops repose, and distributed araong the
inhabitants the printed manifesto with which he had been fumished
by Washington. Here he was joined by about forty Norridgewock
Indians. On the 9th of November, the little array eraerged from
the woods at Point Levi, on the St. Lawrence, opposite to Quebec.
A letter written by an inhabitant of that place, speaks of their
sudden apparition.
" There are about five hundred provincials arrived at Point Levi,
opposite to the town, by the way of Chaudiere across the woods.
Surely a rairacle must have been wrought in their favor. It is an
undertaking above the coraraon race of men in this debauched
age." Meanwhile Montgomery, having captured St. John, appeared

PRELIMINARY CAMPAIGNS. 187
before Montreal on the 12th of November. General Carleton had
embarked with his little garrison, and several of the civil officers
of the place, and made sail in the night, carrying away with hira
the powder and other iraportant stores. The town capitulated, of
course ; and Montgomery took quiet possession. His urbanity
and kindness soon won the good will of the inhabitants and made
them sensible that he really came to secure their rights, not to
molest them. Intercepted letters acquainted hira with Arnold's
arrival in the neighborhood of Quebec, and the great alarra of
" the king's friends," who expected to be besieged : " which, with
the blessing of God, they shall be," said Montgoraery, " if the
severe season holds off, and I can prevail on the troops to accom
pany rae."
His iraraediate object was the capture of Carleton, which would
forra a triuraphal close to the enterprise, and might decide the
fate of Canada. The flotilla in which the general was embarked,
had made repeated attempts to escape down the St. Lawrence ;
but had as often been driven back by batteries thrown up by the
Americans at the mouth of the Sorel. It now lay anchored about
fifteen mhes above that river, and Montgomery prepared to attack
it with bateaux and light artihery, so as to force it down upon the
batteries. Carleton saw his imrainent peril. Disguising himself
as a Canadian voyager, he set off on a dark night accorapanied by
six peasants, in a boat with muffled oars, slipped quietly past the
batteries and guard-boats, and effected his escape to Three Rivers,
where he embarked in a vessel for Quebec. After his departure
the flotilla surrendered, and ah those who had taken refuge on
board were made prisoners of war, araong them General Prescott,
late coraraander of Montreal.
Montgomery now prepared to descend the St. Lawrence, and
co-operate with Arnold against Quebec. To his disappointment
and deep chagrin, he found but a handful of his troops disposed
to accompany him. Some pleaded ih health ; the terra of enhst-
ment of many had expired, and they were bent on retuming home ;
others, who had no such excuses to make, became turbulent and
mutinous. While Montgoraery was thus detained at Montreal,

188 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
Arnold was meditating an attack on Quebec. Could he have
crossed the river without delay he might have carried the town by
a sudden assauh ; for terror as weh as disaffection prevailed among
the inhabitants. At Point Levi, however, he was brought to a
stand ; not a boat was to be found there. Letters which he had
dispatched some days previously, by two Indians, to Generals
Schuyler and Montgoraery, had been carried by his faithless
messengers to the lieutenant-governor, who, thus apprised of the
impending danger, had caused all the boats at Point Levi to
be either removed or destroyed.
Arnold was not a man to be disheartened by difficulties. With
great exertions he procured about forty birch canoes from the
Canadians and Indians, with forty Of the latter to navigate them ;
but stormy winds arose, and for some days the river was too bois
terous for such frail craft. In the meantirae the garrison at Que
bec was gaining strength. The Lizard frigate, the Hornet sloop-
of-war, and two armed schooners were stationed in the river, and
guard-boats patrolled at night. The prospect of a successfiil
attack upon the place was growing desperate.
On the 13th of November, Arnold received intehigence that
Montgomery had captured St. John. He was instantly roused
to emulation. His men, too, were inspirited by the news. The
wind had abated : he was determined to cross the river that very
night. At a late hour in the evening he embarked with the first
division, principahy riflemen. The river was wide ; the current
rapid ; the birch canoes, easy to be upset, required skilful man
agement. By four o'clock in the morning, a large part of his force
had crossed without being perceived, and landed about a mile and
a half above Cape Diamond, at Wolfe's Cove, so called from being
the landing-place of that gallant coramander. Just then a guard-
boat belonging to the Lizard, carae slowly along shore and dis
covered them. They hailed it, and ordered it to land. Not com
plying h was fired into, and three men were killed. The boat
instantiy pulled for the frigate, giving vociferous alarm. Without
waiting the arrival of the residue of his men, for whom the canoes
had been dispatched, Arnold led those who had landed to the foot

PRELIMINARY CAMPAIGNS. 189
of the cragged defile, once scaled by the intrepid Wolfe, and scram
bled up it in ah haste. By daylight he had planted his daring flag
on the far-famed Heights of Abraham.
Here the main difficulty stared him in the face. A strong line
of walls and bastions traversed the promontory from one of its
precipitous sides to the other, inclosing the upper and lower
towns. On the right, the great bastion of Cape Diamond crowned
the rocky height of that name. On the left was the bastion of La
Potasse, close by the gate of St. John opening upon the barracks ;
the gate where Wolfe's antagonist, the gallant Montcalm, received
his death wound.
A council of war was now held. Arnold, who had some knowl
edge of the place, was for dashing forward at once and storming
the gate of St. John. Had they done so, they might have been
successful. The gate was open and unguarded. Through some
blunder and delay, a message from the coraraander of the Lizard
to the lieutenant-governor had not yet been delivered, and no
alarm had reached the fortress. The formidable aspect of the
place, however, awed Arnold's assaciates in council. They con
sidered that their whole force was but between seven and eight
hundred men ; that nearly one-third of their fire-arms had been
rendered useless, and much of their ammunition damaged in their
march through the wilderness ; they had no artillery, and the for
tress looked too strong to be carried by a coup de main. Cautious
counsel is often fatal to a daring enterprise. While the council of
war deliberated, the favorable moment passed away. The lieu
tenant-governor received the tardy message. The din of arms
resounded through the streets. The cry was up — " The enemy
are on the Heights of Abraham ! The gate of St. John is open ! "
There was an attempt to shut it. The keys were not to be found.
It was hasthy secured by ropes and handspikes, and the walls
looking upon the heights were soon manned by the mhitary and
thronged by the populace.
Arnold paraded his men within a hundred yards of the walls,
and caused them to give three hearty cheers ; hoping to excite a
revolt in the place, or to provoke the scanty garrison to a sally.

190 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
There were a few scattered cheerings in return ; but the taunting
bravado failed to produce a sortie ; the governor dared not ven
ture beyond the walls with part of his garrison, having too little
confidence in the loyalty of those who would remain behind. In
the evening Arnold sent a flag, demanding in the name of the
United Colonies the surrender of the place. Sorae of the disaf
fected and faint-hearted were inclined to open the gates, but were
held in check by the mastiff loyalty of Colonel Maclean, who
guarded the gate with his Highlanders, forbade all communication
with the besiegers, and fired upon their flag as an ensign of rebel
lion. Several days elapsed. Arnold's flags of truce were repeatedly
insulted, but he saw the futhity of resenting it, and attacking the
place with his present means. The inhabitants gradually recovered
from their alarm, and armed themselves to defend their property.
The sahors and marines proved a valuable addition to the garri
son, which now reahy meditated a sortie.
Arnold received information of all this frora friends within the
walls ; he heard about the same time of the capture of Montreal,
and that General Carleton, having escaped from that place, was
on his way down to Quebec. He thought at present, therefore,
to draw off on the igth to Point aux Trembles (Aspen-tree Point),
twenty miles above Quebec, there to await the arrival of Mont
gomery with troops and arthlery. As his little army wended its
way along the high bank of the river towards its destined encamp
ment, a vessel passed below, which had just touched at Point aux
Trembles. On board of it was General Carleton, hurrying on to
Quebec. It was not long before the distant booming of artillery
told of his arrival at his post, where he resuraed a stem command.
He was unpopular among the inhabitants ; even the British mer
chants and other men of business were offended by the coldness
of his manners, and his confining his intimacy to the mhitary and
the Canadian noblesse. He was aware of his unpopularity, and
looked round him with distrust ; his first measure was to tum out
of the place all suspected persons, and all who refused to aid in its
defence. This caused a great " trooping out of town," but what

PRELIMINARY CAMPAIGNS. 191
was lost in numbers was gained in strength. With the loyally dis
posed who reraained, he busied himself in improving the defences.
Of the constant anxiety, yet enduring hope, with which Wash
ington watched this hazardous enterprise, we have evidence in his
various letters. To Arnold, at Point Levi, he writes : " It is not
in the power of any man to command success, but you have done
more, you have deserved it; and before this time (Dec. 5th), I
hope you have raet with the laurels which are due to your toils, in
the possession of Quebec."
Attack on Quebec . — Montgomery had arrived at Point aux
Trembles on the ist of December, and next day the army set off
in face of a driving snow-storm for Quebec, and arrived before it
on the 5 th. The works, frora their great extent, appeared to him
incapable of being defended by the actual garrison ; made up, as
he said, of " Maclean's banditti," the sailors frora the frigates and
other vessels, together with the citizens obliged to take up arras ;
most of whom were impatient of the fatigues of a siege, and wished
to see matters accommodated amicably. " I propose," added he,
" amusing Mr. Carleton with a formal attack, erecting batteries,
etc., but mean to assault the works, I believe towards the lower
town, which is the weakest part.'' .^
According to his own account, his whole force did not exceed
nine hundred effective men, three hundred of whom he had
brought with him ; the rest he found with Colonel Arnold. The
latter he pronounced an exceedingly fine corps. " There is a style
of disciphne among them," says he, "rauch superior to what I
have been used to see in this campaign. Arnold is active, intelh
gent, and enterprising. Fortune often baffles the sanguine expec
tations of poor mortals. I am not intoxicated with her favors, but
I do think there is a fair prospect of success."
On the day of his arrival, he sent a flag with a summons to sur
render. It was fired upon, and obliged to retire. Exasperated at
this outrage, Montgomery prepared for an attack. The ground
was frozen to a great depth, and covered with snow; he was
ocantily provided with entrenching tools, and had only a field train
of artihery, with a few mortars. By dint of excessive labor a breast-

192 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
work was thrown up, four hundred yards distant frora the wahs,
and opposite the gate of St. Louis, which is nearly in the centre.
It was formed of gabions, ranged side by side, and filled with snow,
over which water was thrown unth thoroughly frozen. Here Cap
tain Lamb mounted five hght pieces and a howitzer. Several
mortars were placed in the suburbs of St. Roque, which extends
on the left of the promontory, below the heights, and nearly on a
level with the river. Frora the " Ice Battery " Captain Lamb
opened a well-sustained and weh-directed fire upon the walls, but
his field-pieces were too hght to be effective. With his howitzer
he threw shehs into the town and set it on fire in several places.
For five days and nights the garrison was kept on the alert by the
teasing fire of this battery. The object of Montgomery was to
harass the town, and increase the dissatisfaction of the inhabitants.
His flag of truce being stih fired upon, he caused the Indians in
his camp to shoot arrows into the town, having letters attached to
them, addressed to the inhabitants, representing Carle ton's refusal
to treat, and advising them to rise in a body and corapel him. It
was all in v^in ; whatever might have been the disposition of the
inhabitants, they were completely under the control of the mhi
tary. t0
On the evening of the fifth day, Montgoraery paid a visit to the
ice battery. The heavy arthlery from the wall had repaid its inef
fectual fire with araple usury. The brittle ramparts had been
shivered like glass ; several of the guns had been rendered useless.
Just as they arrived at the battery, a shot from the fortress dis
mounted one of the guns, and disabled many of the men. A sec
ond shot immediately following, was almost as destructive. " This
is warra work, sir," said Montgomery to Captain Lamb. " It is
indeed, and certainly no place for you, sir." "Why so. Captain?"
-" Because there are enough of us here to be khled, without the loss
of you, which would be irreparable." The general saw the insuffi
ciency of the battery, and, on retiring, gave Captain Lamb permis
sion to leave it whenever he thought proper. The veteran waited
unth after dark, when, securing ah the guns, he abandoned the
ruined redoubt.

PRELIMINARY CAMPAIGNS. 193
Nearly three weeks had been consumed in these futhe opera
tions. The army, ill-clothed and ill-provided, was becoming impa
tient of the rigors of a Canadian winter ; the term for which part
of the troops had enlisted would expire with the year, and they
already talked of returning home. Montgoraery was sadly con
scious of the insufficiency of his means, but could not endure the
thought of retiring from before the place without striking a blow.
He determined, therefore, to atterapt to carry the place by esca
lade. One-third of his men were to set fire to the houses and
stockades of the suburb of St. Roque, and force the barriers of the
lower town ; whhe the raain body should scale the bastion of Cape
Diamond. It was a hazardous, almost a desperate project, yet it has met
with the approbation of railitary men. He calculated upon the
devotion and daring spirit of his men ; upon the discontent which
prevailed among the Canadians, and upon the incompetency of
the garrison for the defence of such extensive works. In regard
to the devotion of his men, he was threatened with disappoint
raent. When the plan of assault was submitted to a council of
war, three of the captains in Arnold's division, the terms of whose
companies were near expiring, declined to serve, unless they and
their men could be transferred to another coramand. This almost
mutinous moveraent, it is supposed, was foraented by Major Brown,
a bitter enemy of Amold, and it was with infinite difficulty Mont
gomery succeeded in overcoming it.
The ladders were now provided for the escalade, and Montgora
ery waited with impatience for a favorable night to put it into
execution. Small-pox and desertion had reduced his little army
to seven hundred and fifty men. From certain movements of the
eneray, it was surmised that deserters had revealed his plan. He
changed, therefore, the arrangeraent. Colonel Livingston was to
make a false attack on the gate of St. John and set fire tq it;
Major Brown, with another detachment, was to menace the bastion
of Cape Diamond. Arnold, with three hundred and fifty of the
hardy fellows who had followed him through the whderness,
strengthened by Captain Lamb and forty of his company, was to

i94 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
assault the suburbs and batteries of St. Roque ; whhe Montgomery,
with the residue of his forces, was to pass below the bastion at
Cape Diamond, defile along the river, carry the defences at Dmm-
mond's Wharf, and thus enter the lower town on one side, while
Arnold forced his way into it on the other. These raoveraents
were all to be made at the same time, on the discharge of signal
rockets, thus distracting the eneray, and calling their attention to
four several points.
On the 31st of Deceraber, at two o'clock in the morning, the
troops repaired to their several destinations, under cover of a vio
lent snow-storm. By some accident or mistake, such as is apt to
occur in complicated plans of attack, the signal rockets were let off
before the lower divisions had tirae to get to their fighting-ground.
They were descried by one of Maclean's Highland officers, who
gave the alarm. Livingston, also, failed to raake the false attack
on the gate of St. John, which was to have caused a diversion
favorable to Arnold's attack on the suburb below.
The feint by Major Brown, on the bastion of Cape Diamond,
was successful, and concealed the raarch of General Montgomery.
That gallant coraraander descended from the heights to Wolfe's
Cove, and led his division along the shore of the St. Lawrence,
round the beetling promontory of Cape Diamond. The narrow
approach to the lower town in that direction was traversed by a
picket or stockade, defended by Canadian mihtia ; beyond which
was a second defence, a kind of block-house, forraing a battery of
sraall pieces, manned by Canadian militia, and a few seamen, and
commanded by the captain of a transport. The aim of Montgom
ery was to come upon these barriers by surprise. The pass which
they defended is formidable at ah times, having a swift river on
one side, and overhanging precipices on the other; but at this
time it was rendered peculiarly difficult by drifting snow, and by
great masses of ice piled on each other at the foot of the chffs.
The troops made their way painfully, in extended and straggling
files, along the narrow footway, and over the shppery piles of ice.
Among the foremost, were sorae of the first New York regiment,
led by Captain Cheeseman. " Forward, men of New York ! "

PRELIMINARY CAMPAIGNS. 195
cried Montgomery. " You are not the men to flinch when your
general leads you on ! " In his eagerness, he threw himself far in
the advance, with his pioneers and a few officers, and made a dash
at the first barrier. The Canadians stationed there made a few
random shots, then threw down theh muskets and fled. Mont
gomery sprang forward, aided with his own hand to pluck down
the pickets, which the pioneers were sawing, and having made a
breach sufficiently wide to admit three or four men abreast, entered
sword in hand, fohowed by his staff. Captain Cheeseman, and
some of his men. The Canadians had fled from the picket to the
battery or block-house, but seeraed to have carried the panic with
them, for the battery remained silent. Montgomery felt for a
moment as if the surprise had been complete. He paused in the
breach to rally on the troops, who were stumbling along the diffi
cult pass. " Push on, my brave boys," cried he, " Quebec is
ours ! "
He again dashed forward, but, when within forty paces of the
battery, a discharge of grape-shot from a single cannon, made
deadly havoc. Montgomery and one of his aides were khled on
the spot. Captain Cheeseman received a canister shot through
the body ; made an effort to rise and push forward, but fell back
a corpse ; with him fell his orderly sergeant and several of his
men. This slaughter, and the death of their general, threw every
thing into confusion. The officer next in rank was far in the rear ;
in this emergency Colonel Campbell took command, but, instead
of rallying the men to effect the junction with Arnold, ordered a
retreat, and abandoned the half-won field, leaving behind him the
bodies of the slain.
While all this was occurring on the side of Cape Diamond,
Arnold led his division against the opposite side of the lower town
along the suburb and street of St. Roque. Like Montgomery, he
took the advance at the head of a forlorn hope of twenty-five men.
Captain Lamb and his artillery company came next, with a field-
piece raounted on a sledge. Then came a company with ladders
and scaling implements, followed by Morgan and his riflemen. In
the rear of ah these carae the main body. A battery on a wharf

196 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
commanded the narrow pass by which they had to advance. This
was to be attacked with the field-piece, and then scaled with
ladders by the forlorn hope, while Captain Morgan with his rifle
men, was to pass round the wharf on the ice.
The false attack which was to have been raade by Livingston on
the gate of St. John by way of diversion, had not taken place ;
there was nothing, therefore, to call off the attention of the enemy
in this quarter from the detachment. The troops, as they strag
gled along in lengthened file through the drifting snow, were sadly
galled by a flanking fire on the right, from wah and pickets. The
field-piece at length became so deeply embedded in a snow-drift,
that it could not be moved. Lamb sent word to Amold of the
impediment ; in the meantime, he and his artillery company were
brought to a halt. The company with the scaling ladders would
have halted also, having been told to keep in the rear of the artil
lery ; but they were urged on by Morgan with a thundering oath,
who pushed on after them with his riflemen, the artillery company
opening to the right and left to let them pass.
They arrived in the advance, just as Arnold was leading on his
forlorn hope to attack the barrier. Before he reached it, a severe
wound in the right leg with a musket-ball completely disabled him,
and he had to be borne from the field. Morgan instantly took
command. Just then Lamb came up with his company, armed
with muskets and bayonets, having received orders to abandon the
field-piece, and support the advance. The battery which com
manded the defile mounted two pieces of cannon. There was a
discha;rge of grape-shot when the assailants were close under the
muzzles of the guns, yet but one man was khled. Before there
could be a second discharge, the battery was carried by assault,
some firing into the embrasures, others scaling the wahs. The
captain and thirty of his men were taken prisoners.
The day was just dawning as Morgan led on to attack the second
barrier, and his men had to advance under a fire from the town
walls on their right, which incessantly thinned their ranks. The
second barrier was reached ; they applied their scaling ladders to
storm it. The defence was brave and obstinate, but the defenders

PRELIMINARY CAMPAIGNS. 197
were at length driven from their guns, and the battery was gained.
At the last moraent one of the gunners ran back, linstock in hand,
to give one more shot. Captain Lamb snapped a fusee at him.
It missed fire. The cannon was discharged, and a grape-shot
wounded Lamb in the head, carrying away part of the cheek-bone.
He was borne off senseless, to a neighboring shed.
The two barriers being now taken, the way on this side into the
lower town seemed open. Morgan prepared to enter it with the
victorious vanguard, first stationing Captain Dearborn and some
provincials at Palace Gate, which opened down into the defile
frora the upper town. By this time, however, the death of Mont
gomery and retreat of Campbell had enabled the enemy to tum
' ah their attention in this direction. A large detachraent sent by
General Carleton, sahied out of Palace Gate after Morgan had
passed it, surprised and captured Dearborn and the guard, and
corapletely cut off the advanced party. The raain body, informed
of the death of Montgoraery, and giving up the game as lost,
retreated to the camp, leaving behind the field-piece which Lamb's
company had abandoned, and the mortars in the battery of St.
"Roque. Morgan and his men were now hemmed in on ah sides, and
obliged to take refrige in a stone house from the inveterate fire
which assahed them. Frora the windows they kept up a desperate
defence, until cannon were brought to bear upon it. Then hear
ing of the death of Montgoraery, and seeing there was no prospect
of rehef, Morgan and his gahant handful of fohowers were cora
pelled to surrender theraselves prisoners of war.
Thus fohed at every point, the wrecks of the httle army aban
doned their camp, and retreated about three miles frora the town ;
where they hastily fortified themselves, apprehending a pursuit by
the garrison. General Carieton, however, contented himself with
having secured the safety of the place, and remained cautiously
passive until he should be properly reinforced, distrusting the
good faith of the motiey inhabitants. He is said to have treated
the prisoners with a humanity the more honorable, considering the
"habitual mhitary severity of his temper"; theh heroic daring,

198 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
displayed in the assault upon the lower town, having excited his
admiration. The remains of the gallant Montgomery received a soldier's
grave, within the fortifications of Quebec. Amold, wounded and
disabled, had been assisted back to the camp, dragging one foot
after the other for nearly a mile in great agony, and exposed con
tinually to the musketry from the walls at fifty yards' distance,
which shot down several at his side. He took temj)orary command
of the shattered army, until General Wooster should arrive from
Montreal, to whom he sent an express, urging him to bring on
succor. " On this occasion,'' says a contemporary writer, " he
discovered the utmost vigor of a determined mind, and a genius
full of resources. Defeated and wounded, as he was, he put his
troops into such a situation as to keep them still formidable.
With a mere handful of men, at one time not exceeding five hun
dred, he maintained a blockade of the strong fortress from which
he had just been repulsed." " I have no thoughts," writes he, "of
leaving this proud town until I enter it in triumph. / am in the
. way of my duty, and I know no fear f "
Happy for him had he fallen at this moment. Happy for him
had he found a soldier's and a patriot's grave, beneath the rock-
built wahs of Quebec. Those walls would have remained endur
ing monuments of his renown. His name, like that of Montgomery,
would have been treasured up among the dearest recollections of
his country, and that country would have been spared the traitorous
blot that dims the bright page of its revolutionary history.
The British driven from Boston. — The siege of Boston con
tinued through the winter, without any striking incident to enliven
its monotony. The British remained within their works, leaving
the beleaguering army slowly to augment its forces. The country
was dissatisfied with the inaction of the latter. Congress was
anxious for some successful blow that might revive popular enthu
siasm. Washington shared this anxiety, and had repeatedly, in
councils of war, suggested an attack upon the town, but had found
a majority of his general officers opposed to it. He had hoped
some favorable opportunity would present, when, the harbor being

PRELIMINARY CAMPAIGNS. 199
frozen, the troops might approach the town upon the ice. The
winter, however, though severe at first, proved a mild one, and the
bay continued open. A cannonade and bombardment were con
sidered advisable, as soon as there should be a sufficiency of pow
der ; in the meantime, preparations might be made for taking
possession of Dorchester Heights, and Noddle's Island.
At length the camp was rejoiced by the arrival of Colonel Knox,
with his long train of sledges drawn by oxen all the way from
Ticonderoga, bringing more than fifty cannon, mortars, and howit
zers, beside supplies of lead and flints. The zeal and perseverance
which he had displayed in his wintry expedition across frozen
lakes and snowy wastes, and the intelligence with which he had
fulfilled his instructions, won him the entire confidence of Wash
ington. His conduct in this enterprise was but an earnest of that
energy and ability which he displayed throughout the war. Fur
ther ammunition being received from the royal arsenal at New
York, and other quarters, and a reinforcement of ten regiments of
mhitia, Washington no longer met with opposition to his warlike
measures. Lechmere Point, which Putnam had fortified, was
immediately to be supphed with mortars and heavy cannon, so as
to command Boston on the north ; and Dorchester Heights, on
the south of the town, were forthwith to be taken possession of
" If anything,'' said Washington, " will induce the enemy to hazard
an engagement, it will be our attempting to fortify those heights,
as, in that event taking place, we shall be able to command a great
part of the town, and almost the whole harbor." Their possession,
moreover, would enable him to push his works to Nook's Hill,
and other points opposite Boston, whence a cannonade and bom
bardment must drive the enemy from the city. The council of
Massachusetts, at his request, ordered the militia of the towns
contiguous to Dorchester and Roxbury, to hold themselves in
readiness to repair to the lines at those places with arms, ammu
nition, and accoutrements, on receiving a preconcerted signal.
Washington felt painfuhy aware how much depended upon the
success of this attempt. There was a cloud of gloom and distrast
lowering upon the public mind. Danger threatened on the north

200 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
and on the south. Montgoraery had fallen before the wahs of
Quebec. The army in Canada was shattered. Tryon and the
Tories were plotting mischief in New York. Dunmore was harass
ing the lower part of Virginia, and Clinton and his fleet were
prowhng along the coast, on a secret errand of mischief
In the general plan it was concerted that, should the enemy
detach a large force to dislodge our men from Dorchester Heights,
as had been done in the affair of Bunker Hih, an attack upon
the opposite side of the town should forthwith be made by Put
nam. For this purpose he was to have four thousand picked men
in readiness, in two divisions, under Suhivan and Greene. At a
concerted signal from Roxbury, they were to embark in boats near
the mouth of Charles river, cross under cover of the fire of three
floating batteries, land in two places in Boston, secure its strong
posts, force the gates and works at the Neck, and let in the Rox
bury troops.
The evening of Monday, the 4th of March, was fixed upon for
the occupation of Dorchester Heights. The ground was frozen
too hard to be easily entrenched ; fascines, therefore, and gabions,
and bundles of screwed hay, were collected during the two pre
ceding nights, with which to form breastworks and redoubts.
During these two busy nights the enemy's batteries were can
nonaded from opposite points, to occupy their attention. They
replied with spirit, and the incessant roar of artillery covered com
pletely the rumbling of wagons and ordnance.
On Monday evening as soon as the firing commenced, a strong
detachraent under General Thomas set out on its cautious march
from the lines of Roxbury and Dorchester. Everything was con
ducted as quietly as possible. A covering party of eight hundred
men preceded the carts with the entrenching tools ; then came
General Thomas with the working party, t\velve hundred strong,
followed by a train of three hundred wagons, laden with fascines,
gabions, and hay screwed into bundles of seven or eight hundred
weight. A great number of such bundles were ranged in a line
along Dorchester Neck on the side next the enemy, to protect the
troops, whhe passing, from being raked by the fire of the eneray.

PRELIMINARY CAMPAIGNS. 201
Fortunately, although the raoon was shining in its fuh lustre, the
flash and roar of cannonry frora opposite points, and the bursting
of borabshehs high in the air, so engaged and diverted the atten
tion of the eneray, that the detachment reached the heights about
eight o'clock, without being heard or perceived. The covering
party then divided ; one half proceeded to the point nearest Bos
ton, the other to the one nearest to Castle William. The working
party began to fortify, under the directions of Gridley, the veteran
engineer who had planned the works on Bunker Hill. It was severe
labor, for the earth was frozen eighteen inches deep ; but the men
worked with more than their usual spirit, for the eye of the com
mander-in-chief was upon them. Though not called there by his
duties, Washington could not be absent from this eventful opera
tion. When a relief party arrived at four o'clock in the morning,
two forts were in sufficient forwardness to furnish protection against
small-arms and grape-shot ; and such use was made of the fascines
and bundles of screwed hay, that, at dawn, a formidable-looking
fortress frowned along the height. " This morning at daybreak,"
writes a British officer, "we discovered two redoubts on Dorchester
Point, and two smaller ones on their flanks. They were all raised
during the last night, with an expedition equal to that of the genii
belonging to Aladdin's wonderful lamp. Frora these hihs they
command the whole town, so that we raust drive thera frora their
post, or desert the place."
Howe gazed at the mushroom fortress with astonishment, as it
loomed indistinctiy, but grandly, through a morning fog. " The
rebels," exclaimed he, "have done more work in one night, than
my whole army would have done in one month."
Washington watched, with intense anxiety, the effect of the
revelation at daybreak. "When the enemy first discovered our
works in the moming," writes he, " they seemed to be in great
confusion, and frora their movements, to intend an attack." Gen
eral Thomas was reinforced with two thousand men. Putnam
stood ready to make a descent upon the north side of the town,
with his four thousand picked men, as soon as the heights on the
south should be assahed : " Ah the forenoon," says an American

202 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
eye-witness, " we were in momentary expectation of witnessing an
awful scene ; nothing less than the carnage of Breed's Hih battle
was expected." As Washington rode about the heights, he re
minded the troops that it was the 5 th of March, the anniversary of
the Boston massacre, and called on them to revenge the slaughter
of their brethren. They answered him with shouts. " Our officers
and men," writes he, " appeared impatient for the appeal. The
event, I think, must have been fortunate ; nothing less than suc
cess and victory on our side.''
Howe, in the meantime, was perplexed between his pride and
the hazards of his position. In his lettere to the ministry, he had
scouted the idea of " being in danger from the rebels." He had
" hoped they would attack him." Apparently they were about to
fulfil his hopes, and with formidable advantages of position. He
must dislodge them from Dorchester Heights, or evacuate Boston.
The latter was an alternative too mortifying to be readily adopted.
He resolved on an attack, but it was to be a night one. Twenty-
five hundred men under Lord Percy were erabarked in transports,
which were to convey them to the rendezvous at Castle William.
A violent storm set in from the east. The transports could not
reach their place of destination. The men-of-war could not cover
and support them. A furious surf beat on the shore where the
boats would have to land. The attack was consequently post
poned unth the following day, which turned out equally unpro-
pitious. The storm continued with torrents of rain, and mean
while the Americans went on strengthening their works until Gen
eral Howe deemed thera too strong to be carried.
What was to be done ? The shells thrown from the heights into
the town proved that it was no longer tenable. The fleet was
equahy exposed. It was determined, therefore, in a counch of
war, to evacuate Boston as soon as possible. But now came on a
humiliating perplexity. The troops, in embarking, would be ex
posed to a destructive fire. How was this to be prevented?
General Howe endeavored to work on the fears of the Bostonians,
by hinting that if his troops were raolested while embarking, he
might be obliged to cover their retreat, by setting fire to the town.

PRELIMINARY CAMPAIGNS. 203
The hint had its effect. Several of the principal inhabitants
coraraunicated with hira, and a paper was concocted and signed
by the selectraen, stating the fears they had entertained of the
destruction of the town, but that those fears had been quieted by
General Howe's declaration that it should reraain uninjured, pro
vided his troops were unraolested while embarking; the select
men, therefore, begged " some assurance that so dreadful a calam
ity might not be brought on, by any measures from without."
This paper was sent out from Boston, on the evening of the Sth,
with a flag of truce, which bore it to the American lines at Rox
bury. There it was received by Colonel Learned, and carried to
head-quarters. Washington consulted with such of the general
officers as he could immediately assemble. The paper was not
addressed to him, nor to any one else. It was not authenticated
by the signature of General Howe ; nor was there any other act
obliging that commander to fulfil the promise asserted to have
been made by him. It was deemed proper, therefore, that Wash
ington should give no answer to the paper ; but that Colonel
Learned should signify in a letter his having laid it before the
commander-in-chief and the reasons assigned for not answering it.
With this uncompromising letter, the flag returned to Boston.
The Americans suspended their fire, but continued to fortify their
positions. Daily preparations were made by the enemy for de
parture. By proclamation, the inhabitants were ordered to de
liver up all linen and woollen goods, and all other goods, that, in
possession of the rebels, would aid them in carrying on the war.
Crean Bush, a New York Tory, was authorized to take possession
of such goods, and put thera on board of two of the transports.
Under cover of his commission, he and his myrraidons broke open
stores, and stripped them of their contents. Marauding gangs
from the fleet and army followed their exaraple, and extended
their depredations to private houses. On the 14th, Howe, in a
general order, declared that the first soldier caught plundering
should be hanged on the spot. Still on the i6th houses were
broken open, goods destroyed, and furniture defaced by the
troops.

204 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
For some days the embarkation was delayed by adverse winds.
Washington, who was imperfectly informed of affairs in Boston,
feared that the raoveraents there might be a feint. Determined to
bring things to a crisis, he detached a force to Nook's Hih on
Saturday, the sixteenth, which threw up a breastwork in the night
regardless of the cannonading of the eneray. This coramanded
Boston Neck, and the south part of the town, and a deserter
brought a false report to the British that a general assault was
intended. The embarkation, so long delayed, began with hurry
and confusion at four o'clock in the morning. The harbor of
Boston soon presented a striking and tumultuous scene. There
were seventy-eight ships and transports casting loose for sea, and
eleven or twelve thousand men, soldiers, sailors, and refugees, hur
rying to embark ; many, especially of the latter, with their farailies
and personal effects. By ten o'clock, the enemy were all era
barked and under way ; Putnam had taken command of the city,
and occupied the iraportant points, and the flag of thirteen stripes,
the standard of the Union floated above all the forts. To add to
the mortification of General Howe, he received, while sailing out
of the harbor, dispatches frora the rainistry, approving the resolu
tion he had strenuously expressed of maintaining his post until he
should receive reinforcements.
The eminent services of Washington throughout this arduous
siege, his admirable raanageraent, by which, " in the course of \
few months, an undisciplined band of husbandmen becarae soldiers,
and were enabled to invest, for nearly a year, and finally to expel
a brave array of veterans, coramanded by the most experienced
generals," drew forth the enthusiastic applause of the nation. On
motion of John Adams, who had first moved his noraination as
commander-in-chief, a unanimous vote of thanks to him was
passed in Congress ; and it was ordered that a gold medal be
struck, commemorating the evacuation of Boston, bearing the effigy
of Washington as its deliverer.
Retreat from Canada. — We left Arnold before the walls of
Quebec, defeated and wounded, yet not disheartened. With a
force less than half the number of the garrison he kept up the

PRELIMINARY CAMPAIGNS. 205
siege throughout the entire winter. For his gallant services Con
gress promoted him in January to the rank of brigadier-general.
In May, stih suffering from his wound, he took command at Mon
treal, whhe the operations at Quebec were carried on by General
Thomas. The golden opportunity for capturing the citadel of
Canada had, however, passed away. So many fresh troops arrived
from England and Germany that Carleton was able to assume the
offensive with an army of thirteen thousand men. Against such
overwhelming numbers the Americans could not make a stand ;
the retreat was ably conducted by General Sullivan, who took the
coraraand after the death of Thomas by small-pox ; and by the
end of June the Americans had withdrawn to Ticonderoga and
Crown Point. The New England people were very hostile to Gene
ral Schuyler because he supported the claim of New York to jurisdic
tion over the Green Mountain country. It was now sought to lay
upon him the blame for the failure of the invasion of Canada, on
the ground that he had not properly supported the generals who
conducted it. The absurd charge was summarily refuted, but a
miserable set of intrigues was now begun against Schuyler, which
did not end until he was driven from the army. Foremost among
the intriguers was Gates, who had lately been made raajor-general
and placed in coraraand of Ticonderoga. By fiattering the preju
dices of the New Englanders, he becarae very popular in that
part of the country ; and he worked zealously and insidiously to
effect the ruin of the noble Schuyler. The fortunes of Amold also
were by and by dragged into the meshes of these intrigues ; for as
the -steadfast-friend of Schuyler he incurred the bitter enmity of
Gates and his party in Congress.
Declaration of Independence. — During the winter and spring
of 1776 the feeling in favor of an entire separation from Great
Britain grew stronger and stronger. Perhaps no act of the British
government went further to strengthen it than the hiring of foreign
troops frora Germany to fight against its own subjects in America.
Massachusetts had for some time been ripe for independence, hav
ing formed a new govemment for herself in the summer of 1775.
In the winter there was civh war between Whigs and Tories in North

206 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
Carohna, in which the Tories were completely defeated. In Vir
ginia, also, there was an outbreak of war in which the Tories were
worsted, and the royal governor. Lord Dunmore, was driven to
take refuge on the Brhish fleet. Dunmore sought to avenge him
self by bombarding and completely destroying Norfolk, then the
principal town in Virginia, with nine thousand inhabitants. This act
went far toward determining the attitude of Virginia, and in May,
1776, her delegates in Congress were instructed to move that the
thirteen colonies should be declared free and independent states.
The motion was made on the 7th of June by Richard Henry Lee,
and seconded by John Adams. Action was postponed for three
weeks to take the sense of the middle colonies, where parties were
raore evenly balanced.
Pennsylvania, Maryland, and South Carolina were not in favor
of the declaration, but joined in it on the ground that it was neces
sary for all the colonies to act together. New York hesitated as
to what line of conduct to pursue. Mr. Lee's motion was at last
carried unanimously by twelve states on the 2d of July ; and on
the 4th the Declaration of Independence, drafted by Thomas
Jefferson, was formally adopted. On the 9th of July the state ot
New York concurred in adopting it.
Battle of Fort Moultrie. — Whhe these things were going on.
Sir Henry Clinton was aiming at the conquest of South Carolina.
He had started in the winter with a small fleet, before the British
had been driven from Boston, and had sailed for Albemarle Sound,
hoping to assist the Tories in North Carolina and secure that state
for the king. Sir Peter Parker's fleet was to come over frora the
coasts of Ireland and co-operate with him ; but the scheme failed.
The North Carohna Tories were crushed, and Parker was delayed
until May, when he arrived in Albemarle Sound, bringing with him
Lord Cornwahis. This very able general was now in his thirty-
eighth year, and had served in Germany in the Seven Years' War.
He had now reached the grade of lieutenant-general, and was re
garded as one of the best officers in the British service, as he was
one of the most honorable and high-minded public servants Eng
land has ever had. After the close of our Revolutionary War he

FIRST GREAT DEFENSIVE CAMPAIGN. 207
served with great distinction as governor-general of India, reached
the grade of field-marshal, the highest in the British army, was
made a knight of the garter and raised in the peerage to a marqui-
sate. In our Revolutionary War he played the raost important
part among the British generals, though he did not hold the chief
coramand. It is worthy of note that, like General Howe, he felt
great sympathy for the Araericans, and disapproved of the harsh
raeasures of the British governraent which had driven them to re
behion. On the arrival of Parker's fleet it was decided to capture the city
of Charleston and overrun South Carolina. To ward off the blow
General Charles Lee had been seni; to Charleston, but did little
raore than to raeddle and hinder. He laughed loudly at a fortress
of palmetto logs which Colonel William Moultrie built on Sullivan's
Island and manned with twelve hundred troops. Lee had never
seen anything of the sort in Europe, and w6uld have ordered
Moultrie to dismantle and abandon it, but Governor Rutledge
overmled him. On the 2 Sth of June a furious attack was made
by the fleet, and kept up for ten hours, but the palmetto fort was
victorious. At the end of the fight only one of its guns had been
dismounted, while the British ships were badly cut up, and several
of them rendered quite unseaworthy. Clinton then sailed away
to take part in the operations around New York, and the southern
states were left unmolested for two years. By many of the people,
especially at the North, Lee got ah the credit for this brihiant
victory, and his reputation was much increased thereby.
§ 5. First Great Defensive Campaign.
Arrival of Lord Howe. — When General Howe was driven from
Boston, he steered for Halifax, there to await the arrival of rein
forcements from England, and the fleet of his brother Richard,
Earl Howe, who had been appointed admiral of the fleet for North
Araerica, and commissioner to arrange matters peaceably, if possi
ble, and prevent the further continuance of the war. The two
brothers were widely different in their habits and dispositions.

208 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
Wihiam was easy and indolent ; Richard was energetic and enter
prising. His name ranks high in the list of England's great sailors.
He was a skhful seaman and brave coraraander, and his raen used
to say of hira, " Give us Black Dick, and we fear nothing."
Lord Howe arrived in New York harbor on the 1 2th of July.
His brother had arrived a few days before, with twenty-five thous
and troops, whose white tents raight now be seen dotted about
over the picturesque hihs of Staten Island. It had been expected
that New York would be the first point to be attacked by the Brit
ish, and Washington had moved his army thither from Boston early
in April. Fortifications had been erected by Lee, and the Ameri
can troops, some eighteen thousand in number, were guarding as
well as they could the exposed water front of New York Island.
On the Hudson river there were garrisons at Forts Washington
and Lee, and at Paulus Hook, now known as Jersey City. From
across the East river the heights of Brooklyn commanded New
York, just as Dorchester Heights comraanded Boston, and here
nine thousand men were posted under Putnam. General Howe
decided to strike at this point, and disperse or capture this force.
Battle of Long Island. — The village of Brooklyn stood on a
kind of peninsula, formed by the deep inlets of Wallabout Bay on
the north, and Gowanus Cove on the south. A line of entrench
ments and strong redoubts extended across the neck of the penin
sula, from the bay to a swamp and creek emptying into the cove.
To protect the rear of the works from the enemy's ships, a battery
was erected at Red Hook, the southwest comer of the peninsula,
and a fort on Governor's Island, nearly opposite. About two
miles and a half in front of the line of entrenchments, a range of
hills, densely wooded, extended from southwest to northeast, form
ing a natural barrier across the island. It was traversed by three
roads. One, on the left of the works, stretched eastwardly to •
Bedford, and then by a pass through the Bedford Hills to the
vihage of Jamaica ; another, central and direct, led through the
woody heights to Flatbush ; a third, on the right of the lines,
passed by Gowanus Cove to the Narrows and Gravesend Bay.
The occupation of this range of hihs, and the protection of its
passes, was entrusted to General Sullivan,

BATHE or LONG ISLAND
ffrsn Siednuzn.'i Ristery ef Amtrtaui War./
' wHTl luUitioni.

To face page 209.

FIRST GREAT DEFENSIVE CAMPAIGN. 209
From the 2 2d to the 25th of August, General Howe sent twenty
thousand raen over tO' Long Island, where they landed at Graves
end Bay and prepared to attack the American position. ^ Sir Henry
Chnton, with the vanguard, coraposed of the choicest troops, was
by a circuitous march in the night, to throw hiraself into the road
leading from Jamaica to Bedford, seize upon a pass through the
Bedford Hills, within three miles of that vihage, and thus turn the
left of the Araeriean advanced posts.
To divert the attention of the Americans from this stealthy
march on their left. General Grant was to menace their right flank
toward Gravesend before daybreak, and General von Heister to
cannonade their centre, where Colonel Hand was stationed. Nei
ther, however, was to press an attack unth the guns of Sir Henry
Clinton should give notice that he had effected his purpose, and
turned the left flank of the Araericans ; then the latter were to be
assahed at ah points with the utmost vigor.
About nine o'clock in the evening of the 26th, Sir Henry Clin
ton began his march frora Flatlands with the vanguard, coraposed
of light infantry. Lord Percy fohowed with the grenadiers, artil
lery, and light dragoons, forraing the centre. Lord Cornwallis
brought up the rear-guard with the heavy ordnance. General
Howe accompanied this division.
It was a silent march, without beat of drum or sound of trumpet,
under guidance of a Long Island Tory, along by-roads traversing a
swamp by a narrow causeway, and so across the country to the
Jamaica road. About two hours before daybreak, they arrived
within half a mhe of the pass through the Bedford Hihs, and halted
to prepare for an attack. At this juncture they captured an Amer
ican patrol, and leamt, to their surprise, that the Bedford pass was
unoccupied. In fact, the whole road beyond Bedford, leading to
Jamaica, was left unguarded, excepting by some light volunteer
troops. Colonels Wihiaras and Miles, who were stationed to the
left of Colonel Hand, among the wooded hills, had been instmcted
to send out parties occasionally to patrol the road, but no troops
had been stationed at the Bedford pass. The road and pass may
have been thought too far out of the way to need special precau-

210 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
tion. The neglect of them, however, proved fatal. Sir Henry
Clinton iraraediately detached a battalion of .light-infantry to secure
the pass ; and, advancing with his corps at the first break of day,
possessed hiraself of the heights. He was now within three mhes
of Bedford, and his march had been undiscovered. Having
passed the heights, therefore, he halted his division for the soldiers
to take some refreshment, preparatory to the morning's hostilities.
About midnight General Grant moved from Gravesend Bay,
with the left wing. He proceeded along the road leading past the
Narrows and Gowanus Cove, toward the right of the American
works. A picket guard of Pennsylvanian and New York railitia,
under Colonel Atlee, retired before hira fighting to a position
on the skirts of the wooded hills. In the meantirae, scouts had
brought in word to the American hues that the eneray were ap
proaching in force upon the right. General Putnam ordered Lord
Stirling^ to hasten with the twp regiments nearest at hand, and
hold them in check. These were Haslet's Delaware, and Smah-
wood's Maryland regiraents ; the latter the macaronis, in scarlet
and buff, who quite outshone their yeoman fehow-soldiers in home
spun. They lurried out with great alacrity, and Stirling pushed
forward with them on the road toward the Narrows. By the time
he had passed Gowanus Cove, dayhght began to appear. Here,
on a rising ground, he met Colonel Atlee with his Pennsylvania
provincials, and learned that the enemy were near. Indeed, their
front began to appear in the uncertain twilight. Stirling ordered
Atlee to place himself in arabush in an orchard on the left of the
road, and await their coming up, while he formed the Delaware
and Maryland regiments along a ridge from the road, up to a j)iece
of woods on the top of the hih. Atlee gave the enemy two or
three voheys as they approached, and then retreated and forraed
ii} the wood on Lord Stirling's left. By this time his lordship was
reinforced by Kichline's riflemen, part of whom he placed along a
hedge at the foot of the hhl, and part in front of the wood. Gen
eral Grant threw his hght troops in the advance, and posted them
I William Alexander, of New Jersey, claimed the title to the lapsed earl
dom of Stirling, and was always called Lord Stirling by the Americans.

FIRST GREAT DEFENSIVE CAMPAIGN. 211
in an orchard and behind hedges, extending in front of the Araer
icans, and about one hundred and fifty yards distant.
It was now broad daylight. A rattling fire commenced between
the British light troops and the American riflemen, which contin
ued for about two hours, when the former retired to their main
body. In the meantime, Stirhng's position had been strengthened
by the arrival of Captain Carpenter with two field-pieces. These
were placed on the side of the hill, so as to command the road
and the approach for sorae hundred yards. General Grant, like
wise, brought up his artillery within three hundred yards, and
forraed his brigades on opposite hhls, about six hundred yards
distant. There was occasional cannonading on both sides, but
neither party sought a general action. Lord Stirling's object was
merely to hold the enemy in check ; and the instructions of Gen
eral Grant, as we have shown, were not to press an attack until
aware that Sir Henry Clinton was on the left flank of the Amer
icans. During this time, Heister had commenced his part of the plan
by opening a cannonade from his camp at Flatbush, upon the
redoubt, at the pass of the wooded hihs, where Hand and his rifle
men were stationed. On hearing this. General Suhivan rode forth
to Colonel Hand's post to reconnoiter. Heister, however, accord
ing to the plan of operations, did not advance frora Flatbush, but
kept up a brisk fire frora his artihery on the redoubt in front of
the pass, which replied as briskly. At the same time, a cannonade
frora a British ship upon the battery at Red Hook contributed to
distract the attention of the Americans.
In the meantirae terror reigned in New York. The voheying
of rausketry and booming of cannon at early dawn had told of
the fighting that had coraraenced. As the raorning advanced,
platoon firing and the occasional discharge of a field-piece were
heard in different directions. Washington was stih in doubt
whether this was but part of a general attack, in which the city
was to be included. Five ships of the line were endeavoring to
beat up the bay. Were they to cannonade the city, or to land
troops above it ? Fortunately, a strong head-wind baffled all their

212 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
efforts ; but one vessel, of inferior force, got up far enough to open
the fire already mentioned upon the fort at Red Hook. Seeing
no likelihood of an iraraediate attack upon the city, Washington
hastened over to Brooklyn in his barge, and galloped up to the
works. He arrived there in time to witness the catastrophe for
which all the movements of the enemy had been concerted.
The thundering of artihery in the direction of Bedford had
given notice that Sir Henry had turned the left of the Araericans.
Heister immediately ordered Count Donop to advance with his
Hessian regiment, and storm the redoubt, while he followed with
his whole division. Suhivan did not remain to defend the redoubt.
Sir Henry's cannon had apprised him of the fatal truth, that his
flank was turned, and he in danger of being surrounded. He
ordered a retreat to the lines, but it was already too late. Scarce
had he descended from the height, and emerged into the plain,
when he was met by the British light-infantry, and dragoons, and
driven back into the woods. By this time Heister and his Hes
sians had come up, and now comraenced a scene of confusion,
constemation, and slaughter, in which the troops under Williams
and Mhes were involved. Hemmed in and entrapped between
the British and Hessians, and driven from one to the other, the
Americans fought for a tirae bravely, or rather desperately. Some
were cut down and trampled by the cavalry, others bayoneted
without mercy by the Hessians. Some rallied in groups, and
made a brief stand with their rifles from rocks or behind trees.
The whole pass was a scene of carnage, resounding with the clash
of arms, the tramp of horses, the volleying of fire-arms, and the
cries of the combatants, with now and then the dreary braying of
the trumpet. At length some of the Americans, by a desperate
effort, cut their way through the host of foes, and effected a re
treat to the lines, fighting as they went. Others took refuge
araong the woods and fastnesses of the hihs, but a great part were
either killed or taken prisoners. Among the latter was General
Suhivan. Washington arrived in time to witness this catastrophe, but was
unable to prevent it. He had heard the din of the battle in the

FIRST GREAT DEFENSIVE CAMPAIGN. 213
woods, and seen the sraoke rising from araong the trees ; but a
deep column of the enemy was descending frora the hills on the
left ; his choicest troops were all in action, and he had none but
raihtia to man the works. His solicitude was now awakened for
the safety of Lord Stirling and his corps, who had been ah the
morning exchanging cannonades with General Grant. Washington
saw the danger to which these brave fellows were exposed, though
they could not. Stationed on a hih within the lines, he com
manded, with his telescope, a view of the whole field, and saw the
enemy's reserve, under Cornwahis, marching down by a cross-road
to get in their rear, and thus place them between two fires. With
breathless anxiety he watched the result.
The sound of Chnton's cannon apprised Stirling that the enemy
was between hira and the fines. Grant, too, aware that the time
had come for earnest action, was closing up, and had already taken
Colonel Atlee prisoner. His'lordship now thought to effect a cir
cuitous retreat to the lines, by crossing the creek which empties
into Gowanus Cove, near what was called the Yellow Mills. There
was a bridge and raihdara, and the creek might be forded at low
water, but no time was to be lost, for the tide was rising. Leaving
part of his men to keep face towards General Grant, Stirling ad
vanced with the rest to pass the creek, but was suddenly checked
by the appearance of Comwahis and his grenadiers.
Washington, and sorae of his officers on the hill, who watched
every raovement, had supposed that Stirhng and his troops, finding
the case desperate, would surrender in a body, without firing. On
the contrary, his lordship boldly attacked Cornwalhs with half of
Smallwood's battalion, whhe the rest of his troops retreated across
the creek. It was a desperate fight ; and now Sraahwood's maca
ronis showed their garae spirit. They were repeatedly broken, but
as often rahied, and renewed the fight. " We were on the point
of driving Lord Cornwallis frora his station," writes Lord Stirhng,
" but large reinforceraents arriving, rendered it irapossible to do
raore than provide for safety."
" Being thus surrounded," writes a Maryland officer, " his lord
ship ordered me to retreat with the reraaining part of our men, and

214 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
force our way to our carap. We soon fell in with a party of the
enemy, who clubbed their fire-locks, and waved theh hats to us as
if they meant to surrender as prisoners ; but on our advancing
within sixty yards, they presented their pieces and fired, which we
returned with so much warmth that they soon quitted their post,
and retired to a large body that was lying in ambuscade."
The enemy rahied, and retumed to the combat with additional
force. Only five companies of Sraahwood's battahon were now in
action. There was a warm and close engagement for nearly ten
minutes. Broken and disordered, the Americans rahied in a piece
of woods, and made a second attack. They were again overpowered
with nurabers. Some were surrounded and bayoneted in a field
of Indian corn ; others joined their comrades who were retreating
across a marsh. Lord Stirling had encouraged and animated his
young soldiers by his voice and example, but when all was lost, he
sought out General von Heister, and surrendered himself as his
prisoner. More than two hundred and fifty brave fehows, most of them of
Sraahwood's regiraent, perished in this deadly straggle, within sight
of the lines of Brooklyn. That part of the Delaware troops who
had first crossed the creek and swamp, made good their retreat to
the lines with a trifling loss, and entered the camp covered with
mud and drenched with water, but bringing with thera twenty-three
prisoners, and their standard tattered by grape-shot.
The enemy now concentrated their forces within a few hundred
yards of the redoubts. The grenadiers were within musket shot.
Washington expected they would storm the works, and prepared
for a desperate defence, but the British commander was unwilling
to risk the loss of life that must attend an assault, when the object
might be attained at a cheaper rate by regular approaches. Check
ing the ardor of his men, therefore, he drew them off to a hollow
way, in front of the lines, but out of reach of the musketry and
encamped there for the night.
The loss of the Americans in this disastrous battle has been
variously stated, but is thought, in khled, wounded, and prisoners
to have been nearly two thousand ; a large number, considering-

FIRST GREAT DEFENSIVE CAMPAIGN. 215
that not above five thousand were engaged. The enemy acknowl
edged a loss of three hundred and eighty killed and wounded.
The success of the enemy was attributed, in some raeasure, to
the doubt in which Washington was kept as to the nature of the
intended attack, and at what point it would chiefly be made. This
obliged him to keep a great part of his forces in New York, and to
distribute those at Brooklyn over a wide extent of country, and at
widely distant places. In fact, he knew not the superior nuraber
of the enemy encamped on Long Island, a majority of thera having
been furtively landed in the night, sorae days after the debarkation
of the first division.
The fatal error, however, consisted in leaving the passes through
the wooded hihs too weakly fortified and guarded ; and especially
in neglecting the eastern road, by which Sir Henry Chnton got in
the rear of the advanced troops, cut thera off from the lines, and
subjected thera to a cross-fire of his own men and Heister's
Hessians. This scherae of the eneray might have been thwarted, had the
army been provided with a few troops of light horse, to serve as
videttes. With these to scour the roads and bring intelligence, the
night march of Sir Henry Clinton, so decisive of the fortunes of
the day, could hardly have failed to be discovered and reported.
Retreat from Long Island. — The night after the battle was
a weary yet almost sleepless one to the Americans. Fatigued, dis
pirited, raany of thera sick and wounded, yet they were, for the
most part, without tent or other shelter. To Washington it was a
night of anxious vigil. Everything boded a close and deadly
conflict. The enemy had pitched a number of tents about a mile
distant. Their sentries were but a quarter of a mile off, and close
to the American sentries. At four o'clock in the raorning, Wash
ington went the round of the works, to see that all was right, and
to speak words of encourageraent. The morning broke lowering
and dreary. Large encampraents were gradually descried ; to ap
pearance, the eneray were twenty thousand strong. As the day
advanced, their ordnance began to play upon the works. They
were proceeding to entrench theraselves, but were driven into their
tents by a drenching rain.

216 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
Early in the morning General Mifflin arrived in camp, with part
of the troops which had been stationed at Fort Washington and
King's Bridge. He brought with him Shee's prime Philadelphia
regiment, and Magaw's Pennsylvania regiment, both weh disci
plined and officered, and accustomed to act together. They
were so rauch reduced in number, however, by sickness, that
they did not amount, in the whole, to more than eight hundred
men. With Mifflin came also Colonel Glover's Massachusetts
regiment, composed chiefly of Marblehead fishermen and sailors,
hardy, adroit, and weather-proof; trimly clad in blue jackets
and trousers. The detachment nurabered, in the whole, about
thirteen hundred raen, all fresh and full of spirits. Every eye
brightened as they marched briskly along the line with alert step
and cheery aspect. They were posted at the left extremity of
the entrenchments towards the Wallabout.
There were skirmishes throughout the day, between the riflemen
on the advanced posts and the British " irregulars," which at tiraes
were quite severe ; but no decided attack was attempted. The
main body of the enemy kept within their tents until the latter
part of the day ; when they began to break ground at about five
hundred yards distance frora the works, as if preparing to carry
thera by regular approaches.
On the 29th, there was a dense fog over the island, that wrapped
everything in mystery. In the course of the morning. General
Mifflin, with Adjutant-general Reed, and Colonel Grayson of Vir
ginia, one of Washington's aides-de-carap, rode to the western
outposts, in the neighborhood of Red Hook. Whhe they were
there, a light breeze lifted the fog from a part of the New York
Bay, and revealed the British ships at their anchorage opposite
Staten Island. There appeared to be an unusual bustle araong
them. Boats were passing to and from the admiral's ship, as if
seeking or carrying orders. Some moveraent was apparently in
agitation. The idea occurred to the reconnoitering party that the
fleet was preparing, should the wind hold and the fog clear away,
to come up the bay at the turn of the tide, silence the feeble bat
teries at Red Hook and the city, and anchor in the East river.

FIRST GREAT DEFENSIVE CAMPAIGN. 217
In that case the army on Long Island would be completely sur
rounded and entrapped.
Alarraed at this perilous probability, they spurred back to head
quarters to urge the immediate withdrawal of the army. Wash
ington instantly suraraoned a council of war, and it was resolved
to cross with the troops to the city that very night. Never did re
treat require greater secrecy and circumspection. Ten thousand
men, with all the munitions of war, were to be withdrawn from
before a victorious army, encamped so near that every stroke of
spade and pickaxe frora their trenches could be heard. The re
treating troops, moreover, were to be erabarked and conveyed
across a strait three-quarters of a raile wide, swept by rapid tides.
The least alarra of their raovement would bring the eneray upon
them, and produce a terrible scene of confusion and carnage at
the place of erabarkation.
Washington made the preparatory arrangeraents with great
alertness, yet profound secrecy. Verbal orders were sent to Colo
nel Hughes, who acted as quartermaster-general, to impress all
water craft, large and sraall, from Spyt den Duivel on the Hudson
round to Hell Gate on the Sound, and have them on the east side
of the city by evening. The order was issued at noon, and so
promptly executed, that, although some of the vessels had to be
brought a distance of fifteen mhes, they were all at Brooklyn at
eight o'clock in the evening, and put under the management of
Colonel Glover's amphibious Marblehead regiment.
To prepare the army for a general movement without betraying
the object, orders were issued for the troops to hold themselves in
readiness for a night attack upon the enemy. To keep the eneray
from discovering the withdrawal of the Americans until their main
body should have erabarked in the boats and pushed off frora the
shore. General Mifflin was to reraain at the lines with his Penn
sylvania troops, and the gallant reraains of Haslet, Smahwood, and
Hand's regiments, with guards posted and sentinels alert, as if
nothing extraordinary was taking place ; when the main erabarka
tion was effected, they were theraselves to move off quietly, march
briskly to the ferry, and embark.

218 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
It was late in the evening when the troops began to retire from
the breastworks. As one regiment quietiy withdrew from their
station on guard, the troops on the right and left raoved up and
filled the vacancy. There was a stifled murmur in the carap, un
avoidable in a movement of the kind ; but it gradually died away
in the direction of the river, as the main body moved on in silence
and order. The erabarkation went on with all possible dispatch,
under the vigilant eye of Washington, who stationed himself at the
ferry, superintending every movement. In his anxiety for dis
patch, he sent back Colonel Scammel, one of his aides-de-camp,
to hasten forward all the troops that were on the march. Scam
mel blundered in executing his errand, and gave the order to
Mifflin hkewise. The general instantly cahed in his pickets and
sentinels, and set off for the ferry. By this time the tide had
turned ; there was a strong wind from the northeast ; the boats
with oars were insufficient to convey the troops ; those with sails
could not make headway against wind and tide. There was some
confusion at the ferry, and in the midst of it. General Mifflin came
down with the whole covering party, adding to the embarrassment
and uproar.
" Good God ! General Mifflin ! " cried Washington, " I am
afraid you have ruined us by so unseasonably withdrawing the
troops from the lines."
" I did so by your order," replied Mifflin with sorae warmth.
" It cannot be ! " exclairaed Washington.
" By  , I did ! " was the blunt rejoinder. " Did Scaramel act
as aide-de-camp for the day, or did he not?"
"He did."
"Then," said Mifflin, " I had orders through hira."
"It is a dreadful mistake," rejoined Washington, "and unless
the troops can regain the lines before their absence is discovered
by the enemy, the most disastrous consequences are to be appre
hended." Mifflin led back his raen to the lines, which had been completely
deserted for three-quarters' of an hour. Fortunately, the dense fog
had prevented the enemy from discovering that they were unoc-

FIRST GREAT DEFENSIVE CAMPAIGN. 219
cupied. The men resumed their forraer posts, and remained at
them unth cahed off to cross the ferry.
The fog which prevailed all this time, seemed almost providen
tial. Whhe it hung over Long Island, and concealed the move
ments of the Americans, the atmosphere was clear on the New
York side of the river. The adverse wind, too, died away; the
river became so smooth that the row-boats could be laden almost
to the gunwale, and a favoring breeze sprang up for the sail-boats.
The whole erabarkation of troops, artihery, araraunition, provisions,
cattle, horses and carts, was happily effected, and by daybreak the
greater part had safely reached the city, thanks to the aid of
Glover's Marblehead raen. Scarce anything was abandoned to the
eneray, excepting a few heavy pieces of artihery. At a proper
tirae, Mifflin with his covering party left the lines, and effected a
silent retreat to the ferry. Washington, though repeatedly en
treated, refused to enter a boat until all the troops were embarked,
and crossed the river with the last.
A Long Island tradition tells how the British camp becarae
aware of the raarch which had been stolen upon it. Near the
ferry resided a Mrs. Rapelye, whose husband, suspected of favor
ing the eneray, had been removed to the interior of New Jersey.
On seeing the erabarkation of the first detachment, she, out of
loyalty or revenge, sent off a black servant to inforra the first
British officer he could find of what was going on. The negro
succeeded in passing the American sentinels, but arrived at a
Hessian outpost, where he could not make himself understood,
¦and was put under guard as a suspicious person. There he was
kept until daybreak, when an officer visiting the post, examined
hira, and was astounded by his story. An alarm was given, the
troops were called to arras ; Captain Montresor, aide-de-carap of
General Howe, followed by a handful of raen, clirabed cautiously
over the crest of the works and found them deserted. Advanced
parties were hurried down to the ferry. The fog had cleared
away, sufficiently for thera to see the rear boats of the retreating
army half-way across the river. One boat, still within musket shot,
was compelled to return ; it was manned by three vagabonds, who
had lingered behind to plunder.

220 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
This extraordinary retreat was one of the most signal achieve
ments of the war, and redounded greatly to the reputation of
Washington, who for forty-eight hours scarce closed his eyes, and
was the greater part of the tirae on horseback.
Lord Howe as Peacemaker. — The enemy had now possession
of Long Islpd, but forbore to press further hostilities. Lord
Howe sent off General Suhivan on parole, charged with an over
ture to Congress. In this he declared hiraself empowered and
disposed to compromise the dispute between Great Britain and
America, on the raost favorable terras, and, though he could not
treat with Congress as a legally organized body, he was desirous
of a conference with some of its raerabers. These, for the time
he should consider only as private gentlemen, but if in the confer
ence any probable scherae of accoraraodation should be agreed
upon, the authority of Congress would afterwards be acknowledged,
to render the corapact coraplete.
The raessage caused some embarrassraent in Congress. To
accede to the interview might seem to waive the question of inde
pendence ; to decline it was to shut the door on all hope of con
ciliation, and might alienate the co-operation of some worthy Whigs
who still clung to that hope. After rauch debate. Congress replied,
that, being the representatives of the free and independent States
of Araerica, they could not send any members to confer with his
lordship in their private characters, but that, ever desirous of
establishing peace on reasonable terms, they would send a cora
raittee of their body to ascertain what authority he had to treat
with persons authorized by Congress, and what propositions he had
to offer.
A committee was chosen on the 6th of Septeraber, composed of
John Adaras, Edward Rutledge, and Dr. Frankhn. The con
ference took place on the nth, at a house on Staten Island, op
posite to Amboy. There the coraraittee found Lord Howe's barge
waiting to receive them ; with a British officer of rank, who was to
remain within the Araeriean lines during their absence, as a hostage.
This guarantee of safety was promptly declined, and the parties
crossed together to Staten Island. The admiral met them on their
landing, and conducted them through his guards to his house.

FIRST GREAT VEEt.Ni,IVE CAMPAIGN. 221
On opening the conference, his lordship again intimated that he
could not treat with thera as a coraraittee of Congress, but only
confer with them as private gentiemen of influence in the colonies,
on the means of restoring peace between the two countries.
The coramissioners replied that, as their business was to hear,
he might consider them in what hght he pleased ; but that they
should consider themselves in no other character than that in
which they were placed by order of Congress.
Lord Howe then entered into a discourse of considerable length,
but raade no explicit proposition of peace, nor promise of redress
of grievances, excepting on condition that the colonies should
return to their allegiance.
This, the commissioners rephed, was not now to be expected.
Their repeated humble petitions to the king and Parliaraent hav
ing been treated with contempt, and answered by additional
injuries, and war having been declared against thera, the colonies
had declared their independence, and it was not in the power of
Congress to agree for thera that they should return to their former
dependent state.
His lordship expressed his sorrow that no accommodation was
likely to take place ; and, on breaking up the conference, assured
his old friend. Dr. Frankhn, that he should suffer great pain in
being obliged to distress those for whom he had so rauch regard.
" I feel thankful to your lordship for your regard," replied
Franklin good-huraoredly ; " the Americans, on their part, will
endeavor to lessen the pain you may feel, by taking good care of
themselves." The result of this conference had a beneficial effect. It showed
that his lordship had no power but what was given by the act of
Parliaraent ; and put an end to the popular notion that he was
vested with secret powers to negotiate an adjustraent of grievances.
The British take New York. — After the loss of Brookl)!!
Heights, the city of New York becarae untenable for the Americans.
Convinced of the propriety of evacuation, Washington prepared
for it by ordering the removal of all stores, excepting such as were
indispensable for the subsistence of the troops whhe they reraained.

222 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
On the 13th of September, just after dinner, three frigates and a,
forty-gun ship sailed up the East river with a gentie breeze, toward
Hell Gate, and kept up an incessant fire. On the 14th, Washing
ton's baggage was removed to King's Bridge, whither head-quar
ters were to be transferred the sarae evening, it being clear that
the eneray were preparing to encompass him on the Island.
About sunset of the same day, six raore ships passed up the
Sound and joined those above. Within half an hour came ex
presses spurring to head-quarters. Three or four thousand of the
enemy were crossing at Hell Gate to the islands at the mouth of
Harlem river, where numbers were already encamped. An im
mediate landing at Harlem, or Morrisania, was apprehended.
Washington was instantly in the saddle, spurring to Harlem
Heights. The night, however, passed away quietly. In the mom
ing the enemy commenced operations. Three ships-of-war stood
up the Hudson, " causing a most tremendous firing, assisted by
the cannon of Governor's Island, which firing was returned from
the city as well as the scarcity of heavy cannon would allow."
The ships anchored opposite Blooraingdale, a few miles above the
city. About eleven o'clock, the ships in the East river com
menced a heavy cannonade upon the breastworks between Turtle
Bay and the city. At the same time two divisions of the troops
encamped on Long Island emerged in boats from the deep,
woody recesses of Newton Inlet, and under cover of the fire frora
the ships, began to land at two points between Turtle and Kip's
Bays. The breastworks were manned by militia who had recently
served at Brooklyn. Disheartened by their late defeat, they fled
at the first advance of the eneray. Two brigades of Putnara's
Connecticut troops which had been sent that raorning to support
thera caught the panic, and, regardless of the commands and
• entreaties of their officers, joined in the general scamper.
At this moment Washington, who had mounted his horse at the
first sound of the cannonade, came galloping to the sdfene of con
fusion ; riding in among the fugitives, he endeavored to rally and
restore thera to order. All in vain. At the first appearance of
sixty or seventy red-coats, they broke again without firing a shot,

FIRST GREAT i'.ey.eyv.i/F.fi' CAMPAIGN. 223
and fled in headlong terror. Losing ah self-command at the
sight of such dastardly conduct, he dashed his hat upon the ground
in a transport of rage. "Are these the men," exclairaed he, "with
whom I ara to defend Araerica ! " In a paroxysra of passion and
despair he snapped his pistols at some of them, threatened others
with his sword, and was so heedless of his own danger, that he
might have fallen into the hands of the enemy, who were not
eighty yards distant, had not an aide-de-camp seized the bridle of
his horse, and absolutely hurried him away.
It was one of the rare moraents of his hfe, when the veheraent
eleraent of his nature was stirred up frora its deep recesses. He
soon recovered his self-possession, and took measures against the
general perh. The enemy might land another force about Heh
Gate, seize upon Harlem Heights, the strong central portion of
the island, cut off all retreat of the lower divisions, and effectually
sever his army. In all haste, therefore, he sent off an express to
the forces encamped above, directing thera to secure that position
iramediately ; whhe another express to Putnam ordered an imme
diate retreat from the city to those heights.
It was indeed a perilous moment. Had the enemy followed up
their advantage, and seized upon the heights, before thus occu
pied ; or had they extended themselves across the island, frora the
place where they had effected a landing, the result might have
been raost disastrous to the Araericans. Fortunately, they con
tented themselves for the present with sending a strong detach
ment down the road along the East river, leading to the city,
while the main body rested on their arms.
In the meantirae Putnara, on receiving Washington's express,
cahed in his pickets and guards, and abandoned the city in all
haste, leaving behind him a large quantity of provisions and mili
tary stores, and raost of the heavy cannon. To avoid the eneray
he took the Blooraingdale road, though this exposed hira to be
raked by the eneray's ships anchored in the Hudson. It was a
forced raarch, on a sultry day, under a burning sun, and araid
clouds of dust. His array was encurabered with woraen and chil
dren, and ah kinds of baggage. Many were overcome by fatigue

224 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
and thirst, some perished by hastily drinking cold water; but
Putnam rode backward and forward hurrying every one on. Thus
they joined the army after dark upon the heights of Harlem.
The fortified camp, where the main body of the army was now
assembled, was upon that neck of land several miles long, and for
the most part not above a mhe wide, which forms the upper part
of Manhattan or New York Island. It forms a chain of rocky
heights, and is separated from the mainland by Harlem river, a
narrow strait extending from Heh Gate on the Sound to Spyt den
Duivel, a creek or inlet of the Hudson. Fort Washington occu
pied the crest of one of the rocky heights above mentioned, over
looking the Hudson, and about two miles north of it was King's
Bridge, crossing Spyt den Duivel Creek, and forming at that tirae
the only pass from Manhattan Island to the mainland.
About a mile and a half south of the fort, a double row of lines
extended across the neck from Harlem river to the Hudson.
They faced south towards New York, were about a quarter of a
mile apart, and were defended by batteries. There were strong
advanced posts about two miles south of the outer hne. About a
mhe and a half beyond these posts the British lines extended
across the island from Horen's Hook to the Hudson, being a con
tinuous encampment, two miles in length, with both flanks covered
by shipping. An open plain intervened between the hostile
camps. Washington had estabhshed his head-quarters about a quarter of
a mile within the inner line, at a country seat, the owners of which
were absent. While thus posted, he was incessantly occupied in
fortifying the approaches to his camp by redoubts, abatis, and
deep entrenchments. In the course of his rounds of inspection he
was struck with the skih and science displayed in the construction
of some of the works which were thrown up under the direction
of a youthful captain of artillery, Alexander Hamhton. After sorae
conversation with him, Washington invited him to his tent, and
thus commenced that intercourse which has indissolubly linked
their memories together.
On the morning of the i6th, the enemy made a vigorous attempt

FIRST GREAT DEFENSIVE CAMPAIGN. 22S
to break through the centre of the American lines on .Harlera
Heights, but were defeated with a loss of three hundred killed and
wounded. This was the first gleam of success in the campaign,
and revived the spirits of the army. What was the state of that
army ? The terms of engageraent of many of fhe men would soon
be at an end ; most of them would terminate with the year ; nor
did Congress hold out offers to encourage re-enlistments. " We
are now, as it were, upon the eve ofa dissolution of the array,"
writes Washington, " and unless some speedy and effectual measures
are adopted by Congress, our cause will be lost." Under these
gloomy apprehensions, he borrowed, as he said, " a few moments
from the hours allotted to sleep," and, on the night of the 24th
of September, penned an admirable letter to the President of Con
gress, setting forth the inefficiency of the existing railitary systera,
the insubordination, waste, confusion, and discontent produced by
it among the men, and the harassing cares and vexations to which
it subjected the commanders. Nor did he content himself with
complaining, but, in his fuh, clear, and sagacious manner, pointed
out the reraedies. To the achievements of his indefatigable pen,
we may trace the most fortunate turns in the current of our revolu
tionary affairs. In the present instance his representations, illus
trated by sad experience, produced at length a reorganization of
the army, and the establishment of it on a permanent footing.
It was decreed that eighty-eight battalions should be fumished in
quotas, by the different states, according to their abilities. The
pay of the officers was raised. The troops which engaged to serve
throughout the war were to receive a bounty of twenty dohars and
one hundred acres of land, besides a yearly suit of clothes while
in service. Those who enlisted for but three years received no
bounty in land. The bounty to officers was on a higher ratio.
The states were to send coraraissioners to the army, to arrange
with the commander-in-chief as to the appointment of officers in
their quotas ; but, as they might occasionally be slow in comply
ing with this regulation, Washington was empowered to fill up all
vacancies. All this was a great relief to his mind. He was gratified, also.

226 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
by effecting, after a long correspondence with the British com
mander, an exchange of prisoners, in which those captured in
Canada were included. Among those restored to the service were
Sullivan, Stirling, and Morgan.
Movement to White Plains. — The security of the Hudson river
was at this time an object of great sohcitude with Congress, and
much reliance was placed on Putnam's obstructions at Fort Wash
ington. Four gaheys, mounted with heavy guns and swivels, were
stationed at the chevaux-de-frise, and two new ships were at hand,
which, filled with stones, were to be sunk where they would block
up the channel. A sloop was also at anchor, having on board a
raachine, invented by a Mr. Bushnell, for submarine explosion,
with which to blow up the men-of-war ; a favorite scheme with
General Putnam. The obstructions were so comraanded by bat
teries on each shore, that it was thought no hostile ship would be
able to pass.
On the 9th of October, however, the Roebuck and Fhaenix, each
of forty-four guns, and the Tartar of twenty guns, which had been
lying for some time opposite Blooraingdale, got under way at eight
o'clock in the raorning, and carae up the river with an easy south
ern breeze. At their approach, the galleys and the two ships in
tended to be sunk got under way with all haste, as did a schooner
laden with rum, sugar, and other supplies for the American army,
and the sloop with Bushnell's submarine raachine.
The Roebuck, Fhcenix, and Tartar broke through the vaunted
barriers as through a cobweb, and kept on their course, the Araer
iean vessels scudding before them. The schooner was overhauled
and captured ; a well-aimed shot sent the sloop and Bushnell's
submarine engine to the bottom of the river. The British had
attained their object, which was to satisfy themselves that the
Hudson was passable for their ships and transports, so that troops
might be landed, if need be, above Fort Washington.
Having ascertained this point, Howe left Lord Percy in com
mand at New York, and took a considerable part of his army up
the East river to Throg's Neck, with the view of getting into the
rear of the American army, cutting off its supplies, which were

->-NEWYQRK &VIEINITY'N 1776. •<-

To face page 227.

FIRST GREAT DEFENSIVE CAMPAIGN. 227
chiefly derived from the East, and interrupting its communication
with the raain country. Throg's Neck is a peninsula in West
chester County, stretching upwards of two railes into the Sound.
It was separated from the mainland by a narrow creek and a
marsh, and was surrounded by water every high tide. A bridge
across a creek, connecting with a ruined causeway across the
marsh, led to the mainland, and the upper end of the creek was
fordable at low water. Early in the morning of October 1 2, eighty or
ninety boats fuh of men had passed up the Sound and landed troops
to the number of four thousand on Throg's Point, the extremity of
the Neck. Thence their advance pushed forward toward the
causeway and bridge, to secure that pass to the raainland. Wash
ington had been too quick for them. Colonel Hand and his
Philadelphia riflemen, the same who had checked the British
advance on Long Island, had taken up the planks of the bridge,
and posted themselves opposite the end of the causeway, whence
they began firing with their rifles. They were soon so heavily
reinforced that the eneray were brought to a stand. Washing
ton ordered works to be thrown up at the passes frora the Neck
to the mainland. The British also threw up a work at the end of
the causeway. In the afternoon nine ships, with a great nuraber
of schooners, sloops, and flat-bottomed boats full of raen, passed
through Heh Gate, towards Throg's Point ; and information, re
ceived from two deserters, gave Washington reason to believe that
the greater part of the eneray's forces were gathering in that quar
ter. It was plain the whole scene of action was changing.
On the 14th, General Lee arrived in camp, where he was wel
comed as the harbinger of good luck. Washington was absent,
visiting the posts beyond King's Bridge, and the passes leading
from Throg's Neck ; Lee immediately rode forth to join him. No
one gave him a sincerer greeting than the commander-in-chief,
who, diffident of his own military knowledge, had a high opinion
of that of Lee. He immediately gave him comraand of the troops
above King's Bridge, now the greatest part of the army, but desired
that he would not exercise it for a day or two, until he had time
to acquaint himself with the localities and arrangeraents of the

228 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
post ; Heath, in the interim, held the command. Lee was elevated
by his success at the South, and disposed to criticise disparagingly
the military operations of other commanders. In a letter, written
on the day of his arrival to his old associate in arms. General
Gates, he condemns the position of the army, and censures Wash
ington for submitting to the dictation of Congress.
In the meantime Congress, on the nth of October, having
heard of the ingress of the Fhoenix, Roebuck, and Tartar, passed
a resolution that General Washington be desired, if it be practi
cable, by every art, and at whatever expense, to obstruct effectually
the navigation of the North river between Fort Washington and
Fort Lee, as well to prevent the regress of the enemy's vessels
lately gone up, as to hinder them from receiving succors.
Washington now decided to abandon the island of New York,
in order to preserve his communications. But as the resolve of
Congress seemed iraperative with regard to Fort Washington, that
post, it was agreed, should be " retained as long as possible." A
strong garrison was accordingly placed in it ; Colonel Magaw was
put in command of the post, and soleranly charged by Washington
to defend it to the last extreraity.
Previous to decaraping frora Manhattan Island, Washington
formed four divisions of the army, which were respectively assigned
to Generals Lee, Heath, Sullivan, and Lincoln. Lee was stationed
on Valentine's Hill on the mainland, immediately opposite King's
Bridge, to cover the transportation of the military stores and
heavy baggage. The other divisions were to form a chain of for
tified posts, extending about thirteen railes, along a ridge of hills
on the west side of the Bronx, from Lee's camp up to the vihage of
White Plains. Washington's head-quarters continued to be on
Harlem Heights for several days, during which time he was con
tinually m the saddle, riding about a broken, woody, and half-wild
country, forming posts, and choosing sites for breastworks and re
doubts. By his skilful disposition of the army, it was protected in
its whole length by the Bronx, a narrow but deep stream, frino-ed
with trees, which ran along the foot of the ridge ; at the sarae
tirae his troops faced and outflanked the enemy, and covered the

FIRST GREAT DEFENSIVE CAMPAIGN. 229
roads along which the stores and baggage had to be transported.
On the 2 ist, he shifted his head-quarters to Valentine's Hill, and
on the 23d to White Plains, where he stationed hiraself in a forti
fied carap. Meanwhile General Howe reraained for six days pas
sive in his camp on Throg's Point awaiting the arrival of supplies
and reinforcements, instead of pushing across to the Hudson, and
throwing himself between Washington's army and the upper coun
try. His inaction lost him a golden opportunity. By the time
his supphes arrived, the Americans had broken up the causeway
leading to the mainland, and taken positions too strong to be eashy
forced. Finding himself headed in this direction, Howe re-em
barked part of his troops in flat-boats on the i8th, crossed East-
chester Bay, and landed on Pell's Point, at the raouth of Hutch
inson's river. Here he was joined in a few hours by the main
body, with the baggage and artihery, and proceeded through the
manor of Pelhara towards New Rochehe ; stih with a view to get
above Washington's array, ^n the 21st he was encaraped about
two railes north of New Rochelle, with his outposts extending to
Maraaroneck on the Sound. While in this neighborhood he was
reinforced by a second division of Hessians under General Kny-
phausen, and a regiment of Waldeckers, both of which had re
cently arrived in New York. On the 25 th', Washington drew ah
his troops frora the posts along the Bronx into the fortified camp
at White Plains.
His carap was situated on high ground, facing the east. The
right wing stretched towards the south along a rocky hih, at the
foot of which the Bronx, making an elbow, protected it in flank and
rear. The left wing rested on a small, deep lake among the hills.
The carap was strongly entrenched in front. About a quarter of a
rahe to the right of the camp, and separated from the height on
which it stood by the Bronx and a marshy interval, was a corre
sponding height called Chatterton's Hih. As this partly cora
manded the right flank, and as the intervening bend of the Bronx
was easily passable, Washington had stationed on its summit a
rahitia regiraent.

230 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
Battle of White Plains. — The whole encampment was a tem
porary one, to be changed as soon as the military stores cohected
there could be removed ; and now that General Lee was arrived,
Washington rode out with him, and other general officers who were
off duty, to reconnoiter a height which appeared more eligible.
When arrived at it, Lee pointed to another on the north, still more
commanding. "Yonder," said he, "is the ground we ought to
occupy." " Let us go, then, and view it," replied Washington.
They were gently riding in that direction, when a trooper came
spurring up his panting horse. " The British are in the camp,
sir ! " cried he. " Then, gentlemen," said Washington, " we have
other business to attend to than reconnoitering." Putting spurs
to his horse, he set off for the camp at full gallop, the others spur
ring after him. Arrived at head-quarters, he was informed by
Adjutant-general Reed, that the pickets had been driven in, and
the enemy were advancing : but that the whole American army
was posted in order of battle.
Apprehensive that the eneray might attempt to get possession of
Chatterton's Hill, Washington increased the force there to sixteen
hundred men, and put General McDougall in command. This had
scarcely been done when the enemy appeared glistening on the
high grounds beyond the village of White Plains. They advanced
in two columns, the right commanded by Sir Henry Clinton, the
left by the Hessian general, Heister. There was also a troop of
horse ; formidable in the inexperienced eyes of the Americans.
For a time they halted in a wheat field, behind a rising ground,
and the general officers rode up in the centre to hold a consulta
tion. Washington supposed they were preparing to attack him in
front, and such indeed was their intention ; but the commanding
height of Chatterton's Hih had caught the eye of General Howe,
and he determined first to get possession of it. Colonel Rahl was
accordingly detached with a brigade of Hessians, to cross the Bronx
about a quarter of a mile below, and ascend the south side of the
hill ; while General Leslie, with a large force, should advance di
rectly in front, throw a bridge across the stream, and charge up
the hih.

FIRST GREAT DEFENSIVE CAMPAIGN. 231
A furious cannonade was now opened by the British frora fifteen
or twenty pieces of artihery, placed on high ground opposite ; un
der cover of which, Leslie's troops hastened to construct the
bridge. In so doing, they were severely galled by two field-pieces,
in charge of Alexander Harailton, the youthful captain of artillery.
As soon as the bridge was finished, they rushed over it, and charged
up the hill to take Harailton's two field-pieces. Three times the
field-pieces were discharged, ploughing the ascending columns
from hill-top to river, whhe Smallwood's "blue and buff" Mary-
landers kept up their volleys of musketry.
In the meantime, Rahl and his Hessian brigade forded the
Bronx lower down, pushed up the south side of the hill, and en
deavored to turn McDougah's right flank. The rnilitia gave their
general but little support. They had been dismayed at the open
ing of the engagement by a shot from a British cannon, which
wounded one of them in the thigh, and nearly put the whole to
flight. It was with the utmost difficulty McDougall had rallied
thera, and posted thera behind a stone wall. Here they did sorae
service, unth a troop of British cavalry, having gained the crest of
the hih, carae on, brandishing their sabres. At their first charge
the militia gave a random fire, then broke, and fled in confusion.
A brave stand was made on the surarait of the hill by the Del
aware and Maryland troops. Twice they repulsed the enemy,
unth, cramped for room and greatly outnumbered, they slowly
retreated down the north side of the hill, where there was a bridge
across the Bronx. Here they were met by General Putnam, who
was coraing to their assistance, and in the rear of his troops, they
marched back into the camp.
The loss on both sides, in this short but severe action, was
nearly equal, — sorae four hundred killed and wounded. The
British army now rested with their left wing on the hih they had
just taken, and which they were busy entrenching. They were
extending their right wing to the left of the American lines so that
their two wings and centre forraed nearly a seraicircle. It was
evidently their design to outflank the American camp, and get in
the rear of it. The day, however, being far advanced, was suffered

232 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
to pass without any further attack ; but the raorrow was looked
forward to for a deadly conflict. Washington availed himself of
this interval to have the sick and wounded, and as much of the
stores as possible, removed from the camp. The two armies lay
looking at each other, within long cannon shot. In the night time
the British lighted up a vast number of fires, the weather growing
pretty cold. These fires, some on the level ground, some at the
foot of the hihs, and at ah distances to their brows, some of which
were lofty, seemed to the eye to mix whh the stars. During this
anxious night, Washington was' assiduously occupied throwing
back his right wing to stronger ground ; doubling his entrench
ments and constracting three redoubts, with a line in front, on the
surarait of his post. These works, principally intended for defence
against small arms, were thrown up with a rapidity that to the
eneray must have savored of magic. They were made of the
stalks of Indian corn, pulled up with the earth clinging in masses
to the large roots, so that they answered the purpose of sods and
fascines. The tops being placed inwards, as the loose earth was
thrown upon them, becarae as so many trees to the work, which
was carried up with a dispatch scarcely conceivable.
In the morning of the 29th, when Howe beheld how greatly
Washington had strengthened his position by what appeared to be
solidly constracted works, he postponed his meditated assault,
ordered up Lord Percy from Harlem with reinforcements, and
proceeded to throw up hues and redoubts in front of the American
camp, as if preparing to cannonade it. As the enemy were en
deavoring to outflank him, especially on his right wing, Washing
ton apprehended one of their objects might be to seize Pine's
Bridge over Croton river, which would cut off his communication
with the upper country. General Beall, with three Maryland
regiments, was sent off with all expedition to secure that pass. It
was Washington's idea that, having possession of Croton river and
the passes in the Highlands, his army would be safe from further
pursuit, and ready to harass the enemy should they think fit to
winter up the country. At present nothing could exceed the war
worn condition of the troops. A scornful letter, written by a Brit-

FIRST GREAT DEFENSIVE CAMPAIGN. 233
ish officer to his friend in London, gives a picture of the plight to
which they were reduced, in this rainy and inclement season.
" The rebel array are in so wretched a condition as to clothing and
accoutreraents, that I believe no nation ever saw such a set of tat
terdemalions. There are few coats araong thera but what are out
at the elbows, and in a whole regiment there is scarce a pair of
breeches. Judge, then, how they must'be pinched by a winter's
campaign. We, who are warmly clothed and well equipped,
already feel it severely ; for it is even now much colder than I
ever felt it in England."
Alas for the poor half-naked weather-beaten patriots, who had
to cope with these weh-fed and well-clad veterans ! A letter
written at the same date, by General George Clinton, shows what
they had to grapple with.
" We had reason,'' writes he, " to apprehend an attack last night,
or by daylight this morning. Our lines were manned all night in
consequence ; and a most horrid night it was to lie in cold
trenches. Uncovered as we are, daily on fatigue, raaking re
doubts and abatis, and retreating frora thera and the little tempo
rary huts made for our comfort before they are all finished, I fear
will ultimately destroy our array without fighting. However,''
adds he, honestly, " I would not be understood to condemn these
measures. They may be right for aught I know. I do not under
stand much of the refined art of war ; it is said to consist in strata
gem and deception."
Clinton was an ardent patriot, of resolute spirit, and plain good
sense ; but an inexperienced soldier. His idea of warfare was
straightforward fighting ; and he was greatly perplexed by the con
tinual strategy which Washington's situation required. One of the
aides-de-camp of the latter had a truer notion on the subject.
"The campaign hitherto," said Tench Tilghman, " has been a fair
trial of generalship, in which I flatter myself we have had the
advantage. If we, with our motley army, can keep Mr. Howe and
his grand appointment at bay, I think we shall make no contemp
tible military figure."
On the night of the 31st, Washington raade another of those

234 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
moves which perplexed the worthy Clinton. In the course of the
night he shifted his whole position, set fire to the barns and out
houses containing forage and stores, which there was no time to
remove, and leaving a strong rear-guard on the heights, and in the
neighboring woods, retired with his main army a distance of five
miles, among the high, rocky hihs about Northcastle. Here he
immediately set to work to entrench and fortify himself; his policy
at this time being, as he used to say, " to fight with the spade and
mattock." General Howe did not atterapt to dislodge him from
this fastness. " All matters are as quiet as if the enemy were one
hundred miles distant from us," writes one of Washington's aides
on the 2d of November. During the night of the 4th, this quiet
was interrupted. A mysterious sound was heard in the direction
of the British camp, like the rumbling of wagons and artihery.
At daybreak the meaning of it was discovered. The enemy were
decaraping. Long trains were observed, defiling across the hilly
country, along the roads leading to Dobbs' Ferry on the Hudson.
The movement continued for three successive days, until their
whole force disappeared from White Plains.
Fort Washington in Danger. — Various were the speculations at
head-quarters on the sudden moveraent of the eneray. Washington
writes to Williara Livingston (governor of New Jersey) : " They
have gone towards the North river and King's Bridge. Some
suppose they are going into winter quarters. I cannot subscribe
wholly to this opinion. That they will invest Fort Washington, is
a matter of which there can be no doubt ; and I think there is a
strong probability that General Howe wih detach a part of his
force to make an incursion into the Jerseys. He must attempt
something on account of his reputation, for what has he done as
yet, with his great army?" In the same letter he expressed his
determination, as soon as it should appear that the prese;it manoeu
vre was a real retreat, and not a feint, to throw over a body of
troops into the Jerseys to assist in checking Howe's progress. He,
moreover, recommended to the governor to have the mhitia of
that state put on the best possible footing.
Affairs at Fort Washington soon settied the question of the

FIRST GREAT DEFENSIVE CAMPAIGN. 235
enemy's intentions with regard to it. Lord Percy took his station
with a body of troops before the lines to the south. Knyphausen
advanced on the north, and crossing King's Bridge, took a position
between it and Fort Washington. The approach to the fort, on
this side, was exceedingly steep and rocky ; as, indeed, were all
its approaches excepting that on the south, where the country was
more open, and the ascent gradual. The fort could not hold
within its wahs above one thousand men ; the rest of the troops
were distributed about the hnes and outworks. While the fort was
thus menaced, the chevaux-de-frise had again proved inefficient.
On the night of the 5 th, a frigate and two transports, bound up to
Dobbs' Ferry, with supplies for Howe's army, had broken through ;
though not without being considerably shattered by the batteries.
Informed of these facts, Washington wrote on the Sth, to Greene,
who was at Fort Lee in coramand both of that stronghold and of
Fort Washington : " If we cannot prevent vessels frora passing
up the river, and the enemy are possessed of all the surrounding
country, what valuable purpose can it answer to hold a post from
which the expected benefit cannot be had ? I ara, therefore, in
clined to think, that it will not be prudent to hazard the men and
stores at Fort Washington ; but, as you are on the spot, I leave it
to you to give such orders as to evacuating the fort as you may
judge best, and so far revoking the orders given to Colonel Magaw,
to defend it to the last.''
Greene, in reply (Nov. 9th) , adhered with tenacity to the pohcy
of maintaining Fort Washington. He did not consider the fort in
iraraediate danger. Colonel Magaw thought it would take the
eneray until the end of December to carry it. In the meantirae,
the garrison could at any tirae be brought off, and even the stores
reraoved, should matters grow desperate. If the enemy should
not find it an object of iraportance, they would not trouble them
selves about it ; if they should, it would be a proof that they felt
an injury from its being maintained. The giving it up would open
for them a free communication with the country by the way of
King's Bridge. It is doubtful when or where Washington received
this letter, as he left the camp at Northcastle at eleven o'clock of

236 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
the following morning. There being stih considerable uncertainty
as to the intentions of the enemy, ah his arrangements were made
accordingly. Ah the troops belonging to the states west of the
Hudson, were to be stationed in the Jerseys, under command of
General Putnam. Lord Stirling had aheady been sent forward
whh the Maryland and Virginia troops to Peekskih, to cross the
river at King's Ferry. Another division composed of Connecticut
and Massachusetts troops, under General Heath, was to co-operate
with the brigade of New York railitia under General George Chn
ton, in securing the Highland posts on both sides of the river.
The troops which would reraain at Northcastle after the departure
of Heath and his division, were to be commanded by Lee. Wash
ington's letter of instructions to that general is characterized by his
own modesty, and his deference for Lee's superior mihtary experi
ence. He suggests, rather than orders, yet his letter is sufficiently
explicit. ". . . You will consider the post at Pine's Bridge as under
your immediate care. ... If the enemy should remove the whole,
or the greater part of their force to the west side of Hudson's
river, I have no doubt of your following with ah possible dispatch,
leaving the mhitia and invalids to cover the frontiers of Connec
ticut in case of need."
On the I oth of Noveraber Washington left the carap at North
castle at eleven o'clock, and arrived at Peekskih at sunset ; whither
General Heath, with his division, had preceded hira by a few
hours. Lord Stirling was there, likewise, having effected the trans
portation of his troops across the river, and landed thera at the
ferry south of Stony Point. His lordship had thrown out a scout
ing party in the advance, and a hundred men to take possession
of a gap in the mountain, through which a road passed toward the
Jerseys. Washington was now at the entrance of the Highlands, that
grand defile of the Hudson, the object of so much precaution and
solicitude. On the following morning he made a military visit in
boats to the Highland posts. Fort Montgomery was in a consid
erable state of forwardness, and a work in the vicinity was pro
jected to co-operate with it. Fort Constitution coramanded a sud-

FIRST GREAT DEFENSIVE CAMPAIGN. 237
den bend of the river, but Lord Stirhng in his report of inspection
had intimated that the fort itself was commanded by West Point
opposite. A glance of the eye, without going on shore, was suffi
cient to convince Washington of the fact. A fortress, subsequently
erected on that point, has been considered the Key of the High
lands. Having made these arrangements, Washington placed
Heath in the general command of the Highlands, with written in
structions to fortify the passes with all possible dispatch, and direc
tions how the troops were to be distributed on both sides of the
river. Heath was now in the fortieth year of his age. He had been
brought up in rural hfe, on a farm near Boston ; yet he had from
childhood a great rehsh for raihtary affairs, and had studied every
treatise on the subject in the Enghsh language. He describes
hiraself as of raiddhng stature, light complexion, very corpulent and
bald-headed, so that the French officers who served in America,
compared hira to the Marquis of Granby. Such was the officer
intrusted with the coramand of the Highland passes, and encamped
at Peekskih, their portal.
Battle of Valcour Island. — During his brief sojourn at Peeks
kih, Washington received important intehigence frora the northern
array ; especially that part of it on Lake Charaplain, under the
command of General Gates. A slight retrospect of affairs in that
quarter is proper, before we proceed to narrate the eventful cam
paign in the Jerseys.
The preparations for the defence of Ticonderoga, and the nauti
cal service on the lake had met with difficulties at every step.
At length, by the raiddle of August, a smah flotiha was completed,
and the command given by Gates to Arnold, in compliance with
the advice of Washington, who had a high opinion of that officer's
energy, intrepidity, and ferthity in expedients.
Sir Guy Carleton, in the meantirae, was straining every nerve for
the approaching conflict. The successes of the British forces on
the sea-board had excited the zealous rivalry of the forces in Can
ada ; they were fearful the war raight be brought to a close, before
they could have an opportunity to share in the glory. Hence the

238 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
ardor with which they encountered and vanquished obstacles
which otherwise might have appeared insuperable. Vessels were
brought from England in pieces and put together at St. John, boats
of various kinds and sizes were transported over land, or dragged up
the rapids of the Sorel. Sir Guy was full of hope and ardor.
Should he get coramand of Lakes Charaplain and George, the
northern part of New York would be at his raercy ; before winter
set in he might gain possession of Albany. He would then be able
to co-operate with Howe in severing and subduing the northern and
southem provinces, and bringing the war to a speedy and triura
phant close.
In despite of every exertion, three months elapsed before his
armament was completed. Winter was fast approaching. Before
it arrived, the success of his brihiant plan required that he should
fight his way across Lake Charaplain ; carry the strong posts of
Crowm Point and Ticonderoga ; traverse Lake George, and pursue
a long and dangerous march through a wild country, beset with
forests and morasses, to Albany. That was the first post to the
southward where he expected to find rest and winter quarters for
his troops.
By the month of October, between twenty and thirty sail were
afloat, and ready for action. The flag-ship (the Inflexible')
mounted eighteen twelve-pounders ; the rest were gunboats, a
gondola and a flat-bottomed vessel, naraed the Thunderer ; car
rying a battery of six twenty-four and twelve six-pounders, be
sides howitzers. The gunboats mounted brass field-pieces and
howitzers. Seven hundred seamen navigated the fleet, which
was commanded by Captain Pringle, but Sir Guy Carleton was
too full of zeal not to head the enterprise ; he accordingly took
his station on the deck of the flag-ship. They made sail early
in October, in quest of the American squadron, which was said
to be abroad upon the lake. Amold, however, being ignorant
of the strength of the enemy, and unwhling to encounter a su
perior force in the open lake, had taken his post under cover of
Valcour Island, in the upper part of a deep channel, or strait
between that island and the mainland. His force consisted of

FIRST GREAT DEFENSIVE CAMPAIGN. 239
three schooners, two sloops, three galleys and eight gondolas ;
carrying in all seventy guns, raany of thera eighteen-pounders.
The British ships, sweeping past Curaberland Head with a fair
wind and flowing sah on the raorning of the nth, had left the
southern end of Valcour Island astern, when they discovered
Arnold's flotilla anchored behind it, in a line extending across the
strait so as not to be outflanked. They iraraediately hauled close
to the wind, and tried to beat up into the channel. The wind,
however, did not perrait the largest of them to enter. Arnold took
aidvantage of the circumstance. He was on board of the gahey
Congress, and, leaving the line, advanced, with two other gaheys
and the schooner Royal Savage, to attack the smaher vessels as
they entered, before the large ones could come up. About twelve
o'clock the enemy's schooner Carleton opened a brisk fire upon
the Royal Savage and the galleys. It was as briskly returned.
Seeing the eneray's gunboats approaching, the Americans endeav
ored to retum to the line. In so doing, the Royal Savage ran
aground. Her crew set her on fire and abandoned her. In about
an hour the British brought ah their gunboats in a range across the
lower part of the channel, within musket shot of the Araericans,
the schooner Carleton in the advance. They landed, also, a large
number of Indians on the island, to keep up a galling fire from the
shore upon the Araericans with their rifles. The action now
became general, and was severe and sanguinary. The Americans,
finding themselves thus hemmed in by a superior force, fought
with desperation. Arnold pressed with his galley into the hottest
of the fight. The Congress was hulled several times, received
seven shots between wind and water, was shattered in mast and
rigging, and many of the crew were killed or wounded. The ardor
of Arnold increased with his danger. He cheered on his men by
voice and example, often pointing the guns with his own hands.
The contest lasted throughout the day. Carried on as it was
within a narrow corapass, and on a tranquh lake, alraost every shot
took effect. The fire of the Indians frora the shore was less deadly
than had been expected ; but their whoops and yells, mingling
with the rattiing of the musketry, and the thundering of the can-

240 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
non, increased the horrors of the scene. Volumes of smoke rose
above the woody shores, which echoed with the unusual din of war,
and for a time this lovely recess of a beautiful and peaceful lake
was a pandemonium.
The evening drew nigh, yet the contest was undecided. Cap
tain Pringle called off the smaher vessels which had been engaged,
and anchored his whole squadron in a line as near as possible to
the Americans, so as to prevent their escape ; trusting to capture
the whole of them when the wind should prove favorable, so that
he could bring his large vessels into action.
Arnold, however, sensible that with his inferior and crippled
force all resistance would be unavailing, took advantage of a dark
cloudy night and a strong north wind ; his vessels slipped silently
through the enemy's line without being discovered, one fohowing a
light on the stern of the other : and by daylight they were out of
sight. They had to anchor, however, at Schuyler's Island, about
ten mhes up the lake, to stop leaks and raake repairs. Two ofthe
gondolas were here sunk, being past remedy. About noon the
retreat was resumed, but the wind had becorae adverse ; and they
made little progress. Arnold's galley, the Congress, the Washing
ton gahey and four gondolas, all which had suffered severely in the
late fight, fell astern of the rest of the squadron in the course of
the night. In the morning, when the sun lifted a fog which had
covered the lake, they beheld the enemy within a few miles of
them in full chase, while their own comrades were nearly out of
sight, raaking the best of their way for Crown Point.
It was now an anxious trial of speed and seamanship. Arnold,
with the crippled relics of his squadron, managed by noon to get
within a few leagues of Crown Point, when they were overtaken by
the Inflexible, the Carleton, and the schooner Maria. As soon as
they carae up, they poured in a tremendous fire. The JVashino-ton
gahey, already shattered, and having lost most of her officers was
compehed to strike, and Arnold had now to bear the brunt of the
action. For a long time he was engaged within musket shot with
the Inflexible and the two schooners, until his galley was reduced
to a wreck and one-third of the crew were killed. The gondolas

FIRST GREAT DEFENSIVE CAMPAIGN. 241
were nearly in the same desperate condition ; yet the raen stood
stoutly to their guns. Seeing resistance vain, Arnold deterrained
that neither vessels nor crew should fall into the hands of the
eneray. He ordered the gondolas to run on shore, in a sraall
creek in the neighborhood, the raen to set fire to thera as soon as
they grounded, to wade on shore with their muskets, and keep off
the eneray until they were consumed. He did the sarae with his
own gahey, remaining on board of her until she was in flaraes,
lest the eneray should get possession and strike his flag, which was
kept flying to the last.
He now set off with his gallant crew, raany of whom were
wounded, by a road through the woods to Crown Point, where he
arrived at night, narrowly escaping an Indian arabush. Two
schooners, two gaheys, one sloop, and one gondola, the reranant
which had escaped of this squadron, were at anchor at the Point.
Seeing that the place raust soon fall into the hands of the eneray,
they set fire to the houses, destroyed everything they could not carry
away, and embarking in the vessels raade sail for Ticonderoga.
The conduct of Arnold in these naval affairs gained him new
laurels. He was extolled for the judgraent with which he chose
his position, and brought his vessels into action ; for his masterly
retreat, and for the self-sacrificing devotion with which he exposed
hiraself to the overwhelming force of the enemy in covering the
retreat of part of his flotiha.
Sir Guy Carleton took possession of the ruined works at Crown
Point, where he was soon joined by the army. He made several
raoveraents by land and water, as if raeditating an attack upon
Ticonderoga ; yet, to the astonishment of everybody, he suddenly
decided to postpone the enterprise. It seemed to hira that the
post, from its strength, and the apparent nuraber and resolution of
the garrison, could not be taken without great loss of hfe. If taken,
the season was now too far advanced to think of passing Lake
George, and exposing the array to the perils of a winter campaign
in the inhospitable and impracticable wilds to the southward. If,
however, the defence should be obstinate, the British army, even if
successful, might sustain a loss sufficient to cripple its operations

242 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
in the coming year. Accordingly, re-embarking his troops, Carle
ton returned to St. John, and cantoned them in Canada for the
winter. All apprehensions of an attack upon Ticonderoga during
the present year were at an end, and many of the troops stationed
there were already on their march toward Albany.
Such was the purport of the news received by Washington at
Peekskih. It relieved him for the present from ah anxiety respect
ing affairs on Lake Champlain, and gave him the prospect of rein
forcements from that quarter.
Fall of Fort Washington. — On the morning of the 12 th of
November, Washington crossed the Hudson, to the ferry below
Stony Point, with the residue of the troops destined for the Jerseys.
Far below were to be descried the Fhcenix, the Roebuck, and the
Tartar, at anchor in the broad waters of Haverstraw Bay and the
Tappan Sea, guarding the lower ferries. The army, thus shut out
frora the nearer passes, was slowly winding its way by a circuitous
route through the gap in the mountains, which Lord Stirling had
secured. Leaving the troops which had just landed, to pursue the
same route to the Hackensack, Washington struck a direct course
for Fort Lee, being anxious about affairs at Fort Washington. He
arrived there on the following day, and found, to his disappoint
ment, that General Greene had taken no measures for the evacua
tion of that fortress ; but on the contrary, had reinforced it, so that
its garrison now numbered nearly three thousand men. Colonel
Magaw, its brave commander, stih thought it was in no immediate
danger. At this very moment General Howe was encamped on Fordhara
Heights, not far from King's Bridge. In the night of the 14th,
thirty flat-bottomed boats stole quietiy up the Hudson, passed the
American forts undiscovered, and made their way through Spyt den
Duivel Creek into Harlem river. The means were thus provided
for crossing that river and landing before unprotected parts of the
American works. On the 15th, General Howe sent in a suramons
to surrender, with a threat of extremities should he have to carrv
the place by assault. Magaw, in his reply, intimated a doubt that
General Howe would execute a threat " so unworthy of himself and

FIRST GREAT DEFENSIVE CAMPAIGN. 243
the British nation ; but give me leave," added he, " to assure his
Excellency, that, actuated by the most glorious cause that raankind
ever fought in, I ara determined to defend this post to the very
last extremity."
Apprised by the colonel of his peril. General Greene sent over
reinforceraents, with an exhortation to him to persist in his de
fence ; and dispatched an express to Washington, who was at
Hackensack, where the troops which had crossed from Peekskhl
were encamped. It was nightfall when Washington arrived at
Fort Lee. Greene and Putnara were over at the besieged fortress.
He threw hiraself into a boat, and had partly crossed the river,
when he met those generals returning. They informed hira of the
garrison's having been reinforced, and assured him that it was in
high spirits, and capable of making a good defence. It was with
difficulty, however, they could prevail on hira to return with them
to the Jersey shore, for he was excessively excited.
Early the next morning (i6th), Magaw raade his dispositions for
the expected attack.
Colonel Lambert Cadwalader, with eight hundred Pennsylva
nians, was posted in the outer lines, about two mhes south of the
fort, the side menaced by Lord Percy with sixteen hundred men.
Colonel Rawlings, with a body of Maryland riflemen, was stationed
by a three-gun battery, on a rocky, precipitous hill, north of the
fort, and between it and Spyt den Duivel Creek. Colonel Baxter,
with his regiraent of Pennsylvania railitia, was posted east of the
fort, on rough, woody heights, bordering the Harlem river, to
watch the motions of the enemy, who had thrown up redoubts on
commanding ground, on the opposite side of the river, apparently
to cover the crossing and landing of troops.
General Howe had planned four simultaneous attacks ; one on
the north by Knyphausen, who was encaraped on the York side of
King's Bridge, within cannon-shot of Fort Washington, but sepa
rated frora it by high and rough hihs, covered with alraost impene
trable woods. He was to advance in two columns, formed by
detachraents made from the Hessians of his corps, the brigade of
Rahl, and the regiraent of Waldeckers. The second attack was to

244 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
be by two battalions of light infantry, and two battalions of guards,
under Brigadier-general Matthews, who was to cross Harlem river
in flat-boats, under cover of the redoubts above mentioned, and to
land on the right of the fort. This attack was to be supported by
the first and second grenadiers, and a regiment of light infantry
under command of Lord Cornwallis. The third attack, intended
as a feint to distract the attention of the Americans, was to be by
Colonel Steriing, with the forty-second regiment, who was to drop
down the Hariem river in bateaux, to the left of the American
lines, facing New York. The fourth attack was to be on the south,
by Lord Percy, with the English and Hessian troops under his
comraand, on the right flank of the American entrenchments.
About noon, a heavy cannonade thundering along the rocky
hills, and sharp volleys of musketry, proclaimed that the action
was commenced. Knyphausen's division was pushing on from the
north in two columns, as had been arranged. The right was led
by Colonel Rahl, the left by himself Rahl essayed to raount a
steep, broken height called Cock Hill, which rises from Spyt den
Duivel Creek, and was covered with woods. Knyphausen under
took a hill rising from the King's Bridge road, but soon found
himself entangled in a woody defile, difficult to penetrate, and
where his Hessians were exposed to the fire of the three-gun bat
tery, and Rawlings' riflemen.
Whhe this was going on at the north of the fort. General
Matthews, with his light infantry and guards, crossed the Harlem
river in the flat-boats, under cover of a heavy fire frora the
redoubts. He made good his landing, after being severely han
dled by Baxter and his men, from behind rocks and trees, and the
breastworks thrown up on the steep river bank. A short contest
ensued. Baxter, while bravely encouraging his men, was killed
by a British officer. His troops, overpowered by numbers, re
treated to the fort. General Matthews now pushed on with his
guards and light infantry to cut off Cadwalader. That officer had
gallantly defended the lines against the attack of Lord Percy
until inforraed that Colonel Sterling was dropping down Harlem
river in bateaux to flank the lines, and take him in the rear. He

FIRST GREAT DEFENSIVE CAMPAIGN. 24S
sent off a detachraent to oppose his landing. They did it man
fully. About ninety of Sterling's raen were killed or wounded in
their boats, but he persevered, landed, and forced his way up a
steep height, which was weh defended, gained the surarait, forced
a redoubt, and took nearly two hundred prisoners. Thus doubly
assahed, Cadwalader was obliged to retreat to the fort. He was
closely pursued by Percy, but turned repeatedly on his pursuers.
Thus he fought his way to the fort, with the loss of several killed
and raore taken prisoners ; but raarking his track by the nuraber
of Hessians slain.
The defence on the north side of the fort was equally obstinate
and unsuccessful. Rawlings had for sorae tirae kept the left col
umn under Knyphausen at bay. At length Colonel Rahl, having
forced his way directly up the north side of the steep hill at Spyt
den Duivel Creek, came upon Rawlings' men, whose rifles from
frequent discharges had become foul and almost useless, drove
them from their strong post, and followed them unth within a
hundred yards of the fort, where he was joined by Knyphausen,
who slowly made his way through a dense forest and over felled
trees. Here they took post behind a large stone house, and sent
in a flag, with a second suramons to surrender.
Washington, surrounded by several of his officers, had been an
anxious spectator of the battle from the opposite side of the Hud
son. Much of it was hidden from him by intervening hills and
forest ; but the roar of cannonry from the valley of Harlera river,
the sharp and incessant reports of rifles, and the sraoke rising
above the tree tops, told him of the spirit with which the assault
was received at various points, and gave hira for a tirae a hope
that the defence raight be successful. The action about the lines
to the south lay open to hira, and could be distinctly seen through
a telescope ; and nothing encouraged him more than the gallant
style in which Cadwalader with an inferior force maintained his
position. When he saw him, however, assailed in flank, the hne
broken, and his troops, overpowered by nurabers, retreating to
the fort, he gave up the game as lost. The worst sight of all, jvas
to behold his men cut down and bayoneted by the Hessians while

246 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
begging quarter. It is said so completely to have overcome him,
that he wept "with the tenderness ofa child."
Seeing the flag go into the fort from Knyphausen's division, and
surmising it to be a summons to surrender, he wrote a note to
Magaw, telling him that if he could hold out unth evening and the
place could not be maintained, he would endeavor to bring off the
garrison in the night. Captain Gooch, of Boston, a brave and
daring man, offered to be the bearer of the note. He ran down
to the river, jumped into a smah boat, pushed over the river,
landed under the bank, ran up to the fort and dehvered the mes
sage, carae out, ran and jumped over the broken ground, dodging
the Hessians, some of whom struck at hira with their pieces, and
others attempted to thrust him with their bayonets ; escaping
through thera, he got to his boat and returned to Fort Lee.
Washington's message arrived too late. The fort was so crowded
by the garrison, and the troops which had retreated into it, that it
was difficult to move about. The enemy, too, were in possession
of the little redoubts around, and could have poured in showers of
shells and ricochet balls that would have made dreadful slaughter.
It was no longer possible for Magaw to get his troops to man the
lines ; he was corapelled, therefore, to yield hiraself and his garri
son prisoners of war. The only terms granted them were, that the
men should retain their baggage and the officers their swords.
The sight of the American flag hauled down, and the British
flag waving in its place, told Washington of the surrender.
Retreat through New Jersey. — With the capture of Fort
Washington, the project of obstructing the navigation of the Hud
son, at that point, was at an end. Fort Lee, consequently, be
came useless, and Washington ordered ah the ammunition and
stores to be removed, preparatory to its abandonment. This was
partially effected when, early in the morning of the 20th, intelli
gence was brought that the enemy, with two hundred boats, had
crossed the river and landed a few mhes above. General Greene
immediately ordered the garrison under arms, sent out troops to
hold the enemy in check, and dispatched an express to AVashine-
ton at Hackensack.

WashijTotons Carnpaign's

To face page 247.

FIRST GREAT DEFENSIVE CAMPAIGN. 247
The enemy — six thousand strong — ^had crossed the Hudson,
on a very rainy night, under the coramand of Lord Cornwallis, and
landed at a place called Closter Dock, five or six miles above Fort
Lee, and under that line of lofty and perpendicular cliffs known
as the Pahsades.
Washington arrived at the fort in three-quarters of an hour.
Being told that the enemy were extending themselves across the
country, he at once saw that they intended to form a hne from the
Hudson to the Hackensack, and hem the whole garrison in be
tween the two rivers. Nothing would save it but a prompt retreat
to secure the bridge over the Hackensack. No time was to be
lost. The troops sent out to check the enemy were recalled. The
retreat comraenced in all haste. There was a want of horses and
wagons ; a great quantity of baggage, stores, and provisions, there
fore, was abandoned. So was all the artillery excepting two
twelve-pounders. Even the tents were left standing, and carap-
kettles on the fire. At Hackensack the array did not exceed three
thousand men, dispirited by ill success, and the loss of tents and
baggage. They were without entrenching tools, in a flat country,
where there were no natural fastnesses. Again, to avoid the danger
of being inclosed between two rivers, a second move was neces
sary. Leaving three regiraents to guard the passes of the Hack
ensack, and serve as covering parties, Washington again decamped,
and threw hiraself on the west bank of the Passaic, in the neigh
borhood of Newark.
His array, small as it was, would soon be less. The term of en
listment of many of the soldiers was nearly expired ; and it was
not probable that, disheartened as they were by defeats and losses,
exposed to inclement weather, and unaccustomed to military hard
ships, they would longer forego the coraforts of their horaes, to
drag out the residue of a ruinous campaign. In addition, too, to
the superiority Of the force that was following him, the rivers gave
the enemy facilities, by means of their shipping, to throw troops
in his rear. The situation of the httle array was daily becoraing
raore perilous. In a council of war, several of the raerabers urged
a raove to Morristown, to form a junction with troops expected

248 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
from the Northern army. Washington, however, stih cherished
the idea of raaking a stand at Brunswick on the Raritan, or, at
all events, of disputing the passage of the Delaware ; and in this
intrepid resolution he was warmly seconded by Greene. Break
ing up his camp once raore, therefore, he continued his retreat
towards New Brunswick ; but so close was Cornwahis upon hira,
that his advance entered one end of Newark, just as the Ameri
can rear-guard had left the other.
From Brunswick, Washington wrote on the 29th to William
Livingston, governor of the Jerseys, requesting hira to have all
boats and river craft, for seventy railes along the Delaware, re
raoved to the western bank out of the reach of the enemy, and put
under guard. He was disappointed in his hope of making a stand
on the banks of the Raritan. All the force he could muster at
Brunswick, including the New Jersey militia, did not exceed four
thousand men. Colonel Reed had fahed in procuring aid from
the New Jersey legislature. That body, shifting frora place to
place, was on the eve of dissolution. The term of the Maryland
and New Jersey troops in the flying camp had expired. General
Mercer endeavored to detain them, representing the disgrace of
turning their backs upon the cause when the enemy was at hand :
his remonstrances were fruitless. As to the Pennsylvania levies,
they deserted in such nurabers, that guards were stationed on the
roads and ferries to intercept thera.
Ever since the retreat from the Hudson began, Washington had
sent letters almost daily to Lee at Northcastle, ordering him to
corae with ah possible speed to join him with the force left under
his comraand, \yhich now araounted to more than half of the army.
But Lee had now made up his mind to use the loss of Fort Washing
ton for his own advantage. He wished to see Washington ruined
in order that he might himself obtain the chief command. So
he wickedly disobeyed orders, and stayed at Northcastie until he
thought Washington's case was quite hopeless. Meanwhile he was
busily employed in writing treacherous letters to prominent men
in the hope of poisoning their minds against Washington. His
motives were not fully understood at the time ; but papers of his

FIRST GREAT DEFENSIVE CAMPAIGN. 249
subsequentiy discovered have shown that he was an unmitigated
scoundrel, — a traitor more base in character than Benedict Arnold,
and not less dangerous.
Washington lingered at Brunswick until the ist of Deceraber, in
the vain hope of being reinforced. The enemy, in the meantime,
advanced through the country, impressing wagons and horses,
and collecting cattle and sheep, as if for a distant march. At
length their vanguard appeared on the opposite side of the Rari
tan. Washington immediately broke down the end of the bridge
next the village, and after nightfall resuraed his retreat. At Prince
ton he left twelve hundred raen under Lord Stirling, to cover the
country, and watch the motions of the enemy. The harassed army
reached Trenton on the 2d of Deceraber, and Washington imme
diately proceeded to remove his baggage and stores across the
Delaware. Lord Howe and his brother sought to profit by the general dis
may and despondency. A proclamation, dated 30th of Noveraber,
commanded all persons in arms against His Majesty's govemment
to disband and return home, and all Congresses to desist frora
treasonable acts : offering a free pardon to all who should coraply
within fifty days. Many who had been prominent in the cause
hastened to take advantage of this proclaraation. Those who had
raost property to lose were the first to submit. The middle ranks
remained generally steadfast.
In this dark day of peril to the cause and to himself, Washing
ton remained firm and undaunted. In casting about for sorae
stronghold where he raight make a desperate stand for the liber
ties of his country, his thoughts reverted to the mountain regions
of his early carapaigns. General Mercer was at hand, who had
shared his perils araong these mountains, and his presence may
have contributed to bring them to his mind. "What think you,"
said Washington ; " if we should retreat to the back parts of Penn
sylvania, would the Pennsylvanians support us? "
" If the lower counties give up, the back counties will do the
sarae," was the discouraging reply.
"We raust then retire to Augusta County in Virginia," said

250 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
Washington. " Numbers will repair to us for safety, and we
will try a predatory war. If overpowered, we must cross the
Aheghanies." Such was the indomitable spirit, rising under difficulties, and
buoyant in the darkest moment, that kept our tempest-tost cause
from foundering.
Lee taken Prisoner. — Notwithstanding the repeated and press
ing orders and entreaties of the commander-in-chief, it was not
until the 4th of December that Lee crossed the Hudson and began
a laggard march, though aware of the imrainent peril of 'Washing
ton and his army. In the raeantirae, Washington had profited
by a delay of the enemy at Brunswick, and removed most of the
stores and baggage of the army across the Delaware ; and being
reinforced by fifteen hundred Pennsylvania militia, prepared to
face about, and march back to Princeton with such of his troops
as were fit for service, there to be governed by circumstances, and
the movements of General Lee. Accordingly, on the 5 th of
December he sent about twelve hundred men in the advance, to
reinforce Lord Stirling, and the next day set off himself with the
residue. But Lee had no idea of conforming to a general plan ;
he had an independent plan of his own, and was at that moment
at Pompton, indulging speculations on military greatness, and the
lamentable want of it in his American contemporaries. In a letter
from that place to Governor Cooke of Rhode Island, he imparts
his notions on the subject. "Theory joined to practice, or a
heaven-born genius, can alone constitute a general. As to the
latter, God Almighty indulges the modern world very rarely with
the spectacle ; and I do nof know, from what I have seen, that he
has been more profuse of this ethereal spirit to the Americans, than
to other nations."
While Lee was thus loitering and speculating, Cornwallis, know
ing how far he was in the rear, and how weak was the situation of
Washington's army, made a forced march from Brunswick and
was within two miles of Princeton. Stirling, to avoid being sur
rounded, immediately set out for Trenton. Washington, too,
receiving intehigence of these movements, hastened back to that

FIRST GREAT DEFENSIVE CAMPAIGN. 251
place, and caused boats to be collected from all quarters, and the
stores and troops transported across the Delaware. He himself
crossed with the rear-guard on Sunday morning, and took up his
quarters about a rahe from the river; causing the boats to be
destroyed, and troops to be posted opposite the fords. He was
conscious, however, as he said, that with his small force he could
raake no great opposition, should the eneray bring boats with
them. Fortunately, they did not come thus provided.
The rear-guard had barely crossed the river, when Lord Corn
wallis came raarching down with all the pomp of war, in great
expectation of getting boats, and immediately pursuing. Not one
was to be had there or elsewhere ; for Washington had caused the
boats, for an extent of seventy miles up and down the river, to be
secured on the right bank. His lordship was effectually brought
to a stand. He raade sorae raoves with two columns, as if he
would cross the Delaware above and below, either to push on to
Philadelphia, or to entrap Washington in the acute angle made by
the bend of the river opposite Bordentown. An able disposition
of American troops along the upper part of the river, and of a
number of gaheys below, discouraged any attempt of the kind.
Cornwahis, therefore, gave up the pursuit, distributed the German
troops in cantonments along the left bank of the river, and sta
tioned his main force at Brunswick, trusting to be able before long
to cross the Delaware on the ice.
Putnam was now detached to take comraand of Phhadelphia,
and put it in a state of defence ; and Congress hastily adjourned
on the 1 2th of December, to meet again on the 20th, at Baltimore.
Washington's whole force at this time was about five thousand
five hundred men ; one thousand of thera Jersey mihtia, fifteen
hundred militia frora Philadelphia, and a battalion of five hundred
of the German yeomanry of Pennsylvania. Gates, however, was
coraing on with seven regiments detached by Schuyler frora the
northern departraent.
Three of these regiraents descended the Hudson to Peekskih,
and were ordered by Lee to Morristown. Gates had erabarked with
the remaining four, and landed with them at Esopus, whence he

252 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
took a back route by the Delaware and the Minisink. On the
nth of December, he was detained by a heavy snow storm, in a
sequestered valley near the Wallpeck in New Jersey. Being cut
off frora ah information respecting the adverse armies, he detached
Major Wilkinson to seek Washington's camp, with a letter, stating
the force under his command, and inquiring what route he should
take. Wilkinson crossed the hills on horseback to Sussex court
house, took a guide, and proceeded down the country. Washing
ton, he soon learnt, had passed the Delaware several days before :
the boats, he was told, had been removed frora the ferries, so that
he would find some difficulty in getting over, but Major-general
Lee was at Morristown. Finding such obstacles in his way to the
coraraander-in-chief, he determined to seek the second in com
mand, and ask orders from him for General Gates. Lee had de
camped from Morristown on the 12th of December, but had
iparched no further than Vealtown, barely eight miles distant.
There he left General Sullivan with the troops, while he took up
his quarters three rriiles off, at a tavern, at Baskingridge. As there
was not a British cantonment within twenty miles, he took but a
small guard for his protection, thinking himself perfectly secure.
At about four o'clock in the morning, Whkinson arrived at his
quarters. He was presented to the general as he lay in bed, and
delivered into his hands the letter of General Gates. Lee, observ
ing it was addressed to Washington, declined opening it, until
apprised by Whkinson of its contents, and the motives of his visit.
He then broke the seal, and recoraraended Wilkinson to take
repose. The latter lay down on his blanket, before a corafortable
fire, among the officers of his suite ; " for we were not encumbered
in those days," says he, "with beds or baggage." Lee, naturahy
indolent, lingered in bed until eight o'clock. He then carae
down in his usual slovenly style, half-dressed, in shppers and
blanket coat, his collar open, and his linen apparently of some
days' wear. After some inquiries about the campaign in the
North, he gave Wilkinson a brief account of the operations of the
main array, which he condemned in strong terms, and in his usual
sarcastic way. Colonel Scammel, the adjutant-general, called

FIRST GREAT .DEFENSIVE CAMPAIGN. 253
from General Sullivan for orders concerning the moming march.
After musing a raoment or two, Lee asked him if he had a manu
script map of the country. It was produced, and spread upon the
table. Whkinson observed Lee trace with his finger the route
from Vealtown to Pluckarain, thence to Soraerset court-house, and
on, by Rocky Hill, to Princeton ; he then returned to Pluckarain,
and traced the route in the sarae raanner by Boundbrook to
Brunswick, and after a close inspection carelessly said to Scaramel,
" Tell General Suhivan to move down towards Pluckarain ; that I
will soon be with hira." This, observes Wilkinson, was off his
route to Alexandria on the Delaware, where he had been ordered
to cross, and directly on that towards Brunswick and Princeton.
He was convinced, therefore, that Lee raeditated an attack on the
British post at the latter place. From these various delays they
did not sit down to breakfast before ten o'clock. After breakfast
Lee sat writing a reply to General Gates, in which, as usual, he
indulged in sarcastic comraents on the coramander-in-chief.
While Lee was writing, Wilkinson was looking out of a window
down a lane, about a hundred yards in length, leading frora the
house to the raain road. Suddenly a party of British dragoons
tumed a comer of the avenue at fuh charge. " Here, sir, are the
British cavalry ! " exclairaed Wilkinson.
"Where? " replied Lee, who had just signed his letter.
"Around the house!" — for they had opened file and sur
rounded it.
"Where is the guard?  the guard, why don't they fire?"
Then after a raomentary pause — " Do, sir, see what has become
of the guard."
The guards, alas, unwary as their general, and chihed by the air
of a frosty moming, had stacked their arms, and repaired to the
south side of a house on the opposite side of the road to sun
themselves, and were now chased by the dragoons in different
directions. In fact, a Tory, who had found where Lee was to lodge
and breakfast, had ridden eighteen mhes in the night, to Brans-
wick, and given the information, and had piloted back Colonel
Harcourt with his dragoons.

254 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
The women of the house would fain have concealed Lee in a
bed, but he rejected the proposition with disdain. Whkinson,
according to his own account, posted himself in a place where
only one person could approach at a time, and there took his
stand, a pistol in each hand, resolved to shoot the first and second
assailant, and then appeal to his sword. Whhe in this " unpleas
ant situation," as he terms it, he heard a voice declare, " If the
general does not surrender in five minutes, I will set fire to the
house ! " After a short pause the threat was repeated, with a
soleran oath. Within two minutes he heard it proclaimed, " Here
is the general, he has surrendered."
There was a shout of triumph, but a great hurry to make sure
of the prize before the army should arrive to the rescue. A trura-
pet sounded the recall to the dragoons, who were chasing the scat
tered guards. The general, bareheaded, and in his slippers and
blanket coat, was raounted on Wilkinson's horse, which stood- at
the door, and the troop clattered off with their prisoner to Bruns
wick. In three hours the booming of the cannon in that direction
told the exultation of the enemy. They boasted of having taken
the American Palladium ; for they considered Lee the most scien
tific and experienced of the rebel generals.
On the departure of the troops, Wilkinson, finding the coast
clear, ventured from his stronghold, repaired to the stable, mounted
the first horse he could find, and rode full speed in quest of Gen
eral Sullivan, whom he found under march toward Pluckarain.
He handed hira the letter to Gates, written by Lee the moment
before his capture, and still open. Sullivan having read it, returned
it to Wilkinson, and advised him to rejoin General Gates without
delay : for his own part, being now in coramand, he changed his
route, and pressed forward to join the commander-in-chief
^Vilkinson, who was at that time conversant with the cabals of
the camp, points out what he considers the true secret of Lee's
conduct. His military reputation, originally very high, had been
enhanced 'of late, by its being generally believed that he had been
opposed to the occupation of Fort Washington ; while the fall of
that fortress and other misfortunes of the campaign, though bevond

FIRST GREAT DEFENSIVE CAMPAIGN. 255
the control of the commander-in-chief, had quickened the discon
tent which, according to Wilkinson, had been generated against
him at Cambridge, and raised a party against him in Congress.
In this teraper of the times, if General Lee had anticipated Gen
eral Washington in cutting the cordon of the enemy between New
York and the Delaware, the commander-in-chief would probably
have been superseded. In this case Lee would have succeeded
him. What an unfortunate change would it have been for the
coimtry 1
Victory at Trenton. — Congress, prior to their adjournment,
had resolved that " until they should otherwise order. General
Washington should be possessed of all power to order and direct
all things relative to the departraent and to the operations of war."
Thus empowered, he proceeded iraraediately to recruit three bat
talions of artillery. The promise of increased pay and bounties
had kept together for a time the dissolving array. The local rahi
tia began to turn out freely. Colonel John Cadwalader, a gentle
raan of gallant spirit, and cultivated mind and manners, brought a
large volunteer detachment, well equipped, and composed princi
pally of Philadelphia troops. Washington, who held Cadwalader
in high esteem, assigned him an important station at Bristol, with
Colonel Reed, who was his intimate friend, as an associate. They
had it in charge to keep a watchful eye upon Count Donop's Hes
sians, who were cantoned along the opposite shore from Borden
town to fhe Black Horse.
On the 20th of Deceraber arrived General Sullivan in camp,
with the troops recently commanded by the unlucky Lee. They
were in a miserable plight ; destitute of almost everything ; raany
of thera fit only for the hospital, and those whose terms were
nearly out, thinking of nothing but their discharge. About four
hundred of them, who were Rhode Islanders, were sent down to
reinforce Cadwalader, who was now styled brigadier-general by
courtesy, lest the continental troops raight object to act under his
comraand. On the same day arrived General Gates, with the remnants of
four regiments from the Northern army. "When the divisions

256 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
of Sullivan and Gates joined General Washmgton," writes Wilkin
son, " he found his numbers increased, yet his difficulties were not
sensibly diminished ; ten days would disband his corps and leave
him fourteen hundred men, miserably provided in ah things.
I saw him in that gloomy period ; dined with him, and attentively
marked his aspect ; always grave and thoughtful, he appeared at
that time pensive and solemn in the extreme."
There were vivid schemes forming under that solemn aspect.
The time seemed now propitious for a coup de main which Washing
ton had of late been raeditating. Everything showed careless con
fidence on the part of the eneray. Howe was in winter quarters
at New York. His troops were loosely cantoned about the Jer
seys, from the Delaware to Brunswick, so that they could not read
ily be brought to act in concert on a sudden alarm. The Hessians
were in the advance, stationed along the Delaware, facing the
American lines, which were along the west bank. Comwahis,
thinking his work accomplished, had obtained leave of absence,
and was likewise at New York, preparing to embark for England.
Washington had now between five and six thousand men fit for
service ; with these he meditated crossing the river at night, at
different points, and making simultaneous attacks upon the Hes
sian advance posts.
A brigade of three Hessian regiraents was stationed at Trenton.
Colonel Rahl had the coraraand of the post at his own solicitation,
and in consequence of the laurels he had gained at White Plains
and Fort Washington. Rumors that the Americans meditated an
attack had aroused the vigilance ofthe colonel, and on the 21st of
December he had reconnoitered the banks of the Delaware, with a
strong detachment, quite to Frankfort, to see if there were any
movements of the Americans indicative of an intention to cross
the river. He had returned without seeing any ; but had since
caused pickets and alarm posts to be stationed every night outside
the town. Such was the posture of affairs at Trenton at the time
the coup de main was meditated.
Whatever was to be done, however, must be done quickly before
the river was frozen. An intercepted letter had convinced Wash-

FIRST GREAT DEFENSIVE CAMPAIGN. 257
ington of what he had before suspected, that Howe was only wait
ing for that event to resurae active operations, cross the river on
the ice, and push triuraphantly to Philadelphia.
He communicated his project to Gates, and wished him to go to
Bristol, take command there, and co-operate from that quarter.
Gates, however, pleaded ill health, and requested leave to proceed
to Phhadelphia. The request may have surprised Washington, con
sidering the spirited enterprise that was on foot ; but Gates, as has
before been observed, had a disinclination to serve immediately
under the coramander-in-chief; like Lee, he had a disparaging
opinion of him, or rather an impatience of his supreraacy. He
had, moreover, an ulterior object in view. Having been disap
pointed and chagrined, in finding hiraself subordinate to General
Schuyler in the Northern campaign, he was now intent on making
interest araong the raerabers of Congress for an independent cora
raand. He set out thence for Baltimore on the 24th of December,
the very day before that of the intended coup de main. He pre
vailed on Wilkinson to accompany him as far as Phhadelphia. On
the road he appeared to be much depressed in spirits ; but relieved
himself, like Lee, by criticising the plans of the coraraander-in-
chief. " He frequently," writes Wilkinson, " expressed the opin
ion that, while Washington was watching the enemy above Trenton,
they would construct bateaux, pass the Delaware in his rear, and
take possession of Philadelphia before he was aware ; and that,
instead of vainly atterapting to stop General Howe at the Dela
ware, General Washington ought to retire to the south of the Sus
quehanna, and there forra an army. He said it was his inten
tion to propose this measure to Congress at Baltimore, and urged
me to accompany him to that place ; but my duty forbade the
thought.'' Here we have somewhat of a counterpart to Lee's project of
eclipsing the coramander-in-chief Evidently the two railitary
veterans who had once been in conclave with hira at Mount Ver
non considered the truncheon of command falling from his grasp.
The projected attack upon the Hessian posts was to be three
fold.

258 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
ist. Washington was to cross the Delaware with a considerable
force, at McKonkey's Ferry (now Taylorsvhle), about nine miles
above Trenton, and march down upon that place, where Rahl's
cantonment comprised a brigade of fifteen hundred Hessians, a
troop of British light horse, and a number of chasseurs.
2d. General Ewing, with a body of Pennsylvania mhitia, was to
cross at a ferry about a mile below Trenton ; secure the bridge
over the Assunpink creek, a stream flowing along the south side of
the town, and cut off any retreat of the enemy in that direction.
3d. General Putnara, with the .troops occupied in fortifying
Phhadelphia, and those under General Cadwalader, was to cross
below Burhngton, and attack the lower posts under Count Donop.
The several divisions were to cross the Delaware at night, so as to
be ready for siraultaneous action, by five o'clock in the morning.
Seldom is a combined plan carried into full operation. Symp
toms of an insurrection in Phhadelphia, obliged Putnara to reraain
with sorae force in that city ; but he detached five or six hundred
of the Pennsylvania rahitia under Colonel Griffin, his adjutant-
general, who threw himself into the Jerseys, to be at hand to co
operate with Cadwalader.
Early on. the eventful evening (Dec. 25th), the troops destined
for Washington's part of the attack, about two thousand four hun
dred strong, with a train of twenty sraall pieces, were paraded near
McKonkey's Ferry, ready to pass as soon as it grew dark, in the
hope of being all on the other side by twelve a'clock. \\'ashing-
ton repaired to the ground accompanied by Generals Greene, Sul
livan, Mercer, Stephen, and Lord Stirhng. Greene was fuh of
ardor for the enterprise ; eager, no doubt, to wipe out the recollec
tion of Fort Washington. It was, indeed, an anxious moraent for
ah. We have here some circumstances furnished to us by the me
moirs of Whkinson. That officer had returned from Philadelphia,
and brought a letter frora Gates to Washington. There was sorae
snow on the ground, and he had traced the march of the troops
for the last few miles by the blood from the feet of those whose
shoes were broken. Being directed to Washington's quarters he

FIRST GREAT DEFENSIVE CAMPAIGN. 259
found him, he says, alone, with his whip in his hand, prepared to
mount his horse. " When I presented the letter of General Gates
to hira, before receiving it, he exclaimed with solemnity, — ' What
a time is this to hand me letters ! ' I answered that I had been
charged with it by General Gates. ' By General Gates ! Where
is he?' 'I left him this morning in Philadelphia.' 'What was
he doing there ? ' 'I understood him that he was on his way to
Congress.' He earnestly repeated, ' On his way to Congress ! '
then broke the seal, and I raade ray bow, and joined General
St. Clair on the bank of the river."
Did Washington surmise the incipient intrigues and cabals,
that were already airaing to undermine him ? Had Gates' eager
ness to push on to Congress, instead of reraaining with the army
in a moment of daring enterprise, suggested any doubts as to his
object? Perhaps not. Washington's nature was too noble to be
suspicious, and yet he had received sufficient cause to be dis
trustful. Boats being in readiness, the troops began to cross about sunset.
The weather was intensely cold ; the wind was high, the current
strong, the river full of fioating ice. Colonel Glover, with his
amphibious regiraent of Marblehead fisherraen, was in advance.
They were raen accustoraed to battle with the elements, yet with
ah their skih and experience, the crossing was difficult and perilous.
Washington, who had crossed with the troops, stood anxiously,
yet patiently, on the eastern bank, whhe one precious hour after
another elapsed, until the transportation of the artillery should be
effected. The night was dark and tempestuous, the drifting ice
drove the boats out of their course, and threatened them with
destruction. Colonel Knox, who attended to the crossing of the
arthlery, assisted with his labors, but stih more with his " stentorian
lungs," giving orders and directions.
It was three o'clock before the artillery was landed, and nearly
four before the troops took up their line of march. Trenton was
nine mhes distant, and not to be reached before daylight. Wash
ington forraed the troops into two colurans. The first he led
hiraself, accompanied by Greene, Stirhng, Mercer, and Stephen ;

260 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
it was to raake a circuit by the upper or Pennington road, to the
north of Trenton. The other, led by Suhivan, and including the
brigade of St. Clair, was to take the lower river road, leading
to the west end of the town. Suhivan's column was to halt a few
moraents at a cross-road leading to Howland's Ferry, to give
Washington's column time to effect its circuit, so that the attack
might be siraultaneous. On arriving at Trenton, they were to
force the outer guards, and push directly into the town before the
enemy had time to form.
The situation of Washington was more critical than he was
aware. Notwithstanding the secrecy wdth which his plans had
been conducted. Colonel Rahl had received a warning from Gen
eral Grant, at Princeton, of the intended attack, and of the very
tirae it was to be made, but stating that it was to be made by a
detachment under Lord Stirling. Rahl was accordingly put on
the alert. But it so happened that about dusk of the preceding
evening, alarm guns were fired at the Trenton outpost. The whole
garrison was instantly drawn out under arms, and Colonel Rahl
hastened to the outpost. It was found in confusion, and six men
wounded. A body of men had emerged from the woods, fired
upon the picket, and iramediately retired. Colonel Rahl, with
two companies and a field-piece, marched through the woods, and
made the rounds of the outposts, but seeing and hearing nothing,
and finding all quiet, returned. Supposing this to be the attack
against which he had been warned, and that it was " a mere flash
in the pan," he relapsed into his feeling of security ; and, as the
night was cold and stormy, permitted the troops to return to their
quarters and lay aside their arms. Thus the garrison and its
unwary commander slept in fancied security, at the very tirae tiiat
Washington and his troops were making theh toilsome way across
the Delaware.
It began to hail and snow as the troops commenced their march,
and increased in violence as they advanced, the storm driving the
sleet in their faces. So bitter was the cold that two of the men
were frozen to death that night. The day dawned by the time
Sullivan halted at the cross-road. It was discovered that the sto

FIRST GREAT DEFENSIVE CAMPAIGN. - 261
had rendered many of the muskets wet and useless. " What is to
be done ? " inquired Suhivan of St. Clair. " You have nothing for
it but to push on, and use the bayonet," was the reply. While
some of the soldiers were endeavoring to clean their muskets,
Suhivan dispatched an officer to apprise the commander-in-chief
of the condition of their arras. He came back half dismayed
by an indignant burst of Washington, who ordered him to retum
instantly and teh General Sullivan to " advance and charge."
It was about eight o'clock when Washington's column arrived
in the vicinity ofthe vihage. The storra, which had rendered the
march intolerable, had kept every one within doors, and the snow
had deadened the tread of the troops and the rambling of the
arthlery. As they approached the villagp, Washington, who was
in front, came to a raan who was chopping wood by the roadside,
and inquired, "Which way is the Hessian picket?" "I don't
know," was the surly reply. " You raay teh," said Captain Forest
of the artillery, " for that is General Washington." The aspect of
the man changed in an instant. Raising his hands to heaven,
" God bless and prosper you ! " cried he. " The picket is in that
house, and the sentry stands near that tree."
The advance guard was led by a brave young officer. Captain
Wihiam Washington, seconded by Lieutenant Jaraes Monroe (in
after years President of the United States) . They received orders
to dislodge the picket, who came very near being entrapped in
the guard-house. He at first made a stand, thinking he had a
raere raarauding party to deal with ; but seeing heavy battalions at
hand, got out of the way as quickly as possible. By this time the
American arthlery was unlimbered; Washington kept beside it,
and the column" proceeded. The report of fire-arms told that
Suhivan was at the lower end of the town. Colonel Stark led his
advance guard, and did it in gallant style. The attacks, as con
certed, were simultaneous. The outposts were driven in ; they
retreated, firing from behind houses. The Hessian drams beat to
arms ; the trumpets of the light horse sounded the alarm ; the
whole place was in an uproar. Some of the enemy made a wild
and undirected fire frora the windows of theh quarters ; others

262 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
rashed forth in disorder, and attempted to form in the main street,
while dragoons hastily mounted, and galloping about, added to the
confusion. Washington advanced with, his column to the head
of King Street, riding beside Captain Forest of the artihery. When
Forest's battery of six guns was opened, the general kept on the
left and advanced with it, giving directions to the fire. His posi
tion was an exposed one, and he was repeatedly entreated to fall
back ; but all such entreaties were useless, when once he became
heated in action.
The enemy were training a couple of cannon in the main street
to form a battery, which might have given the Americans a serious
check ; but Captain Washington and Lieutenant Monroe, with a
part of the advanced guard, rashed forward, drove the artillerists
from their guns, and took the two pieces when on the point of
being fired. Both of these officers were wounded ; the captain
in the wrist, the lieutenant in the shoulder.
While Washington advanced on the north of the town, Sullivan
approached on the west, and detached Stark to press on the lowei
or south end of the town. The British light horse, and about five
hundred Hessians and chasseurs, had been quartered in the lower
part of the town. Seeing Washington's column pressing in front,
and hearing Stark thundering in their rear, they took headlong
flight by the bridge across the Assunpink, and so along the banks
of the Delaware toward Count Donop's encampment at Borden
town. Had Washington's plan been carried into full effect, their
retrea^ould have been cut off by General Ewing ; but that officer
had been prevented frora crossing the river by the ice.
Colonel Rahl completely lost his head in the confusion of the
surprise. With some difficulty he succeeded in extricating his
troops from the town, and leading them into an adjacent orchard.
Now was the time, if ever, for him to have pushed for another
place, there to make a stand. A rapid retreat by the Princeton
road was apparentiy in his thoughts; but he lacked decision. The
idea of flying before the rebels was intolerable. Some one too
exclaimed at the rainous loss of leaving all their baggage to be
plundered by the enemy. Changing his mind, he made a rash

FIRST GREAT DEFENSIVE CAMPAIGN. 263
resolve. " All who are my grenadiers, forward 1 " cried he, and
went back like a storm upon the town. He led his grenadiers
bravely but rashly on, when, in the midst of his career, he received
a fatal wound from a musket ball, and feh from his horse. His
men, left without their chief, were struck with dismay, and retreated
by the right, — up the banks of the Assunpink, intending to escape
to Princeton. Washington saw their design, and threw Colonel
Hand's corps of Pennsylvania riflemen in their way ; while a body
of Virginia troops gained their left. Thus brought to a stand, and
perfectly bewildered, the men grounded their arms and surrendered
at discretion.
The number of prisoners taken in this affair was nearly one
thousand, of whora thirty-two were officers. Washington's triuraph,
however, was irapaired by the fahure of the two simultaneous at
tacks. General Ewing, who was to have crossed before day at
Trenton Ferry, and taken possession of the bridge leading out of
the town, over which the light horse and Hessians retreated, was
prevented by the quantity of ice in the river. Cadwalader was
hindered by the same obstacle. He got part of his troops over,
but found it impossible to embark his cannon, and was obliged,
therefore, to return to the Pennsylvania side of the river. Had
he and Ewing crossed, Donop's quarters would have been beaten
up, and the fugitives frora Trenton intercepted.
By the failure of this part of his plan, Washington had been
exposed to irarainent hazard. The force with which he had
crossed, twenty-four hundred men, raw troops, was not enough to
cope with the veteran garrison, had it been properly on its guard ;
and then there were the troops under Donop at hand to co-operate
with it. Nothing saved him but the utter panic of the eneray, and
their exaggerated idea of his forces ; for one of their journals
states that Washington had with hira fifteen thousand raen, and
another, six thousand. Even now that the place was in his posses
sion he dared not linger in it. There was a superior- force under
Donop below him, and a strong battalion of infantry at Princeton.
His own troops were exhausted by the operations of the night
and morning, and they had to guard about a thousand prisoners.

264 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
Washington, therefore, deterrained to reeross the Delaware with
his prisoners and captured artillery.
The cannonade in Trenton on the morning of the 26th had_
been distinctly, heard at Cadwalader's camp at Bristol. Imper
fect tidings of the result reached there about eleven o'clock, and
produced the highest exultation and excitement. Cadwalader
made another attempt to cross the river and join Washington,
whom he supposed to be stih in New Jersey, fohowing up the
blow he had struck. He could not effect the passage of the river
unth raid-day of the 27th, when he received frora Washington a
detailed account of his success, and of his having recrossed into
Pennsylvania. Cadwalader was now in a dilemma. Donop's
forces were equal, if not superior in number to his own, and
veterans instead of raw railitia. But then there was the glory of
rivalhng the exploit at Trenton, and the importance of following
out the effort for the relief of the Jerseys, and the salvation of
Philadelphia. Besides, Washington, in all probability, after dis
posing of his prisoners, had again crossed into the Jerseys and
raight be acting offensively.
Reed reheved Cadwalader from his dhemma, by proposing that
they should push on to Burlington, and there determine, accord
ing to intehigence, whither to proceed next.
As they approached Burhngton they found the place deserted.
There was no smoke, nor any sign of a huraan being. From the
country people in the neighborhood they received an explanation.
As soon as Count Donop had heard of the disaster at Trenton, he
immediately began a retreat in the utmost panic and confusion,
calhng in his guards and parties as he hurried forward. Colonel
Reed, who was in the advance, sent back intehigence of this to
Cadwalader, and still pushed on with his companions. As they
rode along, they observed the inhabitants pulling down red rags
which had been nailed to their doors ; Tory signs to insure good
will from the British. Arrived at Bordentown not an enemy was
to be seen ; the fugitives from Trenton had spread a panic on the
26th, and the Hessians and their refugee adherents had fled in
confusion, leaving their sick behind them.

FIRST GREAT DEFENSIVE CAMPAIGN. 265
Reed and Cadwalader now wrote to Washington, urging him to
reeross the river, and pursue the advantages already gained. Donop
raight be overtaken before he could reach Princeton or Brunswick,
where the enemy were yet in force. Washington needed no prompt
ing of the kind. Bent upon fohowing up his blow, he had barely
allowed his troops a day or two to recover from recent exposure
and fatigue, that they might have strength and spirit to pursue the
retreating eneray and entirely reverse affairs in New Jersey. He
hiraself had crossed on the 29th of December, but it took two days
more to get the troops and arthlery over the icy river, and that with
great labor and difficulty. And now came a perplexity. With the
year expired the term of several regiraents, which had seen most
service, and become inured to danger. Knowing how indispensa
ble were such troops to lead on those which were raw and undisci
plined, Washington had them paraded and invited to re-enlist. It
was a difficult task to persuade thera. They were haggard with
fatigue, and hardship and privation of every kind ; and their
hearts yearned for horae. By the persuasiqns of their officers,
however, and a bounty of ten dollars, the greater proportion of
those from the eastward were induced to remain six weeks longer.
Hard money was necessary in this emergency. How was it to
be fumished? On the 30th, Washington wrote by express to
Robert Morris, the patriot financier at Philadelphia, whora he
knew to be eager that the blow should be followed up. " If you
could possibly collect a sum, if it were but one hundred, or
hundred and fifty pounds, it would be of service." Morris re
ceived the letter in the evening. He was at his wit's end to
raise the sum, for hard money was scarce. Fortunately a wealthy
Quaker in this moment of exigency supplied the "sinews of war,"
and eariy the next moming the raoney was forwarded by the
express. At this critical raoraent, too, Washington received a letter from
a coraraittee of Congress, transraitting him resolves of that body
dated the 2 7th of December, investing him with military powers
of almost unliraited extent, though it is not accurate to speak of
thera — as sorae have done — as dictatorial.

266 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
Victory at Princeton. — General Howe, in recognition of his
successes, had just been made a Knight Commander of the Bath.
He was taking his ease in winter- quarters at New York, waiting for
the freezing of the Delaware to pursue his triumphant march to
Phhadelphia, when tidings were brought him of the surprise and
capture of the Hessians at Trenton. He instantiy stopped Lord
Cornwahis, who was on the point of embarking for England, and
sent him back in all haste to resume the comraand in New Jersey.
The ice in the Delaware impeded the crossing of the American
troops, and gave the British time to draw in their scattered can
tonments and assemble their whole force at Princeton. While his
troops were yet crossing, Washington learned that Lord Cornwallis
had joined General Grant the day before at Princeton, with a
reinforcement of chosen troops. They had now seven or eight
thousand men, and were pressing wagons for a raarch upon Tren
ton. It was also said that Sir Williara Howe was on the march
with a thousand light troops, with which he had landed at Amboy.
The situation of Washington was growing critical. The enemy
were beginning to advance their large pickets towards Trenton.
Everything indicated an approaching attack. Washington accord
ingly chose a position for his main body on the east side of the
Assunpink. There was a narrow stone bridge across it, where the
water was very deep — the same bridge over which part of Rahl's
brigade had escaped in the recent affair. He planted his artillery
so as to coraraand the bridge and the fords. "His advance guard
was stationed about three mhes off in a wood, having in front a
stream called Shabbakong Creek.
Early on the morning of the 2d, came certain word that Com
wahis was approaching with ah his force. Strong parties were sent
out under General Greene, who skirmished with the enemy and
harassed them in their advance. By twelve o'clock they reached
the Shabbakong, and halted for a time on its northern bank.
Then crossing it, and moving forward with rapidity, they drove
the advance guard out of the woods, and pushed on until they
reached a high ground near the town. Here Hand's corps of
several battahons was drawn up, and held them for a time in

FIRST GREAT DEFENSIVE CAMPAIGN. 267
check. All the parties in advance ultimately retreated to the main
body, on the east side of the Assunpink, and found sorae difficulty
in crowding across the narrow bridge.
From all these checks and delays, it was nearly sunset before
Cornwalhs with the head of his array entered Trenton. His rear
guard under General Leslie rested about six railes distant, half
way between Trenton and Princeton. Forming his troops into
columns, he now raade repeated attempts to cross the Assunpink
at the bridge and the fords, but was as often repulsed by the
artillery. For a part of the time Washington, mounted on a white
horse, stationed himself at the south end of the bridge, issuing
his orders. Each time the eneray was repulsed there was a shout
along the American lines. At length they drew off, came to a halt,
and hghted their camp fires. The Americans did the same, using
the neighboring fences for the purpose. Sir Wihiam Erskine, who
was with Cornwallis, urged hira, it is said, to attack Washington
that evening in his caijip ; but his lordship declined ; he felt sure of
the game which had so often escaped him ; he had at length, he
thought, got Washington into a situation from which he could not
escape, but where he raight make a desperate stand, and he was
whling to give his wearied troops a night's repose to prepare them
for the closing struggle. He would be sure, he said, to " bag the
fox in the raorning."
A cannonade was kept up on both sides unth dark ; but with
httle damage to the Americans. When night closed in, the two
camps lay in sight of each other's fires, ruminating the bloody
action of the following day. It was the most gloomy and anxious
night that had yet closed in on the American army, throughout its
series of perhs and disasters ; for there was no concealing the
impending danger. What must have been the feelings of the
coraraander-in-chief, as he anxiously patrohed his camp and con
sidered his dangerous position? A smah stream, fordable in sev
eral places, was ah that separated his raw, inexperienced army,
from an eneray vastly superior in numbers and discipline. A
general action with them raust be ruinous ; but how was he to
retreat ? Behind him was the Delaware, irapassable frora floating

268 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
ice. Granting even that a retreat across it could be effected, the
consequences would be equally fatal. New Jersey would be left
in possession of the enemy, endangering the immediate capture of
Phhadelphia, and sinking the public mind into deeper despondency
than ever.
In this darkest of raoraents a gleara of hope flashed upon his
mind: a bold expedient suggested itself Almost the whole of
the enemy's force must by this time be drawn out of Princeton,
and advancing by detachments toward Trenton, whhe theh baggage
and principal stores must remain weakly guarded at Branswick.
Was it not possible by a rapid night-march along the Quaker
road, a different road from that on which Leslie with the rear
guard was resting, to get past that force undiscovered, corae by
surprise upon those left at Princeton, capture or destroy what
stores were left there, and then push on to Brunswick? This would
save the army from being cut off, while some fortunate stroke might
give additional reputation to the American arms. In pursuance
of this daring scherae the baggage of the army was silently re
moved to Burlington, and every other preparation was raade for a
rapid march. To deceive the eneray, men were employed to dig
trenches near the bridge within hearing of the British sentries,
with orders to continue noisily at work unth daybreak ; others
were to go the rounds ; reheve guards at the bridge and fords ;
keep up the camp fires, and maintain all the appearance of a reg
ular encampment. At daybreak they were to hasten after the
army. In the dead of the night, the army drew quietiy out of the en
campment and began its march. General Mercer, mounted on a
favorite gray horse, was in the advance with about three hundred
and fifty men, principally relics of the brave Delaware and Mary
land regiments, with some of the Pennsylvania militia. The main
body fohowed, under Washington's immediate command.
The Quaker road was a complete roundabout joining the main
road about two miles from Princeton, where Washington expected
to arrive before daybreak. The road, however, was new and
ragged ; cut through woods, where the sturaps of trees broke the

FIRST GREAT DEFENSIVE CAMPAIGN. 269
wheels of some of the baggage trains, and retarded the march
of the troops ; so that it was near sunrise of a bright, frosty
raorning, when Washington reached the bridge over Stony Brook,
about three railes frora Princeton. After crossing the bridge, he
led his troops along the bank of the brook to the edge of a
wood, where a by-road led off on the right through low grounds,
and was said by the guides to be a short cut to Princeton, and less
exposed to view. By this road Washington defiled with the raain
body, ordering Mercer to continue along the brook with his brig
ade, until he should arrive at the raain road, where he was to
secure, and if possible, destroy a bridge over which it passes ; so
as to intercept any fugitives frora Princeton, and check any retro
grade raoveraents of the British troops which raight have advanced
towards Trenton.
Hitherto the movements of the Americans had been undis
covered by the enemy. Three regiments of the latter, the 1 7th,
40th, and 55 th, with three troops of dragoons, had been quartered
all night in Princeton, under marching orders to join Lord Corn
wallis in the morning. The 1 7th regiment, under Colonel Mawhood,
was already on the march; the 55th regiment was preparing to
fohow. Mawhood had crossed the bridge by which the main road
to Trenton passes over Stony Brook, and was proceeding through
a wood beyond, when, as he attained the summit of a hill about sun
rise, the glittering of arms betrayed to him the moveraent of Mer
cer's troops to the left, who were filing along the Quaker road to
secure the bridge, as they had been ordered. The woods pre
vented hira frora seeing their nuraber. He supposed thera to be
some broken portion of the American army flying before Lord
Comwahis. With this idea, he faced about and made a retrograde
movement, to intercept them or hold thera in check ; whhe mes
sengers spurred off at all speed, to hasten forward the regiments
still lingering at Princeton, so as corapletely to surround thera.
The woods concealed him until he had recrossed the bridge of
Stony Brook, when he came in full sight of the van of Mercer's
brigade. Both parties pushed to get possession of a rising ground
on the right near the house of a Mr. Clark, of the peaceful Society

270 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
of Friends. The Americans being nearest reached it first, and
formed behind a hedge fence which extended along a slope in
front of the house ; whence being chiefly armed with rifles, they
opened a destructive fire. It was returned with great spirit by
the enemy. At the first discharge Mercer was dismounted, " his
gallant gray " being crippled by a musket bah in the leg. One of
his colonels, also, was mortally wounded and carried to the rear.
.\vahing themselves of the confusion thus occasioned, the British
charged with the bayonet ; the American rifleraen were thrown into
disorder and retreated. Mercer, who was on foot, endeavored to
rally them, when a blow from the butt end of a musket felled him
to the ground. He rose and defended himself with his sword,
but was surrounded, bayoneted repeatedly, and left for dead.
Mawhood pursued the broken and retreating troops to the brow
of the rising ground, on which Clark's house was situated, when
he beheld a large force emerging from a wood and advancing to
the rescue. It was a body of Pennsylvania raihtia, which Wash
ington, on hearing the firing, had detached to the support of
Mercer. Mawhood instantly ceased pursuit, drew up his artihery,
and by a heavy discharge brought the railitia to a stand.
At this raoraent Washington himself arrived at the scene of
action, having galloped from the by-road in advance of his troops.
From a rising ground he beheld Mercer's troops retreating in
confusion, and the detachment of militia checked by Mawhood's
artillery. Everything was at peril. Putting spurs to his horse, he
dashed past the hesitating rahitia, waving his hat and cheering
thera on. His commanding figure and white horse raade him a
conspicuous object for the eneray's marksmen, but he heeded it
not. Gahoping forward under the fire of Mawhood's battery, he
cahed upon Mercer's broken brigade. The Pennsylvanians rahied
at the sound of his voice, and caught fire from his example. At
the same time the 7th Virginia regiment emerged from the wood,
and moved forward with loud cheers, whhe a fire of grape-shot
was opened by the American artillery, from the brow of a ridge to
the south. Mawhood, who a moment before had thought his tri
umph secure, found himself assahed on every side, and separated

FIRST GREAT DEFENSIVE CAMPAIGN. 271
from the other British regiments. He fought, however, with great
bravery, and forcing his way, at the point of the bayonet, through
gathering foes, retreated in disorder and with heavy loss towards
Trenton to join Cornwallis. In the meantirae the 55th regiraent,
which had been on the left and nearer Princeton, had been en
countered by the Araeriean advance guard under General St. Clair, -
and after sorae sharp fighting in a ravine had given way, and was
retreating across fields and along a by-road to Brunswick. The
remaining regiment, the 40th, had not been able to come up in
time for the action ; a part of it fled toward Brunswick ; the res
idue took refuge in the college at Princeton, recently occupied by
thera as barracks. Artillery was now brought to bear on the col
lege, and a few shot compelled those within to surrender.
In this brief but brihiant action, about one hundred of the
British were left dead on the field, and nearly three hundred
taken prisoners, fourteen of whora were officers. The loss of the
Araericans was about twenty-five or thirty raen and several offi
cers. Among the latter was the brave and noble General Mercer,
who died a few days afterward in the house of Mr. Clark, whither
he had been conveyed by his aide-de-camp.
In the pursuit of the routed regiments which were making a
headlong retreat to Branswick, Washington took the lead at the
head of a detachment of cavalry. At Kingston, however, three
miles to the northeast of Princeton, he pulled up, restrained his
ardor, and held a council of war on horseback. Should he keep
on to Brunswick or not? The capture of the British stores and
baggage would make his triumph complete ; but, on the other
hand, his troops were excessively fatigued by their rapid raarch all
night and hard fight in the raorning. AH of them had been one
night without sleep, and sorae of them two, and raany were half-
starved. They were without blankets, thinly clad, sorae of thera
barefooted, and this in freezing weather. Cornwahis would be
upon them before they could reach Brunswick. His rear-guard,
under Leslie, had been quartered but six railes from Princeton,
and the retreating troops must have roused thera. Under these
considerations, it was determined to discontinue the pursuit and

272 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
push for Morristown. There they would be in a mountainous
country, heavily wooded, in an abundant neighborhood, and on
the flank of the enemy, with various defiles by which they might
change their position according to his movements.
Filing off to the left, therefore, from Kingston, and breaking
down the bridges behind him, Washington took the narrow road
by Rocky Hih to Pluckarain. His troops were so exhausted, that
many in the course of the march would he down in the woods on
the frozen ground and fah asleep, and were with difficulty roused
and cheered forward. At Pluckarain he halted for a time, to
allow them a little repose and refreshment. Whhe they are taking
breath we will cast our eyes back to the camp of Cornwallis, to
see what was the effect upon him of this masterly movement of
Washington. His lordship had retired to rest at Trenton with the
sportsman's vaunt that he would " bag the fox in the raorning."
Nothing could surpass his surprise and chagrin when at daybreak
the expiring watchfires and deserted camp of the Americans told
hira that he was outgeneralled and the prize had once more
evaded his grasp.
For a tirae he could not learn whither the army, which had
stolen away so silently, had directed its stealthy raarch. By sun
rise, however, there was the booming of cannon, like the rumbling
of distant thunder, in the direction of Princeton. The idea
flashed upon him that Washington had not raerely escaped, but
was about to raake a dash at the British magazines at Brunswick.
Alarraed for the safety of his railitary stores, his lordship forthwith
broke up his camp, and made a rapid march towards Princeton.
As he arrived in sight of the bridge over Stony Brook, he beheld
a party of American troops busy in its destruction. A distant
discharge of round shot from his field-pieces drove them away,
but the bridge was already broken. It would take time to repair
it for the passage of the artillery ; so Cornwallis hi his impatience
urged his troops breast-high through the turbulent and icy stream,
and again pushed forward. Crossing the bridge at Kingston he
kept on along the Brunswick road, supposing Washington still
before hira. The latter had got far in the advance, during the

FIRST GREAT DEFENSIVE CAMPAIGN. 273
delay caused by the broken bridge at Stony Brook, and the altera
tion of his course at Kingston had carried him completely out of
the way of Cornwallis. His lordship reached Brunswick towards
evening, and endeavored to console hiraself, by the safety of the
mihtary stores, for being so completely foiled and outmanoeuvred.
Washington in the meantime continued forward to Morristown,
where at length he carae to a halt frora his incessant and harass
ing marchings. Colonel Reed was ordered to send out rangers
and bodies of militia to scour the country, waylay foraging parties,
cut off supphes, and keep the cantonments of the enemy in a
state of siege. " I would not suffer a man to stir beyond their
lines," writes Washington, " nor suffer thera to have the least cora
raunication with the country." The situation of Cornwallis be
came daily more and more irksorae. Spies were in his carap, to
give notice of every raovement, and foes without to take advan
tage of it ; so that not a foraging party could sally forth without
being waylaid. By degrees he drew in his troops which were
posted about the country, and collected them at New Brunswick
and Araboy, so as to have a coraraunication by water with New
York, whence he was now corapelled to draw nearly all his
supplies. The recent operations in the Jerseys had suddenly changed the
whole aspect of the war, and given a triuraphant close to what
had been a disastrous carapaign. The troops, which had so long
been driven from post to post, had all at once turned upon their
pursuers, and astounded them by brihiant stratagems and daring
exploits. The commander, whose cautious policy had been sneered
at by eneraies, and regarded with impatience by misjudging friends,
had all at once shown that he possessed enterprise as well as cir
curaspection, energy as well as endurance, and that beneath his
wary coldness lurked a fire quick to break forth at the proper
moraent. This year's carapaign, the raost critical one of the war,
and especially the part of it which occurred in New Jersey, was
the ordeal that made his great qualities fully appreciated by his
countrymen, and gained for hira frora the statesmen and generals
of Europe the appellation of the American Fabius.

274 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
§ 6. The Northern Invasion.
Winter and Spring of 1777. — The British govemment was
astonished at the issue of the campaigns which had just closed.
The plan had been to capture or disperse the American armies
and to get complete control of Ticonderoga and the city of New
York, and of the Hudson river between them. There were a
great many Tories in the city and state of New York ; and it was
thought that if this state could be thus conquered, it might be easily
held, and would effectually separate New England and Virginia,
the two chief centres of the rebellion. The success of the British
had fallen far short of their expectations. The furious resistance
of Arnold had so discouraged Carleton that he had refrained from
attacking Ticonderoga and had withdrawn into winter-quarters.
At the other end of the line, the army of Washington, instead of
being captured or dispersed, had ended the campaign with two
important victories, and now held Sir William Howe in check.
The new year would call for greater efforts on the part of the
British. Burgoyne went home to England and spent the winter
making plans with the king and his ministers. In the spring he
retumed with instructions to conduct the expedition against
Ticonderoga and down the Hudson, wliile his superior officer
General Carleton should stay in Canada. An expedition mider
Colonel Barry St. Leger was to ascend the St. Lawrence to Lake
Ontario, land at Oswego, and come down the Mohawk vahey,
gathering Tory and Indian recruits, driving the patriots from that
part of the country, and finally uniting with Burgoyne. Sir Wihiam
Howe was at the same time to ascend the Hudson, capture the
American forts in the Highlands, and effect a junction with Bur
goyne. Such was the British plan for the summer campaign. It
fahed, mainly because Howe never received full and positive
instructions, and being left to act upon his own discretion, fahed
to co-operate with Burgoyne.
General Charles Lee was kept in New York as a prisoner during
the whole of the year 1777, while the king made up his mind what
should be done with him. As he had once been lieutenant-colonel

THE NORTHERN INVASION. 275
in the British army, he was regarded as a deserter, and would
probably have been shot but for Washington's interference. Wash
ington informed Howe that he had selected five of the Hessian
officers captured at Trenton, and should keep thera as hostages
for Lee's safety. The British government then did not dare to
put Lee to death for fear of harm to the Hessian officers, which
would be hkely to cause serious disaffection among the German
troops. But meanwhhe Lee, alarraed for his personal safety, tried
to set himself right with the British by acting the part of a traitor
toward the Americans. During the winter and spring he plotted
with Howe and gave hira the benefit of ah the information he
possessed, such as might help him in conquering the Araericans in
the course of the suraraer. As usual, the advice of this shallow
knave was far frora sound. He assured Howe that Philadelphia
was an object of more mihtary importance than the Hudson river.
In June, Howe tried to reach Philadelphia by crossing the state of
New Jersey ; but in a wonderful campaign of three weeks' duration,
with an inferior force and without any serious fighting, Washing
ton corapletely outgeneralled him. Baffied at every turn, Howe
evacuated New Jersey, and, still guided by the advice of the
traitor Lee, embarked his army on transports and sailed off to
Chesapeake Bay, to approach Philadelphia frora the south. In
this way he wasted a great part of the summer, and when he had
got into Pennsylvania, Washington gave him so much work to do
that he was never able to be of any use to Burgoyne, who was
allowed to rush upon his fate unaided.
During the winter Gates was busy with his intrigues, and the
enemies of Schuyler and Washington played into his hands. Blows
were as yet aimed not directly against Washington, but against his
favorite officers, and the first one fell upon Arnold. In February,
when five new major-generals were to be appointed. Congress
passed over Arnold, who was the senior brigadier, and selected
five officers who were not only his juniors, but conspicuously
inferior to him in ability. The reason alleged for this gross affront
was that Connecticut had already two major-generals (Putnam and
Wooster), and ought not in fairness to have any more ! But the

276 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
real reason was the unwhlingness of the Gates party to increase
the power of the friends of Schuyler and Washington. Though
proud and irascible in temper, Arnold behaved very well, and
expressed hiraself wihing to serve under his juniors, but deraanded
an explanation.
In Aprh, Howe sent a force of two thousand men under General
Tryon to seize the mhitary stores at Danbury in Connecticut. The
mihtia turned out under General Wooster, and a skirmish ensued
in which that veteran officer was slain. Then Amold came to the
rescue with six hundred fresh raen ; and at Ridgefield there was
a desperate fight in which Arnold had two horses shot under
hira. The British were defeated and driven to their ships just in
tirae to escape capture. Arnold was now made a major-general,
and was presented by Congress with a fine horse, but his relative
rank in the array was not yet restored.
With these preliminaries, we shall understand the state of things
at the tirae when Burgoyne started frora Canada on his way to
Albany. On the i6th of June he set out frora St. Johns with an
army of about nine thousand men, nearly half of them Gerraans
frora the duchy of Brunswick. Among the officers, generals
Phillips, Fraser, and the Baron Riedesel were of distinguished
ability. Some five hundred Indians, mostly Wyandots and
Ottawas, and as many Canadian provincial troops, accorapanied
the array. With this force Burgoyne advanced southward up Lake
Charaplain. On the 2 ist of June he encaraped at the river Bouquet, several
miles north of Crown Point ; here he gave a war feast to his sav
age allies, and made them a speech in that pompous and half
poetical vein in which it was the absurd practice to address our
savages, and which was commonly reduced to flat prose by their
interpreters. At the same time he was strenuous in enjoining
huraanity toward prisoners, dwelling on the difference between
ordinary wars carried on against a common enemy, and this against
a country in rebellion, where the hostile parties were of the same
blood, and loyal subjects of the Crown might be confounded with
the rebehious. It was a speech intended to excite their ardor.

THE NORTHERN INVASION. ITl
but restrain their cruelty, a difficult raedium to attain with Indian
warriors. The garrison at Ticonderoga, meanwhile, were anxiously on the
look-out. Their fortress, built on a hill, coraraanded an extensive
prospect over the bright and beautiful lake and its surrounding
forests, but there were long points and promontories at a distance
to-intercept the view.
Fall of Ticonderoga. — The enemy came advancing up the
lake on the 30th, their raain body under Burgoyne on the west
side, the Gerraan reserve under Baron Riedesel on the east ; com
munication being maintained by frigates and gunboats, which, in
a manner, kept pace between them. On the ist of July, Burgoyne
encamped four mhes north of Ticonderoga, and began to entrench,
and to throw a boom across the lake. His advanced guard under
General Fraser took post at Three Mile Point, and the ships
anchored just out of gunshot of the fort. Here he issued a proc
laraation still more magniloquent than his speech to the Indians,
denouncing woe to all who should persist in rebellion, and laying
particular stress upon his means, with the aid of the Indians, to
overtake the hardiest eneraies of Great Britain and America, wher
ever they might lurk.
General St. Clair, who commanded at Ticonderoga, was a gal
lant Scotchman, who had seen service in the old French war as
well as in this, and beheld the force arrayed against him without
dismay. It is true his garrison did not exceed three thousand five
hwndred men, of whora nine hundred were militia. They were
badly equipped also, and few had bayonets. St. Clair confided,
however, in the strength of his position and the works which had
been constructed in connection with it, and trusted he should be
able to resist any attempt to take it by storra. Schuyler at this
tirae was at Albany, sending up reinforcements of continental
troops and mhitia, and awaiting the arrival of further reinforce
ments, for which sloops had been sent down to Peekskih.
Such was the state of affairs in the north, of which Washington
from time to tirae had been informed. An attack on Ticonderoga
appeared to be irapending ; but as the garrison was in good heart,

278 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
the commander resolute, and troops were on the way to reinforce
him, a spirited, and perhaps successful resistance was anticipated
by Washington. His surprise may therefore be imagined, on
receiving a letter from Schuyler dated July 7th, conveying the
astounding intelligence that Ticonderoga was evacuated !
Schuyler had just received the news at Stillwater on the Hudson
when on his way with reinforcements for the fortress. The first
account was so vague that Washington hoped it might prove in
correct. It was confirmed by another letter from Schuyler, dated
on the 9th at Fort Edward. A part of the garrison had been pur
sued by a detachment of the enemy as far as Fort Anne in that
neighborhood, where the latter had been repulsed ; as to St. Clair
himself and the main part of his forces, they had thrown them
selves into the forest, and nothing was known of what had become
of them I
" I ara here," writes Schuyler, " at the head of a handful of men,
not above fifteen hundred, with little ammunition, not above five
rounds to a man, having neither bahs, nor lead to make any. The
country is in the deepest consternation ; no carriages to remove
the stores from Fort George, which I expect every moment to hear
is attacked ; and what adds to my distress is, that a report pre
vails that I had given orders for the evacuation of Ticonderoga."
Washington was totally at loss to account for St. Clair's move
raent. To abandon a fortress which he had recently pronounced
so defensible : and to abandon it apparently without firing a gun !
and then the strange uncertainty as to his subsequent fortunes, and
the whereabouts of himself and the main body of his troops !
" The affair," writes Washington, " is so mysterious that it baffles
conjecture." His first attention was to supply the wants of General Schuyler.
An express was sent to Springfield for musket cartridges, gun
powder, lead, and cartridge papers. Ten pieces of artillery with
harness and proper officers were to be forwarded from Peekskhl,
as weh as entrenching tools. Of tents he had none to furnish,
neither could heavy cannon be spared from the defence of the
Highlands.

THE NORTHERN INVASION. 279
Six hundred recruits, on their march frora Massachusetts to
Peekskih, were ordered to repair to the reinforcement of Schuyler ;
this was all the force that Washington could venture at this mo
ment to send to his aid ; but this addition to his troops, supposing
those under St. Clair should have corae in, and any number of
militia have turned out, would probably form an army equal, if
not superior, to that said to be under Burgoyne. Besides, it was
Washington's idea that the latter would suspend his operations
until General Howe should make a movement in concert. Sup
posing that moveraent would be an iraraediate attempt against the
Highlands, he ordered Sullivan with his division to Peekskih to
reinforce General Putnam. At the same time he advanced with
his raain army to Pompton, and thence to the Clove, a rugged de
file through the Highlands on the west side of the Hudson. Here
he encamped within eighteen miles of the river, to watch, and be
at hand to oppose the designs of Sir Williara Howe, whatever
might be their direction ; and here we whl leave him for the
present, while we explain the mysterious retreat of General St.
Clair. With all the pains and expense lavished by the Araericans to
render the works at Ticonderoga irapregnable, they had strangely
neglected the raaster key by which they were all coramanded.
This was Sugar Hill, a rugged height, the termination of a raoun
tain ridge which separates Lake Champlain from Lake George.
It stood to the south of Ticonderoga, beyond the narrow channel
which connected the two lakes, and rose precipitously from the
waters of Champlain to the height of six hundred feet. It had
been pronounced by the Araericans too distant to be dangerous.
Colonel Tmrabull had proved the contrary in the preceding year,
by throwing a shot frora a six-pounder in the fort nearly to the
surarait. It was then pronounced inaccessible to an eneray.
This Tmrabull had likewise proved to be an error, by clarabering
with Arnold and Wayne to the top, whence they perceived that a
practicable road for artillery might eashy and readily be made.
Tmrabull had insisted that this was the true point for the fort,
coramanding the neighboring heights, the narrow pqrts of both

280 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
lakes, and the coraraunication between. A sraall, but strong fort
here, with twenty-five heavy guns and five hundred raen, would
be as efficient as one hundred guns and ten thousand men on the
extensive works of Ticonderoga. His suggestions were disregarded
by General Gates who was then in comraand ; their wisdom was
now to be proved.
The British General Phihips, on taking his position, had re
garded the hill with a practised eye, and measures were instantiy
taken to plant a battery on that height. The British troops were
busy throughout the day and night cutting a road through rocks
and trees and up rugged defiles. Guns, ammunition, and stores,
were carried up the hih in the night ; the cannon were hauled up
from tree to tree, and before moming the ground was levehed for
the battery on which they were to be mounted. To this work,
thus achieved by a coup de main, they gave the name of Fort
Defiance. On the sth of July, to their astonishment and conster
nation, the garrison beheld a legion of red-coats on the summit
of this hill, constructing works which must soon lay the fortress at
their mercy.
In this sudden and appahing eraergency. General St. Clair
called a counch of war. What was to be done ? The batteries
frora this new fort would probably be opened the next day : by that
time Ticonderoga raight be completely invested, and the whole
garrison exposed to capture. They had not force sufficient for
one-half the works, and General Schuyler, supposed to be at
Albany, could afford them no relief The danger was imrainent ;
delay might prove fatal. It was unanimously determined to evac
uate Ticonderoga that very night, and retreat to Skenesborough
(now Whitehah), at the upper part ofthe lake, about thirty miles
distant, where there was a stockaded fort. The main body of the
army, led by General St. Clair, were to cross to Mount Independ
ence and push for Skenesborough by land, taking a circuitous
route through the woods on the east side of the lake, by way of
Castleton. The cannon, stores, and provisions, together with the
wounded and the women, were to be erabarked on board of two
hundred bateaux, and conducted to the upper extreraity of the

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THE NORTHERN INVASION. 281
lake, by Colonel Long with six hundred men; two hundred of
whom in five armed galleys were to forra a rear-guard.
It was now three o'clock in the afternoon ; yet all the prepa
rations were to be raade for the coraing night, and that with as
little bustle and movement as possible ; for they were overlooked
by Fort Defiance, and their intentions raight be suspected. Every
thing was done quietly, but alertly ; in the meantime, to amuse the
eneray, a cannonade was kept up every half hour toward the new
battery on the hill. As soon as the evening closed, and their
movements could not be discovered, they began in all haste to
load the boats. Such of the cannon as could not be taken were
ordered to be spiked. In the hurry several were left uninjured.
The lights in the garrison being previously extinguished, their
tents were struck and put on board of the boats, and the woraen
and the sick embarked. Everything was conducted with such
silence and address, that, although it was a moonlight night, the
flotiha departed undiscovered, and was soon under the shadows of
the mountains and overhanging forests.
The retreat by land was not conducted with equal discretion
and mystery. General St. Clair had crossed over the bridge to
the Vermont side of the lake by three o'clock in the morning, and
set forward with his advance through the woods toward Hubbard-
ton; but, before the rear-guard under Colonel Francis got in
motion, a house took fire — and the British sentries were aston
ished by a conflagration suddenly lighting up Mount Indepen
dence, and revealing the American troops in full retreat.
The drums beat to arms in the British camp. Alarm guns were
fired. By daybreak Fraser had hoisted the British flag over the
deserted fortress ; before sunrise he had passed the bridge, and
was in fuh pursuit of the American rear-guard. Burgoyne was
roused from his morning slumbers on' board of the frigate Royal
George by the alarra guns, and a message frora Fraser. His raeas
ures were prorapt. General Riedesel was ordered to follow and
support Fraser with a part of the German troops ; garrisons were
thrown into Ticonderoga and Mount Independence ; the main
part of the army was embarked on board of the frigates and gun-

282 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
boats ; and by nine o'clock Burgoyne set out with his squadron in
pursuit of the flotiha.
About three o'clock in the afternoon, the British gunboats hav
ing pushed on in advance of the frigates, had overtaken the
galleys. The latter defended theraselves for a while, but at length
two struck, and three were blown up. The American fugitives
had succeeded in disembarking, and after some skirmishing
effected their retreat to Fort Edward, where they gave the alarm
that the main force of the enemy was close after them, and that
no one knew what had become of General St. Clair.
Meanwhile the retreat of the latter through the woods con
tinued the first day unth night, when he arrived at Castleton,
thirty mhes from Ticonderoga. His rear-guard halted about six
miles short, at Hubbardton, to await the arrival of stragglers. It
was composed of three regiments under colonels Seth Warner,
Francis, and Hale ; in all about thirteen hundred men. Early
the next morning, while they were taking their breakfast, they
were startled by the report of fire-arms. Their sentries had dis
charged their muskets, and came running in with word that the
enemy were at hand.
It was General Fraser, with his advance of eight hundred and
fifty men, who had pressed forward in the latter part of the night,
and now attacked the Americans with great spirit, notwithstand
ing their superiority in numbers. The Americans raet the British
with equal spirit ; but at the very coraraencement of the action.
Colonel Hale, with a detachment placed under his command to
protect the rear, gave way, leaving Warner and Francis with but
seven hundred men to bear the brunt of the battle. These posted
themselves behind logs and trees in "backwoods" style, whence
they kept up a destructive fire, and were evidently gaining the
advantage, when General Riedesel came pressing into the action
with his Gerraan troops, druras beating, and colors flying. There
was now an irapetuous charge with the bayonet. Colonel Francis
was araong the first who fell, gallantly fighting at the head of his
men. The Americans gave way and fled, leaving the ground cov
ered with their dead and wounded. Their whole loss was up-

THE NORTHERN INVASION. 283
wards of three hundred ; that of the enemy one hundred and
eighty-three. The noise of the firing had reached General St. Clan: at Castie-
ton. He iramediately sent orders to two militia regiments which
were in his rear, and within two miles of the battle-ground, to
hasten to the assistance of his rear-guard. They refused to obey,
and hurried forward to Castleton. At this juncture St. Clair re
ceived information of Burgoyne's arrival at Skenesborough : fear
ing to be intercepted at Fort Anne, he immediately changed his
route, stmck into the woods on his left, and directed his march to
Rutland, leaving word for Warner to follow him. The latter over
took hira two days afterwards, with his shattered force reduced to
ninety men. On the 12th they reached Fort Edward, haggard
and exhausted by their long retreat through the woods. Such 4s
the stoiy of the catastrophe at Ticonderoga, which caused so much
surprise and concern to Washington, and of the seven days' mys
terious disappearance of St. Clair, which kept every one in the
most painful suspense.
The loss of artihery, araraunition, provisions, and stores, in
consequence of the evacuation ' of these northern posts, was
prodigious ; but the worst effect was the constemation spread
throughout the country. A panic prevailed at Albany, the people
mnning about as if distracted, sending off their goods and furni
ture. The great barriers of the North, it was said, were broken
through, and there was nothing to check the triumphant career of
the enemy. The invading army, both officers and men, were
highly elated with their fortune, and deeraed their prowess to be
irresistible. They regarded their eneray with the greatest con
tempt, and considered their own toils to be nearly at an end, and
Albany already in their hands. In England, too, the joy and
exultation were extreme.
Washingfton's Precautions. — Washington continued his anxious
exertions to counteract the operations of the enemy ; forwarding
arthlery and ammunition to Schuyler, with all the carap furniture
that could be spared frora his own encarapment and frora Peeks-
kill. A part of Nixon's brigade was ah the reinforceraent he could

284 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
afford in his present situation. " To weaken this army more than
is prudent," wrhes he, " would perhaps bring destruction upon it,
and I look upon the keeping it upon a respectable footing as the
only means of preventing a junction of Howe's and Burgoyne's
armies, which, if effected, may have the most fatal consequences."
Schuyler had earnestly desired the assistance of an active officer
well acquainted with the country. Washington sent hira Arnold.
"I need not," writes he, "enlarge upon his well-known activity,
conduct, and bravery. The proofs he has given of all these have
gained him the confidence of the pubhc and of the array, the
Eastern troops in particular." The question of rank, about which
Arnold was so tenacious, was yet unsettled, and though, had his
promotion been regular, he would have been superior in command
to St. Clair, he assured Washington that, on the present occasion,
his claira should create no dispute.
Schuyler, in the meantime, aided by Kosciuszko the Pole, who
was engineer in his department, had selected two positions on
Moses Creek, four railes below Fort Edward, where the troops
which had retreated frora Ticonderoga, and part of the militia,
were throwing up works. To iihpede the advance of the enemy,
he had caused trees to be felled into Wood Creek, so as to render
it unnavigable, and the roads between Fort Edward and Fort Anne
to be broken up, the cattie in that direction to be brought away,
and the forage destroyed.
Washington ordered that ah the vessels and river craft, not re
quired at Albany, should be sent down to New Windsor and Fish-
kill, and kept in readiness ; for he knew not how soon the move
ments of General Howe might render it suddenly necessary to
transport part or the whole of his forces up the Hudson.
He highly approved of a measure suggested by Schuyler, of
stationing a body of troops somewhere about the Hampshire
Grants (Vermont), so as to be in the rear or on the flank of Bur
goyne, should he advance. It would keep him in continual anxiety
for his rear, and oblige him to leave the posts behind him much
stronger than he would otherwise do. He advised that General
Lincoln should have the comraand of the corps thus posted.

THE NORTHERN INVASION. 285
But now the attention of the commander-in-chief was cahed to
the seaboard. On the 23d of July, Lord Howe's fleet, so long
the object of watchful solicitude, actually put to sea. The force
embarked araounted to eighteen thousand raen, whhe seven thou
sand were left with Sir Henry Clinton for the protection of New
York. The destination of the fleet was still a matter of conjec
ture, but Washington believed it to be Philadelphia, and accord
ingly he now set out with his army for the Delaware, ordering
Sullivan and Stirhng with their divisions to cross the Hudson from
Peekskhl, and_ proceed towards Philadelphia. Every moveraent
and order showed his doubt and perplexity, and the circuraspec
tion with which he had to proceed. By the first of August he had
moved his camp to Germantown, about six railes from Philadel
phia, to be at hand for the defence of that city. For several days
he remained there in painful uncertainty about the British fleet ;
whether it had gone to the south or to the east. During this time
he was frequently in Philadelphia, making himself acquainted with
the military capabilities of the place and its surrounding country,
and directing the construction of fortifications on the river. In
one of these visits he became acquainted with the young Marquis
de Lafayette, who had recently arrived frora France, in corapany
with a number of French, Polish, and German officers, among
whora was the Baron de Kalb. The raarquis was not quite twenty
years of age, yet had already been married nearly three years to a
Mdy of rank and fortune. Full of the romance of liberty, he had
torn hiraself frora his youthful bride, turned his back upon the
gayeties and splendors of a court, and made his way to America
to join its hazardous fortunes. He sent in his letters of recom
raendation to Mr. Loveh, Chairraan of the Coraraittee of Foreign
Affairs, and applied the next day at the door of Congress to know
his success. Mr. Loveh came forth, and gave him but little en
couragement ; Congress, in fact, was embarrassed by the number
of foreign apphcations, many without raerit. Lafayette iramedi
ately sent in the fohowing note : " After my sacrifices, I have the
right to ask two favors ; one is to serve at my own expense ; the
other, to begin by serving as a volunteer."

286 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
This simple appeal had its effect: it called attention to his
peculiar case, and Congress resolved on the 31st of July, that in
consideration of his zeal, his illustrious family and connections, he
should have the rank of major-general in the army of the United
States. It was at a public dinner, where a number of members of Con
gress were present, that Lafayette first saw Washington. He
immediately knew hira, he said, from the officers who surrounded
him, by his commanding air and person. When the party was
breaking up, Washington took hira aside, corapliraented hira in a
gracious manner on his disinterested zeal and the generosity of his
conduct, and invited him to make head-quarters his home. " I
cannot promise you the luxuries of a court,'' said he, " but as you
have become an American soldier, you will, doubtless, accorarao-
date yourself to the fare of an American army."
Many days had now elapsed without further tidings of the fleet.
What had become of it? Had Howe gone against Charleston?
If so, the distance was too great to think of following him. Before
the army, debilitated and wasted by a long march, under a summer
sun, in an unhealthy climate, could reach there, he might accom
plish every purpose he had in view, and re-embark his troops to
turn his arras against Philadelphia, or any other point, without the
army being at hand to oppose him.
What, under these uncertainties, was to be done? Remain
inactive, in the remote probability of Howe's returning this way ;
or proceed to the Hudson with a view either to oppose Burgoyne,
or raake an atterapt upon New York ? A successful stroke with
respect to either, raight raake up for any losses sustained in the
South. The latter was unaniraously deterrained in a counch of war,
in which the Marquis de Lafayette took part. Congress approved
the decision of the council, and the army was about to be put in
march, when ah these tormenting uncertainties were brought to
an end by intelligence that the fleet had actually entered the
Chesapeake, and anchored at Swan Point, at least two hundred
mhes within the capes. "By General Howe's coming so far up
the Chesapeake," writes Washington, "he must raean to reach

THE NORTHERN INVASION. 287
Philadelphia by that route, though to be sure it is a strange
one." The several divisions of the army had been summoned to the
immediate neighborhood of Philadelphia, and the railitia of Penn
sylvania, Delaware, and the northern parts of Virginia were called
out. Many of the raihtia had been ordered to rendezvous at
Chester on the Delaware, about twelve railes below Philadelphia ;
and General Wayne repaired to Chester, to arrange the troops
asserabling there. As there had been much disaffection to the
cause evinced in Philadelphia, Washington, in order to encourage
its friends and dishearten its enemies, raarched with the whole
army through the city, down Front and up Chestnut Street.
Great pains were taken to raake the display as iraposing as pos
sible. Having raarched through Philadelphia, the army continued on
to Whmington, at the confluence of Christiana Creek and the
Brand)rwine, where Washington set up his head-quarters, his troops
being encamped on the neighboring heights.
Battle of Oriskany. — Burgoyne's progress, after reaching
Skenesborough, was no longer easy or triumphant. His progress
toward the Hudson was slow and difficult, because of the obstacles
which Schuyler had put in the way. Bridges had to be rebuilt,
and huge trees to be removed which had been felled across the
roads. The end of July had come when Burgoyne arrived at Fort
Edward. As he approached this place, Schuyler slowly retreated
to Berais Heights, near Saratoga, and about thirty miles above
Albany. Burgoyne's perplexities increased with his advance. Very
few-Tories joined him. To his surprise, he found the people quite
hostile, while his Indian allies were worse than useless. Their
cruelties enraged the people. In particular the violent death of
Miss McCrea, which has given rise to a roraantic legend, seemed
to cah for vengeance. It raight almost be said that armies sprang
from the blood of this unfortunate girl, while Burgoyne's attempts
to restrain the depredations of his savage allies disgusted them
and led thera to desert hira.
At Fort Edward he was beset by new difficulties, and heard bad

288 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
news from the column of St. Leger which was coming dowoi the
Mohawk valley to join him. St. Leger had arrived at Fort Stanwix,
a stronghold built in 1756 on the bank of the Mohawk river and
coraraanding the westerly route between New York and Canada.
The fort had been repaired by order of General Schuyler, and was
garrisoned by seven hundred and fifty continental troops frora
New York and Massachusetts, under the command of Colonel
Gansevoort of the New York line, a stout-hearted officer of Dutch
descent. It was a motley force which appeared before it ; British, Hes
sian, Royalist, Canadian, and Indian, about seventeen hundred in
all. Among them were St. Leger's rangers and Sir John Johnson's
loyalist corps, called " Greens." The Indians, their worthy alhes,
were led by the famous Brant.
On the 3d of August, St. Leger sent in a flag with a suraraons
to surrender ; and, on Gansevoort's refusal, he began making prep
arations for a siege. On the 6th of August, three men raade their
way into the fort through a swamp, which the enemy had deemed
impassable. They brought the cheering intelligence that General
Herkimer, the veteran commander of the mihtia of Tryon County,
was at Oriskany, about eight miles distant, with upwards of eight
hundred men. The people of that county were many of thera of
German origin ; some of thera Gerraans by birth. Herkimer was
among the former; a large and powerful raan, about sixty-five
years of age. He requested Colonel Gansevoort, through his
two messengers, to fire three signal-guns on receiving word of
his vicinage; upon hearing which, he would endeavor to force
his way to the fort, depending upon the co-operation of the
garrison. The messengers had been dispatched by Herkimer on the even
ing of the 5 th, and he had calculated that they would reach the
fort at a very early hour in the raorning. Through some delay,
they did not reach it until between ten and eleven o'clock.
Gansevoort instantly complied with the message. Three signal-
guns were fired, and Colonel Willett, of the New York Continen
tals, with two hundred and fifty men and an iron three-pounder

THE NORTHERN INVASION. 289
was detached to make a diversion, by attacking that part of the
enemy's carap occupied by Johnson and his loyalists.
The delay of the messengers in the night, however, disconcerted
the plan of Herkimer. He marshalled his troops by day-break
and waited for the signal-guns. Hour after hour elapsed, but no
¦ gun was heard. His officers became impatient of delay, and urged
an immediate march. Herkimer represented that they were too
weak to force their way to the fort without reinforcements, or
without being sure of co-operation from the garrison, and was sthl
for awaiting the preconcerted signals. High words ensued between
him and two of his officers, colonels Cox and Paris. The latter,
losing his teraper in the dispute, accused Herkimer of being either
a Tory or a coward. " No," replied the brave old raan, " I feel
toward you all as a father, and will not lead you into a scrape
frora which I cannot extricate you." His discretion, however, was
overpowered by repeated taunts, and he at length, about nine
o'clock, gave the word to raarch ; intiraating, however, that those
who were the most eager to advance, would be the first to mn
away. About ten o'clock they came to a place where the road was
carried on a causeway of logs across a deep marshy ravine, be
tween high level banks. The main division descended into the
ravine, fohowed by the baggage -wagons. They had scarcely
crossed it, when eneraies suddenly sprang up in front and on
either side, with deadly voheys of musketry, and deafening yehs
and warwhoops. St. Leger, apprised by his scouts of their ap
proach, had sent a force to waylay them. This was composed of
a division of Johnson's "Greens," led by his brother-in-law. Major
Watts; a corapany of rangers under Colonel Butier, a refugee
from this neighborhood, and a strong body of Indians under
Brant. The troops were stationed in front just beyond the ravine,
the Indians along each side of the road. The plan of the ambus
cade was to let the van of the Americans pass the ravine and
advance between the concealed parties, when the attack was to be
commenced by the troops in front, after which, the Indians were
to fall on the Americans in rear and cut off ah retreat.

290 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
The savages, however, could not restrain their natural ferocity
and hold back as ordered, but discharged their rifles simultane
ously with the troops, and instantly rushed forward with spears
and tomahawks, yelling like demons, and commencing a dreadful
butchery. The rear-guard, which had not entered the ravine,
retreated. The main body, though thrown into confusion, de
fended themselves bravely. One of those severe conflicts ensued,
common in Indian warfare, where the combatants take post with
their rifles, behind rock and tree, or come to deadly struggle with
knife and tomahawk. The veteran Herkimer was wounded early
in the action. A musket bah shattered his leg just below the
knee, killing his horse at the same time. He made his men place
him on his saddle at the foot of a large beech-tree, against the
trunk of which he leaned, continuing to give his orders.
The regulars attempted to charge with the bayonet; but the
Americans formed themselves in circles back to back, and re
pelled them. A heavy storm of thunder and rain caused a tem
porary luh in the fight, during which the patriots changed their
ground. Some of thera stationed themselves in pairs behind
trees, so that when one had fired the other could cover him until
he had reloaded ; for the savages were apt to rush up with knife
and tomahawk the moment a man had discharged his piece. John
son's " Greens " came up to sustain the Indians, who were giving
way ; and now was the fiercest part of the fight. Old neighbors
met in deadly feud ; former intimacy gave bittemess to present
hate, and war was hterally carried to the knife. The Indians, at
length, having lost many of their bravest warriors, gave the
retreating cry, " Oonah ! Oonah ! " and fled to the woods. The
"Greens" and rangers, hearing a firing in the direction of the fort,
feared an attack upon theh camp, and hastened to its defence,
carrying off with them many prisoners. The Americans did not
pursue them, but placing theh wounded on litters made of
branches of trees, returned to Oriskany. Both parties have
claimed the victory ; but it does not appear that either was en
titied to it. Each side lost nearly four hundred in killed and
wounded. We raay add that those who had been raost urgent

THE NORTHERN INVASION. 291
with Herkiraer for this moveraent, were among the first to suffer
from it. Colonel Cox was shot down at the first fire ; Colonel
Paris was taken prisoner, and feh beneath the tomahawk of the
famous Red Jacket.
As to Herkimer, he was conveyed to his residence on the Mo
hawk river, and died nine days after the battle, not so much from
his wound as frora bad surgery ; sinking gradually through loss of
blood frora an unskilful araputation. He died like a phhosopher
and a Christian, sraoking his pipe and reading his Bible to the
last. His narae has been given to a county in that part of the
state. The sortie of Colonel Wihett had been spirited and successful.
Sir John and his men were driven to the river, and the Indians
fled to the woods. Willett sacked their camps; loaded wagons
with camp equipage, clothing, blankets, and stores of ah kinds,
seized the baggage and papers of Sir John and of several of his
officers, and retreated safely to the fort, just as St. Leger was
coraing up with a powerful reinforcement.
St. Leger now began to lose heart. The fort proved more
capable of defence than he had anticipated. His artihery was
too light, and the ramparts, being of sod, were not easily bat
tered. He was obliged reluctantly to resort to the process of
sapping and mining, and began to make regular approaches.
Gansevoort resolved to send to Schuyler for succor. Colonel
Whlett volunteered to undertake the perilous errand. He was
accompanied by Lieutenant Stockweh, an excehent woodsman, who
served as guide. They left the fort on the loth, after dark, by a
sally-port, passed by the British sentinels and close by the Indian
carap, without being discovered, and raade their way through bog
and morass and pathless forests, unth they reached the German
Flats on the Mohawk. Here Wihett procured a couple of horses,
and by dint of hoof arrived at the camp of General Schuyler at
Stillwater. Schuyler's first care was to send relief to Gansevoort and his
beleaguered garrison. Eight hundred men were ah that he could
spare from his army in its present threatened state. A spirited

292 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
and effective officer was wanted to lead them. Arnold was in
camp ; recentiy sent on as an efficient coadjutor, by Washington ;
he was in a state of exasperation against the government, having
just learnt that the question of rank had been decided against him
in Congress. It was hardly to be expected, that in his irritated
mood he would accept the coraraand of the detachraent, if offered
to hira. Arnold, however, was a corabustible character. The
opportunity of an exploit flashed on his adventurous spirit. He
stepped promptly forward and volunteered to lead the enterprise.
" No pubhc or private injury or insult," said he, " shall prevail
on me to forsake the cause of my injured and oppressed country,
unth I see peace and liberty restored to her, or nobly die in the
attempt." Battle of Bennington. — Leaving Arnold raarching toward Fort
Stanwix, we whl now treat of the expedition against Bennington.
This was a central place, whither the live stock was driven frora
various parts of the Hampshire Grants, and whence the American
army derived its supplies. It was a great place of deposit, also, of
grain of various kinds, and of wheel carriages ; the usual guard was
militia, varying from day to day. Bennington was to be surprised.
The country was to be scoured in quest of provisions for the array,
horses and oxen for draft, and horses for the cavalry. All public
magazines were to be sacked. All cattle belonging to royalists,
and which could be spared by their owners, were to be paid for.
All rebel flocks and herds were to be driven away.
Generals Phihips and Riedesel demurred strongly to the expedi
tion, but their counsels were outweighed by those of Colonel Skene,
the royalist. He knew, he said, all the country thereabout. The
inhabitants were as five to one in favor of the royal cause, and
would be prompt to turn out on the first appearance of a protect
ing army. He was to accorapany the expedition, and much was
expected frora his personal influence and authority.
Lieutenant-colonel Baum was to comraand the detachment. He
had under him two hundred dismounted dragoons of the regiment
of Riedesel, Captain Eraser's marksmen, ah the Canadian volun
teers, a party of the provincials who perfectly knew the country.

THE NORTHERN INVASION. 293
one hundred Indians, and two light pieces of cannon. The whole
detachment araounted to about five hundred raen. The dragoons,
it was expected, would supply theraselves with horses in the course
of the foray and a skeleton corps of royahsts would be fihed up
by recruits.
Baum set out from carap at break of day, on the 13th of August.
The people of Bennington heard of his approach and were on the
alert. The veteran John Stark was there with eight or nine hun
dred troops, and sent off for Colonel Seth Warner with his regi
raent of railitia, who were with General Lincoln at Manchester.
Lincoln instantly detached thera, and Warner and his men
raarched all night through drenching rain, arriving at Stark's carap
in the raorning dripping wet. Stark left thera at Bennington to
dry and rest theraselves, and then to follow on ; in the raeantirae,
he pushed forward with his raen to support a party sent out the
preceding day, in quest of the Indians. He met them about five
miles off, in full retreat, Baum and his force a mhe in their rear.
Stark halted and prepared for action. Baum also halted, posted
himself on a high ground at a bend of the little river Wahoorasac,
and began to entrench hiraself An incessant rain on the 15 th
prevented an attack on Baum's camp, but there was continual
skirmishing. The colonel strengthened his entrenchments, and
finding he had a larger force to contend with than he had antici
pated, sent off in all haste to Burgoyne for reinforcements. Col
onel Breyman raarched off iraraediately, with five hundred German
grenadiers and infantry and two six-pounders.
On the following raorning the sun shone bright, and Stark pre
pared to attack Baum in his entrenchments ; though he had no
artillery, and his raen, for the raost part, had only their ordinary
brown firelocks without bayonets. Two hundred of his men,
under Colonel Nichols, were detached to the rear of the enemy's
left ; three hundred under Colonel Herrick, to the rear of his
right ; they were to join their forces and attack hira in the rear,
while colonels Hubbard and Stickney, with two hundred men,
diverted his attention in front.
Colonel Skene and the loyalists, when they saw the Americans

294 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
issumg out of the woods on different sides, persuaded themselves,
and endeavored to persuade Baum, that these were the loyal peo
ple of the country flocking to his standard. The Indians were
the first to discover the truth. "The woods are full of Yankees,"
cried they, and retreated in single file between the troops of
Nichols and Herrick, yehing like demons. Several of them were
kihed or wounded as they thus ran the gauntlet.
At the first sound of fire-arms Stark, who had remained with the
main body in carap, mounted his horse and gave the wox^, for
ward ! Baum soon found himself assahed on every side, but he
defended his works bravely. His two pieces of artihery, advan
tageously planted, were very effective, and his troops, if slow in
march, were steady in action. Stark inspired his raen with his
own irapetuosity. A Gerraan eye-witness declares that this tirae
the rebels fought with desperation, pressing within eight paces of
the loaded cannon to take surer aim at the artiherists. The latter
were slain ; the cannon captured. The Germans stih kept their
ground, and fought bravely, until there was not a cartridge left.
Baum and his dragoons then took to their broadswords and the
infantry to their bayonets, and endeavored to cut their way to a
road in the woods, but in vain ; raany were kihed, more wounded,
Baum among the number, and all who survived were taken
prisoners. The victors now dispersed, some to collect booty, some to
attend to the wounded, some to guard the prisoners, and some to
seek refreshment. At this critical juncture carae Breyman's rein
forcement, making its way heavily and slowly to the scene of action.
Attempts were made to rally the railitia ; but they were in com
plete confusion. Nothing would have saved them from defeat,
had not Colonel Seth Warner's corps fortunately arrived from Ben
nington, fresh from repose, and advanced to meet the enemy, while
the others regained their ranks. It was four o'clock in the after
noon when this second action commenced. It was fought frora
wood to wood, and hih to hill, for several miles, until sunset. The
last stand of the eneray was at Van Schaick's rahl, where, having ex
pended ah their araraunition, of which each raan had forty rounds.

THE NORTHERN INVASION. 295
they gave way, and retreated, under favor of the night, leaving two
field-pieces and ah their baggage in the hands of the Americans.
Stark ceased to pursue them, l^st in the darkness his raen should
fire upon each other. "Another hour of daylight," said he in
his report, " and I should have captured the whole body.'' The
veteran had had a horse shot under hira, but escaped without
wound or bruise.
Four brass field-pieces, nine hundred dragoon swords, a thousand
stand of arms, and four ammunition wagons were the spoils of this
victory. Thirty-two officers, five hundred and sixty-four privates
were taken prisoners. The number of slain was very considerable,
but could not be ascertained, many having fallen in the woods.
The brave but unfortunate Baum did not long survive. The
Americans had less than one hundred kihed and wounded.
Tidings of the victory of Bennington reached Washington, just
before he moved his camp from the neighborhood of Philadelphia
to Wilraington, and it relieved his mind from a world of anxious
perplexity. In a letter to Putnam he writes, "As there is not now
the least danger of General Howe's going to New England, I hope
the whole force of that country will turn out, and, by following the
great stroke struck by General Stark near Bennington, entirely
crush General Burgoyne, who, by his letter to Colonel Baum,
seems to be in want of alraost everything."
Flight of St. Leger. — Arnold's march to the rehef of Fort
Stanwix was slower than suited his ardent and impatient spirit.
He was detained in the valley of the Mohawk by bad roads, and
by the necessity of waiting for raihtia recruits who turned out re
luctantly. He sent missives to Colonel Gansevoort assuring him
that he would relieve him in the course of a few days. "Be
under no kind of apprehension," writes he. " I know the strength
of the enemy, and how to deal with them."
In fact, conscious of the smallness of his force, he had resorted
to stratagem, sending emissaries ahead to spread exaggerated
reports of the number of his troops, so as to work on the fears of
the enemy's Indian allies and induce thera to desert. The most
important of these emissaries was one Yan Yost Cuyler, an eccen-

296 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
trie half-witted fehow, known throughout the country as a rank
Tory. He had been convicted as a spy, and only spared from the
halter on the condition that he would go into St. Leger's camp,
and spread alarming reports among the Indians, by whom he was
weh known. To insure a faithful discharge of his raission, Amold
detained his brother as a hostage.
Ah this while St. Leger was advancing his parahels and pressing
the siege ; while provisions and araraunition v/ere rapidly decreas
ing within the fort. St. Leger's Indian alhes, however, were
growing sullen and intractable. This slow kind of warfare they
were unaccustomed to, and by no means relished. Besides, they
had been led to expect easy times, little fighting, many scalps, and
much plunder ; whereas they had fought hard, lost many of their
best chiefs, been checked in their cruelty, and gained no booty.
At this juncture, scouts brought word that a force one thousand
strong was marching to the relief of the fort. Eager to put his
savages in action, St. Leger offered to place hiraself at their head,
with three hundred of his best troops, and raeet the enemy as they
advanced. It was agreed, and they sallied forth together to choose
a fighting-ground. By this time rumors stole into the camp
doubling the number of the approaching enemy. Burgoyne's
whole army was said to have been defeated. Lastly came Yan
Yost Cuyler, with his coat full of bullet holes, giving out that he
had escaped from the hands of the Americans, and had been fired
upon by them. His story was believed, for his wounded coat
corroborated it, and he was known to be a loyalist. Mingling
among his old acquaintances, the Indians, he assured thera that
the Araericans were close at hand and " numerous as the leaves
on the trees."
Arnold's stratagem succeeded. The Indians, fickle as the winds,
began to desert. In a httie while two hundred had decamped,
and the rest threatened to do so likewise, unless St. Leger re
treated. The unfortunate colonel found too late what littie re
liance was to be placed upon Indian ahies. He determined, on the
2 2d, to send off his sick, his wounded, and his arthlery by Wood
Creek that very night, and to protect them by the hne of march.

THE NORTHERN INVASION. 297
The Indians, however, goaded on by Arnold's emissaries, insisted
on instant retreat. St. Leger still refused to depart before night-
fah. The savages now becarae ungovernable. They seized upon
liquor of the officers about to be erabarked, and getting intoxi
cated, behaved like fiends. St. Leger was obliged to decamp about
noon, in such hurry and confusion that he left his tents standing,
and his artihery, with raost of his baggage, araraunition, and stores,
fell into the hands of the Araericans. A detachraent frora the gar
rison pursued and harassed him for a tirae ; but his greatest annoy
ance was from his Indian ahies, who plundered the boats which
conveyed such baggage as had been brought off; raurdered ah
stragglers who lagged in the rear, and amused themselves by
giving false alarms to keep up the panic of the soldiery ; who
would throw away rauskets, knapsacks, and everything that ira
peded their flight.
Such was the second blow to Burgoyne's invading array ; but
before the news of it reached that dooraed commander, he had
already been half paralyzed by the disaster at Bennington. The
moral effect of these two blows was such as Washington had
predicted. Fortune, so long adverse, seemed at length to have
taken a favorable turn. People were roused from their despond
ency. There was a sudden exultation throughout the country.
The savages had disappeared in their native forests. The Ger
man veterans, so much vaunted and dreaded, had been vanquished
by mihtia, and British artillery captured by raen, some of whom
had never seen a cannon.
Means were now augmenting in Schuyler's hands. Colonels
Livingston and Pierre Van Courtlandt, forwarded by Putnam, were
arrived. Governor Clinton was daily expected with New York
raihtia from the Highlands. The arrival of Arnold was anticipated
with troops and arthlery, and Lincoln with the New England
mhitia. At this propitious moment, when everything was ready for
the sickle to be put into the harvest. General Gates arrived in the
carap — for his intrigues had at last succeeded, and Congress had
appointed him to comraand the Northern army in Schuyler's place.
Schuyler received him with the noble courtesy which was

298 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
natural to him. He entreated Gates to call upon him for counsel
and assistance whenever he thought proper. Gates was in high
spirits. His letters to Washington show how completely he was
aware that an easy path of victory had been opened for him. So
far was he from responding to Schuyler's magnanimity, that he
did not even ask him to be present at his first council of war.
We will now shift the scene to Washington's carap at Wilraing
ton, where we left hira watching the operations of the British fleet,
and preparing to oppose the array under Sir Wilhara Howe in its
designs upon Philadelphia.
§ 7. First Great Triumph — Saratoga.
Battle of the Brandywine. — On the 25th of August, the Brit
ish army under General Howe began to land from the fleet in Elk
river, at the head of Chesapeake Bay. The place where they
landed was about six miles below Elkton ; seventy miles from
Philadelphia ; ten railes further than they had been when en
camped at Brunswick. The intervening country, too, was less
open than the Jerseys, and cut up by deep streams. Sir William
had chosen this circuitous route by the advice of Charles Lee, the
traitor, in the expectation of finding friends among the people of
the lower counties of Pennsylvania.
The country was in a great state of alarm. The inhabitants
were hurrying off their most valuable effects, so that it was difficult
to procure cattle and vehicles to remove the public stores. The
want of horses, and the annoyances given by the American light
troops, however, kept Howe from advancing proraptly, and gave
tirae for the greater part of the stores to be saved.
To allay the pubhc alarra, Howe issued a proclamation on the
2 7th, promising the strictest regularity and order on the part of
his army ; with security of person and property to all who re
mained quietly at home, and pardon to those under arras, who
should proraptly return to their obedience. The proclamation
had a quieting effect, especially among the loyalists, who abounded
in these parts.

FIRST GREAT TRIUMPH— SARATOGA. 299
The divisions of generals Greene and Stephen were now stationed
several miles in advance of Wilmington, behind White Clay Creek,
about ten miles from Elkton. General Smahwood and Colonel
Gist had been directed by Congress to take command of the
militia of Maryland, who were gathering on the western shore, and
Washington sent them orders to get in the rear of the eneray.
Washington now felt the want of Morgan and his rifleraen, whora
he had sent to assist the Northern army ; to supply their place, he
forraed a corps of light troops, by drafting a hundred raen frora
each brigade. The comraand was given to Major-general Maxwell,
who was to hover about the eneray and give them continual an
noyance. The army about this time was increased by the arrival
of General Sullivan and his division of three thousand men.
At this time Henry Lee of Virginia, of military renown, raakes
his first appearance. He was in the twenty-second year of his
age, and in the preceding year had commanded a company of
Virginia volunteers. He had recently signalized himself in scout
ing parties, harassing the enemy's pickets. His adventurous ex
ploits soon won him notoriety, and the popular appellation of
" Light-horse Harry." He was favorably noticed by Washington
throughout the war. Perhaps there was soraething beside his bold,
dashing spirit, which won hira this favor. There raay have been
early recollections connected with it. Lee was the son of the
lady who first touched Washington's heart in his school-boy days,
the one about whom he wrote rhymes at Mount Vernon and
Greenway Court — his "lowland beauty." Lee's son was the
great Virginian general, Robert Edward Lee, so famous in the
War of Secession. They were in no way related to Charles Lee,
the traitor.
Several days were now passed by the coraraander-in-chief alraost
continually in the saddle, reconnoitering the roads and passes,
and making hiraself acquainted with the surrounding country;
which was very much intersected by rivers and smah streams,
running chiefly from northwest to southeast. He had now made
up his mind to risk a battie in the open field. It is true his troops
were inferior to those of the enemy in nuraber, equipments, and

300 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
discipline. But it would never do to let Phhadelphia, the seat of
Congress, fah whhout a blow. There was a carping sphit abroad ;
a disposition to cavh and find fault, which was prevalent in Phila
delphia, and creeping into Congress ; something of the nature of
what had been indulged respecting Schuyler and the army of the
North. Public impatience cahed for a battle; it was expected
even by Europe ; his own valiant spirit required it.
The British army, having effected a landing, was formed into
two divisions. One, under Sir Wihiam Howe, was stationed at
Elkton, with its advanced guard at Gray's Hill, about two miles
off. The other division, under General Knyphausen, was on the
opposite side of the ferry, at Cech Court House. On the third of
Septeraber the enemy advanced in considerable force, with three
field-pieces, moving with great caution, as the country was difficult,
woody, and not weh known to them. About three miles in front
of White Clay Creek, their vanguard was encountered by Maxwell
and his light troops, and a severe skirmish took place. The fire
of the American sharpshooters and riflemen, as usual, was very
effective ; but being inferior in number, and having no artillery.
Maxwell was compelled to retreat across White Clay Creek, with
the loss of about forty kihed and wounded. The loss of the
enemy was supposed to be much greater.
The main body of the American army was now encamped on
the east side of Red Clay Creek, on the road leading from Elkton
to Philadelphia. The light infantry were in the advance, at White
Clay Creek. The arraies were from eight to ten miles apart. In
this position Washington determined to await the threatened attack.
On the 5 th of September he made a stirring appeal to the army,
in his general orders, stating the object of the enemy, the capture
of Phhadelphia. They had tried it before, frora New Jersey, and
had failed. He trusted they would be again disappointed. In
their present attempt their ah was at stake. The whole would be
hazarded in a single battie. If defeated in that, they were totally
undone, and the war would be at an end. Now then was the time
foi; the raost strenuous exertions. One bold stroke would free the
Irnd from rapine, devastation, and brutal. outrage. "Two years "

¦wilraington

Kennet Square

BATTLE Of I-*' BRANDYWINE.
Sept. //, 1777.

To face page 301.

FIRST GREAT TRIUMPH— SARATOGA. 301
said he, " have we maintained the war, and struggled with difficul
ties innumerable, but the prospect has brightened. Now is the
tirae to reap the fruit of all our toils and dangers ; if we behave
hke men, this third campaign will be our last." Washington's
effective force, militia included, did not exceed eleven thousand,
and most of these were indifferently armed and equipped. 'I'he
strength of the British was coraputed at eighteen thousand men.
On the Sth, the enemy advanced in two columns ; one appeared
preparing to attack the Araericans in front, while the other ex
tended its left up the west side of the creek, halting at Mihtown,
soraewhat to the right of the American position. Washington now
suspected an intention on the part of Sir Wihiam Howe to march
by his right, suddenly pass the Brandywine, gain the heights north
of that stream, and cut him off from Phhadelphia. He summoned
a counch of war, therefore, that evening, in which it was deter
rained iraraediately to change their position, and raove to the river
in question. By two o'clock in the morning, the army was under
raarch, and by the next evening was encamped on the high grounds
in the rear of the Brandywine. The enemy on the same evening
moved to Kennet Square, about seven miles from the American
position. The Brandywine Creek commences with two branches, called
the East and West forks, which unite in one stream, flowing frora
west to east about twenty-two miles, and emptying itself into the
Delaware about twenty-five miles below Philadelphia. It has
several fords ; one, called Chadd's Ford, was at that time the most
practicable, and in the direct route frora the enemy's camp to
Phhadelphia. As the principal attack was expected here, Wash
ington raade it the centre of his position, where he stationed the
main body of his army, coraposed of Wayne's, Weedon's, and
Muhlenberg's brigades, with the light infantry under Maxwell.
An eminence immediately above the ford had been entrenched in
the night, and was occupied by Wayne and Proctor's artihery.
Weedon's and Muhlenberg's brigades, which were Virginian troops,
and formed General Greene's division, were posted in the rear on
the heights, as a reserve to aid either wing of the army. With

302 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
these Washington took his stand. Maxwell's light infantry were
thrown in the advance, south of the Brandywine, and posted on
high ground each side of the road leading to the ford.
The right wing of the army, commanded by Suhivan, and cora
posed of his division and those of Stephen and Stiriing, extended
up the Brandywine two rahes beyond Washington's position. Its
light troops and videttes were distributed quite up to the forks.
A few detachments of ill-organized and undisciphned cavalry
extended across the creek on the extreme right. The left wing,
composed of the Pennsylvania militia, under Major-general Arm
strong, was stationed about a mhe and a half below the main body,
to protect the lower fords, where the least danger was appre
hended. The Brandywine, which ran in front of the whole line,
was now the only obstacle between the two armies.
Early on the morning ofthe nth, a great column of troops was
descried advancing on the road leading to Chadd's Ford. A skirt
of woods concealed its force, but it was supposed to be the main
body of the eneray. The Araericans were iramediately drawn out
in order of battle. Washington rode along the front of the ranks,
and wag everywhere received with acclamations. A sharp firing
of small-arms soon told that Maxwell's light infantry were engaged
with the vanguard of the enemy. The skirmishing was kept up
for some time with spirit, when Maxwell was driven across the
Brandywine below the ford. The enemy did not attempt to follow,
but halted on coraraanding ground, and appeared to reconnoiter
the Araeriean position with a view to an attack. A heavy cannon
ading corameneed on both sides, about ten o'clock. The eneray
made repeated dispositions to force the ford, which brought on as
frequent skirmishes on both sides of the river, for detachments of
the light troops occasionally crossed over. All this while there
was the noise and uproar of a battle, but little of the reality. But
towards noon came an express frora Suhivan, with a note received
frora a scouting party, reporting that Lord Cornwahis, with a large
body of troops and a park of artillery, was pushing up the Lan
caster road, doubtless to cross at the upper fords and turn the
right flank of the Araeriean position. Washington instantly sent

FIRST GREAT TRIUMPH— SARATOGA. 303
off Colonel Bland, with a party of horse, to reconnoiter above the
forks and ascertain the truth of the report. In the raeantirae, he
resolved to cross the ford, attack the division in front of hira with
his whole force, and rout it before the other could arrive. He
gave orders for both wings to co-operate, when, as Suhivan was
preparing to cross. Major Spicer of the militia rode up, just from
the forks, and assured him there was no enemy in that quarter.
Sullivan instantly transmitted the intelligence to Washington,
whereupon the moveraent was suspended until positive inforraation
could be obtained. After a tirae carae a raan of the neighborhood,
Thomas Cheney by name, spurring hi ah haste, the raare he rode
in foara, and himself out of breath. Dashing up to the comman
der-in-chief, he informed hira that he must instantly move, or he
would be surrounded. He had come upon the enemy unawares ;
had been pursued and fired upon, but the fleetness of his mare
had saved hira. The raain body of the British was coraing down
on the east side of the streara, and was near at hand. Washington
replied, that from inforraation just received, it could not be so.
"You are mistaken, general," replied the other vehemently; "my
life for it, you are mistaken." Then reiterating the fact with an
oath, and making a draft of the road in the sand, " put rae under
guard," added he, " until you find my story tme."
Another dispatch from Sullivan corroborated it. Colonel Bland
had seen the enemy two miles in the rear of Sullivan's right, raarch
ing down at a rapid rate, while a cloud of dust showed that there
were more troops behind. The Long Island stratagem had been
played over again. Knyphausen, with about eight thousand men,
had engrossed the attention of the Araericans by a feigned attack
at Chadd's Ford, kept up wdth great noise and prolonged by skir-
raishes ; while the remainder of the army, about ten thousand
men, under Cornwalhs, led by experienced guides, had made a
circuit of seventeen miles, crossed the two forks of the Brandy
wine, and arrived in the neighborhood of Birmingham meeting
house, two railes to the right of Suhivan. It was a capital strata
gem, secretly and successfully conducted.
Finding that Cornwahis had thus gained the rear of the army.

304 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
Washington sent orders to Sullivan to oppose hira with the whole
right wing, each brigade attacking as soon as h arrived upon the
ground. Wayne, in the meantime, was to keep Knyphausen at
bay at the ford, and Greene, with the reserve, to hold himself
ready to give aid wherever required. Lafayette, as a volunteer,
had hitherto accompanied the commander-in-chief, but now, see
ing there was likely to be warra work with the right wing, he ob
tained permission to join Sullivan, and spurred off with his aide-
de-camp to the scene of action. From his narrative, we gather
some of the subsequent details.
Sullivan, on receiving Washington's orders, advanced with his
own, Stephen's, and Stirling's divisions, and began to form a line
in front of an open piece of wood. The time which had been
expended in transraitting intehigence, receiving orders, and raarch
ing, had enabled Comwahis to choose his ground and prepare for
action. Still more time was given hira frora the apprehension of
the three generals, upon consultation, of being outflanked upon
the right ; and that the gap between Sullivan's and Stephen's divis
ions was too wide, and should be closed up. Orders were accord
ingly given for the whole line to raove to the right ; and while in
execution, Cornwalhs advanced rapidly with his troops in the finest
order, and opened a brisk fire of rausketry and artillery. The
Americans made an obstinate resistance, but being taken at a dis
advantage, the right and left wings were broken and driven into the
woods. The centre stood firra for a while, but being exposed to
the whole fire of the enemy, gave way at length also. The British,
in fohowing up their advantage, got entangled in the wood. It
was here that Lafayette received his wound. He had thrown hira
self frora his horse, and was endeavoring to rally the troops, when
he was shot through the leg with a musket ball, and had to be
assisted into the saddle by his aide-de-camp. The Americans
rahied on a height to the north of Dhworth, and made a stih more
spirited resistance than at first, but were again dislodged and
obliged to retreat with a heavy loss.
While this was occurring with the right wing, Knyphausen as
soon as he learnt frora the heavy firing that Comwahis was engaged

FIRST GREAT TRIUMPH— SARATOGA. 305
made a push to force his way across Chadd's Ford in earnest.
He was vigorously opposed by Wayne with Proctor's artihery,
aided by Maxwell and his infantry. Greene was preparing to
second him with the reserve, when he was summoned by Wash
ington to the support of the right wing, which the commander-
in-chief had found in imminent peril. Greene advanced to the
relief with such celerity, that it is said, on good authority, his
division accoraplished the march, or rather run, of five miles, in
less than fifty minutes. He arrived too late to save the battle,
but in tirae to protect the broken raasses of the right wing, which
he raet in fuh flight. Opening his ranks from tirae to tirae for
the fugitives, and closing them the moment they had passed, he
covered their retreat by a sharp and well-directed fire frora his
field-pieces. His grand stand was made at a place about a raile
beyond Dhworth, which, in reconnoitering the neighborhood,
Washington had pointed out to him, as well calculated for a second
position, should the army be driven out of the first ; and here he
was overtaken by Colonel Pinckney, an aide-de-carap of the com
mander-in-chief, ordering him to occupy this position and protect
the retreat of the array. The orders were iraplicitly obeyed.
Weedon's brigade was drawn up in a narrow defile, flanked on
both sides by woods, and perfectly coraraanding the road ; while
Greene, with Muhlenberg's brigade, passing to the right took his
station on the road. The British carae on irapetuously, expecting
but faint opposition. They met with a desperate resistance, and
were repeatedly driven back. It was the bloody conflict of the
bayonet : deadly on either side, and lasting for a considerable time.
Weedon's brigade on the left maintained its stand also with great
obstinacy, and the check given to the enemy by these two brigades,
allowed tirae for the broken troops to retreat. Weedon's was at
length compelled by superior numbers to seek the protection of
the other brigade, which he did in good order, and Greene grad
ually drew off the whole division in face of the enemy, who,
checked by this vigorous resistance, and seeing the day far spent,
gave up all further pursuit.
The brave stand raade by these brigades had, likewise, been a

306 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
great protection to Wayne. He had for a long time withstood the
attacks of the enemy at Chadd's Ford, until the approach on the
right, of some of the eneray's troops who had been entangled in
the woods, showed him that the right wing had been defeated. He
now gave up the defence of his post, and retreated by the Chester
road. Knyphausen's troops were too fatigued to pursue him ; and
the others had been kept back, as we have shown, by Greene's
division. So ended the varied conflict of the day.
The scene of the battie, which decided the fate of Philadelphia,
was within six-and-twenty railes of that city. The two parties of
the inhabitants. Whig and Tory, were to be seen in groups, in the
squares and public places, waiting the event in anxious silence.
At length a courier arrived. His tidings spread consternation
araong the friends of liberty. Many left their horaes and took
refuge in the raountains. Congress, the sarae evening, determined
to quit the city and repair to Lancaster, whence they subsequently
removed to Yorktown.
The losses on each side, in the battle of the Brandywine, ex
ceeded one thousand in kihed and wounded. Notwithstanding
the defeat of the American army. Sir William Howe's troops had
been so severely handled that he did not press the pursuit, but
remained two days at Dhworth, sending out detachraents to take
post at Chester, and seize on Wilraington, whither the sick and
wounded were conveyed. Washington profited by the inactivity of
Howe ; retreating across the Schuylkih to Germanto-wn, within a
short distance of Philadelphia, where he gave his troops a day's
repose. Finding them in good spirits, and in nowise disheartened
by the recent affair, which they seemed to consider a check rather
than a defeat, he resolved to seek the eneray again and give him
battie. As preliminary measures, he left some of the Peraisylvania
militia in Phhadelphia to guard the city ; others, under General
Armstrong, were posted at the various passes of the Schuylkill, with
orders to throw up works ; the floating bridge on the lower road
was to be unmoored, and the boats collected and taken across the
river. Having taken these precautions against any hostile movement

FIRST GREAT TRIUMPH— SARATOGA. 307
by the lower road, Washington recrossed the Schuylkill on the 14th,
and advanced along the Lancaster road, with the intention of
turning the left flank of the enemy. Howe, apprised of his inten
tion, made a similar disposition to outflank hira. The two arraies
carae in sight of each other near the Warren Tavern, twenty-three
railes from Philadelphia, and were on the point of engaging, but
were prevented by a violent storm of rain, which lasted for four-
and-twenty hours. This inclement weather was particularly dis
tressing to the Americans, who were scantily clothed, most of thera
destitute of blankets, and separated from their tents and baggage.
The rain penetrated their cartridge-boxes and the ill-fitted locks
of their muskets, rendering the latter useless. In this plight,
Washington gave up for the present all thought of attacking the
eneray, as their discipline in the use of the bayonet, with which
they were universally furnished, would give them a great supe
riority in action. The aim at present was to get sorae dry and
secure place, where the army might repose and refit. All day,
and for a great part of the night, they raarched under a cold and
pelting rain, through deep and rairy roads, to Warwick, on French
Creek ; a weary raarch for ragged and barefooted troops.
Frora French Creek, Wayne was detached with his division, to
get in the rear of the eneray, form a junction with General Smah
wood and the Maryland railitia, and, keeping themselves concealed,
watch for an opportunity to cut off Howe's baggage and hospital
train ; in the meantime, Washington crossed the Schuylkih at
Parker's Ford, and took a position to defend that pass of the
river. Wayne set off in the night, and, by a circuitous march, got
within three railes of the left wing of the British encamped at
Tredyffrin, and concealing himself in a wood, waited the arrival of
Sraahwood and his militia. At daybreak he reconnoitered the
carap, where Howe, checked by the severity of the weather, had
contented hiraself with uniting his columns, and reraained under
shelter. All day Wayne hovered about the camp ; there were no
signs of marching ; all kept quiet, but lay too corapact to be at
tacked with prudence. He sent repeated raessages to Washington,
describing the situation of the eneray, and urging him to come on

308 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
and attack them in their camp. His motions, however, had not
been so secret as he imagined. He was in a part of the country
fuh of the disaffected, and Sir Williara had received accurate infor
raation of his force and where he was encamped. General Grey,
with a strong detachment, was sent to surprise him at night in
his lair. Late in the evening, when Wayne had set his pickets
and sentinels, and thrown out his patrols, a countryman brought
him word of the meditated attack. He doubted the intehigence,
but strengthened his pickets and patrols, and ordered his troops
to sleep upon their arms.
At eleven o'clock, the pickets were driven in at the point of
the bayonet — the enemy were advancing in column. Wayne
instantly took post on the right of his position, to cover the
retreat of the left, led by Colonel Humpton, the second in com
mand. The latter was tardy, and incautiously paraded his troops
in front of their fires, so as to be in fuh relief The eneray
rushed on without firing a gun : all was the silent, but deadly work
of the bayonet and cutlass. Nearly three hundred of Humpton's
men were killed or wounded, and the rest put to flight. Wayne
gave the enemy sorae well-directed volleys, and then, retreating to
a small distance, rahied his troops, and prepared for further
defence. The British, however, contented themselves with the
blow they had given, and retired with very little loss, taking with
thera between seventy and eighty prisoners, and eight baggage
wagons, heavily laden.
Smahwood, who was to have co-operated with Wayne, was
within a mile of him at the time of his attack ; and would have
hastened to his assistance with his well-known intrepidity, but he
had not his old and tried corps with him, but a squad of raw
militia, who fled in a panic at first sight of the enemy.
On the 2 ist. Sir William Howe made a rapid march high up
the Schuylkill, on the road leading to Reading, as if he intended
either to capture the military stores deposited there, or to turn
the right of the American army. Washington kept pace with him
on the opposite side of the river, up to Pott's Grove, about thirty
miles frora Philadelphia. Howe's raovement was a feint. No

FIRST GREAT TRIUMPH— SARATOGA. 309
sooner had he drawn Washington so far up the river, than, by a
rapid countermarch on the night of the 22d, he got to the ford
below, threw his troops across on the next morning, and pushed
forward for Philadelphia. By the time Washington was apprised
of this movement, Howe was too far on his way to be overtaken
by barefooted troops, worn out by constant marching. Howe
halted at Germantown, within a short distance of Philadelphia,
and encamped the raain body of his array in and about that vil
lage ; detaching Lord Cornwalhs with a large force to take formal
possession of the city. That general raarched into Phhadelphia
on the 26th with a brilliant escort, fohowed by splendid legions of
British and Hessian grenadiers, long trains of artihery and squad
rons of light dragoons, stepping to the swelling music of " God
save the King," and presenting, with their scarlet uniforms, their
ghttering arras and flaunting feathers, a striking contrast to the
weary and way-worn troops who had lately passed through the
sarae streets, happy if they could cover their raggedness ^vith
brown linen hunting-frocks, or decorate their caps with sprigs of
evergreen. Thus the British took possession of the capital of the confed
eracy, so long the object of their awkward attempts. Washington
maintained his characteristic equanimity. He had heard of the
prosperous situation of affairs in the Northern departraent, whither
we wih now turn our attention.
First Battle near Saratoga. — The Northem array had received
various reinforceraents, the most efficient of which was Morgan's
corps of riflemen, sent by Washington, who had also furnished it
with artihery. It was now about sixteen thousand strong. Schuy
ler, finding himself and his proffered services slighted by Gates,
had retumed to Albany. His patriotism was superior to personal
resentments. At Albany, he held talks and war feasts with depu
tations of Oneida, Tuscarora, and Onondaga warriors, exerting his
influence over these tribes, to win them from the enemy. His
forraer aide-de-camp. Colonel Brockholst Livingston, and his
secretary. Colonel Varick, remained in carap, and kept hira
informed by letter of passing occurrences. They were much

310 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
about the person of General Arnold, who, since his return from
reheving Fort Stanwix, commanded the left wing of the army.
Livingston, in fact, was with hira as aide-de-camp. The jealousy
of Gates was awakened by these circurastances. He knew their
attachraent to Schuyler, and suspected they were prejudicing
Arnold against hira ; and this suspicion raay have been the origin
of a coolness which he soon evinced toward Arnold himself
These young officers, however, though devotedly attached to
Schuyler from a knowledge of his generous character, were above
any camp intrigue. Livingston was looking forward with youthful
ardor to a brash with the eneray. " Burgoyne," writes he to
Schuyler exultingly, " is in such a situation, that he can neither
advance nor retire without fighting. A capital battle must soon
be fought. I am chagrined to the soul when I think that another
person will reap the fruits of your labors." Varick, equally eager,
was afraid Burgoyne raight be decamping. " His evening guns,"
writes he, " are seldom heard, and when heard, are very low in
sound." The dense forests, which covered the country between the hos
tile armies, concealed their raovements, and as Gates threw out
no harassing parties, his information conceming the enemy was
vague. Burgoyne was diligently cohecting his forces, and on the
13th and 14th of September they slowly passed over a bridge of
boats, which they had thrown across the Hudson, and encaraped
near Fish Creek. As Gates was to receive an attack, it was thought
he ought to choose the ground where to receive it ; Arnold, there
fore, in company with Kosciuszko, the Polish engineer, recon
noitered the neighborhood in quest of a good camping-ground,
and at length fixed upon a ridge of hills called Bemis' Heights,
which rises abruptly from the narrow flat bordering the west side
of the river. Kosciuszko had fortified the camp with entrench
ments which coraraanded the vahey, and even the hhls on the
opposite side of the river.
The right wing of the army, under the iraraediate command of
Gates, and coraposed of Glover's, Nixon's and Patterson's brig
ades, occupied the brow of the hill nearest to the river, with the

FIRST GREAT TRIUMPH— SARATOGA. 311
flats below. The left wing, commanded by Arnold, was on the
side furthest from the river, and distant from the latter about
three-quarters of a mile. It was composed of the New Harapshire
brigade of General Poor, Pierre Van Courtiandt's and James
Livingston's regiments of New York railitia, the Connecticut mih
tia, Morgan's riflemen, and Dearborn's infantry. The centre was
composed of Massachusetts and New York troops.
Burgoyne now encamped about two miles from Gates, disposing
his array in two lines ; the left on the river, the right extending
at right angles to it, about six hundred yards, across the low
grounds to a range of steep and rocky hihs. A ravine formed by
a rivulet from the hhls passed in front of the carap. The low
ground between the armies was cultivated ; the hills were covered
with woods, excepting three or four sraall openings and deserted
farras. Besides the ravines which fronted each carap there was
a third one, midway between thera, also at right angles to the
river. On the raorning of the 19th, General Gates received intelligence
that the eneray were advancing in great force on his left. It was
their right wing, led by Burgoyne in person. It was covered by
the grenadiers and light infantry under Fraser and Breyraan, who
kept along the high grounds on the right; while they, in turn,
were covered in front and on the flanks by Indians, Tories, and
Canadians. The left wing and arthlery were advancing at the
sarae time, under Phillips and Riedesel, along the great road and
raeadows by the river side, but they were retarded by the neces
sity of repairing broken bridges. It was the plan of Burgoyne,
that the Canadians and Indians should attack the central outposts
of the Araericans, and draw their attention in that direction, while
he and Fraser, making a circuit through the woods, should join
forces and fall upon the rear of the American camp. As the
dense forests hid them from each other, signal guns were to regu
late their movements. Three, fired in succession, were to denote
that ah was ready, and be the signal for an attack in front, flank,
and rear.
The American pickets, stationed along the ravine of Mih Creek,

312 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
sent repeated accounts to Gates of the movements of the enemy ;
but he remained quiet in camp, as if determined to await an
attack. The American officers grew impatient. Arnold especially
urged that a detachraent be sent forth to check the eneray and
drive the Indians out of the woods. At length, about noon, he
succeeded in getting perraission to raake the attack with Morgan's
riflemen and Dearbom's infantry. They soon feh in with the
Canadians and Indians, and dispersed them. Morgan's rifle
men, fohowing up their advantage with too rauch eagerness, be
came likewise scattered, and a strong reinforcement of royalists
arriving on the scene, the Americans, in turn, were obliged to give
way. Other detachraents now arrived under Arnold, who attacked
Fraser on his right, to check his atterapt to get in the rear of the
carap. Finding the position of Fraser too strong to be forced, he
sent to head-quarters for reinforcements, but they were refused by
Gates, who declared that no more should go ; " he would not suffer
his camp to be exposed." The reason he gave was that it might
be attacked by the eneray's left wing.
Arnold now raade a rapid counter-march, and, his movement
being masked by the woods, suddenly attempted to turn Fraser's
left. Here he came in full conflict with the British line, and
threw himself upon it with a boldness and irapetuosity that for a
tirae threatened to break it, and cut the wings of the array asunder.
The grenadiers and Breyraan's rifleraen hastened to its support.
Phillips broke his way through the woods with four pieces of
artillery, and Riedesel came on with his heavy dragoons. Rein
forcements came likewise to Arnold's assistance ; his force, how
ever, never exceeded three thousand raen, and with these, for
nearly four hours, he kept up a conflict, alraost hand to hand,
with the whole right wing of the British array. Part of the time
the Americans had the advantage of fighting under the cover of a
wood, so favorable to their militia and sharpshooters. Burgoyne
ordered the woods to be cleared by the bayonet. His troops
rushed forward in columns with a hurrah ! The Americans kept
within their entrenchraents, and repeatedly repulsed them ; but if

FIRST GREAT TRIUMPH— SARATOGA. 313
they pursued their advantage, and advanced into open field, they
were in their turn driven back.
Night alone put an end to the conflict, which the British
acknowledged to have been the most obstinate and hard fought
they had ever experienced in America. Both parties clairaed the
victory. But, though the British reraained on the field of battle,
where they lay all night upon their arras, they had failed in their
object ; they had been assailed instead of being the assailants ;
whhe the American troops had accomplished the purpose for
which they had sallied forth ; had checked the advance of the
enemy, frastrated their plan of attack, and returned exulting to
their camp. Their loss, in khled and wounded, was between three
and four hundred, including several officers ; that of the enemy
nearly one thousand.
Arnold was excessively indignant at Gates' withholding the
reinforceraents he had required in the heat of the action ; had
they been furnished he might have severed the hne of the enemy
and gained a complete victory. He was urgent to resume the
action on the succeeding raorning, and follow up the advantage he
had gained, but Gates dechned, to his additional annoyance. He
attributed the refusal to pique or jealousy, but Gates subsequently
gave as a reason the great deficiency of powder and ball in the
carap, which was known only to himself, and which he kept secret
until a supply was sent from Albany.
Burgo)Tie now strengthened his position with entrenchments and
batteries, part of them across the raeadows which bordered the
river, part on the brow of the heights which coramanded them.
The Americans hkewise extended and strengthened their line of
breastworks on the left of the camp ; the right was already unas
sailable. The camps were within gunshot, but with ravines and
woods between them.
Burgoyne's situation was growing raore and raore critical. On
the 2 ist, he heard shouts in the Araeriean camp, and in a httle
while their cannon thundered a feu de joie. News had been re
ceived that a detachment of New England troops under Colonel
Brown had surprised the carrying-place, mihs, and French lines

314 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
at Ticonderoga, captured an arraed sloop, gunboats, and bateaux,
raade three hundred prisoners, besides releasing one hundred
American captives, and were laying siege to Fort Independence.
Clinton's attempt to relieve Burgoyne. — Whhe the shouts
from the American camp were yet ringing in Burgoyne's ears,
there came a letter in cipher frora Sir Henry Clinton, dated the
1 2 th of September, announcing his intention in about ten days
to attack the Highland forts. Burgoyne sent back messages in
forming Sir Henry of his perilous situation, and urging a diversion
that might obhge General Gates to detach a part of his army ;
adding, that he would endeavor to maintain his present position,
and await favorable events until the 12 th of October.
The jealousy of Gates had been intensely excited at finding the
whole credit of the late affair given by the array to Arnold : in his
dispatches to governraent he raade no mention of him. This
increased the schism between thera. Wilkinson, the adjutant-
general, who was a sycophantic adherent of Gates, pandered to
his pique by withdrawing from Arnold's division Morgan's rifle
corps and Dearborn's hght infantry, its arms of strength, which
had done such brilliant service in the late affair : they were hence
forth to be subject to no order but those from head-quarters.
Arnold called on Gates on the evening of the 2 2d to remon
strate. High words passed between them. Gates told Arnold
that he did not consider hira a major-general, as he had sent his
resignation to Congress ; that he had never given him the cora
raand of any division of the array; that General Lincoln would
arrive in a day or two, and then he would have no further occa
sion for hira, and would give him a pass to go to Phhadelphia
whenever he chose. Amold returned to his quarters in a rage,
and wrote a note to Gates requesting the proffered permit to de
part for Philadelphia ; by the time he received it his ire had cooled
and he had changed his mind. He determined to remain in
camp and abide the anticipated battle ; but he was treated as a
cipher, and never consulted by Gates.
Lincoln, in the meantirae, arrived in advance of his troops
which soon fohowed to the araount of two thousand. Part of the

FIRST GREAT TRIUMPH— SARATOGA. 315
troops, detached by him under Colonel Brown, were besieging
Ticonderoga and Fort Independence. Colonel Brown hiraself,
with part of his detachment, had embarked on Lake George in an
arraed schooner and a squadron of captured gunboats, and was
threatening the enemy's deposit of baggage and heavy artillery at
Diamond Island. The toils so skilfully spread were encompassing
Burgoyne more and more ; the gates of Canada were closing be
hind hira. Stih he kept up a resolute raien, tehing his soldiers, in
a harangue, that he was determined to leave his bones on the field,
or force his way to Albany. He yet clung to the hope, that Sir
Henry Clinton might operate in time to relieve him from his peril
ous position.
That officer had awaited the arrival of reinforcements frora
Europe, which were slowly crossing the ocean in Dutch vessels.
At length they arrived, after a three months' voyage, and now
between three and four thousand raen were to be erabarked on
board of ships-of-war. With this force Sir Henry ascended the
river to the Highlands, outwitted General Putnara, and captured
the forts, laying open the river as far as Albany. Sir Henry Clin
ton proceeded no further in person, but left the rest of the enter
prise to be accoraplished by Sir Jaraes Wallace and General
Vaughan, with a flying squadron of light frigates, and a consider
able detachraent of troops.
The governor, George Clinton, was in the neighborhood of
New Windsor, just above the Highlands, where he had posted
himself to rally what he termed his "broken but brave troops,"
and to call out the militia of Ulster and Orange. " I am per
suaded," writes he, " if the militia will join rae, we can save the
country from destruction, and defeat the eneray's design of assist
ing their Northern army." On the 9th of October, two persons
coraing from Fort Montgomery were arrested by his guards, and
brought before him for examination. One was rauch agitated,
and was observed to put soraething hastily into his raouth and
swallow it. An eraetic was adrainistered, and brought up a small
silver bullet. It was oval in form and hohow, with a screw in the
centre, and contained a note from Sir Henry Clinton to Burgoyne,

316 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
written on a slip of thin paper, and dated (October Sth) from
Fort Montgomery. " Nous y void [here we are], and nothing
between us and Gates. I sincerely hope this httie success of ours
wih facilitate your operations." The bearer of the letter was
tried and convicted as a spy, and sentenced to be hanged.
The enemy's light-armed vessels were now making their way
up the river, landing marauding parties occasionally to make
depredations. As soon as the governor could collect a littie
force, he pressed forward to protect Kingston, the seat of the
state legislature. The eneray in the meantime landed frora their
ships, routed about one hundred and fifty rahitia collected to
oppose them, marched to the vihage, set fire to it in every part,
consuming great quantities of stores collected there, and then
retreated to their ships. Governor Clinton was two hours too late.
He beheld the flames from a distance ; and having brought with
him the spy, the bearer of the silver bullet, he hanged him on an
apple-tree in sight of the burning vhlage.
Having laid Kingston in ashes, the eneray proceeded in their
ravages, destroying the residences of conspicuous patriots at Rhine-
beck, Livingston Manor, and elsewhere, and araong others the
mansion of the widow of the brave General Montgomery ; trast-
ing to close their desolating career by a triumphant junction wdth
Burgojme at Albany.
Second Battle near Saratoga. — On the 7th of October, but
four or five days remained of the time Burgoyne had pledged
himself to av^'ait the co-operation of Sir Henry Clinton. He now
determined to raake a grand movement on the left of the Ameri
can camp, to discover whether he could force a passage, should it
be necessary to advance, or dislodge it from its position, should
he have to retreat. Another object was to cover a forage of the
army, which was suffering from the great scarcity.
For this purpose fifteen hundred of his best troops, with two
twelve-pounders, two howitzers, and six six-pounders, were to be
led by himself, seconded by major-generals Phihips and Riedesel
and Brigadier-general Fraser. " No equal number of men," say
the British accounts, " were ever better commanded ; and it would

FIRST GREAT TRIUMPH— SARATOGA. 317
have been difficult indeed, to have matched the raen with an equal
number." Forraing his troops within three-quarters of a raile of
the left of the Araericans, though covered frora their sight by the
forest, Burgoyne sent out a corps of rangers, provincials, and
Indians, to skulk through the woods, get in their rear, and give
thera an alarra at the time the attack took place in front.
The movement, though carried on behind the screen of for
ests, was discovered. In the afternoon the advanced guard of
the American centre beat to arms ; the alarm was repeated through
out the line. Gates ordered his officers to their alarm posts, and
sent forth Wilkinson, the adjutant-general, to inquire the cause.
Frora a rising ground in an open place he descried the eneray in
force, their foragers busy in a field of wheat, the officers recon
noitering the left wing of the camp with telescopes from the top
of a cabin.
Returning to the camp, Wilkinson reported the position and
raoveraents of the eneray ; that their front was open, their flanks
rested on woods, under cover of which they might be attacked,
and their right was skirted by a height : that they were recon
noitering the left, and he thought offered battle.
"Weh, then," rephed Gates, "order out Morgan to begin the
garae." A plan of attack was soon arranged. Morgan with his rifleraen
and a body of infantry was sent to make a circuit through the
woods, and get possession of the heights on the right of the enemy,
while General Poor with his brigade of New York and New Hamp
shire troops, and a part of Learned's brigade, were to advance
against the enemy's left. Morgan was to make an attack on the
heights as soon as he should hear the fire opened below.
Burgoyne now drew out his troops in battle array. The gi-en-
adiers, under Major Ackland, with the artihery, under Major Wil
liaras, formed the left, and were stationed on a rising ground, with
a rivulet cahed Mhl Creek in front. Next to them were the Hes
sians, under Riedesel, and British, under Phihips, forraing the
centre. The light infantry, under Lord Balcarras, forraed the ex
trerae right ; having in the advance a detachment of five hundred

318 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
picked men, under General Fraser, ready to fiank the Americans
as soon as they should be attacked in front.
He had scarce made these arrangeraents, when he was astonished
and confounded by a thundering of arthlery on his left, and a rat
tiing fire of rifles on the woody heights on his right. The troops
under Poor advanced steadily up the ascent where Ackland's gren
adiers and Wilhams' artihery were stationed, received their fire,
and then rushed forward. Ackland's grenadiers received the first
brant, but it extended along the line, as detachment after detach
ment arrived, and was carried on with inconceivable fury. The
Hessian artiherists spoke afterwards of the heedlessness with which
the Americans rushed upon the cannon, while they were discharg
ing grape-shot. The artihery was repeatedly taken and retaken,
and at length remained in possession of the Americans, who
tumed it upon its former owners. Major Ackland was wounded
in both legs and taken prisoner. Major Williams of the artillery
was also captured. The headlong impetuosity of the attack con
founded the regular tacticians. Much of this has been ascribed
to the presence and exaraple of Arnold. That daring officer, who
had lingered in the carap in expectation of a fight, was exasperated
at having no coramand assigned him. On hearing the din of bat
tle, he could restrain no longer his warlike irapulse, but threw hira
self on his horse and sallied forth. Gates saw him issuing from
the camp. " He'll do some rash thing ! " cried he, and sent his
aide-de-carap. Major Armstrong, to call hira back. Arnold sur
mised his errand and evaded it. Putting spurs to his horse, he
dashed into the scene of action, and was received with acclama
tion. Being the superior officer in the field his orders were obeyed
of course. Putting himself at the head of the troops of Learned's
brigade, he attacked the Hessians in the enemy's centre, and broke
them with repeated charges. Indeed, for a time his actions seeraed
to partake of frenzy ; riding hither and thither, brandishing his
sword, and cheering on the men to acts of desperation. In one of
his paroxysms of excitement, he struck and wounded an American
officer in the head with his sword, without, as he afterwards de
clared, being conscious of the act. Wilkinson asserts that he was

FIRST GREAT TRIUMPH— SARATOGA 319
partly intoxicated ; but Arnold needed only his own irritated pride
and the smeh of gunpowder to rouse hira to acts of raadness.
Morgan, in the raeantirae, was harassing the eneray's right wdng
with an incessant fire of small-arms, and preventing it from sending
any assistance to the centre. General Fraser with his chosen corps
for sorae tirae rendered great protection to this wing. Mounted
on an iron-gray charger, his uniform of a field-officer made him a
conspicuous object for Morgan's sharpshooters. One bullet cut
the crapper of his horse, another grazed his mane. "You are
singled out, general," said his aide-de-camp, "and had better shift
your ground." "My duty forbids me to fly from danger," was the
reply. A moment afterwards he was shot down by a marksman
posted in a tree. Two grenadiers bore him to the camp. His
fah was a death blow to his corps. The arrival on the field of a
large reinforcement of New York troops under General Ten Broeck
completed the confusion. Burgoyne saw that the field was lost,
and now only thought of saving his camp. The troops nearest to
the hnes were ordered to throw themselves within them, while
generals Phihips and Riedesel covered the retreat of the main
body, which was in danger of being cut off. The artillery was
abandoned, all the horses, and most of the men who had so
bravely defended it, having been khled. The troops, though hard
pressed, retired in good order. Scarcely had they entered the
camp when it was stormed with great fury ; the Araericans, with
Amold at their head, rushing to the lines under a severe discharge
of grape-shot and sraah-arms. Lord Balcarras defended the en
trenchments bravely ; the action was fierce, and well sustained on
either side. After an ineffectual attempt to make his way into the
camp in this quarter at the point of the bayonet, Amold spurred
his horse toward the right flank of the camp occupied by the
German reserve, where Lieutenant-colonel Brooks was raaking a
general attack with a Massachusetts regiraent. Here, with a part
of a platoon, he forced his way into a sally-port ; but a shot frora
the retreating Hessians kihed his horse, and wounded him in the
sarae leg which had received a wound before Quebec. He
was borne off frora the field, but not until the victory was com-

320 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
plete ; for the Gerraans retreated from the works, leaving on the
field their brave defender, Lieutenant-colonel Breyman, mortahy
wounded. The night was now closing in. The victory of the Americans
was decisive. They had routed the enemy, killed and wounded
a great number, made raany prisoners, taken their field -arthlery,
and gained possession of a part of their works which laid open the
right and the rear of their camp. They lay ah night on their arms,
within half a mile of the scene of action, prepared to renew the
assault upon the camp in the morning.
Surrender of Burgoyne. — Burgoyne shifted his position dur
ing the night to heights about a mhe to the north, close to the
river, and covered in front by a ravine. Early in the morning,
the Americans took possession of the abandoned camp. A ran
dom fire of artillery and small-arms was kept up on both sides
during the day. Gates, however, did not think it advisable to
force a desperate eneray when in a strong position, at the expense
of a prodigal waste of blood. He took all measures to cut off his
retreat and insure a surrender. General Fehows, -with fourteen
hundred raen, had already been sent to occupy the high ground
east of the Hudson opposite Saratoga Ford. Other detachraents
were sent higher up the river in the direction of Lake George.
Burgoyne saw that nothing was left for him but a prompt and
rapid retreat to Saratoga. It rained terribly, and in consequence
of repeated halts, they did not reach Saratoga until the evening of
the 9th. The bridge over the Fish Kih had been destroyed ; the
artihery could not cross until the ford was exarained. Exhausted
by fatigue, the men for the most part had not strength nor inch-
nation to cut wood nor make fire, but threw themselves upon the
wet ground in their wet clothes, and slept under the pouring rain.
At daylight on the loth, the artihery and the last of the troops
passed the fords of the Fish Khl, and took a position upon the
heights, and in the redoubts formerly constructed there. To
protect the troops from being attacked in passing the ford by the
Americans who were approaching, Burgoyne ordered fire to be set
to the farm-houses and other buildings on the south side of the Fish

FIRST GREAT TRIUMPH— SARATOGA. 321
Kih. Araongst the rest, the noble raansion of General Schuyler,
with storehouses, granaries, mhls, and the other appurtenances of
a great rural establishment, was entirely consumed. Burgoyne
himself estimated the value of property destroyed at ten thousand
pounds sterling.
The force under General Fellows, posted on the opposite hihs
of the Hudson, now opened a fire frora a battery coramanding
the ford of that river. Thus prevented from crossing, Burgoyne
thought to retreat along the west side as far as Fort George, on
the way to Canada, and sent out workraen under a strong escort
to repair the bridges, and open the road toward Fort Edward.
The escort was soon recalled and the work abandoned ; for the
Araericans appeared in great force, on the heights south of the
Fish Kill, and seeraed preparing to cross and bring on an engage
raent. The opposite shores of the Hudson were also lined with de
tachments of Americans. Bateaux laden with provisions, which
had attended the movements of the army, were fired upon, raany
taken, sorae retaken with loss of life. It was necessary to land
the provisions from such as reraained, and bring thera up the hill
into the carap, which was done under a heavy fire from the
American arthlery.
Burgoyne called a council of war, in which it was resolved, since
the bridges could not be repaired, to abandon the artihery and
baggage, let the troops carry a supply of provisions upon their
backs, push forward in the night, and force their way across the
fords at or near Fort Edward. But before the plan could be put
in execution, scouts brought word that the Araericans were en
trenched opposite those fords, and encaraped in force with can
non, on the high ground between Fort Edward and Fort George.
By this time the American army, augraented by volunteers frora
all quarters, had posted itself in strong positions on both sides of
the Hudson, so as to extend three-fourths of a circle round the
enemy. Giving up all further attempt at retreat, Burgoyne now fortified
his camp on the heights to the north of the Fish Kih, still hoping
that succor might arrive from Sir Henry Clinton, or that an attack

322 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
upon his trenches might give him some chance of cutting his way
through. In this situation his troops lay continually on their
arms. His camp was subjected to cannonading from Fellows'
batteries on the opposhe side of the Hudson, Gates' batteries on
the south of Fish Khl, and a gahing fire from Morgan's riflemen,
stationed on heights in the rear. The Baroness Riedesel and her
helpless httie ones were exposed to the dangers and horrors of
this long turmoil. On the morning when the attack was opened.
General Riedesel sent them to take refuge in a house in the
vicinity. Some woraen and crippled soldiers had already taken
refuge there. It was raistaken for head-quarters and cannonaded.
The baroness retreated into the cellar, laid . herself in a corner
near the door with her children's heads upon her knees, and
passed a sleepless night of anguish. In the morning the can
nonade began anew. Cannon-balls passed through the house
repeatedly with a tremendous noise. A poor soldier, who was
about to have a leg amputated, lost the other by one of these
balls. The day was passed among such horrors. The wives of a
raajor, a lieutenant, and a coraraissary, were her corapanions in
raisery. "They sat together," she says, " deploring their situation,
when some one entered to announce bad news." There was
whispering among her companions, with deep looks of sorrow.
" I immediately suspected," says she, " that my husband had been
kihed. I shrieked aloud." She was soothed by assurances that
nothing had happened to him ; and was given to understand by a
sidelong glance, that the wife of the lieutenant was the unfortunate
one ; her husband had been killed.
For six days, she and her children remained in this dismal place
of refuge. The cehar was spacious, with three compartments, but
the number of occupants increased. The wounded were brought
in to be relieved — or to die. She remained with her children
near the door, to escape more easily in case of fire. She put
straw under mattresses ; on these she lay with her little ones and
her feraale servants slept near her. There was great distress for
water. The river was near, but the Americans shot every one who
approached it. A soldier's wife at length summoned resolution

FIRST GREAT TRIUMPH— SARATOGA. 323
and brought a supply. "The Americans," adds the baroness, "told
us afterwards, that they spared her on account of her sex."
Burgoyne was now reduced to despair. It was found that the
provisions on hand, even upon short allowance, would not suffice
for more than three days. A council of war was called and the
deliberations were brief. All concurred in the necessity of opening
a treaty with General Gates, for a surrender on honorable terms.
Whhe they were yet deliberating, an eighteen-pound ball passed
through the tent, sweeping across the table round which they were
seated. Negotiations were accordingly opened on the 13 th, under sanc
tion of a flag. The first terms offered by Gates were that the
enemy should lay down their arras within their entrenchraents and
surrender themselves prisoners of war. These were indignantiy
rejected, with an intimation that, if persisted in, hostilities must
recommence. Counter-proposals were then made by General
Burgoyne, and finally accepted by General Gates. According to
these, the British troops were to march out of the camp with
arthlery and all the honors of war, to a fixed place, where they
were to pile their arms at a word of command frora their own
officers. They were to be allowed a free passage to Europe upon
condition of not serving again in Araerica, during the present war.
The array was not to be separated, especially the raen frora the
officers ; roll-calling and other regular duties were to be per
raitted ; the officers were to be on parole, and to wear their side-
arms. Ah private property to be sacred ; no baggage to be
searched or molested.
In the night of the i6th, before the articles of capitulation. had
been signed, a British officer from the array below raade his way
into the carap, with dispatches frora Sir Henry Clinton, announ
cing that he had captured the forts in the Highlands, and had
pushed detachments further up the Hudson. Burgoyne now sub
raitted to the consideration of his officers, " whether it was con
sistent with public faith, and if so, expedient, to suspend the
execution of the treaty and trust to events.'' His own opinion
inclined in the affirraative, but the raajority of the council deter-

324 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
mined that the pubhc faith was fully plighted. The capitulation
was accordingly signed by Burgoyne on the 17 th of October.
The British army, at the time of the surrender, was reduced by
capture, death, and desertion, frora nine thousand to five thousand
seven hundred and fifty-two men. That of Gates, regulars and
militia had swoUen until it araounted to raore than twenty thousand.
When the British troops raarched forth to deposit their arras at
the appointed place. Colonel Wilkinson, the adjutant-general, was
the only American soldier to be seen. Gates had ordered his
troops to keep rigidly within their lines, that they might not add
by their presence to the humiliation of a brave enemy. Wilkinson,
in his memoirs, describes the first meeting of Gates and Burgoyne,
which took place at the head of the American camp. They were
attended by their staffs and by other general officers. Burgoyne
was in a rich royal uniform. Gates in a plain blue frock. When
they had approached nearly within sword's length they reined up
and halted. Burgoyne, raising his hat raost gracefully, said : " The
fortune of war. General Gates, has raade me your prisoner ; " to
which the other, returning his salute, replied, " I shall always be
ready to testify that it has not been through any fault of your
Excehency." It was the lot of Burgoyne to have coals of fire heaped on his
head. One of the first persons whora he encountered in the
American carap was General Schuyler. He attempted to make
some explanation or excuse about the recent destmction of his^
property. Schuyler begged him not to think of it, as the occasion
justified it, according to the principles and rules of war. " He did
more," said Burgoyne, in a speech before the House of Comraons :
" he sent an aide-de-camp to conduct me to Albany ; in order, as
he expressed h, to procure better quarters than a stranger might
be able to find. That gentleman conducted me to a very elegant
house, and, to my great surprise, presented me to Mrs. Schuyler
and her family. In that house I remained during my whole stay
in Albany, with a table of more than twenty covers for me and my
friends, and every other demonstration of hospitality.'"
This was indeed realizing the vaunted courtesy and magnanimity
of the age of chivalry.

FIRST GREAT TRIUMPH— SARATOGA. 325
The surrender of Burgoyne was soon followed by the evacuation
of Ticonderoga and Fort Independence. As to the armament on
the Hudson, its comraanders received, in the raidst of their burn
ing and plundering, the astounding intelligence of the capture of
the array with which they had come to co-operate. Nothing
reraained for them, therefore, but to drop down the river and
retum to New York. The fortresses in the Highlands could not
be maintained, and were accordingly evacuated and destroyed.
Battle of Germantown. — We left Washington encamped at
Pott's Grove towards the end of September, giving his troops a
few days' repose after their severe fatigues. His force amounted
to about eight thousand Continentals and three thousand mhitia ;
with these he advanced, on the 30th of September, to Skippack
Creek, about fourteen miles from Germantovra, where the main
body of the British army lay encamped, a detachraent under
Comwalhs occupying Phhadelphia.
Iramediately after the battle of Brandywdne, Admiral Lord Howe,
with great exertions, had succeeded in getting his ships of war and
transports round from the Chesapeake into the Delaware, and had
anchored them along the western shore, frora Reedy Island to
Newcastle. They were prevented from approaching nearer by
obstractions which the Americans had placed in the river. The
lowest of these were at Bilhngsport (or Bylhng's Point), where
chevaux-de-frise in the channel of the river were protected by a
strong redoubt on the Jersey shore. Higher up were Fort Mifflin
on Mud (or Fort) Island, and Fort Mercer on the Jersey shore,
with chevaux-de-frise between them. Washington had exerted
himself to throw a garrison into Fort Mifflin, and keep up the
obstructions of the river. "If these can be maintained," said he,
" General Howe's situation wih not be the most agreeable ; for if
his supphes can be stopped by water, it may easily be done by
land. To do both shah be my utraost endeavor ; and I am not
without hope that the acquisition of Phhadelphia may, instead of
his good fortune, prove his ruin."
Sir Wihiam Howe was perfectly aware of this, and had con
certed operations wdth his brother, by land and water, to reduce

326 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
the forts and clear away the obstructions of the river. With this
view he detached a part of his force into the Jerseys. Washington
had been for some days anxiously on the lookout for an opportu
nity to strike a blow, when two intercepted letters gave him intelli
gence of this movement. He iraraediately deterrained to make
an attack upon the British camp at Germantown, whhe weakened
by the absence of this detachment. To understand the plan of
the attack, some description of the British place of encampment
is necessary. Germantown, at that time, was httie more than one continued
street, extending two miles north and south. The houses were
mostly of stone, low and substantial, with steep roofs and project
ing eaves. They stood apart from each other, wdth fmit trees in
front and smah gardens. Beyond the vihage, and about a hundred
yards east of the road, stood a spacious stone edifice, wdth orna
mented grounds, statues, groves, and shrubbery, the country-seat
of Benjarain Chew, chief justice of Pennsylvania previous to the
Revolution : we shah have more to say concerning this mansion
presently. Four roads approached the village frora above ; that is, frora
the north. The Skippack, which was the main road, led over
Chestnut Hill and Mount Airy down to and through the village
toward Philadelphia, forming the street of which we have just
spoken. On its right, and nearly parallel, was the Monatawny road,
passing near the Schuylkill, and entering the raain road below the
village. On the left of the Skippack or main road, was the Lime
kiln road, running nearly parallel to it for a tirae, and then turning
towards it, almost at right angles, so as to enter the village at the
market-place. Still further to the left or east, and outside of all,
was the Old York road, falling into the main road sorae distance
below the village.
The main body of the British forces lay encamped across the
lower part of the vhlage, divided into almost equal parts by the
main street or Skippack road. The right wing, comraanded by
General Grant, was to the east of the road, the left wing to the
west. Each wing was covered by strong detachraents, au'l

Tn farp nacrp -^9fi.

FIRST GREAT TRIUMPH— SARATOGA. 327
guarded by cavalry. General Howe had his head-quarters in the
rear. The advance of the array, composed of the 2d battalion of
British light infantry, with a train of artillery, was more than two
miles from the main body, on the west of the road, with an out
lying picket stationed with two six-pounders at Allen's house on
Mount Airy. About three-quarters of a mhe in the rear of the
light infantry, lay encamped in a field opposite " Chew's House,"
.the 40th regiment of infantry, under Colonel Musgrave.
According to Washington's plan for the attack, Sullivan was to
command the right wing, composed of his own division, principally
, Maryland troops, and the division of General Wayne. He was to
be sustained by a corps de reserve, under Lord Stirling, composed
of Nash's North Carolina and Maxwell's Virginia brigades, and to
be flanked by the brigade of General Conway. He was to march
down the Skippack road and attack the left wing ; at the same
tirae General Arrastrong, with the Pennsylvania militia, was to
pass down the Monatawny road, and get upon the eneray's left
and rear.
Greene, with the left wing, coraposed of his own division and
the division of General Stephen, and flanked by McDougah's
brigade, was to march down»the Limekiln road, so as to enter
the village at the raarket-house. The two divisions were to attack
the enemy's right wing in front, McDougall with his brigade to
attack it in flank, whhe Smallwood's division of Maryland militia
and Forman's Jersey brigade, making a circuit by the Old York
road, were to attack it in the rear. Two-thirds of the forces were
thus directed against the enemy's right wing, under the idea that,
if it could be forced, the whole array must be pushed into the
Schuylkill, or compehed to surrender. The attack was to begin
on ah quarters at daybreak.
About dusk, on the 3d of October, the army left its encarapraent
at Matuchen Hhls, by its different routes. Washington accora
panied the right wing. It had fifteen railes of weary march to
raake over rough roads, so that it was after daybreak when the
troops eraerged from the woods on Chestnut Hill. The moming

328 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
was dark with a heavy fog. A detachment advanced to attack the
enemy's out-picket, stationed at Ahen's house. The patrol was
led by Captain Ahen McLane, a brave Maryland officer, weh ac
quainted with the ground, and with the position of the enemy.
He feh hi with double sentries, whom he killed with the loss of
one man. The alarm, however, was given ; the distant roh of a
dmm and the cah to arms, resounded through the murky air.
The picket guard, after discharging their two six-pounders, were
routed, and retreated dovra the south side of Mount Airy to the
battahon of light infantry who were forming in order of battie.
As their pursuers descended into the vahey, the sun rose, but was
soon obscured. Wayne led the attack upon the light infantry.
"They broke at first," writes he, "wdthout waiting to receive us,
but soon forraed again, when a heavy and well-directed fire took
place on both sides."
They again gave way, but being supported by the grenadiers,
retumed to the charge. Sullivan's division and Conway's brigade
formed on the west of the road, and joined in the attack ; the rest
of the troops were too far to the north to render any assistance.
The infantry, after fighting bravely for a time, broke and ran, leav
ing their artillery behind. They were hotly pursued by Wayne.
His troops remembered the bloody* 20th of September, and the
rathless slaughter of their comrades. " They pushed on with the
bayonet," says Wayne, " and took ample vengeance for that night's
work." The officers endeavored to restrain their fury towards
those who cried for mercy, but to little purpose. It was a terrible
melde. The fog, together wdth the smoke of the cannonry and
musketry, made it almost as dark as night ; our people raistaking
one another for the enemy, frequently exchanged shots before they
discovered their error. The whole of the enemy's advance were
driven from their caraping ground, leaving their tents standing,
with ah their baggage. Colonel Musgrave, with six companies of
the 40th regiment, threw himself into Chew's House, barricaded
the doors and lower windows, and took post above stairs ; the
main torrent of the retreat passed the house pursued by Wayne
into the vihage.

FIRST GREAT TRIUMPH— SARATOGA. 329
As the residue of this division of the array carae up to join in
the pursuit, Musgrave opened a fire of rausketry upon thera frora
the upper windows of his citadel. This brought them to a halt.
Some of the officers were for pushing on ; but Knox stoutiy ob
jected, insisting on the old mihtary maxim, never to leave a gar
risoned castle in the rear. His objection unluckily prevailed. A
flag was sent with a suraraons to surrender. A young Virginian,
Lieutenant Sraith, volunteered to be the bearer. As he was ad
vancing, he was fired upon and received a raortal wound. This
house was now cannonaded, but the artihery was too light to have
the desired effect. An atterapt was raade to set fire to the base-
raent. He who attempted it was shot dead from a grated cellar
window. Half an hour was thus spent in vain ; scarce any of the
defenders of the house were injured, though many of the assailants
were slain. At length a regiment was left to keep guard iipon the
mansion and hold its garrison in check, and the rear division
again pressed forward.
This half-hour's delay, however, of one half of the army discon
certed the action. The divisions and brigades thus separated
from each other by the skirmishing attack upon Chew's House,
could not be reunited. The fog and smoke rendered ah objects
indistinct at thirty yards' distance ; the different parts of the array
knew nothing of the position or raovements of each other, and the
commander-in-chief could take no view nor gain any information
of the situation of the whole. The original plan of attack was
only effectively carried into operation in the centre. The flanks
and rear of the enemy were nearly unraolested ; sthl the action,
though disconnected, irregular, and partial, was animated in vari
ous quarters. Sullivan, being reinforced by Nash's North Carohna
troops and Conway's brigade, pushed on a mile beyond Chew's
House, where the left wing of the eneray gave way before hira.
Greene and Stephen, with their divisions, having had to raake
a circuit, were late in coraing into action, and became separated
from each other, part of Stephen's division being arrested by a
heavy fire from Chew's House and pausing to retum it ; Greene,
however, with his division, comprising the brigades of Muhlenberg

330 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
and Scott, pressed rapidly forward, drove an advance regiment of
light infantry before hira, took a nuraber of prisoners, and made
his way quite to the market-house in the centre of the village,
where he encountered the right wing of the British drawn up to
receive hira. The irapetuosity of his attack had an evident effect
upon the eneray, who began to waver. Forraan and Sraahwood,
with the Jersey and Maryland mhitia, were just showing themselves
on the right flank of the enemy, and our troops seemed on the
point of carrying the whole encarapraent. At this moment a sin
gular panic seized our army. Various causes are assigned for it.
Sullivan aheges that his troops had expended ah their cartridges,
and were alarraed by seeing the enemy gathering on their left,
and by the cry of a light horseman, that the enemy were getting
round them. Wayne's division, which had pushed the enemy
three miles, was alarmed by the approach of a large body of
American troops on its left flank, which it mistook for foes, and
fell back in defiance of every effort of its officers to rally it. In
its retreat it came upon Stephen's division and threw it into a
panic, being, in its turn, raistaken for the eneray ; thus all feh into
confusion, and our array fled from their own victory.
In the meantime, the eneray having recovered from the first
effects of the surprise, advanced in their turn. General Grey
brought up the left wing, and pressed upon the American troops
as they receded. Lord Cornwallis, with a squadron of light horse
frora Philadelphia, arrived just in tirae to join in the pursuit.
The retreat of the Araericans was attended whh less loss than
might have been expected, and they carried off all their cannon
and wounded. This was partiy owing to the good generalship of
Greene, in keeping up a retreating fight with the enemy for nearly
five mhes ; and partly to a check given by Wayne, who turned his
cannon upon the enemy from an eminence, near AVhite Marsh
Church, and brought them to a stand. The retreat continued
through tiie day to Perkiomen Creek, a distance of twenty miles.
The loss of the enemy in this action is stated by thera to be
seventy-one killed, four hundred and fifteen wounded, and four
teen raissing: among the killed was Brigadier - general Agnew.

FIRST GREAT TRIUMPH— SARATOGA. 331
The American loss was one hundred and fifty killed, five hundred
and twenty-one wounded, and about four hundred taken prison
ers. Araong the kihed was General Nash of North Carolina.
Washington's plan of attack was perhaps too widely extended
for strict concerf, and too complicated for precise co-operation, as
it had to be conducted in the night, and with a large proportion
of undisciplined militia ; and yet, a bewildering fog alone appears
to have prevented its complete success. But although the Araer
icans were balked of the victory, which seeraed within their
grasp, the irapression made by the audacity of this attempt upon
Germantown, was greater, we are told, than that caused by any
single incident of the war after Lexington and Bunker Hill.
It produced a great effect also in France. The Count Ver
gennes observed to the American commissioners in Paris on their
first interview, that nothing struck him so much as General Wash
ington's attacking and giving battie to General Howe's army; that to
bring an army raised within a year to this pass proraised everything.
Valley Forge. — It was now the great object of the Howes to
reduce Forts Mercer and Mifflin, and thus to get complete con
trol of the Delaware river. Without this, it would probably be
impossible to hold Philadelphia during the winter, since it was in
Washington's power to cut off ah supplies attempting to reach
that city by land. The reduction of the forts was at length
accomphshed late in November, after more than a raonth of hard
work and several bloody repulses. Had Gates behaved properly
after the surrender of Burgoyne, and sent back to Washington the
reinforceraents no longer needed at the north, it has been thought
that the forts might have defied every effort of the enemy. But
Gates's weak head was turned with applause. He became insub
ordinate, sent his reports directly to Congress instead of sending
them to Washington, and even aspired to oust the latter from his
command, as he had already ousted Schuyler. Many people were
ready to help him in this work. The air rang with the praises of
Gates. Had not he vanquished and captured a whole army, while
Washington, after a succession of defeats, had nothing left him
but to take refuge in secure winter-quarters ?

332 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
The plan adopted by Washington, after holding a counch of
war, and weighing the discordant opinions of his officers, was to
hut the army for the winter at Vahey Forge, in Chester County,
on the west side of the Schuylkill, about twenty miles from Phha
delphia. Here he would be able to keep a vigilant eye on that
city, and at the same tirae protect a great extent of country.
Sad and dreary was the march to Vahey Forge ; uncheered by
the recohection of any recent triumph, as was the march to win
ter-quarters in the preceding year. Hungry and cold were the
poor fellows who had so long been keeping the field ; for provis
ions were scant, clothing worn out, and so badly off were they
for shoes, that the footsteps of many might be tracked in blood.
Yet at this very time we are told, " hogsheads of shoes, stockings,
and clothing, were lying at different places on the roads and in the
woods, perishing for want of teams, or of raoney to pay the teara-
sters." Such were the consequences of the deranged condition of
the comraissariat.
Arrived at Valley Forge on the 1 7th of December, the troops
had still to brave the wintry weather in their tents, until they could
cut down trees and construct huts for their accoraraodation. Those
who were on the sick list had to seek temporary shelter wherever
it could be found, among the farmers of the neighborhood. Ac
cording to the regulations in the orderly book, each hut was to be
fourteen feet by sixteen, with walls of logs filled in with clay, six
feet and a half high ; the fire-places were of logs plastered ; and
logs split into mde planks or slabs furnished the roofing. A hut
was ahotted to twelve non-coraraissioned officers and soldiers.
A general officer had a hut to himself The same was ahowed to
the staff of each brigade and regiraent, and the field-officer of
each regiraent ; and a hut to the commissioned officers of each
company. The huts of the soldiery fronted on streets. Those
of the officers forraed a line in the rear, and the encampment
gradually assumed the look of a rude mhitary village.
Scarce had the troops been two days employed in these labors,
when, before daybreak on the 2 2d, word was brought that a body
of the enemy had made a sortie toward Chester, apparently on a

FIRST GREAT TRIUMPH— SARATOGA. 333
foraging expedition. Washington issued orders to generals Hunt
ington and Varnura, to hold their troops in readiness to raarch
against them. Their rephes bespeak the forlorn state of the army.
" Fighting wih be far preferable to starving," writes Huntington.
" My brigade are out of provisions, nor can the commissary obtain
any meat. I have used every arguraent my imagination can invent
to make the soldiers easy, but I despair of being able to do it
much longer." " It's a very pleasing circurastance to the division
under ray coraraand," writes Varnura, "that there is a probability
of their marching; three days successively we have been des
titute of bread. Two days we have been entirely without meat.
The men raust be supplied, or they cannot be coramanded."
In fact, a dangerous rautiny had broken out araong the famish
ing troops in the preceding night, which their officers had had
great difficulty in quehing.
Washington instantly -wrote to the President of Congress on the
subject. " I do not know from what cause this alarming defi
ciency or rather total failure of supplies arises ; but unless raore
vigorous exertions and better regulations take place in that line
(the coraraissaries' department) immediately, the array must dis
solve. I have done all in ray power by remonstrating, by writing,
by ordering the commissaries on this head, from tirae to time ;
but without any good effect, or obtaining more than a present
scanty relief Owing to this, the march of the army has been
delayed on more than one interesting occasion, in the course of
the present carapaign ; and had a body of the enemy crossed the
Schuylkill this moming, as I had reason to expect, the divisions
which I ordered to be in readiness to march and meet them could
not have moved."
Scarce had Washington dispatched this letter, when he learnt
that the Legislature of Pennsylvania had addressed a remonstrance
to Congress against his going into winter-quarters, instead of keep
ing in the open field. This letter, received in his forlorn situation,
surrounded by an unhoused, scantily clad, half-starved army, shiv
ering in the midst of December's snow and cold, put an end to
his forbearance, and drew frora him another letter to the President

334 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
of Congress, dated on the 23d, which we shah largely quote ; not
only for its manly and tmthful eloquence, but for the exposition it
gives of the difficulties of his situation, mainly caused by unwise
and intermeddling legislation.
And first as to the comraissariat : —
" Though I have been tender, heretofore," writes he, " of giving
any opinion, or lodging coraplaints ; yet, finding that the inactivity
of the army, whether for want of provisions, clothes, or other
essentials, is charged to my account, not only by the common
vulgar, but by those in power, it is time to speak plain in exculpa
tion of myself. With truth, then, I can declare, that no man, in
my opinion, ever had his measures raore impeded than I have by
every department of the army.
" Since the month of July, we have had no assistance from the
quartermaster-general ; and to want of assistance from this depart
ment, the commissary-general charges great part of his deficiency.
To this I ara to add, that notwithstanding it is a standing order,
and often repeated, that the troops shall always have two days'
provisions by thera, that they raight be ready at any sudden call ;
yet an opportunity has scarcely ever offered of taking an advantage
of the eneray, that it has not been either totally obstracted, or
greatly impeded on this account. ... As a proof of the little
benefit received frora a clothier-general, as a further proof of the
inability of an army, under the circumstances of this, to perform
the comraon duties of soldiers (besides a nuraber of men confined
to hospitals for want of shoes, and others in farmers' houses on
the same account) , we have, by a field retum this day made, no
less than two thousand eight hundred and ninety-eight raen now
in camp unfit for duty, because they are barefoot, and otherwise
naked. By the same return, it appears that our whole strength in
continental troops, including the eastern brigades, which have
joined us since the surrender of General Burgoyne, exclusive of
the Maryland troops sent to Wilmington, amounts to no more than
eight thousand two hundred in camp fit for duty ; notwithstanding
which, and that since the 4th instant, our numbers fit for duty,
from the hardships and exposures they have undergone, particu-

FIRST GREAT TRIUMPH— SARATOGA. 335
larly on account of blankets (nurabers have been obliged, and still
are, to sit up all night by fires, instead of taking corafortable rest
in a natural and common way), have decreased near two thousand
men. "We find gentlemen, without knowing whether the army was
really going into winter-quarters or not (for I am sure no resolu
tion of mine could warrant the remonstrance), reprobating the
measure as much as if they thought the soldiers were raade of
stocks or stones, and equally insensible of frost and snow ; and
moreover, as if they conceived it easily practicable for an inferior
array, under the disadvantages I described ours to be — which are
by no means exaggerated — to confine a superior one, in all
respects well appointed and provided for a winter's campaign,
within the city of Phhadelphia, and to cover frora depredation and
waste the states of Pennsylvania and Jersey. But what raakes this
matter still more extraordinary in my eye, is, that these very
gentleraen, who were well apprised of the nakedness of the troops
frora ocular demonstration, who thought their own soldiers worse
clad than others, and who advised me near a month ago to post
pone the execution of a plan I was about to adopt, in consequence
of a resolve in Congress for seizing clothes, under strong assurances
that an araple supply would be collected in ten days, agreeably to
a decree of the state (not one article of which, by the by, is yet
come to hand), should think a winter's campaign, and the cover
ing of those states from the invasion of an eneray, so easy and
practicable a business. I can assure those gentlemen, that it is a
much easier, and less distressing thing, to draw remonstrances in a
corafortable room by a good fireside, than to occupy a cold, bleak
hih, and sleep under frost and snow, without clothes or blankets.
However, although they seem to have littie feehng for the naked
and distressed soldiers, I feel abundantly for them, and, frora ray
soul, I pity those miseries, which it is neither in my power to
relieve nor prevent.
" It is for these reasons, therefore, that I have dwelt upon the
subject ; and it adds not a littie to my other difficulties and dis
tress, to find that much more is expected frora rae than is possible

336 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
to be performed, and that, upon the ground of safety and pohcy,
I ara obliged to conceal the true state of the army from public
view, and thereby expose myself to detraction and calumny."
In the present exigency, to save his camp from desolation, and
to relieve his starving soldiery, he was compehed to exercise the
authority recently given him by Congress, to forage the country
round, seize supplies wherever he could find them, and pay for
thera in raoney or in certificates redeeraable by Congress. He
exercised these powers with great reluctance ; rarally inclined
hiraself, he had a strong sympathy with the cultivators of the soil,
and ever regarded the yeomanry with a paternal eye. He was
apprehensive, moreover, of irritating the jealousy of military sway,
prevalent throughout the country, and of corrapting the morals of
the army. " Such procedures," writes he to the President of
Congress, "raay give a moraentary relief; but if repeated, wih
prove of the raost pernicious consequence. Beside spreading dis
affection, jealousy, and fear araong the people, they never fail,
even in the most veteran troops, under the most rigid and exact
discipline, to raise in the soldiery a disposition to licentiousness,
to plunder and robbery, difficult to suppress afterward, and which
has proved not only ruinous to the inhabitants, but in raany
instances to armies themselves. I regret the occasion that com
pelled us to the raeasure the other day, and shall consider it the
greatest of our misfortunes if we should be under the necessity of
practising it again."
How traly in all these trying scenes of his mhitary career, does
the patriot rise above the soldier !
With these noble and high-spirited appeals to Congress, we
close Washington's operations for 1777 ; one of the raost arduous ,
and eventful years of his military life, and one of the most trying
to his character and fortunes. He began it with an empty array-
chest, and a force dwindled down to four thousand half-disciplined
raen. Throughout the year he had had to contend, not merely
with the enemy, but with the parsimony and meddlesome interfer
ence of Congress. In his most critical times, that body had left
him without funds and without reinforcements. It had made

FIRST GREAT TRIUMPH— SARATOGA. 337
some promotions contrary to his advice, and contrary to railitary
usage, thereby wronging and disgusting sorae of his bravest offi
cers. It had changed the coramissariat in the very midst of a
carapaign, and thereby thrown the whole service into confusion.
Araong so raany cross-purposes and discouragements, it was a
difficult task for Washington to " keep the life and soul of the
army together." Yet he had done so. Marvellous indeed was the
manner in which he had soothed the discontents of his aggrieved
officers, and reconciled them to an ill-requiting service ; and still
more marvellous the manner in which he had breathed his own spirit
of patience and perseverance into his yeoman soldiery, during their
sultry marchings and countermarchings through the Jerseys, under
all kinds of privations, with no visible object of pursuit to stimu
late their ardor, hunting, as it were, the raraored apparitions of an
unseen fleet.
All this time, too, while endeavoring to ascertain and counteract
the operations of Lord Howe upon the ocean, and his brother
upon the land, he was directing and aiding rahitary raeasures
against Burgoyne in the North. Three games were in a raanner
going on under his supervision. The operations of the com
mander-in-chief are not always raost obvious to the public eye ;
victories raay be planned in his tent, of which subordinate gener
als get the credit ; and most of the raoves which ended in giving
a triuraphant check to Burgoyne may be traced to Washington's
shifting camp in the Jerseys.
It has been an irksorae task in sorae of the preceding chap
ters, to notice the under -current of intrigue by which sorae
part of this year's carapaign was disgraced ; yet even-handed
justice requires that such machinations should be exposed. We
have shown how successful they were in displacing the noble-
hearted Schuyler from the head of the Northern department ; the
same machinations were now at work to undermine the cora
raander-in-chief, and elevate the putative hero of Saratoga on his
rains. He was painfully aware of them ; yet in no part of the war
did he more thoroughly evince that raagnaniraity which was his
grand characteristic, than in the last scenes of this campaign.

338 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
where he rose above the tauntings of the press, the sneerlngs of
the cabal, the murmurs of the public, the suggestions of some of
his friends, and the throbbing impulses of his own courageous
heart, and adhered to that Fabian policy which he considered
essential to the safety of the cause. To dare is often the impulse
of selfish ambition or harebrained valor : to forbear is at tiraes the
proof of real greatness.
The Conway Cabal. — While censure and detraction had thus
dogged Washington throughout his harassing carapaign, and fol
lowed him to his foriorn encarapraent at Valley Forge, Gates was
the constant therae of popular eulogium, and was held up as the
only man capable of retrieving the desperate fortunes of the South.
Letters from his friends in Congress urged him to hasten on, take
his seat at the head of the Board of War, assume the management
of rahitary affairs, and save the countiy .'
Gates was not a strong-rainded raan. Is it a wonder, then, that
his brain should be bewildered by the furaes of incense offered up
on every side ? A clique or cabal was formed with the purpose of
driving Washington from the chief command of the army and
putting Gates in his place. Most active araong these plotters was
General Thoraas Conway, an Irishman who had served many
years in the French army. Associated with him in this work were
Thomas Mifflin of Pennsylvania, the inefficient quartermaster-
general ; and James Lovell, one of the Massachusetts delegates in
the Continental Congress. They labored industriously to sth up
ill-feeling toward Washington in Congress, and by dint of anony
mous letters and cruel innuendoes to make him so uncomfortable
as to force him to resign his position as commander of the army.
Yo\ a short time the cabal seeraed to prosper, but Washington
detected the methods of the plotters. In a correspondence which
ensued with Gates, the latter general committed himself to a
series of most disgraceful falsehoods, which were remorselessly
exposed by Washington. The light thus thrown upon the base
and silly character of Gates damaged the cabal very seriously ;
and its ruin was completed by the ludicrous failure of a winter
expedition planned by Gates and his friends for the invasion of
Canada.

AMERICANS ASSUME THE OFFENSIVE. 339
By the spring of 1778 most of the leading raen who had favored
the cabal had becorae asharaed of it, Conway left the array and
presently returned to France, and Washington's position becarae
raore secure than ever. The quahty of the array was much im
proved during the winter, under the training of Baron von Steuben,
a highly educated officer who had served on the staff of Frederic
the Great. The services of Steuben were more valuable than
those of any other foreigner who served in our army except
Lafayette. § 8. Americans assume the Offensfve.
The French Alliance. — The capture of Burgoyne and his army
was now operating with powerful effect on the cabinets of both
England and France. With the former it was coupled with the
apprehension that France was about to espouse the Araeriean
cause. The consequence was Lord North's " Concihatory Bills,"
submitted by him to Parhament, and passed with but shght oppo
sition. One of these bihs regulated taxation in the American
colonies, in a manner which, it was trusted, would obviate every
objection. The other authorized the appointment of commis
sioners clothed with powers to negotiate with the existing govern
ments ; to proclaim a cessation of hostilities ; to grant pardons,
and to adopt other measures of a conciliatory nature.
"If what was now proposed was a right measure," observes a
contemporary British historian. Colonel Stedman, "it ought to
have been adopted at first, and before the sword was drawn ; on
the other hand, if the claims of the mother country over her
colonies were originahy worth contending for, the strength and
resources of the nation were not yet so far exhausted as to justify
ministers in relinquishing them without a further struggle "
Intelligence that a treaty between France and the United States
had actually been concluded at Paris, induced the British minister
to hurry off a draft of the bills to America, to forestah the effects
of the treaty upon the public mind. General Tryon caused copies
of it to be printed in New York and circulated through the country.
The tidings of the capitulation of Burgoyne had been equally

340 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
efficacious in quickening the action of the French cabinet. The
negotiations, which had gone on so slowly as almost to reduce our
commissioners to despah, were brought to a happy termination,
and on the 2d of May, a messenger arrived express from France
whh two treaties, one of amity and coramerce, the other of defen
sive ahiance, signed in Paris on the 6th of February by M. Girard
on the part of France, and by Benjamin Franklin, Silas Deane, and
Arthur Lee on the part of the United States. This last treaty
stipulated that, should war ensue between France and England, it
should be made a common cause by the contracting parties, in
which neither should make trace or peace with Great Britain with
out the consent of the other, nor either lay down their arms until
the independence of the United States was established.
These treaties were unanimously ratified by Congress, and their
promulgation was celebrated by pubhc rejoicings throughout the
country. The 6th of May was set apart for a raihtary fete at the
camp at Vahey Forge. The array was asserabled in best array ;
there was soleran thanksgiving by the chaplains at the head of each
brigade ; after which a grand parade, a national discharge of thir
teen guns, a general feu de joie, and shouts of the whole array,
"Long live the King of France — Hurra for the Araeriean States."
A banquet succeeded, at which Washington dined in public with
all the officers of his army, attended by a band of music.
The railitary career of Sir William Howe in the United States
was now drawing to a close. His conduct of the war had given
much dissatisfaction in England. His eneraies observed that
everything gained by the troops was lost by the general ; that he
had suffered an enemy with less than four thousand men to recon
quer a province which he had recentiy reduced, and lay a kind of
siege to his army in their winter-quarters ; and that he had brought
a sad reverse upon the British arms by failing to co-operate vigor
ously and efficiently with Burgoyne. Sir William, on his part, had
considered himself slighted by the rainistry; his suggestions, he
said, were disregarded, and the reinforcements withheld which he
considered indispensable for the successful conduct of the war.
He had therefore tendered his resignation, which had been

AMERICANS ASSUME THE OFFENSIVE. 341
promptly accepted, and Sir Henry Clinton ordered to relieve him.
Clinton arrived in Phhadelphia on the Sth of May, and took cora
raand of the array on the i ith.
Battle of Monmouth. — Soon after Sir Henry Clinton had taken
the coraraand, the exchange of General Lee, long delayed by
various irapediments, was effected ; and Lee was reinstated in his
position of second in comraand in the Continental army. Early
in June, it was evident that a total evacuation of Philadelphia was
on the point of taking place ; and circumstances convinced Wash
ington that the march of the enemy would be through the Jerseys.
Sorae of his officers thought differently, especiahy General Lee, who
had now the coraraand of a division coraposed of Poor's, Vamum's,
and Huntington's brigades. Lee, since his retum to the array, had
resumed his old habit of C)raical supervision, and had his circle of
admirers, among whom he indulged in caustic comraents on rahi
tary affairs and the merits of coramanders. In consequence of his
suggestions, Washington cahed a general council of war on the
1 7th, to consider whether to undertake any enterprise against the
enemy in their present circumstances. Lee spoke eloquently on
the occasion. He was opposed to an attack of any kind. He
would make a bridge of gold for the enemy. They were nearly
equal in number to the Americans, and far superior in discipline.
An attack would endanger the safety of the cause which was now
in a prosperous state, in consequence of the foreign ahiance just
formed. He advised merely to follow the eneray, observe their
raotions, and prevent thera frora coraraitting any excesses.
Lee's opinions had still great weight with the array; most of
the officers concurred with him ; but Greene, Lafayette, Wayne,
and Cadwalader could not brook that the enemy should evacuate
the city, and make a long raarch through the country unmolested.
An opportunity raight present itself of striking sorae signal blow,
that would indemnify the American soldiers for all they had suf
fered in their long and dreary encarapment at Valley Forge.
Washington's heart was wdth this latter counsel ; but seeing such
want of unanimity among his generals, he requested their opinions
in writing. Before these were given in, word was brought that the
enemy had actually evacuated the city.

342 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
Sir Henry had taken his raeasures with great secrecy and dis
patch. The array coraraenced raoving at three o'clock on the
morning of the iSth, retiring to a point of land below the town
forraed by the confluence of the Delaware and Schuylkill, and
crossing the former river in boats. By ten o'clock in the mom
ing the rear-guard landed on the Jersey shore. On the first intel
ligence of this movement, Washington detached Maxweh with his
brigade, to co-operate with Dickinson and the New Jersey mhitia
in harassing the enemy on their raarch. He sent Arnold, also,
with a force to take coramand of Philadelphia, that officer being
not yet sufficiently recovered frora his wound for field service ;
then breaking up his carap at Vahey Forge, he pushed forward
with his main force in pursuit of the enemy.
Greene, Wayne, and Lafayette advised that the rear of the enemy
should be attacked by a strong detachment, while the raain array
should be so disposed as to give a general battle, should circura
stances render it advisable. As this opinion coincided with his
own, Washington determined to act upon it.
Sir Henry Clinton in the meantime had advanced to Ahentown,
on his way to Branswick, to embark on the Raritan. Finding the
passage of that river hkely to be strongly disputed by the forces
under Washington, and others advancing from the north under
Gates, he changed his plan, and turned to the right by a road
leading through Freehold to Navasink and Sandy Hook, to em
bark at the latter place.
Washington, no longer in doubt as to the route of the enemy's
march, detached Wayne with one thousand men to join the
advanced corps, which, thus augmented, was upward of four
thousand strong. The comraand of the advance properly belonged
to Lee as senior raajor-general;. but it was eagerly solicited by
Lafayette, as an attack by it was intended, and Lee was strenuously
Tjpposed to everything of the kind. Washington willingly gave his
consent, provided General Lee were satisfied with the arrangement.
The latter ceded the command wdthout hesitation, observing to
the marquis that he was weh pleased to be freed from all respon-
sibhity in executing plans which he was sure would fah.

AMERICANS ASSUME THE OFFENSIVE. 343
Lafayette set out on the 25 th ; while Washington, leaving his bag
gage at Kingston, moved with the raain body to Cranberry, three
miles in the rear of the advanced corps, to be ready to support
it. Scarcely, however, had Lee relinquished the command, when
he changed his mind, and in a note to Washington, he entreated to
have the command of the detachraent. Washington was perplexed
how to satisfy Lee without wounding the feelings of Lafayette. A
change in the disposition of the eneray's line of march furnished
an expedient. Sir Henry Clinton, finding himself harassed by
light troops on the flanks, and in danger of an attack in the rear,
placed all his baggage in front under the convoy of Knyphausen,
while he threw the main strength of his array in the rear under
Lord Cornwallis. This raade it necessary for Washington to
strengthen his advanced corps ; and he took this occasion to
detach Lee, with Scott's and Varnum's brigades, to support the
force under Lafayette. As Lee was the senior major-general, this
gave him the command of the whole advance. Washington ex
plained the matter in a letter_ to the marquis, who resigned the
command to Lee when the latter joined him on the 27th. That
evening the enemy encamped on high ground near Monmouth
Court-house. Lee encamped with the advance at Englishtown,
about five miles distant. The main body was three miles in his
rear. About sunset Washington rode forward and reconnoitered Sir
Henry's position. It was protected by woods and morasses, and
too strong to be attacked with a prospect of success. Should the
enemy, however, proceed ten or twelve mhes further unraolested,
they would gain the heights of Middletown, and be on ground still
more difficult. To prevent this, he resolved that an attack should
be raade on their rear early in the raorning, as soon as their front
should be in motion. This plan he communicated to General
Lee, in presence of his officers, ordering him to make dispositions
for the attack, keeping his troops lying on their arras, ready for
action on the shortest notice.
Early in the moming Washington received inforraation that the
eneray were in motion, and instantly sent orders to Lee to push

344 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
forward and attack thera, adding, that he was coming on to sup
port him. For that purpose he immediately set forward with his
own troops, ordering them to throw by their knapsacks and
blankets. Knyphausen, with the British vanguard, had begun about day
break to descend into the valley between Monmouth Court-house
and Middletown. To give the long train of wagons and pack-
horses time to get weh on the way. Sir Henry Chnton with his
choice troops remained in camp on the heights of Freehold unth
eight o'clock, when he hkewise resumed the hne of raarch toward
Middletown. Meanwhile Lee had advanced with the brigades of Wayne and
Maxweh, to support the light troops engaged in skirmishing. The
difficulty of reconnoitering a country cut up by woods and rao-
rassess, and the perplexity occasioned by contradictory reports,
erabarrassed his movements. Being joined by Lafayette with the
main body of the advance, he had now more than four thousand
men at his command. Arriving on the heights of Freehold, Lee
caught sight of a force under march, but partly hidden from view
by woods. Supposing it to be a covering party of about two thou
sand raen, he detached Wayne with seven hundred raen and two
pieces of artillery, to skirraish in its rear and hold it in check ;
while he, with the rest of his force, taking a shorter road through
the woods, would get in front of it, and cut it off frora the raain
body. Washington in the raeantirae was on his march to support the
advance, as he had promised. The booming of cannon at a dis
tance indicated that the attack so much desired had commenced,
and caused him to quicken his march. Arrived near Freehold
church, where the road forked, he detached Greene with part of
his forces to the right, to flank the enemy in the rear of Monmouth
Court-house, while he, with the rest of the column, would press
forward by the other road.
Washington had alighted whhe giving these directions and
was standing with his arm thrown over his horse, when a country
man rode up and said the Continental troops were retreatino-

AMERICANS ASSUME THE OFFENSIVE. 345
Washington was provoked at what he considered a false alarm.
The man pointed, as his authority, to an American fifer who just
then carae up in breathless affright. The fifer was ordered into
custody to prevent his spreading an alarra araong the troops who
were advancing, and was threatened with a flogging should he
repeat the story. Springing on his horse, Washington had raoved
forward but a short distance when he met other fugitives, who
concurred in the report. As he himself spurred past Freehold
meeting-house, he met Grayson's and Patton's regiments in disor
derly retreat, jaded with heat and fatigue. Riding up to the
officer at their head, Washington demanded whether the whole
advanced corps were retreating. The officer believed they were.
It seeraed incredible. There had been scarce any firing —
Washington had received no notice of the retreat frora Lee. He
was still inchned to doubt, when the heads of several columns of
the advance began to appear. One of the first officers that carae
up was Colonel Shreve, at the head of his regiraent ; Washington,
greatly surprised and alarraed, asked the raeaning of this retreat.
The colonel srailed significantly — he did not know — he had
retreated by order. There had been no fighting excepting a shght
skirraish with the eneray's cavalry, which had been repulsed.
A suspicion flashed across Washington's mind of wrong-headed
conduct on the part of Lee, to mar the plan of the attack
adopted contrary to his counsels. Ordering Colonel Shreve to
march his raen over the raorass, halt thera on the hhl beyond and
refresh thera, he gahoped forward to stop the retreat of the rest of
the advance, his indignation kindling as he rode. At the rear of
the regiraent he met Major Howard ; he, too, could give no reason
for the retreat, but seemed provoked at it — declaring that he had
never seen the like. Another officer exclairaed with an oath that
they were flying frora a shadow.
Arriving at a rising ground, Washington beheld Lee approach
ing with the residue of his comraand in full retreat. By this time
he was thoroughly exasperated.
"What is the meaning of ah this, sir?" demanded he, in the
fiercest tone, as Lee rode up to him.

346 UFE OF WASHINGTON.
Lee for a moment was disconcerted, and hesitated in making a
reply, for Washington's aspect, according to Lafayette, was terrible.
" I desire to know the meaning of this disorder and confusion,"
was again demanded still raore vehementiy.
Lee, stung by the manner more than the words of the deraand,
raade an angry reply, and provoked stih sharper expressions,
which have been variously reported. He atterapted a hurried ex
planation. His troops had been thrown into confusion by contra
dictory intelligence ; by disobedience of orders ; by the meddling
and blundering of individuals ; and he had not felt disposed, he
said, to beard the whole British army with troops in such a situa
tion. "I have certain information," rejoined Washington, "that itwas
merely a strong covering party."
" That may be, but it was stronger than mine, and I did not
think proper to run such a risk."
" I am very sorry," replied Washington, " that you undertook
the command, unless you meant to fight the enemy."
" I did not think it prudent to bring on a general engageraent."
" Whatever your opinion may have been," replied Washington,
disdainfully, " I expected my orders would have been obeyed."
This ah passed rapidly, and, as it were, in flashes, for there was
no tirae for parley. The enemy were within a quarter of an
hour's raarch. AV'ashington's appearance had stopped the retreat.
The fortunes of the day were to be retrieved, if possible, by
instant arrangeraents. These he proceeded to make with great
celerity. The place was favorable for a stand ; it was a rising
ground, to which the enemy could ajiproach only over a narrow
causeway. The rallied troops were hastily formed upon this
eminence. Colonels Stewart and Ramsey, with two batteries
were stationed in a covert of woods on their left, to protect them
and keep the eneray at bay. Colonel Oswald was posted for the
sarae purpose on a height, with two field-pieces. The promptness
with which everything was done showed the effects of the Baron
Steuben's discipline.
In the interira, Lee, being asked about the disposition of some

#/^*^J?^.^

To face page 346.

THE BATTLE OF MONMOUTH.

w Position occupied by the British the night before the battle.
b British detachment moving towards Monmouth.
c British batteries, d Captain Oswald's American batteries.
e American troops formed near the court house.
/ First position taken by General Lee in his retreat.
g Attack by a party of British in the woods.
ll Positions taken by General Lee. i British detachment.

fc Last position of the retreating troops.
m, Army formed by General Washington after he met General Lee retreating.
n British detachment, o American battery, p Principal action.
r First position of the British after the action, s Second position.
t British passed the night after the battle.
1 Where Washington met Lee retteating.
S Hedge row. 3 Meeting house.

AMERICANS ASSUME THE OFFENSIVE. 347
of the troops, replied that he could give no orders in the matter,
as he supposed General Washington intended he should have -no
further comraand. Shortly after this, Washington, having made all
his arrangements with great dispatch but admirable clearness and
precision, rode back to Lee in calmer mood, and inquired, " Will
you retain the command on this height or not? if you wih, I wih
return to the main body, and have it forraed on the next height."
"It is equal to me where I coraraand," replied Lee.
" I expect you will take proper raeans for checking the enemy,"
rejoined Washington.
" Your orders shah be obeyed ; and I shall not be the first to
leave the ground," was the reply.
A warm cannonade by Oswald, Stewart, and Ramsey had the
desired effect. The enemy were brought to a stand, and Wash
ington had time to gahop back and bring on the main body. This
he formed on an eminence, with a wood in the rear and the
morass in front. The left wdng was commanded by Lord Stirhng,
who had with him a detachment of artihery and several field-pieces.
Greene was on his right. The batteries under Lord Stirling opened
a brisk and well-sustained fire upon the enemy ; who, finding thera
selves warmly opposed in front, attempted to tum the left flank of
the Americans, but were driven back by detached parties of infantry
stationed there. They then attempted the right ; but here were met
by Greene, who had planted his artillery under Knox, on a com
manding^ ground, and not only checked them but enfiladed those
who were in front of the left wing. Wayne too, with an advanced
party posted in an orchard, and partly sheltered by a barn, kept
up a severe and well-directed fire upon the enemy's centre.
Repeated attempts were made to dislodge him, but in vain.
Colonel Monckton of the royal grenadiers, who had distinguished
hiraself and been wounded in the battle of Long Island, now
undertook to drive Wayne from his post at the point of the bayo
net. Wayne's men reserved their fire, until Monckton, waving his
sword, called out to his grenadiers to charge. At that instant a
sheeted volley laid him low, and made great slaughter in his
column, which was again repulsed.

348 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
The eneray at length gave way, and fell back to the ground
which Lee had occupied in the morning. Here their flanks were
secured by woods and morasses, and their front could only be
approached across a narrow causeway. Notwithstanding the diffi
culties of the position, Washington prepared to attack it ; but be
fore his orders could be carried into effect the day was at an end.
Many of the soldiers had sunk upon the ground, overcome by
fatigue and the heat of the weather; ah needed repose. The
troops, therefore, which had been in the advance, were ordered to
lie on their arms on the ground they occupied, so as to be ready
to raake the attack by daybreak. The main army did the sarae,
on the field of action, to be at hand to support thera. Washington
lay on his cloak at the foot of a tree, with Lafayette beside hira,
talking over the strange conduct of Lee, whose disorderly retreat
had corae so near being fatal to the army. What opinions Wash
ington gave on the subject, in the course of his conversation with
the marquis, the latter does not tell us ; after it was ended, he
wrapped himself in his cloak, and slept at the foot of the tree,
among his soldiers.
At daybreak the druras beat the reveille. The troops roused them
selves frora their heavy sleep, and prepared for action. To their
surprise, the eneray had disappeared : there was a deserted carap,
in which were found four officers and about forty privates, too
severely wounded to be conveyed away by the retreating array.
Sir Henry Clinton, it appeared, had allowed his weariad troops
but short repose. At ten o'clock, when the American forces were
buried in their first sleep, he had set forward to join the division
under Knyphausen, which, with the baggage train, having pushed
on during the action, was far on the road to Middletown.
The distance to which the enemy raust by this tirae have
attained, the extreme heat of the weather, and the fatigued con
dition of the troops, deterred Washington from continuing a pur
suit through a country where the roads were deep and sandy and
there was great scarcity of water. Besides, persons well acquainted
with the country assured him that it would be irapossible to an
noy the eneray in their erabarkation, as he raust approach the

AMERICANS ASSUME THE OFFENSIVE. 349
place by a narrow passage, capable of being defended by a few
men against his whole force. Detaching Maxwell's brigade and
Morgan's rifle corps, therefore, to hang on the rear of the eneray,
prevent depredation, and encourage desertions, he deterrained to
shape his course with his main body by Brunswick toward the
Hudson, lest Sir Henry should have any design upon the posts
there. Clinton arrived at the Highlands of Navasink, in the neighbor
hood of Sandy Hook, on the 30th of June. He had lost raany
men by desertion, Hessians especiahy, during his march through
the Jerseys, which, with his losses by kihed, wounded, and cap
tured, had diminished his array raore than two thousand men.
The storms of the preceding winter had cut off the peninsula of
Sandy Hook from the mainland, and formed a deep channel
between them. Fortunately the squadron of Lord Howe had
arrived the day before, and was at anchor within the Hook. A
bridge was iramediately made across the channel with the boats
of the ships, over which the army passed to the Hook on the 5 th
of July, and thence was distributed.
It was now encamped in three divisions on Staten Island, Long
Island, and the island of New York : apparently without any im
mediate design of offensive operations. There was a vigorous
press in New York to man the large ships and fit thera for sea,
but this was in consequence of a report that a French fleet had
arrived on the coast.
Relieved by this intehigence from all apprehensions of an ex
pedition by the eneray up the Hudson, Washington relaxed the
speed of his raovements, and halted for a few days at Paramus,
sparing his troops as much as possible during the extreme suraraer
heats. On the day after the battle, Lee addressed a letter to Washing
ton, demanding an apology for his language on the battle-field.
Washington replied that he believed his words to have been fully
warranted by the circumstances, and added that as soon as practi
cable Lee's conduct should be laid before a court of inquiry. Lee
retumed an angry answer, to which Washington replied by putting

350 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
him under arrest. A court-martial convicted him of disobedience
of orders, of gross disrespect to the coraraander-in-chief, and of
raisbehavior before the enemy in making an unnecessary and dis
orderly retreat. Lee was accordingly suspended from command
for one year, and after long discussion the sentence was approved
by Congress. He retired to an estate which he happened to have
acquired in Virginia, and there led a kind of hermit life, in com
pany with his dogs. He busied himself in writing scurrilous arti
cles about Washington, and his venomous tongue once involved
him in a duel whh one of Washington's aides, the high-minded
Colonel Laurens. At length, having written an insulting letter to
Congress, he was dismissed from the service. He led a lonely
and wretched life tih the autumn of 1782. His farm was mis
managed ; his agents were unfaithful ; he entered into negotiations
to dispose of his property, in the course of which he visited Phila
delphia. On arriving there, he was taken with chills, followed
by a fever, which went on increasing in violence, and terrainated
fatally. In his dying raoments he fancied himself on the field of
battle. The last words he was heard to utter were, " Stand by me,
ray brave grenadiers ! "
Eccentric to the last, one clause of his will regards his sepulture :
" I desire raost earnestly that I may not be buried in any church
or churchyard, or within a rahe of any Presbyterian or Anabaptist
raeeting-house ; for, since I have resided in this country, I have
kept so much bad company whhe livhig, that I do not choose to
continue it when dead." This part of his wih was not coraphed
with. He was buried with raihtary honors in the cemetery of
Christ church ; and his funeral was attended by the highest civic
and mihtary characters, and a large concourse of citizens.
The Rhode Island Expedition. — While encamped at Paramus,
Washington received a letter from Congress informing him of the
arrival of a French fleet on the coast ; instructing him to concert
raeasures with the commander, the Count D'Estaing, for offensive
operations by sea and land.
The fleet in question was composed of twelve ships of the line
and six frigates, with a land force of four thousand men. It had

AMERICANS ASSUME THE OFFENSIVE. 351
sahed from Toulon on the 13th of April, and, after struggling against
adverse winds for eighty-seven days, it had anchored at the raouth
of the Delaware, on the eighth of July. The count was unfortu
nate in the length of his voyage. Had he arrived in ordinary
time, he might have entrapped Lord Howe's squadron in the
river, co-operated with Washington in investing the British army
by sea and land, and, by cutting off its retreat to New York, com
pelled it to surrender. Finding the eneray had evacuated both
city and river, the count continued along the coast to New York.
His first idea was to enter at Sandy Hook, and capture or destroy
the British fleet composed of six ships of the hne, four fifty-gun
ships, and a nuraber of frigates and smaller vessels ; should he suc
ceed in this, which his greatly superior force rendered probable, he
was to proceed against the city, with the co-operation of the Amer
ican forces. To be at hand for such purpose, Washington crossed
the Hudson, with his array, at King's Ferry, and encaraped at
White Plains about the 20th of July. Several experienced Araeri
ean pilots and shipmasters, however, declared there was not suffi
cient depth of water on the bar to admit the safe passage of the
largest ships, one of which carried eighty and another ninety guns.
The atterapt, therefore, was reluctantly abandoned.
The enterprise which the American and French commanders
deemed next worthy of a combined operation, was the recapture
of the island of Rhode Island, which the enemy had made one of
their railitary depots and strongholds. In anticipation of such an
enterprise, Washington on the 17 th of July wrote to Sullivan, who
coraraanded at Providence, ordering hira to raake the necessary
preparations for a descent from the mainland upon the island, and
authorizing hira to cah in reinforceraents of New England raihtia.
He also sent to his aid Lafayette and Greene.
The island was garrisoned by six thousand men under comraand
of Sir Robert Pigott, and the capture of so large a force would
have been a raost serious disaster to the British. But the expedi
tion fahed through a comphcation of troubles. It began with
rainous delays, and a tremendous storm wrought great damage to
D'Estaing's fleet, so that he did not feel equal to a contest with

352 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
the fleet of Lord Howe. He sahed away to Boston to refit. The
yeomanry, disgusted at this seeming desertion of their alhes, dis
persed to their homes to gather in their harvest. Sullivan's army,
thus left in the lurch, found its situation on the island becoming
dangerous, and, after a weh-fought battie, in which the British
were defeated, succeeded in effecting its retreat to the mainland
without serious loss. The expedition was a coraplete failure, and
only served to deepen the disgust with which many people re
garded the French alliance.
Massacre at Wyoming. — While hostihties were carried on in
the customary form along the Atlantic borders, Indian warfare,
with all its atrocity, was going on in the interior. The British post
at Niagara was its cradle. It was the common rallying place of
Tories, refugees, savage warriors, and other desperadoes of the
frontiers. Hither Brant, the noted Indian chief, had retired after
the defeat of St. Leger at Fort Stanwix, to plan further mischief;
and here was concerted the raeraorable incursion into the vahey
of Wyoming, suggested by Tory refugees, who had unth recently
inhabited it.
The vahey of Wyoming is a beautiful region lying along the
Susquehanna. Peaceful as was its aspect, it had been the scene of
sanguinary feuds prior to the Revolution, between the people of
Pennsylvania and Connecticut, who both laid claim to it. Seven
rural forts or block-houses, situated on various parts of the valley,
had been strongholds during these territorial contests, and re
mained as places of refuge for women and children in times of
Indian ravage.
The expedition now set on foot against it, in June, was com
posed of Butier's rangers, Johnson's Royal Greens, and a large
force of Senecas. Their united force, about eleven hundred
strong, was conducted by Colonel John Butler, renowned in Indian
warfare. Passing down the Chemung and Susquehanna in canoes
they landed at a place called Three Islands, strack through the
wilderness to a mountain-gap, by which they entered the vahey of
Wyoming. Butler made his head-quarters at one of the strong
holds already mentioned, cahed Wintermoot Fort. Hence he

AMERICANS ASSUME THE OFFENSIVE. 353
sent out his raarauding parties to plunder and lay waste the
country. Ruraors of this intended invasion had reached the valley some
tirae before the appearance of the enemy, and had spread great
consternation. Most of the sturdy yeomanry were absent in the
army. A company of sixty raen, enlisted under an act of Con
gress, and styling themselves regulars, took post at one of the
strongholds cahed Forty Fort ; where they were joined by about
three hundred of the yeomanry, armed and equipped in rustic
style. In this emergency old raen and boys volunteered to raeet
the coraraon danger, posting theraselves in the sraaher forts in
which woraen and children had taken refuge. Colonel Zebulon
Butler, an officer of the Continental Army, took the general com
raand. Several officers arrived frora the array, having obtained
leave to repair home for the protection of their families. They
brought word that a reinforcement, sent by Washington, was on
its way.
In the meantime John Butler's marauding parties were spread
ing desolation through the valley ; farm-houses were wrapped in
flaraes ; husbandmen were murdered while at work in the fields ;
all who had not taken refuge in the fort were threatened with
destruction. What was to be done ? Wait for the arrival of the
promised reinforcement, or atterapt to check the ravage? The
latter was rashly deterrained on. Leaving the woraen and chil
dren in Forty Fort, Colonel Zebulon Butler sallied forth on the
3d of July, and raade a rapid move upon Wintermoot Fort,
hoping to come upon it by surprise. They found the enemy
dravm up in front of it, in a line extending frora the river to
a marsh ; Colonel John Butler and his rangers, with Johnson's
Royal Greens, on the left ; Indians and Tories on the right.
The Americans formed a line of the same extent ; the regulars
under Zebulon Butler on the right flank, resting on the river, the
mihtia under Colonel Denison on the left wing, on the marsh. A
sharp fire was opened from right to left ; after a few voheys the
enemy in front of Colonel Butler began to give way. The Indians,
however, throwing themselves into the marsh, turned the left flank

354 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
of the Araericans, and attacked the militia in the rear. Denison,
finding himself exposed to a cross-fire, sought to change his
position, and gave the word to fall back. It was mistaken for an
order to retreat. In an instant the left wing turned and fled ; all
atterapts to rally it were vain ; the panic extended to the right
wing. The savages, throwing down their rifles, rashed on with
tomahawk and scalping-knife, and a horrible massacre ensued.
Some of the Araericans escaped to Forty Fort, sorae swara the
river ; others broke their way across the swarap, and chmbed the
raountain : some few were taken prisoners ; but the greater
number were slaughtered.
The desolation of the valley was now completed ; fields were
laid waste, houses burnt, and their inhabitants murdered. Accord
ing to the British accounts, upwards of four hundred of the yeo
manry of Wyoming were slain, but the women and children were
spared, "and desired to retire to their rebel friends." Upwards
of five thousand persons fled in the utmost distress and conster
nation, seeking refuge in the settlements on the Lehigh and the
Delaware. After completing this work of devastation, the enemy
retired before the arrival of the troops detached by Washington.
The British conquer Georgia. — About the middle of September
Admiral Byron, who had succeeded to the naval comraand in place
of Lord Howe, arrived at New York, and finding that D'Estaing
was still repairing his shattered fleet in the harbor of Boston, he
set sail for that port to entrap him. Success seeraed likely to
crown his schemes : he arrived off Boston on the ist of November :
his rival was still in port. Scarce had the admiral entered the bay,
however, when a violent storm drove him out to sea, disabled his
ships, and compehed him to put into Rhode Island to refit.
Meanwhile the count, having his ships in good order, and finding
the coast clear, put to sea, and made the best of his way for the
West Indies. Previous to his departure he issued a proclamation
dated the 28th of October, addressed to the French inhabitants of
Canada, inviting thera to resume allegiance to their forraer sover
eign. This was a measure in which he was not authorized by
instructions from his government, and which was calculated to

AMERICANS ASSUME THE OFFENSIVE. 355
awaken a jealousy in the American mind as to the ultimate views
of France in taking a part in this contest. It added to the chagrin
occasioned by the fahure of the expedition against Rhode Island,
and the complete abandonment by the French of the coasts of the
United States.
The force at New York, which had been an object of watchful
sohcitude, was gradually dispersed in different directions. Irarae
diately after the departure of Adrairal Byron for Boston, another
naval expedition had been set on foot by Sir Henry Clinton. A
fleet of transports with five thousand men, under General Grant,
convoyed by six ships-of-war, set sah on the 3d of November, with
the secret design of an attack on St. Lucia.
Towards the end of the sarae raonth, another body of troops,
under Lieutenant- colonel Carapbeh, sailed for Georgia in the
squadron of Coraraodore Hyde Parker, the British cabinet having
determined to carry the war into the Southern States. At the
sarae tirae General Prevost, who comraanded in Florida, was
ordered by Sir Henry Clinton to raarch to the banks of the
Savannah river, and attack Georgia in flank, while the expedition
under Campbell should attack it in front on the seaboard.
The squadron of Hyde Parker anchored in the Savannah river
towards the end of December. An American force of about six
hundred regulars, and a few mihtia, under General Robert Howe,
were encamped near the town, being the remnant of an array with
which that officer had invaded Florida in the preceding summer,
but had been obhged to evacuate it by a mortal malady which
desolated his camp.
Campbeh landed his troops on the 29th of Deceraber, about
three miles below the town. The whole country bordering the
river is a deep morass, cut up by creeks, and only to be traversed
by causeways. Over one of these, six hundred yards in length,
with a ditch on each side, Colonel Campbeh advanced, putting to
flight a smah party stationed to guard it. General Howe had
posted his little army on the raain road with the river on his left
and a morass in front. A negro gave Campbeh information of a
path leading through the morass, by which troops might get unob-

356 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
served to the rear of the Araericans. Sir Jaraes Baird was detached
with the light infantry by this path, whhe Colonel Campbeh ad
vanced in front. The Americans, thus suddenly attacked in front
and rear, were completely routed ; upwards of one hundred were
either kihed on the spot, or perished in the morass ; thirty-eight
officers and four hundred and fifteen privates were taken prisoners,
and the rest retreated up the Savannah river and crossed into
South Carolina. Savannah, the capital of Georgia, was taken
possession of by the victors, with cannon, raihtary stores, and pro
visions ; their loss was only seven kihed and nineteen wounded.
Colonel Campbell conducted hiraself with great moderation;
protecting the persons and property of the inhabitants, and pro
claiming security and favor to ah that should return to their alle
giance. Nurabers in consequence flocked to the British standard ;
the lower part of Georgia was considered as subdued, and posts
were established by the British to raaintain possession.
Whhe Carapbeh had thus invaded Georgia in front, Prevost
attacked its southem frontier, took Sunbury, and raarched to
Savannah, where he assuraed the general comraand, detaching
Campbeh against Augusta. By the middle of January (1779) all
Georgia was reduced to submission.
A more experienced American general than Howe had by this
time arrived to take comraand of the Southern Departraent —
Major-general Lincoln, who had gained such reputation in the
campaign against Burgoyne, and whose appointment to this sta
tion had been solicited by the delegates frora South Carohna and
Georgia. He had received his orders frora Washington in the
beginning of October. Of his operations at the South we shall
have occasion to speak hereafter.
Sullivan's Expedition against the Indians. — About the be
ginning of December, Washington distributed his troops for the
winter in a line of strong cantonments, extending from Long Island
Sound to the Delaware river. Putnam comraanded at Danbury,
and McDougall in the Highlands, whhe the head-quarters of the
commander-in-chief were near Middlebrook in the Jerseys. The
objects of this arrangeraent were the protection of the country.

AMERICANS ASSUME THE OFFENSIVE. 357
the security of the important posts on the Hudson, and the safety,
disciphne, and easy subsistence of the army.
In the course of the winter Washington devised a plan of alarm
signals. On Bottle Hill, which coraraanded a vast map of country,
sentinels kept watch day and night. Should there be an irruption
of the enemy, an eighteen-pounder, cahed the Old Sow, fired every
half-hour, gave the alarm in the daytime or in dark and stormy
nights ; an immense fire or beacon at other times. On the boom
ing of that heavy gun, lights sprang up frora hih to hill along the
different ranges of heights ; the country was aroused, and the
yeomanry, hastily arraed, hurried to their gathering-places.
Much of the winter was passed by Washington in Philadelphia,
occupied in devising and discussing plans for the carapaign of
1779. It was an anxious moment with him. Circurastances which
inspired others with confidence fihed hira with sohcitude. The
ahiance with France had produced a baneful feeling of security,
which was paralyzing the energies of the country. England, it
was thought, would now be too rauch occupied in securing her
position in Europe, to increase her force or extend her operations
in America. Many, therefore, considered the war as virtually at
an end, and were unwilling to make the sacrifices, or supply the
means necessary for important railitary undertakings. Dissen
sions, too, and party feuds were breaking out in Congress, owing
to the relaxation of that external pressure of a coraraon and
irarainent danger, which had heretofore produced a unity of senti
raent and action. That august body had greatly deteriorated since
the coraraenceraent of the war. Many whose naraes had been
as watchwords at the Declaration of Independence, had with
drawn from the national councils, occupied either by their indi
vidual affairs, or by the affairs of their individual states. Washing
ton, whose comprehensive patriotism embraced the whole Union,
deprecated and deplored the dawning of this sectional spirit.
Araerica, he declared, had never stood in more imrainent need
of the wise, patriotic, and spirited exertions of her sons than at
this period.
In discussing the policy to be obsers'ed in the next carapaign.

358 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
Washington presuraed the eneray would maintain their present
posts, and conduct the war as heretofore ; in which case he was
for remaining entirely on the defensive, mth the exce^ition of such
minor operations as might be necessary to check the ravages of
the Indians. The country, he observed, was in a languid and ex
hausted state, and had need of repose. The interruption to agri
cultural pursuhs, and the many hands abstracted from husbandry
by military service, had produced a scarcity of bread and forage,
and rendered h difficult to subsist large armies. Neither was it
easy to recruit these armies. There was abundance of employ
raent ; wages were high, the value of raoney was low; conse
quently there was but littie teraptation to enlist. Plans had been
adopted to reraedy the deranged state of the currency, but they
would be slow in operation. Great economy raust in the mean
time be observed in the pubhc expenditure.
The participation of France in the war, also, and the prospect
that Spain would soon be embrohed with England, raust certainly
divide the attention of the enemy, and allow Araerica a breathing
time ; these and similar considerations were urged by Washington
in favor of a defensive policy. One single exception was raade
by hira. The horrible ravages perpetrated by the Indians and
their Tory allies at Wyoming had been followed by simhar atroci
ties at Cherry Valley, in the state of New York, and called for
signal vengeance to prevent a repetition. Washington knew by
experience that Indian warfare, to be effective, should never be
merely defensive, but must be carried into the enemy's country.
The Six Nations, the most civilized of the savage tribes, had
proved theraselves the most formidable. His idea was to raake
war upon them in their own style ; penetrate their country, lay
waste their villages and settlements, and at the same time de
stroy the British post at Niagara, that nestiing-place of Tories
and refugees.
The policy thus recommended was adopted by Congress. An
expedition was set on foot in revenge of the massacre of Wyo
ming. Early in the summer, three thousand men assembled
in that lately desolated region, and, conducted by General Sulli-

AMERICANS ASSUME THE OFFENSIVE. 359
van, moved up the west branch of the Susquehanna into the
Seneca country. While on the way, they were joined by a part
of the western army, under General Jaraes Chnton, who had come
from the vahey of the Mohawk by Otsego Lake and the east
branch of the Susquehanna. The united forces amounted to
about five thousand men, of which Sullivan had the general
command. The Indians, and their allies the Tories, had received informa
tion of the intended invasion, and appeared in arras to oppose it.
They were rauch inferior in force, however, being about fifteen
hundred Indians and two hundred white raen, commanded by the
two Butlers, Johnson, and Brant. A battle took place at Newtown
on the 29th of August, in which they were easily defeated. Sulli
van then pushed forward into the heart of the Indian country,
penetrating as far as the Genesee river, laying everything waste,
setting fire to deserted dwehings, destroying cornfields, orchards,
gardens, everything that could give sustenance to man, the design
being to starve the Indians out of the country. The latter re
treated before hira with their families, and at length took refuge
under the protection of the British garrison at Niagara. Having
completed his errand, Suhivan returned to Easton in Pennsylvania.
The thanks of Congress were voted to him and his array, but he
shortly resigned his coraraission on account of ill health, and
retired frora the service.
A similar expedition was undertaken by Colonel Brodhead,
frora Pittsburg up the Alleghany, against the Mingo, and Seneca
tribes, with sirailar results. The wisdora of Washington's policy
of carrying the war against the Indians into their country, and
conducting it in their own way, was apparent from the general
intimidation produced araong the tribes by these expeditions, and
the subsequent infrequency of their murderous incursions, the
instigation of which by the British had been the most inhuraan
feature of this war.
Stony Point. — The situation of Sir Henry Clinton raust have
been mortifying in the extreme to an officer of lofty ambition and
generous aims. His force, between sixteen and seventeen thousand

360 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
Strong, was superior in nuraber, discipline, and equipraent to that
of Washington ; yet his instructions confined him to a predatory
warfare, carried on by attacks and marauds at distant points, irri
tating to the country intended to be conciliated, and brutahzing to
his own soldiery. Such was the nature of an expedition against
the commerce of the Chesapeake. On the 9th of May, a squadron
under Sir George Cohier, convoying twenty-five hundred men,
coramanded by General Matthews, entered these waters, took
possession of Portsmouth without opposition, sent out armed
parties against Norfolk, Suffolk, Gosport, Kemp's Landing, and
other neighboring places, where were immense quantities of pro
visions, naval and military stores, and merc^ndise of all kinds ;
with numerous vessels, sorae on the stocks, others richly laden.
Wherever they went, a scene of plunder, conflagration, and de
struction ensued. A few days sufficed to ravage the whole neigh
borhood. Whhe this was going on at the South, Washington received
intelligence of raoveraents about New York, which raade him
apprehend an expedition against the Highlands of the Hudson.
Since the loss of Forts Montgoraery and Clinton, the main defences
of the Highlands had been established at the sudden bend of the
river where it winds between West Point and Constitution Island.
Two opposite forts commanded this bend, and an iron chain
which was stretched across it. Washington had projected two
works also just below the Highlands, at Stony Point and Verplanck's
Point, to serve as outworks of the mountain passes, and to protect
King's Ferry, the most direct and convenient coraraunication
between the Northern and Middle States. A small but strong fort
had been erected on Verplanck's Point, and was garrisoned by
seventy men under Captain Armstrong. A more important work
was in progress at Stony Point. When corapleted, these two forts
on opposite promontories, would form as it were the lower gates
of the Highlands ; miniature Pillars of Hercules, of which Stony
Point was the Gibraltar.
To be at hand in case of any real attempt upon the Highlands
Washington drew up with his forces in that direction ; movine bv

AMERICANS ASSUME THE OFFENSIVE. 361
the way of Morristown. An expedition up the Hudson was reahy
the object of Sir Henry Clinton's movements, and for this he was
strengthened by the return of Cohier from Virginia. On the 30th
of May, Sir Henry set out on his second grand cruise up the Hud
son, with an armament of about seventy sail, great and small, and
one hundred and fifty flat-boats. Admiral Sir George Collier com
raanded the arraaraent, and there was a land force of about five
thousand raen under General Vaughan.
The first aira of Sir Henry was to get possession of Stony and
Verplanck's Points ; his former expedition had acquainted him
with the importance of this pass of the river. On the morning of
the 31st, the forces were landed in two divisions, the largest under
General Vaughan, on the east side of the river, about seven or
eight miles below Verplanck's Point; the other, coramanded by
Sir Henry in person, landed in Haverstraw Bay, about three miles
below Stony Point. There were but about thirty men in the
unfinished fort ; they abandoned it on the approach of the enemy,
and retreated into the Highlands, having first set fire to the block
house. The British took quiet possession of the fort in the even
ing ; dragged up cannon and mortars in the night, and at day
break opened a furious fire upon Fort Lafayette. It was cahnon-
aded at the sarae time by the armed vessels, and a demonstration
was made on it by the division under General Vaughan. Thus
surrounded, the little garrison of seventy men was forced to sur
render with no other stipulation than safety to their persons and
to the property they had in the fort. Major Andr^ was aide-
de-camp to Sir Henry, and signed the articles of capitulation.
Sir Henry Chnton stationed garrisons in both posts, and set to
work with great activity to coraplete the fortification of Stony
Point. His troops reraained for several days in two divisions on
the opposite sides of the river ; the fleet generally feh down a
httle below King's Ferry ; sorae of the square-rigged vessels, how
ever, with others of a sraaller size, and flat-bottoraed boats, having
troops on board, dropped down Haverstraw Bay, and finally disap
peared behind the proraontories which advance across the upper
part of the Tappan Sea.

362 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
Some of the raoveraents of the enemy perplexed Washington
exceedingly. He presuraed, however, that the main object of Sir
Henry was to get possession of West Point, the guardian fortress
ofthe river, and that the capture of Stony and Verplanck's Points
were preparatory steps. He would fain have dislodged hira from
these posts, which cut off ah communication by the way of King's
Ferry, but they were too strong ; he had not the force or military
apparatus necessary. Deferring any attempt on them for the pres
ent, he took measures for the protection of \Vest Point. Leaving
General Putnara and the main body of the array at Sraith's Clove,
a raountain pass in the rear of Haverstraw, he reraoved his head
quarters to New Windsor, to be near West Point in case of need,
and to press the corapletion of its works. General McDougall
was transferred to the comraand of the Point. Three brigades
were stationed at different places on the opposite side of the
river, under General Heath, from which fatigue parties crossed
daily to work on the fortifications.
This strong disposition of the American forces checked Sir
Henry's designs against the Highlands. Contenting himself, there
fore, for the present, with the acquisition of Stony and Verplanck's
Points, he retumed to New York, where he soon set on foot a
desolating expedition along the seaboard of Connecticut. That
state, whhe it furnished the American armies wdth provisions and
recruits, and infested the sea with privateers, had hitherto experi
enced nothing of the horrors of war within its borders. Sir Henry,
in compliance with his instructions from government, was now
about to give it a scourging lesson ; and he entertained the hope
that, in so doing, he might draw down Washington from his
mountain fastnesses, and lay open the Hudson to a successful
incursion. General (late governor) Tryon was the officer selected by Sir
Henry for this inglorious service. About the beginning of July he
embarked with two thousand six hundred men in a fleet of trans
port? and tenders, and was convoyed up the Sound by Sir George
Cohier with two ships-of-war. On the sth of July, the troops
landed near New Haven. They came upon the neighborhood bv

AMERICANS ASSUME THE OFFENSIVE. 363
surprise, captured the town, dismantled the fort, and took or
destroyed all the vessels in the harbor ; with all the artihery,
araraunition, and pubhc stores. Several private houses were plun
dered ; but this, it was said, was done by the soldiery contrary to
orders. The eneray, in fact, clairaed great credit for lenity in
refraining frora universal pillage.
They next proceeded to Fairfield ; where, raeeting with greater
resistance, they thought the moment arrived for a wholesorae
example of severity. Accordingly, they not merely ravaged and
destroyed the public stores and the vessels in the harbor, but laid
the town itself in ashes. The exact return of this salutary lesson
gives the destruction of ninety-seven dwelling-houses, sixty-seven
barns and stables, forty-eight store-houses, three places of worship,
a court-house, a jail, and two school-houses. The sight of their
horaes laid desolate, and their dwehings wrapped in flames, only
served to exasperate the inhabitants, and produce a more deter
mined opposition to the progress of the destroyers ; whereupon
the rathless ravages of the latter increased as they advanced. At
Norwalk, where they landed on the nth of July, they coraraitted
similar acts of devastation, accorapanied by atrocities inevitable
where the bmtal passions of a soldiery are aroused.
It was intended to crown this grand ravage by a descent on New
London, a noted rendezvous of privateers ; but as greater opposi
tion was expected here than at either of the other places, the
squadron returned to Huntington Bay, on Long Island, to await
reinforceraents ; and Adrairal Cohier proceeded to Throg's Neck,
to confer with Sir Henry Clinton about further operations. In
this conference Sir Henry was assured that the recent expedi
tion was producing the raost salutary effects ; that the principal
inhabitants were incensed at the apathy of Washington in re
maining encamped near the Hudson, whhe their country was
ravaged and their homes laid in ashes ; that they coraplained
equally of Congress, and talked of withdrawing frora it their
allegiance, and making terms with the British commanders for
themselves ; finahy, it was urged that the proposed expedition
against New London would carry these salutary effects stih further.

364 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
and confirm the inhabitants in the sentiments they were beginning
to express.
Washington, however, was not culpable of the apathy ascribed
to him. He could not pradentiy diminish the force stationed for
the protection of the Highlands. Any weakening of his posts
there raight bring the eneray suddenly upon him, such was their
facihty in moving frora one place to another by means of their
shipping. Indeed, he had divined that a scheme of the kind was
at the bottom of the hostile movement to the eastward, and as a
counter-check to Sir Henry, he had for some days been planning
the recapture of Stony Point and Fort Lafayette. He had recon
noitered them in person ; spies had been thrown into them, and
information cohected from deserters. Stony Point having been
recently strengthened by the British, was now the most important.
It was a rocky promontory advancing far into the Hudson, which
washed three sides of it. A deep morass, covered at high water,
separated it from the raainland, but at low tide raight be traversed
by a narrow causeway and bridge. The promontory was crowned
by strong works, furnished with heavy ordnance, commanding the
morass and causeway. Lower down were two rows of abatis, and
the shore at the foot of the hhl could be swept by vessels of war
anchored in the river. The garrison was about six hundred strong,
comraanded by Lieutenant-colonel Johnson.
To atterapt the surprisal of this isolated post, thus strongly forti
fied, was a perilous enterprise. General Wayne, Mad Anthony
as he was called frora his daring valor, was the officer to whom
Washington proposed it, and he engaged in it with avidity.
According to Washington's plan, it was to be attempted by hght
infantry only, at night, and wdth the utmost secrecy, securing every
person they met to prevent discovery. Between one, and two
hundred chosen men and officers were to raake the surprise ; pre
ceded by a vanguard of prudent, deterrained raen, well commanded,
to remove obstractions, secure sentries, and drive in the guards.
The whole were to advance with fixed bayonets and unloaded
rauskets ; all was to be done with the bayonet. These parties were
to be foHowed by the raain body, at a small distance, to support

AMERICANS ASSUME THE OFFENSIVE. 365
and reinforce thera, or to bring them off in case of failure. All
were to wear white cockades or feathers, and to have a watchword,
so as to be distinguished from the eneray. " The usual tirae for
exploits of this kind," observes Washington, " is a httle before day,
for which reason a vigilant officer is then more on the watch. I
therefore recommend a midnight hour."
On getting possession of Stony Point, Wayne was to turn its
guns upon Fort Lafayette and the shipping. A detachment was
to march down from West Point by Peekskhl, to the vicinity of
Fort Lafayette, and hold itself ready to join in the attack upon it,
as soon as the cannonade began frora Stony Point.
On the ISth of July, about mid-day, Wayne set out with his
hght infantry from Sandy Beach, fourteen railes distant frora Stony
Point. The roads were ragged, across raountains, raorasses, and
narrow defiles, in the skirts of the Dunderberg, where frequently
it was necessary to proceed in single file. About eight in the
evening, they arrived within a rahe and a half of the forts, with
out being discovered. Not a dog barked to give the alarra — ah
the dogs in the neighborhood had been privately destroyed before
hand. Bringing the raen to a halt, Wayne and his principal offi
cers went nearer, and carefully reconnoitered the works and their
environs, so as to proceed understandingly and without confusion.
Having raade their observations they returned to the troops.
About half-past eleven, the whole moved forward, guided by a
negro of the neighborhood, who had frequently carried in fruit to
the garrison, and served the Americans as a spy. He led the way,
accorapanied by two stout men disguised as farmers. The coun
tersign was given to the first sentinel, posted on high ground west
of the morass. Whhe the negro talked with him, the men seized
and gagged hi'ra. The sentinel posted at the head of the cause
way was served in the same manner ; so that hitherto no alarm
was given. The causeway, however, was overflowed, and it was
some time after twelve o'clock before the troops could cross ;
leaving three hundred men under General Muhlenberg, on the
western side of the raorass, as a reserve.
At the foot of the promontory, the troops were divided into two

366 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
columns, for simultaneous attacks on opposite sides of the works.
One hundred and fifty volunteers led by Lieutenant-colonel Fleury,
seconded by Major Posey, formed the vanguard of the right
column. One hundred volunteers under Major Stewart, the van
guard of the left. In advance of each was a forlom hope of twenty
men, one led by Lieutenant Gibbon, the other by Lieutenant Knox ;
it was their desperate duty to reraove the abatis. So well had the
whole affair been conducted, that the Araericans were close upon
the outworks before they were discovered. There was then severe
skirmishing at the pickets. The Americans used the bayonet ; the
others discharged their muskets. The reports roused the garrison.
Stony Point was instantly in an uproar. The druras beat to arras ;
every one hurried to his alarra post ; the works were hasthy manned,
and a tremendous fire of grape-shot and rausketry opened upon
the assahants.
The two colurans forced their way with the bayonet, at opposite
points, surraounting every obstacle. Colonel Fleury was the first
to enter the fort and strike the British flag. Major Posey sprang
to the raraparts and shouted, " The fort is our own." Wayne, who
led the right coluran, received at the inner abatis a contusion on
the head frora a rausket-bah, and would have fallen to the ground,
but his two aides-de-camp supported hira. Thinking it was a
death wound, " Carry me into the fort," said he, " and let me die
at the head of my column." He was borne in between his aides,
and soon recovered his self-possession. The two columns arrived
nearly at the same time, and met in the centre of the works. The
garrison surrendered at discretion.
At daybreak, as Washington directed, the guns of the fort were
turned on Fort Lafayette and the shipping. The latter cut their
cables and dropped down the river. Through a series of blunders,
the detachment from West Point, which was to have co-operated,
did not arrive in tirae, and came unprovided with suitable ammu
nition for their battering artillery. This part of the enterprise,
therefore, fahed ; Fort Lafayette held out.
The storming of Stony Point stands out in high relief, as one of
the most brihiant achievements of the war. The Americans had

AMERICANS ASSUME THE OFFENSIVE. 367
effected it wdthout firing a musket. On their part, it was the silent,
deadly work of the bayonet ; the fierce resistance they met at the
outset may be judged by the havoc made in their forlorn hope ; out
of twenty-two raen, seventeen were either kihed or wounded. The
whole loss of the Araericans was fifteen kihed and eighty-three
wounded. Of the garrison, sixty-three were slain, including two
officers ; five hundred and fifty-three were taken prisoners, among
whom were a heutenant-colonel, four captains, and twenty-three
subaltern officers.
Tidings of the capture of Stony Point, and the imminent danger
of Fort Lafayette, reached Sir Henry Chnton just after his confer
ence with Sir George Cohier at Throg's Neck. The expedition
against New London was instantly given up ; the transports and
troops were recalled ; a forced march was raade to Dobbs' Ferry
on the Hudson ; a detachment was sent up the river in transports
to reheve Fort Lafayette, and Sir Henry followed with a greater
force, hoping Washington might quit his fastnesses, and risk a
battle for the possession of Stony Point.
Again the Fabian policy of the American coraraander-in-chief
disappointed the British general. Having weh exarained the post
in corapany with an engineer and several general officers, he found
that at least fifteen hundred raen would be required to raaintain it,
a nuraber not to be spared frora the army at present. The works,
too, were only calculated for defence on the land side, and were
open towards the river, where the enemy depended upon protec
tion from their ships. It would be necessary to construct them
anew, with great labor. The array, also, would have to be in the
vicinity, too distant from West Point to aid in completing or de
fending its fortifications, and exposed to the risk of a general
action on unfavorable terms. For these considerations, in which
ah his officers concurred, Washington evacuated the post on the
I Sth, removing the cannon and stores, and destroying the works ;
after which he drew his forces together in the Highlands, and
established his quarters at West Point, not knowing but Sir
Henry might attempt a retahatory stroke on that most important
fortress. The latter retook possession of Stony Point, and fortified

368 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
and garrisoned it raore strongly than ever, but was too wary to risk
an attempt upon the strongholds of the Highlands. Finding
Washington was not to be tempted out of them, he ordered the
transports to fah once more down the river, and returned to his
former encampment at Philipsburg.
§ 9. The Disasters of 17S0.
The War transferred to the South. — The arrival of Admiral
Arbuthnot, with a fleet, bringing three thousand troops and a
supply of provisions and stores, strengthened the hands of Sir
Henry Clinton. Still he had not sufficient force to warrant any
further attempt up the Hudson ; Washington, by his diligence in
fortifying West Point, having rendered that fastness of the High
lands apparently impregnable. Sir Henry turned his thoughts,
therefore, towards the South, hoping, by a successful expedition in
that direction, to counterbalance ill success in other quarters. As
this would require large detachments, he threw up additional
works on New York Island and at Brooklyn, to render his position
secure with the dirainished force that would remain with him.
At this juncture news was received of the arrival of the Count
D'Estaing, with a formidable fleet on the coast of Georgia, having
made a successful cruise in the West Indies, in the course of which
he had taken St. Vincent's and Grenada. A corabined attack upon
New York was again talked of In anticipation of it, Washing
ton called upon several of the Middle States for supplies of all
kinds, and reinforcements of militia. Sir Henry Clinton, also,
changed his plans ; caused Rhode Island to be evacuated ; the
troops and stores to be brought away ; the garrisons brought off
from Stony and Verplanck's Points, and all his forces to be con
centrated at New York, which he endeavored to put in the strong
est posture of defence.
Intelligence recently received, too, that Spain had joined France
in hosthities against England, contributed to increase the solicitude
and perplexities of the enemy, while it gave fresh confidence to
the Americans.
Washington's anticipations of a combined operation with

THE DISASTERS OF 1780. 369
D'Estaing against New York were again disappointed. The
French admiral, on arriving on the coast of Georgia, had been
persuaded to co-operate with the Southern army, under General
Lincoln, in an atterapt to recover Savannah. For three weeks a
siege was carried on with great vigor, by regular approaches on
land, and cannonade and borabardraent from the shipping. On
the 9th of October, although the approaches were not complete,
and no sufficient breach had been effected, Lincoln and D'Estaing,
at the head of their choicest troops, advanced before daybreak to
storm the works. The assault was gallant but unsuccessful ; both
Americans and French had planted their standards on the redoubts,
but were finally repulsed. After the repulse, both arraies retired
from before the place, the French having lost in kihed and wounded
upwards of six hundred men, the Americans about four hundred.
D'Estaing hiraself was among the wounded, and the gallant Count
Pulaski araong the slain. The loss of the eneray was trifling, as
they were protected by their works. The Araericans recrossed
the Savannah river into South Carolina; the mihtia returned to
their horaes, and the French re-embarked.
The tidings of this reverse, which reached Washington late in
November, put an end to ah prospect of co-operation frora the
French fleet ; a consequent change took place in ah his plans.
The mhitia of New York and Massachusetts, recently assembled,
were disbanded, and arrangements were made for the winter. The
army was thrown into two divisions ; one was to be stationed
under General Heath in the Highlands, for the protection of West
Point and the neighboring posts ; the other and principal division
was to be hutted near Morristown, where Washington was to have
his head-quarters. The cavalry were to be sent to Connecticut.
Understanding that Sir Henry Clinton was raaking preparations
at New York for a large embarkation of troops, and fearing they
might be destined against Georgia and Carolina, he resolved to
detach the greater part of his Southern troops for the protection
of those states ; a provident resolution, in which he was confirraed
by subsequent instructions from Congress. Accordingly, the North
Carohna brigade took up its march for- Charleston in November,
and the whole of the Virginia line in December.

370 LIFE OF WASHINGTON. ,
Notwithstanding the recent preparations at New York, the ships
reraained in port, and the eneray held themselves in cohected
force there. Doubts began to be entertained of some furtive
design nearer at hand, and measures were taken to protect the
array against an attack when in winter-quarters. Sir Henry, how
ever, was regulating his raoveraents by those the French fleet
might make after the repulse at Savannah. Intelligence at length
arrived that it had been dispersed by a violent storra. Count
D'Estaing, with a part, had shaped his course for France ; the
rest had proceeded to the West Indies.
Sir Henry now lost no time in carrying his plans into operation.
Leaving the garrison of New York under the comraand of Lieu
tenant-general Knyphausen, he embarked several thousand men,
on board of transports, to be convoyed by five ships of the hne
and several frigates under Adrairal Arbuthnot, and set sail on the
26th of Deceraber, accompanied by Lord Cornwahis, on an expe
dition intended for the capture of Charleston and the reduction of
South Carolina.
Arnold at Philadelphia. — The dreary encampment at Vahey
Forge has becorae proverbial for its hardships ; yet they were
scarcely raore severe than those suffered by Washington's army
during the present winter, while hutted among the heights of
Morristown. The winter set in early, and was uncoraraonly rigor
ous. The transportation of supplies was obstructed ; the maga
zines were exhausted, and the coraraissaries had neither money
nor credit to enable them to replenish them. For weeks at a time
the array was on half allowance ; soraetimes without meat, some
times without bread, sometiraes without both. There was a scar
city, too, of clothing and blankets, so that the poor soldiers were
starving with cold as well as hunger.
Whhe the rigorous winter had rauch to do with the actual dis
tresses of the army, the root of the evh lay in the derangement of
the currency. Congress had commenced the war without ade
quate funds, and without the power of iraposing direct taxes.
To meet pressing emergencies, it had emitted paper monev
which, for a time, passed current at par; but sank in value as

THE DISASTERS OF 1780. 371
further emissions succeeded, and that already in circulation
reraained unredeemed. The several states added to the evh by
emitting paper in their separate capacities : thus the country grad
ually becarae flooded with a " Continental currency," as it was
cahed"; irredeeraable, and of no intrinsic value. The conse
quence was a general derangeraent of trade and finance. The
Continental currency declined to such a degree, that forty dollars
in paper were equivalent to only one in specie. Congress at
tempted to put a stop to this depreciation, by making paper money
a legal, tender, at its norainal value, in the discharge of debts, how
ever contracted. This opened the door to knavery, and added a
new feature to the evil.
The coraraissaries now found it difficult to purchase supplies for
the immediate wants of the array, and irapossible to provide any
stores in advance. They were left destitute of funds, and the
public credit was prostrated by the accumulating debts suffered to
remain uncancehed. In the present emergency Washington was
reluctantly corapelled to call upon the counties of New Jersey for
supplies of grain and cattle, proportioned to their respective abhi-
ties. These supplies were to be brought into the camp within a
certain time ; the grain to be measured and the cattle estiraated
by any two of the raagistrates of the county in conjunction with the
coraraissary, and certificates to be given by the latter, specifying
the quantity of each and the ^terras of payraent. Wherever a cora
pliance with this cah was refused, the articles required were to be
impressed : it was a painful alternative, yet nothing else could save
the army from dissolution or starving. Washington charged his
officers to act with as much tenderness as possible, graduating the
exaction according to the stock of each individual, so that no
family should be deprived of what was necessary to its subsis
tence. To the honor of the magistrates and people of New Jersey,
Washington testifies that his requisitions were punctually comphed
with, and in many counties exceeded. Too much praise cannot
be given to the people of this state for the patience with which
most of tbem bpre these exactions, and the patriotism with which

372 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
many of them administered to the wants of their countrymen in
arms. Exhausted as the state was by repeated drainings, yet, at
one time, when deep snows cut off all distant supplies, Washing
ton's array was whohy subsisted by it.
As the winter advanced the cold increased in severity. It was
the most intense ever reraerabered in the country. The great bay
of New York was frozen over. No supplies could corae to the
city by water. Provisions grew scanty ; and there was such lack
of fire-wood that old transports were broken up, and uninhabited
wooden houses puhed down for fuel. The safety of the city was
endangered. The ships of war, iraraovably ice-bound in its har
bor, no longer gave it protection. The insular security of the
place was at an end. An army with its heaviest artihery and bag
gage raight cross the Hudson on the ice. The veteran Kny
phausen began to apprehend an invasion, and took measures
accordingly. Washington was aware of the opportunity which offered itself for
a signal coup de main, but was not in a condition to profit by it.
His troops were half fed, half clothed, and inferior in number to
the garrison of New York. He was destitute of funds necessary
to fit them for the enterprise, and the quartermaster could not
fumish means of transportation.
The most irksome duty that Washington had to perforra during
this winter's encampment at Morristown regarded General Amold
and his military governraent of Philadelphia in 17 78. To explain
it requires a glance back to that period.
At the time of entering upon this command, Arnold's accounts
with govemment were yet unsettled, the committee appointed by
Congress, at his own request, to examine them, having considered
some of his charges dubious and others exorbitant, ^^^ashington,
however, still looked upon him with favor, and, but a month pre
viously, had presented him with a pah of epaulettes and a sword-
knot, "as a testimony of his sincere regard and approbation."
The coraraand of Phhadelphia, at this tirae, was a delicate and
difficuh one, and reqmred to be exercised with extreme circum
spection. The boundaries between the powers vested in the

THE DISASTERS OF 1780. 373
mhitary coraraander and those inherent in the state government
were ih-defined. Disaffection to the American cause prevailed
both among the permanent and casual residents, and required to
be held in check with firraness but toleration. By a resolve of
Congress, no goods, wares, or raerchandise were to be reraoved,
transferred, or sold, until the ownership of them could be ascer
tained by a joint committee of Congress and of the Council of
Pennsylvania ; any public stores belonging to the enemy were to
be seized and converted to the use of the army.
One of Arnold's first measures was to issue a proclamation
enforcing the resolve of Congress. In so doing, he was counte
nanced by leading personages of Phhadelphia, and the proclamation
was drafted by General Joseph Reed. The raeasure excited great
dissatisfaction, and circurastances attending the enforceraent of it
gave rise to scandal. Forraer instances of a raercenary spirit raade
Arnold liable to suspicions, and it was aheged that, while by the
proclaraation he shut up the stores and shops so that even the
officers of the army could not procure necessary articles of mer
chandise, he was privately raaking large purchases for his own
enrichment. His style of living gave point to this scandal. He occupied one
of the finest houses in the city ; gave expensive entertainments,
and indulged in a luxury and p*ade which were condemned as
little befitting a republican general. In the exercise of his mihtary
functions, he had becorae involved in disputes with the executive
council of Pennsylvania.
He had not been raany weeks in Phhadelphia before he becarae
attached to one of its reigning belles. Miss Margaret Shippen,
daughter of Mr. Edward Shippen, in after years chief justice of
Pennsylvania. Her family were not considered well affected to
the American cause. Arnold paid her his addresses in an open
and honorable style, first obtaining by letter the sanction of the
father. Party feeling at that time ran high in Philadelphia.
Arnold's connection with the Shippen faraily increased his disfavor
with the president and council, who were Whigs to a man ; and
it was sneeringly observed, that "he had courted the loyalists frora
the start."

374 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
In the beginning of December, General Reed became president
of the executive counch of Pennsylvania, and under his adminis
tration the ripening hostihty to Arnold was brought to a crisis.
Among the various schemes of the latter for bettering his fortunes,
and securing the means of living when the war should come to an
end, was one for forming a settiement in the western part of the
state of New York, to be composed, principally, of the officers
and soldiers who had served under him. His scheme was ap
proved by John Jay, at that tirae president of Congress, and was
sanctioned by the New York delegation. Provided with letters
frora them, Arnold left Philadelphia about the ist of January (1779)
and set out for Albany to obtain a grant of land for the purpose,
from the New York Legislature.
Within a day or two after his departure, his public conduct was
discussed in the executive council of Pennsylvania, and it was
resolved unaniraously, that the course of his railitary coraraand in
the city had been in many respects oppressive, and disrespectful to
the suprerae executive authority of the state. As he was an officer
of the United States, the complaints and grievances of Pennsyl
vania were set forth by the executive council in eight charges, and
forwarded to Congress, accompanied by documents, and a letter
from President Reed.
Information of these facts, with a printed copy of the charges,
reached Arnold at Washington's camp on the Raritan, wljich he had
visited while on the way to Albany. His first solicitude was about
the effect they might have upon Miss Shippen, to whom he was
now engaged. In a letter dated February 8, he entreated her
not to suffer these rude attacks on him to give her a moment's
uneasiness — they could do him no injury.
On the following day he issued an address to the public, recall
ing his faithful services of nearly four years, and inveighing against
the proceedings of the president and council ; who, not content
with injuring him in a cruel and unprecedented raanner with Con
gress, had ordered copies of their charges to be printed and
dispersed throughout the several states, for the purpose of preju
dicing the public mind against him, while the matter was yet in

THE DISASTERS OF 1780. 375
suspense. In conclusion, Arnold inforraed the pubhc that he had
requested Congress to direct a court-martial to inquire into his
conduct, and trasted his countrymen would suspend their judg
raent in the raatter, until he should have an opportunity of being
heard. Pubhc opinion was divided. His brihiant services spoke elo
quently in his favor. His adrairers repined that a fame won by
such daring exploits on the field should be stifled down by cold
calumnies in Philadelphia; and many thought, dispassionately,
that the state authorities had acted with excessive harshness
towards a meritorious officer, in widely spreading their charges
against him, and thus, in an unprecedented way, putting a public
brand upon hira. '
On the 1 6th of February, Arnold's appeal to Congress was
referred to the committee which had under consideration the
letter of President Reed and its accompanying documents, and it
was charged to make a report with all convenient dispatch. A
motion was raade to suspend Arnold from ah comraand during
the inquiry. To the credit of Congress it was negatived. Much
contrariety of feeling prevahed on the subject in the committee
of Congress and the executive council of Pennsylvania,, and the
correspondence between those legislative bodies was occasionally
tinctured with needless acrimony. Amold, in the course of
January, had obtained perraission frora Washington to resign the
comraand of Philadelphia, but deferred to act upon it, until the
charges against hira should be exarained, lest, as he said, his ene
mies should misinterpret his motives, and ascribe his resignation
to fear of a disgraceful suspension in consequence of those charges.
About the middle of March, the committee brought in a report
exculpating him from all criminality in the raatters charged against
hira. As soon as the report was brought in, he considered his
narae vindicated, and resigned. But whatever exultation he may
have felt was short-lived. Congress did not call up and act upon
the report, as, in justice to him, they should have done, whether
to sanction it or not ; but referred the subject anew to a joint
committee of their body and the assembly and council of Pennsyl-

376 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
vania. The report of the joint committee brought up animated
discussions in Congress. Several resolutions recommended by the
committee were merely of a formal nature, and intended to soothe
the wounded sensibihties of Pennsylvania ; these were passed with
out dissent ; but it was contended that certain charges advanced
by the executive council of that state were only cogniziable by a
court-martial, and, after a warm debate, h was resolved (April 3d),
by a large majority, that the coraraander-in-chief should appomt
. such a court for the "consideration of thera.
Arnold inveighed bitterly against the injustice of subjecting him
to a trial before a military tribunal for alleged offences of which he
had been acquitted by the committee of Congress. He was sacri
ficed, he said, to avoid a breach with Pennsylvania ; and this was,
no doubt, trae. He urged Washington to appoint a speedy day
for the trial, that he might not linger under the odium of an unjust
public accusation. It was doubtless soothing to his irritated pride,
that the woraan on whom he had placed his affections remained
trae to him ; for his marriage with Miss Shippen took place just
five days after the mortifying vote of Congress.
Washington sympathized with Arnold's impatience, and ap
pointed the ist of May for the trial, but it was repeatedly post
poned ; first, at the request of the Pennsylvania council, to ahow
time for the arrival of witnesses frora the South ; afterwards, in
consequence of threatening raoveraents of the enemy, which
obhged every officer to be at his post. Arnold, in the meantime,
continued to reside at Philadelphia, holding his commission in the
army, but fihing no public office ; getting deeper and deeper in
debt, and becoming more and more unpopular. At length, when
the campaign was over, and the army had gone into winter-
quarters, the long-delayed court-martial was assembled at Morris
town. Of the eight charges originally advanced against Arnold
by the Pennsylvania counch, four only came under cognizance of
the court. Of two of these he was entirely acquitted. The
remaining two were : —
First. That while in the carap at Valley Forge, he, without the
knowledge of the coraraander-in-chief, or the sanction of the state

THE DISASTERS OF 1780. 377
govemment, had granted a written permission for a vessel belong
ing to disaffected persons, to proceed from the port of Philadelphia,
then in possession of the enemy, to any port of the United States.
Second. That, availing himself of his official authority, he had
appropriated the public wagons of Pennsylvania, when called forth
on a special eraergency, to the transportation of private property,
and that of persons who voluntarhy reraained with the eneray, and
were deemed disaffected to the interests and independence of
Araerica. In regard to the first of these charges, Amold alleged that the
person who apphed for the protection of the vessel, had taken the
oath of ahegiance to the state of Pennsylvania required by the laws ;
that he was not residing in Philadelphia at the time, but had ap
plied on behalf of himself and a corapany, and that the intentions
of that person and his associates with regard to the vessel and
cargo appeared to be upright. As to his having granted the
permission without the knowledge of the commander-in-chief,
though present in the camp, Arnold aheged that it was cus
tomary in the array for general officers to grant passes and pro
tections to inhabitants of the United States, friendly to the same,
and that the protection was given in the present instance, to
prevent the soldiery from plundering the vessel and cargo, coming
from a place in possession of the enemy, until the proper authority
could take cognizance of the matter.
In regard to the second charge, while it was proved that under
his authority wagons had been so used, it was ahowed in extenua
tion, that they had been employed at private expense, and without
¦any design to defraud the public or irapede the mhitary service.
In regard to both charges, nothing fraudulent on the part of
Arnold was proved, but the transactions involved in the first were
pronounced irregular, and contrary to one of the articles of war ;
¦and in the second, impradent and reprehensible, considering the
high station occupied by the general at the time ; and the court
¦sentenced him to be reprimanded by the commander-in-chief
The sentence was confirmed by Congress on the 1 2th of Febraary
^1780).

378 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
We have forborne to go into all the particulars of this trial, but
we have considered them attentively, discharging from our mmds,
as much as possible, all impressions produced by Amold's subse
quent history, and we are surprised to find, after the hosthity raani
fested against hira by the counch of Pennsylvania and their ex
traordinary measure to possess the pubhc mind against him, how
venial are the trespasses of which he stood convicted. He may
have given personal offence by his assuming vanity; by the
arrogant exercise of his raihtary authority; he raay have dis
pleased by his ostentation, and awakened distmst by his speculat
ing propensities ; but as yet his patriotisra was unquestioned. No
turpitude had been proved against hira ; his brihiant exploits shed
a splendor round his name, and he appeared before the public, a
soldier crippled in their service. Ah these should have pleaded in
his favor, should have produced indulgence of his errors, and miti
gated that animosity which he always contended had been the
cause of his ruin.
The reprimand adjudged by the court-raartial was administered
by Washington with consummate delicacy. The following were
his words, as repeated by M. de Marbois, the French secretary of
legation : — ¦
" Our profession is the chastest of all : even the shadow of a
fault tarnishes the lustre of our finest achievements. The least
inadvertence may rob us of the public favor, so hard to be acquired.
I reprehend you for having forgotten, that, in proportion as you
had rendered yourself formidable to our eneraies, you should have
been guarded and temperate in your deportment towards your
fehow-citizens. Exhibit anew those noble quahties which have
placed you on the list of our most valued comraanders. I wih
myself furnish you, as far as it may be in ray power, with oppor
tunities of regaining the esteera of your country."
A reprimand so mild and considerate, accompanied by such
high eulogiums and generous promises, might have had a favorable
effect upon Arnold, had he been in a different frame of mind ; but
he had persuaded himself that the court would incline in his favor
and acquit him altogether; and he resented deeply a sentence.

THE DISASTERS OF 1780. 379
which he protested against as unraerited. His resentraent was
aggravated by delays in the settlement of his accounts, as he
depended upon the suras he clairaed as due to hira, for the pay
ments of debts by wdiich he was harassed. In following the raatter
up, he becarae a weary, and probably irritable, applicant at the
halls of Congress, and, we are told, gave great offence to members
by his importunity, while he wore out the patience of his friends ;
but pubhc bodies are prone to be offended by the importunity of
baffled claimants, "and the patience of friends is seldom proof
against the reiterated story of a man's prolonged difficulties.
In the month of March, we find hira intent on a new and
adventurous project. He had proposed to the Board of Admiralty
an expedition, requiring several ships-of-war and three or four
hundred land troops, offering to take comraand of it should it be
carried into effect, as his wounds still disabled him from duty on
land. Washington, who knew his abilities in either service, was
disposed to favor his jsroposition, but the scheme fell through from
the impossibility of sparing the requisite nuraber of raen frora the
array. What Arnold's ultiraate designs raight have been in seek
ing such a coramand, are rendered problematical by his subsequent
conduct. On the fahure of the project, he requested and obtained
from Washington leave of absence from the army for the summer,
there being, he said, little prospect of an active campaign, and his
wounds unfitting hira for the field.
FaU of Charleston. — The return of spring brought little ahe-
viation to the sufferings of the array at Morristown. All raeans of
supplying its wants or recruiting its ranks were paralyzed by the
continued depreciation of the currency. Whhe Washington saw
his forces graduahy dirainishing, his solicitude was intensely excited
for the safety of South Carolina. "The richness of the country,''
says Colonel Tarleton, in his history of the carapaign, " its vicinity
to Georgia, and its distance frora General Washington, pointed
out the advantage and facihty of its conquest. While it would be
an unspeakable loss to the Americans, the possession of it would
tend to secure to the Crown the southem part of the continent
which stretches beyond it." It was presumed that the subjugation

380 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
of ft would be an easy task. The population was scanty for the
extent of the country, and was made up of emigrants, or the
descendants of emigrants, from various lands and of various
nations : Huguenots, who had eraigrated from France after the
revocation of the edict of Nantes ; Germans, from the Palatinate ;
Irish Protestants, who had received grants of land frora the Crown ;
Scotch Highlanders, transported hither after the disastrous battie
of Culloden ; Dutch colonists, who had left New York, after its
submission to England, and been settied here on bounty lands.
Some of these foreign elements raight be hosthe to British
doraination, but others would be favorable. There was a large
class, too, that had been born or had passed rauch of their lives in
England, who retained for it a filial affection, spoke of it as home,
and sent their children to be educated there.
The nuraber of slaves within the province and of savages on its
westem frontier, together wdth its wide extent of unprotected sea
coast, were encouragements to an invasion by sea and land.
Little combination of militia and yeomanry need be apprehended
from a population sparsely scattered, and where the settlements
were wddely separated by swaraps and forests. Washington was
in no condition to render prorapt and effectual rehef, his array
being at a vast distance, and considered as " in a great raeasure
broken up." The British, on the contrary, had the advantage of
their naval force, " there being nothing then in the American seas
which could even venture to look at it."
General Lincoln was in coramand at Charleston, but uncertain
as yet of the designs of the enemy, and at a loss what course to
pursue. The voyage of Sir Henry Clinton proved long and
tempestuous. The ships were dispersed. Most of the artillery
horses and ah those of the cavalry perished. The scattered ships
rejoined each other about the end of January, at Tybee Bay on
Savannah river, where those that had sustained daraage were
repaired as speedily as possible. The loss of the cavalry horses
was especially felt by Sir Henry. There was a corps of tvvo
hundred and fifty dragoons, on which he depended greatiy in the
kind of gueriha warfare he was hkely to pursue, in a country of

THE DISASTERS OF 1780. 381
forests and morasses. Lieutenant-colonel Banastre Tarleton who
commanded them, was one of those dogs of war, which Sir Henry
was prepared to let slip on emergencies, to scour and maraud the
country. This "bold dragoon," so noted in Southern warfare,
was about twenty-six years of age, of a sw^arthy complexion, with
small, black, piercing eyes. He is described as being rather below
the middle size, square-built and strong, "with large muscular
legs." He was a first-rate partisan officer, prompt, ardent, active,
but somewhat unscrapulous.
Landing frora the fleet, perfectly disraounted, he repaired with
his dragoons to Port Royal Island, where he succeeded in pro
curing horses of an inferior quality to those he had lost. He
consoled hiraself with the persuasion that he would secure better
ones in the course of the carapaign, by "exertion and enterprise,"
— a vague phrase, but very significant in the partisan vocabulary.
Meanwhile the array disembarked on the nth of February,
17S0, onSt. John's Island, about thirty^^-railes below Charleston.
Thence, Sir Henry Chnton set out for the banks of Ashley river,
opposite to the city, while a part of the fleet proceeded round by
sea, for the purpose of blockading the harbor. Sir Henry's advance
was slow and cautious. He ordered from Savannah all the troops
that could be spared, and wrote to Knyphausen at New York, for
reinforceraents frora that place. Every precaution was taken to
insure against a second repulse before Charleston, which raight
prove fatal to his rahitary reputation.
General Lincoln took advantage of this slowness on the part of
his assahant, to extend and strengthen the works. Charleston
stands at the end of an isthraus formed by the Ashley and Cooper
rivers. Beyond the raain works on the land side he cut a canal,
frora one to the other of the swamps which border these rivers.
In advance of the canal were two rows of abatis and a double
picketed ditch. Within the canal, and between it and the raain
works, were strong redoubts and batteries, to open a flanking fire
on any approaching coluran, whhe an enclosed homwork of
raasonry forraed a kind of citadel.
A squadron commanded by Commodore Whipple, and com-

382 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
posed of nine vessels of war, of various sizes, the largest mounting
forty-four guns, was to co-operate with Forts Moultrie and John
ston, and the various batteries, in the defence of the harbor. They
were to lie before the bar so as to command the entrance of it.
Great reliance also was placed on the bar itself, which h was
thought no ship of the line could pass.
Governor Rutiedge, a man eminent for talents, patriotism, firm
ness, and decision, was clothed with dictatorial powers during the
present crisis ; he had cahed out the state rahitia, and large rein
forceraents were expected frora the North. Under these circum
stances, General Lincoln yielded to the entreaties of the inhabitants,
and instead of reraaining with his army in the open country, as he
had intended, shut himself up with them in the place for its
defence, leaving merely his cavalry and two hundred light troops
outside, who were to hover about the eneray and prevent small
parties from marauding.
It was not unth the 12th of March that Sir Henry Clinton
effected his tardy approach, and took up a position on Charles
ton Neck, a few railes above the town. Adrairal Arbuthnot soon
showed an intention of introducing his ships into the harbor ; barri
cading their waists, anchoring thera in a situation where they might
take advantage of the first favorable spring-tide, and fixing buoys
on the bar for their guidance. Commodore Whipple had by this
tirae ascertained by sounding that a wrong idea had prevahed of
the depth of water in the harbor, and that his ships could not
anchor nearer than ¦within three railes of the bar, so that it would
be impossible for hira to defend the passage of it. He quitted his
station within it, therefore, after having destroyed a part of the
enemy's buoys, and took a position where his ships might be
abreast, and forra a cross-fire with the batteries of Fort Moultrie
where Colonel Pinckney coraraanded.
Washington was inforraed of these facts by letters from his
former aide-de-camp. Colonel Laurens, who was in Charleston at
the time. The information caused anxious forebodings. "The
impracticabihty of defending the bar, I fear, araounts to the loss
of the town and garrison," writes he in reply. " It really appears

THE DISASTERS OF 1780. 383
to me that the propriety of attempting to defend the town
depended on the probabhity of defending the bar, and that when
this ceased, the attempt ought to have been relinquished." The
sarae opinion was expressed by him in a letter to Baron Steuben ;
"but at this distance," adds he considerately, "we can form a
very imperfect judgment of its propriety or necessity. I have the
greatest reliance in General Lincoln's pmdence, but I CMinot for
bear dreading the event."
His sohcitude for the safety of the South was increased by
hearing of the embarkation at New York of two thousand five
hundred troops, under Lord Rawdon, reinforceraents for Sir Henry
Chnton. It seeraed evident the eneray intended to push their
operations with vigor at the South ; perhaps, to raake it the prin
cipal theatre of the war. Gladly would Washington have hastened
to the South in person, but at this raoraent his utraost vigilance
was required to keep watch upon New York and raaintain the
security ,of the Hudson, the vital part of the confederacy. The
weak state of the Araeriean raeans of warfare in both quarters,
presented a choice of difficulties. The South needed support.
Could the North give it without exposing itself to ruin, since the
enemy, by means of their ships, could suddenly unite their forces,
and fall upon any point that they might consider weak? Such
were the perplexities to which he was continually subjected, in
having, with scanty raeans, to provide for the security of a vast
extent of country, and with land forces raerely, to contend with an
amphibious eneray.
Looking, however, as usual, to the good of the whole Union, he
deterrained to leave something at hazard in the Middle States,
where the country was internally so strong, and yield further succor
to the Southern States, which had not equal mihtary advantages.
With the consent of Congress, therefore, he put the Maryland line
under marching orders, together with the Delaware regiment,
which acted with it and the first regiment of artihery. The Baron
de Kalb, now at the head of the Maryland division, was instmcted
to conduct this detachment with ah haste to the aid of General
Lincoln. He raight not arrive in tirae to prevent the fah of

384 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
Charieston, but he raight assist in arresting the progress of the
eneray and saving the Carolinas.
Several days elapsed before the British ships were able, by taking
out their guns, provisions, and water, and avahing themselves of
wind and tide, to pass the bar at Charieston. They did so on the
20th of March, with but shght opposition from several galleys.
Commodpre Whipple, seeing the vast superiority of theh force,
raade a second retrograde raove, stationing some of his ships in
Cooper river, and sinking the rest at its raouth so as to prevent
the eneray from running up that river, and cutting off communica
tion with the country on the east. The crews and heavy cannon
were landed to aid in the defence of the town.
The reinforcements expected from the North were not yet ar
rived ; the railitia of the state did not appear at Governor Rut-
ledge's command, and other reliances were failing. " Many of the
North Carolina militia whose terms have expired leave us to-day,"
writes Lincoln to Washington, on the 20th of March. " They can
not be persuaded to remain longer, though the enemy are in our
neighborhood." Early in Aprh, Admiral Arbuthnot passed Sullivan's Island, with
a fresh southeriy breeze, at the head of a squadron of seven armed
vessels and two transports. Colonel Pinckney opened a heavy
cannonade frora the batteries of Fort Moultrie. The ships thun
dered in reply, and clouds of smoke were raised, under the cover
of which they slipped by, with no greater loss than twenty-seven
men killed and wounded. A store-ship which followed the squad
ron ran aground, was set on fire and abandoned, and subsequently
blew up. The ships took a position near Fort Johnston, just with
out the range of the shot from the American batteries. After the
passage of the ships. Colonel Pinckney and a part of the garrison
withdrew from Fort Moultrie.
The enemy had by this time completed his first parallel, and
the town being almost entirely invested by sea and land, received
a joint suraraons frora the British general and adrairal to surren
der. On Lincoln's refusal, the Brhish batteries were opened.
The siege was carried on deliberately by regular parahels, and on

THE DISASTERS OF 17S0. 385
a scale of magnitude scarcely warranted by the moderate strength
of the place. At length the arrival of a reinforcement of three
thousand men from New York enabled Sir Henry to throw a pow
erful detachraent, under Lord Cornwallis, to the east of Cooper
river, to complete the investment of the town and cut off all
retreat. Fort Moultrie surrendered. The batteries of the third
parallel were opened upon the town. They were so near that the
Hessian sharpshooters could pick off the garrison whhe at their
guns or on the parapets. This fire was kept up for two days.
The besiegers crossed the canal, pushed up a double sap to the
inside of the abatis, and prepared to make an assault by sea and
land. All hopes of successful defence were at an end. The works
were in ruins ; the guns almost ah disraounted ; the garrison
exhausted with fatigue, the provisions nearly consuraed. The
inhabitants, dreading the horrors of an assault, joined in a petition
to General Lincoln, and prevailed upon him to offer a surrender
on terras which had already been offered and rejected. These
terms were sthl granted, and the capitulation was signed on the
12 th of May. The prisoners taken by the enemy, exclusive of the
sailors, araounted to five thousand six hundred and' eighteen raen ;
comprising every raale adult in the city. The continental troops
did not exceed two thousand, five hundred of whora were in the
hospital ; the rest were citizens and militia.
Sir Henry Chnton considered the fall of Charleston decisive of
the fate of South Carolina. To coraplete the subjugation of the
country, he planned three expeditions into the interior. One,
under Lieutenant-colonel Brown, was to move up the Savannah
river to Augusta, on the borders of Georgia. Another, under
Lieutenant-colonel Cruger, was to proceed up the southwest side
of the Santee river to the district of Ninety-Six,^ a fertile and
salubrious region, between the Savannah and the Saluda rivers :
while a third, under Cornwahis, was to cross the Santee, raarch up
the northeast bank, and strike at a corps of troops under Colonel
" So called in early tiines from being ninety-six miles from the principal
town of the Cherokee nation, _

386 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
Buford, which were retreating to North Carolina with artillery and
a number of wagons, laden with arras, ammunition, and clothing.
Buford had arrived too late for the rehef of Charieston, and was
now making a retrograde move with his three hundred and eighty
troops of the Virginia line, and two field-pieces.
Tarieton, detached by Cornwahis in pursuit, overtook Buford at
the Waxhaws, a smah streara on the border of North Carolina,
and corapletely annihilated his force. The two other detachraents
which had been sent out by Chnton, met with nothing but submis
sion. The people in general, considermg resistance hopeless, ac
cepted the proffered protection, and conformed to its humhiating
terras. One class of the population in this colony seeras to have
regarded the invaders as deliverers. " All the negroes,'' ¦writes
Tarleton, " men, women, and chhdren, upon the appearance of
any detachraent of king's troops, thought themselves absolved
from all respect to their American masters, and entirely released
from servitude. They quitted the plantations and followed the
army." Sir Henry now persuaded himself that South Carolina was sub
dued, and proceeded to station garrisons in various parts, to main
tain it in subjection. In the fulness of his confidence, he issued
a proclamation on the 3d of June, discharging all the military
prisoners from theh paroles after the 20th of the month, excepting
those captured in Fort Moultrie and Charleston. All thus released
from their parole were reinstated in the rights and duties of British
subjects ; but, at the same time, they were bound to take an active
part in support of the governraent hitherto opposed by thera.
Thus the protection afforded them whhe prisoners was annuhed by
an arbitrary fiat — neutrality was at an end. All were to be ready
to take up arms at a moment's notice. Those who had famihes
were to form a raihtia for home defence. Those who had none,
were to serve with the royal forces. Ah who should neglect to re
tum to their allegiance, or should refuse to take up arms against
the independence of their country were to be considered as rebels
and treated accordingly. Having struck a blow, which, as he con
ceived, was to insure the subjugation of the South, Sir Henry em-

THE DISASTERS OF 1780. 387
barked for New York on the sth of June, with a part of his forces,
leaving the residue under the coraraand of Lord Cornwallis, who
was to carry the war into North Carolina, and thence into Vir
ginia. The capture of General Lincoln at Charleston left the Southem
department without a commander-in-chief Washington had in
tended to recommend General Greene for the appointraent. He
was an officer on whose abhities, discretion, and disinterested pa
triotisra he had the fullest reliance, and whom he had always found
thoroughly disposed to act in unison with him in his general plan
of carrying on the war. Congress, however, with unbecoraing pre
cipitancy, gave that important command to General Gates (June
13th), without waiting to consult Washington's views or wishes.
Gates, at the time, was on his estate in Virginia, and accepted
the appointment with avidity, anticipating new triumphs. His old
associate, Charles Lee, gave hira an orainous caution at parting.
" Beware that your Northern laurels do not change to Southem
willows ! "
Arrival of Rochambeau. — On the loth of July, a French fleet,
under the Chevaher de Ternay, arrived at Newport, in Rhode
Island. It was composed of seven ships of the hne, t^o frigates
and two bomb-vessels, and convoyed transports on board of which
there were upwards of five thousand troops. This was the first
division of an army promised by France. The second division
had been detained at Brest for want of transports, but might soon
be expected.
The Count de Rochambeau, a veteran, fifty-five years of age,
was commander-in-chief of this auxiliary force. The troops were
landed to the east of the town ; their encarapraent was on a fine
situation, and extended nearly across the island. Much was said
of their gahant and raartial appearance. There was the noted
regiment of Auvergne, in coraraand of which the Count de
Rochambeau had first gained his laurels, but which was now com
raanded by his son the viscount, thirty years of age. A legion of
six hundred raen also was especially admired ; it was commanded
by the Duke de Lauzun-Biron, who had gained reputation in the

388 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
preceding year by the capture of Senegal. A feeling of adventure
and romance, associated with the American struggle, had caused
many of the young nobhity to seek this new field of achievement.
The instructions of the French ministry to the Count de Rochara-
beau placed him entirely under the command of General Wash
ington. The French troops were to be considered as auxiharies,
and as such were to take the left of the American troops, and, in all
cases of ceremony, to yield them the preference. This considerate
arrangement had been adopted at the suggestion of the Marquis
de Lafayette, and was intended to prevent the recurrence of those
questions of rank and etiquette which had heretofore disturbed
the combined service.
Washington, in general orders, congratulated the army on the
arrival of this tiraely and generous succor, which he hahed as a
new tie between France and America ; anticipating that the only
contention between the two armies would be to excel each other
in good offices, and in the display of every mihtary virtue. The
American cockade had hitherto been black, that of the French
was white ; he recomraended to his officers a cockade of black
and white intermingled in compliment to their allies, and as a
symbol of friendship and union.
His joy at this important reinforcement was dashed by the mor
tifying reflection, that he was stih unprovided with the troops and
mhitary means requisite for the combined operations meditated.
Stih he took upon himself the responsibflity of iraraediate action,
and forthwith dispatched Lafayette to have an interview with the
French comraanders, explain the circurastances of the case, and
concert plans for the proposed attack upon New York.
The arrival, however, of the British Adrairal Graves, on the 13th
of July, with six ships of the line, gave the eneray such a superi
ority of naval force, that the design on New York was postponed
until the second French division should raake its appearance, or
a squadron under the Count de Guichen, which was expected frora
the West Indies.
In the meantime Sh Henry Clinton, who had information of
ah the plans and raoveraents of the alhes, determined to forestall

THE DISASTERS OF 1780. 389
the raeditated attack upon New York, by beating up the French
quarters on Rhode Island. He accordingly proceeded with six
thousand men to Throg's Neck, there to embark on board of trans
ports which Arbuthnot was to provide. No sooner did Washing
ton learn that so large a force had left New York, than he crossed
the Hudson to Peekskih, and prepared to move towards King's
Bridge, with the main body of his troops, which had recentiy been
reinforced. His intention was, either to obhge Sir Henry to aban
don his project against Rhode Island, or to strike a blow at New
York during his absence. As Washington was on horseback,
observing the crossing of the last division of his troops. General
Arnold approached, having just arrived in the camp. Arnold had
been manoeuvring of late to get the coraraand of West Point, and
had induced Mr. Robert Livingston, then a New York raeraber of
Congress, to suggest it in a letter to Washington as a raeasure of
great expediency. Arnold now accosted the latter to know
whether any place had been assigned to him. He was told that
he was to command the left wing. The silence and evident cha
grin with which the reply was received surprised Washington, and
he was stih more surprised when he learned that Arnold was more
desirous of a garrison post than of a comraand in the field, al
though a post of honor had been assigned hira, and active service
was anticipated. Arnold's excuse was that his wounded leg still
unfitted him for action either on foot or horseback ; but that at
West Point he might render hiraself useful.
The expedition of Sir Henry was delayed by the tardy arrival of
transports. In the raeantirae he heard of the sudden raove of
Washington, and learned, raoreover, that the position of the French
at Newport had been strengthened by the railitia from the neigh
boring country. These tidings disconcerted his plans. He left
Adrairal Arbuthnot to proceed with his squadron to Newport,
blockade the French fleet, and endeavor to intercept the second
division, supposed to be on its way, while he with his troops has
tened back to New York. In consequence of their return, Wash
ington again withdrew his forces to the west side of the Hudson ;
first estabhshing a post and throwing up sraall works at Dobbs'

390 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
Ferry, to secure a communication across the river for the trans
portation of troops and ordnance, should the design upon New
York be prosecuted.
Arnold now received the important coramand which he had so
earnestiy coveted. It included the fortress at West Point and the
posts from Fish Kih to King's Ferry, together with the corps of
infantry and cavalry advanced towards the enemy's line on the
east side of the river. He was ordered to have the works at the
Point completed as expeditiously as possible, and to keep ah his
posts on their guard against surprise ; there being constant appre
hensions that the enemy might make a sudden effort to gain pos
session of the river.
Having made these arrangements, Washington recrossed to the
west side of the Hudson, and took post at Tappan, on the bor
ders of the Jerseys, and opposite to Dobbs' Ferry, to be at hand
for any atterapt upon New York. The execution of this cherished
design, however, was again postponed by intelligence that the
second division of the French reinforcements was blockaded in
the harbor of Brest by the British ; Washington still had hopes
that it might be carried into effect by the aid of the squadron of
the Count de Guichen from the West Indies ; or of a fleet from
Cadiz. Battle of Camden. — The anxiety of Washington at this
moraent of embarrassment was heightened by the receipt of dis
astrous intelligence from the South.
Lord Cornwalhs forbore to attempt the invasion of North Caro
lina until the summer heats should be over and the harvests gath
ered in. In the meantime he disposed of his troops in canton
ments, to cover the frontiers of South Carolina and Georgia, and
maintain their internal quiet. The command of the frontiers was
given by him to Lord Rawdon, who made Camden his principal
post. This town was situated on the east bank of the Wateree
river, on the road leading to North Carolina. It was to be the
grand railitary depot for the projected carapaign.
Having made these dispositions. Lord Cornwahis set up his
head-quarters at Charieston, where he occupied himself in regu-

THE DISASTERS OF 17S0. 391
lating the civil and commercial affairs of the province, in organ
izing the mihtia of the lower districts, and in forwarding provisions
and munitions of war to Camden. The proclaraation of Sir
Henry Clinton, putting an end to all neutrahty, and the rigorous
penalties and persecutions with which all infractions of its terms
were punished, had for a tirae quehed the spirit of the country.
By degrees, however, the dread of British power gave way to
irapatience of British exactions. Symptoms of revolt manifested
themselves in various parts. They were encouraged by intehi
gence that Kalb was advancing through North Carohna at the
head of two thousand men, and that the raihtia of that state
and of Virginia were joining his standard. This was soon fol
lowed by tidings that Gates, the conqueror of Burgoyne, was
on his way to take coraraand of the Southern forces.
The prospect of such aid frora the North reanimated the South
ern patriots. One of the most eminent of these was Thoraas
Sumter, whom the Carohnians had sumaraed the Garae Cock.
He was between forty and fifty years of age, brave, hardy, vigor
ous, resolute. He had served against the Indians in his boyhood,
during the old French war, and had been present at the defeat of
Braddock. In the present war he had held the rank of lieutenant-
colonel of riflemen in the Continental line. After the fall of
Charleston, he had retired with his family into one of the natural
fastnesses of the country.
The lower part of South Carohna for upwards of a hundred
railes back frora the sea is a level country, abounding with swaraps,
locked up in the windings of the rivers which flow down from the
Appalachian Mountains. Some of these swamps are raere cane-
brakes, of little use until subdued by cultivation, when they yield
abundant crops of rice. Others are covered with forests of
cypress, cedar, and laurel, green all the year and odoriferous, but
tangled with vines and almost impenetrable. In their bosoms,
however, are fine savannahs ; natural lawns, open to cultivation,
and yielding abundant pasturage. It requires local knowledge,
however, to penetrate these wildernesses, and hence they form
strongholds to the people of the country. In one of these natu-

392 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
ral fastnesses, on the borders of the Santee, Sumter had taken up
his residence, and hence he would sally forth in various direc
tions. During a temporary absence his retreat had been invaded,
his house burnt to the ground, his wife and children driven forth
without shelter. Private injury had thus been added to the incen
tives of patriotism. Emerging from his hiding-place, he had
thrown himself araong a handful of his fehow-sufferers who had
taken refuge in North Carolina. They chose him at once as a
leader, and resolved on a desperate struggle for the deliverance of
their native state. Destitute of regular weapons, they forged rude
substitutes out of the impleraents of husbandry. Old mill-saws
were converted into broad-swords ; knives at the ends of poles
served for lances ; while the country housewives gladly gave up
their pewter dishes and other utenshs, to be melted down and cast
into bullets for such as had firearms.
When Sumter led this gallant band of exiles over the border,
they did not araount in number to two hundred ; yet, with these,
he attacked and routed a well-armed body of British troops and
Tories, the terror of the frontier. His followers supphed them
selves with weapons from the slain. In a little whhe his band was
augmented by recruits. Parties of militia, also, recently embodied
under the raeasures of Cornwallis, deserted to the patriot stand
ard. Thus reinforced to the araount of six hundred men, he
made, on the 30th of July, a spirited attack on the British post at
Rocky Mount, near the Catawba, but was repulsed. A more suc
cessful attack was made by hira, eight days afterwards, on another
post at Hanging Rock. The Prince of Wales regiment which
defended it was nearly annihilated, and a large body of North
Carolina loyalists was routed and dispersed. The gahant exploits
of Sumter were emulated in other parts of the country, and the
partisan war thus commenced was carried on with an audacity
that soon obliged the enemy to call in their outposts, and collect
their troops in large raasses.
The advance of Kalb with reinforcements from the North,
had been retarded by various difficulties, the most important of
which was want of provisions. This had been especially the case

THE DISASTERS OF 1780. 393
since his arrival in North Carolina. The legislative or executive
power, he complained, gave him no assistance, nor could he ob
tain supplies from the people but by military force. His troops
were reduced for a time to short allowance, and at length, on the
6th of July, brought to a positive halt at a branch of Cape Fear
river. The North Carolina militia, under General Caswell, were
already in the field, on the road to Camden, beyond the Pedee
river. He was anxious to form a junction with them, and with
sorae Virginia troops, under Colonel Porterfield, remnants of the
defenders of Charleston ; but a wide and sterile region lay between
him and them, difficult to be traversed, unless magazines were
established in advance, or he were supphed with provisions to take
with him. Thus circumstanced, he wrote to Congress and to the
state Legislature, representing his situation, and entreating relief
For three weeks he reraained in this encarapraent, foraging an
exhausted country for a meagre subsistence, and was thinking of
deviating to the right, and seeking the fertile counties of Meck
lenburg and Rowan, when, on the zsth of July, General Gates
arrived at the carap.
The baron greeted hira with a continental salute from his little
park of artillery, and received him with the ceremony and defer
ence due to a superior officer who was to take the command.
There was a contest of politeness between the two generals. Gates
approved of Kalb's standing orders, but at the first review of
the troops, to the great astonishment of the baron, gave orders for
them to hold themselves in readiness to march at a momenfs
warning. It was evident he raeant to signalize hiraself by celerity
of raoveraent in contrast with protracted delays. It was in vain
the destitute situation of the troops was represented to hira, and
that they had not a day's provision in advance. His reply was,
that wagons laden with supplies were coraing on, and would over
take them in two days. On the 27th, he actually put the array in
raotion over the Buffalo Ford, on the direct road to Caraden.
Colonel Williaras, the adjutant-general of Kalb, warned hira of
the sterile nature of that route, and recommended a more circuit
ous one further north, which the baron had intended to take, and

394 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
which passed through the abundant county of Mecklenburg. Gates
persisted in taking the direct route, observing that he should the
sooner form a junction with Caswell and the North Carolina mihtia ;
and as to the sterhity of the country, his supplies would soon over
take him.
The route proved all that had been represented. It led through
a region of pine barrens, sand hihs, and swamps, with few human
habitations, and those mostly deserted. The supplies of which he
bad spoken never overtook hira. His array had to subsist itself
on lean cattle, roaraing alraost wild in the woods ; and to supply
the want of bread with green Indian corn, unripe apples, and
peaches. The consequence was a distressing prevalence of dysen
tery. Having crossed the Pedee river on the 3d of August, the army
was joined by a handful of brave Virginia regulars, under Colonel
Porterfield, who had been wandering about the country since the
disaster of Charleston ; and, on the 7th, the much-desired junction
took place with the North Carolina railitia. On the 13 th they
encaraped at Rugeley's Mills, otherwise called Clerraont, about
twelve miles from Caraden, and on the following day were rein
forced by a brigade of seven hundred Virginia militia, under Gen
eral Stevens.
On the approach of Gates, Lord Rawdon had concentrated his
forces at Caraden. The post was flanked by the Wateree river
and Pine-tree Creek, and strengthened with redoubts. Lord
Comwahis had hastened hither frora Charleston on learning that
affairs in this quarter were drawing to a crisis, and had arrived
here on the 13th. The British effective force thus collected was
soraething more than two thousand, including officers. About five
hundred were militia and Tory refugees from North Carohna.
The forces under Gates, according to the return of his adjutant-
general, were three thousand and fifty-two fit for duty ; more than
two-thirds of them, however, were mihtia. On the 14th, he re
ceived an express from General Sumter, who, with his partisan
corps, after harassing the enemy at various points, was now en
deavoring to cut off their supplies from Charleston. The object

THE DISASTERS OF 1780. 395
of the express was to ask a reinforceraent of regulars to aid hira in
capturing a large convoy of clothing, araraunition, and stores, on
its way to the garrison, and which would pass Wateree Ferry,
about a mile from Camden. Gates accordingly detached Colonel
Woolford of the Maryland line, with one hundred regulars, a party
of artihery, and two brass field-pieces. On the same evening he
moved with his main force to take post at a deep streara about
seven railes frora Camden, intending to attack Lord Rawdon or
his redoubts should he march out in force to repel Sumter. It
seems hardly credible that Gates should have been so remiss
in collecting information concerning the movements of his enemy
as to be utterly unaware that Lord Cornwahis had arrived at
Caraden. Such, however, we are assured by his adjutant-general,
was the fact.
By a singular coincidence. Lord Cornwalhs on the very sarae
evening sallied forth from Camden to attack the Araeriean camp
at Clermont. About two o'clock at night, the two forces blun
dered on each other about half way. A skirmish took place
between their advance guards, in which Porterfield was mortally
wDunded and sorae prisoners were taken on either side. Frora
these the respective coraraanders learned the nature of the forces
each had sturabled upon. Both halted, forraed their troops for
action, but deferred further hostilities until daylight.
Gates was astounded at being told that the eneray at hand was
Cornwalhs with three thousand men. Cahing a council of war, he
demanded what was best to be done. For a raoment or two there
was blank shence. It was broken by General Stevens, of the
Virginia militia, with the question, " Gentleraen, is it not too late
now to do anything but fight?" No other advice was asked or
offered, and all were required to repair to their respective cora
raands, though General de Kalb, we are told, was of opinion that
they should regain their position at Clermont, and there await an
attack. In forming the line, the second Maryland brigade, including the
Delawares, was on the right, commanded by Kalb. The Vir
ginia mhitia under Stevens, were on the left. Caswell with the

396 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
North Carolinians formed the centre. The artihery was in battery
on the road. Each flank was covered by a marsh. The first
Maryland brigade forraed a reserve, a few hundred yards in rear
of the second.
At daybreak (August i6th), the enemy were dimly descried
advancing in column. Gates ordered Stevens to advance briskly
with his brigade of Virginia militia and attack them whhe in the
act of deploying. No sooner did Stevens receive the order than
he put his brigade in motion, but discovered that the right wing of
the enemy was already in line. The British mshed on, shouting
and firing. The inexperienced mihtia, dismayed and confounded
by this impetuous assault, threw down their loaded muskets and
fled. The panic spread to the North Carolina militia, who soon
joined with the rest in flight, rendered headlong and disastrous
by the charge and pursuit of Tarleton and his cavalry. Gates
made several attempts to rally the militia, but was borne along
with them. The day was hazy ; there was no wind to carry
off the smoke, which hung over the field of battle hke a thick
cloud. Nothing could be seen distinctly. Supposing that the
regular troops were dispersed like the railitia, Gates gave ah up
for lost, and retreated from the field.
The regulars, however, had not given way. The Maryland brig
ades and the Delaware regiment, unconscious that they were de
serted by the railitia, stood their ground, and bore the brunt of
the battle. Though repeatedly broken, they as often rahied, and
braved even the deadly push of the bayonet. At length a charge
of Tarleton's cavalry on their flank threw thera into confusion, and
drove them into the woods and swamps. None showed more
gahantry on this disastrous day than the Baron de Kalb; he
fought on foot with the second Maryland brigade, and feh ex
hausted after receiving eleven wounds. If the railitia fled too soon
in this battle, said the adjutant-general, the regulars reraained too
long, fighting when there was no hope of victory.
Gates, in retreating, had hoped to rally a sufficient force at
Clermont to cover the retreat of the regulars, but the further they
fled, the more the mihtia were dispersed, until the generals were

a a a j,^ *> a

CAMOEN

To face page 396.

THE DISASTERS OF 1780. 397
abandoned by all but their aides. To add to the mortification of
Gates, he learned that Sumter had been corapletely successful, and
having reduced the eneray's redoubt on the Wateree, and captured
one hundred prisoners and forty loaded wagons, was raarching off
with his booty on the opposite side of the river; apprehending
danger from the quarter in which he had heard firing in the raorn
ing. Gates had no longer any means of co-operating with him ;
he sent orders to hira, therefore, to retire in the best raanner he
could ; while he himself proceeded with General Caswell towards
the vihage of Charlotte, about sixty rahes distant.
Cornwallis was apprehensive that Surater's corps might form a
rallying point to the routed army. On the morning of the 1 7th of
August, therefore, he detached Tarleton in pursuit wdth a body of
cavalry and light infantry, about three hundred and fifty strong.
Sumter was retreating up the western side of the Wateree, much
encumbered by his spoils and prisoners. Tarleton pushed up, by
forced and concealed marches, on the eastern side. Horses and
men suffered from the intense heat of the weather. At dusk
Tarleton descried the fires of the American camp about a mile
from the opposite shore. He gave orders to secure all boats on
the river, and to light no fire in the camp. In the morning his
sentries gave word that the Americans were quitting their encamp
ment. It was evident they knew nothing of a British force being
in pursuit of them. Tarleton now crossed the Wateree ; the
infantry with a three-pounder passed in boats ; the cavalry swam
their horses where the river was not fordable. The delay in cross
ing, and the diligence of Sumter's march, increased the distance
between the pursuers and the pursued. About noon a part of
Tarleton's force gave out through heat and fatigue. Leaving thera
to repose on the bank of Fishing Creek, he pushed on with about
one hundred dragoons, the freshest and raost able, still raarching
with great circuraspection. As he entered a valley, a discharge of
small-arms from a thicket tumbled a dragoon from his saddle.
His comrades gahoped up to the place, and found two American
videttes, whom they sabred before Tarleton could interpose. A
sergeant and five dragoons rode up to the summit of a neighboring

398 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
hill to reconnoiter. Crouching on their horses they raade signs
to Tarieton. He cautiously approached the crest of the hih, and
looking over beheld the Araeriean carap on a neighboring height,
and apparently in a most negligent condition.
Sumter, in fact, having pressed his retreat to the neighborhood
of the Catawba Ford, and taken a strong position at the mouth of
Fishing Creek, and his patrols having scoured the road without
discovering any signs of an enemy, considered himself secure from
surprise. The two shots fired by his videttes had been heard, but
were supposed to have been made by militia shooting cattle. The
troops, having for the last four days been almost without food or
sleep, were now indulged in complete relaxation. Their arms
were stacked, and they were scattered about, some strolling, some
lying on the grass under the trees, sorae bathing in the river.
Surater hiraself had thrown off part of his clothes on account of
the heat of the weather.
Having well reconnoitered this negligent carap, indulging in
summer supineness and sultry repose, Tarleton prepared for in
stant attack. His cavalry and infantry formed into one hne,
dashed forward with a general shout, and, before the Araericans
could recover frora their surprise, got between them and the
parade ground on which the muskets were stacked. All was
confusion and consternation in the American carap. Some
opposition was raade frora behind baggage wagons, and there
was skirmishing in various quarters, but in a little while there was
a universal flight to the river and the woods. Between three
and four hundred were killed and wounded ; ah their arms and
baggage, with two brass field-pieces, fell into the hands of the
enemy, who also recaptured the prisoners and booty taken at
Camden. Surater, with about three hundred and fifty of his raen,
effected a retreat ; he galloped off, it is said, without saddle, hat,
or coat.
Gates, on reaching the village of Chariotte, had been joined by
some fugitives from his army. He continued on to Hillsborough,
one hundred and eighty miles from Camden, where he made a
stand, and endeavored to rally his scattered forces. His regular

THE DISASTERS OF 1780. 399
troops, however, were little more than one thousand. As to the
mhitia of North and South Carolina, they had dispersed to their
respective homes, depending upon the patriotism and charity of
the farraers along the road for food and shelter.
It was not until the beginning of Septeraber that Washington
received word of the disastrous reverse at Caraden. The shock
was the greater, as previous reports from that quarter had repre
sented the operations a few days preceding the action as much in
our favor. It was evident to Washington that the course of war
must ultimately tend to the Southern States, yet the situation of
affairs in the North did not permit hira to detach any sufficient
force for their relief All that he could do for the present was to
endeavor to hold the eneray in check in that quarter. For this
purpose, he gave orders that sorae regular troops enlisted in Mary
land for the war, and intended for the raain army, should be sent
to the southward.
He still cherished the idea of a combined attack upon New
York as soon as a French naval force should arrive. The destruc
tion of the enemy here would reheve this part of the Union frora
an internal war, and enable its troops and resources to be united
with those of France in vigorous efforts against the common enemy
elsewhere. Hearing, therefore, that the Count de Guichen, with
his West India squadron, was approaching the coast, Washington
prepared to proceed to Hartford, in Connecticut, there to hold a
conference with Rochambeau and Ternay, and concert a plan for
future operations, of which the attack on New York was to form
the principal feature.
Arnold's Treason. — We have now to enter upon a sad episode
of our Revolutionary history — the treason of Amold. Of the mil
itary skhl, daring enterprise, and indomitable courage of this raan,
araple evidence has been given in the foregoing pages. Of the
iraplicit confidence reposed in his patriotisra by Washington,
sufficient proof is manifested in the command with which he was
actually entmsted. But Arnold was false at heart, and, at the very
time of seeking that comraand, had been for raany months in
traitorous correspondence with the eneray.

4CX) LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
The first idea of proving recreant to the cause he had vindicated
so bravely appears to have entered his mind when the charges
preferred against him by the council of Pennsylvania were referred
by Congress to a court-martial. Before that time he had been
incensed against Pennsylvania : but now his wrath was exched
against his country, which appeared so insensible to his services.
Disappointment in regard to the settiement of his accounts added
to his irritation, and mingled sordid motives with his resentraent ;
and he began to think how, while he wreaked his vengeance on
his country, he might do it with advantange to his fortunes. With
this view he comraenced a correspondence with Sir Henry Chnton
in a disguised handwriting, and, over the signature of "Gustavus,''
representing hiraself as a person of iraportance in the American
service, who, being dissatisfied with the late proceedings of Con
gress, particularly the alliance with France, was desirous of joining
the cause of Great Britain, could he be certain of personal security,
and indemnification for whatever loss of property he raight sustain.
His letters occasionally coraraunicated articles of intelligence of
sorae raoment which proved to be true, and induced Sir Henry to
keep up the correspondence ; which was conducted on his part by
his aide-de-camp. Major John Andr^, likewise in a disguised hand,
and over the signature of John "Anderson."
Months elapsed before Sir Henry discovered who was his secret
correspondent. Meanwhile Arnold had taken command of West
Point about the beginning of August, 1 780, fixing his head-quar
ters at Beverley, a country seat a little below, and on the opposite
or eastern side of the river. It stood in a lonely part of the High
lands, high up frora the river, at the foot of a mountain covered
with woods. It was commonly called the Robinson House, having
formerly belonged to Colonel Beverley Robinson, who had entered
into the British service, and was now residing in New York, while
Beverley with its surrounding lands had been confiscated.
Frora this place Arnold carried on a secret correspondence with
Major Andr6. Their letters, still in disgiused hands, and under
the names of Gustavus and John Anderson, purported to treat
merely of commercial operations, but the real matter in ncTOtia-

THE DISASTERS OF 17S0. 401
tion was the betrayal of West Point and the Highlands to Sir
Henry Clinton. This stupendous piece of treachery was to be
consummated at the time when Washington, with the main body
of his army, would be drawn down towards King's Bridge, and the
French troops landed on Long Island, in the projected co-opera
tion against New York. At such time, a flotilla under Rodney,
having on board a large land force, was to ascend the Hudson to
the Highlands, which would be surrendered by Arnold alraost
without opposition, under pretext of insufficient force to raake
resistance. The iraraediate result of this surrender, it was antici
pated, would be the defeat and dislocation of the whole American
scheme of warfare.
Major Andr6 was born in London, in 1751, but his parents were
of Geneva in Switzerland, where he was educated. Being intended
for mercantile life, he entered a London counting-house, but aban
doned it and entered the arm^y in 1771. He came to America in
1774, as lieutenant of the Royal Fusheers, and was araong the
officers captured at Saint John, early in the war, by Montgoraery.
His varied and graceful talents, and his engaging manners, ren
dered him generahy popular; while his devoted and soraewhat
subservient loyalty recoraraended hira to the favor of his com
mander, and obtained him, without any distinguished mhitary ser
vices, the appointment of adjutant-general with the rank of major.
He was a prime promoter of elegant amusement in camp and gar
rison ; manager, actor, and scene painter in those amateur theatri
cals in which the British officers delighted. He held, moreover, a
fache, and at times, satirical pen, and occasionahy amused him
self with caricaturing in rhyme the appearance and exploits of the
"rebel officers."
Andr6 had already employed that pen in a furtive manner, after
the evacuation of Phhadelphia by the British ; having carried on a
correspondence with the leaders of a body of loyalists near the
waters of the Chesapeake, who were conspiring to restore the royal
government. In the present instance he had engaged, nothing
loth, in a service of intrigue and manoeuvre, which, however sanc
tioned by mhitary usage, should hardly have invited the zeal of a

402 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
high-minded man. We say manoeuvre, because he appears to
have avahed himself of his former acquaintance with Mrs. Amold,
to make her an unconscious raeans of facilitating a correspondence
with her husband. Some have inculpated her in the guht of the
transaction, but, we think, unjustiy. Various circurastances con
nected with this negotiation argue lightness of raind and sorae
thing of debasing ahoy on the part of Andrd. The correspondence
carried on for months in the jargon of traffic savored less of the
camp than the counting-house ; the protracted tampering with a
brave but hl-treated and necessitous man for the sacrifice of his
fame and the betrayal of his trust, strikes us as being beneath the
range of a truly chivalrous nature.
For the completion of the plan, a personal meeting between
Amold and Andr^ seemed necessary. Arrangeraents were raade
for an interview, after Washington should depart for Hartford, to
hold his conference with Count Rochambeau and the other French
officers. In the meantime, the British sloop of war. Vulture, was
anchored a few railes below Teller's Point, to be at hand in aid
of the negotiation. On board was Colonel Robinson, who, pre
tending to believe that General Putnara sthl commanded in the
Highlands, addressed a note to him requesting an interview on
the subject of his confiscated property. This letter he sent by a
flag, enclosed in one addressed to Arnold ; soliciting of him the
sarae boon should General Putnam be absent. On the iSth
September, Washington with his suite crossed the Hudson to
Verplanck's Point, in Arnold's barge, on his way to Hartford.
Arnold accompanied him as far as Peekskih, and on the way laid
before him, with affected frankness, the letter of Colonel Robin
son, and asked his advice. Washington disapproved of any such
interview, observing, that the civil authorities alone had cogni
zance of these questions of confiscated property.
Arnold now openly sent a flag on board of the Vulture, as if
bearing a reply to the letter he had communicated to the com
mander-in-chief By this means, he informed Colonel Robinson
that a person with a boat and flag would be alongside the Vulture,
on the night of the 20th ; and that any matter he ,niight wish to

THE DISASTERS OF 1780. 403
communicate, would be laid before General Washington on the fol
lowing Saturday, when he might be expected back from Hartford.
On the faith of the inforraation thus covertly conveyed, Andr6
proceeded up the Hudson on the 20th, and went on board the
Vulture, where he found Colonel Robinson, and expected to meet
Arnold. The latter, however, had raade other arrangeraents,
probably with a view to his personal security. About half-past
eleven, of a still and starlight night (the 21st), a boat was descried
from on board, gliding silently along, rowed by two men with
muffled oars. She was hailed by an officer on watch, and cahed
to account. A man, seated in the stern, gave out that they were
from King's Ferry, bound to Dobbs' Ferry. He was ordered
alongside, and soon made his way on board. He proved to be
Mr. Joshua Sraith, whora Amold had prevailed upon to go on
board of the Vulture, and bring a person on shore who was coming
from New York with important -intelligence. He had given him
passes to protect him and those with hira, in case he should be
stopped either in going or returning, by the Araeriean water guard,
which patrohed the river in whale-boats. He had raade hira the
bearer of a letter addressed to Colonel Beverley Robinson, which
was to the fohowing purport : " This -will be delivered to you by
Mr. Smith, who will conduct you to a place of safety. Neither
Mr. Smith nor any other person shall be made acquainted with
your proposals; if they (which I doubt not) are of such a nature
that I can officially take notice of them, I shah do it with pleasure.
I take it for granted Colonel Robinson wih not propose anything
that is not for the interest of the United States as well as of him
self." All this use of Colonel Robinson's narae was intended as a
blind, should the letter be intercepted.
Robinson introduced Andr6 to Sraith by the narae of John
Anderson, who was to go on shore in his place (he being unwell) ,
to have an interview with General Amold. Andr6 wore a blue
great coat which covered his uniform, and Sraith always declared
that at the time he was totally ignorant of his name and mhitary
character. Robinson considered this whole nocturnal proceeding
fuh of peril, and would have dissuaded Andr6, but the latter was

404 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
zealous in executing his mission, and, embarking in the boat with
Smith, was shentiy rowed to the western side of the river, about
six mhes below Stony Point. Here they landed a littie after mid
night, at the foot of a shadowy mountain cahed the Long Clove ;
a sohtary place, the haunt of the owl and the whippoorwhl, and
well fitted for a treasonable conference.
Arnold was in waiting, but standing aloof among thickets. He
had come hither on horseback frora Smith's house, about three or
four miles distant, attended by one of Smith's servants, hkewise
mounted. The midnight negotiation between Andr6 and Amold
was carried on in darkness among the trees. Smith remained in
the boat, and the servant drew off to a distance with the horses.
One hour after another passed away, when Sraith approached the
place of conference, and gave warning that it was near daybreak,
and if they lingered much longer the boat would be discovered.
The nefarious bargain was not yet completed, and Amold feared
the sight of a boat going to the Vulture raight cause suspicion.
He prevahed, therefore, upon Andr6 to reraain on shore until the
following night. The boat was accordingly sent to a creek higher
up the river, and Andr^, raounting the servant's horse, set off with
Arnold for Smith's house. The road passed through the village
of Haverstraw. As they rode along in the dark, the voice df a
sentinel demanding the countersign startled Andr^ with the fearful
conviction that he was within the American hnes, but it was too
late to recede. It was daybreak when they arrived at Sraith's house.
They had scarcely entered when the booraing of cannon was
heard from down the river. It gave Andrd uneasiness, and with
reason. American batteries on Teller's Point were firing upon the
Vulture, which presentiy weighed anchor, and dropped down the
river out of reach of cannon-shot.
After breakfast, the plot for the betrayal of West Point was
adjusted. Andrd was furnished with plans of the works, and ex
planatory papers, which he placed between his stockings and his
feet. All matters being thus arranged, Arnold prepared to return
in his own barge to his head-quarters at the Robinson House. As
the Vulture had shifted her ground, he suggested to Andr^ a retum

THE DISASTERS OF 1780. 405
to New York by land, as most safe afid expeditious ; the latter,
however, insisted upon being put on board of the sloop of war, on
the ensuing night. Arnold consented ; but, before his departure,
to provide against the possible necesshy of a return by land, he
gave Andr6 the fohowing pass, dated from the Robinson House : —
" Permit Mr. John Anderson to pass the guards to the White
Plains, or below, if he chooses ; he being on pubhc business by
my direction. B. Arnold, M. Genl."
Sraith also, who was to accompany him, was fumished with
passports to proceed either by water or by land.
Amold departed about ten o'clock. Andr6 passed a lonely day,
casting many a wistful look toward the Vulture. Once on board
ofthat ship he would be safe ; he would have fulfilled his raission ;
the capture of West Point would be certain, and his triumph would
be coraplete. As evening approached he grew irapatient, and
spoke to Sraith about departure. To his surprise, he found the
latter had raade no preparation for it ; he had discharged his boat
men, who had gone home : in short, he refused to take him on
board of the Vulture. The cannonade of the moming had prob
ably made hira fear for his personal safety, should he atterapt to
go on board. He offered, however, to cross the river with Andr^
at King's Ferry, put hira in the way of retuming to New York by
land, and accompany hira sorae distance on horseback. Andr6
was in an agony at finding himself, notwithstanding all his stipula
tions, forced within the American lines ; but there seemed to be
no altemative, and he prepared for the hazardous joumey. He
wore, as we have noted, a mhitary coat under a long blue surtout ;
he was now persuaded to lay it aside, and put on a citizen's coat
of Smith's ; thus adding disguise to the other humihating and
hazardous circumstances of the case.
It was about sunset when Andr^ and Sraith, attended by a negro
servant of the latter, crossed from King's Ferry to Verplanck's
Point. After proceeding about eight miles on the road toward
_ White Plains, they were stopped between eight and nine o'clock,

406 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
near Crorapond, by a patrolling party. The captain of it was
uncommonly inquisitive and suspicious. The passports with
Arnold's signature satisfied him. He wamed them, however,
against the danger of proceeding further in the night, as Cow Boys
from the Brhish lines were scouring the country. Smith's fears
were again excited, and Andr6 was obliged to yield to them. A
bed was fumished them in a neighboring house, where Andr6
passed an anxious and restless night, under the very eye, as it
were, of an Araeriean patrol.
At daybreak he awoke Smith, and hurried their departure.
Their way lay through the Neutral Ground, extending north and
south about thirty miles, between the British and American lines ;
a beautiful region of forest-clad hihs, fertile vaheys, and abundant
streams, but now almost desolated by the scourings of Skinners and
Cow Boys : the forraer professing allegiance to the American cause,
the latter to the British, but both arrant marauders. Houses were
plundered and dismantled, enclosures broken down, cattle carried
away, fields laid waste. The roads were grass-grown ; the country
was moumful, solitary, shent. About two and a half milea from
Pine's Bridge, on the Croton river, Andr6 and his companion
partook of a scanty meal at a farm-house which had recently been
harried by the Cow Boys. Here they parted. Smith to return
home, Andrd to pursue his joumey alone to New York. His spirits,
however, were cheerful; for, having got beyond the patrols, he
considered the most perilous part of his route accomplished.
About six railes beyond Pine's Bridge he carae to a place, where
the road forked, the left branch leading toward White Plains, the
right inclining toward the Hudson. He had originally intended
to take the left-hand road, the other being said to be infested by
Cow Boys. These, however, were not to be apprehended by hira,
as they belonged to the lower party or British ; it led, too, more
directly to New York ; so he turned down it, and took his course
along the river road.
He had not proceeded far, when, coming to a place where a
smah stream crossed the road and ran into a woody dell, a man
stepped out from the trees, levehed a musket, and brought him to

THE DISASTERS OF 1780. 407
a stand, while two other men* similarly armed, showed themselves
prepared to second their comrade. The man who had first stepped
out wore a Hessian coat. At sight of it, Andre's heart leapt, and
he felt himself secure. Losing all caution, he exclairaed eagerly :
" Gentlemen, I hope you belong to our party?" — "What party?"
was asked. — "The lower party," said Andr6. — "We do," was the
reply. All reserve was now at an end. Andr6 declared hiraself
to be a British officer who had been up the country; on particular
business, and raust not be detained a single moment. He drew
out his watch as he spoke. It was a gold one, and served to
prove to them that he was what he represented hiraself, gold
watches -being seldom worn in those days, excepting by persons of
consequence. To his constemation, the supposed Hessian now avowed him
self and his companions to be Americans, and told Andr6 he was
their prisoner !
It was even so. The yeomanry of that harassed country had
turned out in parties to intercept freebooters from the British
lines. One of these parties, composed of seven men of the neigh
borhood, had divided itself. Four took post on a hih above
Sleepy Hollow to watch the road which crossed the country ; the
other three, John Paulding, Isaac Van Wart, and David Williams
by name, stationed themselves on the road which rans parallel to
the Hudson. Two of them were seated on the grass playing at
cards to pass away the time, whhe one mounted guard.
The one who brought Andr6 to a stand was John Paulding, a
stout-hearted youngster, who had been repeatedly in arras to repel
or resent aggressions, and had twice been captured and confined
in the loathsome mihtary prisons where patriots suffered in New
York. Both times he had raade his escape ; the last tirae, only
four days previous to the event of which we are treating. The
ragged Hessian coat, which had deceived Andr6 and been the
cause of his betraying himself, had been given to Paulding by one
of his captors, in exchange for a good yeoman garment of which
they stripped him. This shght circumstance may have produced
the whole discovery of the treason.

408 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
Andr6 was astounded at finding into what hands he had fahen ;
and how he had betrayed hiraself by his heedless avowah But
recovering his self-possession, he endeavored to pass off his pre
vious account of himself as a subterfuge. " A man must do any
thing," said he laughingly, " to get along." He now declared
himself to be a Continental officer, going down to Dobbs' Ferry to
get information from below ; so saying, he drew forth and showed
them the pass of General Arnold. This, in the first instance, would
have been sufficient, but his unwary tongue had rained hira. The
suspicions of his captors were roused, and seizing the bridle of his
horse, they ordered him to dismount and proceeded to search
him. He wore a round hat, a blue surtout, a crimson close-bodied
coat, somewhat faded ; the button-holes worked with gold, and
the buttons covered with gold lace ; a nankeen vest, and smah-
clothes and boots. They obliged hira to take off his coat and
vest, and finding on him nothing to warrant suspicion, were dis
posed to let hira proceed, when Paulding exclairaed : " Boys, I
ara not satisfied — his boots must come off."
At this Andr6 changed color. His boots, he said, carae off with
difficulty, and he begged he raight not be subjected to the incon
venience and delay. His reraonstrances were in vain. He was
obhged to sit down : his boots were drawn off, and the concealed
papers discovered. Hastily scanning them, Paulding exclaimed,
" My God ! He is a spy ! "
He demanded of Andr6 where he had gotten these papers.
"Ofa man at Pine's Bridge, a stranger to me," was the reply.
While dressing himself, Andr6 endeavored to ransom himself
from his captors ; rising from one offer to another. He would
give any sum of money if they would let hira go. He would give
his horse, saddle, bridle, and one hundred guineas, and would
send them to any place that might be fixed upon.
Wilhams asked him if he would not give more.
He replied, that he would give any reward they raight narae
either in goods or money, and would remain with two of their
party while one went to New York to get it.

THE DISASTERS OF 1780. 409
Here Paulding broke in and declared with an oath, that if he
would give ten thousand guineas, he should not stir one step.
The unfortunate Andr6 now submitted to his fate, and the
captors set off with their prisoner for North Castle, the nearest
American post, distant ten or twelve miles. They proceeded
across a hilly and woody region, part of the way by the road, part
across fields. One strode in front, occasionally holding the horse
by the bridle, the others walked on either side. Andr6 rode on in
shence, declining to answer further questions until he should corae
before a military officer. About noon, they halted at a farm-house
where • the inhabitants were taking their mid-day repast. The
worthy housewife, moved by Andre's prepossessing appearance
and dejected air, kindly invited him to partake. He declined,
alleging that he had no appetite. Glancing at his gold-laced
crimson coat, the good dame apologized for her rustic fare. "O
madam," exclaimed poor Andr6, with a raelancholy shake of the
head, " it is all very good — but, indeed, I cannot eat ! "
This was related to us by a venerable matron, who was present
on the occasion, a young girl at the time, but who in her old days
could not recall the scene and the appearance of Andr6 without
tears. The captors with their prisoner having arrived at North Castle,
Lieutenant-colonel Jameson, who was in command there, recog
nized the handwriting of Arnold in the papers found upon"Andr6,
and, perceiving that they were of a dangerous nature, sent them
off by express to General Washington, at Hartford.
Andr6, still adhering to his assuraed narae, begged that the com
mander at West Point might be inforraed that John Anderson,
though bearing his passport, was detained. Jameson appears to
have completely lost his head. He wrote to Amold, stating the
circumstances of the arrest, and that the papers found upon the
prisoner had been dispatched by express to the coraraander-in-
chief, and at the same time, he sent the prisoner himself, under a
strong guard, to accorapany the letter.
Shortly afterwards Major Tahraadge, next in command to Jame
son, but of a much clearer head, arrived at North Castle, having

410 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
been absent on duty at White Plains. When the circumstances
were related to him, he at once suspected treachery on the part
~ of Amold. At his earnest entreaties, an express was sent after the
officer who had Andr6 in charge, ordering him to bring the latter
back to North Castle ; but by singular perversity or obtuseness in
judgment, Jaraeson neglected to countermand the letter which he
had wrritten to Amold.
When Andr6 was brought back, and was pacing up and down
the room, Tahraadge saw at once by his air and movements, and
the mode of turning on his heel, that he was a mhitary man. By
his advice, and under his escort, the prisoner was conducted to
Colonel Sheldon's post at Lower Salem, as more secure than North
Castle. Here Andrd, being told that the papers found upon his person
had been forwarded to Washington, addressed to him immediately
the following lines : —
" I beg your Excellency wdh be persuaded that no alteration in
the teraper of ray mind or apprehensions for my safety induces me
to take the step of addressing you ; but that it is to secure myself
from the imputation of having assuraed a raean character for treach
erous purposes or self-interest. ... It is to vindicate my fame
that I speak, and not to solicit security.
"The person in your possession is Major John Andrd, adjutant-
general of the British army.
"The influence of one coraraander in the array of his adversary
is an advantage taken in war. A correspondence for this purpose
I held, as confidential (in the present instance) with his Excel
lency, Sir Henry Clinton. To favor it, I agreed to meet upon
ground not within the posts of either army a person who was to
give me intelligence. I came up in the Vulture man-of-war for
this effect, and was fetched from the shore to the beach. Being
there, I was ^old that the approach of day would prevent my re
tum, and that I must be concealed until the next night. I was in
my regimentals, and had fairly risked ray person.
"Against ray stipulation, my intention, and without my knowl
edge beforehand, I was conducted within one of your posts. Thus

THE DISAS'TERS OF 1780. 411
was I betrayed into the vile condition of an eneray within your
posts. "Having avowed myself a British officer, I have nothing to.
reveal but what relates to myself, which is trae, on the honor of an
officer and a gentleraan.
" The request I have made to your Excehency, and I am con
scious that I address myself weh, is, that in any rigor policy may
dictate, a decency of conduct towards rae raay mark, that, though
unfortunate, I am branded with nothing dishonorable ; as no
motive could be mine, but the service of my king, and as I was
involuntarily an impostor."
This letter he submitted to the perasal of Major Tahraadge,
who was surprised and agitated at finding the rank and iraportance
of the prisoner he had in charge. The letter being dispatched,
and Andre's pride relieved on a sensitive point, he resuraed his
serenity, apparently unconscious of the awful responsibility of his
situation. Having a talent for caricature, he even araused hira
self in the course of the day by raaking a ludicrous sketch of
himself and his rastic escort under march, and presenting it to an
officer in the room with him. "This," said he gayly, "wih give
you an idea of the style in which I have had the honor to be con
ducted to my present abode."
Arnold's Flight. — On the very day that the treasonable con
ference between Arnold and Andr6 took place, on the banks of
the Haverstraw Bay, Washington had his interview with the French
officers at Hartford. It led to no important result. Intehigence
was received that the squadron of the Count de Guichen, on
which they had rehed to give them superiority by sea, had sahed
for Europe. This disconcerted their plans, and Washington, in
consequence, set out two or three days sooner than had been
anticipated on his retum to his head-quarters on the Hudson.
He was accompanied by Lafayette and Knox with their suites.
On approaching the Hudson, Washington took a more circuitous
route than the one he had originahy intended, striking the river at
Fish Kill just above the Highlands. Circurastances detained thera
a night at Fish Khl. Their baggage was sent on to Arnold's quar-

412 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
ters in the Robinson House, with a message apprising the general
that they would breakfast there the next day. In the morning
(September 24th) they were in the saddle before break of day,
having a ride to make of eighteen miles through the mountains.
It was a pleasant and aniraated one. Washington was in excellent
spirits, and the buoyant marquis, and genial, warm-hearted Knox,
were companions with whom he was always disposed to unbend.
When within a mhe of the Robinson House, Washington tumed
down a cross-road leading to the banks of the Hudson. Lafayette
apprised hira that he was going out of the way, and hinted that
Mrs. Arnold must be waiting breakfast for him. "Ah, marquis I "
replied he good-humoredly,"" you young raen are ah in love with
Mrs. Arnold. I see you are eager to be with her as soon as
possible. Go you and breakfast with her, and tell her not to wait
for me. I raust ride down and exaraine the redoubts on this side
of the river, but will be with her shortly."
The marquis and General Knox, however, turned off and
accompanied him down to the redoubts, while Colonel Hamilton
and Lafayette's aide-de-carap, Major Jaraes McHenry, continued
along the raain road to the Robinson House, bearing Washington's
apology, and request that the breakfast raight not be retarded.
The faraily with the two aides-de-camp sat down to breakfast.
Mrs. Amold had arrived but four or five days previously from
Phhadelphia, with her infant child, then about six months old.
She was bright and amiable as usual. Amold was shent and
gloomy. It was an anxious moraent with him. This was the day
appointed for the consummation of the plot, when the enemy's
ships were to ascend the river. The return of the commander-in-
chief from the East two days sooner than had been anticipated,'
and his proposed visit to the forts, threatened to disconcert every
thing. What might be the consequence Amold could not conjec
ture. In the midst of the repast a horseman alighted at the gate.
It was the messenger bearing Jameson's letter to Arnold, stating
the capture of Andr6, and that dangerous papers found on him
had been forwarded to Washington.
The mine had exploded beneath Amold's feet; yet in this

THE DISASTERS OF 1780. 413
awful moment he gave an evidence of that quickness of mind
which had won laurels for him when in the path of duty. Con
trolling his dismay he informed his guests that he raust haste to
West Point to prepare for the reception of the coramander-in-chief.
His wife fohowed him from the roora. When alone with her up
stairs, he announced in hurried words that he was a ruined raan,
and must instantly fly for his life ! Overcorae by the shock, she
fell senseless on the floor. Arnold hurried down stairs, sent one
of the maids to her assistance, and raounting the horse of the mes
senger, which stood saddled at the door, gahoped down by what is
stih called Arnold's Path, to the landing-place, where his six-oared
barge was raoored. Throwing hiraself into it, he ordered his men
to pull out into the middle of the river, and then made down with
all speed for Teller's Point, which divides Haverstraw Bay from
the Tappan Sea, saying he must be back soon to meet the com
mander-in-chief Washington arrived at the Robinson House shortly after the
flight of the traitor. Being informed that^Amold had gone across
to West Point to receive hira, he took a hasty breakfast and re
paired to the fortress, leaving word that he and his suite would
return to dinner. In crossing the river, he noticed that no salute
was fired from the fort, nor was there any preparation to receive
hira on his landing. Colonel Larab, the officer in comraand, who
carae down to the shore, raanifested surprise at seeing hira, and
apologized for this want of railitary ceremony, by assuring him he
had not been apprised of his intended visit.
" Is not General Arnold here? " demanded Washington.
" No, sir. He has not been here for two days past ; nor have I
heard from him in that time.''
This was strange and perplexing, but no sinister suspicion
entered Washington's mind. He remained at the' Point through
out the morning, inspecting the fortifications. In the meantime,
the messenger whora Jameson had dispatched to Hartford with a
letter covering the papers taken on Andr6, arrived at the Robin
son House. He had learnt, while on the way to Hartford, that
Washington had left that place, whereupon he turned bridle to

414 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
overtake hira, but raissed him in consequence of the general's
change of route. Coraing by the lower road, the messenger had
passed through Salem, where Andr6 was confined, and brought
with him the letter -written by that unfortunate officer to the com
mander-in-chief, the purport of which has already been given.
These letters being represented as of the utmost moment, were
opened and read by Colonel Hamilton, as Washington's aide-de-
camp and confidential officer. He raaintained shence as to their
contents ; met Washington, as he and his companions were com
ing up from the river, on their return from West Point, spoke to
him a few words in a low voice, and they retired together into the
house. Washington was far from wearing his usual air of equa
nimity when he rejoined his companions. Taking ICnox and
Lafayette aside, he coraraunicated to them the intehigence, and
placed the papers in their hands. "Whora can we trast now?"
was his only coraraent, but it spoke volumes.
His first idea was to arrest the traitor. Conjecturing the direc
tion of his flight, he dispatched Colonel Hamilton on horseback to
spur with all speed to 'Verplanck's Point, which commands the
narrow part of the Hudson, just below the Highlands, with orders
to the commander to intercept Amold should he not already have
passed that post. This done, when dinner was announced, he
invited the corapany to table. "Corae, gentlemen; since Mrs.
Arnold is ill, and the general is absent, let us sit down without
ceremony." The repast was a quiet one, for none but Lafayette
and Knox, beside the general, knew the purport of the letters just
received. Meanwhile Amold had passed through the Highlands in safety,
but there were the batteries at Verplanck's Point yet to fear.
Fortunately for him, Hamilton, with the order for his arrest, had
not arrived there. His barge was known by the garrison. A white
handkerchief displayed gave it the sanction of a flag of truce : it
was suffered to pass without question, and the traitor effected his
escape to the Vulture, anchored a few mhes below.
Colonel Hamilton returned to the Robinson House and reported
the escape of the traitor. He brought two letters also to Wash-

THE DISASTERS OF 1780. 415
ington, which had been sent on shore from the Vulture, under a
flag of truce. One was from Arnold, of which the following is a
transcript : —
" Sir, — The heart which is conscious of its own rectitude, can
not attempt to palliate a step which the world may censure as
wrong ; I have ever acted from a principle of love to my country,
since the coraraenceraent of the present unhappy contest between
Great Britain and the colonies ; the sarae principle of love to my
country actuates my present conduct, however it may appear
inconsistent to the world, who seldom judge right of any man's
actions. " I ask no favor for myself. I have too often experienced the
ingratitude of my country to atterapt it; but, frora the known
humanity of your Excellency, I ara induced to ask your protection
for Mrs. Arnold from every insult and injury that a mistaken ven
geance of ray country may expose her to. It ought to fall only on
me ; she is as good and as innocent as an angel, and is incapable
of doing wrong. I beg she may be permitted to retum to her
friends in Philadelphia, or to come to me as she may choose ;
from your Excellency I have no fears on her account, but she raay
suffer from the mistaken fury of the country."
The other letter was from Colonel Beverley Robinson, interced
ing for the release of Andr6, on the plea that he was on shore
under the sanction of a flag of truce, at the request of Arnold.
Notwithstanding Washington's apparent tranquhhty and real
self-possession, it was a time of appahing distrust. How far the
treason had extended; who else might be imphcated in it, was
unknown. Arnold had escaped, and was actually on board of the
Vulture ; he knew everything about the condition of the posts :
might he not persuade the enemy, in the present weak state of
the garrisons, to attempt a coup de main ? Washington instantly,
therefore, began making preparations for an obstinate defence,
and wrote to Greene, who, in his absence, commanded the army
at Tappan, urging him to put the left division in motion as soon-
as possible for King's Ferry, where they would be met with further
orders. " The division," writes he, " will come on light, leaving

416 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
their heavy baggage to follow. You wih also hold ah the troops
in readiness to move on the shortest notice. Transactions of a
most interesting nature, and such as wih astonish you, have been
just discovered."
In the meantime, Mrs. Arnold remained in her room in a state
bordering on frenzy. Arnold might weh confide in the humanity
and dehcacy of Washington in respect to her. He regarded her
with the sincerest commiseration, acquitting her of ah previous
knowledge of her husband's guih. On reraitting to her, by one
of his aides-de-camp, the letter of her husband, written from on
board of the Vulture, he informed her that he had done all that
depended upon himself to have him arrested, but not having
succeeded, he experienced a pleasure in assuring her of his
safety. During the brief tirae she remained at the Robinson House, she
was treated with the utmost deference and delicacy, but soon set
off, under a passport of Washington, for her father's house in
Philadelphia. Execnfion of Andre. — On the 26th of September, the day after
the treason had been revealed to Washington, Andr6 arrived at
the Robinson House, having been brought on in the night, under
escort of Major Tahraadge. Washington raade raany inquiries of
the raajor, but dechned to have the prisoner brought into his pres
ence, apparently entertaining a strong idea of his raoral obliquity,
from the nature of the scheme in which he had been engaged,
and the circurastances under which he had been arrested.
The sarae evening he transraitted him to West Point, and shortly
afterwards, Joshua Smith, who had likewise been arrested. Stih,
not considering them secure even there, he determined on the fol
lowing day to send them on to the camp. In a letter to Greene
he writes : " They will be under an escort of horse, and I wish
you to have separate houses in camp ready for their reception, in
which they may be kept perfectly secure ; and also strong, trusty
guards, trebly officered, that a part may be constantly in the roora
with thera. They have not been permitted to be together, and
must be kept apart. I would wish the room for Mr. Andrd to be

THE DISASTERS OF 1780. 417
a decent one, and that he may be treated with civihty ; but that
he raay be so guarded as to preclude a possibihty of his escaping."
The capture of Andr6 caused a ^reat sensation at New York.
He was universally popular with the array, and an especial favorite
of Sir Henry Clinton. The latter addressed a letter to Washington
on the 29th, clairaing the release of Andrd on, simhar ground to
that urged by Colonel Robinson — his having visited Amold at
the particular request of that general officer, and under the sanc
tion of a flag of truce ; and his having been stopped whhe travel
ling under Arnold's passports. The same letter enclosed one
addressed by Arnold to Sir Henry, and intended as a kind of
certificate of Andre's innocence. Neither the official demand of
Sir Henry Clinton, nor the certificate of Arnold, had any effect on
the steady mind of Washington. He referred the case to a board
of general officers, convened on the 29th of Septeraber, the day
after his arrival at Tappan. It was composed of six major-gen
erals, Greene, Stirling, St. Clair, Lafayette, Robert Howe, and
Steuben ; and eight brigadiers, Parsons, James Clinton, Knox,
Glover, Paterson, Hand, Huntington, and Stark. General Greene,
who was weh versed in military law, and was a raan of sound head
and kind heart, was president, and Colonel John Lawrence, judge
advocate-general. Upon Andre's frank confession, wdthout the
trouble of exaraining a witness, the board made up their report.
It briefly stated the circumstances of the case, and concluded
with the opinion of the court, that Major Andr6 ought to be con
sidered a spy from the enemy, and, agreeably to the law and usage
of nations, ought to suffer death. In a conversation with Harahton,
Andr6 acknowledged the candor, liberality, and indulgence with
which the board had conducted theraselves in their painful inquiry.
He met the result with manly firmness, and even in this situation
of gathering horrors, thought of others more than of himself.
"There is only one thing that disturbs my tranquihity," said he to
Harailton. " Sir Henry Clinton has been too good to me ; he has
been lavish of his kindness. I ara bound to hira by too raany
obligations, and love him too well, to bear the thought that he
should reproach hiraself, or others should reproach him, on the

418 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
supposition of my having conceived myself obliged, by his instruc
tions, to mn the risk I did. I would not for the world leave a
sting in his mind that should embitter his future days." He could
scarce finish the sentence, bursting into tears, in spite of his efforts
to suppress them, and with difficulty cohected himself enough
afterwards to add, " I wish to be permitted to assure him that I
did not act under this impression, but submitted to a necessity
imposed upon me, as contrary to my own inclination, as to his
wishes." His request was complied with, and he wrote a letter to Sir
Henry Chnton to the above purport. This letter accompanied
one from Washington to Sir Henry Clinton, stating the report of
the board of inquiry. " From these proceedings," observes he,
" it is evident that Major Andr6 was employed in the execution of
measures very foreign to the objects of flags of truce, and such as
they were never raeant to authorize in the raost distant degree ;
and this gentleraan confessed with the greatest candor, in the
course of his examination, that it was impossible for him to sup
pose that he came on shore under the sanction of a flag."
Captain Aaron Ogden, a worthy officer of the New Jersey hne,
was selected by Washington to bear these dispatches to the enemy's
post at Paulus Hook, thence to be conveyed across the Hudson to
New York. Before his departure, he called by Washington's
request on the Marquis de Lafayette, who gave him instructions
to sound the officer commanding at that post whether Sir Henry
Clinton might not be wihing to deliver up Arnold in exchange for
Andr6. Ogden arrived at Paulus Hook in the evening, and made
the suggestion, as if incidentally, in the course of conversation.
The officer demanded if he had any authority from Washington
for such an intimation. " I have no such assurance from General
Washmgton," rephed he, " but I am prepared to say, that if such
a proposal were made, I believe it would be accepted, and Major
Andr6 set at liberty." The officer crossed the river before morn
ing, and coraraunicated the matter to Sir Henry Clinton, but the
latter mstantiy rejected the expedient as incompatible with honor
and military principle.

THE DISASTERS OF 1780. 419
The execution was appointed to take place on the ist of
October, but was postponed tih the next day, that due heed raight
be given to the arguraents of Sir Henry Clinton, who sent General
Robertson to intercede for the prisoner. On the ist of October
Robertson had an interview with Greene at Dobbs' Ferry, but
nothing carae of it. A petition frora Andr^, that he raight be shot
rather than hanged, was duly considered and rejected ; and on the
2d of October the unfortunate young officer was led to the gallows.
His reraains were interred near the place of his execution at
Tappan; whence in 182 1 they were reraoved to England and
buried in Westminster Abbey.
Had Washington consulted his feelings raerely, the appeals in
behalf of Andr6 raight not have been in vain. Washington had
no popular censure to apprehend should he exercise indulgence,
for the popular feeling was with the prisoner. But he had a high
and tenacious sense of the duties and responsibilities of his position,
and never more than in this trying moment, when he had to
elevate himself above the contagious sympathies of those around
him, dismiss all personal considerations, and regard the peculiar
circurastances of the case. The long course of insidious operations
which had been pursued to undermine the loyalty of one of his
most trusted officers ; the greatness of the evil which the treason
would have effected, if successful ; the uncertainty how far the
enemy had carried, or raight still be carrying, their scheme of
corraption, — for anonymous intimations spoke of treachery in
other quarters, — all these considerations pointed this out as a
case in which a signal example was required.
And what called for particular indulgence to the agent, if not
instigator of this enormous crime, who had thus been providentially
detected in disguise, and with the means of its consummation
concealed upon his person ? It has been alleged in Andrd's be
half, as a mitigating circumstance, that he was involuntarily a spy.
But it certainly should not soften our view of his mission, that he
embarked in it without intending to subject hiraself to danger. A
spice of danger would have given it a spice of heroisra, however
spurious. When the rendezvous was first projected, he sought.

420 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
through an indirect channel, to let Amold know that he would
come out with a flag. If an interview had taken place under that
sacred protection, and a triuraphant treason had been the result,
what a brand h would have affixed to Andre's narae, that he had
prostituted a flag of trace to such an end.
We dweh on these matters, not to check the sentiment of
sympathy awakened in Andrd's behalf by his personal qualities,
but to vindicate the fair name of Washington from that " blot "
which sorae have attempted to cast upon it, because, in exercismg
his stern duty as protector of the public weal, during a time of
secret treason, he listened to policy and justice rather than mercy.
In doing so, he took counsel with some of his general officers.
Their opinions coincided with his own — that under present cir
cumstances, it was iraportant to give a signal warning to the
enemy, by a rigorous observance of the rales of war and the usages
of nations in like cases.
Joshua Smith was tried by a court-raartial, on a charge of par
ticipating in the treason, but was acquitted, no proof appearing of
his having had any knowledge of Amold's plot, though it was
thought he raust have been conscious of something wrong in an
interview so mysteriously conducted.
Arnold was now made brigadier-general in the British service.
What reward he was to have received had his treason been suc
cessful, is not known ; but ^^63 15 were paid to him, as a compen
sation for losses which he professed to have suffered in going over
to the enemies of his country. The vilest culprit, however, shrinks
frora sustaining the obloquy of his criraes. Shortiy after his arrival
in New York, Arnold published an address to the inhabitants of
Araerica, in which he endeavored to vindicate his conduct. He
alleged that he had originally taken up arms merely to aid in
obtaining a redress of grievances. He had considered the Decla
ration of Independence precipitate, and the reasons for it obviated
by the subsequent proffers of the British govemment; and he
inveighed against Congress for rejecting those offers, without sub
mitting them to the people. Finahy, the treaty with France, a
proud, ancient, and crafty foe, the enemy of the Protestant faitii

SECOND GREAT TRIUMPH— YORKTOWN. 421
and of real liberty, had completed, he said, the measure of his
indignation, and determined him to abandon a cause sustained by
iniquity and controhed by usurpers.
Besides this address, he issued a proclamation inviting the offi
cers and soldiers of the American array, who had the real interest
of their country at heart, and who were determined to be no
longer the tools and dupes of Congress, and of France, to rally
under the royal standard, and fight for true American hberty;
holding out promises of large bounties and hberal subsistence,
with compensation for all the implements and accoutrements of
war they might bring with them.
Both the address and the proclamation were regarded by
Americans with the conterapt they raerited.
At the end of November the army went into winter- quarters;
the Pennsylvania line in the neighborhood of Morristown, the
Jersey line about Pompton, the New England troops at West
Point, and the other posts of the Highlands ; and the New York
line was stationed at Albany, to guard against any invasion from
Canada. The French army remained stationed at Newport, excepting the
Duke of Lauzun's legion, which was cantoned at Lebanon in Con
necticut. Washington's head-quarters were established at New
Windsor on the Hudson.
We wih now turn to the South to note the course of affairs in
that quarter during the last few months.
§ IO. Second Great Triumph — Yorktown.
Battle of King's Mountain. — The defeat of General Gates at
Camden had withered the laurels snatched at Saratoga. As in the
one instance he had received exaggerated praise, so in the other,
he suffered undue censure. The sudden annihilation of an array
from which so much had been expected, and the retreat of the
general before the field was absolutely lost, appeared to deraand
a strict investigation. Congress therefore passed a resolution
(October Sth), requiring Washington to order a court of inquiry
into the conduct of Gates as commander of the Southern army.

422 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
and to appoint some other officer to the command unth the in
quiry should be made. Washington at once selected Greene for
the important trast, the weh-tried officer whom he would originally
have chosen, had his opinion been consulted, when Congress so
unadvisedly gave the comraand to Gates. In the present instance
his choice was in concurrence with the expressed wishes of the
delegates of the three Southem states, conveyed to him by one of
their nuraber.
Cornwallis ha'ving, as he supposed, entirely crushed the " rebel
cause " in South Carolina, by the defeats of Gates and Sumter,
remained for some time at Camden, detained by the excessive
heat of the weather and the sickness of part of his troops, broken
down by the hardships of campaigning under a southern sun.
While awaiting supphes and reinforcements, he detached Major
Patrick Ferguson to the western confines of North Carolina. This
resolute partisan had wdth hira his own corps of hght infantry, and
a body of royahst railitia of his own training, in all about twelve
hundred raen, noted for alertness, and unincumbered with baggage
or artillery.
His orders were to scour the mountain country between the
Catawba and the Yadkin, harass the Whigs, inspirit the Tories,
and embody the militia under the royal banner. This done, he
was to repair to Charlotte, the capital of Mecklenburg County,
where he would find Lord Cornwallis, who intended to make it his
rendezvous. Should he, in the course of his tour, be threatened
by a superior force, he was immediately to return to the main
army. No great opposition, however, was apprehended, the
Americans being considered totally broken up and dispirited.
- The second week in Septeraber Cornwallis set out for North
Carolina. In the subjugation of that province, he counted on the"
co-operation of the troops which Sir Henry Clinton was to send to
the lower part of Virginia. Cornwahis took post at Charlotte,
where he had given rendezvous to Ferguson. The surrounding
country was whd and rugged, and covered with close woods. Ah
atterapts at foraging were worse than useless. The plantations
were sraah and afforded scanty supplies. The inhabitants were

SECOND GREAT TRIUMPH— YORKTOWN. 423
Stanch Whigs, with the pugnacious spirit of the old Covenanters.
Instead of reraaining at horae and receiving the king's raoney in
exchange for their produce, they turned out with their rifles,
stationed theraselves in covered places, and fired upon the foraging
parties. Convoys of provisions frora Camden had to fight their
way. Messengers were shot down and their dispatches seized.
This was a sore annoyance to Cornwahis, depriving him of all
intehigence concerning the movements of Ferguson, whose arrival
he was anxiously awaiting. That doughty partisan officer was on
his way to join Cornwallis when a chance for a signal exploit pre
sented itself An American force under Colonel Elijah Clarke of
Georgia, was retreating to the mountain districts of North Carolina,
after an unsuccessful attack upon the British post at Augusta.
Ferguson resolved to cut off their retreat. Turning towards the
mountains, he made his way through a rugged wilderness and took
post at Gilbert-town, a smah frontier vihage of log-houses. He
was encouraged to this step by the persuasion that there was no
force in that part of the country able to look him in the face. He
had no idea that the behavior of his followers had arrayed the very
wdlderness against him. The scattered inhabitants of the moun
tains assembled without noise or warning; a hardy race, half
huntsmen, half herdsmen, inhabiting deep narrow vaheys, and
fertile slopes, adapted to grazing, watered by the coldest of springs
and brightest of strearas, and erabosomed in mighty forest trees.
Being subject to inroads and surprisals from the Indians, a tacit
league existed among them for mutual defence, and it only needed,
as in the present instance, an alarra to be circulated through their
settlements by swift messengers, to bring thera at once to the
point of danger. Now from the upland regions of Kentucky,
Virginia, Tennessee, and the Carolinas, these bold backwoodsmen
assembled to the number of three thousand, led by their mihtia
colonels, Campbeh, Shelby, and Wihiams, Cleveland, McDoweh,
and Sevier. Threatened by a force so superior in numbers and
fierce in hosthity, Ferguson reraerabered the instmctions of Com
walhs, and breaking up bis quarters, he pushed "for the British

424 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
array, sending messengers ahead to apprise his lordship of the
danger. Unfortunately for him, his missives were intercepted.
Gilbert-town had not long been vacated by Ferguson and his
troops, when the motiey host of mountaineers thronged in. The
greater part were on horseback. Sorae were in homespun garb ;
but the most part in hunting-shirts, occasionally decorated with
colored fringe and tassels. Each man had his long rifle and hunt
ing-knife, his wallet, or knapsack and blanket, and either a buck's
tail or sprig of evergreen in his hat. Here and there an officer
appeared in the Continental uniform of blue and buff, but raost
preferred the half-Indian hunting-dress. There was neither tent
nor equipage, neither baggage nor wagon to encumber the move
ments of that extemporaneous host. Prompt warriors of the
wilderness, with them it was " seize the weapon — spring into the
saddle — and away ! " In going into action, it was their practice
to dismount and tie their horses so as to have them at hand for
use after the battle, either to pursue a flying eneray, or make their
own escape by dint of hoof
There was a clamor of tongues for a tirae at Gilbert-town ;
groups on horseback and foot in every part, holding hasty council.
Being told that Ferguson had retreated by the Cherokee road
toward North Carolina, about nine hundred of the hardiest and
best raounted set out in urgent pursuit ; leaving those who were
on foot, or weakly mounted, to follow as fast as possible. Colonel
Williara Carapbeh, of Virginia, having come from the greatest
distance, was allowed to have coraraand of the whole party ; but
there was not rauch order or subordination.- Each colonel led
his own raen in his own way. A rapid and irregular raarch was
kept up ah night in murky darkness and through a heavy rain.
About daybreak they crossed Broad river, where an attack was
apprehended. Not finding the enemy, they halted, lit their fires,
raade their raorning's meal and took a brief repose. By nine
o'clock they were again on the raarch. The rainy night had been
succeeded by a bright October raorning, and all were in high
spirits. Ferguson, they leamt, had taken the road toward King's
Mountain, about twelve miles distant. When within three mhes

SECOND GREAT TRIUMPH— YORKTOWN. 425
of it, their scouts brought in word that he had taken post on its
summit. The officers now held a short consultation on horseback,
and then proceeded. The position taken by Ferguson was a strong
one. King's Mountain rises out of a broken country, and is
detached, on the north, from inferior heights by a deep vahey,- so
as to resemble an insulated promontory about half a raile in length,
¦with sloping sides, excepting on the north. The mountain was
covered for the raost part with lofty forest trees, free frora under
wood, interspersed with boulders and masses of gray rock. The
forest was sufficiently open to give free passage to horsemen. As
the Americans drew nearer, they could occasionally, through open
ings of the woodland, descry the glittering of arms along a level
ridge, forming the crest of King's Mountain. This, Ferguson had
made his stronghold ; boasting that " if all the rebels out of heh
should attack hira, they could not drive hira from it."
Dismounting at a smah stream which runs through a ravine, the
Americans picketed their horses or tied them to the branches of
the trees, and gave them in charge of a sraall guard. They then
forraed theraselves into three divisions of nearly equal size, and
prepared to storm the heights on three sides. Campbell, seconded
by Shelby, was to lead the centre division ; Sevier with McDowell
the right, and Cleveland and Williams the left. The divisions were
to scale the mountain as nearly as possible at the sarae time. The
fighting directions were in frontier style. When once in action,
every one must act for himself The men were not to wait for the
word of command, but to take good aim and fire as fast as possi
ble. When they could no longer hold their ground, they were to
get behind trees, or retreat a httle, and return to the fight, but
never to go quite off.
Campbell allowed time for the flanking divisions to raove to the
right and left along the base of the mountain, and take their
proper distances ; he then pushed up in front with the centre
division. About four o'clock Campbell arrived within rifle distance
of the crest of the mountain, whence a sheeted fire of rausketry
was opened upon hira. He instantly deployed his men, posted
them behind trees, and retumed the fire with deadly effect. Fer-

426 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
guson, exasperated at being thus hunted into this mountain fast
ness, had been chafing in his rocky lair and meditating a furious
sally. He now rushed out with his regulars, made an impetuous
charge with the bayonet, and dislodging his assailants from their
coverts, began to drive them down the mountain. He had not
proceeded far, when a flanking fire was opened by one of the
other divisions; facing about and attacking this he was again
successful, when a third fire was opened from another quarter.
Thus, as fast as one division gave way before the bayonet, another
came to its relief; while those who had given way rahied and
retumed to the charge. The nature of the ground was more
favorable to the rifle than the bayonet, and this was a kind of
warfare in which the frontier raen were at home. The elevated
position of the eneray also was in favor of the Araericans, as it
secured thera frora the danger of their own cross-fire. Ferguson
found that he was completely in the hunter's toils, beset on every
side ; but he stood bravely at bay, until the ground around him
was strewed with the killed and wounded, picked off by the fatal
rifle. His men were at length broken, and retreated in confusion
along the ridge. He galloped from place to place endeavoring to
rally thera, when a rifle ball brought him to the ground, and his
white horse was seen careering down the mountain without a rider.
This closed the bloody fight ; Ferguson's second in command,
seeing ah further resistance hopeless, hoisted a white flag, beat a
parley, and surrendered at discretion. One hundred and fifty of
the eneray had fallen, and as many been wounded ; while of the
Americans, but twenty were killed, though a considerable number
were wounded. Among those slain was Colonel James Williams,
who had commanded the troops of Ninety-Six, and proved him
self one of the most daring of the partisan leaders.
Eight hundred and ten raen were taken prisoners, one hundred
of whom were British regulars, the rest loyalists. The rancor
awakened by civil war was shown in the treatment of sorae of the
prisoners. A court-martial was held the day after the battle, and
a number of Tory prisoners who had been bitter in their hosthity
to the American cause, and flagitious in their persecution of their

SECOND GREAT TRIUMPH -YORKTOWN. ^Yl
countrymen, were hanged. This was to revenge the death of
American prisoners hanged at Camden and elsewhere.
The army of mountaineers and frontier men, thus fortuitously
congregated, did not attempt to follow up their signal blow. They
had no general scheme, no plan of campaign ; it was the sponta
neous rising of the sons of the soil, to revenge it on its invaders,
and, having effected their purpose, they retumed in triumph to
their horaes. They were little aware of the importance of their
achievement. The battle of King's Mountain, inconsiderable as
it was in the nurabers engaged, turned the tide of Southern warfare.
The destruction of Ferguson and his corps gave a coraplete check
to the expedition of Cornwallis. He began to fear for the safety
of South Carolina, liable to such sudden irraptions from the
mountains ; lest, whhe he was facing to the north, these hordes of
stark-riding warriors might throw themselves behind hira, and
produce a popular corabustion in the province he had left. He
resolved, therefore, to retum with all speed to that province and
provide for its security.
On the 14th of October he coraraenced his retrograde and
mortifying march, conducting it in the night, and with such hurry
and confusion, that nearly twenty wagons, laden with baggage and
supplies, were lost. As he proceeded, the rainy season set in ;
the brooks and rivers became swollen, and almost impassable ; the
roads deep and miry ; provisions and forage scanty. Sickness
attacked the troops. Lord Cornwallis himself was seized with a
bihous fever, which obhged him to halt two days in the Catawba
settiement, and afterwards to be conveyed in a wagon, giving up
the coramand to Lord Rawdon.
In the course of this desolate march, the British suffered as
usual from the vengeance of an outraged country, being fired upon
from behind trees and other coverts by the yeomanry; their
sentries shot down at their encampraents ; their foraging parties
cut off. "The eneray," writes Lord Rawdon, "are raostiy mounted
mihtia, not to be overtaken by our infantry, nor to be safely pur
sued in this strong country by our cavalry.'' For two weeks were
they toiling on with the very elements arrayed against them, unth

428 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
after fording the Catawba where it was six hundred yards wide,
they arrived at Winnsborough, in South Carolina. Hence, Lord
Cornwahis wrote on the 24th of October to Brigadier-general
Leslie — who was at that tirae in the Chesapeake, with the force
detached by Sir Henry Clinton for a descent upon Virginia —
suggesting the expediency of his advancing to South Carohna, for
the purpose of co-operation with his lordship. In the meantime
Cornwallis remained at Winnsborough ; a central position, where
he might cover the country from partisan incursions, obtain forage
and supplies, and await the co-operation of General Leslie.
Marion and Sumter. — The victory at King's Mountain had set
the partisan spirit throughout the country in a blaze. Francis
Marion was soon in the field. He had been made a brigadier-
general by Governor Rutledge, but his brigade, as it was called,
was formed of neighbors and friends7 and was continuahy fluctu
ating in nurabers, and often nurabered less than a hundred raen.
Marion was nearly fifty years of age, sraall of stature, hardy and
vigorous ; brave but not braggart, never avoiding danger, but
never rashly seeking it ; taciturn and abstemious ; a strict disci
plinarian ; careful of the lives of his men, but little mindful of his
own life ; just in his dealings, free from everything selfish or mer
cenary, and incapable of a raeanness. He had his haunts and
strongholds in the morasses of the Pedee and Black rivers. His
men were hardy and abstemious as himself; they ate their raeat
without salt, often subsisted on potatoes, were scantily clad, and
alraost destitute of blankets. Marion was full of stratagems and
expedients. Sallying forth from his morasses, he would overrun
the lower districts, pass the Santee, beat up the sraah posts in
the vicinity of Charleston, cut up the coraraunication between that
city and Caraden ; and having strack sorae signal blow, would
instantiy retreat into his fenny fastnesses. Hence the British nick
named him the Swamp Fox, but those of his countryraen who
knew his courage, his loftiness of spirit and spotiess integrity, con
sidered him the Bayard of the South.
Tarleton undertook to draw the swarap fox frora his cover. He
marched cautiously down the east bank of the Wateree with a com-

SECOND GREAT TRIUMPH— YORKTOWN. 429
pact body of dragoons and infantry. The fox kept close ; he saw
that the enemy was too strong for him. Tarleton now changed
his plan. By day he broke up his force into small detachments or
patrols, giving them orders to keep near enough to each other to
render mutual support if attacked, and to gather together at night.
The artifice had its effect. Marion sallied forth frora his covert
just before daybreak to attack one of these detachments, when, to
his surprise, he found himself close upon the British camp. Per
ceiving the snare that had been spread for hira, he made a rapid
retreat. A close pursuit took place. For seven hours Marion was
hunted from one swamp and fastness to another ; several stragglers
of his band were captured, and Tarleton was in strong hope of
bringing hira into action, when an express came spurring frora
Cornwallis, cahing for the iraraediate services of hiraself and his
dragoons in another quarter.
Surater was again in the field ! That indefatigable partisan
having recruited a strong party in the mountainous country, to
which he retreated after his defeat on the Wateree, had reap
peared on the west side of the Santee, repulsed a British party
sent against him, kihing its leader; then, crossing Broad river,
had effected a junction with other partisan bodies, and now men
aced the British posts in the district of Ninety-Six. It was this
danger which called Tarleton off from beleaguering Marion. Ad
vancing with his accustomed celerity, he thought to surprise Surater
on the Ennoree river. A deserter apprised the latter of his danger.
He pushed across the river, but was hotly pursued, and his rear
guard roughly handled. He now raade for the Tyger river, noted
for turbulence and rapidity ; once beyond this, he raight disband
hir fohowers in the woods. Tarleton, to prevent his passing it
unraolested, spurred forward in advance of his raain body with
one hundred and seventy dragoons and eighty raounted raen of
the infantry. Before five o'clock (Noveraber 20) his advance
guard overtook and charged the rear of the Araericans, who re
treated to the main body. Sumter finding it impossible to cross
Tyger river in safety, and being informed that the enemy were
without infantry or cannon, took post on Black Stock Hill, with a

430 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
rivulet and rail fence in front, the Tyger river in the rear and on
the right flank, and a large log barn on the left. The barn was
turned into a fortress, and a part of the force stationed in it to fire
through the apertures between the logs.
Tarleton halted on an opposite height to await the arrival of his
infantry, and part of his men dismounted to ease their horses.
Sumter seized this moAent for an attack. He was driven back
after some sharp fighting. The enemy pursued, but were severely
galled by the fire frora the log barn. Enraged at seeing his raen
shot down, Tarleton charged with his cavalry, but found it irapos
sible to dislodge the Americans from their rastic fortress. At the
approach of night he fell back to join his infantry, leaving the
ground strewed with his kihed and wounded. The latter were
treated with great humanity by Sumter. The loss of the Americans
was only three kihed and four wounded. Sumter, who had re
ceived a severe wound in the breast, reraained several hours on
the field of action ; but, understanding the enemy would be
powerfully reinforced in the raorning, he crossed the Tyger river
in the night. He was then placed on a litter between two horses,
and thus conducted across the country by a few faithful adherents.
The rest of his little army dispersed theraselves through the woods.
Tarleton, finding his eneray had disappeared, clairaed the credit
of a victory ; but those who considered the affair rightly declared
that he had received a severe check.
Greene takes Command in the South. — Whhe the attention of
the enemy was thus engaged by the enterprises of Surater and
Marion and their swamp warriors. General Gates was gathering
together the scattered fragments of his army at Hillsborough. When
ah were collected, his whole force, exclusive of militia, did not'^x-
ceed fourteen hundred raen. It was, as he said, " rather a shadow
than a substance." His troops, disheartened by defeat, were in
a forlorn state, without clothing, without pay, and soraetimes with
out provisions. Destitute of tents, they constructed hovels of
fence-rails, poles, brush-wood, and stalks of Indian com, the offi
cers faring no better than the men.
On the retreat of Cornwallis from Charlotte, Gates advanced to

SECOND GREAT TRIUMPH— YORKTOWN. 431
that place to raake it his winter- quarters. Huts were ordered to
be built, and a regular encampment was coraraenced. Gates's
vanity was completely cut down by his late reverses. He had lost,
too, the confidence of his officers, and was unable to raaintain
discipline among his men. To add to his depression of spirits,
he received the raelancholy intelligence of the death of an only
son, and, while yet -writhing under the blow, there came official
dispatches inforraing him of his being superseded in coraraand.
A letter from Washington accompanied them, sympathizing with
him in his domestic raisfortunes, and adverting with peculiar deli
cacy to his reverses in battie. The effect of this letter was over
powering. Gates was found walking about his room in the
greatest agitation, pressing the letter to his lips, breaking forth into
ejaculations of gratitude.
General Greene arrived at Charlotte, on the 2d of December.
On his way from the North he had made arrangements for sup
phes from the different states; and had left Baron Steuben
in Virginia to defend that state and procure and send on rein
forcements and stores for the Southern army. On the day follow
ing his arrival Greene took formal coraraand. The delicacy with
which he conducted hiraself towards his unfortunate predecessor
is said to have been " edifying to the army." Gates was sensibly
affected and comforted by this kind treatment, and retired with a
lightened heart to his farm in Berkeley County, Virginia.
The whole force at Charlotte, when Greene took comraand, did
not much exceed twenty-three hundred men, and more than half
of them were militia. It had been broken in spirit by the recent
defeat. The officers had fallen into habits of negligence ; the
soMiers were loose and disorderly, and prone to relieve their
necessities by plundering the inhabitants. Greene's letters writ
ten at the time, abound with military aphorisms suggested by
the squalid scene around him. " There raust be either pride or
principle," said he, " to make a soldier. No man whl think hira
self bound to fight the battles of a state that leaves him perishing
for want of covering ; nor can you inspire a soldier with the senti
ment of pride, while his situation renders him an object of pity.

432 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
rather than of envy. Good feeling is the first principle of good
service. It is impossible to preserve discipline where troops are
in want of everything — to attempt severity whl only thin the
ranks by a more hasty desertion."
The first care of General Greene was to reorganize his army.
He went to work quietiy but resolutely : called no counchs of
war; coraraunicated his plans and intentions to few, and such
only as were able and wihing to aid in executing them. His efforts
were successful ; the army soon began to assume what he termed
a mhitary complexion. He was equally studious to promote har
mony among his officers, of whom a number were young, gahant,
and intelligent. It was his delight to have them at his genial but
siraple table, where parade and restraint were banished, and
pleasant and instructive conversation was promoted ; which, next
to reading, was his great enjoyraent. The raanly benignity of his
manners diffused itself round his board, and a common sentiment
of affection for their chief united the young men in a kind of
brotherhood. i
Finding the country round Charlotte exhausted by repeated
foragings, he separated the array into two divisions. One, about
one thousand strong, was comraanded by Brigadier-general Mor
gan, of rifle renown, and was composed of four" hundred Conti
nental infantry, under Lieutenant-colonel Howard of the Maryland
line, five hundred Virginia militia, and one hundred dragoons,
under Lieutenant-colonel Wihiam Washington, a distant cousin of
the commander-in-chief. With these, Morgan was detached towards
the district of Ninety-Six, in South Carolina, with orders to
take a position near the confluence of the Pacolet and Broad
rivers, and assemble the militia of the country. With the other
division, Greene made a toilful march through a barren country
to Hicks' Creek, on the east side of the Pedee river, opposite
the Cheraw Hhls. There he posted hiraself, on the 26th, partly
to discourage the eneray frora attempting to possess theraselves
of Cross Creek, which would give them command of the greatest
part of the provisions of the lower country — partly to form a

SECOND GREAT TRIUMPH— YORKTOWN. 433
camp of repose ; " and no army," writes he, " ever wanted one
more, the troops having totally lost their discipline."
" I wih not pain your Excellency," writes he to Washington,
" with further accounts of the wants and sufferings of this army ;
but I ara not without great apprehension of its entire dissolution,
unless the commissary's and quartermaster's departraents can be
rendered more competent to the demands of the service. Nor
are the clothing and hospital departments upon a better footing.
Not a shihing in the pay chest, nor a prospect of any for months
to come. This is really making bricks without straw."
While Greene was writing these lines, another hostile expedition
was on its way southward from New York. Sir Henry Clinton had
received inforraation that the troops already mentioned as being
under Leslie in the Chesapeake, had, by orders from Comwahis,
sailed for Charleston, to reinforce his lordship ; and this fresh de
tachraent was to take their place in Virginia. It was composed of
British, German, and Tory troops, about seventeen hundred strong,
and was commanded by Benedict Arnold, now a brigadier-general
in His Majesty's service. He was to raake an incursion into Vir
ginia, destroy the public raagazines, asserable and arm the loyalists,
and hold himself ready to co-operate with Lord Cornwahis.
As Washington beheld one hostile armament after another wing
ing its way to the South, and received apphcations from that quar
ter for assistance, which he had not the means to furnish, it became
painfully apparent to him that the efforts to carry on the war had
exceeded the natural capabhities of the country. Its widely dif
fused population and the composition and teraper of sorae of its
people, rendered it difficult to draw together its resources. Com
merce was almost extinct ; there was not sufficient natural wealth
on which to found a revenue ; paper currency had depreciated
through want of funds for its redemption, unth it was nearly worth
less. The mode of supplying the array by assessing a proportion
of the productions of the earth had proved ineffectual, oppressive,
and productive of an alarraing opposition. Domestic loans yielded
but trifling assistance. The patience of the army was nearly ex
hausted. In January, 1781, the dissatisfaction ofthe Pennsylvania

434 LIFE OF W.ASHINGTON.
and New Jersey troops, encaraped at Morristown and Porapton,
found expression in an insurrection which, for a tirae, spread
alarm among the friends of American liberty, and excited the
highest hopes of its foes.
In the raidst of such disheartening difficulties, a great cause of
satisfaction to Washington was the ratification of the articles of
confederation between the states, which took place not long after
ward. A set of articles had been submitted to Congress by Dr.
Franklin, as far back as 177s. A form had been prepared and
digested by a committee in 1776, and agreed upon, with sorae
modifications, in 1777, but had ever since reraained in abeyance,
in consequence of objections made by individual states. The con
federation was now complete, and Washington, in a letter to the
President of Congress, congratulated him and the body over which
he presided, on an event long wished for, and which he hoped
would have the happiest effects upon the politics of this country,
and be of essential service to our cause in Europe.
It was, after all, an instrument far less efficacious than its advo
cates had anticipated; but it served an important purpose in
binding the states together as a nation, and keeping them from
fahing asunder into individual powers, after the pressure of exter
nal danger should cease to operate.
Battle of the Cowpens. — The stress of war, as Washington
apprehended, was at present shifted to the South. We left Gen
eral Greene, in the latter part of December, posted with one
division of his army on the east side of the Pedee river, having
detached General Morgan with the other division, one thousand
strong, to take post near the confluence of the Pacolet and Broad
rivers. Comwahis lay encaraped about seventy railes to the southwest
of Greene, at Winnsborough. General Leslie had recently arrived
at Charleston from Virginia, and was advancing to reinforce hira
with fifteen hundred raen. This would give Cornwallis such a
superiority of force, that he prepared for a second invasion of
North Carolina. His plan was to leave Lord Rawdon at the
central post of Camden with a considerable body of troops to

SECOND GREAT TRIUMPH— YORKTOWN. 435
keep all quiet, whhe his lordship, by rapid raarches, would throw
himself between Greene and Virginia, cut hira off frora all rein
forcements in that quarter, and obhge him to fight at a disadvan
tage. In either case, Cornwahis counted on a general rising of the
loyalists ; a re-establishment of British government in the Car
olinas, and the clearing away of ah impediments to further triumphs
in Virginia and Maryland.
By recent information, he learnt that Morgan had passed both
the Catawba and Broad rivers, and was about seventy railes to the
northwest of hira, on his way to the district of Ninety-Six. As
Morgan might prove extremely forraidable if left in his rear, Tarle
ton was sent in quest of hira, with about eleven hundred choice
troops, cavalry and infantry, and two field-pieces.
Cornwallis moved with his main force on the 12th of December,
in a northwest direction between the Broad river and the Catawba,
leading toward the back country. This was for the purpose of
crossing the great rivers at their fords near their sources ; for they
are fed by innumerable petty streams which drain the mountains,
and are apt, in the winter tirae, when storras of rain prevail, to
swell and become impassable below their forks. He took this
route also, to cut off Morgan's retreat, or prevent his junction with
Greene, should Tarleton's expedition fail of its object. General
Leslie, whose arrival was daily expected, was to move up along
the eastern side of the Wateree and Catawba, keeping parallel
with his lordship and joining hira above. Everything on the part
of Cornwahis was weh planned, and seeraed to proraise hira a
successful campaign.
Tarleton, after several days' hard marching, came upon the
traces of Morgan, who was posted on the north bank of the
Pacolet, to guard the passes of that river. He sent word to Corn
wahis of his intention to force a passage across the river, and cora
pel Morgan either to fight or retreat, and suggested that his
lordship should proceed up the eastern bank of Broad river, so as
to be at hand to co-operate. His lordship, in consequence, took
up a position at Turkey Creek, on Broad river.
Morgan had been recruited by North Carolina and Georgia

436 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
raihtia, so that his force was nearly equal in nuraber to that of
Tarieton, but, in point of cavalry and discipline, vastly inferior.
Cornwalhs, too, was on his left, and raight get in his rear ; check
ing his impulse, therefore, to dispute the passage of the Pacolet,
he crossed that stream and retreated towards the upper fords of
Broad river.
Tarieton reached the Pacolet on the evening of the isth, but
halted on observing some troops on the opposite bank. It was
merely a party of observation which Morgan had left there, but he
supposed that officer to be there in fuh force. After some
manoeuvring to deceive his adversary he crossed the river before
daylight at Easterwood shoals. There was no opposition. Stih
he proceeded warily, unth he learnt that Morgan, instead of being
in his neighborhood, was in full raarch toward Broad river.
Tarleton now pressed on in pursuit. At ten o'clock at night he
reached an encarapment which Morgan had abandoned a few
hours previously, apparently in great haste, for the camp-fires were
still sraoking, and provisions had been left behind half cooked.
Eager to come upon his enemy while in the confusion of a hurried
flight, Tarleton ahowed his exhausted troops but a brief repose,
and, leaving his baggage under a guard, resuraed his dogged
raarch about two o'clock in the night ; tramping forward through
swamps and rugged broken grounds, round the western side of
Thickety Mountain. A littie before daylight of the 17th, he
captured two videttes, from whora he leamt, to his surprise, that
Morgan, instead of a headlong retreat, had taken a night's repose,
and was actually preparing to give hira battle.
Morgan, in fact, had been urged by his officers to retreat across
Broad river, which was near by, and raake for the mountainous
country ; but, closely pressed as he was, he feared to be overtaken
while fording the river, and while his troops were fatigued, and in
confusion ; besides, being now nearly equal in nuraber to the
eneray, railitary pride would not suffer hira to avoid a combat.
The place where he carae to halt was known in the early grants
by the narae of Hannah's Cowpens, being part of a grazing estab
lishment of a man named Hannah. It was in an open wood,

SECOND GREAT TRIUMPH— YORKTOWN. 437
favorable to the action of cavalry. There were two eminences of
unequal height, and separated frora each other by an interval
about eighty yards wide. To the first eminence, which was the
highest, there was an easy ascent of about three hundred yards.
On these heights Morgan had posted himself His flanks were
unprotected, and the Broad river, running parallel on his rear,
about six miles distant, and winding round on the left, would cut
off retreat, should the day prove unfortunate. The ground, in the
opinion of tacticians, was not well chosen ; Morgan, a veteran
bush-fighter, vindicated it in after times in his own characteristic
way. " Had I crossed the river, one-half of the militia would
have abandoned me. Had a swamp been in view, they would have
made for it. As to covering my wdngs, I knew the foe I had to
deal with, and that there would be nothing but downright fighting.
As to a retreat, I wished to cut off all hope of one. Should
Tarleton surround me with his cavalry, it would keep my troops
from breaking away, and make them depend upon their bayonets.
When men are forced to fight, they will sell their lives dearly."
In arranging his troops for action, he drew out his infantry in
two lines. The first was composed of the North and South
Carohna rahitia, under Colonel Pickens, having an advanced corps
of North Carohna and Georgia volunteer rifleraen. This line, on
which he had the least dependence, was charged to wait until the
enemy were within dead shot; then to take good aim, fire two
volleys and fah back.
The second line, drawn up a raoderate distance in the rear of
the first, and near the brow of the main eminence, was composed
of Colonel Howard's light infantry and the Virginia rifleraen ; ah
Continental troops. They were inforraed of the orders which had
been given to the first line, lest they should raistake their fahing
back for a retreat. Colonel Howard had the command of this
line, on which the greatest rehance was placed.
About a hundred and fifty yards in the rear of the second line,
and on the slope of the lesser eminence, was Colonel Washington's
troop of cavalry, about eighty strong; with about fifty mounted
Carolinian volunteers, armed whh sabres and pistols.

438 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
British writers of the day gave Morgan credit for uncommon
ability and judgment in the disposition of his force ; placipg the
mihtia, in whom he had no great confidence, in full view on the
edge of the wood, and keeping his best troops out of sight, but
drawn up in excehent order and prepared for all events.
It was about eight o'clock in the morning (January 1 7th) when
Tarleton came up. The position of the Americans seemed to him
to give great advantage to his cavalry, and he raade hasty prepa
ration for immediate attack, anticipating an easy victory. Part of
his infantry he formed into a hne, with dragoons on each flank.
The rest of the infantry and cavalry were to be a reserve, and to
wait for orders.
There was a physical difference in the condition of the adverse
troops. The British were haggard from want of sleep and a rough
night-tramp ; the Araericans, on the contrary, were fresh from a
night's rest, invigorated by a raorning's meal, and deliberately
drawn up. Tarleton took no notice of these circumstances, or dis
regarded them. Impetuous at all times, and now confident of vic
tory, he did not even wait until the reserve could be placed, but
led on his first hne, which rushed shouting to the attack. The
North Carolina and Georgia rifleraen in the advance dehvered
their fire with effect, and fell back to the flanks of Pickens's militia.
These, as they had been instructed, waited unth the eneray were
within fifty yards, and then made a destructive volley, but soon
gave way before the push of the bayonet. The British infantry
pushed up to the second line, while forty of their cavalry attacked
it on the right, seeking to turn its flank. Colonel Howard made
a brave stand, and for sorae time there was a bloody conflict ; see
ing himself, however, in danger of being outflanked, he endeavored
to change his front to the right. His orders were misunderstood,
and his troops were falling into confusion, when Morgan rode up
and ordered thera to retreat over the hill, where Colonel Washing
ton's cavalry were hurried forward for their protection.
The British, seeing the troops retiring over the hill, rushed for
ward irregulariy in pursuit of what they deeraed a routed foe. To
their astonishment, they were met by Colonel Washington's dra-

SECOND GREAT TRIUMPH— YORKTOWN. 439
goons, who spurred on them impetuously, while Howard's infantry,
facing about, gave them an effective volley of musketry, and then
charged with the bayonet. The enemy now fell into complete
confusion. Some few artillerymen attempted to defend their guns,
but were cut down or taken prisoners, and the cannon and colors
captured. A panic seized upon the British troops, aided no doubt
by fatigue and exhaustion. A general flight took place. Tarleton
endeavored to bring his legion cavalry into action to retrieve the
day. They had stood aloof as a reserve, and now, infected by
the panic, turned their backs upon their coramander, and gahoped
off through the woods, riding over the flying infantry. Fourteen
of his officers, however, and forty of his dragoons, remained tme
to him ; with these he attempted to withstand the attack of
Washington's cavalry, and a fierce mel6e took place ; but on the
approach of Howard's infantry Tarleton gave up all for lost, and
spurred off with his few but faithful adherents, thence to seek the
main army under Cornwallis.
The loss of the British in this action was ten officers and above
one hundred men killed, two hundred wounded, and between five
and six hundred rank and file made prisoners ; while the Ameri
cans had but twelve men killed and sixty wounded. The dispar
ity of loss shows how complete had been the confusion and defeat
ofthe eneray.
Morgan did not linger on the field of battle. Leaving Colonel
Pickens with a body of railitia to bury the dead and provide for
the wounded of both arraies, he set out the sarae day about noon,
with his prisoners and spoils. His object was to get to the Catawba
before he could be intercepted by Comwahis, who lay nearer than
he did to the fords of that river. Before nightfah he crossed
Broad river at the Cherokee Ford, and halted for a few hours on
its northern bank. Before dayhght of the iSth he was again on
the raarch. Colonel Washington, who had been in pursuit of the
enemy, rejoined hira in the course of the day, as also did Colonel
Pickens, who had left such of the wounded as could not be moved,
under the protection of a flag of truce.
Stih fearing that he raight be intercepted before he could reach

440 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
the Catawba, he put his prisoners in charge of Colonel Washington
and the cavalry, wdth orders to move higher up into the country
and cross the main Catawba at the Island Ford ; while he himself
pushed forward for that river by the direct route ; thus to distract
the attention of the enemy should they be in pursuit, and to secure
his prisoners from being recaptured.
Cornwalhs, on the eventful day ofthe 17 th, was at his camp on
Turkey Creek, confidently waiting for tidings of victory, when,
towards evening, sorae of Tarleton's routed dragoons carae strag
gling into camp, to teh the tale of his defeat. It seemed incredi
ble, but was confirmed next morning, by the arrival of Tarleton
hiraself, discomfited and crestfallen. In his account of the battle,
he represented the force under Morgan to be two thousand.
This exaggerated estimate, together with the idea that the mihtia
would now be out in great force, rendered his lordship cau
tious. He remained a day or two at Turkey Creek to collect
the scattered remains of Tarleton's forces, and await the arrival
of Leslie, whose march had been much retarded by the waters.
On the 19th, having been joined by Leslie, his lordship moved
in the direction of King's Mountain, until informed of Morgan's
retreat toward the Catawba. Cornwallis now altered his course in
that direction, and, trusting that Morgan, encumbered, as he sup
posed him to be, by prisoners and spoils, might be overtaken be
fore he could cross that river, detached a part of his force, without
baggage, in pursuit of hira, whhe he followed on with the re
raainder. Nothing, say the British chroniclers, could exceed the exertions
of the detachment; but Morgan succeeded in reaching the
Catawba and crossing it in the evening, just two hours before
those in pursuit of him arrived on its banks. A heavy rain came
on and fell ah night, and by daybreak the river was so swoHen as
to be impassable. This gave Morgan time to send off his pris
oners who had crossed several mhes above, and to call out the
rahitia of Mecklenburg and Rowan counties to guard the fords of
the river.
Lord Comwalhs had moved slowly wdth his main body. He

SECOND GREAT TRIUMPH— YORKTOWN. 441
was encumbered by an imraense train of baggage ; the roads were
through deep red clay, and the country was cut up by streams and
morasses. It was not until the 2 sth that he assembled his whole
force at Rarasour's Mills, on the Little Catawba, as the south fork
of that river is called, and learnt that Morgan had crossed the
raain stream. Now he felt the serious loss he had sustained, in
Tarleton's defeat, since light troops were especially needed in such
a country as he was entangled in. In this crippled condition, he
determined to relieve his army of everything that could irapede
rapid moveraent in his future operations. Two days, therefore,
were spent by him at Rarasour's Mhls, in destroying all such
baggage and stores as could possibly be spared. He began with
his own. His officers followed his exaraple. Superfluities of ah
kinds were sacrificed without flinching. Casks of wine and spirit
uous liquors were staved : quantities of provisions were sacrificed.
No wagons were spared but those laden with hospital stores,
salt, and araraunition, and four empty ones, for the sick and
wounded. The alacrity with which these sacrifices of coraforts,
conveniencies, and even necessaries, were made, was honorable
to both officers and men.
The whole expedient was subsequentiy sneered at by Sir Henry
Chnton, as being " something too like a Tartar move " ; but his
lordship was preparing for a trial of speed, where it was important
to carry as hght weight as possible.
Greene's Masterly Retreat. — General Greene -was gladdened
by a letter from Morgan, written shortly after his brilliant victory.
He had already received intehigence of the landing of troops at
Whmington, from a British squadron, supposed to be a force
under Arnold, destined to push up Cape Fear river, and co-operate
with Cornwahis ; he had to prepare, therefore, not only to succor
Morgan, but to prevent this co-operation. He accordingly detached
General Stevens with his Virginia rahitia (whose term of service
was nearly expired) to take charge of Morgan's prisoners, and
conduct them to Charlottesvihe in Virginia. At the same tirae he
wrote to the governors of North Carolina and Virginia, for all the
aid they could fumish ; to Steuben, to hasten forward his recruits ;

442 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
and to Shelby, Campbeh, and others, to take arras once more, and
rival their achievements at King's Momitain.
This done, Greene left General Huger in comraand of the
division on the Pedee, with orders to hasten on by forced raarches
to Sahsbury, to join Morgan's division : in the meantime he set
off hiraself on horseback for Morgan's carap, attended raerely by a
guide, an aide-de-camp, and a sergeant's guard of dragoons. His
object was to aid Morgan in checking the enemy until the junction
of his forces could be effected. It was a hard ride of more than
a hundred railes through a rough country. On the last day of
January he reached Morgan's carap at Sherrard's Ford on the east
side of the Catawba. The British array lay on the opposite side,
but a few railes distant, and appeared to be making preparations
to force a passage, as the river was subsiding, and would soon be
fordable. Greene supposed Cornwallis had in view a junction
with Arnold at Cape Fear ; he wrote, therefore, to General Huger
to hurry on, so that with their united forces they could give his
lordship a defeat before he could effect the junction. " T am not
without hopes" writes he, "of ruining Lord Cornwallis if he per
sists in his mad scheme of pushing through the country ; and it is
my earnest desire to form a junction as early for this purpose as
possible. Desire Colonel Lee to force a raarch to join us. Here
is a fine field, and great glory ahead."
More correct inforraation relieved him frora the apprehension
of a co-operation of Arnold and Comwalhs. The British troops
which landed at Whraington were raerely a sraall detachraent sent
frora Charleston to establish a rahitary d^pot for the use of Corn
wallis in his Southem carapaign. They had taken possession of
Wilmington without opposition. Greene now changed his plans.
He was aware of the ill-provided state of the British array, from
the voluntary destruction of their wagons, tents, and baggage.
When he first heard of this raeasure, on arriving at Sherrard's
Ford, he had exclaimed, "Then Cornwallis is ours." His plan
now was to tempt the enemy continually with the prospect of a
battie, but continuahy to elude one ; to harass them by a long
pursuit, draw them higher into the country, and gain tirae for

SECOND GREAT TRIUMPH— YORKTOWN. 443
the division advancing under Huger to join hira. It was the
Fabian policy that he had learnt under Washington, of whora he
prided hiraself on being a disciple.
As the subsiding of the Catawba would enable Cornwallis to
cross, Greene ordered Morgan to raove off shentiy with his divis
ion, on the evening of the 31st, and to press his march all night,
so as to gain a good start in advance, while he himself would re
raain to bring on the mhitia, who were eraployed to check the
eneray. These militia, assembled from the neighboring counties,
did not exceed five hundred. Two hundred of them were dis
tributed at different fords ; the reraainder, forraing a corps of
raounted riflemen under General Davidson, were to watch the
enemy's movements, and attack him wherever he should make his
main attempt to cross. When the enemy should have actually
crossed, the different bodies of militia were to raake the best of
their way to a rendezvous, sixteen railes distant, on the road to
Salisbury, where Greene would be waiting to receive thera, and
conduct their further movements.
While these dispositions were being made by the American
commander, Cornwallis was preparing to cross the river. The
night of the 31st was chosen for the attempt. To divert the atten
tion of the Araericans, he detached colonels Webster and Tarle
ton with a part of the array to a public ford called Beattie's Ford,
where he supposed Davidson to be stationed. There they were
to open a cannonade, and raake a feint of forcing a passage. The
main attempt, however, was to be made six rahes lower down, at
McGowan's, a private and unfrequented ford, where little, if any,
opposition was anticipated.
Cornwalhs set out for McGowan's ford, with the main body of
his army, at one o'clock in the morning. The night was dark
and rainy. He had to make his way through a wood and swamp
where there was no road. His artihery stuck fast. The line
passed on without them. It was near daybreak when the head of
the column reached the ford. To their surprise, they beheld
numerous camp-fires on the opposite bank. Word was hasthy
carried to Comwahis that the ford was guarded. It was so in-
A(,i^i\ ¦ riaviHann was thprp with hii; riflpmpn

444 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
His lordship would have waited for his artillery, but the rain
was stih falling, and raight render the river unfordable. At that
place the Catawba was nearly five hundred yards wide, about three
feet deep, very rapid, and full of large stones. The troops entered
the river in platoons, to support each other against the current,
and were ordered not to fire unth they should gain the opposite
bank. Colonel Hah, of the light infantry, led the way ; the gren
adiers followed. The noise of the water and the darkness covered
their movements until they were nearly half-way across, when they
were descried by an American sentinel. He challenged them
three tiraes, and receiving no answer, fired. Terrified by the
report, the raan who was guiding the British tumed and fled.
Colonel Hall, thus abandoned, led the way directly across the
river ; whereas the true ford inchned diagonally further down.
Hall had to pass through deeper water, but he reached a part of
the bank where it was unguarded. The American pickets, too,
which had turned out at the alarm given by the sentinel, had to
deliver a distant and slanting fire. Sthl it had its effect. Three
of the British were khled, and thirty-six wounded. Colonel Hah
pushed on gahantly, but was shot down as he ascended the bank.
The horse on which Comwalhs rode was wounded, but the brave
animal carried his lordship to the shore, where he sank under him.
The steed of Brigadier-general O'Hara rolled over with hira into
the water, and General Leslie's horse was borne away by the
turaultuous current and with difficulty recovered.
General Davidson hastened with his raen towards the place
where the British were landing. The latter formed as soon as
they found themselves on firm ground, charged Davidson's men
before he had time to get thera in order, killed and wounded
about forty, and put the rest to flight. Davidson himself, the last
to leave the ground, was kihed as he was mounting his horse.
When the enemy had effected the passage, Tarieton was detached
in pursuit of the mihtia, most of whora dispersed to their horaes.
Greene, learning that the eneray had crossed the Catawba at
daybreak, awahed anxiously at the rendezvous the arrival of the
militia. It was not until after midnight that he heard of their dis-

SECOND GREAT TRIUMPH— YORKTOWN. 445
persion, and Davidson's death. Apprehending the rapid advance
of Cornwahis, he hastened to rejoin Morgan, who with his division
was pushing forward for the Yadkin, first sending orders to Gen
eral Huger to conduct the other division by the raost direct route
to Guhford Court-house, where the forces were to be united.
Greene spurred forward through heavy rain and deep, miry roads.
It was a dreary ride and a lonely one, for he had detached his
aides-de-carap in different directions, to collect the scattered mili
tia. At mid-day he alighted, weary and travel-stained, at the inn
at Salisbury, where the array physician who had charge of the sick
and wounded prisoners received him at the door, and inquired
after his well-being. "Fatigued, hungry, alone, and penniless,"
was Greene's heavy-hearted reply. The landlady, Mrs. Ehzabeth
Steele, overheard his desponding words. While he was seated at
table, she entered the room, closed the door, and drawing from
under her apron two bags of raoney, which she had carefuhy
hoarded in these precarious tiraes, " Take these," said the noble-
hearted woraan ; " you will want them, and I can do without them."
This is one of the numberless instances of the devoted patriotisra
of our woraen during the Revolution.
Cornwallis did not advance so rapidly as had been apprehended.
After crossing the Catawba, he had to wait for his wagons and
arthlery, which had remained on the other side in the woods ; so
that by nightfall of the ist of February he was not more than five
miles on the road to Sahsbury. Eager to corae up with the
Americans, he mounted some of the infantry upon the baggage
horses, joined thera to the cavalry, and sent the whole forward
under General O'Hara. They arrived on the banks of the Yadkin
at night, between the 2d and 3d of Febraary, just in tirae to cap
ture a few wagons lingering in the rear of the American army,
which had passed. The riflemen who guarded thera retreated
after a short skirmish. There were no boats with which to cross ;
the Americans had secured thera on the other side. The rain
which had fahen throughout the day had overflooded the ford by
which the Araeriean cavalry had passed. The pursuers were again
brought to a stand. After some doubt and delay, Cornwallis took

446 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
his course up the south side of the Yadkin, and crossed by what
is still cahed the Shallow Ford, while Greene continued on
unraolested to Guilford Court-house, where he was joined by
General Huger and his division on the 9th.
Cornwalhs was now encamped about twenty-five miles above
thera, at the old Moravian town of Salem. Greene summoned a
council of war (alraost the only tirae he was known to do so), and
submitted the question whether or not to offer battie. There was
a unanimous vote in the negative. A fourth part of the force was
on the sick list, from nakedness and exposure. The official returns
gave but two thousand and thirty-six, rank and file, fit for duty.
Of these upwards of six hundred were railitia. Cornwahis had
from twenty-five hundred to three thousand men, including three
hundred cavalry, ah thoroughly disciphned and weh equipped. It
was determined to continue the retreat.
Greene's great object now was to get across the river Dan and
throw hiraself into Virginia. With the reinforceraents he might
there expect to find, he hoped to effect the salvation of the South.
The object of Cornwallis was to get between him and Virginia, and
force him to a combat before he could receive those reinforce
ments. His lordship had been informed that the lower part of the
Dan could only be crossed in boats, and that the country did not
afford a sufficient number for the passage of Greene's array ; he
trusted, therefore, to cut hira off from the upper part of the river,
where alone it was fordable. Greene, however, had pro^vided
against such a contingency. Boats had been secured at various
places by his agents, and could be cohected at a few hours' notice
at the lower ferries. Instead, therefore, of striving with his lord
ship for the upper fords, Greene shaped his course for Boyd's and
Irwin's ferries, just above the confluence of the Dan and Staunton
rivers which forras the Roanoke, and about seventy railes from
Guilford Court-house. This gave hira twenty-five railes advantage
of Lord Cornwahis at the outset.
In ordering his march. General Greene took the lead with the
main body, the baggage, and stores. General Morgan would have
had the command of the rear-guard, composed of seven hundred

SECOND GREAT TRIUMPH— YORKTOWN. 447
of the most alert and active troops, cavalry and light infantry;
but as he was disabled by a violent attack of rheumatism, it was
given to Colonel Otho Whliaras who had with him colonels How
ard, Washington, and Lee. This rear-guard did admirable service.
Being lightly equipped, it could manoeuvre in front of the British
line of march, break down bridges, sweep off provisions, and im
pede its progress in a variety of ways, while the main body raoved
forward unraolested. It was now that Cornwallis raost felt the
severity of the blow he had received at the battle of the Cowpens
in the loss of his light troops, which left hira quite unable to cope
with Williaras.
Great abhities were shown by the coraraanders on either side in
this raoraentous trial of activity and skill. It was a long and
severe raarch for both arraies, through a wild and rough country.
We forbear to enter into the details of the raany stratageras and
manoeuvres by which the enemy was delayed and hoodwinked.
So thoroughly had Cornwallis been misinforraed as to the raeans
of passing the river, and so difficult was it, from want of light
troops, to gain information whhe on the march, that he pushed on
in the firm conviction that he was driving the American army into a
trap and would give it a signal blow before it could cross the Dan.
In the meantirae, Greene, with the raain body, reached the
banks of the river, and succeeded in crossing over with ease in the
course of a single day at Boyd's and Irwin's ferries, sending back
word to Wilhams, who with his covering party was far in the rear.
That intelligent officer encamped, as usual, in the evening, at a
wary distance in front of the enemy, but stole a raarch upon thera
after dark, leaving his carap-fires burning. He pushed on all
night, arrived at the ferry in the morning of the isth, having
marched forty mhes within four and twenty hours ; and made such
dispatch in crossing, that his last troops had landed on the Vir
ginia shore by the tirae the astonished eneray arrived on the oppo
site bank. Nothing, according to their own avowal, could surpass
the grief and vexation of the British at discovering, on their arri
val at Boyd's Ferry, " that all their tohs and exertions had been
vain, and that all their hopes were frustrated."

448 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
Battle of Guilford Court-House. — For a day the two arraies
lay panting within sight of each other on the opposite banks of
the river which had put an end to the race.
On the 1 6th, the river began to subside : the eneray might soon
be able to cross. Greene prepared for a further retreat by send
ing forward his baggage on the road to Halifax, and securing the
passage of the Staunton. At Halifax he was resolved to raake a
stand, rather than suffer the enemy to take possession of it without
a struggle. Its situation on the Roanoke would make it a strong
position for their array, supported by a fleet, and would favor their
designs both on Virginia and the Carolinas. With a -view to its
defence, entrenchraents had already been thrown up, under the
direction of Kosciuszko. Lord Cornwallis, however, did not deem
it prudent to venture into Virginia, where Greene would be sure of
powerful reinforcements. North Carolina was in a state of the
utmost disorder and confusion ; he thought it better to remain in
it for a time, and profit by Greene's absence. After giving his
troops a day's repose, therefore, he put them once more in raotion
on the I Sth, along the road by which he had pursued Greene.
The latter, incessantly on the alert, was informed of this retrograde
move, by a preconcerted signal ; the waving of a white handker
chief frora the opposite bank, by a female patriot.
This changed the garae. Lee, with his legion, strengthened by
two veteran Maryland corapanies, and Pickens, with a corps of
South Carolina railitia, ah light troops, were transported across the
Dan in the boats, with orders to gain the front of Cornwallis,
hover as near as safety would perrait, cut off his intercourse -with
the disaffected parts of the country, and check the rising of the
loyalists. " If we can but delay hira for a day or two," said
Greene, " he raust be ruined." Greene, in the meanwhile,
remained with his raain force on the northern bank of the Dan,
wahing to ascertain his lordship's real designs, and ready to cross
at a raoraent's warning.
The raoveraents of Comwalhs, for a day or two, were designed
to perplex his opponents ; on the 20th, however, he took post at
Hillsborough. Here he erected the royal standard, and issued a

SECOND GREAT TRIUMPH— YORKTOWN. 449
proclamation, stating that, whereas it had pleased Divine Provi
dence to prosper the operations of His Majesty's arms in driving
the rebel army out of the province, he invited all his loyal subjects
to hasten to his standard with their arms and ten days' provisions,
to assist in suppressing the reraains of rebehion, and re-establishing
good order and constitutional governraent. This sounding appeal
produced but little effect. Many people, says Tarleton, rode into
camp to talk over the proclamation, inquire the news of the day,
and take a look at the king's troops. They acknowledged that
the Continentals had been chased out of the province, but sur
mised they would soon return. Sorae of the raost zealous prora
ised to raise corapanies, but their followers and dependents were
slow to enlist.
Rumor in the meantime had magnified the effect of his lord
ship's proclamation. Word was brought to Greene that the Tories
were flocking from ah quarters to the royal standard. Seven cora
panies, it was said, had been raised in a single day. At this tirae
the reinforcements to the American camp had been little more
than six hundred Virginia militia, under General Stevens. Greene
saw that at this rate, if Cornwallis were ahowed to remain undis
turbed, he would soon have complete coraraand of North Carolina ;
he boldly deterrained, therefore, to reeross the Dan at ah hazards
with the scanty force at his coraraand and give his lordship check.
In this spirit he broke up his camp and crossed the river on the 23d.
The reappearance of Greene in North Carolina, heralded as it
was by daring raids of Lee and Pickens, disconcerted the schemes
of Lord Cornwahis. The recruiting service was interrupted. Many
loyalists who were on the way to his carap returned home. Forage
and provisions became scarce in the neighborhood. He found
himself, he said, " amongst timid friends and adjoining to invet
erate rebels." On the 26th, therefore, he abandoned Hihsborough,
threw himself across the Haw, and encaraped near Alaraance
Creek, one of its principal tributaries, in a country favorable to
supplies and with a Tory population. His position was coraraand
ing, at the point of concurrence of roads from Salisbury, Guhford,
High Rockford, Cross Creek, and Hihsborough. It covered also

450 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
the coraraunication with Whmington, where a d^pot of military
stores, so iraportant to his half-destitute array, had recently been
established. Greene, with his raain army, took post about fifteen mhes above
him, on the heights between Troublesome Creek and Reedy Fork,
one of the tributaries of the Haw. His plan was to cut the eneray
off from the upper counties ; to harass him by skirmishes, but to
avoid a general battie ; thus gaining tirae for the arrival of rein
forcements daily expected. He rarely lay raore than two days in
a place, and kept his light troops under Pickens and Williaras
between him and the enemy, hovering about the latter, intercept
ing his intehigence, attacking his foraging parties, and striking at
his flanks whenever exposed. Sharp skirmishes occurred between
thera and Tarleton's cavalry with various success. The country
being much of a whderness obliged both parties to be on the alert ;
but the Americans, accustomed to bush-fighting, were not easily
surprised. After a fortnight of such skirmishing, the long-expected rein
forcements arrived, having been hurried on by forced raarches.
They consisted of a brigade of Virginia railitia under General
Lawson, two brigades of North Carolina militia under generals
Butler and Eaton, and four hundred regulars enlisted for eighteen
months. His whole effective force, according to official returns,
araounted to four thousand two hundred and forty-three foot, and
one hundred and sixty-one cavalry. His force nearly doubled in
nuraber that of Cornwallis, which did not exceed two thousand
four hundred raen ; but raany of Greene's troops were raw and
inexperienced, and had never been in battle ; those of the eneray,
as it is needless to repeat, were all veterans of the finest quality.
Greene knew the inferiority of his troops in this respect ; his
reinforceraents, too, feh far short of what he had been led to ex
pect, yet he determined to accept the battle which had so long
been offered. The corps of hght troops, under Williaras, which
had rendered such efficient service, was now incorporated wdth the
raain body, and all detachraents were ordered to asserable at Guil
ford, within eight railes _of the eneray, where Greene encamped on

SECOND GREAT TRIUMPH— YORKTOWN. 451
the 14th, sending his wagons and heavy baggage to the Iron Works
at Troublesome Creek, ten railes in his rear.
Cornwahis, frora the difficulty of getting correct inforraation,
and from Greene's frequent change of position, had an exagger
ated idea of the American force, rating it as high as eight thousand
men : still he trusted in his weh-seasoned veterans, and determined
to attack Greene in his encampment. At daybreak on the i sth he
set out for Guilford. Within four mhes of that place, near the
New Garden meeting-house, Tarleton with the advanced guard of
cavalry, infantry, and yagers, came upon the American advanced
guard, composed of Lee's partisan legion, and sorae mountaineers
and Virginia mhitia. Tarleton and Lee were weh matched in
military prowess, and the skirraish between thera was severe. Lee's
horses, taken frora Virginia and Pennsylvania, were superior in
weight and strength to those of his opponent, which had been
chiefly taken from plantations in South Carolina. The latter were
borne down by a charge in close coluran ; several of their riders
were dismounted, and kihed or taken prisoners. Tarleton, seeing
that his w^eakly mounted men fought to a disadvantage, sounded a
retreat; Lee endeavored to cut him off: a general conflict of the
vanguards, horse and foot, ensued, when the appearance of the
main body of the enemy obliged Lee, in his turn, to retire with
precipitation. During this time, Greene was preparing for action on a woody
eminence, a little more than a mile south of Guhford Court-house.
The neighboring country was covered with forest, excepting some
cultivated fields about the court-house, and along the Salisbury
road, which passed through the centre of the place, frora south to
north. Greene had drawn out his troops in three hnes. The first,
coraposed of North Carolina rahitia, under generals Butler and
Eaton, was posted behind a fence, with an open field in front, and
woods on the flanks and in the rear. About three hundred yards
behind this was the second line, coraposed of the Virginia raihtia,
under generals Stevens and Lawson, drawn up across the road, and
covered by a wood. The third hne, about four hundred yards in
the rear of the second, was composed of Continental troops or

452 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
regulars ; those of Virginia under General Huger on the left, those
of Maryland under Colonel Williams on the right. Colonel AVash-
ington with a body of dragoons, Kirkwood's Delaware infantry,
and a battalion of Virginia militia, covered the right flank ; Lee's
legion, with the Virginia rifleraen under Colonel Campbell, covered
the left. Two six-pounders were in the road, in advance of the
fiist line ; two field-pieces with the rear line near the court-house,
where General Greene took his station.
About noon the head of the British army was descried advanc
ing spiritedly from the south along the Salisbury road, and defiling
into the fields. A cannonade was opened from the two six-pound
ers, in front of the first American line. It was answered by the
British artillery. Neither produced rauch effect. The enemy now
advanced coolly and steadily in three colurans ; the Hessians and
Highlanders under General Leslie, on the right, the Royal Artillery
and Guards in the centre, and Webster's Brigade on the left. The
North Carohnians, who formed the first line, waited until the enemy
were within one hundred and fifty yards, when, agitated by their
raartial array and undaunted movement, they began to fall into
confusion ; some fired off their pieces without taking aim ; others
threw thera down, and took to flight. A volley from the foe, a
shout, and a charge of the bayonet, corapleted their discomfiture.
Some fled to the woods, others feh back upon the Virginians, who
formed the second hne. General Stevens, who comraanded the
latter, ordered his raen to open and let the fugitives pass, pretend
ing that they had orders to retire. He had taken care, however,
to post forty rifleraen in the rear of his own line, with orders to
fire upon any one who should leave his post. Under his spirited
coramand and exaraple, the Virginians kept their ground and fought
bravely. The action became broken up and diversified by the
extent of the ground. The thickness of the woods irapeded the
raovements of the cavalry. The reserves on both sides were
called up. The British bayonet again succeeded ; the second line
gave way, and General Stevens, who had kept the field for some
tirae, after being wounded in the thigh by a musket-ball, ordered
a retreat. The eneray pressed with increasing ardor against the

SECOND GREAT TRIUMPH— YORKTOWN. 453
third hne, composed of Continental troops, weh disciplined, fresh,
and in perfect order. Greene counted on these to retrieve the
day. He rode along the line, calling on them to stand firra, and
give the eneray a warra reception.
The first Maryland regiment, which was on the right wing, was
attacked by Colonel Webster, with the British left. It stood the
shock bravely, and being seconded by sorae Virginia troops, and
Kirkwood's Delawares, drove Webster across a ravine. The second
Maryland regiment was not so successful. Impetuously attacked
by Colonel Stewart, with a battalion of the Guards, and a com
pany of grenadiers, it faltered, gave' way, and fled, abandoning two
field-pieces, which ¦were seized by the enemy. Stewart was pur
suing, when the first regiment, which had driven Webster across
the ravine, came to the rescue with fixed bayonets, while Colonel
Washington spurred up with his cavalry. The fight now was fierce
and bloody. Stewart was slain ; the two field-pieces were retaken,
and the enemy in their turn gave way and were pursued with,
slaughter ; a destructive fire of grape-shot frora the enemy's artil
lery checked the pursuit. Two regiments approached on the
right and left ; Webster recrossed the ravine and fell upon Kirk
wood's Delawares. There was intrepid fighting in different parts
of the field ; but Greene saw that all hope of victory was lost ;
there was no retrieving the effect produced by the first flight of
the North Carolinians. Unwhling to risk the total defeat of his
army, he directed a retreat, which was made in good order, but
they had to leave their arthlery on the field, most of the horses
having been kihed. About three miles from the field of action
he made a halt to cohect stragglers, and then continued on to the
place of rendezvous at Speedweh's Iron Works on Troublesome
Creek. The British were too much cut up and fatigued to follow up
their advantage, — it could hardly be cahed a victory. Two regi
ments with Tarleton's cavalry atterapted a pursuit, but were called
back. Efforts were raade to cohect the wounded of both arraies,
but they were dispersed over so wide a space, among woods and
thickets, that night closed before the task was accomplished. It

454 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
was a dismal night even to the victors ; a night of unusual dark
ness, with torrents of rain. The army was destitute of tents ; there
were not sufficient houses in the vicinity to receive the wounded ;
provisions were scanty ; many had tasted very littie food for the
last two days ; coraforts were out of the question. Many of the
wounded sank under their aggravated miseries, and expired before
raorning. The loss of the Araericans in this hard-fought affair was never
fully ascertained. Their official returns, raade iramediately after
the action, give little raore than four hundred killed and wounded,
and between eight and nine hundred raissing. The loss sus
tained by Cornwallis was far raore fatal; for, in the circura
stances in which he was placed, it was not to be supplied, and
it completely maimed him. Of his small army about six hun
dred, or more than one-fourth of the whole, were either khled or
disabled, whhe the survivors were exhausted by fatigue and hun
ger ; his camp was encurabered by the wounded. His victory, in
fact, was almost as ruinous as a defeat. He could not even hold
the ground he had so bravely won, but was obliged to retreat from
the scene of triumph, to some secure position where he raight
obtain supplies for his famished army. Leaving many of his
wounded under the protection of a flag of truce, he set out, on the
third day after the battle, for Cross Creek, an eastern branch of
Cape Fear river, where was a settlement of Scottish Highlanders,
whom he supposed to be stout adherents to the royal cause. Here
he expected to be plentifully supplied with provisions, and to have
his sick and wounded weh taken care of From this point he
supposed he could open a communication by Cape Fear river,
with Whmington, and obtain from the d^pot recently established
there such supplies as the country about Cross Creek did not
afford. No sooner did Greene learn that Cornwallis was retreating, than
he set out to fohow hira, thus presenting the singular spectacle of
the vanquished pursuing the victor. His troops suffered greatiy
in this pursuit frora wintry weather and scarcity of provisions ; but
they harassed the eneray's rear-guard with frequent skirmishes.

SECOND GREAT TRIUMPH— YORKTOWN. 455
On the 28th Greene arrived at Ramsey's Mihs, on Deep river,
hard on the traces of Cornwallis, who had left the place a few
hours previously, with such precipitation that several of his wounded,
who had died while on the march, were left behind unburied. Sev
eral fresh quarters of beef had likewise been forgotten, and were
seized upon with eagerness by the hungry soldiery. Such had
been the urgency of the pursuit this day that many of the Amer
ican troops sank upon the road exhausted with fatigue.
At Deep river Greene was brought to a stand. Cornwallis had
broken down the bridge by which he had crossed ; and further
pursuit for the present was impossible. The constancy of the
mihtia now gave way. Every step had led them frora their horaes
and increased their privations. The terra for which most of thera
had enlisted was expired, and they now deraanded their discharge.
Greene saw that with his force thus reduced it would be impossi
ble to pursue the eneray further. Moreover, the halt he was obliged
to make to rebuild the bridge would give thera such a start as to
leave no hope of overtaking thera. Suddenly he deterrained to
change his course and carry the war into South Carolina. This
would oblige the enemy either to follow him, and thus abandon
North Carolina ; or else to sacrifice all his posts in the upper part
of South Carolina and Georgia. He apprised Sumter, Pickens,
and Marion by letter, of his intentions, and called upon them to
be ready to co-operate with all the mhitia they could collect ;
promising to send forward cavalry and sraall detachments of light
infantry, to aid thera in capturing outposts before the array should
arrive. In pursuance of this extreraely sagacious plan, Greene, on the
30th of March, discharged ah his railitia with many thanks for the
courage and fortitude with which they had fohowed hira through
so many scenes of peril and hardship ; and joyously did the poor
fellows set out for their homes. Then, after giving his "little, dis
tressed, but successful army," a short taste of the repose they
needed, and having collected a few days' provision, he set forward
on the sth of April toward Caraden, where Lord Rawdon had his
head-quarters.

456 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
Comwahis, m the raeantirae, was grievously disappointed m the
hopes he had forraed of obtaining araple provisions and forage at
Cross Creek, and strong reinforceraents from the loyalists in that
neighborhood. Neither could he open a coraraunication by Cape
Fear river for the conveyance of his troops to Whmington. The
distance by water was upwards of a hundred mhes, the breadth of
the river seldom above one hundred yards, the banks high, and
the inhabitants on each side generahy hosthe. He was corapehed,
therefore, to continue his retreat by land, quite to Whraington,
where he arrived on the 7th of April.
It was his lordship's intention, as soon as he should have rested
his weary corps and received some expected reinforceraents from
Ireland, to return to the upper country, in hopes of giving protec
tion to the royal interests in South Carolina, unth he could concert
new measures with Sir Henry Clinton. His plans were ah discon
certed, however, by intehigence of Greene's rapid raarch toward
Caraden. Never, we are told, was his lordship raore disraayed
than by this news. It was too late for him to render any aid to
Lord Rawdon by a direct move toward Camden. Before he could
arrive there, Greene would have raade an attack ; if successful, his
lordship's array raight be hemmed in among the great rivers, in an
exhausted country, revolutionary in its spirit, where Greene might
cut off their subsistence and effect their ruin. At the same tirae,
ah thoughts of offensive operations against North Carolina were at
an end. Sickness, desertion, and the loss sustained at Guhford
Court-house, had reduced his httle array to fourteen hundred and
thirty-five raen.
In this sad predicament, after reraaining several days in a pain
ful state of irresolution, he deterrained to take advantage of Greene's
having left the back part of Virginia open, to march directly into
that province, and attempt a junction with the force acting there
under General Phihips, who had been sent down to supersede Arnold.
By this raove he might draw Greene back to the northward, and
by the reduction of Virginia he raight proraote the subjugation of
the South. The move, however, he felt to be perilous. His troops
were worn down by upwards of eight hundred rahes of raarching

SECOND GREAT TRIUMPH— YORKTOWN. 457
and counter-marching through an inhospitable and impracticable
country ; they had now three hundred more before them, under
still worse circumstances than those in which they first set out ; for so
destitute were they, notwithstanding the supphes received at Wil
raington, that his lordship, sadly huraorous, declared " his cavalry
wanted everything, and his infantry everything but shoes."
There was no tirae for hesitation or delay. Greene might return
and render the junction with Phillips irapracticable : having sent
an express to the latter, therefore, inforraing him of his coming,
and appointing a meeting at Petersburg, his lordship set off on the
2 sth of Aprh on his fated march into Virginia.
Cornwallis and Lafayette in Virginia. — On arriving at Peters
burg on the 20th of May, after a weary march of nearly a month.
Lord Cornwallis found his force increased to raore than five thou
sand raen. General Phihips had just died of a fever, leaving the
coraraand to Arnold, who now, upon Comwahis's arrival, returned
to New York. For more than a month the British forces in Vir
ginia had been watched, annoyed, and to sorae extent held at bay
by Lafayette, whora Washington had sent down for the purpose.
The first object of Cornwallis was to strike a blow at Lafayette.
The marquis was encamped on the north side of James river,
between Wilton and Richmond, with about one thousand regulars,
two thousand mhitia, and fifty dragoons. He was waiting for rein
forcements of raihtia, and for the arrival of General Wayne with
the Pennsylvania line. The latter had been ordered to the South
by Washington nearly three months previously, but was unavoidably
delayed. Joined by these, Lafayette would venture to receive a
blow, "that, being beaten, he might at least be beaten with
decency, and Cornwallis pay something for his victory."
His lordship hoped to draw him info an action before thus rein
forced, and with that view, marched, on the 24th of May, frora
Petersburg to Jaraes river, which he crossed at Westover, about
thirty miles below Richmond. Lafayette conscious of the inferi
ority of his forces, at once decamped and directed his march
toward the upper country, inclining to the north, to favor a junc
tion with Wayne. Cornwalhs fohowed hira as far as the upper

458 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
part of Hanover County, destroying public stores wherever found.
He appears to have undervalued Lafayette, on account of his
youth. "The boy cannot escape me," said he, in a letter which
was intercepted. Nevertheless, Cornwahis soon found it impos
sible either to overtake Lafayette, or prevent his junction with
Wayne ; he tumed his attention, therefore, to other objects.
Greene, in his passage through Virginia, had urged the impor
tance of reraoving horses out of the way of the eneray ; his cau
tion had been neglected ; the consequences were now felt. The
great number of fine horses in the stables of Virginia gentleraen
had enabled Cornwallis to raount many of his troops in first-rate
style. These he employed in scouring the country, and destroy
ing public stores. Tarleton and his legion, it is said, were raounted
on race-horses. On the 4th of June they raade a dash upon
Charlottesville, whither the state legislature had been removed for
security, and even tried to capture the governor, Thomas Jefferson,
in his house at Monticello, in that neighborhood. The attempts
were unsuccessful. Presently Cornwallis turned and retreated,
first to Richmond, then down the peninsula to Yorktown, where
he intended to wait in a secure position for reinforcements. He
was closely followed by Lafayette, who had been reinforced by
Steuben and Wa)me. The position at Yorktown seemed secure
to Comwalhs because it was near the water ; and ever since the
beginning of the war the British had ruled the water. The posi
tion was not so safe as it seemed. But before giving the sequel,
we must tum back and follow for a raoment the fortunes of Gen
eral Greene.
Greene and Rawdon in South Carolina, — It wih be recollected
that Greene, on the sth of April, set out from Deep river on a
retrograde march, to carry the war again into South Carolina,
beginning by an attack on Lord Rawdon's post at Camden. Sum
ter and Marion had been keeping alive the revolutionary fire in
that state ; the former on the northwest frontier, the latter in his
favorite fighting ground between the Pedee and Santee rivers. On
the reappearance of Greene, they stood ready to aid with heart
and hand.

CORNWALLIS AND
LAFAYETTE
IN
Virginia
MAV20-SEP.7, ..-M%
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SECOND GREAF TRIUMPH— YORKTOWN. 459
On his way to Caraden, Greene detached Lee to join Marion
with his legion, and raake an attack upon Fort Watson in order
to cut off Rawdon's supplies. For hiraself, he appeared before
Camden, but finding it too strong and too well garrisoned, fell
back about two railes, and took post at Hobklrk's Hill, hoping
to draw his lordship out. There Rawdon attacked him on the
2Sth of April, coraing upon him partly by surprise. There was a
hard-fought battle, but through some false raove among part of
his troops, Greene was obliged to retreat. His lordship did not
pursue, but shut himself up in Camden, waiting to be rejoined by
part of his garrison which was absent.
Greene posted himself near Camden Ferry on the Wateree, to
intercept these reinforceraents. Lee and Marion, who had suc
ceeded in capturing Fort Watson, also took a position on the high
hihs of Santee for the same purpose. Their efforts were unavail
ing. Lord Rawdon was rejoined by the other part of his troops.
His superior force now threatened to give him the mastery.
Greene felt the hazardous nature of his situation. His troops
were fatigued by their long marchings ; he was disappointed of
proraised reinforceraents frora Virginia ; still he was undisraayed,
and prepared for another of his long and stubborn retreats. " We
raust always operate," said he, " on the maxim that your enemy
wih do what he ought to do. Lord Rawdon will push us back to
the mountains, but we whl dispute every inch of ground in the
best raanner we can." Such were his words to General Davie on
the evening of the 9th of May, as he sat in his tent with a raap
before him studying the roads and fastnesses of the country. An
express was to set off for Phhadelphia the next raorning, and he
requested General Davie, who was of that city, to write to the
raembers of Congress with whom he was acquainted, painting in
the strongest colors their situation and gloomy prospects.
The next morning there was a joyful reverse. Greene sent for
General Davie. " Rawdon," cried he, exultingly, " is preparing to
evacuate Camden ; that place was the key of the enemy's line of
posts ; they will now ah fall or be evacuated ; ah whl now go weh.
Bum your letters. I shall raarch immediately to the Congaree."

460 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
His lordship had heard of the march of Cornwalhs into Virginia,
and that ah hope of aid from him was at an end. His garrison
was out of provisions. Ah supplies were cut off by the Americans ;
he had no choice but to evacuate the town. He left Camden in
flaraes. Iramense quantities of stores and baggage were consumed,
together with the court-house, the jah, and raany private houses.
Rapid successes now attended the American arms. Fort Motte,
the middle post between Camden and Ninety Six, was taken by
Marion and Lee. Lee next captured Granby, and marched to aid
Pickens in the siege of Augusta ; while Greene, having acquired a
supply of arms, ammunition, and provisions from the captured
forts, sat down before the fortress of Ninety Six, on the 2 2d of
May. It was the great mart and stronghold of the royalists, and
was principally garrisoned by royahsts frora New Jersey and New
York, commanded by Colonel Cruger, a native of New York.
The siege lasted for nearly a month. The place was valiantly de
fended. Lee arrived with his legion, having failed before Augusta,
and invested a stockaded fort which formed part of the works.
Word was brought that Lord Rawdon was pressing forward with
reinforcements, and but a few miles distant on the Saluda. Greene
endeavored to get up Sumter, Marion, and Pickens, to his assis
tance, but they were too far on the right of Lord Rawdon to form a
junction. The troops were eager to storm the works before his
lordship should arrive. A partial assault was made on the i8th of
June. It was a bloody contest. The stockaded fort was taken,
but the troops were repulsed from the main works. Greene re
treated across the Saluda, and halted at Bush river, at twenty
miles distance, to observe the motion of the enemy. Lord Raw
don entered Ninety Six on the 21st, but sahied forth again on the
24th, taking with him all the troops capable of fatigue, two thou
sand in number, without wheel carriage of any kind, or even knap
sacks, hoping by a rapid move to overtake Greene. Want of
provisions soon obliged him to give up the pursuit, and return
to Ninety Six. Leaving about one-half of his force there, under
Colonel Cruger, he sallied a second tirae from Ninety Six, at the
head of eleven hundred infantry, with cavalry, artillery, and field-

SECOND GREAT TRIUMPH— YORKTOWN. 461
pieces, marching by the south side of the Saluda for the Con
garee. He was now pursued in his turn by Greene and Lee. In this
march raore than fifty of his lordship's soldiers fell dead frora heat,
fatigue, and privation. At Orangeburg, where he arrived on the
Sth of July, his lordship was joined by a large detachraent under
Colonel Stuart. Greene had followed him closely, and having
collected all his detachments, and being joined by Sumter,
appeared within four railes of Orangeburg, on the loth of July,
and offered battle. The offer was not accepted, and the position
of Lord Rawdon was too strong to be attacked. Greene reraained
there two or three days ; when, learning that Colonel Cruger was
advancing with the residue of the forces from Ninety Six, which
would again give his lordship a superiority of force, he moved off
with his infantry on the night of the 13th of July, crossed the
Saluda, and posted himself on the east side of the Wateree, at the
high hihs of Santee. In this salubrious and delightful region,
where the air was pure and breezy, and the water delicate, he
allowed his weary soldiers to repose and refresh themselves, await
ing the arrival of some continental troops and militia frora North
Carolina, when he intended to resurae his enterprise of driving the
eneray from the interior of the country.
In these raovements Rawdon had abandoned the interior coun
try, and confessed hiraself outgeneralled and baffled. He sailed
not long after from Charleston for Europe. Colonel Stuart, who
was left in comraand at Orangeburg, moved forward from that
place, and encamped on the south side of the Congaree river,
near its junction with the Wateree, and within sixteen miles of
Greene's position on the high hills of Santee. The two arraies lay
in sight of each other's fires, but two large rivers intervened, to
secure each party from sudden attack. Both armies, however,
needed repose, and military operations were suspended, as if by
mutual consent, during the sultry suraraer heat.
The campaign had been a severe and trying one, and checkered
with vicissitudes ; but Greene had succeeded in regaining the
greater part of Georgia and the two Carolinas, and, as he said, only

462 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
wanted a littie assistance from the North to complete their recov
ery. He was soon rejoiced by a letter from Washington, inforra
ing him that a detachment from the array of Lafayette raight be
expected to bring hira the required assistance ; but he was made
stih more happy by the. fohowing cordial passage in the letter : " It
is with the warmest pleasure I express ray full approbation of the
various raoveraents and operations which your railitary conduct
has lately exhibited, while I confess to you that I am unable to
conceive what more could have been done under your circura
stances, than has been displayed by your little, persevering, and
determined array."
Washington's March against Cornwallis. — In the summer
of 1 781 a reraarkable event occurred, which, when taken prorapt
advantage of by Washington's genius, put an end to the war.
This event was the temporary loss, by the British, of their control
over the water I An iramense French fleet, under Count de
Grasse, was sent to the West Indies, with the view of capturing
Jamaica ; and for a short tirae its services were available on the
coast ofthe United States. On the 2 2d of May, Washington held
a conference with Rocharabeau at Wethersfield, and it was thought
best to take advantage of the presence of the French fleet to
atterapt the capture of New York, with Sir Henry Clinton and his
array. To this end, Rochambeau raarched his troops frora Rhode
Island to the Hudson river, where early in July he effected a junc
tion with the Araeriean array under Washington. Late in July a
French frigate arrived at Newport, bringing dispatches from the
Count de Grasse. He was to leave St. Domingo on the 3d of
August, with between twenty-five and thirty ships of the hne, and
a considerable body of land forces, and to steer immediately for
the Chesapeake.
This changed the face of affairs, and called for a change in the
game. Ah atterapt upon New York was postponed ; the whole
of the French array, and as large a part of the Americans as could
be spared, were to move to Virginia, and co-operate with the Count
de Grasse for the redemption of the Southern States. Washing
ton apprised the count and Lafayette of this intention by letter.

SECOND GREAT TRIUMPH— YORKTOWN. 463
Washington's " soul was now in arms." At length, after being
baffled and disappointed so often by the incorapetency of his
means, and above ah, thwarted by the eneray's naval potency, he
had the possibility of coping with thera both on land and sea.
The conteraplated expedition was likely to consuraraate his plans,
and wind up the fortunes of the war, and he deterrained to lead it
in person. He would take with hira soraething raore than two
thousand of the American army ; the rest, chiefly Northern troops,
were to remain with General Heath, who was to hold comraand of
West Point and the other posts of the Hudson.
Perfect secrecy was maintained as to this change of plan.
Preparations were stih carried on, as if for an attack upon New
York. An extensive encampment was marked out in the Jerseys,
and ovens erected and fuel provided for the baking of bread ; as
if a part of the besieging force was to be stationed there, thence to
raake a descent upon the eneray's garrison on Staten Island, in aid
of the operations against the city. The Araeriean troops, thera
selves, were kept in ignorance of their destination. " General
Washington," observes one of the shrewdest of thera, "matures
his great plans and designs under an impenetrable veil of secrecy,
and while we repose the fullest confidence in our chief, our opin
ions (as to his intentions) must be founded only on doubtful con
jecture." Previous to his decampment, Washington sent forward a party
of pioneers to clear the roads towards King's Bridge, as if the
posts recently reconnoitered were about to be atterapted. On the
19th of August, his troops were paraded with their faces in that
direction. When all were ready, however, they were ordered to
face about, and were marched up along the Hudson river towards
King's Ferry. Rocharabeau, in like raanner, broke up his en
campment, and took the road by White Plains, North Castle,
Pine's Bridge, and Crorapond, toward the sarae point. All West
chester County was again ahve with ihe trarap of troops, the gleara
of arms, and the lumbering of artihery and baggage wagons along
its roads.
On the 20th, Washington arrived at King's Ferry, and his

464 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
troops began to cross the Hudson with their baggage, stores, and
cannon, and encarap at Haverstraw. On the 2 2d, the French
troops arrived by their circuitous route, and began to cross to
Stony Point with their artillery, baggage, and stores. The opera
tion occupied between two and three days ; during which tirae
Washington took the Count de Rocharabeau on a visit to West
Point, to show hira the citadel of the Highlands, an object of
intense interest, in consequence of its having been the scene of
Arnold's treason.
The two armies having safely crossed the Hudson, comraenced
on the 2 sth, their several lines of raarch towards the Jerseys; the
Araericans for Springfield on the Rahway, the French for Whip-
pany towards Trenton. Both arraies were still kept in the dark as
to the ultiraate object of their raovement.
Washington had in fact reached the Delaware with his troops,
before Sir Henry Clinton was aware of their destination. It was
too late to oppose their march, even had his forces been adequate.
As a kind of counterplot, therefore, and in the hope of distracting
the attention of the American commander, and drawing off a part
of his troops, he hurried off an expedition to the eastward, to
insult the state of Connecticut, and attack her seaport of New
London. The command of this expedition, which was to be one
of ravage and destruction, was given to Arnold, as if it was neces
sary to complete the measure of his infamy, that he should carry
fire and sword into his native state, and desecrate the very cradle
of his infancy.
On the 6th of September he appeared off the harbor of New
London with a fleet of ships and transports and a force of two
thousand infantry and three hundred cavalry ; partly British troops,
but a great part made up of American loyahsts and Hessians.
New London stands on the west bank of the river Thames.
The approach to it was defended by two forts on opposite sides of
the river, and about a mhe below the town ; Fort Trumbuh on
the west and Fort Griswold on the east side, on a height called
Groton Hih. The troops landed in two divisions of about eight
hundred raen each; one under Lieutenant-colonel Eyre on the

Washington's March
UPON WESTPOiNr'^i /
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To face page 464.

SECOND GREAT TRIUMPH— YORKTOWN. 465
east side, the other under Arnold on the west, on the same side
with New London, and about three mhes below it. Arnold raet
with but little opposition. The few railitia which manned an
advance battery and Fort Trurabuh, abandoned their posts, and
crossed the river to Fort Griswold. He pushed on and took pos
session of the town.
Colonel Eyre had a harder task. The raihtia, about one hun
dred and fifty-seven strong, had collected in Fort Griswold, hastily
and imperfectly armed it is true, some of them merely with spears ;
but they were brave raen, and had a brave coramander. Colonel
Whliam Ledyard, brother of the celebrated traveller. The fort
was square and regularly built. Arnold, unaware of its strength,
had ordered Colonel Eyre to take it by a coup de main. He dis
covered his raistake, and sent counter- orders, but too late.
Colonel Eyre forced the pickets ; raade his way into the fosse,
and attacked the fort on three sides ; it was bravely defended ;
the eneray were repeatedly repulsed ; they returned to the assault,
scrarabled up on each other's shoulders, effected a lodgeraent, and
raade their way with fixed bayonets. Colonel Eyre received a
mortal wound near the works ; Major Montgomery took his place ;
a negro thrust him through with a spear as he mounted the para
pet ; Major Bromfield succeeded to the comraand, and carried
the fort at the point of the bayonet. The enemy, exasperated by
the stubborn resistance, continued the deadly work of musket and
bayonet. Seventy of the garrison were slain, and thirty-five des
perately wounded; and most of them after the fort had been
taken. Amold, in the raeantirae, had carried on the work of destruc
tion at New London. Sorae of the Araeriean shipping had
effected their escape up the river, but a nuraber were burnt. Fire
was set to the public stores ; it was communicated to the dwell
ing-houses, and, in a little while, the whole place was wrapped in
flames. The destruction was iramense : raany farailies once living
in affluence were ruined and rendered homeless. Having com
pleted his ravage, Arnold retreated to his boats, leaving the towm
still burning. Alarm guns had roused the country; the traitor

466 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
was pursued by the exasperated yeomanry; he escaped their
weh-raerited vengeance, but several of his men were kihed and
wounded. So ended his career of infaray in his native land ; a
land which had once delighted to honor him, but in which his
name was never thenceforth to be pronounced without a raaledic-
tion. The expedition, whhe it added one more hateful and disgrace
ful incident to this unnatural war, failed of its main object. It
had not diverted Washington from the grand object on which he
had fixed his mind. On the 30th of August, he, with his suite,
had arrived at Philadelphia about noon, and alighted at the city
tavern amidst enthusiastic crowds, who welcomed hira -with accla
mations, but wondered at the object of this visit.
At Philadelphia Washington received dispatches from Lafayette,
dated the 21st and 24th of August, giving an account of affairs in
Virginia. Yorktown, where Lord Cornwallis had taken his stand, was a
small place situated on a projecting bank on the south side of
York river, opposite a promontory cahed Gloucester Point. The
river between was not more than a mile wide, but deep enough to
admit ships of a large size and burden. Here concentrating his
forces, he had proceeded to fortify the opposite points, calculating
to have the works finished by the beginning of October ; at which
time Sir Henry Clinton intended to recommence operations on the
Chesapeake. Believing that he had no present enemy but Lafay
ette to guard against, Cornwahis felt so secure in his position, that
he wrote to Sir Henry on the 2 2d of August, offering to detach a
thousand or twelve hundred men to strengthen New York against
the apprehended attack of the corabined armies.
While Cornwahis, undervaluing his youthful adversary, felt thus
secure, Lafayette, in conformity to the instructions of ^Vashington,
was taking measures to cut off any retreat by land which his lord
ship might attempt on the arrival of Grasse. With this view
he called upon the governor of Virginia, for six hundred militia to
be collected upon the Blackwater ; he detached troops to the south
of Jaraes river, and was prepared hiraself, as soon as he should

SECOND GREAT TRIUMPH— YORKTOWN. 46?
hear of the arrival of Grasse, to raarch at once to Williamsburg
and form a junction with the troops which were to be landed from
the fleet. Thus a net was quietly drawn round Cornwahis by the
youthful general, while the veteran felt himself so secure that he
was talking of detaching troops to New York.
Washington left Philadelphia on the 5 th of September, on his
way to the Head of Elk. About three mhes below Chester, he
was raet by an express bearing tidings of the arrival of the Count
de Grasse in the Chesapeake with twenty-eight ships of the line.
Washington instantly rode back to Chester to rejoice with the
Count de Rocharabeau, who was coraing down to that place frora
Philadelphia by water. They had a joyous dinner together, after
which Washington proceeded in the evening on his destination.
The express meantime reached Philadelphia most opportunely.
There had been a grand review of the French troops, at which the
President of Congress and all the fashion of the city were present.
It was fohowed by a banquet given to the officers by the French
rainister, the Chevalier de Luzerne. Scarce were the company
seated at table, when dispatches came announcing the arrival of
Grasse and the landing of three thousand troops under the Mar
quis de St. Simon, who, it was added, had opened a communication
with Lafayette. Ah now was mutual gratulation at the banquet.
The news soon went forth and spread throughout the city. Accla
mations were to be heard on ah sides, and crowds assembhng be
fore the house of the French Minister rent the air with hearty
huzzas for Louis XVI.
Washington reached the Head of Elk on the 6th. The troops
and a great part of the stores were already arrived, and beginning
to embark. Thence he wrote to the Count de Grasse, fehcitating
him on his arrival, and inforraing him that the vans of the two
armies were about to embark and fall down the Chesapeake, form
a junction with the troops under the Marquis de St. Simon and the
Marquis de Lafayette, and co-operate in blocking up Cornwallis in
York river, so as to prevent his retreat by land or his getting any
supplies from the country. " As it will be of the greatest irapor
tance " writes he, " to prevent the escape of his lordship frora his

468 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
present position, I am persuaded that every raeasure which pm
dence can dictate wih be adopted for that purpose, until the arrival
of our coraplete force, when I hope his lordship wih be corapehed
to yield his ground to the superior power of our corabined forces."
Everything had thus far gone on well, but there were not vessels
enough at the Head of Elk for the iraraediate transportation of all
the troops, ordnance, and stores ; a part of the troops would have
to proceed to Baltiraore by land. Washington, accorapanied by
Rocharabeau, crossed the Susquehanna early on the 8th, and
pushed forward for Baltiraore. He was met by a deputation of
the citizens, who made hira a public address, to which he replied,
and his arrival was celebrated in the evening with ihurainations.
On the 9th he left Baltimore a little after daybreak, accora
panied only by Colonel Huraphreys ; the rest of his suite were to
follow at their ease ; for hiraself, he was deterrained to reach
Mount Vernon that evening. Six years had elapsed since last he
was under its roof; six wearing years of toh, of danger, and of
constant anxiety. During all that tirae, and araid all his military
cares, he had kept up a regular weekly correspondence with his
steward or agent, regulating all the affairs of his rural estabhsh
ment with as much exactness as he did those of the array. It
was a late hour when he arrived at Mount Vernon, where he
was joined by his suite at dinner-tirae on the following day, and
by the Count de Rocharabeau in the evening. General Chastellux
and his aides-de-carap arrived there on the nth, and Mount Ver
non was now crowded with guests, who were ah entertained in the
araple style of old Virginian hospitality. On the 12th, tearing
hiraself away once raore frora the horae of his heart, Washington
with his rahitary associates continued onward to join Lafayette
at Williamsburg.
Cornwahis entrapped. — Lord Cornwallis had been corapletely
roused frora his dream of security by the appearance, on the 28th
of August, of the fleet of Count de Grasse within the Capes of the
Delaware. Three French ships of the line and a frigate soon
anchored at the raouth of York river. The boats of the fleet
were iraraediately busy conveying three thousand three hundred

SECOND GREAT TRIUMPH— YORKTOWN. 469
land forces, under the Marquis de St. Siraon, up Jaraes river to
form the preconcerted junction with Lafayette.
Awakened to his danger, Cornwalhs, as Washington had fore
seen, meditated a retreat to the Carolinas. It was too late. York
river was blocked up by French ships ; James river was filled
with armed vessels covering the transportation of the troops. His
lordship reconnoitered Williamsburg ; it was too strong to be forced,
and Wayne had crossed James river to join his troops to those
under the marquis. Seeing his retreat cut off in every direction,
Cornwallis proceeded to strengthen his works ; sending off re
peated expresses to apprise Sir Henry Clinton of his perhous
situation. The Count de Grasse, eager to return to the West Indies, urged
Lafayette to make an immediate attack upon the British army,
with the American and French troops under his coraraand, with
out waiting for the combined force under Washington and
Rochambeau, offering to aid hira with raarines and sailors from
the ships. The admiral was seconded by the Marquis de St.
Siraon. They represented that the works at Yorktown were yet
incoraplete ; and that that place and Gloucester, immediately
opposite, raight be carried by storm by their superior force. It
was a' brihiant achievement which they held out to tempt the
youthful coramander, but he remained undazzled. He would not,
for the sake of personal distinction, lavish the lives of the brave
men confided to him, but would await the arrival of the combined
forces, when success raight be attained with littie loss, and would
leave to Washington the coup de grace, — in all probability the clos
ing triuraph of the war.
The Count de Grasse had been but a few days anchored within
the Chesapeake, and fifteen hundred of his seamen were absent,
conveying the troops up James river, when Admiral Graves, who
then comraanded the British naval force on the American coast,
appeared with twenty sail off the capes of Virginia. Grasse,
anxious to protect the squadron of the Count de Barras, which
was expected from Rhode Island, and which it was the object of
Graves to intercept, immediately slipped his cables and put to sea

470 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
wdth twenty-four ships, leaving the rest to blockade York and
James rivers.
Washington received information of the sailing of the fleet from
the capes, shortly after his departure from Mount Vernon, and
instantly dispatched missives, ordering the troops who were em
barked at the Head of Elk to stop unth the receipt of further
intelligence, fearing that the navigation in Chesapeake Bay might
not be secure. For two days he remained in anxious uncertainty,
unth, at Bowling Green, he was reheved by favorable rumors con
cerning the fleet, which were confirmed on his arriving at Whhams-
burg on the evening of the 14th.
Admiral Graves, it appeared, on the sallying forth of the French
fleet, immediately prepared for action, although he had five ships
less than Grasse. The latter, however, was not disposed to ac
cept the challenge, his force being weakened by the absence of
so raany of his seamen, employed in transporting troops. His
plan was to occupy the enemy by partial actions and skilful
raanceuvres, so as to retain his possession of the Chesapeake, and
cover the arrival of Barras.
The vans of the two fleets, and sorae ships of the centre,
engaged about four o'clock in the aftemoon of the 7th of Septem
ber. The conflict soon became aniraated. Several ships were
damaged, and many men khled and wounded on both sides.
Grasse, who had the advantage of the wind, drew off after
sunset ; satisfied with the damage done and sustained, and not
disposed for a general action ; nor was the British admiral in
chned to push the engagement so near night, and on a hostile
coast. Among his ships that had suffered, one had been so
severely handled, that she was no longer seaworthy, and had to be
burnt. For four days the fleets remained in sight of each other,
repairing damages and manceuvring ; but the French having still
the advantage of the wind, raaintained their prudent policy of
avoiding a general engagement. At length Grasse, learning that
Barras was arrived within the capes, formed a junction with
him, and returned with him to his former anchoring ground, with
two English frigates which he had captured. Adrairal Graves,

SECOND GREAT TRIUMPH— YORKTOWN. 471
disappointed in his hope of intercepting Barras, and finding the
Chesapeake guarded by a superior force with which he could
not prudently contend, left the coast and bore away for New York.
On the I Sth Washington and Rochambeau proceeded down
James river, and came next raorning in sight of the French fleet
riding at anchor in Lynn Haven Bay. About noon they got along
side of the adrairal's ship, the Ville de Faris, and were received
on board with great cereraony, and naval and raihtary parade.
Adrairal de Grasse was a tall, fine-looking raan, plain in his
address and prorapt in the discharge of business. A plan of
co-operation was soon arranged, to be carried into effect on the
arrival of the American and French armies from the North, which
were actually on their way down the Chesapeake frora the Head
of Elk. Business being dispatched, dinner was served, after which
they were conducted throughout the ship, and received the visits
of the officers of the fleet, alraost ah of whom came on board.
About sunset Washington and his companions took their leave
of the adrairal. Owing to storras and contrary winds, the party
did not reach Whliarasburg until the 2 2d, when intelligence was
received that threatened to disconcert all the plans forraed in the
recent council on board ship. Admiral Digby, it appeared, had
arrived in New York with six ships of the line and a reinforcement
of troops. This intelligence Washington instantly transmitted to
the Count de Grasse, who in reply expressed great concern,
observing that the position of affairs was changed by the arrival of
Digby. "The eneray," writes he, "is now nearly equal to us in
strength, and it would be imprudent, in me to place rayself in a
situation that would prevent my attacking thera should they atterapt
to afford succor." He proposed, therefore, to leave two vessels at
the raouth of York river, and the corvettes and frigates in James
river, which, with the French troops on shore, would be sufficient
assistance ; and to put to sea with the rest, either to intercept the
eneray and fight them where there was good sea room, or to block
ade thera in New York should they not have sailed.
On reading this letter, Washington dreaded that the present
plan of co-operation raight likewise fall through, and the fruits of

472 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
ah his schemes and combinations be lost when within his reach.
With the assistance of the fleet the reduction of Yorktown was
demonstrably certain, and the surrender of the garrison must go
far to terminate the war ; whereas the departure of the ships, by
leaving an opening for succor to the eneray, niight frastrate these
brilliant prospects and involve the whole enterprise in rain and
disgrace. Even a moraentary absence of the French fleet raight
enable Cornwallis to evacuate Yorktown and effect a retreat, with
the loss raerely of his baggage and artillery, and perhaps a few
soldiers. These and other considerations were urged in a letter to
the count, reraonstrating against his putting to sea. Lafayette was
the bearer of the letter, and seconded it with so raany particulars
respecting the situation of the arraies, and argued the case so
earnestly and eloquently, that the count consented to reraain.
By the 2Sth the American and French troops were mostly arrived
and encamped near Williamsburg, and preparations were made for
the decisive blow.
Yorktown, as already noted, is situated on the south side of
York river, immediately opposite Gloucester Point. Cornwallis
had fortified the town with seven redoubts and six batteries on the
land side, connected by entrenchments, and there was a line of
batteries along the river. The town was flanked on each side by
deep ravines and creeks emptying into York river ; their heads, in
front of the town, being not more than half a raile apart. The
eneray had availed theraselves of these natural defences in the
arrangement of extensive outworks, with redoubts raounted with
cannon, and trees cut down and left with the branches pointed
outward. Gloucester Point had likewise been fortified, its batteries,
with those of Yorktown, coraraanding the intervening river. Ships
of war were likewise stationed on it, protected by the guns of the
forts, and the channel was obstracted by sunken vessels. The
defence of Gloucester Point was confided to Lieutenant-colonel
Dundas, with six or seven hundred raen. The eneray's raain array
was encamped about Yorktown, within the range of the outer
redoubts and field-works.
Washington and his staff bivouacked that night on the ground

SECOND GREAT TRIUMPH— YORKTOWN. 473
m the open air. He slept under a mulberry tree, the root serving
for his pillow. On the following morning the two arraies drew out
on each side of Beaver Dam Creek. The Americans, forming the
right wing, took station on the east side of the creek ; the French,
forraing the left wing, on the west. That evening Cornwallis re
ceived dispatches frora Sir Henry Chnton, informing hira of the
arrival of Adrairal Digby, and that a fleet of twenty-three ships of
the line, with about five thousand troops, would sail to his assist
ance probably on the sth of October. A heavy firing would be
raade by thera on arriving at the entrance of the Chesapeake. On
hearing it, if all went on well at Yorktown, his lordship was to
raake three separate colurans of sraoke ; and four, should he still
possess the post at Gloucester Point.
Cornwahis immediately wrote in reply : " I have ventured these
last two days to look General Washington's whole force in the face
in the position on the outside of my works, and have the pleasure
to assure your Excellency that there is but one wish throughout
the army, which is that the enemy would advance. ... I shall
retire this night within the works, and have no doubt, if relief
arrives in any reasonable time, York and Gloucester will be both
in the possession of His Majesty's troops. I believe your Excel
lency raust depend more on the sound of our cannon than the
signal of smokes for information ; however, I whl attempt it on
the Gloucester side."
That night his lordship accordingly abandoned his outworks,
and drew his troops within the town, — a measure strongly cen
sured by Tarleton in his Comraentaries as premature ; as coop
ing up the troops in narrow quarters, and giving up a means of
disputing, inch by inch, the approaches of the besiegers, and thus
gaining time to complete the fortifications of the town. The out
works thus abandoned were seized the next morning by detach
raents of Araeriean light infantry, and ser\'ed to cover the troops
eraployed in throwing up breastworks. Colonel Alexander Scara
mel officer of the day, while reconnoitering the ground abandoned
by the enemy, was set upon by a party of Hessian troopers. He
attempted to escape, but was wounded, captured, and carried off.

474 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
The combined French and American forces were now twelve
thousand strong, exclusive of the Virginia militia. On the morn
ing of the 28th of September they marched from Wilharasburg
toward Yorktown, about twelve miles distant, and encamped at
night within two mhes of it, driving in the pickets and some
patrols of cavalry. By the first of October the line of the be
siegers, nearly two miles from the works, formed a semicircle, each
end resting on the river, so that the investment by land was
complete ; while the Count de Grasse, with the raain fleet, re
raained in Lynn Haven Bay to keep off assistance by sea.
At this raoraentous tirae, when the first parallel before the be
sieged carap was about to be opened, Washington received dis
patches from his faithful coadjutor. General Greene, giving him
iraportant intelligence of his co-operations in the South ; to con
sider which we will suspend for a moment our narrative of affairs
before Yorktown.
Battle of Eutaw Springs. — For some weeks Greene had re
mained encamped with his main force on the high hills of Santee,
refreshing and disciplining his men. On the 2 2d of August he
broke up his encampment, to march against Colonel Stuart. The
latter still lay encamped about sixteen miles distant in a straight
line ; but the Congaree and Wateree lay between, bordered by
swaraps overflowed by recent rains. To cross thera and reach the
hostile camp, it was necessary to make a circuit of seventy mhes.
^^¦hile Greene was making it, Stuart abandoned his position, and
moved down forty railes to the vicinity of Eutaw Springs, where
he was reinforced by a detachment from Charleston with pro
visions. Greene followed by easy raarches. He had been joined by
Pickens with a party of militia, and by the state troops under
Lieutenant-colonel Henderson ; and now moved slowly to give
time for Marion, who was scouring the country about the Edisto,
to rejoin him. This was done on the sth of September at Lau
rens' place, within seventeen miles of Stuart's camp. Here bag
gage, tents, everything that could irapede motion, was left behind,
and on the aftemoon of the seventh the army was pushed on

SECOND GREAT TRIUMPH— YORKTOWN. 475
within seven miles of the Eutaws, where it bivouacked for the night.
At four o'clock in the morning his littie army was in motion.
His whole force did not exceed two thousand men ; that of the
enemy was about twenty-three hundred. The Americans, however,
were superior in cavalry. Owing to the difficulty of receiving
information, the eneray were not aware of Greene's approach unth
he was close upon thera.
His army advanced in two columns, which were to form the
two lines of battle. Within four miles of Eutaw they met with a
small British detachraent, sent forward to reconnoiter ; it was put
to flight after a severe skirraish. Supposing this to be the van of
the enemy, Greene halted his columns and formed. The South
Carohnians in equal divisions forraed the right and left of the first
hne, the North Carohnians the centre. General Marion com
manded the right ; General Pickens, the left ; Colonel Malmedy,
the centre. Colonel Henderson with the state troops covered the
left of the line ; Colonel Lee with his legion, the right. Of the
second hne, coraposed of regulars, the North Carohnians, under
General Sumner, were on the right ; the Marylanders, under Colo
nel Williams, on the left; the Virginians, under Colonel Camp
bell, in the centre. Colonel Washington with his cavalry followed
in the rear as a corps de reserve. Two three-pounders raoved on
the road in the centre of the first line. Two six-pounders in a
hke position in the second line.
In this order the troops moved forward, keeping their lines as
well as they could through open woods, which covered the coun
try on each side of the road. Within a mile of the carap they
encountered a body of infantry thrown forward by Colonel Stuart,
to check their advance whhe he had tirae to forra bis troops in
order of battle. These were drawn up in line in a wood two hundred
yards west of Eutaw Springs. The right rested on Eutaw Creek,
and was covered by a battalion of grenadiers and infantry under
Major Majoribanks, partly concealed among thickets on the mar
gin of the stream. The left of the line extended across the
Charleston road, with a reserve corps in a commanding situation
covering the road. About fifty yards in the rear of the British line

476 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
was a cleared field, in which was their encampment, with the tents
ah standing. Adjoining it was a brick house with a palisadoed
garden which Colonel Stuart intended as a protection, if too much
pressed by cavalry.
The advanced party of infantry, which had retired firing before
the Americans, formed on the flanks of Colonel Stuart's line. The
Carolinian mhitia had pressed after them. About nine o'clock
the action was comraenced by the left of the Araeriean line, and
soon became general. The railitia fought for a tirae with the spirit
and firmness of regulars. Their two field-pieces were disraounted ;
so was one of the enemy's ; and there was great carnage on both
sides. The militia fought until they had expended seventeen
rounds, when they gave way, covered by Lee and Henderson, who
fought bravely on the flanks on the line.
Sumner, with the regulars who formed the second line, advanced
in fine style to take the place of the first. The eneray likewise
brought their reserve into action ; the conflict continued to be
bloody and severe. Colonel Henderson, who commanded the
state troops in the second hne, was severely wounded ; this caused
sorae confusion. Suraner's brigade, formed partly of recruits, gave
way under the superior fire of the enemy. The British rushed for
ward to secure their fancied victory. Greene, seeing their hne
disordered, instantly ordered Whliaras with his Marylanders to
" sweep the field with the bayonet.'' Wihiams was seconded by
Colonel Campbell with the Virginians. The order was gallantly
obeyed. They delivered a deadly vohey at forty yards' distance,
and then advanced at a brisk rate, with loud shouts and trailed
arms, prepared to make the deadly thrust. The British recoiled.
¦While the Marylanders and Virginians attacked them in front, Lee
with his legion turned their left flank and charged thera in rear.
Colonel Hampton with the state cavalry made a great number of
prisoners, and Colonel Washington, coming up with his reserve of
horse and foot, completed their defeat. They were driven back
through their camp ; many were captured ; many fled along the
Charleston road, and others threw themselves into the brick house.
Major Majoribanks and his troops could still enfilade the left

SECOND GREAT TRIUMPH— YORKTOWN. 477
flank of the Americans from their covert among the thickets on
the border of the stream. Greene ordered Colonel Washington
with his dragoons and Kirkwood's Delaware infantry to dislodge
them, and Colonel Wade Hampton to assist with the state troops.
Colonel Washington, without waiting for the infantry, dashed for
ward with his dragoons. It was a rash move. The thickets were
impervious to cavalry. The dragoons separated into small squads,
and endeavored to force their way in. Horses and riders were
shot down or bayoneted ; raost of the officers were either khled or
wounded. Colonel Washington had his horse shot under hira ; he
himself was bayoneted, and would have been slain, had not a
British officer interposed, and taken hira prisoner. By the tirae
Hampton and Kirkwood came up, the cavalry were routed ; the
ground was strewed with the dead and the wounded ; horses
were plunging and struggling in the agonies of death; others
were galloping about without their riders. Whhe Harapton rahied
the scattered cavalry, Kirkwood's Delawares charged with bay
onets upon the enemy in the thicket. Majoribanks feh back with
his troops and made a stand in the palisadoed garden of the brick
house. Victory now seemed certain on the side of the Americans.
They had driven the British from the field, and had taken posses
sion of their carap ; unfortunately, the soldiers, thinking the day
their own, feh to plundering the tents, devouring the food and
carousing on the liquors found there. Many of them became in
toxicated and unmanageable — the officers mterfered in vain ; ah
was riot and disorder.
The enemy in the meantime recovered from their confusion
and opened a fire from every window of the house and from the
palisadoed garden. There was a scattering fire also frora the
woods and thickets on the right and left. Four cannon, one of
which had been captured from the eneray, were now advanced by
the Americans to batter the house. The fire from the whidows
was so severe, that most of the officers and men who served the
cannon were either kihed or wounded. Greene ordered the sur
vivors to retire ; they did so, leaving the cannon behind.

478 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
Colonel Stuart was by this time rallying his left wing, and ad
vancing to support the right ; when Greene, finding his araraunition
nearly exhausted, deterrained to give up the atterapt to dislodge
the enemy from their places of refuge, since he could not do it
without severe loss ; whereas the enemy could maintain their posts
but a few hours, and he should have a better opportunity of attack
ing them on their retreat. He remained on the ground long enough
to collect his wounded, excepting those who were too much under
the fire of the house, and then, leaving Colonel Hampton with
a strong picket on the field, he returned to the position seven
miles off which he had left in the morning, not finding water
anywhere nearer.
The eneray decaraped in the night after destroying a large
quantity of provisions, staving many barrels of ram, and breaking
upwards of a thousand stand of arms which they threw into the
springs of the Eutaw; they left behind also seventy of their
wounded, who raight have irapeded the celerity of their retreat.
Their loss in killed, wounded, and captured, in this action, was
six hundred and thirty-three, of whora five hundred were prisoners
in the hands of the Araericans ; the loss sustained by the latter in
kihed, wounded, and raissing, was five hundred and thirty-five.
Stuart met with reinforcements about fourteen miles frora Eutaw,
but continued his retreat to Monk's Comer, within twenty-five
mhes of Charleston. Greene pursued him almost to Monk's
Corner ; finding the nuraber and position of the enemy too strong
to be attacked with prudence, he fell back to Eutaw, where he re
raained a day or two to rest his troops, and then returned by easy
marches to his old position near the heights of Santee.
The victory at Eutaw Springs, incomplete as it was, finished the
overthrow of the eneray in South Carolina. Hereafter the British
were practically cooped up in Charleston.
Surrender of Cornwallis. — General Lincoln had the honor on
the night ofthe 6th of October, 1781, of opening the first parallel
before Yorktown. It was within six hundred yards of the enemy ;
neariy two miles in extent, and the foundations were laid for two
redoubts. He had under hira a large detachment of French and

SECOND GREAT TRIUMPH— YORKTOWN. 479
American troops, and the work was conducted with such silence in
a night of extreme darkness, that the enemy were not aware of it
unth daylight. A severe cannonade was then opened from the
fortifications ; but the men were under cover and continued work
ing — the greatest emulation and good wih prevaihng between the
officers and soldiers of the ahied arraies thus engaged.
By the aftemoon of the 9th the parahel was corapleted, and two
or three batteries were ready to fire upon the town. " General
Washington put the raatch to the first gun," says an observer who
was present ; " a furious discharge of cannon and mortars immedi
ately followed, and Earl Comwahis received his first salutation."
The cannonade was kept up alraost incessantly for three or four
days frora the batteries above raentioned, and from three others
managed by the French. The half-finished works of the eneray
suffered severely, the guns were disraounted or silenced, and raany
men khled. The red-hot shot from the French batteries north
west of the town reached the Enghsh shipping. The Charon,
a forty-four-gun ship, and three large transports, were set on fire by
them. The flames ran up the rigging to the tops of the masts.
The conflagration, seen in the darkness of the night, with the ac
companying flash and thundering of cannon, and soaring and
bursting of shehs, and the tremendous explosions of the ships, all
presented a scene of mingled magnificence and horror.
On the night of the nth the second parahel was opened by
Steuben's division, wdthin three hundred yards of the works. The
British now made new embrasures, and for two or three days kept
up a gahing fire upon those at work. The latter were still more
annoyed by the flanking fire of two redoubts three hundred yards
in front of the British works. As they enfiladed the entrench
ments, and were supposed also to comraand the communication
between Yorktown and Gloucester, it was resolved to storm them
both, on the night of the 14th ; the one nearest the river by a de
tachment of Americans coranjanded by Lafayette ; the other by a
French detachraent led by the Baron de Vioraenh. The grenadiers
of the regiraent of Gatinais were to be at the. head of the French
detachment. This regiment had been formed out of that of

480 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
Auvergne, of which Rochambeau had been colonel, and which,
by its brave and honorable conduct, had won the appehation of
the regiraent d Auvergne sans tache (Auvergne without a stain) .
About eight o'clock in the evening rockets were sent up as sig
nals for the siraultaneous attack. Harahton led the advance of
the Americans. The men, without waiting for the sappers to de
molish the abatis in regular style, pushed thera aside or pulled
thera down with their hands, and scrarabled over, like rough bush-
fighters. Harailton was the first to mount the parapet, placing
one foot on the shoulder of a soldier, who knelt on one knee for
the purpose. The raen mounted after him. Not a musket was
fired. The redoubt was carried at the point of the bayonet. Not
a raan was kihed after he ceased to resist.
The French stormed the other redoubt, which was raore strongly
garrisoned, with equal gallantry, but less precipitation. They
proceeded according to rule. * The soldiers paused while the
sappers reraoved the abatis, during which tirae they were ex
posed to a destructive fire, and lost more men than did the
Americans in their headlong attack. As the Baron de Vioraenh,
who led the party, was thus waiting. Major Barbour, Lafayette's
aide-de-carap, came through the tremendous fire of the eneray,
with a raessage frora the raarquis, letting hira know that he was in
his redoubt, and wished to know where the baron was. "Tell the
marquis," rephed the latter, " that I am not in mine, but will be
in it in five minutes."
Washington was an intensely excited spectator of these assaults,
on the result of which so much depended. He had dismounted,
given his horse to a servant, and taken his stand in the grand bat
tery with generals Knox and Lincoln and their staffs. The risk he
ran of a chance shot, while watching the attack through an em
brasure, made those about him uneasy. One of his aides-de-camp
ventured to observe that the situation was very much exposed.
"If you think so," rephed he gravely, "you are at liberty to step
back." Shortiy afterwards a musket-bah struck the cannon in the
embrasure, rolled along it, and fell at his feet. General Knox
grasped his arm. " My dear general," exclaimed he, " we can't

SECOND GREAT TRIUMPH— YORKTOWN. 481
spare you yet." " It is a spent ball," replied Washington quietiy ;
" no harm is done." When all was over, and the redoubts were
taken, he drew a long breath, and turning to Knox, observed,
" The work is done, and well done ! " Then cahed to his servant,
"William, bring rae ray horse."
The redoubts thus taken were included the same night in the
second parallel, and howitzers were raounted upon them the fol
lowing day. The capture of them reduced Lord Cornwallis almost
to despair. Had the fleet and army sailed, as he had been given
to expect, about the sth of October, they might have arrived in
tirae to save his lordship ; but at the date of the above letter they
were stih lingering in port. The second parallel was now nearly
ready to open. Cornwallis dreaded the effect of its batteries on
his alraost dismantled works. At this time the garrison could not
show a gun on the side of the works exposed to attack, and the
shells were nearly expended ; the place was no longer tenable.
Rather than surrender, Cornwallis determined to atterapt an es
cape. His plan was to leave his sick and wounded and his bag
gage behind, cross over in the night to Gloucester Point, push for
the upper country by rapid raarches until opposite the fords of the
great rivers, then turn suddenly northward, force his way through
Maryland, Pennsylvania, and the Jerseys, and join Sir Henry Clin
ton in New York.
It was a whd and daring scheme, but his situation was desper
ate, and the idea of surrender intolerable. In pursuance of the
design, sixteen large boats were secretly prepared ; a detachment
was appointed to remain and capitulate for the town's people, the
sick, and the wounded ; a large part of the troops were transported
to the Gloucester side of the river before midnight, and the second
division had actually embarked, when a violent storm of wind and
rain scattered the boats, and drove them a considerable distance
down the river. They were collected with difficulty. It was now
too late to effect the passage of the second division before daybreak,
and an effort was raade to get back the division which had already
crossed. It was not done until the raoming was far advanced, and
the troops in recrossing were exposed to the fire of the American
batteries.

482 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
The hopes of Lord Comwalhs were now at an end. His works
were turabling in ruins about him, under an incessant cannonade ;
his garrison was exhausted by constant watching and severe duty.
Unwihing to expose the residue of his brave troops to the dangers
and horrors of an assault, he ordered a parley to be beaten about
ten o'clock on the morning of the 1 7th, and dispatched a flag with
a letter to Washington proposing a cessation of hosthities for
twenty-four hours, and that two officers might be appointed by
each side to meet and settle terms for the surrender of the posts
of Yorktown and Gloucester.
Washington felt unwilhng to grant such delay, when reinforce
ments raight be on the way for Cornwallis from New York. In
reply, therefore, he requested that, previous to the raeeting of cora
raissioners, his lordship's proposals raight be sent in writing to the
American hnes, for which purpose a suspension of hosthities dur
ing two hours frora the delivery of the letter, would be granted.
This was coraplied with ; but as the proposals offered by Comwal
hs were not all admissible, Washington drew up a schedule of such
terms as he would grant, and transmitted it to his lordship.
The armistice was prolonged. Coraraissioners met, and after
much discussion, a rough draft was raade of the terras of capitula
tion to be subraitted to the British general. These Washington
caused to be promptly transcribed, and sent to Lord Comwahis
early in the morning of the 19th, with a note expressing his expec
tation that they would be signed by eleven o'clock, and that the
garrison would be ready to march out by two o'clock in the after
noon. Lord Comwalhs was fain to coraply, and, accordingly,
on the sarae day, the posts of Yorktown and Gloucester were sur
rendered to General Washington as coramander-in-chief of the
combined array ; and the ships of war, transports, and other ves
sels, to the Count de Grasse, as coramander of the French fleet.
The garrisons of Yorktown and Gloucester, including the officers of
the navy and seamen of every denoraination, were to surrender as
prisoners of war to the corabined array ; the land force to reraain
prisoners to the United States, the searaen to the King of France.
The nuraber of prisoners raade by this capitulation araounted

SECOND GREAT TRIUMPH— YORKTOWN. 483
to 7073, of whom S9SO were rank and file. The loss sustained
by the garrison during the siege, in kihed, wounded, and missing,
amounted to S52. That of the combined army in kihed was
about 300. The combined army to which Cornwallis surrendered,
was estimated at 16,000, of whom 7000 were French, 5500 Con
tinentals, and 3500 railitia.
Comwahis felt deeply the huraihation of this close to ah his
wide and wild carapaigning, and was made more sensitive on the
subject by circumstances of which he soon becarae apprised. On
the very day that he had been compelled to lay down his arras
before Yorktown, the lingering armament intended for his relief
sailed from New York. It consisted of twenty-five ships of the
line, two fifty-gun ships, and eight frigates; with Sir Henry Clinton
and seven thousand of his best troops. Sir Henry arrived off the
Capes of Virginia on the 24th, and gathered inforraation which led
hira to apprehend that Lord Cornwalhs had capitulated. He
hovered off the raouth of the Chesapeake unth the 29th, when, hav
ing fully ascertained that he had come too late, he turned his
tardy prows toward New York.
In the meantime, the rejoicings which Washington had com
menced wdth appropriate solemnities in the victorious camp, had
spread throughout the Union. " Cornwalhs is taken ! " was the
universal acclaim. It was considered a death-blow to the war.
Congress gave way to transports of joy. Thanks were voted
to the coraraander-in-chief, to Rocharabeau and Grasse, to the
officers of the ahied armies generally, and to the corps of artihery
and engineers especially. Finally, Congress issued a proclamation,
appointing a day for general thanksgiving and prayer, in acknowl
edgment of this signal interposition of Divine Providence.
Far different was the feelhig of the British ministry when news
of the event reached the other side of the Atlantic. Lord George
Germaine was the first to announce it to Lord North at his office
in Downing Street. " And how did he take it? " was the inquiry.
" As he would have taken a bah in the breast," rephed Lord
George, " for he opened his arms, exclaiming wildly as he paced
up and down' the apartment, ' O God ! it is all over ! '" ^

484 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
§ II. Return of Peace.
Last Incidents of the War. — A dissolution of the combmed
forces now took place. The Marquis de St. Simon embarked his
troops on the last of October, and the Count de Grasse made sah
on the 4th of Noveraber, taking with him two beautiful horses
which Washington had presented to him in token of cordial re
gard. Lafayette, seeing there was no probabhity of further active
service at present, returned to France on a visit to his family.
The British prisoners were marched to Winchester in Virginia and
Frederick in Maryland, and Lord Comwalhs and his principal
officers sahed for New York on parole.
The main part of the American army erabarked for the Head of
Elk, and retumed northward under the comraand of General
Lincoln, to be cantoned for the winter in the Jerseys and on the
Hudson. The French array reraained for the winter in Virginia,
and the Count de Rochambeau estabhshed his head-quarters at
Williamsburg. Washington hiraself, after spending the winter in
Philadelphia with Congress, set out in March to rejoin the array
at Newburgh on the Hudson river.
Sir Guy Carleton arrived in New York early in May to take the
place of Sir Henry Clinton. Great discontents prevailed at this tirae
in the American army, araong both officers and men. The neglect
of the states to fumish their proportions of the sum voted by Con
gress for the prosecution of the war, had left the army alraost
destitute. There was scarce raoney sufficient to feed the troops
from day to day ; indeed, there were days when they were abso
lutely in want of provisions. The pay of the officers, too, was
greatly in arrear ; many of them doubted whether they would ever
receive the half-pay decreed to them by Congress for a terra of
years after the conclusion of the war, and fears began to be ex
pressed that, in the event of peace, they would all be disbanded
with their claims unliquidated, and themselves cast upon the
community penniless, and unfitted, by long mhitary habit, for the
gainful pursuits of peace.
At this juncture Washington received an extraordinary letter

RETURN OF PEACE. 485
from Colonel Lewis Nicola, a veteran officer, once coraraandant
of Fort Mifflin, who had been in habits of intiraacy with him, and
had warmly interceded in behalf of the suffering army. In this
letter he attributed ah the ills experienced and anticipated by the
army and the public at large, to the existing forra of government.
He conderaned a repubhcan forra as incompatible with national
prosperity, and advised a mixed government like that of England ;
which, he had no doubt, on its benefits being properly pointed
out, would be readily adopted. " In that case," he adds, " it will,
I believe, be uncontroverted, that the same abilities which have
led us through difficulties apparently insurraountable by huraan
power, to victory and glory ; those quahties that have merited and
obtained the universal esteem and veneration of an army, would
be most likely to conduct and direct us in the smoother paths of
peace. Some people have so connected the idea of tyranny and
monarchy, as to find it very difficult to separate thera. It raay,
therefore, be requisite to give the head of such a constitution as I
propose, sorae title apparently raore raoderate ; but, if all other
things were once adjusted, I believe strong arguraents might be
produced for admitting the title of King, which, I conceive, would
be attended with sorae material advantages."
Washington saw at once that Nicola was but the organ of a
mihtary faction, disposed to make the army the basis of an ener
getic governraent, and to place him at the head. The suggestion,
backed by the opportunity, might have tempted a man of meaner
ambition : from him it drew the following indignant letter : —
"With a mixture of great surprise and astonishment, I have
read with attention the sentiments you have subraitted to ray
perasal. Be assured, sir, no occurrence in the course of the war
has given me more painful sensations than your inforraation of
there being such ideas existing in the array, as you have expressed,
and I raust view them with abhorrence, and reprehend thera with
severity. For the present, the communication of them will rest in
my own bosom, unless some further agitation of the raatter shah
make a disclosure necessary.
" I am much at a loss to conceive what part of my conduct could

486 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
have given encouragement to an address, which to me seems
big with the greatest mischiefs that can befah my country. If
I am not deceived in the knowledge of rayself, you could not have
found a person to whora your schemes are more disagreeable. At
the sarae tirae, in justice to my own feelings, I must add, that no
man possesses a more sincere wish to see araple justice done to
the array than I do ; and as far as ray powers and influence, in a
constitutional way, extend, they shall be employed to the utmost
of my abihties to effect it, should there be any occasion. Let me
conjure you, then, if you have any regard for your country, con
cern for yourself, or posterity, or respect for me, to banish these
thoughts from your raind, and never communicate, as frora yourself
or any one else, a sentiraent of the like nature."
At length arrived the wished-for news of peace. A general
treaty was signed at Paris on the 20th of January, 1783. An
armed vessel, the Triumph, belonging to the Count d'Estaing's
squadron, arrived at Phhadelphia from Cadiz, on the 23d of
March, bringing a letter from the Marquis de Lafayette to the
President of Congress, coramunicating the intelligence. In a few
days Sir Guy Carleton inforraed Washington by letter, that he was
ordered to proclaira a cessation of hostilities by sea and land.
A sirahar proclaraation issued by Congress, was received by
Washington on the 17th of April. On the 19th Congress resolved
that the service of the raen engaged in the war did not expire
until the ratification of the definitive articles of peace ; but that
the coraraander-in-chief raight grant furloughs to such as he
thought proper, and that they should be allowed to take their arms
¦with them. Washington availed himself freely of this perraission :
furloughs were granted without stint ; the men set out singly or in
sraall parties for their rustic homes, and the danger and incon
venience were avoided of disbanding large m.asses, at a time, of
unpaid soldiery. Now and then were to be seen three or four in
a group, bound probably to the same neighborhood, beguhing the
way with camp jokes and camp stories. The war-worn soldier
was always kindly received at the farm-houses along the road,
where he might shoulder his gun and fight over his batties. The

RETURN OF PEACE. 487
men thus dismissed on furlough were never called upon to rejoin
the array. Once at home, they sank into domestic life ; their
weapons were hung up over their fire-places, military trophies of
the Revolution to be prized by future generations.
In the raeantirae Sir Guy Carleton was raaking preparations for
the evacuation of the city of New York. The raoment he had
received the royal order for the cessation of hostilities, he had
written for ah the shipping that could be procured frora Europe
and the West Indies. As eariy as the 27th of April a fleet had
sahed for different parts of Nova Scotia, carrying off about seven
thousand persons, with all their effects. A great part of these
were troops, but raany were loyalists, exhed by the laws of the
United States. They looked forward with a dreary eye to their
voyage, " bound," as one of them absurdly said, " to a country
where there were nine months of winter and three months of
cold weather every year."
By a proclaraation of Congress, dated i8th of October, all offi
cers and soldiers absent on furlough were discharged frora further
service ; and all others who had engaged to serve during the war,
were to be discharged from and after the 3d of November. A
small force only, coraposed of those who had enlisted for a definite
tirae, were to be retained in service until the peace estabhshment
should be organized.
Notwithstanding every exertion had been made for the evacua
tion of New York, such was the number of persons and the quan
tity of effects of all kinds to be conveyed away, that the month of
November was far advanced before it could be completed. On
the morning of the 2 sth the American troops moved frora Harlera
to the Bowery at the upper part of the city. There they remained
until the troops in that quarter were withdrawn, when they
marched into the city and took possession, the British embarking
from the lower parts. A formal entry then took place of the
mhitary and civil authorities. General Washington and Governor
Clinton, -with their suites, on horseback, led the procession,
escorted by a troop of Westchester cavalry. Then came the lieu
tenant-governor and members of the council. General Knox and

488 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
the officers of the array, the speaker of the Asserably, and a large
nuraber of citizens on horseback and on foot.
An Araeriean lady, who was at that time very young and had
resided during the latter part of the war in the city, has given us
an account of the striking contrast between the American and
British troops. "We had been accustomed for a long time," said
she, " to military display in all the finish and finery of garrison hfe ;
the troops just leaving us were as if equipped for show, and with
their scarlet uniforms and burnished arms made a brhliant display ;
the troops that marched in, on the contrary, were ill-clad and
weather-beaten, and raade a forlorn appearance ; but then they
were our troops, and as I looked at thera, and thought upon all
they had done and suffered for us, my heart and my eyes were full,
and I admired and gloried in thera the raore, because they were
weather-beaten and forlorn."
The city was now a scene of public festivity and rejoicing. The
governor gave banquets to the French ambassador, the com
mander-in-chief, the military and civil officers, and a large number
of the most erainent citizens, and at night the public were enter
tained by splendid fireworks. In the course of a few days
Washington prepared to depart for Annapolis, where Congress
was asserabling, with the intention of asking leave to resign his
coraraand. A barge was in waiting about noon on the 4th of
December at Whitehall Ferry to convey him across the Hudson
to Paulus Hook. The principal officers of the army assembled
at Fraunces' Tavern in the neighborhood of the ferry, to take
a final leave of him. On entering the room, and finding himself
surrounded by his old companions in arms, who had shared with
hira so many scenes of hardship, difficulty, and danger, his agitated
feelings overcarae his usual seh-coraraand. Filling a glass of wine,
and turning upon them his benignant but saddened countenance,
" With a heart fuh of love and gratitude," said he, " I now take
leave of you, most devoutly wishing that your latter days may be
as prosperous and happy as your forraer ones have been glorious
and honorable.'^ Having drunk this farewell benediction, he
added with eraotion, "I cannot corae to each of you to take

RETURN OF PEACE. 439
my leave, but shall be obhged if each of you whl come and take
me by the hand."
General Knox, who was nearest, was the first to advance.
Washington, affected even to tears, grasped his hand and gave
him a brother's erabrace. In the same affectionate manner he
took leave severally of the rest. Not a word was spoken. The
deep feeling and raanly tenderness of these veterans in the parting
moraent could find no utterance in words. Silent and soleran
they followed their loved coraraander as he left the roora, passed
through a corps of hght infantry, and proceeded on foot to White
hall Ferry. Having entered the barge, he turned to thera, took
off his hat and waved a silent adieu. They replied in the sarae
manner, and having watched the barge until the intervening point
of the Battery shut it from sight, returned, still solemn and silent,
to the place where they had asserabled.
On his way to Annapolis, Washington stopped for a few days
at Philadelphia, where with his usual exactness in raatters of busi
ness, he adjusted with the Comptroller of the Treasury his accounts
from the commencement of the war down to the 13th of the actual
month of Deceraber. These were all in his own handwriting, and
kept in the clearest and most accurate manner, each entry being
accorapanied by a statement of the occasion and object of the
charge. The gross amount was about fourteen thousand five hun
dred pounds sterling ; in which were included moneys expended for
secret intelligence and service, and in various incidental charges.
All this, it must be noted, was an account of money actually
expended in the progress of the war ; not for arrearage of pay ;
for it wih be recohected Washington accepted no pay. Indeed,
on the final adjustraent of his accounts, he found hiraself a consid
erable loser, having frequently, in the hufty of business, neglected
to credit hiraself with suras drawn from his private purse in
moments of exigency. The schedule of his pubhc account fur
nishes not the least among the raany noble and impressive lessons
tauo-ht by his character and exaraple. It stands a touchstone of
honesty in office, and a lasting rebuke on that lavish expenditure
of the public money, too often heedlessly, if not whfuhy, -indulged
K^r milit-arv commanders.

490 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
In passing through New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Maryland,
the scenes of his anxious and precarious campaigns, Washington
was everywhere hailed with enthusiasm by the people, and greeted
with addresses by legislative assembhes and learned and rehgious
institutions. He accepted thera ah with that raodesty inherent in
his nature ; little thinking that this present popularity was but the
early outbreaking of a fame that was to go on widening and deep
ening from generation to generation, and extending over the whole
civilized world.
Being arrived at Annapolis, he addressed a letter to the Presi
dent of Congress, on the 20th of December, requesting to know
in what raanner it would be most proper to offer his resigna
tion ; whether in writing or at an audience. The latter mode was
adopted, and the Hall of Congress appointed for the ceremonial.
A letter from Washington to the Baron Steuben, written on the
23d, concludes as follows: "This is the last letter I shall write
whhe I continue in the service of my country. The hour of my
resignation is fixed at twelve to-day, after which I shall become a
private citizen on the banks of the Potomac."
At twelve o'clock the gallery, and a great part of the floor of the
Hall of Congress, were fihed with ladies, with, pubhc functionaries
of the state, and with general officers. The raerabers of Congress
were seated and covered, as representatives of the sovereignty of
the Union. The gentlemen present as spectators were standing
and uncovered. Washington entered, conducted by the Secretary
of Congress, and took his seat in a chair appointed for him.
After a brief pause the president (General Mifflin) informed
him, that " the United States, in Congress assembled, were pre
pared to receive his communication." Washington then rose, and
in a dignified and impressive manner delivered a short address.
"The great events," said he, "on which ray resignation de
pended, having at length taken place, I now have the honor of
offering my sincere congratulations to Congress, and of presenting
myself before thera, to surrender into their hands the trust com
mitted to me, and to claira the indulgence of retiring from the
service of my country."

RETURN OF PEACE. 491
After expressing his obligations to the army in general, and ac
knowledging the peculiar services and distinguished merits of the
confidential officers who had been attached to his person, and
composed his family during the war, and whom he especially rec
ommended to the favor of Congress, he continued : —
" I consider it an indispensable duty to close this last solemn
act of my official life, by coraraending the interests of our dearest
country to the protection of Almighty God ; and those who have
the superintendence of them, to his holy keeping. Having now
finished the work assigned me, I retire from the great theatre of
action ; and, bidding an affectionate farewell to this august body
under whose orders I have long acted, I here offer my com
mission, and take my leave of all the employments of public
hfe." " Few tragedies ever drew so many tears from so raany beauti
ful eyes," says a writer who was present, " as the moving manner
in which his Excehency took his final leave of Congress."
Having delivered his commission into the hands of the presi
dent, the latter, in reply to his address, bore testimony to the pa
triotism with which he had answered to the call of his country, and
defended its invaded rights before it had formed alliances, and
while it was without funds or a government to support him ; to the
wisdom and fortitude with which he had conducted the great mili
tary contest, invariably regarding the rights of the civil power,
through all disasters and changes. "You retire," added he, "from
the theatre of action with the blessings of your fellow-citizens ; but
the glory of your virtues wih not terminate with your mhitary com
mand ; it will continue to animate remotest ages.''
The very next moming Washington left Annapolis, and hastened
to his beloved Mount Vernon, where he arrived the sarae day, on
Christraas-eve, in a frame of mind suited to enjoy the sacred and
genial festival. "The scene is at last closed," said he in a letter
to Governor Clinton ; " I feel myself eased of a load of public
care. I hope to spend the remainder of my days in cultivating
the affections of good men, and in the practice of the domestic
virtues."

492 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
The Federal Constitution. — Frora his quiet retreat at Mount
Vernon, Washhigton, though ostensibly withdrawn frora public
affairs, was watching with intense sohcitude the working together of
the several parts in the great political confederacy ; anxious to
know whether the thirteen distinct states, under the present organ
ization, could form a sufficiently efficient general government.
He was daily becoming more and more doubtful of the solidity of
the fabric he had assisted to raise. The forra of confederation
which had bound the states together and met the public exigen
cies during the Revolution, when there was a pressure of external
danger, was daily proving more and more incorapetent to the pur
poses of a national government. Congress had devised a system
of credit to provide for the national expenditure and the extinc
tion of national debts, which amounted to something more than
forty mihions of dollars. The system experienced neglect from
some states and opposition from others ; each consulting its local
interests and prejudices, instead of the interests and obligations of
the whole. In hke raanner treaty stipulations, which bound the
good faith of the whole, were slighted, if not violated, by individual
states, apparently unconscious that they must each share in the
discredit thus brought upon the national name.
In a letter to James Warren, who had formerly been president
of the Massachusetts Provincial Congress, Washington writes :
" The confederation appears to rae to be httle more than a shadow
without the substance, and Congress a nugatory body, their ordi
nances being little attended to. To rae it is a solecisra in poli
tics ; indeed, it is one of the raost extraordinary things in nature,
that we should confederate as a nation, and yet be afraid to give
the rulers of that nation (who are creatures of our own raaking,
appointed for a limited and short duration, and who are amenable
for every action and raay be recalled at any raoment, and are sub
ject to all the evils which they may be instrumental in producing)
sufficient powers to order and direct the affairs of the sarae. By
such pohcy as this the wheels of government are clogged, and our
brightest prospects, and that high expectation which was enter
tained of us by the wondering worid, are turned into astonishment ;

RETURN OF PEACE. 493
and from the high ground on which we stood, we are descending
into the vale of confusion and darkness."
Not long previous to the writing of this letter, Washington had
been visited at Mount Vernon by commissioners, who had been
appointed by the legislatures of Virginia and Maryland to form a
compact relative to the navigation of the rivers Potomac and
Pocomoke, and of part of the Chesapeake Bay, and who had met
at Alexandria for the purpose. During their visit at Mount Ver
non, the policy of maintaining a naval force on the Chesapeake,
and of establishing a tariff of duties on imports to which the laws
of both states should conform, was discussed, and it was agreed
that the coraraissioners should propose to the governments of
their respective states the appointraent of other coraraissioners,
with powers to make conjoint arrangeraents for the above pur
poses ; to which the assent of Congress was to be solicited.
The idea of conjoint arrangeraents between states, thus sug
gested in the quiet councils of Mount Vernon, was a step in the
right direction, and led to iraportant results.
Frora a letter, written two or three raonths subsequently, we
gather some of the ideas on national policy which were occupy
ing Washington's mind. " I have ever been a friend to adequate
powers in Congress, without which it is evident to rae, we never
shall establish a national character, or be considered as on a re
spectable footing by the powers of Europe. — We are either a
united people under one head and for federal purposes, or we are
thirteen independent sovereignties, eternally counteracting each
other. — If the former, whatever such a majority of the states as
the constitution points out, conceives to be for the benefit of the
whole, should in my hurable opinion, be subraitted to by the mi
nority. — I can foresee no evil greater than disunion ; than those
unreasonable jealousies (I say unreasonable, because I would have
a proper jealousy always awake, and the United States on the
watch to prevent individual states frora infracting the constitution
with impunity) which are continually poisoning our rainds and
filling them with imaginary evils for the prevention of real ones."
An earnest correspondeiice took place some months subse-

494 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
quently between Washington and the illustrious patriot, John Jay,
at that tirae Secretary of Foreign Affairs, wherein the signs of the
times were feelingly discussed.
" Our affairs," writes Jay, " seem to lead to sorae crisis, sorae
thing that I cannot foresee or conjecture. I ara uneasy and ap
prehensive, more so than during the war. Then we had a fixed
object, and though the raeans and tirae of obtaining it were prob
lematical, yet I did firmly believe that we should ultimately suc
ceed, because I did firmly believe that justice was wdth us. The
case is now altered. We are going and doing wrong, and there
fore I look forward to evils and calamities, but without being able
to guess at the instrament, nature, or raeasure of thera. . . .
What I most fear is, that the better kind of people, by which I
mean the people who are orderly and industrious, who are content
with their situations, and not uneasy in their circurastances, wih
be led by the insecurity of property, the loss of public faith and
rectitude, to consider the charras of liberty as iraaginary and delu
sive. A state of uncertainty and fluctuation raust disgust and
alarra." Washington, in reply, coincided in opinion that public
affairs were drawing rapidly to a crisis, and he acknowledged the
event to be equally beyond his foresight.
His anxiety on this subject was quickened by accounts of dis
contents and coramotions in the Eastern States produced by the
pressure of the times, the public and private indebtedness, and the
imposition of heavy taxes, at a moment of financial embarrass
ment. General Knox, now Secretary of War, who had been sent
by Congress to Massachusetts to inquire into these troubles, thus
writes about the insurgents who had cohected under the banner of
Daniel Shays : " Their creed is, that the property of the United
States has been protected from the confiscation of Britain by the
joint exertions of all, and therefore ought to be the common prop
erty of all, and he that attempts opposition to this creed, is an
eneray to equity and justice, and ought to be swept frora off. the
face of the earth." Again, " They are determined to annihilate
ah debts, public and private, and have agrarian laws, which are
easily effected by the means of unfunded paper, which shall be a
tender in all cases whatever,"

RETURN OF PEACE. 495
In reply to Colonel Henry Lee in Congress, who had addressed
several letters to him on the subject, Washington writes, " You
talk, my good sir, of employing influence to appease the present
tumults in Massachusetts. I know not where that influence is to
be found, or, if attainable, that it would be a proper reraedy for
the disorders. Influence is not government. Let us have a gov
ernraent by which our lives, liberties, and properties wih be se
cured, or let us know the worst at once. There is a call for decis
ion. Know precisely what the insurgents aim at. If they have
real grievances, redress thera, if possible ; or acknowledge the
justice of thera, and your inability to do it at the moment. If they
have not, eraploy the force of government against them at once.
If this is inadequate, all will be convinced that the superstruc
ture is bad and wants support. To delay one or other of these
expedients is to exasperate on the one hand, or to give confidence
on the other. . . . Let the reins of governraent, then, be braced
and held with a steady hand, and every violation of the constitu
tion be reprehended. If defective, let it be amended; but not
suffered to be trampled upon whilst it has an existence."
A letter to him from his former aide-de-camp. Colonel Hura
phreys, dated New Haven, Noveraber i, says : " The troubles in
Massachusetts stih continue. Government is prostrated in the
dust, and it is much to be feared that there is not energy enough
in that state to re-estabhsh the civil powers. The leaders of the
mob, whose fortunes and raeasures are desperate, are strengthen
ing theraselves daily ; and it is expected that they wih soon take
possession of the continental raagazine at Springfield, in which
there are frora ten to fifteen thousand stand of arras in excellent
order. A general want of corapliance with the requisitions of
Congress for money seeras to prognosticate that we are rapidly
advancing to a crisis. Congress, I ara told, is seriously alarraed,
and hardly knows which way to turn or what to expect. Indeed,
my dear General, nothing but a good Providence can extricate
us from the present convulsion. In case of civil discord, I have
already told you it was seriously my opinion that you could not
remain neutral, and that you would be obliged, in self-defence.

496 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
to take one part or the other, or withdraw from the continent.
Your friends are of the same opinion."
Thus Washington, even though in retirement, was almost uncon
sciously exercising a powerful influence on national affairs ; no
longer the soldier, he was now becoming the statesman. The
opinions and counsels given in his letters were widely effective.
The leading expedient for federate organization, mooted in his
conferences with the commissioners of Maryland and Virginia, dur
ing their visit to Mount Vernon in the previous year, had been
extended and ripened in legislative assemblies, and ended in a
plan of a convention composed of delegates from ah the states, to
meet in Philadelphia for the sole and express purpose of revising
the federal system, and correcting its defects ; the proceedings of
the convention to be subsequently reported to Congress, and the
several legislatures, for approval and confirraation.
Washington was unaniraously put at the head of the Virginia
delegation ; but for sorae tirae objected to accept the noraination.
He feared to be charged with inconsistency in again appearing in
a public situation, after his declared resolution to the contrary.
" It will have also," said he, " a tendency to sweep me back into
the tide of public affairs, when retirement and ease are so much
desired by me, and so essentially necessary."
These considerations were strenuously combated, for the weight
and influence of his narae and counsel were felt to be ah-irapor-
tant in giving dignity to the delegation. Two things contributed
to bring him to a favorable decision : First, an insinuation that the
opponents of the convention were monarchists, who wished the
distractions of the country should continue, until a monarchical
government might be resorted to as an ark of safety. The other
was the insurrection in Massachusetts.
Having made up his mind to serve as a delegate to the conven
tion, he went into a course of preparatory reading on the history
and principles of ancient and modern confederacies. An abstract
of the general principles of each, with notes of their vices or
defects, exists in his own handwriting, among his papers ; though
it is doubted by a judicious coraraentator whether it was origi-

RETURN OF PEACE. 497
nahy drawn up by him, as several works are cited which are written
in languages that he did not understand.
Before the time arrived for the meeting of the convention, which
was the second Monday in May, his mind was relieved frora one
source of poignant solicitude, by learning that the insurrection in
Massachusetts had been suppressed with but little bloodshed.
On the 9th of May, Washington set out in his carriage frora
Mount Vernon to attend the convention. It was not until the
25 th of May that a sufficient nuraber of delegates were asserabled
to form a quorura ; when they proceeded to organize the body,
and by a unaniraous vote called Washington to the chair as
president. We forbear to go into the volurainous proceedings of this mem
orable convention, which occupied from four to seven hours each
day for four months ; and in which every point was the subject
of able and scrupulous discussion by the best talent and noblest spirits
of the country. Washington felt restrained by his situation as presi
dent, from taking a part in the debates, but his weh-known opinions
influenced the whole. The result was the formation of the con
stitution of the United States, which (with sorae amendments
made in after years) still exists.
" The business being closed," says Washington in his diary
(Sept. 17th), "the raembers adjourned to the city tavern, dined
together, and took a cordial leave of each other. After which I
returned to my lodgings, did some business with, and received the
papers frora, the secretary of the convention, and retired to medi
tate on the momentous work which had been executed."
"It appears to me little short of rairacle," writes he to Lafay
ette, "that the delegates from so many states, different from
each other, as you know, in their manners, circumstances, and
prejudices, should unite in forming a system of national govem
ment so httle hable to well-founded objections. Nor am I such
an enthusiastic, partial, or undiscriminating admirer of it, as not
to perceive it is tinctured with some real, though not radical de
fects. With regard to the two great points, the pivots upon which
the whole machine must raove, my creed is siraply. First, that the

498 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
general govemraent is not invested with more powers than are
indispensably necessary to perform the functions of a good gov
ernment ; and consequently, that no objection ought to be made
against the quantity of power delegated to it.
" Secondly, that these powers, as the appointment of all rulers
wih forever arise from, and at short, stated intervals recur to, the
free suffrages of the people, are so distributed among the legis
lative, executive, and judicial branches into which the general gov
ernment is arranged, that it can never be in danger of degener
ating into a monarchy, an ohgarchy, an aristocracy, or any other
despotic or oppressive form, so long as there shah reraain any
virtue in the body of the people.
" It wih at least be a recoraraendation to the proposed constitu
tion, that it is provided with raore checks and barriers against
the introduction of tyranny, and those of a nature less liable to
be surmounted, than any government hitherto instituted . among
mortals." " We are not to expect perfection in this world ; but mankind,
in modem times, have apparently raade sorae progress in the
science of govemment. Should that which is now offered to the
people of Araerica, be found on experiraent less perfect than it can
be raade, a constitutional door is left open for its amelioration."
The constitution thus formed, was forwarded to Congress, and
thence transmitted to the state legislatures, each of which sub
mitted it to a state convention composed of delegates chosen for
that express purpose by the people. The ratification of the in
strument by nine states was necessary to carry it into effect ; and
as the several state conventions would assemble at different tiraes,
nearly a year raust elapse before the decisions of the requisite
nuraber could be obtained.
During this tirae, Washington resuraed his retired life at Mount
Vernon, seldora riding, as he says, beyond the liraits of his owti
farras, but kept inforraed by his nuraerous correspondents, such as
Jaraes Madison, John Jay, and generals Knox, Lincoln, and Arm
strong, of the progress of the constitution through its various
ordeals, and of the strenuous opposition which it met with in dif-

RETURN OF PEACE. 499
ferent quarters, both in debate and through the press. A diver
sity of opinions and inclinations on the subject had been expected
by hira. " The various passions and motives by which men are
influenced," said he, "are concomitants of fahlbihty, and in
grafted into our nature." Still he never had a doubt that it would
ultimately be adopted ; and, in fact, the national decision in its
favor was more fuhy and strongly pronounced than even he had
anticipated. The testimonials of ratification having been received by Con
gress frora a sufficient number of states, an act was passed by that
body on the 13th of September, appointing the first Wednesday
in January, 1789, for the people of the United States to choose
electors of a President according to the constitution, and the first
Wednesday in the month of February following for the electors to
meet and make a choice. The meeting of the govemraent was
to be on the first Wednesday in March, and in the city of New
York. Washington chosen President of the United States. — The
adoption of the Federal Constitution was another epoch in the life
of Washington. Before the official forms of an election could be
carried into operation, a unanimous sentiment throughout the
Union pronounced hira the nation's choice to fill the presidential
chair. He looked forward to the possibility of his election with
characteristic modesty and unfeigned reluctance ; as his letters to
his confidential friends bear witness. " It has no fascinating al
lurements for me," writes he to Lafayette. "At my tirae of life
and under ray circumstances, the increasing infirmities of nature
and the growing love of retirement do not perrait me to entertain
a wish beyond that of living and dying an honest man on ray own
farm. Let those follow the pursuits of ambition and fame who
have a keener relish for them, or who may have more years in
store for the enjoyraent."
The election took place at the appointed tirae, and it was soon
ascertained that Washington was chosen President for the terra of
four years frora the 4th of March. By this tirae the arguraents
and entreaties of his friends, and his own convictions of public

soo LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
expediency, had determined hira to accept ; and he made prepa
rations to depart for the seat of government as soon as he should
receive official notice of his election. Among other duties, he
paid a visit to his raother at Fredericksburg; it was a painful,
because likely to be a final, one ; for she was afflicted with a raalady
which, it was evident, must soon terminate her hfe. Their parting
was affectionate, but solemn ; she had always been reserved and
moderate in expressing herself in regard to the successes of her
son ; but it raust have been a serene satisfaction at the close of
her hfe to see hira elevated by his virtues to the highest honor of
his country.
Frora a delay in forming a quomra of Congress, the votes of the
electoral cohege were not counted until early in Aprh, when they
were found to be unanimous in favor of Washington. "The de
lay," said he, in a letter to General Knox, "may be corapared to
a reprieve ; for in confidence I tell you (with the world it would
obtain little credit), that ray raovements to the chair of govem
raent will be accompanied by feelings not unlike those of a culprit
who is going to the place of his execution ; so unwihing am I, in
the evening of a life nearly consuraed in pubhc cares, to quit a
peaceful abode for an ocean of difficulties, without that compe
tency of political skill, abilities, and inclination, which are neces
sary to manage the helm. I ara sensible that I ara embarking the
voice of the people, and a good narae of ray own, on this voyage ;
but what retums will be made for thera. Heaven alone can foretell.
Integrity and firmness are all I can promise. These, be the
voyage long or short, shall never forsake rae, although I may be
deserted by all men; for of the consolations which are to be
derived from these, under any circumstances, the world cannot
deprive rae."
At length, on the 14th of April, he received a letter frora the
President of Congress, duly notifying him of his election ; and he
prepared to set out immediately for New York, the seat of govern
ment. An entry in his diary, dated the i6th, says, "About ten
o'clock I bade adieu to Mount Vernon, to private life, and to
domestic felicity ; and with a mind oppressed with more anxious

RETURN OF PEACE. 501
and painful sensations than I have words to express, set out for
New York with the best disposition to render service to ray coun
try in obedience to its call, but with less hope of answering its
expectations." His progress to the seat of government was a continual ovation.
Old and young, women and chhdren, thronged the highways to
bless and welcome him. Deputations of the raost respectable
inhabitants frora the principal places carae forth to meet and
escort hira. At Baltiraore, on his arrival and departure, his car
riage was attended by a numerous cavalcade of citizens, and he
was saluted by the thunder of artillery.
At the frontier of Pennsylvania he was met by his forraer cora
panion in arras, Miffiin, now governor of the state, who, with Judge
Peters and a civil and military escort, was waiting to receive him.
Washington had hoped to be spared all raihtary parade, but found
it was not to be evaded. At Chester, where he stopped to break
fast, there were preparations for a pubhc entrance into Philadelphia.
Cavalry had assembled from the surrounding country ; a superb
white horse was led out for Washington to mount, and a grand
procession set forward, with General St. Clair of Revolutionary
notoriety at its head. It gathered numbers as it advanced, passed
under triumphal arches entwined with laurel, and entered Phila
delphia amid the shouts of the multitude.
We question whether any of these testimonials of a nation's
gratitude affected Washington more sensibly than those he received
at Trenton. It was on a sunny aftemoon when he arrived on the
banks of the Delaware, where, twelve years before he had crossed
in darkness and storm, through clouds of snow and drifts of float
ing ice, on his daring attempt to strike a blow at a triuraphant
enemy. Here at present ah was peace and sunshine, the broad river
flowed placidly along, and crowds awaited him on the opposite
bank, to hail hira with love and transport.
We wih not dweh on the joyous ceremonials with which he was
welcomed, but there was one too peculiar to be orahted. The
reader raay reraeraber Washington's glooray night on the banks of

502 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
the Assunpink, which flows through Trenton ; the camp fires of
Comwahis in front of him ; the Delaware full of floatmg ice in the
rear ; and his sudden resolve on that midnight retreat which turned
the fortunes of the campaign. On the bridge crossing that event
ful stream, the ladies of Trenton had caused a triumphal arch to
be erected. It was entwined with evergreens and laurels, and bore
the inscription, " The defender of the mothers wih be the protector
of the daughters." At this bridge the matrons of the city were
assembled to pay hira reverence ; and as he passed under the arch,
a nuraber of young girls, dressed in white and crowTied with gar
lands, strewed flowers before him, singing an ode expressive of
their love and gratitude. Never was ovation more graceful, touch
ing, and sincere ; and Washington, tenderly affected, declared that
the impression of it on his heart could never be effaced.
His whole progress through New Jersey must have afforded a
similar contrast to his weary marchings to and fro, harassed by
doubts and perplexities, with bale fires blazing on its hihs, instead
of festive illuminations, and when the ringing of bells and booming
of cannon, now so joyous, were the signals of invasion and maraud.
In respect to his reception at New York, Washington had signi
fied in a letter to Govemor Clinton, that none could be so congen
ial to his feelings as a quiet entry devoid of ceremony ; but his
modest wishes were not comphed with. At Elizabethtown Point.
a coraraittee of both Houses of Congress, with various civic func
tionaries, waited by appointment to receive hira. He erabarked
on board of a splendid barge, constracted for the occasion. It was
raanned by thirteen branch pilots, raasters of vessels, in white uni
forms, and commanded by Commodore Nicholson. Other barges,
fancifully decorated, fohowed, having on board the heads of depart
raents and other public officers, and several distinguished citizens.
As they passed through the strait between the Jerseys and Staten
Island, called the Kihs, other boats decorated with flags fell in
theh wake, unth the whole, forming a nautical procession, swept
up the broad and beautiful bay of New York, to the sound of
instramental music. On board of two vessels were parties of ladies
and gentiemen who sang congratulatory odes as Washington's barge

RETURN OF PEACE. 503
approached. The ships at anchor in the harbor, dressed in colors,
fired salutes as it passed. One alone, the Galveston, a Spanish
man-of-war, displayed no signs of gratulation unth the barge of
the general was nearly abreast ; when suddenly, as if by magic, the
yards were manned, the ship burst forth, as it were, into a fuh array
of flags and signals, and thundered a salute of thirteen guns.
He approached the landing-place of Murray's Wharf araid the
ringing of bells, the roaring of cannon, and the shouting of mul
titudes collected on every pier-head. On landing, he was received
by Governor Chnton. General Knox, too, who had taken such
affectionate leave of him on his retirement frora rahitary life, was
there to welcome him in his civil capacity. Other of his fehow-
soldiers of the Revolution were likewise there, mingled with the
civic dignitaries. At this juncture, an officer stepped up and re
quested Washington's orders, announcing himself as commanding
his guard. Washington desired hira to proceed according to the
directions he raight have received in the present arrangements,
but that for the future the affection of his fellow- citizens was ah the
guard he wanted.
Carpets had been spread to a camage prepared to convey hira
to his destined residence, but he preferred to walk. He was at
tended by a long civil and military train. In the streets through
which he passed, the houses were decorated with flags, silken ban
ners, garlands of flowers and evergreens, and bore his name in
every forra of ornament. The streets were crowded with people,
so that it was with difficulty a passage could be made by the city
officers. Washington frequently bowed to the multitude as he
passed, taking off his hat to the ladies, who thronged every win
dow, waving their handkerchiefs, throwing flowers before him, and
many of thera shedding tears of enthusiasra.
That day he dined with his old friend Governor Chnton, who
had invited a nuraerous company of public functionaries and for
eign diplomatists to meet hira, and in the evening the city was
brihiantly ihuminated.
Would the reader know the effect upon Washington's mind of
this triumphant entry into New York ? It was to depress rather

504 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
than to excite him. Modestly diffident of his abihties to cope with
the new duties on which he was entering, he was overwhelmed
by what he regarded as proofs of public expectation.
The inauguration was delayed for several days, in which a ques
tion arose as to the form or titie by which the President-elect was
to be addressed ; and a committee in both Houses was appointed
to report upon the subject. The question was stated without
Washington's privity, and contrary to his desire, as he feared that
any title raight awaken the senshive jealousy of republicans, at a
raoment when it was ah-important to conciliate public good-will
to the new forra of governraent. It was a relief to hira, therefore,
when h was finahy resolved that the address should be siraply
" the President of the United States," without any addition of
title ; a judicious form, which has remained to the present day.
The inauguration took place on the 30th of April. At nine
o'clock in the morning there were religious services in ah the
churches, and prayers put up for the blessing of Heaven on the
new government. At twelve o'clock the city troops paraded be
fore Washington's door ; and soon after, the coraraittees of Con
gress and heads of departraents carae in their carriages. At half-
past twelve the procession raoved fonvard, preceded by the troops ;
next came the coraraittees and heads of departraents in their car
riages ; then Washington in a coach-of-state, his aide-de-carap.
Colonel Huraphreys, and his secretary, Mr. Lear, in his own car
riage. The foreign rainisters and a long train of citizens brought
up the rear.
About two hundred yards before reaching the hall, Washington
and his suite alighted from their carriages, and passed through the
troops, who were drawn up on each side, into the hah and senate
chamber, where the Vice-President, the Senate, and House of
Representatives were assembled. The Vice-President, John
Adaras, recently inaugurated, advanced and conducted Washing
ton to a chair-of-state at the upper end of the roora. A soleran
shence prevahed, when the Vice-President rose, and informed
him that all things were prepared for hira to take the oath of
office required by the Constitution.

RETURN OF PEACE. 505
The oath was to be adrainistered by the Chancehor of the State
of New York, in a balcony in front of the senate chamber, and in
full view of an immense multitude occupying the street, the win
dows, and even roofs of the adjacent houses. The balcony formed
a kind of open recess, with lofty columns supporting the roof In
the centre was a table with a covering of crimson velvet, upon
which lay a superbly bound Bible on a crimson velvet cushion.
This was all the paraphernalia for the august scene.
All eyes were fixed upon the balcony, when, at the appointed
hour, Washington made his appearance, accorapanied by various
public functionaries, and members of the Senate and House of
Representatives. He was clad in a full suit of dark-brown cloth,
of American manufacture, with a steel-hilted dress sword, white
silk stockings, and silver shoe-buckles. His hair was., dressed and
powdered in the fashion of the day, and worn in a bag and soli
taire. His entrance on the balcony was hailed by universal shouts.
He was evidently raoved by this deraonstration of public affection.
Advancing to the front of the balcony, he laid his hand upon his
heart, bowed several times, and then retreated to an arm-chair
near the table. The populace appeared to understand that the
scene had overcome him, and were hushed at once into profound
silence. After a few moments Washington rose and again came forward.
John Adams, the Vice-President, stood on his right; on his left
the Chancellor of the State, Robert Livingston ; somewhat in
the rear were Roger Sherman, Alexander Hamilton, generals
Knox, St. Clair, the Baron Steuben and others.
The chancellor advanced to administer the oath prescribed by
the Constitution, and Mr. Otis, the Secretary of the Senate, held
up the Bible on its crimson cushion. The oath was read slowly
and distinctiy, Washington at the same time laying his hand on
the open Bible. When it was concluded, he replied solemnly, " I
s^ear — so help me God!" Mr. Otis would have raised the
Bible to his hps, but he bowed down reverently and kissed it.
The chancehor now stepped forward, waved his hand and ex-

506 LIFE OF WASHINGTON.
clairaed, " Long live George Washington, President of the United
States ! " At this raoraent a flag was displayed on the cupola of
the hall, on which signal there was a general discharge of artillery
on the Battery. Ah the behs of the city rang out a joyful peal,
and the multitude rent the air with acclamations.
Washington again bowed to the people and returned into the
senate charaber where he delivered, to both houses of Congress,
his inaugural address, characterized by his usual raodesty, moder
ation, and good sense, but uttered with a voice deep, slightly trem
ulous, and so low as to demand close attention in the listeners.
After this he proceeded with the whole assemblage on foot to St.
Paul's church, where prayers suited to the occasion were read by
Dr. Prevost, Bishop of the Protestant Episcopal Church in New
York, who had been appointed by the Senate one of the chap
lains of Congress. So closed the ceremonies of the inauguration.
The whole day was one of sincere rejoicing, and in the evening
there were brihiant ihurainations and fireworks.
We have been accustomed to look to Washington's private let
ters for the sentiments of his heart. Those written to several of
his friends immediately after his inauguration show how littie he
was excited by his official elevation. " I greatly fear," writes he,
" that my countryraen wih expect too rauch from me. I fear, if
the issue of public measures should not correspond with their
sanguine expectations, they will turn the extravagant, and I might
almost say undue, praises which they are heaping upon me at this
raoraent, into equally extravagant, though I wih fondly hope un
raerited, censures."
Little was his raodest spirit aware that the praises so dubiously
received were but the opening notes of a therae that was to in
crease from age to age, to pervade all lands and endure through
out all generations.

CONTINUATION.
HOW THE UNITED STATES BECAME A NATION.
§ i'. The Period of Weakness.
Conditions of American Progress, — The nation over which
George Washington was called to preside in 1 789 was a third-rate
power, inferior in population and wealth to Holland, for example,
and about on a level with Portugal or Denmark. The population,
numbering less than four raihion, was thinly scattered through the
thirteen states between the Atlantic and the Aheghanies, beyond
which raountainous barrier a few hardy pioneers were raaking the
beginnings of Tennessee, Kentucky, and Ohio. Roads were few
and bad, none of the great rivers were bridged, mails were irregu
lar. There were few manufactures. There were many traders
and merchant seamen in the coast towns of the north, but the
great raajority of the people were farmers who lived on the prod
uce of their own estates and seldom undertook long journeys.
Hence the different parts of the country knew vSry little about
each other, and entertained absurd prejudices ; and the sentiraent
of union between the states was extremely weak. East of the
Aheghanies the red man had ceased to be dangerous, but tales of
Indian massacre stih came from regions no more remote than
Ohio and Georgia. By rare good fortune and consummate diplo
macy the United States had secured, at the peace of 1783, all the
territory as far as the Mississippi river, but ah the vast regions
beyond, together with the important city of New Orleans at its
mouth, belonged to Spain, the European power which raost cor
dially hated us. The only other power which had possessions
in North America was England, frora which we had lately won our

508 HOW THE UNITED STATES
mdependence. The feeling entertained toward us in England
was one of raortification and chagrin, accorapanied by a hope that
our half-forraed union would fah in pieces, and its separate states
be driven by disaster to beg to be taken back into the British
erapire. The rest of Europe knew httie about the United States
and cared less.
This country, however, which seemed so insignificant beside the
great powers of Europe, contained within itself the germs of an
industrial and political developraent far greater than anything the
world had ever seen. The Araeriean population was settled upon
a territory rauch more than capable of supporting it. The natural
resources of the country were so vast as to create a steady demand
for labor far greater than ordinary increase of population could sup
ply. This is stih the case, and for a long tirae wih continue to be
the case. It is this siraple economic fact which has always been
at the bottom of the wonderful growth of the United States. But
it was very necessary that the nation should be provided with such
a government as would enable it to take full advantage of this fact.
It was necessary yfrj-/", that the Federal government should be strong
enough to preserve peace at home and make itself respected abroad ;
secondly, that local self-governraent should be raaintained in every
part of the Union ; thirdly, that there should be absolute free trade
between the states. These three gi-eat ends our Federal Constitu
tion has secured. The requisite strength in the central governraent
was, indeed, not all acquired in a raoraent. It took a second war with
England in 1812-is, to convince foreign nations that the Ameri
can flag could not be insulted with impunity ; and it took the
terrible civil war of i86i-6s, to prove that our government was
too strong to be overthrown by the raost formidable domestic
combination that could possibly be brought against it. The result
of both these wars has been to diminish the probable need for
further wars on the part of the United States. In spite of these
and other rainor contests, our Federal Constitution has for a cen
tury kept the American Union in such profound peace as was
never seen before in any part of the earth since men began to live
upon its surface. Local self-government and free trade within

BECAME A NATION. 509
the limits of the Union have not been interfered with. As a result,
we have been able largely to profit by our natural advantages, so
that the end of our first century of national existence finds us the
strongest and richest nation in the world.
Hamilton's Measures. — For these blessings, in so far as they
are partly the work of wise statesmanship, a large share of our
gratitude is due to the adrainistration of George Washington. The
problem before that adrainistration was to organize the govern
ment upon the lines laid down in the Constitution, so that its dif
ferent departraents would work smoothly together. This difficult
work was so successfully accomplished that httle change has been
found necessary from that day to this. The success was mainly
due to the organizing genius of Harahton in the cabinet, assisted
by the skill and tact of Madison as leading member of the House
of Representatives. Though these great raen were often opposed
to each other in regard to special raeasures, their work all tended
toward a coraraon result. Harailton, as Secretary of the Treasury,
occupied the raost iraportant position in Washington's cabinet.
The first thing to be done was to restore the credit of the United
States, which had been completely ruined during the Revolution
ary War and the troubled years which fohowed it. Harailton
proposed three measures : first, that the government should
assume the foreign debt of the Confederation, and pay it in full ;
secondly, that the domestic debt, which seemed to have been virtu
ally repudiated, should likewise be assuraed and paid ; thirdly,
that the debts of the separate states should also be assuraed and
paid by the Federal governraent. The first of these raeasures raet
with no opposition. The second was opposed on the ground that
it would only benefit speculators who had bought up Unhed States
securities at a discount; but Harailton's friends argued, let us
teach people who hold governraent securities hereafter not to sell
them at a discount ; and so the measure was carried. The third
measure met with violent opposition, for raany people thought the
Federal govemment had no legal power to assume a state debt.
No doubt it was a somewhat heroic raeasure. There was a fierce
and bitter fight over it, which at last was only settled by what in

510 HOW THE UNITED STATES
pohtical slang is cahed " log-rohing," or an exchange of favors.
¦The site for a Federal capital was to be selected. The northern
people generally wished to have it not further south than the Del
aware river, whhe the southerners were deterrained not to have it
further north than the Potoraac. Jefferson, who was Washington's
Secretary of State, was prominent in urging the southern view of
this question, as weh as in opposing the assuraption of the state
debts. The two controversies were settled by a bargain between
Jefferson and Harahton, in which the forraer withdrew his opposi
tion to assumption, whhe the latter used his influence with the
Federalist party in favor of the Potomac as a site for the Federal
capital. The assuraption of state debts was a raaster-stroke of
policy. All those persons to whom any state owed money were
at once won over to the support of the Federal government.
There were many such persons, and many of thera were wealthy
and powerful. All these now felt a coramon interest in upholding
the national credit, which, through these wise and vigorous meas
ures of Hamhton, was soon corapletely restored.
Whiskey Insurrection. — In order to carry out these raeasures,
raoney was necessary, and this must be raised by Federal taxation.
There were two ways in which this could be done, either by in
ternal taxes or by custom-house duties. The latter raethod was
mainly resorted to, because it is raore indirect, and while it takes
vastly more money out of people's pockets, they are usually too
dull to realize this as they would in the case of a direct tax.
When a tax is wrapped up in the extra fifty cents paid to a mer
chant for a yard of foreign cloth, it is so effectually hidden that
most people do not know it is there. Hence this method of tax
ation is dangerous ; it enables taxes to be laid for the benefit of
greedy manufacturers, and thus furtively takes from the people
vast sums of money which never get into the treasury. This sort
of thing is called " protection," which is so pleasing a word that it
raakes raany people loth to see taxes reduced. In Harailton's
time these dangers were not so well understood as they are now.
But the raost indirect and covert method of taxation was the one
that must needs be adopted, because people had not been used to

BECAME A NATION. 511
pay taxes except to their town, county, and state governments, and
would be likely to rebel against taxes too directly demanded for
the Federal treasury.
An instance of this was furnished in 1 794 by the tax on whiskey.
The settlers in the mountains of Pennsylvania and Virginia had
long since found that it cost more to carry their corn and wheat to
market than they could sell it for, and accordingly they distilled it
into whiskey. When Congress now laid a tax upon whiskey, they
grumbled, and when the revenue officers cahed upon thera, they re
fused to pay the tax, and threatened to take up arras. It was nec
essary to show people that such proceedings would not be ahowed ;
and Washington suraraarily suppressed the insurrection by sending
to the disaffected region an array of sixteen thousand raen, — a
force so large as to raake the raere idea of resistance ridiculous.
Indian War. — Then, as ordinarily, the western frontier was
the scene of troubles with the Indians. This frontier was then
near the Wabash river. In 1 790 the red raen won a great victory
over General Harmar near the site of Fort Wayne, and in the fol
lowing year they inflicted a terrible defeat upon General St. Clair
near the head-waters of the Wabash. They now tried to make a
treaty which should exclude white settlers from this region. But
in 1 794, in a fierce battle near the site of Toledo, they were totally
defeated by General Wayne, and were forced to make a treaty by
which they were moved further west.
Rise of Parties. — • The divisions between political parties had
now become strongly marked. People were first divided into two
great national parties in the autumn of 1787, when the question
was whether the Federal Constitution should be ratified by the
states. These first parties were cahed Federalist and Anti- Feder
alist, naraes which explain themselves. The adoption of the Con
stitution was a decisive defeat for the Anti-Federalist party ; the
financial measures of Hamilton corapleted its destruction. Parties
then becarae divided in the only sound and healthy way possible
in a free country, naraely, into those who wished to extend, and
those who wished to limit, the powers of government. The former
kept the name of Federalists, the second received the narae of

512 HOW THE UNITED STATES
Democratic-Repubhcans. They preferred to be called Repubh-
cans, while their eneraies tried to cah thera Democrats, an epithet
which was then supposed to convey a stigma. Until about 182s-
30 the correct name for this party is Republican ; after that time
it is right to speak of it as the Deraocratic party. The reader must
bear in raind the awkward fact that in Araeriean politics at the
beginning of the century the name Republican meant exactly the
opposite to what it means now. So far as the word goes, it raight
as well have been applied to one party as the other. American
party names have but httle descriptive significance anyway. But
at the outset the name Democrat really had a meaning. It was
properly applied to those who wished to increase the direct partic
ipation of the people in the governraent, to abolish all reranants of
privilege, and to extend the suffrage which at that tirae was raore
or less liraited in all the states. The founder and greatest leader
of the Republican party, Thomas Jefferson, was before ah men a
Democrat. In the highest intehectual qualities he was inferior to
Hamilton and Madison ; but he excelled them in a certain gener
osity of intelligence which enabled him to see that no form of gov
ernment can be successful in the long run, if it leaves any class of
people with the feeling that they are forcibly deprived of a share
in the manageraent of things. Jefferson's opponent, the leader of
the Federalists, was Harailton. Between the two parties Washing
ton pursued a national policy of his own, though his syrapathies
were raainly with the Federalists.
Citizen Genet. — A firra hand and indoraitable wih like Wash
ington's were needed at this tirae, for the foreign sympathies of
our two parties were so strong that we were continually running
the risk of getting dragged into war. Party quarrels were con
cerned even raore with European pohtics than with Araeriean
affairs. The French Revolution broke out in the first year of
Washington's first terra (1789) ; by the second year of his second
terra, it had reached its raost frightful period. France and Eng
land were now at war. The Republicans realized the good in the
French Revolution so far as to sympathize with it in spite of its
horrors. The Federalists sympathized with England as the up-

BECAME A NATION. 513
holder of law and order in Europe. Party strife has never run so
high, except just before our Civh War. The French expected us
to help thera in their war against England, and in 1 793 they sent
over a minister to the United States, to persuade us to do so.
This man, who was called "Citizen" Genet, behaved as if he
owned the United States. He tried, without waiting for perrais
sion, to fit out privateers in American ports, and thus drag us into
war with England. Many Repubhcans were disposed to uphold
him in everything, but his insolence presently disgusted his own
supporters. Washington sternly checked his proceedings, and
at length complained of him to the French governraent, which
thought it best to recall him.
Jay's Treaty. — In 1795, Washington had one of his hardest
trials. Since the peace of 1783, England had treated us as shab-
bhy as she knew how. She sthl held Detroit and other frontier
forts, in disregard of the treaty, and it was believed that the British
commandants had secretiy helped the Indians on the Wabash.
British war-ships, moreover, were in the habit of impressing Ameri
can seamen, and seizing American ships bound to or from French
ports. War might easily grow out of this, and to prevent such a
calamity, Washington sent John Jay on a special raission to Eng
land. Jay negotiated a treaty which only partially secured the
American claims, but Washington's governraent wisely adopted it
as preferable to war. There was great exciteraent everywhere ;
Hamilton was stoned on the street, and scurrilous newspapers
heaped abuse upon Washington, calling hira " the step-father of
his country."
Troubles -with France. — As Washington refused to be a can
didate for a third terra, the election of 1796 was warraly contested
by the two parties. John Adams, the Federalist candidate, was
elected over Jefferson, who, according to the rule at that time,
became Vice-President, as second on the list. This was an unwise
rale, since under it the death of the President might reverse the
result of the election. The administration of John Adams was
chiefly occupied with disputes with France. The French were
indignant at our attitude of neutrality, and treated us with intoler-

514 HOW THE UNITED STATES
able insolence. Under Washington's adrainistration, Gouvemeur
Morris, a Federalist, had been for some time minister to France,
but as he was greatly disliked by the gang of anarchists that then
misruled that country, Washington had recahed him and sent
Jaraes Monroe, a Republican, in his place. Monroe was instructed
to try to reconche the French to Jay's treaty, but instead of this
he encouraged thera to hope that the treaty would not be ratified.
Washington accordingly recahed hira and sent Cotesworth Pinck
ney, a Federalist, in his place. The French government were so
enraged at the ratification of Jay's treaty that they would not allow
Pinckney to stay in Paris, and at the same time decrees were
passed discrirainating against Araeriean coramerce. The first act
of Mr. Adams was to cah an extra session of Congress, to consider
how war with France was to be avoided. A special coraraission
was sent to Paris, but the governraent there would not receive the
coraraissioners. Prince Taheyrand had the irapudence to send
secret emissaries to them, to demand a large sum of money as
blackmail, to be paid to several merabers of the French govem
ment, on condition of their stopping the outrages upon American
coraraerce. The indignant envoys sent horae to Araerica an
account of this infaraous proposal, and Mr. Adaras laid the dis
patches before Congress, substituting the letters X. Y. Z. for the
naraes of Talleyrand's emissaries. Hence, these papers have ever
since been known as the " X. Y. Z. dispatches.'' They were pub
lished, and aroused intense excitement on both sides of the Atlan
tic. The United States prepared for war. For the moraent, the
Republican party seemed overwhelmed. Frora all quarters went
up the war-cry, " Millions for defence ; not one cent for tribute."
A few excellent frigates were built ; an array was raised, and
Washington was placed in command, with the rank of lieutenant-
general. It was during this excitement that the song of " Hail,
Columbia " was published. For about a year there was really
war with France, though it was never declared. In Febmary,
1799, Captain Truxton, in the frigate Constellation, defeated
and captured the French frigate L' Insurgente near the island of
St. Christopher. In Febraary, 1800, the same gallant officer in a

BECAME A NATION. SIS
desperate battle destroyed the frigate La Vengeance, which was
much his superior in strength of armament. The French, seeing
our warlike attitude, had already, early in 1799, grown somewhat
raore civh. Taheyrand tried to disavow the X. Y. Z. affair, and
made conchiatory overtures to Vans Murray, the American rainis
ter at the Hague. President Adams wisely decided to meet the
French governraent half-way, and accordingly, in spite of the
fiercely warlike temper of the Federalist party, he appointed Vans
Murray rainister to France, and sent over two commissioners to
aid him in adjusting the difficulties. When these envoys reached
Paris, they found Napoleon Bonaparte at the head of the govern-
rnent, and succeeded in settling everything araicably. The course
of John Adams, in resisting popular clamor and making peace
with France, deserves our highest praise. It was one of the
noblest actions of his life, but it prevented his re-election to the
presidency. For a long tirae there had been intense jealousy and
dishke between Adaras and the other great Federalist leader,
Harailton ; and on the occasion of the French raission, these
antagonisras bore fmits in a quarrel between Mr. Adaras and his
cabinet, and presently in a split in the Federalist party.
Alien and Sedition Laws. — Another affair contributed largely
to the downfall of the Federalist party. In 1798, during the
height of the popular fury against France, the Federalists in Con
gress presumed too much upon their strength, and passed the
famous alien and sedition acts. By the first of these acts, aliens
were rendered liable to summary banishment from the United
States at the sole discretion of the President ; and any ahen who
should venture to return from such banishment was hable to
imprisonment for life. By the sedition act, any scandalous or
malicious -writing against the President or Congress was liable to
be dealt with in the United States courts, and punished by fine and
imprisonraent. This act was unconstitutional, for it was an
infringeraent upon freedom of the press ; and both acts aroused
more widespread indignation than any others that have ever
passed in Congress.
Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions. — From the southem

516 HOW THE UNITED STATES
Republicans the alien and sedition laws called forth a vigorous
remonstrance. A series of resolutions, drawn up by Madison, was
adopted in 1 798 by the Legislature of Virginia, and a similar series,
stih more pronounced in character, and drawn up by Jefferson,
was adopted in the same year by the Legislature of Kentucky.
The Virginia resolutions asserted with trath that, in adopting the
Federal constitution, the states had surrendered only a limited
portion of their powers ; and went on to declare that, whenever
the Federal government should exceed its constitutional author
ity, it was the business of the state governments to interfere and
pronounce such action unconstitutional. Accordingly, by these
resolutions, Virginia declared the alien and sedition laws uncon
stitutional, and invited the other states to join in the declara
tion. Not meeting with a favorable response, Virginia renewed
these resolutions the next year.
There was nothing necessarily seditious, or tending toward
secession, in the Virginia resolutions ; but the attitude assuraed in
them was uncalled for on the part of any state, inasmuch as there
existed, in the Federal suprerae court, a tribunal corapetent to
decide upon the constitutionality of acts of Congress. But the
Kentucky resolutions went further. They declared that our
Federal constitution was a compact, to which the several states
were the one party and the Federal government was the other,
and each party must decide for itself as to when the corapact was
infringed, and as to the proper reraedy to be adopted. When the
resolutions were repeated in 1799, a clause was added which went
still further and raentioned "nullification" as the suitable reraedy,
and one which any state might employ. This was venturing upon
dangerous ground ; for if it were once adraitter that a state might
take it upon itself to prevent the execution o' a United States law
within its own borders, a long step would !>.. made toward admit
ting the right of secession. In after ;.mes secessionists often
appealed to the Kentucky resolutions ; ^ at their doctrine was never
generally adraitted, though different states, north and south, under
the influence of strong excitement, seeraed at times ready to act
upon it.

BECAME A NATION. 517
Death of Washington.' — When appointed to comraand the
array, July 3d, 1798, Washington accepted the commission upon
the express understanding that he was not to be called into the
field until an emergency should arise which should require his
presence. During the fohowing year he continued to superintend
from a distance the concerns of the army, as his amjale and rainute
correspondence manifests ; and he was at the same time earnestiy
endeavoring to bring the affairs of his rural domain into order.
A sixteen years' absence frora home, with short intervals, had
deranged them considerably, so that it required ah the tirae he
could spare from the usual occupations of life to bring thera into
tune again. It was a period of incessant activity and toil, there
fore, both raental and bodily. He was for hours in his study
occupied with his pen, and for hours on horseback, riding the
rounds of his extensive estate, visiting the various farras, and
superintending and directing the works in operation. All this he
did with unfaihng vigor, though now in his sixty-seventh year.
Occasional reports of the sanguinary conflict that was going on
in Europe would reach hira in the quiet groves of Mount Vernon
and awaken his solicitude. "A raore destructive sword," said he,
" was never drawn, at least in raodern tiraes, than this war has
produced. It is time to sheathe it and give peace to mankind. "
A private letter written to the Secretary of War, bespeaks his
apprehensions : " I have for sorae time past viewed the political
concems of the United States with an anxious and painful eye.
They appear to me to be moving by hasty strides to a crisis ; but
in what it will result, that Being, who sees, foresees, and directs ah
things, alone can tell. The vessel is afloat, or very nearly so, and
considering rayself as a passenger only, I shah trust to the mariners
(whose duty it is to watch) to steer it into a safe port."
.Winter had set in, December, 1799, with occasional wind and
rain and frost, yet Washington still kept up his active round
of in-door and out-door occupations, as his diary records. He
was in full health and vigor, dined out occasionally, and had fre-
I The paragraphs under this caption are abridged from the concluding
chapter of Irving.

518 HOW THE UNITED STATES
quent guests at Mount Vemon, and, as usual, was part of every
day in the saddle, going the rounds of his estates, and, in his mhi
tary phraseology, "visiting the outposts. "
He had recently walked with his favorhe nephew, Lawrence
Lewis, about the grounds, showing the improvements he intended
to make, and had especiahy pointed out the spot where he pur
posed building a new family tomb, the old one being damaged by
the roots of trees which had overgrown it and caused it to leak.
"This change, " said he, " I shah make the first of ah, for I may
require it before the rest. "
" When I parted frora hira, " adds Lewis, " he stood on the
steps of the front door, where he took leave of rayself and another.
... It was a bright frosty moming ; he had taken his usual ride,
and the clear healthy flush on his cheek and his sprightly manner,
brought the remark frora both of us that we had never seen the
general look so well. I have soraetiraes thought him decidedly the
handsomest raan I ever saw ; and when in a lively raood, so full of
pleasantry, so agreeable to all with whom he associated, that I
could hardly realize he was the same Washington whose dignity
awed all who approached hira. "
For sorae tirae past Washington had been occupied in digesting
a complete system on which his estate was to be managed for
several succeeding years, specifying the cultivation of the several
farms, with tables designating the rotations of the crops. It
occupied thirty folio pages, and was executed with that clearness
and raethod which characterized all his business papers. This was
finished on the loth of December, and was accompanied by
a letter of that date to his manager or steward. It is a valuable
document, showing the soundness and vigor of his intehect
at this advanced stage of life, and the love of order that reigned
throughout his affairs. " My greatest anxiety," said he, on a pre
vious occasion, " is to have ah these concerns in such a clear and
distinct form, that no reproach raay attach itself to me when I
have taken my departure for the land of spirits." It was evident,
however, that fuh of health and vigor, he looked forward to his
long-cherished hope, — the enjoyraent of a serene old age in this
home of his heart.

BECAME A NATION. 519
According to his diary, the moming on which these voluminous
instructions to his steward were dated was clear and calm, but the
afternoon was lowering. The next day (nth), he notes that there
was wind aad rain, and " at night a large circle round the moon. "
The raoming of the 12th was overcast. That raoming he wrote to
Harailton, heartily approving of a plan for a railitary acaderay,
which the latter had submitted to the Secretary of War. About
ten o'clock he mounted his horse, and rode out as usual to make
the rounds of his estate. The orainous ring round the moon,
which he had observed on the preceding night, proved a fatal
portent. " About one o'clock," he notes, " it began to snow, soon
after to hah, and then turned to a settled cold rain." Having on
an overcoat, he continued his ride without regarding the weather,
and did not return to the house until after three. His secretary,
Tobias Lear, approached him with letters to be franked, that they
might be taken to the post-office in the evening. Washington
franked the letters, but observed that the weather was too bad to
send a servant out with them. Mr. Lear perceived that snow was
hanging frora his hair, and expressed fears that he had got wet ;
but he replied, " No, his great-coat had kept hira dry." As
dinner had been waiting for hira he sat down without changing his
dress. "In the evening," writes his secretary, "he appeared as
well as usual."
On the following raorning the snow was three inches deep and
still falling, which prevented hira from taking his usual ride.- He
complained of a sore throat, and had evidently taken cold the day
before. In the afternoon the weather cleared up, and he went out
on the grounds between the house and the river, to mark some
trees which were to be cut down. A hoarseness which had hung
about him through the day grew worse towards night, but he made
light of ft.
He was very cheerful in the evening, as he sat in the parlor with
Mrs. Washington and Mr. Lear, amusing hiraself with the papers
which had been brought frora the post-office. When he raet with
anything interesting or entertaining, he would read it aloud as weh
as his hoarseness would perrait, or he hstened and made occasional

520 HOW THE UNITED STATES
comments, while Mr. Lear read the debates of the Virginia
assembly. On retiring to bed, Mr. Lear suggested that he should
take something to relieve the cold. " No," rephed he ; "you know
I never take anything for a cold. Let it it go as it came."
In the night he was taken extremely ih with ague and difficulty
of breathing. Between two and three o'clock in the morning he
awoke Mrs. Washington, who would have risen to call a servant ;
but he would not permit her, lest she should take cold. At day
break, when the servant-woman entered to raake a fire, she was
sent to cah Mr. Lear. He found the general breathing with diffi
culty, and hardly able to utter a word intehigibly.
His old friend. Dr. Craik, soon arrived, and two other physi
cians were called in. Various reraedies were tried, but without
avah. In the course of the afternoon he appeared to be in great
pain and distress from the difficulty of breathing, and frequently
changed his posture. Between five and six o'clock hewas assisted
to sit up in his bed. " I feel I am going," said he ; " I thank you
for your attentions, but I pray you will take no more trouble about
me ; let me go off quietly ; I cannot last long."
Between ten and eleven o'clock he expired without a struggle
or a sigh.
On opening his wih, which he had handed to Mrs. Washington
shortly before death, it was found to have been carefully drawn up
by himself in the preceding July ; and by an act in conformity with
his whole career, one of its first provisions directed the emancipa
tion of his slaves on the decease of his wdfe. It had long been his
earnest wish that the slaves held by him in his own right should
receive their freedom during his hfe, but he had found it would be
attended with insuperable difficulties on account of their intermix
ture by marriage with the " dower negroes, " whom it was not in
his power to manumit under the tenure by which they were held.
With provident benignity he also made provision in his will for
such as were to receive their freedora under this devise, but who,
frora age, bodhy infirmities, or infancy, might be unable to support
theraselves, and he expressly forbade, under any pretence whatso
ever, the sale or transportation out of Virginia, of any slave of

BECAME A NATION. 521
whom he might die possessed. Though born and educated a
slaveholder, this was ah in consonance with feelings, sentiments,
and principles which he had long entertained. In a letter to Mr.
John Mercer, in September, 1 786, he writes ; " I never mean,
unless some particular circumstances should compel rae to it, to
possess another slave by purchase, it being among ray first wishes
to see some plan adopted by which slavery in this country may be
abolished by law." And eleven years afterwards, in August, 1797,
he writes to his nephew, Lawrence' Lewis, in a letter which we
have had in our hands, " I wish from my soul that the Legislature
of this state could see the policy of a gradual abolition of slavery.
It might prevent much future mischief."
A deep sorrow spread over the nation on hearing that Washing
ton was no more. Congress, which was in session, immediately
adjourned for the day. The next moming it was resolved that the
Speaker's chair be shrouded with black ; that the merabers and
officers of the House wear black during the session, and that a
joint coraraittee of both Houses be appointed to consider the
most suitable manner of doing honor to the meraory of the man,
" first in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his fellow-
citizens." Pubhc testimonials of grief and reverence were dis
played in every part of the Union. Nor were these sentiraents
confined to the United States. When the news of Washington's
death reached England, Lord Bridport, who had command of a
British fleet of nearly sixty sail of the line, lying at Torbay, lowered
his flag half-mast, every ship following the example ; and Bona
parte, First Consul of France, on announcing his death to the
army, ordered that black crape should be suspended frora all the
standards and flags throughout the public service for ten days.
The character of Washington raay want some of those poetical
elements which dazzle and dehght the multitude, but it possessed
fewer inequalities and a rarer union of virtues than perhaps ever fell
to the lot of any other man. Pmdence, firmness, sagacity, modera
tion, an overruling judgment, an imraovable justice, courage that
never faltered, patience that never wearied, truth that disdained
all artifice, magnanimity without alloy. It seeras as if Providence

522 HOW THE UNITED STATES
had endowed hira in a pre-eminent degree with the qualities re
quisite to fit hira for the high destiny he was called upon to fulfil
— to conduct a raoraentous revolution which was to form an era
in the history of the world, and to inaugurate a new and untried
govemment, which, to use his own words, was to lay the founda
tion " for the enjoyment of much purer civh hberty and greater
public happiness than have hitherto been the portion of mankind."
The fame of Washington stands apart frora every other in his
tory, shining with a traer lustre and a raore benignant glory. With
us his memory remains a national property, where ah sympathies
throughout our widely-extended and diversified empire meet in
unison. Under ah dissensions and amid all the storms of party,
his precepts and example speak to us from the grave with a pater
nal appeal ; and his narae — by all revered — forras a universal tie
of brotherhood, — a watchword of our Union.
"It wih be the duty of the historian and the sage of ah nations,"
writes the erainent British statesraan. Lord Broughara, " to let no
occasion pass of coramemorating this illustrious raan ; and until
time shall be no raore, will a test of the progress which our race
has raade in wisdora and virtue, be derived frora the veneration
paid to the iramortal name of Washington."
Downfall of the Federalist Party. — By the spring of 1800 it
becarae apparent that the Republicans were steadily gaining
ground. In Aprh the New York state election went against the
Federalists. Soon after this the President disraissed sorae of his
cabinet officers who were too friendly to Harahton, and the break
in the Federalist party becarae irreparable. Cotesworth Pinckney
was the second choice of that party for President, and the Harail-
tonians tried to divert votes to hira frora Adaras. The election
was very close. Of the electoral votes, 73 were for Jefferson, 73
for Aaron Burr, 6s for Adams, 64 for Pinckney, and i for Jay. As
there was no narae highest on the list, it was left for the election
to be decided between the two highest candidates, by the House
of Representatives. Intrigues fohowed. Sorae of the Federalists
wished to elect Burr instead of their archeneray Jefferson ; but
Hamilton used all his influence against such a scheme, and at last

BECAME A NATION. 523
on February 17, 1 801, Jefferson was elected by the House. In
another fortnight the govemraent would have been left without
any executive head. There were fears of anarchy and threats of
civil war. To provide against the recurrence of such a difficulty, the
twelfth araendraent to the Constitution, adopted in 1804, changed
the method of conducting presidential elections to that which has
ever since been employed.
The. inauguration of Jefferson was the first that took place in the
city of Washington, whither the Federal government had been
removed from Philadelphia in 1800. The national capital, which
is now fast becoming one of the finest cities in the world, was then
a wretched village in the woods. Many of the Federalists believed
that the election of Jefferson would entail speedy ruin upon the
country ; but such fears proved groundless, as usual. His first
administration was marked by national prosperity. It coincided
with the only interval of peace between England and France dur
ing the Napoleonic period, and for the moment we were unmo
lested by those powers. There was no serious change in the
adrainistration of our governraent. Jefferson pardoned those per
sons who had been iraprisoned under the alien and sedition laws,
and the Republican House of Representatives impeached Judge
Chase of Maryland, for aheged harshness in conducting trials
under those laws ; but he was acquitted by a Republican Senate.
Very few removals from office were raade for political reasons.
The Supreme Court, under the lead of Chief-justice Marshall,
reraained Federahst in coraplexion, and during the next quarter
of a century did work of iraperishable renown in strengthening and
interpreting the Constitution. The Republicans had become
reconciled to many Federalist ideas which at first they had con
deraned, and now that the govemraent was in their own hands
they were not so jealous of its powers.
The Louisiana Purchase. — This was shown in what was incom
parably the greatest event of Jefferson's adrainistration. The
population of the United States was rapidly increasing, and was
beginning to pour into the Mississippi valley. In 1802 the state
of Ohio was admitted into the union; Mississippi and Indiana

524 HOW THE UNITED STATES
were aheady organized as terrhories ; and a growing interest was
felt in the western country. It was now learned that France had
just acquired by treaty from Spain the territory of Louisiana, so
that the mouth of the Mississippi river, and ah the vast region to
the west of it as far as the Rocky Mountains, had passed into the
hands of an active and aggressive European power. Napoleon
had, indeed, acquired this territory with a vague intention of
regaining the ascendency in America, which France had lost in the
Seven Years' War; but in 1803 the prospect of renewed war with
England made him change his raind. With her control of Can
ada and her superior fleet, England might easily wrest frora his
grasp the two ends of the Mississippi river and defeat his scheraes.
It seeraed better to put Louisiana out of England'^s reach by seh
ing it to the United States ; and accordingly Jefferson found no
difficulty in buying it of Napoleon for fifteen raihion dollars. By
this great stroke the area of the United States was raore than
doubled; before 1803 it was 827,844 square railes; Jefferson's
purchase added to it 1,171,931 square railes, out of which have
since been forraed " the states of Louisiana, Arkansas, Missouri,
Iowa, Kansas, and Nebraska ; the territories of Dakota, Montana,
and Indian Territory ; and a great part of the states of Minnesota
and Colorado and the territory of Wyoming." The effect of this
great acquisition of territory, by such an active and prosperous
people as the Americans, was to insure thera the ultiraate control
of the continent, without the need of any foreign warfare worth
raentioning. It presently set us free for an indefinite length of
tirae frora European coraphcations ; but, on the other hand, it
added new and forraidable features to the rivalry between the free
states and the slave states.
In raaking this purchase, which was destined to exercise such
profound influence upon the history of the United States, Jefferson
did not pretend that he had constitutional authority for what he
was doing. The act was so clearly for the public good that he
assuraed the responsibility, trasting that a new constitutional
araendraent would justify it ; but he was so corapletely upheld by
public sentiraent that no such elaborate step was thought neces
sary ; the universal acquiescence was enough.

MEXICAN (
CESSIOP^

¦^EXt A OESSll

To face page 524,

o

MAP TO ILLUSTRATE THE ACQUISITION OF TERRITORY
BY THE UNITED STATES.
SQ. MILES.
Area of United States in 1783  827,844
Austria-Hungary, German Empire, France, and Spain .... 834,906
Louisiana Purchase, 1803, with the portion of Oregon territory retained
in 1846  1,171,931
Austria-Hungary, German Empire, Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Belgium,
France, and Spain  1,171,154
Florida Purchase, 1819  S9.268
England and Wales  58,320
Texan Annexation, 1845  375. 239
Austria-Hungary, Italy, and Switzerland ,  370,472
Me.vican Cessions, 1848-53  591.318
German Empire, France, and Spain . .  593.9^3
Alaska, 1867  S77.390
Austria-Hungary, German Empire, and Norway  575.314
United States since 1867  3,602,990
Europe  3.986,97s
"I ** - ft- fit*.'* f V.

BECAME A NATION. 525
Exploration of Oregon. — As an expander of American domin
ion, Jefferson did not stop here. The region beyond the Rocky
raountains and north of California was then quite unexplored. In
1804 Jefferson sent an expedition under captains Lewis and
Clark, which explored the valley of the Columbia river as far
as the Pacific Ocean, and thus gave us a title to Oregon, though
many years elapsed before we took possession.
The Tripolitan War. — The Barbary States on the Mediterra
nean coast of Africa had been for more than four centuries a nui
sance to the civilized world. Their pirate cruisers swarmed upon
the high seas and robbed the merchant ships of all nations. Ira
portant captives they held for ransora, and ah others they sold
into hopeless slavery. European war-ships often punished thera,
but were unable to put down the evil ; and the greatest nations had
tried to bribe thera to keep the peace by paying blackmail. The
United States had at first felt obliged to adopt this humihating pol
icy, but at length our patience was exhausted. A sraall fleet was
sent to the Mediterranean, and borabarded Tripoli. After a desul
tory warfare extending over two years, Tripoli sued for peace ;
and the British navy presently following our exaraple, a few years
more saw the end of this aborainable nuisance.
Burr and Hamilton. — The popularity of Jefferson's adminis
tration was shown in the elections of 1804. When he was
nominated for re-election, George Clinton was nominated with
hiin—for the vice-presidency, instead of Burr, who in 1801 had
shown too much readiness to intrigue with Federalists. Cotes
worth Pinckney and Rufus King were the Federalist candidates.
The election was not a close one like the election of 1800. Out
of 176 electoral votes, the Federalists received only 14, and
in both houses of Congress the Republican majority was over
whelraing. After the nominations, but before the election, the
country was shocked by a dreadful tragedy. The disappointed
Burr had tried, with Federalist help, to succeed Chnton as gov
ernor of New York, but was defeated. Here, as before in 1801,
Hamhton had used his influence against him, and now, in a fit
of desperation, Burr deterrained to get rid of this enemy. He

526 HOW THE UNITED STATES
contrived, in July, 1804, to force Harahton into a duel, in which
the latter was slain. The raourning of the country over the loss
of this great raan was intense, and the wretched Burr found that
his public career was rained. After a whd attempt to set up a
government for himself in the Mississippi vahey, he was arrested
and tried for treason, and though acquitted for want of sufficiently
definite evidence, he became an outcast from society.
Embargo. — Jefferson's second administration was the beginning
of a storray period which ended in war. Under Washington and
Adaras we had with difficulty been kept from getting drawn into
the world-wide struggle between England and France. Now that
strife was renewed on such a gigantic scale as to force the whole
civilized world to take sides. With his famous Berlin and Milan
decrees. Napoleon sought to prevent neutral vessels from entering
British harbors, while England replied with decrees, known as
orders in council, forbidding neutral vessels to enter the harbors
of any nation in league with Napoleon, or under his leadership.
The United States, as a prominent maritime neutral nation, had
obtained a large share of the carrying trade, and these decrees
wrought great injury to American commerce. If an American
vessel touched at almost any port of continental Europe, the first
British cruiser that came along deemed her its lawful prey ; if she
touched at a British port, then she might expect to be seized by
the next French craft she should meet. The two greatest naval
powers in the world were thus united in a wholesale robbery of
American ships and American merchandise. But England did
us most harm, because she had more war-ships and more priva
teers than France. In another respect England possessed a
peculiar power of annoying us. She claimed and exercised the
right of stopping the vessels of other nations, and forcibly taking
from them any searaen who appeared to be British subjects, in
order to compel them to serve in the British navy. Such a claim,
on the part of France, would annoy Americans but little, for no
one was hkely to mistake an American for a Frenchraan. But to
distinguish an American from an Englishman was not so easy, and
consequently a great many citizens of the United States were

BECAME A NATION. 527
impressed into the British service. The Revolutionary feeling
of hostility to Great Britain, which had begun before 1800 to
diminish in intensity, was revived and strengthened by these
outrages. In 1807 the British frigate Leopard, of fifty guns, close
to the coast of Virginia, fired upon the American frigate Chesa
peake, of thirty-eight guns, and kihed or wounded raore than
twenty men. The American ship, being not even prepared for
action, hauled down her flag, and was boarded by the British,
who seized four of the crew and carried thera off to Halifax. One
of these, who was a British subject, was hanged as a deserter ; the
other three were conderaned to death, and then reprieved on con
dition of entering the British service.
At the news of this dastardly outrage the whole country was
thrown into such excitement as had not been witnessed since the
battle of Lexington. A cabinet meeting was held at Washington,
measures were taken for procuring military stores and strengthen
ing our coast defences, and the states were called upon for one
hundred thousand raen. But the British government avoided war
for the moment by sending a special envoy to Washington to
chaffer and procrastinate. The act of the Leopard was dis
avowed, but there was no willingness shown to raake reparation.
Feeling unprepared for war, the United States governraent had
recourse to an exceedingly stupid and dangerous measure. It
hoped to browbeat England and France by depriving them of
our trade, and accordingly in 1807, there was passed the "erabargo
act," which forbade any vessel to set out frora the United States
for any foreign port. This wonderful piece of legislation did more
harm to American coramerce than all the cruisers of France and
England could do ; while, as a raeans of bringing either of these
adversaries to reason, it was quite useless. England, indeed,
seemed rather to enjoy it, for while it diminished her comraercial
dealings with America, it increased her share in the general
carrying-trade of the world. In America the distress was felt
most severely in New England, and, as usual in those days,
whenever any part of the country felt dissatisfied with the policy
of the Federal govemment, threats of secession were heard. In

528 HOW THE UNITED STATES
1809 the embargo was repealed, and the "non-intercourse act"
took its place. This act prohibited trade with England and
France so long as their obnoxious measures should be kept in
force, but it ahowed trade with all other countries. It was as
ineffectual as the embargo, but did not do quite so rauch harra to
American comraerce. The close of Jefferson's presidency was
thus a season of national humiliation. In twenty years our great
statesmen had done a wonderful work in creating a government
able to raake itself respected at home ; but it was sthl too weak,-
in a military sense, to raake itself respected abroad.
§ 2. Second War with Great Britain.
Strength of the Republicans. — This hurailiating situation of
the United States was not due to any fault of Jefferson or his
party, and in the election of 1808 they won another great victory,
though not quite so decisive as in 1804. The Federalist candi
dates were the sarae as before, Pinckney and King ; and now they
obtained 47 ofthe 176 electoral votes. Jaraes Madison, who had
been Secretary of State since 1801, was elected President, and
George Clinton was re-elected to the vice-presidency. Madison
was a political thinker of the highest order, and had done raore
than any other man toward constructing our Federal Constitution.
He had been a leading Federalist, though more raoderate than
Harailton or Adaras ; but had soon taken sides with the Repub
licans. But his intelligence was too broad to allow hira to be a
mere man of party ; he was never an out-and-out Republican, like
Jefferson. By 1804 many of the raost intelligent Federahsts had
gone over to the Republicans ; and the raore rigid-rainded men
who were left, especially in New England, made the party more and
raore narrow and sectional, and at length brought it into general
discredit. The raost notable defection frora the Federalist party
was that of John Quincy Adaras, about the time of the embargo.
Declaration of War. — In 1810 Congress repealed the non-
intercourse act, which as a raeasure of intiraidation had accora-
phshed nothing. Congress now sought to use the threat of

BECAME A NATION. 529
non-intercourse as a sort of bribe. It informed England and
France, that if either nation would repeal its obnoxious edicts, the
non-intercourse act would be revived against the other. Napoleon,
who was as erainent for lying as for fighting, then inforraed the
United States that he revoked the Berlin and Milan decrees as far
as American ships were concerned. At the same time he gave
secret orders by which the decrees were to be practically enforced
as harshly as ever. But the lie served its purpose. Congress
revived the non-intercourse act against Great Britain alone ; and
in 1811, hostilities actually began on sea and land. On sea, the
American frigate Fresident had an encounter with the British
sloop Little Belt, and nearly knocked her to pieces without suffer
ing any damage. On land, Tecumseh and his warriors, attacking
our northwestern settleraents with British assistance, were defeated
at Tippecanoe by Gen. Harrison. The growing war-feeling was
shown in the election of Henry Clay, of Kentucky, as speaker of
the House of Representatives, while on the floor of the House l4ie
leadership fell to John Caldwell Calhoun, of South Carolina, and
in the Senate to Wilhara Crawford, of Georgia. Mr. Madison was
nominated for a second term on condition of adopting the war-
policy; and on June 18, 181 2, war against Great Britain was
formally declared. Five days later the British govemraent revoked
its orders in council ; but this concession carae too late. The
Americans had lost all patience, and probably nothing short of an
abandonment of the right of search on Great Britain's part could
have prevented the war. The Federahsts of New England, how
ever, sthl opposed the war, and of the members of Congress who
voted for it, three-fourths were from the South and West. That
this Federalist opposition was somewhat factious, would appear
from the presidential campaign. The Federahsts were too weak
to norainate a candidate for the presidency, and Mr. Madison's
only competitor was De Witt Chnton, of New York, who had been
nominated by a section of the Repubhcans as likely to prove a
more efficient war magistrate than Madison. Most of the Federal
ists now supported Clinton in a coalition which, as usual in such
cases, proved disastrous to both sides. Of 218 electoral votes,

530 HOW THE UNITED STATES
Madison received 128, and was elected; the Federahsts feh
more than ever into disfavor, and Clinton's career was henceforth
restricted to his own state.
Naval Victories. — The election showed that the war was popu
lar. It had been made so by a series of naval victories which
astonished everybody. On the 13th of August, the frigate Essex,
Captain Porter, captured the sloop Alert, after a fight of eight min
utes, without losing a raan. On the 19th, the frigate Constitution,
Captain Hull, after a half-hour's fight in the Gulf of St. Lawrence,
captured the frigate, Guerriere. The American ship had 14 men
killed and wounded, and was ready for action again in a couple of
hours ; the British ship lost 100 men, her three masts with all her
rigging were shot away, and her hull was so badly damaged that
she could not be carried off as a prize. On the 13th of October,
the sloop Wasp, Captain Jones, captured the sloop Frolic, in a des
perate fight off Cape Hatteras. On the 25th, the frigate United
Sfates, Captain Decatur, captured the frigate Macedonian, off the
island of Madeira, after a fight of an hour and a half. The British
ship lost 106 men, was totally dismasted, and had nearly 100 shot-
holes in her hull, but was brought away to America ; Decatur's
ship lost only 1 2 men, and was quite uninjured.
These reraarkable victories continued. On the 29th of Decem
ber, the Constitution, Captain Bainbridge, in a two hours' fight off
the coast of Brazil, knocked to pieces the frigate J^ava, which lost
230 men and had to be destroyed. On the 24th of February,
18 13, off the coast of Guiana, the sloop Hornet, Captain Lawrence,
destroyed the brig Feacock, which sank before her crew could be
removed. The Hornefs rigging was much injured, but she lost
only four men.
To appreciate the force of these facts, we need to reraeraber that
during the preceding twenty years of alraost continuous warfare
with France and her allies, in hundreds of such single corabats, the
British navy had lost but five ships. Now in six fights within a
single year against American vessels, the British had been shock
ingly defeated every time. The explanation was to be found partly
in the superiority of our ship-building, partly in the superiority of

BECAME A NATION. 531
ixxr gUD-practice and the better discipline of our crews. One of the
British captains won success by training his men after the American
method. On the ist of June, 1813, the British frigate Shannon,
Captain Broke, captured the American frigate Chesapeake, in a
severe battle near Boston harbor. The Americans lost 148 men,
and the British 83 ; and the Chesapeake suffered more daraage than
her antagonist, though the disparity was less than in the case of
the Araeriean victories above raentioned. The extrerae jubilation
in England served as an index to the chagrin which had been
caused by the six successive defeats. On the 14th of August, the
American brig Argus was captured in the British channel by the
brig Felican, and for a moraent it might have seemed as if the
spell of American success was broken. But a few weeks later
Lieutenant Burrows, in the brig Enterprise, captured the brig
Boxer, off Portland, Maine. In the spring Captain Porter, in the
frigate Essex, had sahed around Cape Horn into the Pacific Ocean,
where he made a famous cruise and did imraense damage to Brit
ish coramerce. In March, 18 14, he was attacked in the harbor
of Valparaiso by two British frigates, the Fhosbe and Cherub, and
after the bloodiest fight of the war, the Essex surrendered. In
Aprh, 1 8 14, the American sloop Feacock captured the brig Eper-
vier, off the coast of Florida ; in May the Wasp captured the sloop
Reindeer, and in September the sloop Avon, both actions taking
place in the British channel. In both there was the sarae prodi
gious disparity of loss as in earlier fights. The Reindeer and Avon
were corapletely destroyed, the one losing 65 raen, the other 100,
while in the former action the Wasp's loss was 26, in the latter
only three. On the 20th of February, 1815, the Constitution, now
comraanded by Captain Stewart, capped the climax by capturing the
frigate Cyane, and the sloop Levant, in an action of forty minutes
near the island of Madeira. The two British ships together were
barely a match in strength for the Constitution, but were very skil
fully handled ; and the victory of " Old Ironsides " was as brilliant
as any recorded in naval annals. A few weeks later the Hornet
captured the brig Fenguin, off the Cape of Good Hope, and in
the Indian Ocean the Feacock closed the long tale of victory by

532 HOW THE UNITED STATES
overcoming the weaker Nautilus. These last three victories
occurred after peace had been declared.
Thus out of sixteen sea-combats, with approximately equal forces,
the Americans had been victorious in thirteen. The record of our
privateers was not less remarkable. During the war we took about
1 700 British vessels, while the British took about an equal nuraber
from us. Considering that the American navy in 18 12 consisted
of about a dozen ships, while the British navy nurabered raore
than a thousand, and that the Araericans had not a single line-of-
battle ship afloat, these results might well be called marvellous.
No other nation has ever won such laurels in contending against
the " mistress of the seas." The moral effect upon Europe was
prodigious. Henceforth the United States ceased to be regarded
as a nation that could be insulted with impunity.
The War in the Northwest. — Except for the raoral effect of
these splendid sea-fights, the United States gained comparatively
little by the war. On land the offensive operations of the array
were feeble and ineffectual. The array was sraah and poorly
trained, and too rauch under the control of politicians. Hence
we began with defeats. The mhitary object of the Americans was
to invade Canada, and conquer it if possible. The mhitary object
of the British was to invade the United States,, and either detach a
portion of our northwestern territory, or secure positions which
might prove valuable in bargaining for terms of peace. The raost
iraportant frontier town, Detroit, was held by Wilhara Hull, gov
emor ofthe Michigan Territory, a gallant veteran ofthe Revolution
ary war. When war was declared he raarched into Canada, but
was driven back to Detroit by a superior force under General
Brock. After a short siege Hull was obliged to surrender the town,
thus throwing open to the eneray the whole region northwest of
Ohio. In the fit of unreasoning rage and disappointment caused
by this grave disaster, Hull was tried by a court-martial and sen
tenced to death, but was pardoned by Mr. Madison on account of
past services. Subsequent research has shown that the verdict was
grossly unjust ; and the reputation of this brave but unfortunate
man is now redeemed. In October a small force crossed Niagara

BECAME A NATION. 533
river arid foolishly attacked the British in their strong position on
Queenstown Heights ; it was defeated with heavy loss. Harrison,
who had succeeded to the coramand in the northwest, now
atterapted to recover Detroit ; but his advanced guard, under
General Winchester, was defeated at the river Raisin on the 2 2d of
January, 1813, by the British and Indians under General Proctor,
and all the prisoners were cruelly massacred by the Indians.
Harrison was then driven back to Fort Meigs by Proctor, who
besieged hira there, but unsuccessfully.
The War on the Lakes. — During the suraraer of 181 3 both
British and Araericans were busily engaged in buhding fleets with
which to control Lake Erie. On the loth of September the two
fleets met in battle, the British commanded by Commodore
Barclay, the Araericans by Commodore Perry. The forces- were
nearly equal. The battle, won by magnificent skih and daring on
the part of the American commander, ended in the surrender of
the whole British fleet, and turned the scale of war in the north
west. Ferried across the lake by Perry's fleet, Harrison's array
now entered Canada, and inflicted a crushing defeat upon Proctor
at the river Thames (October 5). This was a severe blow to
the Indians also, for their famous leader, Tecumseh, was killed.
As a consequence of the victories of Perry and Harrison, the
Americans recovered Detroit, and the British were driven from our
northwestern territory.
Next summer the Americans again invaded Canada, under
coramand of an excellent general, Jacob Brown, with whora served
an officer presently to becorae faraous, — Winfield Scott. They
crossed the Niagara river, and defeated the British in four weh-
fought batties at Chippewa (July 5), Lundy's Lane (July 25), and
Fort Erie (Aug. 15 and Sept. 17) ; but in spite of these successes,
they obtained no secure foothold in Canada, and retreated across
the river before cold weather. While these things were going on,
the British were planning an invasion of northeastem New York, by
the route which Carleton and Burgoyne had fohowed. To this end
it was necessary to gain control of Lake Charaplain, as Carleton
had done in 1776. Fleets were built, as on Lake Erie the year

534 HOW THE UNITED STATES
before, and on the nth of Septeraber a decisive battie was fought
not far frora Valcour Island, where Arnold had raaintained such
a heroic struggle. The British fleet was annihilated by Commo
dore Macdonough, and the British enterprise was abandoned.
But whhe this atterapt upon New York was a failure, the British
succeeded in seizing the unoccupied wilds of Maine east of the
Penobscot river, and thus creating a panic in New England.
The War in the South. — The region west of Georgia and south
of the Tennessee river was then a wilderness with no iraportant towns
except Natchez and Mobile. The principal military power in it
was that of the Creek Indians, who took the occasion to attack
the frontier settlements, and in August, 1813, began with a terrible
massacre at Fort Mimms, near Mobile. This brought upon the
scene the formidable Tennessee militia, comraanded by Andrew
Jackson, who as a youth had served under Thomas Surater in the
Revolutionary War. After a bloody campaign of seven months,
Jackson had corapletely subdued the Creeks, and was ready to
cope with a very different sort of eneray.
In March, 18 14, Napoleon was dethroned and sent to Elba,
and thus some of Wellington's finest troops were detached for
service in America. In August some 5000 of these veterans
landed in Chesapeake Bay, took the defenceless city of Washing
ton, and burned the public buildings there, which was not rauch
to their credit. They then attempted Baltimore, but were de
feated, and retired frora the scene to take part in a raore serious
enterprise. This expedition against Washington was designed
chiefly for insult; the expedition against New Orleans was de
signed to inflict deadly injury. It was intended to raake
a perraanent conquest of the lower Mississippi, and to secure
for Great Britain the westem bank of the river. In Deceraber
the British army of 12,000 men, under Sir Edward Pakenham,
landed below New Orleans. To oppose these veterans of the
peninsula, Jackson had 6000 rahitia of that sturdy race whose
fathers had vanquished Ferguson at King's Mountain, and whose
' children so nearly vanquished Grant at Shiloh. He awaited
the enemy in an entrenched position, where, on the 8th of Jan-

BECAME A NATION. 535
uary, 1815, Pakenham was unwise enough to try to overwhelm
him by a direct assault. In less than half an hour the British
were in full retreat, leaving Pakenham and 2600 raen behind
them, kihed or wounded; the American loss was 8 kihed and 13
wounded. The disparity of loss is perhaps unparalleled in history.
Treaty of Ghent. — News travelled so slowly in those days that
the victory of New Orleans, like the three last naval victories,
occurred after peace had been raade. Frora the first the war had
been unpopular in New England. Our victories on the sea raade
little difference in the vast naval force of Great Britain, which was
able to blockade our whole Atlantic coast. Now that Napoleon
was out of the way, it would be necessary for the United States to
fight single-handed with Great Britain. In view of these things,
and provoked by the invasion of Maine, the Federalists of New
England held a convention at Hartford, in December, 1814, to
discuss the situation of affairs and decide upon the proper course
to be pursued. As there was much secrecy in the proceedings, a
suspicion was aroused that the purpose of the convention was to
break up the Union and form a separate New England confeder
acy. This suspicion completed the political ruin of the Federahst
party. What might have come from the Hartford convention we
do not know, for on the 24th of December the treaty of peace was
signed at Ghent. The treaty left things apparently just as they
had been before the war, for England did not explicitiy renounce
the right of search and impressraent. But in spite of this it had
been made evident that European nations could no longer regard
the United States as a weak nation which might be insulted with
impunity. Partly for this reason, and partly because of the long
European peace which fohowed, the British claira to the right of
search and impressment was no longer exercised, and at length
in 1856 was expressly renounced.
§ 3. Rise of the Democracy.
The Era of Good Feeling. — In the presidential election of
1 81 6, the Federalist candidate, Rufus King, received only 34 elec
toral votes, against 187 for the Republican candidate, James Mon-

536 HOW THE UNITED STATES
roe. In 1820, when Monroe was norainated for a second term,
the Federalists put no candidate into the field, and Monroe's elec
tion was practically unanimous ; for form's sake one of the elec
tors voted for John Quincy Adams, so that no other president
might share with Washington the glory of an election absolutely
unanimous. The two parties had now acquiesced in each other's
measures, and ah, save a few malcontents, called themselves Re
publicans. The end of the war was the end of the political issues
which had divided parties since 1789, and sorae little time was
required for new issues to define themselves ; so that the period
of Monroe's administrations has been called " the era of good feel
ing." In point of fact, however, it was by no raeans a tirae of
millennial happiness.
Florida. — The changed attitude of the United States toward
European powers was illustrated in two events of this period. The
Seminole Indians, aided by the Spanish authorities in Florida,
molested our southern frontier, unth General Jackson invaded that
territory in order to put an end to the nuisance. Though Jack
son's rough measures were not fully sustained by the United
States, yet resistance on the part of Spain was so hopeless that she
consented to seh Florida to the United States for five raihion dol
lars ; and a treaty to this effect was raade in 1819.
Monroe Doctrine. — About this tirae the revolt of Mexico and
the Spanish colonies in South Araerica had made considerable
progress, and it seemed likely that the " Holy Ahiance " of Aus
tria, Pmssia, and Russia would interfere to assist Spain in subduing
her colonies. To check such a raoveraent, Mr. Monroe declared,
in a raessage to Congress in 1823, that the United States regarded
the continents of North and South Araerica as no longer open to
colonization, and would resent an atterapt, on the part of any
European nation to reduce any independent American nation to
the condition of a colony. In this bold declaration the United
States had the full sympathy of England, and it proved effectual.
The attitude of raind iraphed in such a declaration showed that
our period of national weakness was felt to have corae to an end.
Growth of the Nation. — Since the tirae of Washington the

BECAME A NATION. 537
growth of the United States had been remarkable indeed. The
population now numbered nearly ten million ; the public revenue had
increased from five million dollars to twenty-five raihion dollars.
New states were formed with surprising rapidity, as the obstacles to
migration were removed. The chief obstacles had been the hos
tihty of the Indians, and the difficulty of getting frora place to
place. During the late war the Indian power had been broken by
Harrison in the north, and by Jackson in the south. In 1807
Robert Fulton had invented the stearaboat. In 181 1 a steam
boat was launched on the Ohio river at Pittsburg, and presently
such nimble craft were plying on all the western rivers, carrying
settlers and traders, farra produce and household utensils. This
gave an iramense impetus to the western migration. After Ohio
had been admitted to the Union in 1802, ten years had elapsed
before the next state, Louisiana, was added. But in six years
after the war a new state was added every year : Indiana in 1816,
Mississippi in 181 7, Illinois in 1818, Alabama in 1819, Maine in
1820, Missouri in 1821. The admission of the last-named state
was a portentous event, for it suddenly brought the slavery ques
tion into the foreground.
Growth of Slavery. — Before the Revolution ah the colonies
had negro slaves, but north of Maryland these slaves were few in
number and of no very great value as property. Hence they were
soon emancipated in all the northern states except Delaware. At
the close of the eighteenth century there was a strong anti-slavery
feeling even in Virginia and North Carolina, and it was generally
supposed that slavery would graduahy becorae extinct without
making serious political trouble. The only states strongly in favor
of slavery were South Carolina and Georgia, where the cultivation
of rice and indigo seemed to make negro labor indispensable.
But at about that time the inventions of the steara-engine, the
spinning-raachine, and the power-loom had corabined to set up
the giant manufactories of England, and there was thus suddenly
created a great demand for cotton. In 1 793 Eh Whitney, a Con
necticut schoolmaster living in Georgia, invented the faraous cot
ton-gin, an instraraent so simple that slaves could use it, and

538 HOW THE UNITED STATES
which enabled cotton to be cleaned and got ready for market with
astonishing speed. Hitherto very littie cotton had been grown in
South Carolina and Georgia, but now cotton-growing became very
profitable, and there was a great demand for negro slaves. In
1808, according to a provision of the Federal Constitution, the
importation of slaves from Africa was prohibited by law, so that
henceforth cotton-planters could only obtain slaves by buying
thera in such border states as Virginia and Kentucky. This raade
the raising of negroes so profitable to the tobacco-planters of the
border states, that anti-slavery sentiraents soon died out araong
them, and the way was prepared for uniting all the slave states into
a solid South opposed to a solid North. Henceforth there was no
likelihood that slavery would die a natural death. On the con
trary, the policy of the slave-holders became extremely aggressive,
and sought new territory in which to introduce -this barbarous sys
tem of labor and build up new states to maintain and extend
their authority in the Federal Union.
The Missouri Compromise. — It was not until the westward
migration had crossed the Mississippi river, and entered upon
the vast Louisiana territory which Jefferson had added to the
national domain, that the conflict began. A kind of corapromise
had been kept up frora the beginning by adraitting a free state
and a slave state by turns, so as to balance each other in Congress.
Thus Vermont had been counterbalanced by KentucTiy, Tennessee
Ijy Ohio, Louisiana by Indiana, Mississippi by Illinois. In like
manner Alabaraa, in 18 19, was naturally counterbalanced in the
following year by Maine ; but as Missouri was also knocking at
the door of Congress, the southem members now refused to admit
Maine unth the northern members should consent to admit
Missouri as a slave state. The discussion was the most important
that had come up since the adoption of the Constitution ; for it
involved the whole question of the power of the government to
allow or prohibit slavery in the national doraain. It was settied
in 1820 by the famous Missouri Compromise, effected chiefly by
the efforts of Henry Clay. Missouri was adraitted as a slave state,
but it was agreed that slavery should be prohibited, in the re-

BECAME A NATION. 539
mainder of the Louisiana purchase north of the parallel of 36°
30 '. In other words, the slave-holders gained their point by
promising "not to do so any more " ; and, like most such prom
ises, it was kept till an occasion arose for breaking it. That
occasion did not arise for raore than thirty years, and it was not
until the latter part of this interval that the question of slavery
again became uppermost in national politics.
The Young West. — It was the extension of national territory
or the admission of new states that brought up the slavery ques
tion. Several years now elapsed before the national area or the
number of states was increased. Enough country was already
covered to answer the needs of the people until better means of
communication were devised. The most important avenue of
trade opened in this period was the Erie Canal, which brought
the Hudson river directly into connection with the Great Lakes.
This insured the coramercial supreraacy of the city of New York,
as the chief outlet for western traffic. At the tirae of the Declara
tion of Independence, the state of New York ranked seventh
among the thirteen in population, and the Indian frontier was
between Albany and Utica. In the census of 1820 the city of
New York for the first time showed a larger population than
Philadelphia, and the state came to the head of the hst, instead
of Virginia, which had hitherto been the foremost state. It was
the westward migration frora New England that first fihed up
central New York, and carried the state to the head of the hst.
The Erie canal and steam navigation on the lakes presently car
ried on this migration into Michigan ; but it was not tih 1837 that
that state was admitted into the Union as a balance for Arkansas,
admitted in 1836. New England people had meanwhile occupied
the northern parts of Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois ; but it was not
New England that first determined the character of the young
west. Long before the overflow of New England had fihed raral
New York, the overflow of Virginia and North Carolina had raade
the states of Kentucky and Tennessee, and a hardy population
from ah parts of the Aheghanies had thrust itself into all parts of
the west, from the prairies of Illinois to the highlands of Alabaraa.

540 HOW THE UNITED STATES
These people were as different from the slave-holding planters of
South Carolina or Louisiana as from the merchants and yeomanry
of New England ; and when by and by the stress of civil war
came, they were the stout ligament which held the Union together.
They were rough and ready, inclined to despise the refineraents
of civilized hfe, very loose in their ideas of finance, and somewhat
too careless in their use of pistols. They were intensely American
withal, cared nothing for a European civihzation of which they
knew nothing, and were sufficient unto themselves. These men
had their representative statesraan in Thomas Benton,' and their
popular hero in Andrew Jackson.
Whigs and Democrats. — In the presidential election of 1824
all parties cahed themselves Republicans, and pohtical issues were
so ill-defined that the contest seemed to concern itself only with
the personal merits of the candidates. The real but unrecognized
issue was between the notions of the young democratic west and
the polite, half-aristocratic notions of the old Atlantic states. The
four candidates were John Quincy Adaras, one of the grandest
figures in American history ; Henry Clay, the genial author of the
Missouri Compromise; Williara Crawford, earhest representative
alike of the wire-puhers and of the secessionists ; and the invincible
soldier, Andrew Jackson. The latter had the greatest number of
electoral votes, but no one had a majority ; and so the election
was thrown into the House of Representatives, where the friends
of Clay, uniting with the friends of Adaras, secured the election of
the latter. Jackson's friends thought that their hero had been hl-
used, but were raade happy by the next election, in 1828, where
Adams and Jackson were the only opposing candidates, and the
former obtained only 83 out of 261 electoral votes. Jackson's
victory in 1828 was the victory of the west over the east, and
marked the rise of the new democracy. It was in the canvass pre
ceding this election that Jackson's supporters assumed the name
of Democrats. Their opponents were known at first as " National
Repubhcans " ; but in the course of his administration, as they saw
1 He did not represent their shaky financial notions, however; on this point
his views were so sound that he was nicknamed " Old Bullion."

BECAME A NATION. 541
fit to represent Jackson as a kind of tyrant, like George III., they
took on the narae of " Whigs" ; and henceforth, until 1854, Whig
and Deraocrat were the names of the two great pohtical parties in
the United States.
The Whigs approved of allowing the Federal govemment to use
the public money in buhding roads, dredging rivers, and making
other internal improvements; the Democrats thought that such
things ought to be done by the local govemments or by private
enterprise. The Whigs espoused the policy of taxing the whole
community in order to support a few manufacturers in carrying on
a business which, without such aid, it was presumed would be a
losing one. This was done by means of a high tariff upon im
ported goods. It was ingeniously cahed "protecting American
labor," and was glorified by Clay as "the American systera,"
though in reality the custom is as old as huraan greed, and raight
as well be called Asiatic as American. The Democrats opposed
this policy, but not always intelligently. Again, the Whigs were
in favor of continuing the National Bank which had been chartered
by Congress in 1816 ; the Democrats were bitterly opposed to it ;
and, with regard to all these points. — internal iraproveraents,
tariff and bank — the Whigs favored a loose, and the Deraocrats a
strict, interpretation of the Federal Constitution.
Tariffs. — The war of 181 2 had raade it difficult to obtain man
ufactured goods from abroad, and articles of an inferior quality
had in raany instances begun to be raade in the United States.
Our manufacturers thought this scarcity a desirable thing, and tried
to prolong it after the end of the war by taxing imported goods
so heavily as to raake people buy their inferior articles instead.
One effect of the tariff has been to prevent Araeriean goods from
attaining the high standard of excellence which they would have
reached under a system of free competition. For exaraple, if
Scotch woohens were to be admitted free of duty, American
woollens would either have to be made as excellent as the Scotch,
or people would stop buying thera ; and accordingly they would
soon come to be as fine as the Scotch goods. But people were
afraid that unless foreign competition were mled out, it would

542 HOW THE UNITED STATES
be impossible to get Araeriean manufactories weh started. High
tariffs were accordingly adopted in 1828 and 1832.
Nullification. — These tariffs were bitterly opposed by the
southem states, except Louisiana, where the sugar planters were
ready to adrait the high-tariff principle in order to apply it to
foreign sugars. The southerners had no raanufactures of their ovra,
and naturally preferred to buy good clothes and good tools at a
low price, rather than poor clothes and poor tools at a high price.
The doctrine of the Kentucky resolutions of 1799 made great
progress in the south; and in 1832 a state convention in South
Carolina declared the tariff lavv null and void, forbade the collec
tion of duties at any port in the state, and called for troops to re
sist the Federal government if necessary. This was " nullification. "
It found no favor in the eyes of Jackson, though he dishked the
tariff law as much as the South Carolinians. He declared that
" the Federal Union raust and shah be preserved," sent an arraed
fleet to Charleston harbor, and warned the people of South Caro
lina that any attempt at resisting the law would be put down with
a high hand. Presently, in 1833, a new tariff law, known as the
"Corapromise Tariff," was passed, and some concessions were
made which afforded South Carohna an opportunity to repeal her
ordinance of nullification.
A New Era. — About 1830 the United States were entering
upon an era of more rapid progress than had ever been witnessed
before. The era was quite as reraarkable for the civhized world as
a whole. In 1830 the first Araeriean railroad was put in operation,
and by 1840 nearly ah the chief cities east of the Aheghanies were
connected by rail, and the system was rapidly extending itself in
the west. The effect of rahroads was especially great in Araerica,
where the ordinary roads have always been very bad, as corapared
with those of Europe. Their effect in hastening the growth of
our western country by and by surpassed that which had been
wrought by steamboats. In 1836 John Ericsson invented the
screw propeller, which required much less fuel than the paddle
wheel ; and two years afterward steamships began to make regular
trips across the Atiantic. Presently this set up the vast eraigra-

BECAME A NATION. 543
tion of laborers frora Europe, which has been going on ever since.
Our cities began to lose their vihage-hke appearance ; in 1830
New York had a population of rather raore than two hundred
thousand. Agricultural machines began to be invented ; friction
matches came into use ; anthracite coal carae in to aid both
manufactures and locomotion; and in 1836 the Patent Office had
so much to do that it was made a distinct bureau. At the same time
our methods of education and our newspapers were improved, and
American literature began to attract the world's attention. Before
1830, Bryant, Irving, and Cooper had becorae distinguished ; in the
decade after 1830, Longfehow, Whittier, Ha-v^thorne, Holraes, Ban
croft, and Prescott appeared on the scene, soon to be followed by
Emerson. In this period Daniel Webster, already famous for
raany years, was at the height of his wonderful power. He was
probably the greatest orator that ever lived, after Deraosthenes and
Chatham, and as a raaster of the English language he was superior
to Chatham. His magnificent speeches, the most impressive
passages from which were raade farailiar to every schoolboy, con
tributed greatly to raise the love of the Union into a romantic
sentiment for which people would fight as desperately as ever
cavalier fought in defence of his king. In this way Webster ren
dered incalculable service, and not a bit too soon. For humani
tarian movements were beginning to mark this new era; and
along with prison reform and temperance societies, came the
abolitionists, with their assaults upon negro slavery, bravely led in
the press by Wihiam Lloyd Garrison, in Congress by John Quincy
Adaras, who in 1 831 was elected to the House of Representatives,
where he staid till his death in 1848. The southern members tried
to smother the discussion of the subject of slavery, but Adams
could not be shenced, and in 1836 he went so far as to enunciate
the doctrine upon which Mr. Lincoln afterward rested his proc
lamation of emancipation.
The Spoils System. — Some of the changes which marked this
new era were by no means changes for the better. Hitherto, ah
our presidents, taken from the two oldest states, Massachusetts and
Virginia, had been men of aristocratic type, whh well-trained

544 HOW THE UNITED STATES
minds and polished manners, like European statesraen; and ah
except Monroe had been men of extraordinary abhity. In Jack
son, the first president from beyond the Aheghanies, the idol of
the rough pioneer west, we had a very different type of man.
There was iraraense native energy, with little training ; downright
honesty of purpose, with a very feeble grasp of the higher prob
lems of state-craft. Jackson was a raan of violent raeasures and
made raany mistakes. His greatest mistake was the use of gov-
£rnraent offices as rewards for his friends and adherents. Hereto
fore the civil service had been practically independent of politics,
as it is to-day in England. There had been but one instance of a
great party overthrow ; that was in the election of 1800. Jefferson's
followers then wished hira to turn Federalist postmasters and col
lectors out of office, and put Republicans in their places ; but he
had been too wise to do so. In 1829 Jackson introduced into
national politics the principle of " rotation in office, " by which
government officials were liable to be turned out every fourth year,
not for any misconduct, but siraply to make roora for hungry
apphcants belonging to the opposite party. Jackson was not the
inventor of this system. It had already been tried in state politics,
and brought to soraething like perfection in New York. It was a
New York politician, Wihiam Marcy, who first used the phrase,
" to the victors belong the spoils," thereby implying that a pubhc
office is not a pubhc trust but a bit of plunder, and that the ser
vices of an officer paid by the people are due, not to the people,
but to a party or a party-chief The author of the phrase doubt
less never supposed that he was raaking one of the raost infaraous
remarks recorded in history ; and the honest Jackson would prob
ably have been greatly surprised if he had been ahowed a glimpse
of the future, and seen that he was introducing a gigantic systera
of knavery and corruption which within forty years would grow
into the raost serious of the evhs threatening the continuance of
our free governraent.
Whigs come into Power. — Jackson raade another raistake,
which was trivial compared with the adoption of the spohs system,
but which created much raore disturbance at the time. His antip-

BECAME A NATION. 545
athy to the National Bank led hira not only, in 1832, to veto the
bhl for the renewal of its charter, but in the fohowing year to with
draw the pubhc money deposited in the bank, and distribute it
among various state banks. This violent measure led to a series
of events, which in 1837 culminated in the most distressing
coraraercial panic that had ever been known in Araerica. Martin
Van Buren, of New York, was then President, having been elected
in 1836 over the westem soldier, Harrison. Van Buren belonged
to Jackson's wing of the Deraocratic party, in the ranks of which
a schism was appearing between the nuhifiers and the raen who
were devoted to the Union. He was what would now be known
as a " machine politician," but of the more honorable sort. His
administration was a fairly able one. In the course of it one phase
of the National Bank question reached a satisfactory solution in the
so-called sub-treasury system, which after some vicissitudes, was
finally estabhshed in 1846, and is stih in force. By this system
the pubhc revenues are not deposited in any bank, but are paid
over on demand to the treasury department by the cohectors,
who are required to give bonds for the proper discharge of their
duty. The establishment of this systera was creditable to Van
Buren's administration, but the panic of 1837 caused so much dis
tress as to make many people wish for a change in the govem
raent. Turning to their own uses the same kind of popular senti
ment which had elected Jackson, the Whigs norainated again the
plain soldier, Harrison, who had lived in a log cabin and had hard
cider on his table. In the faraous " hard-cider carapaign " of
1840, Harrison won a sweeping victory, getting 234 electoral votes
to Van Buren's 60. The Whigs had a majority in both houses of
Congress. But the managers of the party had raade a mistake
such as has since recurred in American politics. For Vice-Presi
dent, they had nominated a Democrat, John Tyler, of Virginia, in
the hope of getting votes frora those Democrats who were dissatis
fied with Jackson and Van Buren. Just one month •after Harrison's
inauguration he died, and Tyler became President. By this unex
pected event the Whigs lost the fruits of their victory. The Presi
dent was able, by his vetoes, to defeat their raeasures, and thus

546 HOW THE UNITED STATES
their atterapts to undo the work of Jackson and Van Buren, as
regards the National Bank, ended in failure.
Oregon and Texas. — Under Tyler's adrainistration, questions of
foreign policy, involving chances of war, again came into the fore
ground ; but they were very different questions from those which
had occupied our attention in the beginning of the century, and the
mere statement of them gives a vivid impression of the enormous
growth of the United States since the war of 1812. The northwest-
em corner of North Araerica, down to the parallel of 54° 40', now
known as the territory of Alaska, was then a kind of appendage to
Siberia, and belonged to Russia. The region between Russian
Araerica and Cahfornia, known as Oregon, was clairaed by the
United States, on the ground of the discoveries of Lewis and Clark.
But Great Britain also had claims upon this region, and since 1818
it had been subject to the joint occupation of Great Britain and the
United States. But by 1842 the American stream of westward
migration, crossing the Rocky Mountains, had poured into Oregon,
and it began to be a question how this vast territory should be
divided. The Americans clairaed everything, and the Deraocrats
went into the next presidential carapaign with the alliterative war-
cry, "Fifty-four forty or fight " ; but popular interest in the question
was not strong enough to sustain this bold policy. Great western
statesmen, hke Benton, appreciated the importance of Oregon
much better than great eastem statesmen like Webster ; but none
were fully alive to its iraportance, and the southerners, represented
by Calhoun, felt little interest in a territory which seeraed quite
unavailable for the raaking of slave states. Accordingly in 1846
the raatter was corapromised with Great Britain, and the territory
was divided at the forty-ninth parallel, all above that line being
British, ah below American. If the feeling of national solidarity
in the United States had been nearly as strong as it is to-day, we
should probably have insisted upon our claim to the whole ; in
which case we should now, since our purchase of Alaska frora
Russia, possess the whole Pacific coast north of Mexico to Behr-
ing's Strait. It is perhaps to be regretted that such a bold policy
was not pursued in 1846. It had raany chances of success, for

BECAME A NATION. 547
our available military strength, all things considered, was then
probably not inferior to that of Great Britain.
Very different was the popular feeling vnth regard to Texas.
That magnificent country, greater in extent than any country of
Europe except Russia, had been settled by emigrants from the
United States, and in 1835 had rebelled against Mexican rule. In
1836 the American General Houston had defeated the Mexican
General Santa Anna in the decisive battle of San Jacinto, and won
the independence of Texas. After this the slave-holders of the
southern states wished to annex Texas to the Union. Lying south
of the parallel of 36° 30', it raight becorae a slave state, and it was
hoped that it raight hereafter be divided into several states, so as
to maintain the weight of the southerners in the United States Sen
ate. After the adraission of Arkansas in 1836, and Michigan to
balance it in 1837, the South had no raore roora for expansion,
unless it should acquire new territory ; whereas the North had still
a vast space westward at its coraraand. It seemed likely that the
North would presently gain a steady majority in the Senate ; and
in the House of Representatives, where strength depended on popu
lation, the North was constantly gaining, partly because the insti
tution of slavery prevented the South from sharing in the advan
tages of the emigration from Europe, and partly for other reasons
connected with the inferiority of slave labor to free labor. It
was, therefore, probable that before long the North would corae
to control the action of Congress, and raight then try to abohsh
slavery. This was a natural dread on the part of the South, and
the abolitionist agitation tended to strengthen and exasperate it.
The only safeguard for the South seemed to be the acquisition of
fresh territory, and thus the annexation of Texas came now to fur
nish the burning question in JDohtics, and to array the northern
and southern states against each other in a contest for supremacy
which could only be settled by an appeal to arms. In the presi
dential election of 1844, the Democratic candidate was James
K. Polk, of Tennessee, and the Whig candidate was Henry Clay ;
and there was a third noraination, which deterrained the result of
the election. The abohtionists had put forward James Birney as a

548 HOW THE UNITED STATES
presidential candidate in 1840, but had got very few votes ; they
now put hira forward again. The contest was close. The suc
cess of the Whigs seeraed probable, until the weakness of Clay's
moral fibre ruined it, — a lesson for American politicians, by which
too few have had the good sense to profit. In the idle hope of
catching Democratic votes, he published a letter favoring the an
nexation of Texas at some future time. This device met the fah
ure which ought to fohow all such flimsy manoeuvres. It won no
Democratic votes for Clay, but angered a great many anti-slavery
Whigs, who threw away their votes upon Birney, and thus carried
the state of New York over to Polk, and elected hira President.
It was the raost closely contested election in our history, except
those of 1800, 1876, and 1884.
§ 4. The Slave Power.
War with Mexico. — The Deraocratic party, thus reinstated,
was quite different from the Democratic party which had elected
Jackson and Van Buren. Its pohcy was now shaped mainly by
the followers of Calhoun, the representatives of slavery and nullifi
cation, though the latter political heresy was not likely to assert
itself, so long as they could control the Federal govemment. With
the election of Polk, the North and South are finally arrayed in
opposition to each other ; the question as to slavery comes to the
front, and stays there unth the Civil War.
In 1845 Texas was adraitted to the Union, with the understand
ing that it raight hereafter be divided, so as to raake several slave
states. Mexico was offended, but no occasion for war arose until
it was fumished by boundary troubles, due to that pecuhar craving
for territory which at this moment possessed the rainds of the
slave-holders. The boundary between Texas and Mexico was a
raatter of dispute; and early in 1846, Mr. Polk ordered General
Taylor to march in and take possession of the disputed territory.
This action was resented by Mexico, and led to a war, which lasted
nearly eighteen months. In the course of it Cahfornia was con
quered by Fremont, New Mexico by Kearney, and the northem

BECAME A NATION. 549
portion of Mexico by Taylor ; whhe Scott, landing at Vera Cmz,
advanced and captured the city of Mexico. The United States
soldiers vanquished the Mexicans wherever they found thera, and
whatsoever the disparity of nurabers. Thus at Buena Vista, Feb.
22, 1847, Taylor routed a Mexican army outnumbering hira raore
than four to one ; and sorae of the exploits of Doniphan in his
march to Chihuahua, remind us of the Greeks at Cunaxa or Arbela.
Many incidents of the war were quite roraantic, and it is interesting
to the student of history as having been the school in which most
of the great generals of our Civh War were trained to their work.
In Febmary, 1848, a treaty was made, in which Mexico gave up to
the United States a territory almost as extensive as that which
Jefferson had obtained from Napoleon. It brought the map of
the United States very nearly to what it is to-day, except for the
acquisition of Alaska.
Wilmot Proviso. — This immense acquisition of territory was a
most fortunate event for everybody concerned in it ; but its imme
diate effect upon our politics was far more disturbing than any
thing which had occurred since 1820. The anti-slavery party
looked upon the war with strong disfavor, and their sentiraents
found expression in the raost reraarkable political poems of mod
ern times, the first series of Biglow Papers by James Russell Low
eh. There was a renewal of the sectional strife which had been
quieted for a time by the Missouri Compromise. Slavery had
been prohibited in the new territory by Mexican law, and the
North wished to have this prohibition kept in force, but the South
would not consent. To sorae the siraplest solution seemed to be
to prolong the Missouri Coraproraise line from the Rocky Moun
tains to the Pacific, but neither party was wihing to give up so
much to the other. Opposition to slavery had greatly increased
at the North since 1820, and this had naturally increased the
obstinacy of the South, so that it was becoming difficult to make
coraproraises. In 1846 David Wilraot, a Deraocratic raeraber of
Congress from Pennsylvania, laid down the principle upon which,
though not adopted at the tirae, the North was destined finahy
to take its stand and march to victory. By the famous Whmot

550 HOW 'THE UNITED STATES
Proviso, slavery was to be forever prohibited in the whole of the
territory acquired from Mexico. The proviso was not adopted in
Congress, but in 1848 h cahed into existence the Free-Soh party,
formed by the union of anti-slavery Democrats and Whigs with the
abolitionists. This party nominated Martin Van Buren for Presi
dent, and Charles Francis Adaras for Vice-President. The Demo
crats nominated Lewis Cass, of Michigan, and the Whigs nominated
the mihtary hero, Taylor ; and neither of these two parties dared
in its platform to say a word about the one buming question of
the day, — the question of slavery in the new territory. The Free-
Sohers decided the election by drawing from the Democratic vote
in New York, and so Taylor became President. Taylor was by far
the ablest of the Presidents between Jackson and Lincoln ; he was
brave, honest, and shrewd ; and though a Louisiana slave-owner, he
was unflinching in his devotion to the Union. He received warm
support from the great Missouri senator, Thomas Benton, the most
eminent in abhity of the Jacksonian Democrats. The pohtical
stmggle during Taylor's administration related chiefly to the ad
mission of Cahfornia as a state in the Union.
California. — Hitherto the westward migration had gone on
at a steady pace, filhng up one area after another as it went along.
In 1846 Iowa was admitted to the Union, the first free state west
of the Mississippi ; in 1848 the admission of Wisconsin at last filled
up the region east of that river ; and the two states served as a
counterweight in the Senate to Florida and Texas. Now the
immigration took a sudden leap to the Pacific coast. In 1848
gold was discovered in California, and people rashed thither from
all points of the compass, in quest of sudden riches. Within a year
the population had becorae large enough to entitle it to admission
to the Union, and there was need of a strong govemraent to hold
in check the numerous ruffians who had flocked in along with honest
people. In 1849 the people of California agreed upon a state
constitution forbidding slavery, and applied for admission to the
Union. The southern raerabers of Congress hotly opposed this,
and threats of secession began to be heard. The controversy
went on for a year, until it was settled by a group of compromise

BECAME A NATION. SSI
measures devised by Clay, who thirty years before had succeeded
so well with his Missouri Compromise. It was now agreed that
Califomia should be admitted as a free state ; and in return for
this concession the northern raerabers consented to a very strin
gent law for the arrest, by United States officers, of fugitive slaves
in the northern states. The region between Cahfornia and Texas
was to be organized into two territories, — Utah (including Nevada)
and New Mexico (including Arizona) ; and the question whether
slavery should be allowed in these territories was postponed.
Before these raeasures had become law, Mr. Taylor, who, sup
ported by Benton, had taken strong ground against the threats of
secession, suddenly died, and the Vice-President, Mihard Fihraore,
becarae President. Mr. Fihraore, like his two successors, belonged
to the class of politicians whora the southerners called " dough
faces," — raen who were ready to raake almost any concessions to
the slave power, for the sake of avoiding strife.
Effects of the Compromise. — Instead of bringing quiet, as the
Missouri Corapromise had done, the Compromise of 1850 was
the prelude to more bitter and deadly strife. The craelties at
tending the execution of the fugitive slave law aroused fierce
indignation at the North, and presently produced a book which had
an enormous sale, and was translated into almost all the literary
languages of the world. "Uncle Tom's Cabin," by Mrs. Harriet
Beecher Stowe, was a story written to show what negro slavery
reahy was. The book was written in a wonderful spirit of fairness,
rather understating than exaggerating the evils of slavery, and it
carried ah the more conviction for that reason. Its influence in
strengthening the anti-slavery feehng at the North raust have been
incalculably great. Further service was done in the sarae direc
tion by the bold speeches and lectures of two faraous Boston
orators, the lawyer Wendeh Phihips and the rainister Theodore
Parker. At the sarae time the political attitude of the extrerae
abolitionists was very unwise. Some of thera cahed the Federal
Constitution a "covenant with heh," because it permitted slavery;
and seemed ready to see the Union broken up, rather than sub
mit to the demands of the South. Many anti-slavery Whigs,

552 HOW THE UNITED STATES
without going to such lengths, becarae disgusted with their
party for approving the late compromises, and abstained from
voting at the next election. The Whigs having triumphed in
1848 with one of the two chief heroes of the Mexican War, now
nominated the other. General Scott. The Democrats norainated
Franklin Pierce, a northern "doughface"; and the Free-Sohers
norainated John Hale, rauch the ablest of the three candidates.
There were 254 electoral votes for Pierce and only 42 for Scott,
and this crashing defeat put an end to the Whig party.' Its
two great leaders, Webster and Clay, had just been removed by
death. They were succeeded by such men as Sumner, Seward,
and Chase, declared enemies of slavery. Calhoun had also died,
and a person of much smaher cahbre, Jefferson Davis, succeeded
him as leader of the slave-holders.
Kansas-Nebraska BiU. — The slave power was now at its wit's
end for new territory in which to extend itself The stars in
their courses had begun to fight against it. The admission of
Cahfornia gave the North a preponderance in the Senate; the
wonderful growth of the northwestern states, in which the influence
of New England ideas was steadily increasing, was giving it a
preponderance in the lower house ; and a time was likely to
arrive when the South could no longer depend upon the aid of
"doughface" presidents. It seemed necessary at once to get a
new slave state to balance California, but tire available land south
of 36° 30' was all used up. West of Arkansas lay the Indian
Territory, while it was a long way across Texas to New Mexico ;
and on these lines the westward moveraent of white men was
likely to advance too slowly. The impatience of the slave power
vented itself but imperfectly in secret and illegal filibustering
expeditions against Cuba and some of the states of Central
America. It was hoped that Cuba might be conquered and an
nexed as a slave state ; but all these whd schemes fahed, and Spain
could not be persuaded to sell Cuba. A more practicable scheme
seemed to be to get control of the territory lying west of Missouri
and Iowa, and introduce slavery there. This land lay to the
northof 36° 30', and was therefore forever to be free soil, ac-

BECAME A NATION. 553
cording to the terms of the Missouri Coraproraise. But with the
aid of northern doughfaces the South might hope to obtain the
repeal of that celebrated compact ; and now once more its wishes
were gratified, so far as mere legislation could go ; but it soon
became apparent that it was only sowing the wind to reap the
whirlwind. The needed northern leader was found in Stephen
Douglas, an Ihinois Democrat, who hoped to become President.
He maintained that the coraproraise of 1850, by leaving the
slavery question undeterrained in New Mexico and Utah, had
virtually repealed the Missouri Compromise, and made it necessary
to leave that question undetermined in the Kansas-Nebraska terri
tory. There was no strict logic in this doctrine; for Kansas-
Nebraska, being part of the Louisiana purchase, was covered by
the Missouri Coraproraise, whereas New Mexico-Utah lay wholly
outside the area conteraplated in that agreement. But in the
stress of political emergencies, it is apt to fare ill with strict logic.
In 1854 the Kansas-Nebraska Bill was passed, reopening the
slavery question in the lands west of Missouri and Iowa. This
was substantially a repeal of the Missouri Compromise. It was a
great and alarming concession to the slave power. Douglas and
his followers intended it to ensure peace, but its iraraediate conse
quence was the great Civh War.
For according to Douglas' doctrine, which was known as
" squatter sovereignty," it was now to be left to the settlers in Kan
sas and Nebraska whether they would have slavery or not. It was a
plausible doctrine, because it appealed to that strong love of local
self-government which has always been one of the soundest political
instincts of the American people. But its practical result was to
create a furious rivalry between North and South, as to which
should get settiers enough into Kansas to secure a raajority of
popular votes there. The issue, thus clearly defined, at once
wrought a new division between political parties. In the auturan
of 1854 ah the northern men who were opposed to the extension
of slavery, whatever their former party naraes might have been,
combined together under the name of "Anti-Nebraska Men," and
succeeded in electing a majority of the House of Representatives.

554 HOW THE UNITED STATES
Soon afterward they took the name of Republicans, and because
of their alleged fondness for negroes, their scomful opponents
called them " Black Republicans."
The Struggle for Kansas. — The course of westward migration
now became deterrained by political reasons. Anti-slavery societies
subscribed money to hasten immigration into Kansas, while Mis
souri and Arkansas poured in a gang of border raffians, to make
life insecure for northem iraraigrants and deter thera from coming.
The plains of Kansas soon becarae the scene of wholesale robbery
and murder. The preliminary phase of the Civil War had begun.
A state of war existed in Kansas till 1858, when the tide of north
ern immigration had become so strong as to sweep away all obsta
cles and to decide that slavery should be forbidden there. Mean
while the debates in Congress had grown so fierce as to end in
personal violence. In 1856 Charles Sumner made a speech which
exasperated the slave-holders ; and shortly afterward, Preston
Brooks, a representative from South Carolina, sought out Sumner
while he was writing at his desk in the senate-chamber, and
beat hira over the head with a stout cane unth he had nearly
kihed hira. An atterapt was made to have Brooks expehed
from Congress, but it fahed of the requisite two-thirds vote.
Brooks then resigned his seat and appealed to his constituents,
who re-elected him to Congress by an alraost unanimous vote,
whhe many southern newspapers loudly applauded his conduct.
Dred Scott. — In the presidential campaign of 1856, the Demo
crats nominated a northem doughface, James Buchanan, and
endorsed the principle of squatter sovereignty ; the Repubhcans
nominated the western explorer Fremont, and asserted the right
and duty of Congress to prohibit slavery in the territories, thus
planting themselves upon the ground of the Whmot Proviso. A
sraall remnant of doughface Whigs norainated Fhlmore, and tried
to turn attention away from the great question at issue, by protest
ing against the too hasty naturalization of foreign-bom citizens.
Buchanan obtained 174 electoral votes, Fremont 114, and Fihraore
8. The large Republican vote showed that the northern people
were at last awakening to the danger, and it astonished and alarmed

BECAME A NATION. 555
the South. The secessionist feeling was diligently encouraged by
southern leaders who had pohtical ends to subserve by it. The
slave power became raore aggressive than ever. The renewal of
the African slave trade, which had been forbidden since 1808, was
demanded, and without waiting for the question to be settled, the
infamous traffic was resumed on a considerable scale, and with
scarcely any attempt at concealment. In the summer and autumn
of 1857, the English fleet which watched the African coast, charged
with the duty of suppressing the slave trade, captured twenty-two
vessels engaged in this business, and all but one of these were
American. By i860 the trade had assumed large proportions,
and was openly advertised in the southem newspapers. Not sat
isfied with this, the slave-holders strove to enlist the power of the
Federal government in actively protecting their baneful institution.
The principle of squatter sovereignty had not served their purpose,
for they could not compete with the North in sending settlers to
Kansas, and in the struggle there they were already getting worsted.
They accordingly threw squatter sovereignty to the winds, and
demanded that the Federal government should protect slavery in
all the territories. The question was brought to the test in a case
which was decided in the Supreme Court in 1857. Dred Scott, a
slave who had been taken by his owner frora Missouri into free
territory, brought suit to obtain his freedora. Of the nine judges
of the Supreme Court, five were slave-holders, and some of the
others were doughfaces: When the case was at last brought before
thera, it was decided that, according to the Constitution, slaves
were not persons but property, and that slave-owners could raigrate
from one part of the Union to another and take their negroes with
them, just as they could take their horses and cows, or the bank
notes in their waistcoat pockets. Two of the judges, Benjarain
Curtis, of Massachusetts, and John McLean, of Ohio, delivered
dissenting opinions.
The Crisis. — The revival of the African slave trade attracted
httle notice at the tirae, in coraparison with the Dred Scott deci
sion. The effect of the two, taken together, would have been to
drown the whole Union in a deluge of barbarism, to blight the

556 HOW THE UNITED STATES
growth of the American people both materially and morally, and
to raake us a nuisance in the eyes of the civhized worid. The
northem people refused to accept the verdict of the Suprerae
Court, and the northern Democrats, led by Douglas, became
unwilling to co-operate any longer with the Democrats of the
South. Sorae of them drifted into the Republican party, others
tried to raahitain the already effete principle of squatter sovereignty ;
but nearly ah were driven to the unwelcorae conclusion that the
day of coraproraises was gone. Thus North and South were at
last definitely arrayed against each other, and the air was fuh of
disraal forebodings of war. In the autumn of 1859 a blow was
struck, shght enough in itself, but prophetic of the coraing storm.
John Brown, a Connecticut raan of the old Puritan type, had been
an anti-slavery leader in the Kansas fights. Now with fanatical
fervor he raade up his raind to inaugurate a crusade against the
slave power. With a handful of followers he attacked the arsenal
at Harper's Ferry, in the hope of getting arras and setting up in
the wild raountains of that neighborhood an asylum for fugitive
slaves. He was, of course, captured and put to death, but his
daring act sounded the key-note of the approaching conflict. For
that very reason he got at the moraent but little sympathy in the
North, where the Republican majority, content with the raoderate
policy of excluding slavery frora the territories, were very unwilling
to be considered alhes of the extrerae abolitionists, whom they
regarded as disturbers of the peace.
In the presidential election of i860 there were four candidates.
The southern Deraocrats had separated frora the northern Demo
crats, the Whig doughfaces were not yet extinct, and the Republi
cans were daily waxing in strength. The Republicans nominated
Abrahara Lincoln, of Illinois, and declared that the Federal gov
ernment raust forbid slavery in the territories. The southern
Deraocrats nominated John Breckenridge, of Kentucky, and de
clared that the Federal government raust protect slavery in the
territories. These two parties had the courage of their convic
tion ; the others shuffled, but in different ways.
The northern Democrats, in nominating Douglas, took their

BECAME A NATION. 557
stand upon a principle, though it was one that had already
been proved inadequate ; they left the question of slavery in
each territory to be decided by the people who should settle
in the territory; but in order to catch southern votes, they
made a concession sirailar to that which Clay had made in 1844,
and vaguely announced themselves as willing to submit to the
decision of the Supreme Court. This weakness, in presence of
the Dred Scott verdict, gained them no votes at the South, where
they could not outbid Breckenridge, and it lost them many votes
at the North. ,
The still surviving remnant of doughface Whigs nominated John
Bell, of Tennessee, and declared themselves in favor of " the Con
stitution, the Union, and the enforcement of the laws," — a phrase
which might mean almost anything. These good people were so
afraid of war, that they would fain keep the peace by shutting their
eyes and persuading themselves that the terrible slavery question
did not reahy exist, and that all would go weh if men would only
be good and kind to one another.
In the electoral cohege Lincoln obtained 180 votes, Brecken
ridge 72, Beh 39, and Douglas 12. The popular vote for Douglas
was very large, but it was not so distributed as to gain a raajority
in any state except Missouri ; beside the nine electoral votes of
that state he obtained three in New Jersey. The result of the
election was a decisive victory for the Republicans. Its signifi
cance was far-reaching. It not only raeant the overthrow of the
Dred Scott doctrine and the squatter sovereignty doctrine, but it
even went back of the Missouri Coraproraise doctrine, and put an
iraraediate stop to the extension of slavery into the territories. |tlt
said not a word about the abolition of slavery in states where it
already existed, but it meant that hereafter free labor was to have
enormous room for expansion, while slave labor was to have none.
§ 5. The Civil War.
The North and the South in 1860. — The year of Lincoln's
election was the census year in which the population of the United
States first showed itself greater than that of its niother country.

558 HOW THE UNITED STATES
In 1776 the population of Great Britain and Ireland was about
8,000,000, and that of the Unhed States about 3,000,000. In
i860 the population of Great Britain and Ireland was about
29,000,000, and that of the United States was over 31,000,000.
The agricultural products of the United States far surpassed in
volume those of any other country, and in merchant-shipping we
were second only to Great Britain, — a fact curious and sad to con
template now, when our idiotic navigation laws have succeeded in
nearly destroying our merchant marine. Between 1830 and i860
the growth of American civilization had been prodigious in all
directions, — in fachitles of travel and exchange, in home com
forts, in manufactures, in literature and art ; and, above all, in that
awakening of moral sense which enabled us to pass unscathed
through the terrible ordeal of the next four years.
In all this material and raoral progress the South had by far the
sraaller share ; not because of any natural inferiority in the people,
but simply because of the curse of slavery, which blighted every
thing within its reach. Where labor was held in disrespect, as the
mark of an inferior caste, immigration would not come ; railroads,
coraraerce and manufactures would not thrive ; ideas from other
parts of the raodern world were not kindly received ; and the ad
vance of civilization was accordingly checked. In i860, besides
their 4,000,000 negro slaves, the seceding states had a white popula
tion of about 4,000,000, with which to contend against 23,000,000
at the North ; and this enormous disparity was further increased
by the still greater superiority of the North in raaterial resources.
The struggle of the South for four years against such odds showed
of what heroic stuff its people were inade ; but they had also one
great railitary advantage which went far toward neutralizing these
odds. To win their independence it was not necessary for them
to conquer the North or any part of it, but only to defend their
own frontier ; whereas, on the contrary, for the North to succeed,
it was necessary for its armies to effect a mihtary occupation of
the whole vast southem country, and this was in some respects a
greater military task than had ever been undertaken by any civi
lized government.

BECAME A NATION. 559
In planning secession the southem leaders realized how great
this military advantage was, and they counted upon three other
advantages, which, however, they failed to obtain. If they could
have won these three other advantages, they might have succeeded
in estabhshing their independence. First, they expected that all
the slave states would join in the secession moveraent, which was
far from being the case. Secondly, they hoped that northern
Democrats would offer such opposition to the Republican admin
istration as to paralyze its action. In this they were sadly dis
appointed. As soon as it came to war, the great raajority of
northern Democrats loyally supported the governraent ; and the
party of obstructionists, known as " Peace Deraocrats," and nick
named " Copperheads," was too small to do much harra. Thirdly,
the southern leaders hoped to get aid frora England and France.
They believed that the Enghsh raanufactories were so dependent
upon their cotton that the Enghsh governraent would not ahow
their coast to be blockaded. " Cotton is king," they said. Then
the French emperor. Napoleon IIL, had designs upon Mexico
that were incompatible with the Monroe doctrine, and he would be
glad to see the power of the United States divided. In these
hopes, too, they were disappointed. Napoleon was desirous of
recognizing the independence of the South, but unwihing to take
such a step, save in concert with England, and he was unable to
persuade England. In the latter country there was much differ
ence of sentiraent, the working people raainly sympathizing with
the North, and fashionable society with the South ; but in spite of
great suffering from scarcity of cotton, the government could not,
without glaring inconsistency, whhe suppressing the African slave
trade with one hand, lend support to the principal slave power on
earth with the other. The raost it could do was to wink at the
departure of a few blockade -mnners and privateers frora Brhish
ports. Fort Sumter and Bull Run. — As soon as the election of i860
showed that the slave power could no longer control the policy of
the Federal Union, the state of South Carohna called a convention,
which on the 20th Deceraber passed its ordinance of secession.

560 HOW THE UNITED STATES
Other states, in which the secessionist party was not quite so
strong, now thought it necessaiy to stand by South Carolina, and
in the course of January, 1861, Georgia, Alabama, Florida, Mis
sissippi, Louisiana, and Texas passed ordinances of secession. The
other slave states stih held aloof, political opinions being much
divided. In general their people disapproved of secession, but
did not recognize the right of the Federal govemment to defend
itself by making war against the rebellion in a seceding state.
This doctrine found expression in the annual message of President
Buchanan, and his feeble attitude encouraged the seceders to
believe that by a brave show of force they raight succeed in
effecting their purpose without war. In February, 1861, delegates
from six of the seceding states raet at Montgoraery in Alabama,
organized a government known as the " Confederate States of
America," adopted a constitution, and chose Jefferson Davis for
President, and Alexander Stephens, of Georgia, for Vice-President.
Their terra of office was to be six years. Many United States forts
and arsenals were seized, but a few, and raore particularly Fort
Surater, in Charleston harbor, held out. The South Carolinians
prepared to attack Fort Surater, and succeeded in preventing
Buchanan's governraent frora sending supplies thither. When Mr.
Lincoln succeeded to office, he sent a fleet to aid Fort Surater ;
and as soon as the South Carolinians heard of this, they fired upon
the fortress and captured it without bloodshed. This event aroused
fierce exciteraent throughout the North, for it showed people what
they had hitherto been extreraely unwhling to believe, — that the
South was ready to fight, and could not be curbed without war.
April 15, two days after the fall of Fort Surater, the President
called for 75,000 troops to put down the rebehion, and the response
was so hearty that within two months 200,000 men were under arras.
The first blood was shed on the 19th, the anniversary of the battie
of Lexington, when a Massachusetts regiment, hurrying to the de
fence of the Federal capital, was fired upon by a mob in Baltiraore.
Many people in the border states were enraged by Mr. Lin
coln's cah for troops. The governors of Arkansas, Tennessee,
North Carolina and Virginia, refused to obey, and those states

BECAME A NATION. 561
seceded from the Union and joined the Confederacy, but not with
their full force. The people of the Aheghany raountains were
loyal to the Union ; in eastern Tennessee they aided the Federals
as far as possible ; in Virginia they seceded from their own state,
and forraed a new governraent, known as the state of West Vir
ginia, which was afterward admitted into the Union. Even thus
curtahed, the accession of Virginia to the Confederacy increased
its military strength enormously. Its capital was at once removed
from Montgomery up to Richmond, and it became much easier to
threaten Washington, or to invade the North. Virginia was, besides,
the greatest and richest of the slave states, and furnished the
southem army with its ablest leaders, many of whom— -such as
Lee, Johnston, Jackson, and Ewell — were opposed to secession,
but thought it right to govern their ovm course by that of their
state. Immense consequences now hung upon the action of the other
three border states. Missouri was the most powerful slave state,
except Virginia, and the geographical position of Missouri, Ken
tucky, and Maryland, was of incalculable mhitary importance. If
these three states had joined the Confederacy, they raight have
tumed the scale in its favor. Maryland reraained firra, through
the steadfast loyalty of her governor and the presence of Federal
troops. In Kentucky and Missouri, where the govemraents were
disloyal, the situation soon became storray and doubtful.
The first campaign east of the Mississippi was in West Virginia,
from which the Confederate troops were driven in July by General
McClellan. At the sarae time popular impatience prevahed upon
General Scott to ahow a premature and imprudent advance toward
Richmond. On July 21 General McDoweh had neariy accora
plished the defeat of General Beauregard in a severe battie at Buh
Run, when General Joseph Johnston arrived on the scene with fresh
troops, and the Federal troops were put to flight. Until Johnston's
arrival the forces were about equahy raatched in numbers. Some
5,000 men were khled and wounded, so that it was the bloodiest
battie that had yet been fought in America by white tnen ; but its
only- mhitary significance was that it made the South over-confi-

562 HOW THE UNITED STATES
dent, while it nerved the North to greater efforts. Unth the fol
lowing spring, there were no important operations in the East,
except that Port Royal and a few other places on the coast were
captured, and held as convenient stations for the blockading fleet.
The blockade was soon made effective along the whole length of
the southem coast from the Potomac to the Rio Grande, an
achievement which raost people had thought irapossible. The
coramand of the Array of the Potomac was given to McClellan
immediately after Bull Run, and in November he succeeded Scott
as coraraander-in-chief of the Federal arraies. He showed great
skih in organizing the array, which, under his training, became an
excellent instrument of warfare.
Affair of the Trent. — Toward the end of the year we came
near getting into serious trouble with Great Britain. Two southern
gentlemen. Mason and Slidell, were sent out by the Confederacy
as commissioners to England and France, to seek aid from those
powers. They ran the blockade, and at Havana took passage for
England in the Trent, a British steamer. Some distance out, the
Trent was overhauled by an American war-vessel under Captain
Wilkes, and the two Confederate agents were taken out and carried
to Boston harbor, where they were iraprisoned in Fort Warren.
This was an exercise of the right of search which the United States
government had always condemned, and to put an end to which it
had gone to war with Great Britain in 1812. The right had been
relinquished by Great Britain in 1856. It was irapossible for the
United States to uphold the act of Captain Wilkes without desert
ing the principles which it had always raaintained. Mr. Lincoln
therefore proraptly disavowed the act and surrendered the prison
ers, although such a course was raade needlessly difficult for hira
by the blustering behavior of the British governraent, which had
immediately begun to threaten war and get troops ready to send
to Canada.
Successes in the West. — In Missouri the secessionist party was
very strong, and controhed the state government ; but it was com
pletely defeated by the boldness and sagacity of Francis Blair and
Nathaniel Lyon, who in May and June, 1861, overturned the gov-

BECAME A NATION. 563
ernment and set up a loyal one in its place. The prompt action
of these two men saved Missouri to the Union. After a brief
career of victory, Lyon was defeated and killed, August lo, in a
severe battle at Wilson's Creek. The Confederates gained littie
from their shght success and their hold grew weaker, until in
March, 1862, they were thoroughly and decisively defeated at Pea
Ridge, in Arkansas, by General Curtis.
Meanwhile in Kentucky the state government had begun by
trying to maintain an irapossible attitude of neutrality, but the
Union sentiment grew stronger and stronger, unth in September
the Confederate general, Polk, invaded Kentucky and occupied the
bluffs at Columbus, blocking the descent of the Mississippi river.
Kentucky now declared for the Union, and General Grant entered
the state frora Illinois and anticipated Polk in securing the raouths
of the Tennessee and Curaberiand rivers, two great strearas which
were to serve as mihtary highways by which the Union armies were
to penetrate into the heart of the Confederacy. This was for Grant
the beginning of a long and successful, though fiercely contested
advance. The Confederates had set up a defensive line frora
Columbus on the Mississippi river to Cumberland Gap in the
Aheghanies, and placed in coraraand of it Sidney Johnston, an
officer of high reputation. His head-quarters were at Bowling
Green, and he was confronted by a Federal army under General
Bueh. This was the middle one of the three great Federal arraies,
and carae to be known as the army of the Cumberland. The
centre of the Confederate line was at Forts Henry and Donelson,
strongholds intended to bar the ascent of the two great rivers. This
centre was confronted by Grant, with troops which presently
forraed the western one of the three great Federal arraies, and was
known as the array of the Tennessee. The right of the Confeder
ate line was at Mihspring, and in January it was thoroughly de
feated by the extrerae left division of Bueh's array, under General
Thomas. In February, aided by the river fleet. Grant captured
Fort Henry and Fort Donelson, taking 15,000 prisoners, and
breaking through the centre of the Confederate line. Johnston
and Polk were now obhged to retreat for fear of being cut off.

564 HOW THE UNITED STATES
Kentucky was secured to the Union, and the greater part of
Tennessee recovered. Andrew Johnson was appointed mhitary
govemor of the state.
The Confederates set up their second defensive line along the
railroad from Memphis to Chattanooga, and began massing their
forces on this hne at Corinth. The armies of Grant and
Bueh advanced to attack them there. Both these arraies were
now raoving under the directions of General Haheck, who was
intending to corae frora St. Louis and take comraand in the field.
Before he arrived there was a great battie. Grant was at Pitts
burg Landing on the west bank of the Tennessee river, about
twenty railes frora Corinth, awaiting the arrival of Bueh's army.
Johnston raoved to attack and crush hira there before the junction
of the armies could be effected. There ensued on April 6 and 7
the battle of Shhoh, in which nearly 100,000 men were engaged,
and lost one-fourth of their number in kihed and wounded. John
ston, who was one of the slain, came near effecting his purpose,
but Grant's resistance was stubborn, and at the close of the first
day three divisions of Bueh's army came upon the scene, so that
next day the Confederates were defeated. This battle decided
the fate of Corinth, which, however, did not fall for several
weeks, because the incapable Halleck now took comraand of
the Federals.
Whhe these things were going on, the Federal fleet under Far
ragut captured New Orleans and laid open the Mississippi river up
to Vicksburg ; and the river fleet, at first with the aid of a sraall
array under Pope, captured Island No. 10, and then annihilated
the Confederate river fleet at Meraphis. The fall of that city and of
Corinth broke down the second Confederate line of defence, and
laid open Vicksburg on the one hand and Chattanooga on the
other, to the attack of the Federals. Thus the first year of active
warfare in the West, frora June, 1861, to June, 1862, was an almost
unbroken career of victory for the Federal armies. To complete
the conquest of the Mississippi, it was necessary to take Vicksburg,
with its outpost. Port Hudson, which between them comraanded
the raouth of the Red river, and thus kept open the communica-

BECAME A NATION. 565
tions of the eastern part of the Confederacy with its states of
Texas, Louisiana and Arkansas. To take Vicksburg would lop off
these states and inflict an irreparable damage upon the fighting
power of the Confederacy. Whhe this object was so important,
it was scarcely less iraportant for the Federals to hold Chattanooga,
and thus open the way into Georgia, while preventing the Con
federates frora recovering any of the lost ground in Tennessee.
But Haheck was unequal to the situation ; and while he failed to
seize Vicksburg, which the Confederates soon raade one of the
raost formidable strongholds in the world, he also failed to seize
Chattanooga. Merrimac and Monitor. — The great river fights at New Orleans
and Memphis showed that one of the Confederacy's chief sources
of weakness lay in its naval inferiority. But before these fights it
had seemed for a moment as if it might be going to become for
midable on the water, after all. The Confederates took the
United States frigate Merrimac at Norfolk Navy Yard, and trans
formed her into an ironclad ram, with sloping sides and huge iron
beak. The United States had in Harapton Roads a fleet of five
of the finest wooden war-ships in the world. On the Sth of March,
1862, this fleet was wretchedly defeated by the Merrimac. Their
shot bounded harralessly from her sides, while she sank one of the
ships with her beak, and raight very hkely have sunk thera ah, had
not darkness stopped the fight. But John Ericsson, the inventor
of the screw propeher, had lately corapleted his invention of the
turret ship ; and a few hours after the Merrimac' s victory, the first
vessel of this class, the famous Monitor, appeared in Hampton
Roads. Next day she had an obstinate fight with the Merrimac,
and compelled her to retire from the scene though she could not
destroy her. The immediate effect of this naval battie was to
render antiquated ah the most recently built ships then existing in
ah the navies of the world. The naval superiority of the North
was no more interrapted, and Federal fleets, supported by small
armies went on seizing the chief harbors on the southem coast,
unth by the end of the war they possessed them ah.
McClellan in Virginia. — The eastem qampaigns were not so

566 HOW THE UNITED STATES
successful as the western, partiy because the Confederate generals
were rauch abler, as compared with their antagonists ; partly because
military affairs were too much mixed up with pohtics. In advanc
ing upon Richmond, McClehan thought it wisest to start by sea
and proceed up the bank of the James river ; but the govemraent
wished him to march directly across Virginia, in order to keep his
army always interposed between the eneray and Washington.
McClehan's objection to this course was that the nature of the
country offered the eneray a series of iraraensely strong defensive
lines, which could be carried only at a terrible cost of life. He
was at length allowed to fohow the James river route, but his plan
was hampered in a way that ruined it without protecting Washing
ton. Part of his army, under McDoweh, was sent by the direct
route to Fredericksburg, and in order to keep his right wing within
co-operating distance of it, he was obliged to move, not close by
the Jaraes river, but by the Chickahorainy, with his base of
supphes on the York river. Smah Union forces, under Banks and
Fremont, were also kept in and about the Shenandoah vahey.
These arrangeraents were liable to prove very disastrous, if tumed
to account by skilful adversaries. McClellan justly complained
that his plans were so interfered with as never to have left him a
fair chance. At the same tirae he seeras to have been very far
indeed frora making the best use of the opportunities within his
reach. At first the Confederates kept him a month besieging York-
town, which they then abandoned, and retired into the neighborhood
of Richmond. In advancing, the need for keeping his right wing
thrown out toward McDowell, brought McClellan into an awkward
position astride of the Chickahorainy river, which by a sudden rise
nearly severed the two halves of the array. At the end of May the
Confederates pounced upon one-half at Fair Oaks, and in a hard-
fought battle it barely saved itself Joseph Johnston was here
wounded, and his place was taken by Robert Lee, whose first
raove was to send the famous "Stonewall" Jackson to the Shen
andoah valley. Jackson easily defeated the forces there, and
created such a panic in Washington that McDowell's force was
withdrawn for the defence of the capital. McClellan now decided

BECAME A NATION. 567
to change his base from the York river to the James, and thus
secure a much better position. But before he had effected the
change, Jackson had returned from the Shenandoah, and the
united Confederate array buried itself upon McClehan, in the
hope of crushing hira while making the change. After seven days
of hard fighting, June 26 to July i, with a loss of 15,000 raen on
each side, Lee was driven off, and McClehan reached the Jaraes
river, in a position where he was more dangerous to Richmond
than before.
Meanwhhe the scattered forces between Washington and Rich
mond were put in command of John Pope, against whora Lee
presently sent Jackson. Now Haheck, who had been brought to
Washington and made commander-in-chief, stupidly played into
the enemy's hands by removing McClehan's array frora the vicin
ity of Richmond, and bringing it around by sea to unite with Pope.
Lee's hands being left quite free by this clumsy movement, he
forthwith joined Jackson and inflicted an ignominious defeat upon
Pope at Buh Run, Aug. 29. The capital was threatened; the
country wild with excitement. To screen Pope, charges of mis
conduct and disobedience were brought against one of his ablest
officers, Fitz John Porter, who was found guilty and disraissed from
the army. The charges were afterward proved to have been ground
less, and after a quarter of a century, in spite of the shameful resis
tance of pohtical partisans. General Porter was restored to his rank
in the army.
After the overthrow of Pope, the Confederates pushed on into
Maryland, and McClehan again comraanded the Federals. At
Antietam, on the 1 7th September, a great battie was fought between
40,000 Confederates under Lee and 60,000 Federals under McClel
lan, who had about 25,000 more troops unused. Each side lost
about 12,500 men, and at the end the advantage was slightly with
the Federals. Lee retreated slowly into Virginia, foHowed by
McClehan, who was blamed for not accomplishing raore. Early
in November he was superseded by Bumside, who accomphshed
stih less.
Western Campaigns. — In June, 1862, the great Union force at

568 HOW THE UNITED STATES
Corinth was divided, Bueh's array marching eastward to seize
Chattanooga, while Grant's remained about Corinth tih it should
be ready to start for Vicksburg. The campaign was so badly
managed by Haheck that the Confederates, under Bragg, seized
Chattanooga before Bueh's arrival, and were thus enabled to bring
such pressure to bear in that direction that heavy reinforceraents
had to be sent from Grant to Bueh. Thus weakened. Grant was
unable to advance for several months. Meanwhhe Bragg took
advantage of his superior position to strike across Tennessee and
invade Kentucky, in two columns, one directed against Bueh's base
at Louisville, the other moving through Cumberland Gap toward
Cincinnati. This bold raovement, occurring simultaneously with
Lee's invasion of Maryland, served to alarra the North, but the
Confederates failed to recover any of the ground they had lost.
Bueh's raoveraents were raade with great skill, and, after a bloody
and indecisive battle between parts of the arraies at Perryville,
Oct. 8, Bragg retreated through Cumberland Gap and made his
way back to Chattanooga.
While these things were going on, the Confederate array in
Mississippi, under Van Dom, raade a desperate atterapt to tum
Grant's left wing at Corinth, so as to force him back down the
Tennessee river. That wing was commanded by Rosecrans, who
defeated the Confederates at luka, Sept. 19, and Corinth, Oct. 3 and
4, and foiled their scherae. Soon after this Rosecrans superseded
Bueh in the comraand of the array of the Cumberland. Bragg
had advanced to Murfreesborough, and at Stone River, near that
town, a battle occurred, Dec. 31 to Jan. 2, in which 40,000 men
were engaged on each side, and each lost more than 10,000.
Bragg was obliged to retreat to Tuhahoma ; but the battie decided
nothing, except that it is very hard for Americans to defeat Ameri
cans, — a point that was fully hlustrated in the course of this
war. By this time Grant had begun his first movement against
Vicksburg, and raet with his first repulse; his communications
were cut in his rear, and his ablest lieutenant, Sherman, was
defeated Dec. 29, in an assault upon the bluffs north of the town.
Emancipation of the Slaves. — Since the South had brought on

BECAME A NATION. 569
this war in defence of slavery, the abolitionist sentiraent had grown
very rapidly at the North, and it had now becorae supported by
the military needs of the hour. The summer's events had shown
that the war was not hkely soon to be ended ; and there was sorae
fear, lest England, through distress frora the scarcity of cotton,
should join with France in an attempt to bring it prematurely to a
close. It was also the clear dictate of coraraon sense, that in
waging such a terrible and costiy war, the earliest opportunity
should be taken of striking at the cause of the war ; otherwise
victory, even when won, could not be final, but the seeds of future
disease would be left in the body politic. The part which Mr.
Lincoln played at this crisis was that of a bold and far-sighted
statesman, and entitles him to rank by the side of Washington in
the grateful memories of the American people. The Constitution
gave him no authority to abolish slavery, but there was a broad
principle of military law that did. In 1836 John Quincy Adaras
had declared in Congress that, if ever the slave states should
become the theatre of war, the government raight interfere with
slavery in any way that rahitary policy raight suggest. Again, in
his speech of Aprh 14, 1842, he said, in words of prophetic clear
ness, " Whether the war be civil, servile, or foreign, I lay this down
as the law of nations : I say that the mhitary authority takes for
the time the place of ah municipal institutions, slavery among the
rest. Under that state of things, so far from its being true that the
states where slavery exists have the exclusive management of the
subject, not only the President of the United States, but the com
mander of the array, has power to order the universal emancipation
of slaves." It was upon this theory that Mr. Lincoln acted. In
announcing it, he seized the favorable moraent when the tide of
southern invasion had begun to roll back from Maryland and Ken
tucky, and on Sept. 22, 1862, issued a prehminary proclaraation,
to the effect that on the following New Year's Day, in ah such
states as had not by that tirae returned to their ahegiance, the
slaves should be henceforth and forever free. This did not affect
the slaves in the loyal border states, who were left to be set free
by other measures ; but it practically settied the question that the

570 HOW THE UNITED STATES
re-establishment of the authority of the United States govemment
would be attended by the final abohtion of slavery. For a moraent
it seeraed as if the proclaraation had weakened the Repubhcan
vote, but it reahy added incalculable strength to the administration ;
and as for foreign intervention, it raade it alraost irapossible, owing
to Great Britain's attitude toward slavery.
The Great Crisis of the War. — The first half of the year 1863
was a glooray time, for it was not enough that the Federal govem
ment should hold its own : it must make progress, and no progress
seeraed to be raade. Grant found hiraself baffled all winter by
the alraost insoluble problera how to invest Vicksburg. In May,
in one of the most brihiant campaigns recorded in history, he won
five battles and laid close siege to that stronghold ; but the fuh
measure of his success was not yet reached, and the people were
disheartened by defeat in other quarters. In raiddle Tennessee,
Bragg and Rosecrans held each other in check till the raiddle of
June. In Virginia, the incorapetent Bumside had been terribly
defeated by Lee at Fredericksburg, Dec. 13, with a loss of
more than 1 2,000 men. He was superseded by Joseph Hooker,
from whose admirable conduct in subordinate positions great
hopes were now entertained. But at Chancellorsville, May i to 4,
Lee won the most brhliant of all his victories. With 45,000 men,
against Hooker's 90,000, he succeeded in maintaining a superiority
of numbers at each contested point, until he forced his adversary
from the field. Lee's loss was 12,000; Hooker's was 16,000; but
the Confederates also lost " Stonewall " Jackson, a disaster so
great as to balance the victory.
Lee now played a grand but desperate game, and turning
Hooker's right flank, pushed on through the western part of
Maryland into Pennsylvania, so as to threaten Philadelphia, Balti
more, and Washington. There was intense alarm at the North.
The army of the Potoraac was moved northward to cover the
cities just raentioned, and Hooker was superseded in the command
by Meade. The two arraies carae into collision at Gettysburg,
where in a tremendous battle, July i to 3, Meade at length succeeded
in defeating Lee. About 82,000 Federals and 74,000 Confeder-

BECAME A NATION. 571
ates were engaged ; the loss of the former was 24,000 ; of the
latter, 30,000. That is, out of 156,000 raen, the loss was 54,000,
or more than one-third ; so that the battle of Gettysburg was one
of the greatest of modern times. It marked the turning-point of
the Civh War, but it was not in itself a decisive victory, like Blen
heim or Waterloo. Lee moved slowly back to his old position on
the Rapidan, where he and Meade held each other in check until
the following spring.
On the next day after Gettysburg, a much more decisive triumph
was won by Grant in the capture of Vicksburg with its whole array
of defence, nearly 32,000 strong. This was the heaviest blow that
had yet been dealt to the Confederacy ; its whole western zone
was now virtually conquered, and it became possible to concen
trate greater forces against its middle and eastern zones. The
news of Gettysburg and Vicksburg raade the 4th of July, 1863, a
day of rejoicing at the North, albeit of mouming in thousands of
bereaved homes. The next note of victory was sounded on
Thanksgiving Day.
Chattanooga. — Late in June Rosecrans began a series of skilful
movements against Bragg, which caused him to fall back into
Chattanooga. Early in September, by moving against his com
munications, Rosecrans forced him to evacuate that place ; but in
manoeuvring among the mountains the Union general suddenly
discovered that he had misinterpreted his adversary's movements
and thus had dangerously extended his own hnes. While there
upon engaged in concentrating his forces upon Chattanooga, he
was attacked by Bragg, who had meanwhhe been heavily reinforced
from Virginia. A terrible battie was fought Sept. 19 and 20,
in Chickamauga vahey, between 55,000 Federals and 70,000 Con
federates, in which each side lost one-thhd of its number. After
an extraordinary series of mishaps had led to the total rout of the
Federal right wing, the army was saved by the raagnificent skih
and bravery of Thomas, who commanded on the left. Rosecrans
occupied Chattanooga, but in such plight that he seemed in
danger of losing it and his army also. He was besieged by Bragg,
who occupied the strong positions of Lookout Mountain and Mis-

572 HOW THE UNITED STATES
sionary Ridge, coramanding the town. In October Rosecrans was
superseded by Thomas, and Grant was put in coramand of ah the
armies between the Mississippi and the Aheghanies. Reinforce
ments under Hooker were sent frora Virginia, and Sherraan carae
up from Vicksburg with a large part of the army of Tennessee.
In the brihiant battle of Chattanooga, Nov. 24 and 25, the
Confederates were totally defeated, and Grant won another prize
of scarcely less value than Vicksburg. The area of the Confeder
acy was now virtually cut down to the four states of Georgia, the
Carohnas, and Virginia.
Combined Operations Tinder Grant. — In March, 1864, Grant
superseded Haheck as coraraander-in-chief, with the rank of
lieutenant-general. Grant now gave his personal supervision to
the army of the Potomac, whhe retaining Meade in immediate com
raand. After the battle of Chattanooga, the defeated Confederates
had retired to Dalton, in Georgia, where Bragg was superseded by
Johnston. The Union army opposed to Johnston was comraanded
by Sherraan, and early in May a simultaneous forward movement
was begun in Georgia and in Virginia.
Grant had won his great victories at Vicksburg and Chattanooga,
not by hard pounding so much as by skilful strategy. Twice at
Vicksburg he had tried the hammering process without success.
In Virginia, having an imraense superiority in numbers (122,000
against 62,000), he at first tried to crush Lee by siraple hammer
ing. In pursuing the direct route through Fredericksburg to
Richmond, he encountered a series of strong defensive positions
of which Lee availed himself with consummate skill. In assault
ing these positions, Grant generally failed ; but his superiority in
numbers enabled him to operate against Lee's right flank, and
slowly push him back to the Chickahorainy. After a raonth of
this terrible warfare, including the battles of the Whderness, Spott-
sylvania, and Cold Harbor, Grant had lost 64,000 raen, or more
than the whole array with which Lee started. Having now
reached the Chickahorainy, and finding it irapossible to break
through Lee's lines of defence, Grant changed his plan of cara
paign and swung round upon Petersburg, to operate against the

BECAME A NATION. 573
southern communications of Richmond. Here Lee succeeded in
holding him at bay for nine months, with forces constantly weak
ening. Grant's losses could be repaired, but Lee's could not.
The North, indeed, was stih rich and flourishing, whhst the Con
federacy was at the end of its resources. The food supply from
the west was cut off, clothes and tools were giving out, and the
blockade was stricter than ever. Farragut's great victory in Mobile
Bay closed up that entrance in August, while on the ocean the
chief Confederate cmisers were captured. One of these cases —
the destruction of the famous Alabama in June by the Kearsarge,
off the coast of France, — was especially interesting, as the Alabama
was British-built and raanned by British searaen and gunners, and
the contest seemed to teach a simhar lesson to those of 1812.
The guns of the Kearsarge sent her to the bottom in an hour.
Sherman's campaign in Georgia revealed the exhausted condition
ofthe Confederacy. He advanced from Chattanooga with 100,000
men against Johnston's weaker force of 75,000, and by a series of
skilful flank movements pushed him back upon Atlanta, after three
battles at Resaca, Dallas, and Kenesaw Mountain, in which the
Federals lost altogether about 14,000 men, and the Confederates
about 11,000. Johnston's conduct had been extremely skilful, but
he was now removed from command. His successor, Hood,
believed in hard blows, and soon received some in two fierce
sorties from Atlanta, July 22 and 28, in which he lost 13,000 men
to Sherman's 4,000. On Sept. 2 Sherman took Atlanta. Hood
now made a fatal mistake. He moved northwestward by Tus-
curabia and Florence into middle Tennessee, thinking that Sher
man would fohow him. But instead, Sherman divided his army,
sending back part of it under Thomas, to deal with Hood, whhe
he himself prepared to continue his advance through Georgia.
Hood, moving northward, was first defeated at Frankhn, Nov. 30,
with heavy loss, by Schofield. Then Hood encountered Thomas
in a great battie at Nashvihe, Dec. 15 and 16. Hood had about
44,000 men; Thomas about 56,000. The Federals lost about
3,000 men ; the Confederates were totahy defeated, with a loss
of 15,000, and in the pursuit which fohowed, their army ceased

574 HOW THE UNITED STATES
to exist. Of ah the batties fought in the course of the war, this
was the most completely a victory. Meanwhhe Sherman started
from Atianta about the middle of November, with 60,000 men
marched unopposed through Georgia to the sea-coast, and cap
tured Savannah, Dec. 21. Throughout the North, congratula
tions over these remarkable campaigns raingled with the Christ
mas greetings.
End of the War. — The foregoing survey shows the Union arms
as having advanced, from the beginning, with remarkable steadiness
and rapidity, toward the overthrow of the Confederacy ; but very
few people were able to see this unth after it was ah over. These
four years seemed very long while they were passing, and as peo
ple were always hoping for a colossal blow which would at once
end the war, they fahed to take account of the steady progress
which was really being made. Besides this, the operations near
Washington naturally assumed raore prominence in people's eyes
than the westem operations, and here the prolonged resistance of
Lee served further to confuse the popular estimate of passing
events. Lee's defensive warfare was one of the most wonderful
things in history, and iraposed upon people's imaginations till they
were almost ready to forget that even he could not hold out in
definitely, without a Confederacy behind him. Even in the sum
mer of 1864 Lee was able to alarm the govemraent at Washington
by sending the gallant Early on an expedition down the Shenan
doah vahey, like that which Jackson had conducted two years
before. In a very able and romantic carapaign, Sheridan com
pletely defeated Early; but the irapression produced upon the
northern raind was great. In the nominating conventions held in
the course of the summer, between the battle of Spottsylvania and
Sherman's capture of Atlanta, the Republicans nominated Lincoln
for re-election ; but some radical Republicans, who condemned
his raeasures as too feeble, nominated Fremont ; and the Demo
crats, with scarcely less absurdity, in nominating McClellan, de
raanded that peace should be raade, on the ground that the war
was a failure. Before the election, Freraont withdrew his narae.
McClellan obtained 21 electoral votes from New Jersey, Dela-

BECAME A NATION. 575
ware, and Kentucky ; the 212 votes of the other states not in re
bellion were given to Lincoln.
Early in 1865 the Confederacy feh so suddenly that it seeraed
hke the collapse of a bubble. The year opened auspiciously
with Schofield's capture of Wilmington, the last Confederate port
except Charleston, which fell as soon as Sherman's northward
march began. He advanced through the Carohnas, partiy over
the sarae route taken by Cornwallis in 1781. Frora various quar
ters Johnston contrived to gather 40,000 men to oppose him,
but was defeated near Goldsborougb, March 19. By this time
Lee had made up his raind to abandon Petersburg and Rich-
raond, move by way of Danvhle, and effect a junction with John
ston. To prevent such a concentration of forces. Grant moved
Sheridan southwesterly to Five Forks, upon Lee's right or southern
flank. Here Sheridan, in the last battle of the war, secured his
position. To avoid being outflanked, Lee was forced to lengthen
his line, already too weak; and now Grant, with 100,000 men,
broke through it. The Confederate governraent fled frora Rich
mond, and Lee, driven westward, was headed off at Appomattox
Court-house, where on April 9 he surrendered his array, now re
duced to 26,000 men. A fortnight later, Johnston surrendered to
Sherman, and the war was ended. Never was an overthrow more
complete and final than that of the Confederacy, and never had
soldiers fought more gallantiy than those who were now surren
dered. All were at once set free on parole, and no dismal execu
tions for treason were ahowed to suhy the glorious triuraph of the
United States. The pubhc rejoicings were clouded by the death
of the wise and gentie Lincoln, struck down in the moraent of vic
tory by the hand of a wretched assassin. His narae will forever
be remembered, side by side with the name of Washington ; for
he was, in many ways, the second founder of the United States.
The work of unparalleled glory begun by Washington — of found
ing a nation so peaceful and so raighty that, through hs own
peaceful development, it might by and by sow broadcast over the
world the seeds of permanent peace among men — was brought
to its next stage of completion by Lincoln. So long as the chief

576 HOW THE UNITED STATES BECAME A NATION.
source of contention remained, the future might weh seem doubt
ful. The work of 1776 first came to fuh fruition in 1865; and
when this is duly considered, it reveals the moral grandeur of
American history, and suggests lessons which we shaU all do well
to leam.

GLOSSARY.
WITH THE pronunciation OF DIFFICULT WORDS.
By D. H. M.
8, e as in met ; a, a as in far ; a, a as in fate ; g, g as in get ;
n, n nearly like ng.

Ab'ATIS (literally, a mass of things
thro-wn. do-wn) : a defence constructed
by piling up felled trees with their
branches towards the enemy's line.
Adjutant-general: principal ofificer
on the staff of commander-in-chief.
Admiralty: see Court of Admi
ralty.
Agrarian law : a Roman law for the
equal division of public lands. In
general, any law which divides the
property of a country equally among
its inhabitants.
Aide-de-camp (ad'de-kon, literally, a
camp assistant) : an officer who as
sists a general in his military duties,
conveying ordep»-and procuring in
telligence.
Aix la Chapelle (aks-la-sha'pel') : a
city of Prussia.
Alien : a foreign resident, or a person
bom of foreign parents who has never
obtained the rights of citizenship.
American Fabius : see Fabius.
Amerigo Vespucci : see Vespucci.
Andr£ (an'dray).
Antietam (an-tee'tam) : a creek in
Maryland,

Appomattox (ap'po-mat'tox) : a river
and village in Virginia.
Approaches: intrenchments or mili
tary works of any kind, such as
mounds of earth, etc., by which a be
sieging force draws nearer to the be
sieged, while at the same time they
protect themselves from attack.
A quel regiment ? to what regiment
(do you belong)?
Archives : here, documents relating to
a family; e.g., the Washington ar
chives kept at Mt. Vernon.
Armada (literally, a fleet of armed
ships) : the Invincible Armada was a
fleet of 130 ships of war sent out by
Philip II. of Spain in 1588 for the con
quest of England. The expedition
proved a total failure, partly through
defeat and partly through a tremen
dous storm which wrecked a great
number of the vessels.
Armistice: a temporary suspension of
hostilities by agreement of the parties.
Austrian Succession : see War.
Auto-da-fe (au'to-da-fa, literally, an
act, in the sense of a decree or judg
ment, of faith) : usually, the execution

578

GLOSSARY.

of a judgment ofthe Spanish Inquisi
tion condemning a heretic to be burnt ;
hence the public destruction of any
thing, as the Stamp Act, by commit
ting it to the flames.
Auvergne (o'vairn') : a province of
France.
Balboa (bai-bo'S).
Bale fire : a signal or alarm fire, usu
ally kindled on a height.
Baronetcy : the title and honor of a
baronet, an order of rank founded by
James I. of England ; a baronet has
the title of Sir ; he does not possess a
seat in the House of Lords.
Bastion (from French t&tir, to build) :
a mass of earth, faced with sods, brick,
or stones, built out from a rampart, of
which it is a part, so as to protect it
by the guns of the place.
Bateau (ba-to', pi. bateaux, same pro
nunciation) : a long, light boat.
Bateaux : see Bateau.
Bath : see Knight Commander.
Battalion : i. a division of an army
in order of battle ; is. a body of in
fantry or foot-soldiers, varying in num
ber from 300 to 1,000 men.
Battery : a body of cannon for field
operations, consisting generally of
from four to eight guns, with wagons
carrying ammunition and artillery
men.
Bayard (ba'erd) : a French knight of
the 15th century, renowned for his
valor, generosity, and high sense of
honor. The " Bayard of the South " ;
Maiion, an American officer who ex
hibited the spirit of Bayard.
Beat up: to make a sudden and un
expected attack.
Beau ideal (bo-i-de'al) : an ideal per
son or thing, any model of excellence
conceived by the mind.
Beaujeu (bo'zhuh').
Beauregard (bo'reh-gard').

Belles lettres (bSl-lSt'tr) : rhetoric,
poetry, history, or polite literature in
general.
Billet : to quarter or place soldiers in
private houses.
Bivouac: to encamp in the open air
without tents or covering. It is usu
ally done on the eve of a battle when
the enemy are close at hand.
Blackmail: any kind of extortion, es
pecially extortion by means of intimi
dation or ihreats.
Block-house: a fortress constructed
of heavy timber.
Bomb (bum) : a hollow ball of iron
filled with explosive material — now
usually called a shell. It is fired from
a mortar or short cannon, and so
arranged that it bursts with great vio
lence just as it strikes the object aimed
at.
Bomb-ketch (bum'kech) : a small,
strongly built vessel for throwing
bombs in an attack by sea.
Boom : a chain or other obstruction
fastened across a river or harbor to
prevent the passage of an enemy's
ships.
Borough : in Virginia, a district or town
sending one or more burgesses or rep
resentatives to the legislature called
the House of Burgesses.
Boston Tea-Party : a popular name
given to an occurrence in Boston
Harbor, when, on Dec. 15, 1773, a
body of citizens disguised as Indians
destroyed a large quantity of tea which
the British government was attempting
to land against the will of the colonists.
Bounty : a premium offered by gov
emment to induce men to enlist in
military service.
Bouquet (boo'kay').
Bourlamaqui (boor'la-ma'ke').
Brigade : a division of troops consist
ing of several regiments or battalions.
Burgess ; see Borough,

GLOSSARY.

579

Burning in effigy : see Effigy.
Bush-fighter: one who fights from
behind trees or bushes.
Cabal: a number of persons united
in a secret purpose or intrigue, gen
erally of a political character.
Cabinet: a council of state, those
who manage the affairs of a gov
ernment.
Calligraphy • fine or ornamental
penmanship.
Canister shot: shot enclosed in a
metal case; when fired from a can
non the case bursts, and the shot
scatter in every direction with deadly
effect.
Canton : to quarter or station an army,
to establish a camp.
Cantonment (literally, u small dis
trict or territory) : the place where
an army, or any part of it, is quar
tered.
Captain-general: the commander-
in-chief of an army.
Carriage : a wagon or wheeled vehi
cle of any kind for carrying ammuni
tion, military supplies, or artillery.
Carrying-place: a narrow tract of
land across which merchandise, mili
tary stores, etc., are carried from one
navigable body of water to another.
Cartier (kar'te-a').
Cartouche-box : a box for carrying
cartridges or ammunition.
Cartridge-paper : a paper used in
making cartridges.
Cavalier : a name given to a member
of the party, chiefly country gentle
men and nobles, that maintained the
cause of Charles I. during the Civil
War in England. The cavaliers were
noted for their dashing and daring
horsemanship ; hence thi5 name.
Cavalry : a body of soldiers on horse
back. They are classified as light
eind heavy cavalry with reference to

the size of the men and horses and
their equipments. A complete regi
ment of cavalry is divided into four
squadrons, and each of them into
troops of sixty-eight men each.
Censorship of the press : formerly
all books, newspapers, etc., were ex
amined by censors or officers ap
pointed for that purpose in order to
prevent the publication of anything
obnoxious to the government or to
the church.
Chancery : a high court of justice.
Charger : a war-horse.
Charter (Lat. charta, parchment or
paper on which anything may be
written) : i. in colonial history, a
solemn written grant made by the
king to a colony, conferring or secur
ing certain rights and privileges, such
as the power of making laws, electing
magistrates, etc. ; 2. an act of incor
poration or establishment, as a bank
charter.
Chaudiere (sh6-de-air') : a river and
lake of Canada.
Chevalier (shev'a-leer') : a B'rench
title of rank, a member of certain or
ders of knighthood.
Chevaux de frise (shev'o'de-frez') :
pieces of timber traversed with long
projecting wooden or iron spikes and
used to defend a passage against the
advance of cavalry. Felled trees are
also sometimes used for the same
purpose, their projecting branches
being turned towards the enemy.
Chihuahua (che-wah'wah) : a city of
Mexico.
Cipher : a secret character used in
writing.
Clarion : a kind of trumpet giving a
very clear and shrill sound.
Claymore: usually, a double-edged
broadsword resembling the large,
heavy swords formerly used by the
Scotch Highlanders.

580

GLOSSARY.

Cockade: a knot of ribbon or a leather
rosette worn on the hat as a badge.
Cohorn : a small portable mortar or
cannon for throwing shells.
COLIGNY (ko'len'ye').
Column : a body of troops, narrow in
front, but deep from front to rear —
the- opposite of a line, which is ex
tended in front with but little depth.
Commissariat: i. that department of
an army whose duty it is to supply
provisions, transports, camp equipage,
forage for horses, etc. ; -2. the body
of officers in that department usually
under the command of a commissary-
general.
Commissary: an officer in the com
missariat.
Conococheague (kon'o-ko-chig') : a
river of Pennsylvania and Maryland.
Continental : a soldier belonging to
the army of Congress or the United
States during the war of American
independence. The American army
before Boston was called the Conti
nental Army in distinction from that
under the British commander. Gen
eral Gage, which was called the Min
isterial Army, because representing
the ministry or government of Eng
land.
Contrecceur (kontr'-kur').
Cordon: a line of military posts or
sentinels.
Corporal : the lowest officer of a body
of foot-soldiers.
Corps (kor, literally, a body) : a body
of troops ; any division of an army.
Corps de reserve: a body of re
served troops.
Corvette : a war-vessel carrying a sin
gle tier of guns and having no quarter
deck.
Coup de grace (koo'dS-gras', literally,
a stroke of mercy) : originally, the fa
tal blow given by an executioner to a
criminal on the wheel or rack in or

der to end his sufferings— a finishing
stroke, a death-blow.
Coup de main (koo'deh-mSn', literally,
a stroke or blow of the hand) : a sud
den and unexpected enterprise or at
tack.
Court-martial: a court of military
officers organized for the trial of mil
itary offences.
Court of Admiralty: a tribunal
having jurisdiction in maritime cases,
whether civil or criminal, such as dis
putes between joint owners of vessels,
mutiny, etc.
Covenant : an oath taken by the Scot
tish Puritans to maintain their relig
ion.
Covenanter : one who swore to main
tain the Covenant. The Covenanters
resisted the attempts of Charles II.
to enforce the rites of the Church of
England.
Cover: i. a hiding-place; -.i. to pro
tect or defend.
Cover : the table fiirniture for the use
of one person, such as a plate, spoon,
knife and fork, glass, napkin, etc.
Cow-boy : one of a band of marauders
during the American Revolution, gen
erally a deserter or refugee belonging
to the British side, who infested the
neutral ground between the British
and American lines, and plundered
the Revolutionists. A similar class
belonging to the American side were
called " Skinners."
Culloden : a place in Scotland where
the Scottish rebels, headed by the
Youiig Pretender, who claimed the
English throne, were defeated by the
English forces in 1746. After the bat
tle many Scotch Highlanders fled to
America.
Death's-head: a human skull, or a
figure or a painting representing one.
often with two bones crossed beneath.

GLOSSARY.

581

Defile : to march off in a line, or file
by file.
De Monts (deh-mon').
Deploy (literally, to unfold) : to ex-
lend or form in a line of small depth
troops that have been previously
formed in one or more columns.
Dettingen : see War of Austrian
Succession.
Dictatorial: after the manner of a
Roman dictator, a magistrate in
vested with unlimited power, both
civil and military ; hence, any abso
lute or arbitrary power.
Dieskau (dees'kow).
Division : a part of an army ; specifi
cally, two or three brigades com
manded by a major-general.
Double sap : see Sap.
" Dower negroes " ; negroes included
in the property which a woman brings
to her husband in marriage, or those
to which she has a right after his
death.
Dragoon : a cavalry or horse-soldier,
styled heavy or light dragoon, accord
ing to his arms, etc.
Duchy : the dominions of a duke; a
dukedom.
Duquesne (dii'kane').
Edict of Nantz (or Nantes) : see
Huguenot.
Effigy : an image or picture. " To
burn in effigy " : to bum the image or
picture of a person as an expression
of contempt or dislike.
Embrasuhe: an opening in a wall or
parapet through which cannon are
fired.
Enfilade : to pierce or rake a Hne of
troops or a military work with shot
through its whole length.
Ensign : an officer who formerly car
ried the ensign, or colors, of the regi
ment.
Entail : i. an estate which by law can

descend only to a particular heir or
heirs, as to the eldest son, and at his
death to his eldest son, and so on ;
2. to settle the descent of an estate so
that it shall descend only to a certain
heir or heirs — to transmit in an unal
terable course or line.
Escalade: i. a furious attack made
by troops on a fortified place, in which
ladders are used to scale or mount
the walls; 2. to scale or mount a
fort with ladders.
Express : a messenger sent on a par
ticular errand or occasion.
Fabian : delaying, avoiding battle after
the manner of the Roman general
Fabius.
Fabius : a celebrated Roman who con
ducted a war against the Carthaginian
general Hannibal, and whose policy
was to wear out the enemy by delay
rather than risk a battle in the open
field. Washington's circumstances
were such that at more than one period
he found it expedient to follow this pol
icy ; hence the name, American Fabius.
Fanfaronade: i. a flourish of trum
pets ; -^. bluster, empty boasting.
Fascine: a bundle of sticks used in
strengthening ramparts in fortifica
tions, or in filling ditches, in order to
make a passage for troops to pass
over in making an attack.
Fatigue duty, etc. : the work of sol
diers distinct from the use of arms, as
digging trenches, building fortifica
tions, etc. " Fatigue party " : one
engaged in fatigue duty.
Fauquier (fok'e-a').
Feint (faint) : a pretended attack.
Fete (fate, literally, a feast) : a holiday
or festival.
Feudal (from feud, cattle or prop
erty) : that which relates to the feu
dal system, a form of government
formerly prevailing in Europe, under

582

GLOSS AR Y.

which all land was held either directly
from the king as supreme owner, or
from one of the king's tenants, on
condition of doing military or other
service by way of rent.
Feu de joie (fed-zhwa', Hterally, fire
of Joy) : a bonfire, or a firing of guns
in token of joy.
Field-marshal : the highest rank
conferred in the British or French
armies.
Field-piece : a small cannon mounted
on'Vheels for use on the battle-field.
Filibustering : the act of engaging in
lawless military expeditions, especially
for plunder.
Fiord (fySrd, pronounced in one syl
lable) : a long, narrow inlet bounded
by high banks or rocks. Fiords are
common on the coast of Norway.
Firelock : a musket or other gun hav
ing a flint-lock in distinction from
modern guns, which are fired by a
percussion-lock.
Fire-ship : a vessel filled with combus
tible materials, such as tar, oil, etc.,
and fiiraished with grappling-irons to
hook on and set fire to an enemy's
ships.
First consul: the title given to the
first one of three chief magistrates or
rulers of France from 1799-1804.
Flank: i. the side of an army or of
any body of troops ; 2. that part of a
fort which defends another part; 3.
to attack the flank of the enemy, to
take them at a disadvantage.
Flotilla: a small fleet or a fleet of
small vessels.
Flying squadron : see Squadron.
Fontainebleau (fon'tan-blo') : a
place near Paris.
FONTENOY • see WAR OF THE AUS
TRIAN Succession.
Forlorn hope: i. an advance body
of troops or skirmishers ; 2. a detach
ment of men appointed to lead an

assault on a fort or to perform any
perilous service.
Fosse (foss) : a trench or moat around
a fort.
Frank: to exempt from charge for
postage, the privilege of sending let
ters, etc., free.
Freeman : in the colonial history of
America, a person entitled to vote,
one having all the privileges of citi
zenship.
Frigate: a fast-sailing armed vessel
or man-of-war, usually carrying from
thirty to sixty guns.
Furlough : permission given to a sol
dier to be absent from service for a
specified time.
Fusee: a small, Hght musket.
FusiLEER : a soldier armed with a light
musket.
Gabion : a large, tall basket fiUed with
earth to shelter men from an enemy's
fire. Fascines (bundles of sticks) are
usually placed on the top of a row of
gabions.
Galley : a low, flat-built vessel navi
gated with sails and oars.
Garter: see Knight of the Gar
ter.
General: a beat of drum which noti
fies the infantry to be ready to march.
General Court : a name sometimes
given to a state legislature.
Genet (zheh'nay').
Genii (ge'ni-i, ^\urs.\oigemus 01 genie):
good or bad spirits.
Glebe : the land belonging to a parish
church.
Gondola : in the United States, a large,
flat-bottomed boat for carrying prod
uce ; also used to transport troops.
Gorges (gor'jez).
Gorget: armor for the throat; also, a
high leather collar.
Gourgues (goorg).
Grapeshot: cannon-shot about the

GLOSSARY.

583

size of very large grapes. They are
so packed that when fired they scatter
with great destructive force.
Greens : the name of a famous British
corps, or regiment, derived from the
color of their uniforms.
Grenadier: originally a soldier who
threw small explosive shells called
grenades. When hand-grenades
ceased to be used, the name "grena
dier " was retained for the companies
who were picked men of more than
ordinary height, and were distin
guished by a particular dress which
included a high bear-skin cap. In
the British army the grenadier com
pany was the first of each battalion.
Later the name was given to a regi
ment of guards.
Groton (graw'ton) : a town in Massa
chusetts.
Guerilla warfare (literally, little or
petty -warfare) : warfare carried on in
an irregular manner by independent
bands of armed countrymen.
Guichen (ghee'shoh') : a village of
France.
Guinea: an English gold coin no
longer used — worth a little more than
$S-
Gunboat : a small vessel fitted to carry
one or more heavy cannon, and from
its Hght draught capable of running
close inshore or up rivers.
Habeas Corpus (literally, ^cok may have
the body) : in law, a writ to inquire
into the cause of a person's imprison
ment or detention, with the view of
obtaining his liberation. It was estab
lished by act of Parliament in the
reign of Charles II. (1679) to pre
vent the king from detaining persons
in custody without bringing them to
trial.
Halcyon : calm, peaceful, happy.
HAMPSHIRE Grants : a name given

during the Revolution to a part of the
country lying west of the Connecticut
River and now included in the state
of Vermont.
Hard money: silver or gold coin as
opposed to the Continental or paper
money issued by the American gov
ernment during the Revolution, which
soon fell in value so that a dollar of it
was worth only a small part of that
sum, and eventually ceased to have
any value whatever.
Heavy dragoon : see Dragoon.
Hell Gate : a narrow and rocky part
of the East River near the upper end
of New York City; it received its
name from the difficulty and danger
which formerly attended its naviga
tion.
Hessian : one of a body of troops
from Hesse-Cassel and other German
states, hired by the British government
to aid in suppressing the American
Revolution. These mercenaries were
often employed in expeditions where
plundering, burning, and other brutal
acts were the prominent features;
and for this reason they were espe
cially detested by the colonists.
Holy Alliance: a treaty concluded
in 1815 between the sovereigns of
Russia, Austria, and Prussia, of which
the declared object was to establish a
union of the three forms of Chris
tianity — the Greek Church, the Ro
man Church, and Protestantism — as
a foundation for govemment.
Hornwork : an outwork in fortifica
tion, consisting of angular points or
horlte.
House of Burgesses: a name given
to the Virginia legislature. See BUR
GESS.
Howitzer : a short, light cannon spe
cially designed for the horizontal fir
ing of shells or bombs.
Huger: (ii'jee').

584

GLOSSARY.

Huguenot (hii'ge-not) : a French
Protestant of the sixteenth century.
By a law called the Edict of Nantz
or Nantes, Henry IV. of France
granted toleration to his Protestant
subjects in 1598. In 1685 Louis XIV.
revoked the Edict. Persecution again
began against the Huguenots, and
thousands fled to England and
Germany. Eventually many, among
whom were the ancestors of Paul
Revere, emigrated to America and
took an active part in the Revolution.
Hulled : to hull, to pierce the hull or
body of a ship with a cannon-ball.
Hussar : one of a company of light
cavalry.
Impeach : to accuse by public author
ity. In the United States, a charge
of impeachment is brought by the
House of Representatives and tried
by the Senate.
Indenture: any bond or covenant,
but usually one made between a
master and his apprentice; each
party to the agreement keeps a copy
of the paper. Originally, this was
one sheet which was cut in two in an
indented or irregular line, so that
' each part might correspond with the
other, and thus prove it genuine.
Infantry : soldiers that serve on foot,
as distinguished from cavalry or horse
soldiers. Infantry are classed as light
or heavy, according to their equip
ments.
INTERIM: the meantime; time inter
vening.
Invincible Armada: see Armada.
Iroquois (ir'o-kwoy).
isle aux Noix (eel'6-nwa', nut-tree
island ) : an island near Quebec.
Jean Ribaut (zhan re'bo').
Junius : the name assumed by the un
known writer of a series of remark

able political letters, published in a
London newspaper in the reign of
George HI., severely criticising the
king and the govemment.
Justification : in theology, the act or
state by which a person is accounted
just or righteous in the sight of God ;
that by which he is saved, as justifi
cation through faith in Christ, or jus
tification through good works.
Knight Commander of the Bath :
a member of an English military
order instituted or revived by George
I. in 1725. It originally consisted of
the king, a grand master, and thirty-
six companions.
Knight of the Garter : a member
of one of the most exclusive and
illustrious orders of military knight
hood in Europe, founded in the four
teenth century, by Edward III. of
England. It is nominally limited to
twenty-six members.
Kosciusko (kos-yoo'sko, Polish
pron.) : a Polish patriot of noble
family who came to America in
1777, and fought with distinction at
New York and Yorktown, gaining
the friendship of Washington. After
the Revolution he retumed to his
native country.
La Mothe (lah'mof).
Large pickets : see Pickets.
Lauzun (16'zun') : a town of France.
Lectures : Mrs. Hutchinson's lectures
consisted in preaching and discussing
the theological doctrines of her day.
Legion : a body of troops.
Letter in cipher: see Cipher.
Letter of marque: usually, a gov
emment commission, granted to the
commander of a private ship, to at
tack and seize the vessels of another
nation by way of retaliation or as an
offset to seizures made by them.

GLOSSARY.

585

Levy : troops raised by government.
Light dragoon : see Dragoon.
Light Horse : see Cavalry.
Light troops: soldiers selected and
equipped for rapid movement. They
are often employed to protect other
troops.
Line : usually, the infantry of an army,
but sometimes used of cavalry.
LlNE-OF-BATTLE-SHIP : see Ship-of-
the-line.
Linstock : a match formerly used for
firing a cannon.
Lord of the manor : see Manor.
M.: an abbreviated prefix to French
names of persons, as M. Girard, sig
nifying Monsieur, and equivalent to
the EngHsh Mr.
Macaroni: one ofa body of Maryland
troops in the Revolution, remarkable
for their showy uniforms.
" Machine politician " • one who re
gards politics as a trade requiring
little intelligence and no principle.
Magazine : a strong building, usually
fireproof, for storing gunpowder and
other explosives ; also, a room on a
man-of-war used for the same purpose.
Magellan (ma-jellan').
Manor : (mSn'or) the estate of a lord
or of a person of rank.
Manorial court: a domestic court
held within the manor for settling dis
putes among tenants, punishing of
fences, etc.
Marbois (mar'bwah').
Marquette (mar'kef).
Marquisate: the dignity or estate of
a marquis.
Martinet : a military or naval officer
who is an exceedingly strict discipli
narian; one who is very particular
about little things.
McCrea (mak-kra).
Melee (ma-la) : a general or confiised
fight ; a hand-to-hand contest.

Midshipman: a petty officer in the
navy, occupying the highest rank
among the petty officers.
Militia : a body of citizens trained to
the exercises of war for the defence of
a country, but not permanently or
ganized during peace, or under gov
ernment pay like regular troops.
Ministerialist: i. one of a party
who upheld the British ministry in
their tyrannical measures against the
American colonies; -.=.. Ministerialist
army, etc., the troops sent to America
by the British government to suppress
the Revolution.
Minute man : one of a body of
American troops who held themselves
ready for service at a minute's notice.
Mirepoix (meer'pwah').
Mortar : a short cannon with a large
bore, used for throwing bombs, shells,
etc.
Mothe (mot).
Myrmidon : a soldier of a rough char
acter, one of a ruffianly band follow
ing an unscrupulous leader.
Narrows: a short strait which con
nects New York harborwith the lower
bay.
Netherlands: the Low Countries,
now known as Holland an4 Belgium ;
when the Dutch from Holland estab
lished a colony in America, they called
it New Netherland. The British, when
they seized it, changed the name to
New York, in honor of the Duke of
York, Charles XL's brother, who be
came James II.
NiNETY-Six : a fort on the site of the
village of Cambridge, in Abbeville
District, South Carolina. It was so
named because it was ninety-six miles
from the frontier fort Prince George,
on the Keowee River.
Noblesse : the nobifity of France. It
differed from that of England in the

586

GLOSSARY.

fact that all the children of noble pa
rents inherited their parents' rank and
privileges, while in England these
were, ana still are, restricted to the
eldest son. Here the word is used
of the French nobility of Canada.
Non-commissioned officer : an offi
cer not holding a commission from
the government ; a subordinate officer
below the rank of Heutenant, as a
sergeant or corporal.
Norman Conquest : the invasion and
conquest of England by the Normans
under Duke WiUiam of Normandy
(France) in 1066.
Nous Y VOICI : here we are.
Nullification : specifically, the act
of a state annulling or rendering void
an enactment of the general govem
ment on the ground that it is uncon
stitutional.
Offing : that part of the sea beyond
the mid-line between the coast and
horizon.
Old REGIME (ray'zheem') : an ancient
or former system of government and
society, especially that which prevailed
in France before the Revolution of
1789.
Oligarchy: i. government by a
small, exclusive class ; 2. those who
form such a class.
Orderly book: a book for every
company of troops in which the or
derly sergeant or officer of the day
writes general and regimental orders.
Orderly sergeant: see Orderly
BOOK.
Ordnance : cannon or other artillery.
Orleans (or'la'oii').
Ours (oor).
Palatinate : the province ruled over
by a palatine or noble having royal
powers and privileges. Such prov
inces were practically answerable, not

to the king, but to the person who
governed them. One of the old divis
ions of Germany was commonly called
the Palatinate.*
Palisade : 1. a row of strong stakes or
posts set upright firmly in the ground
as a fortification ; 2. to surround or
fortify with palisades.
Palladium (from the goddess Pallas,
whose image protected Troy) : any
thing that protects, as the Constitution
of the United States is the palladium
of Liberty.
Palmetto : a kind of palm growing in
the Southern States; it is very soft
and spongy and may be cut with a
knife.
Par : the original or standard price of
any stock or coin : thus the par value
of a doHar is one hundred cents, and
of a share of stock usually one hun
dred dollars.
Parallel : a trench cut in the ground
before a fortress, parallel to its de
fences, for the purpose of covering
the besiegers from the guns of the
place.
Park of artillery : the train of ar
tillery with ammunition, etc., which
accompanies an army to the field.
Parley : 1. to confer with an enemy,
as on an exchange of prisoners, or
the subject of a surrender or peace ;
2. a conference with an enemy. " To
beat a parley " : to beat a drum as a
signal for holding a parley.
Parole: a promise given by a pris
oner of war that he will not try to
escape if allowed to go about at lib
erty; or if allowed to retum to his
home, that he will not bear arms
against his captors fcl' a certain
time.
Partisan : i. one of a party of troops
sent on a special enterprise; 2. the
officer commanding such a party, a
person dexterous in obtaining intelli-

" In England the duchy of Lancaster the rp.r^
h^m. and in America the province o'^'W. - .'. 

«f n,=....._

.1.. i.:™T —

GLOSSARY.

587

gence of the enemy's movements and
in annoying them.
Passe: pass.
Patrician : noble or aristocratic.
Patroon (literally, a patron or pro
tector) : under the old Dutch colonial
government of New York and New
Jersey one who received a grant of a
tract of land with privileges, among
which was the right to entail the prop
erty.
Peltry : the untanned or green skins of
animals with their fiir ; when the inner
side is tanned, they are called furs.
Picket : i. a guard posted in front of
an army to give notice ofthe approach
ofthe enemy, called an outlying picket;
-A. a detachment of troops kept fully
equipped and ready for immediate
service in case of alarm, called an
' inlying picket ; 3. a small detachment
of men, called 2. picket guard, sent out
from a camp or garrison to bring in
such soldiers as have exceeded their
leave of absence.
Pisa (pee'za) : a city in Italy.
Plantation : a colony or settlement
in a new country, as Providence Plan
tations.
Platoon : formerly a small body of
foot-soldiers drawn up so as to form a
hollow square or a small body acting
together, but separate from the main
body. Now, two files forming a sub
division of a company. " Platoon
firing " : firing by subdivisions.
Polemic: a controversialist, or dispu
tant.
Post: "to take post," to establish a
military station, to occupy a position
with troops.
Postilion : one who rides (and drives)
one of a pair of horses attached to a
carriage or other vehicle.
Pound : in English money, the sum of
twenty shilUngs, or nearly $$.
Pragmatical : meddling, officious.

Prerogative : an exclusive or peculiar
privilege or pre-eminence.
Presque Isle (presk eel).
Press: 1. to force men into the naval
service ; -.£. a detachment of seamen
empowered to seize and press men
into the navy.
Prince of Orange : afterwards Wil
ham III. of England.
Proprietary government : the gov
ernment of a colony by one or more
proprietaries, or proprietors ; that is,
persons to whom the king of Eng
land had granted the ownership of
the territory and the right to make
laws therein ; thus Lord Baltimore
was proprietary of Maryland, and
William Penn of Pennsylvania.
Prototype (Hterally, the first type, a
model) : an original or model after
which anything is formed.
Provincial: the American colonies
were originally known as British prov
inces, or dependencies of the govern
ment of Great Britain. For this rea
son their inhabitants were often caUed
Provincials, a name which was also
sometimes given to their soldiers to
distinguish them from the regular
troops sent over from the mother
country.
Quartermaster : an officer who has
charge of the quarters (barracks,
tents, etc.) of a regiment, and also of
the regimental stores of provisions,
clothing, etc.
Quit-rent : Here, money paid for the
privilege of holding land of which the
title had been annulled by abolition
of the colonial charter.
Quota : a certain share or proportion ;
thus each colony was to furnish its
quota of troops.
Ragout (ra'goo') : stewed and highly
seasoned meat.

588

GLOSSARY.

Ranger : a name given formerly to one
of a body of mounted troops who
ranged the country and often fought
on foot.
Rank and file: the whole body of
common soldiers.
Redoubt: l. usually, a fortification
having no defending outworks; ^. a
temporary field-fortification ; 3. a cen
tral stronghold constructed within
other works, serving as a place of
retreat.
Regicide judge (regicide, literally, a
kingslayer) : a name given to a mem
ber or judge of the court which con
demned Charles I. of England to
death.
Regular : a soldier belonging to a
permanent standing-army ; not a vol
unteer or one of the mUitia,
Reine (rain) : queen.
Rendezvous (ron'deh-voo) : i. a place
of meeting by appointment, especially
a place for assembling troops ; 2. to
gather troops at an appointed place.
Reprisal : i. the seizure or taking of
anything from an enemy by way of
retaUation, or as an offset for some
thing taken by him; -^. that which
is taken.
Reveille (re-val'ya) : a signal given
by beat of drum or otherwise at day
break, for soldiers to rise.
RiEAULT, Jean : see Jean.
Ricochet (rik'o-shet) : a rebounding
from a flat surface, as of a cannon-
ball from the ground.
Ricochet ball : a baU fired in such a
way that it roUs or bounds along.
Robin Hood: the name of a cele
brated English outlaw of robber of
the twelfth century. See Scott's
" Ivanhoe."
Rochambeau (ro'shon'bo').
Round of ammunition : sufficient
ammunition for firing once.
Round-shot : a solid shot of cast-iron

or shell , generally weighing from three
pounds upwards.
ROYAL Greens : see Greens.
ROYALIST: originally, in America, a
Virginian who adhered to Charles II.
of England while that king was in
exile. Later, one who defended the
king's cause, and was opposed to the
independence ofthe colonies.
Royal Province : a province whose
govemor was appointed by the king.
Royals: the name formerly given to
the first regiment of foot-soldiers in
the British army — supposed to be
the oldest regular corps in Europe.
Sachem (sa'chem) : an Indian chief.
Sail-of-the-line : see Ship-of-the-
LINE.
Sally-port: a passage from the inner
to the outer works of a fort to enable
the troops to make a sally or sudden
attack on the enemy. Such passages
are often constructed under ground ;
when not in use they are closed with
massive gates.
Sap: i. to dig, sap, or trench; a. a
narrow trench by which approach is
made to a besieged place. The earth
thrown out in digging a sap forms a
rampart or protecting parapet. A
single sap has such a parapet on one
side only ; a double sap has it on each
side.
Sapping and mining: digging a sap
or trench and undermining the wall
of a fortress in order to blow it up.
Saracen : an Arab, or Turk ; a Moham
medan.
Savannah (or Savanna) : an extensive
plain or meadow, lowland destitute of
trees; at certain seasons savannahs
are sometimes wet and swampy.
Schenectady (skS-nek'ta-dy).
Seine : a kind of fishing-net.
Seven Year's War: the war main
tained by Prussia in alHance with

GLOSSARY.

589

England, against Austria, Russia, and
France, 1756-1763. During this war
the English conquered and obtained
the French possessions in America.
Ship money: a tax levied by Charies
I. on all the counties of England, on
the pretext that the money was needed
to furnish ships to defend the coast.
This was one of the chief causes of
the rebellion and civil war.
Ship-of-the-line : a man-of-war large
enough and of sufficient force to take
its place in a line of battle.
[Sic] : th-us, so (often used of a quo
tation in which there is something
pecuHar, to show that it stands thus
in the original) .
Sieur (se-Sr) : a title of respect used by
the French.
Six-pounder: a cannon carrying a
six-pound shot.
Skinner : see Cow-boy.
Small-clothes : breeches. Before the
introduction of trousers, breeches and
long stockings with buckle-shoes were
generally worn by men. This was the
dress at the time of the Revolution.
Society of Friends: the name as
sumed by the religious body com
raonly caUed Quakers.
Soldier of fortune: a roving sol
dier who fights for love of adventure.
Solitaire: a black ribbon attached
to the bottom of a wig or to the
hair, and worn loosely round the
neck.
Sortie: a sudden attack made by a
body of besieged troops on their be
siegers.
South Sea Bubble : a scheme devised
in England, 1711-1720, intended to
monopolize trade in the Southern
Pacific and Atlantic oceans, and to
pay up the national debt of Great
Britain. It ended in wild specula
tion and bankruptcy.
Spanish succession : see War.

Spike : to render a cannon, which has
been abandoned, unserviceable to the
enemy, by driving a spike or nail into
the touch-hole.
Spring-tide: an unusually high tide,
which happens at or soon after the
new and full moon. At this time the
sun and the moon act together in
raising the waters of the ocean.
Spuyt den Duivel, or Spuyten
DUYVIL (spl't'n di'vil).
Squadron; 1. usually, the principal
division of a regiment of cavalry ; -a.
a division of a fleet, a detachment of
ships of war employed on a particular
service, a " Flying Squadron."
Staff : a body of officers whose duties
refer to a regiment as a whole. There
is a general staff and a personal
staffi The latter consists of persons
attached to commanding general offi
cers as military secretaries and aides-
de-camp.
Stand-of-arms : a musket or rifle
with its usual appendages, as a bay
onet, cartridge-box, etc.
St. Clair (in England pronounced
sin'klair).
St. Leger (in England pronounced
sil'H-jer, or sU'lin-jer) .
Stockade: a barrier or fortification
made by planting trunks of trees,
stakes, or rough timber in the ground,
so as to enclose an area to be de
fended.
Stock-jobbing : speculative, selfish,
mercenary.
Strike: i. to haul down a sail or a
flag in token of surrender ; 2. to take
down a tent.
Subaltern : an officer holding a posi
tion below that of captain ; also, any
one holding a subordinate or inferior
position.
Swivel: a small cannon so mounted
that it can be turned in any direc
tion.

590

GLOSSARY.

Tartar move: the Tartar tribes of
Asia are noted for the suddenness of
their movements ; hence any expedi
tion undertaken apparently without
sufficient deliberation or rashly.
Temple: one of the law-colleges in
London, known respectively as the
Inner Temple and the Middle Temple.
They received their names from the
mUitary order of Knights Templars,
who occupied the district in the twelfth
and thirteenth centuries.
Three-pounder : a cannon carrying
a three-pound soHd shot.
Tory: originally one who supported
the king and endeavored to extend
his power. In the American colonies,
especially after the Declaration of In
dependence, a Tory was one who
opposed that measure and defended,
either openly or secretly, the cause of
Great Britain in its attempts to force
the colonies to submit.
Trailed arms: guns carried by the
middle, in a slanting position, with
the breech or stock near the ground.
Transport: a vessel employed by
govemment.
Tumbril : a covered cart used for mili
tary purposes.
Tvburn: the place in London where
public executions took place during
the last century.
Utopian (from Utopia, the Land of
No Where) : anything ideally perfect,
purely imaginary, or wholly impracti
cable.
Utrecht (u'trekt).
Van: the front of an army or of a
fleet.
Vanguard : the troops who march in
the van of an army ; the advance
guard.
Vaudreuil (vo'drul', or v6-druh'ye) :
Verrazzano (ver-rat-sa'no).

Vespucci, Amerigo (a-ma-ree'go vSs-
poot'chee).
V3ESTRYMAN : a member of a parish or
church who has the right to vote at
parish meetings.
Viceroy : one who govems in place of
a king.
VIDETT'E ; a mounted sentinel stationed
at an outpost or elevated pointto watch
the enemy and give notice of danger.
Viscount (vi'count).
Waist of a Ship : the middle part of
aship — that between the quarter-deck
and forecastle, or that part of the up
per deck between the fore and main
mast.
War hawk: any person or thing in
dicating war.
War of the Austrian Succession :
a war undertaken by England and
Holland in 1740 against France, Spain,
Prussia, and Bavaria in defence of
the right of Maria Theresa to her
father's dominions of Austria. Eng
land's real object in this war was to
maintain the strength of Austria, in
order to hold the power of France in
check. During this war the famous
battles of Dettingen and Fontenoy
were fought.
War of the Spanish Succession:
a war undertaken in 1702 by Eng
land (with her allies, Germany, Hol
land and Portugal) against France and
Spain. The object of the war was to
prevent Louis XIV. of France from
uniting the crowns of France and
Spain, which would have given him
a controUing influence in European
affairs, and also to compel him to
recognize the existing Protestant gov
ernment of England.
Whig: in England, originally one of
a political party that endeavored to
restrict the power of the king and ex
tend that of the people. In the Ameri-

GLOSSARY.

591

can colonies, after the Declaration of
Independence, one who favored that
measure.
Wing of an army ; one of the exten
sive divisions of an army, as the right
or left wing.
Wire-puller ; a politician who oper
ates by secret or underhand means.
Yager (yaw-ger, literally, a huntsmati) :

originally a meraber of certain Ger
man regiraents of light infantry or
foot-soldiers; any light-armed foot-
soldiers carrying a rifle.
Yeoman : i. a small farmer, a country
man ; 2. a volunteer soldier.
Yeomanry: i. the coUective body
of yeomen ; 2. a volunteer military
force.
Youghiogheny (ySh-ho-ga'nee).

INDEX.

Abohtionists, 543, 551.
Ackland, Maj., at Saratoga, 317 ; made
prisoner, 318.
Adams, C. F., 550.
Adams, John, 140; proposes Wash
ington for commander-in-chief, 156;
on committee to confer with Lord
Howe, 220 ; vice-president, 504 ; pres
ident, 153 ; prevents war with France,
Sis-
Adams, J. Q., his defection from the
Federalist party, 528 ; president, 540 ;
prepares the way for emancipation of
slaves, 543, 569.
Adams, Samuel, 140, 158.
Alabama, 537.
Alabama and Kearsarge, 573.
Alamance creek, 449.
Alaska, 546.
Albany, panic at, 283; New York Une
of the Continental army in winter
quarters at, 421.
Alien laws, 515.
Algonquin Indians, 10.
AUeghanies, 250.
Alleghany mountains, their people loyal
to the Union, 561.
AUen, Ethan, 153 ; at Ticonderoga, 153,
154; before Montreal, 178; made
prisoner, 179.
America, discoveiy and colonization
of I ¦ true position of, determined by
Magellan's voyage, 7.
American history, the year 1609 in, 24.
Amerigo Vespucci : see Vespucci, Amer
igo.

Amherst, Gen., expedition of, against
Ticonderoga, 117; to Montreal, 124.
AndrS, yl/rjy. John, sketch of, 401, 402;
dealings with Arnold, 402-405 ; inter
view with Arnold, 404 ; his dangerous
journey within the American lines,
405-407; his capture, 407-409; ad
dresses an explanatory letter to Wash
ington, 410, 411 ; brought to the Rob
inson house, 416; board of officers
convened for his trial, 417 ; his trial
and conviction, 417 ; execution, 419.
Andros, Sir Edmund, tyranny of, 44, 45.
Angles, I.
Annapolis, battle at, 21.
Antietam, baffle of, 567.
Anti-FederaUsts, 511.
Anti-Nebraska men, 553.
Appomattox, 575.
Arbuthnot, Admiral, 370, 382; his
squadron passes Fort Moultrie, 3S4.
Area of United States before 1803, and
of Louisiana purchase, 524.
Argus and Pelican, 531.
Arkansas, 539, 547.
Armada, defeat of the, 12.
Armstrong, Gen., 306, 327, 498; at
Chadd's Ford, 302.
Arnold, Benedict, 237; in Ticonderoga
expedition, 153 ; commander of Ken
nebec river expedition, 176; report
from the Kennebec, 180 ; his march
through the wilderness to Canada,
184-187 ; lands at Cape Diamond,
r88 ; defections in his command, 193 ;
wounded, 196 ; his bravery at Quebec,

594

INDEX.

198; his retreat from Quebec, 204,
205 ; his exploits on Lake Champlain,
238-242 ; his vaUant conduct at Dan
bury, 276; appointed major-general,
276; Washington's praise of, 284;
sent to reinforce Schuyler at Fort Ed
ward, 284; marches to relief of Fort
Stanwix, 292 ; account of his march to
Fort Stanwix, 295-297 ; in comraand
ofthe left wing of the Northem army,
310 ; successftiUy opposes Burgoyne's
right wing, 312, 313; indignant with
Gates for his failure to send reinforce
ments, 313 ; stormy interview with
Gates, 314; furiously charges the en
emy at Saratoga, 318, 319; placed in
command of Philadelphia, 342; his
life at Philadelphia, 370-379 ; his ac
counts questioned, 372; in disfavor
with Congress, 373; charges against
him, 374; Congress examines the
complaints of his military government,
375 ; marries Miss Shippen, 376 ; Con
gress orders a military court of inquiry
upon his case, 376; tried by court-
raartial, 378 ; reprimanded, 378 ; ex
cuses himself from duty in the field,
389 ; appointed commander of West
Point, 390; his treason, 399-411; in
charge of West Point, 400 ; his inter
view wilh Andr6, 404; negotiations
with Andr^, 402-405 ; his flight, 41 r-
415 : receives news of Andr6's capture
while at breakfast with Col. Hamilton
and Major McHenry, 412 ; his escape,
412-415 ; discloses his crime to his
wife, 413; his letter to Washington
from the British lines, 415 ; addresses
the American people seeking to vindi
cate his conduct, 420 ; made brigadier-
general in the British array, 420 ; issues
a proclamation holding out induce
ments to deserters from the Continen
tal array, 421 ; invades Virginia, 433 ;
yields command of British troops in
Virginia to Cornwallis, 457 ; heads a
depredatory expedition against New

London, 464; fires the town of New
London, 464, 465.
Arnold, Mrs., notice of, 412 ; prostrated
by her husband's confession, 413 ; dis
tressed condition, 416 ; kindly treated
by Washington, 416.
Association acts, 141, 142.
Assunpink creek, 258, 266, 502.
Assumption of state-debts, 509.
Atlanta, captured by Sherman, 573.
Atlee, Col., 210 ; taken prisoner, 213.
Augusta, Georgia, 356.
Auvergne, regiment of, 480.
Bacon's rebelhon, 22, 23.
Balboa, Vasco Nuiiez de, 6.
Balcarras, Lord, 317.
Baltimore, Lord : see Calvert.
Baltimore raob fires on Massachusetts
troops, 560.
Bancroft, George, 543.
Bank of United States, S4T, 545.
Banks, Gen. N. P., 566.
Barbary pirates, 525.
Barbour, Maj., 480.
Baum, Lieut.-Col., 292; advances on
Bennington, 293 ; his detachment
taken prisoners, 294 ; death, 295.
Baxter, Col., 243.
BeaU, Gen., 232.
Beattie's ford, 443.
Beaujeu, Capt., 94.
Beauregard, Gen. G. T., 561.
Beaver Dam creek, 473.
Bedford HiUs, 209.
Bedford, L.I., 210.
BeU, John, 557.
Bemis' Heights, fortifications on, 310;
American army on, 310, 311.
Bennington, Vt., battle of, 292-295.
Benton, T. H., 540, 546, 550.
Berkeley, Sir William, appointed gov
ernor of Virginia, 18 ; deposed, 21 ;
Virginia under his rule, 21.
Berlin and Milan decrees, 526.
Biglow Papers, 549.
Birmingham, Pa., 303.

INDEX.

59S

Birney, J. G., 547.
Black Hunter, 73.
Black Repubhcans, 554.
Bland, Col., 303.
Blockade of Southern coast, 562.
Blooraingdale, 222.
Blue laws of Connecticut, 36.
Bordentown, N.J., 264.
Border states, secession of, 561.
Boston, building forts in the harbor in
1636, 32 ; Quakers in, 38 ; announce
ment in, of the accession of WiUiara
and Mary, 45 ; collisions between the
inhabitants and the customs officers,
¦ 135 ; massacre in, 136 ; parliamentary
acts, adverse to, 137, 138 ; the harbor
closed, 139; cannon placed on the
Common and the Neck, 142 ; fortified,
142; siege, 157, 198; depredations of
British troops in, 203 ; evacuation of,
203, 204 ; selectmen of, send message
to Washington, 203.
Boston massacre, 136.
Boston port bill, 137; the measures of
the, considered in Virginia Assembly,
138 ; effect of the, throughout the
colonies, 140.
Boston tea-party, 136.
Bottle HiU, signals on, 357.
Bouquet, Col., no.
Bouquet's expedition, 110-116.
Bouquet river, 276.
Boyd's Ferry, 447.
Braddock, Gen., expedition of, 68-g6;
plan of operations, 71-73; ambushed,
87-90 ; death of, 93.
Braddock's defeat, 87-92 ; French force
at, 94.
Braddock's march over the raountains,
79. 80.
Bragg, Gen. Braxton, 568, 571, 572.
Brandywine, battle of the, 298-307;
losses at, 306.
Brandywine creek, 301.
Brant, Joseph, Indian chief, 352.
Breckenridge, John, 556.
Breed's Hill fortified, 160.

Breyman, Lieut.-Col., killed, 320.
British, disappointment of, at results of
campaign of 1776, 274 ; plan of cam
paign of 1777, 274 ; losses at Guilford
court-house, 454.
British depredations on the coast of
New England, 181.
British fisheries, supplies prohibited to,
iSS-
British fleet at Staten Island, 216.
British troops fired upon at Concord,
150.
Broad river, 432, 439.
Brock, Gen., takes Detroit, 532.
Bromfield, Maj., 465.
Bronx river, 228.
Brooklyn, defences of, 208.
Brooklyn Heights, 221.
Brooks, Lieut.-Col., 319.
Brooks, Preston, assaults Charles Sum
ner, 554.
Brougham, io?-<:?, on character of George
Washington, 522.
Brown, Gen. Jacob, 533.
Brown, John, 556.
Brown, Maj., 193, 194; captures Ti
conderoga, 313,314; his detachment
threatens Diamond Island, 315.
Brown, Lieut.-Col., 385.
Brunswick, N.J., 248, 249, 25r.
Bryant, W. C, 543.
Buchanan, James, president, 554; his
feeble attitude toward the secession
ists, 560.
Buell, Gen. D. C, 564, 568.
Buena Vista, battle of, 549.
Buford, Col., his militia vanquished by
Tarieton, 3S6.
Bull Run, first battle of, 561; second
battle of, 567.
Bunbury, Sir Henry, 144.
Bunker Hill, battle of, 157-165.
Bumside, Gen., 567, 570.
Burgoyne, Gen. John, account of, 169,
170; heads expedition against Ti
conderoga, 274; en route for Ticon
deroga, 276; orders pursuit of the

596

INDEX.

retreating Americans, 281 ; his prog
ress toward the Hudson, 287; en
counters unexpected obstacles, 287;
his troops suffer reverses, 288-292,
295-297 ; effect of his discomfiture
on the Americans, 297; encamps at
Fish creek, 310 ; advances on Bemis'
. Heights, 311, 312; strengthens his
positioH, 313 ; Chnton's efforts to re
inforce him, 314-316; perilous situa
tion at Saratoga, 314; hemmed in,
315 ; moves on the American line,
316-320 ; forced to retreat, 319 ; halts
at Fish Kill, 320, 321 ; surrender of,
320-325 ; terms of capitulation, 323,
324; raeeting between Schuyler and
Burgoyne,, 324 ; scenes of the surren
der, 324; effect of his capture in
Europe, 339.
Burlington, N.J., deserted, 264.
Burr, Aaron, 176 ; vice-president, 523 ;
defeated in attemptto secure governor
ship of New York, 525 ; kiUs Hamil
ton in a duel, 526.
Bush, Crean, 203.
Bush river, 460.
Bushnell's machine for submarine ex
plosion, 226.
Butler, Col. John, 352, 353, 45r.
Butler, Col. Zebulon, takes command of
volunteer forces for defence of the
Wyoming valley, 353, 354.
Butler's Rangers, 352.
Byron, Admiral, his fleet sails for Bos
ton, to entrap D'Estaing, 354 ; driven
out to sea, 354.
Cabot, John and Sebastian, voyages of, 4.
Cadwalader, Gen. John, strong defence
of, at Fort Washington, 244, 245 ; as
signed to an important post at Bristol,
255 ; at Trenton, 258 ; unable to effect
a junction with Washington, 264 ; ad
vises attacking Clinton's army, 341.
Cadwalader, Lambert, 243.
Calhoun, J. C, 529, 546, 552.
California, 548, 550.

Calvert, Benedict Leonard, fourth baron
Baltimore, 21.
Calvert, George, Lord Baltimore, ar
rives in Virginia and explores Chesa
peake bay, 19.
Calvinists, 28.
Camden, S.C, battle of, 390-399 ; evac
uation of, 460; Greene before, 459;
Lord Rawdon at, 458, 459.
Campaigns of 1758, 106, 107.
Campbell, Lieut.-Col., John, with British
troops sails for Georgia, 355 ; his suc
cesses in Georgia, 356.
Campbell, Col. Richard, at the battle of
Eutaw Springs, 475, 476.
CampbeU, Col. WiUiam, commands the
railitia at King's Mountain, 424-426.
Canada, carapaign against, 102-124;
conquest of, 116-124: Amold's expe
dition to, by way of Kennebec river,
175 ; invasion of, 173-198 ; the retreat
from, 204, 205.
Cape Diamond, 193.
Capital city, federal, site of, 510.
Captain Jack, Indian chief, offers his
services to Braddock, 81.
Carleton, Sir Guy, fortifies St. John,
Canada, 173 ; escapes from Montreal,
187; his flight to Quebec, 190; his
unpopularity in Canada, 190 ; at Que
bec, 197; heads expedition against
the American posts on Lake Cham
plain, 237; his operations on Lake
Champlain, 238-242 ; captures Crown
Point, 241 ; returns to Canada, 242 ;
supersedes Sir Henry CUnton, 484;
evacuates New York, 487.
Carleton, 240.
Carolinas, settleraent, etc., 46-48 ; char
acter of the settlers, 47.
Cartier, Jacques, 7, 8.
Cass, Lewis, 550.
Caswell, Gen., 393, 397.
Catawba river, 422, 440; Greene's
militia dispersed at the, 444.
Chadd's Ford, 301, 302.
Charaplain, Sarauel de, voyages of, 9, 10.

INDEX.

597

Champlain, Lake, 276.
Chancellorsville, battle of, 570.
Charleston, S.C, battle of Fort Moul
trie, 206, 207 ; attack on, 207 ; fall of,
379-387-
Charlotte, N.C, American army at, 432-
434 ; Cornwalhs takes post at, 422.
Charm, 479.
Chase, Sarauel, impeachment of, 523.
Chase, S. P., 552.
Chastellux, Gen., 468.
Chattanooga, 564, 568, 571 ; battle of, 572.
Chatterton's Hill, 230 ; captured by the
British, 231.
Chaudiere settlements, 186.
Cheeseman, Capt., 194.
Cheney,Thomas, gives warning to Wash
ington of his perilous position at the
Brandywine, 303.
Cherokee ford, 439.
Chesapeake and Shannon, 531.
Chester, Penn., 306, 332; Washington
at, 467.
Chew mansion, 326, 328.
Chickamauga, battle of, 571.
Chippewa, battle of, 533.
Choctaw Indians, 10.
Christison, Wenlock, 39.
Clark and Lewis, expedition to Oregon,
s^s. 546.
Clayborne, WiUiam, his claim to Kent
Island, 20 ; invades Maryland, 20.
Clay, Henry, speaker of house, 529;
Missouri compromise, 538 ; candidate
for presidency, 540, 549; American
system, 541 ; compromise of 1850,
551; death, 552.
Clerraont, S.C, Araeriean carap at, 394-
396.
Cleveland, Col., 425.
Clinton, De Witt, 529.
Clinton, Gov. George, on the condition
of the army, 233, 297 ; captures a spy,
315; Washington and, enter New
York City after the evacuation, 487;
vice-president, 525.
Clinton, Sir Henry, at Bunker Hill, 164 ;

notice of his career, 169 ; in South Car
olina, 206; turns the American left
at Long Island, 212; success of his
night march for flanking the rear of
the American troops, 215 ; in com
mand of the right wing at White
Plains, 230; his efforts to reinforce
Burgoyne, 314 ; captures forts on the
Hudson, 315 ; sends message to Bur
goyne announcing his successes and
rapid advance up the Hudson, 323;
supersedes Lord Howe, 341 ; evacu
ates Philadelphia, 342; takes line of
march to Sandy Hook, 342 ; encamps
at Monmouth Court-house, 343; re
treats at night from Monmouth, 348 ;
reaches the Navasink, 349 ; predatory
warfare conducted by hira, 360 ; leads
another expedition up the Hudson,
361 ; holds a confejrence with Admiral
Collier, 363; hastens to the defence
of the Hudson, 367; retakes Stony
Point, 367; retums to Philipsburg,
368; sails for South Carolina, 380;
operations at Charleston and vicinity,
381-387; plans expedition against
Newport, 388,389; in correspondence
with Arnold, 400 ; his efforts to save
Andr^, 417; rejects proposition to
deliver up Arnold for the release of
AndrS, 418 ; sends expedition against
New London, 464; goes tardily to
CornwaUis' assistance, 483.
Clinton, Gen. James, in Sullivan's expe
dition, 359.
Closter Dock, 247.
Cold Harbor, battle of, 572.
ColUer, Sir George, 360, 361, 362.
Columbus, voyages of, 3.
Committee of Safety of Massachusetts,
143-
Compromise tariff, 542.
Concord, military stores af, 143; Gen.
Gage sends troops to, 149; destruc
tion of the railitary stores, 150 ; British
retreat from, 150.
Confederation, Articles of, 434, 492.

598

INDEX.

Congress, 239, 240.
Congress : see Continental Congress.
Connecticut, colony of, 34, 35 ; the Pe
quot war in, 35 ; charter of, 39, 40.
Connecticut, British raid in, 362.
Constitution captures Guerriere and
yava, 530; captures Cyane and Le
vant, 531.
Constitution, the Federal, 492-499 ; rati
fication of, 498, 499.
Continental army, besieges Boston, 155 ;
composition of the, 158, 159 ; distribu
tion of the troops of the, around Bos
ton, 170, 171 ; difficulties in re-enlist
ments, 184; retreat at Long Island,
212; slaughter araong the troops at
Long Island, 212; position of the, on
the Hudson, 228, 229; condition of,
at White Plains, 233 ; driven by Corn
waUis, 304; marches to Warwick,
Penn., 307; retreats from German-
town, 330; distressing condition of
the, at Valley Forge, 332-336; can
tonment of, in Delaware, 356 ; in win
ter quarters at Morristown, 421 ; dis
affection in the, 433, 434 ; numerical
strength of, before Yorktown, 474;
discontent in regard to pay, 484;
reduced to a peace basis, 487.
Continental congress, propositions for a,
in the Virginia Asserably, 139; first"
congress assembles, 141 ; second con
gress at PhUadelphia, 154; orders the
enlistment of troops, 155 ; issues cur
rency notes, 15s; action of the, on
Lord Howe's peace overtures, 220;
driven from Philadelphia, 306 ; dis
sensions in, 357 ; scene in, on Wash
ington's resigning his comraand, 490,
491.
Continental currency, 371.
Conway, Gen., at Germantown, 327-
329-
Conway cabal, 338, 339.
Cooper, J. F., 543.
Copperheads, 559.
Copp's HiU, battery at, 160.

Corinth, battle of, 568.
CornwaUis, Lord, notice of, 206, 207 ;
attacked by Lord Stirling, 213 ; in the
attack on Fort Washington, 244;
crosses the Hudson, 247 ; in pursuit
of Washington in New Jersey, 248 ;
at the Delaware, 251 ; takes command
in New Jersey, 266 ; arrives at Tren
ton, 267 ; outwitted, 272 ; takes post
at New Brunswick and Amboy, N.J.,
273 ; attacks the American line at
the Brandywine, 304; arrives on the
field at Germantown, 330; at Mon
mouth, 343 ; accompanies CUnton to
Charleston, 370 ; invades North Caro
lina, 385-387 ; at Caraden, 422 ; takes
post at Charlotte, N.C, 422; desists
frora further advance in North Caro
lina, 427 ; turns back to South Caro
lina, 427, 428; dispatches Tarleton
against Morgan, 435 ; opens the cam
paign of 1781, 435 ; sends a force to
overtake Morgan and avenge Tarle
ton's defeat, 440 ; unloads his baggage
for a vigorous raarch in pursuit of
Greene, 441 ; crosses the Catawba,
444 ; gives up the pursuit of Greene,
448 ; takes post at Hillsborough, 449 ;
sets out to engage Greene at Guilford
Court-house, 451; discomfiture of,
454 ; his losses, 454 ; awkwardness of
his position in North Carolina, 456 ;
takes up the line of march to join
Arnold in Virginia, 456, 457; Lafay
ette and Cornwallis in Virginia, 457,
458; takes post at Yorktown, 458;
Washington's march against, 462-468 ;
his operations at Yorktown, 466;
drawn into a trap, 468-474 ; strength
ens his works, 469; hopes for rein
forcements, 473; withdraws from his
outworks, 473 ; surrender of, 478-483 ;
his desperate situation, 481 ; attempts
to escape, 481 ; capitulates, 482 ; num
ber of troops in his comraand at the
surrender, 483 ; paroled, 484.
Cotton is king, 559.

INDEX.

599

Cotton-gin, 537.
Cowpens, batUe ofthe, 434-440.
Craik, Dr., 520.
Crawford, W. H., 529, 540.
Creek Indians, 10.
Creek war, 534.
Cross creek, 454.
Crown Point, 238, 240, 276 ; Arnold de
stroys the works at, 241.
Cruger, Col., 460, 461.
Cuba, its annexation desired by the
southern slaveholders, 552.
Cumberland Head, 239.
Curtis, B. R., 555.
Curtis, Gen. S. R., 563.
Cushing, Mrs., 143.
Cuyler, Yan Yost, a runner for Arnold,
29s. 296.
Dakotah Indians, 10.
Dale, Sir Thomas, governor of James
town, 15.
Dallas, battle of, 573.
Dan river, 446 ;
Danbury, Conn., British attack on, 276.
Davidson, Gen., 443 ; death of, 444.
Davie, Gen., 459.
Davis, Jefferson, 552, 560.
Deane,Silas, signs treaty with France, 340.
Debts, public, Hamilton's measures for
paying, 509.
Declaration of Independence, 205.
Declaration of rights, 141.
Deep river, 455.
Deerfield, Indian attack on, 42; massa
cre in 1704, 51.
Defensive lines of the Confederacy, 563,
S64-
De Kalb, Baron, 285; operations at
Camden, 395, 396; in North Caro
lina, 393; ordered to reinforce Gen.
Lincoln, 383 ; wounded, 396.
Delaware, Lord, appointed governor of
Virginia, 14 ; arrives at Jamestown, 15.
Delaware river, Washington's efforts
to prevent the enemy crossing the,
248 ; obstructions on the, 325.

Democratic party, rise of, 512, 540;
change in its character, 548 ; conduct
in Civil War, 559.
D'Estaing, Count, arrival of the French
fleet under, 350, 351 ; mishap to his
fleet, 351, 352; sets sail for the West
Indies, 354; displeases the Ameri
cans, 354, 355 ; on the coast of Geor
gia, 368 ; co-operates with Gen. Lin
coln at Savannah, 369; departs for
France, 370.
Detroit surrendered by Gen. HuU, 532.
Diamond Island, 315.
Digby, Admiral, 471.
Dighton rock inscription, 3.
Dilworth, Pa., 304, 306.
Dinwiddie, Gov., appoints Washington
the leader of an expedition against
the Indians, 65.
Disbandment of the army, 4S6, 487.
Dobbs' Ferry, 234, 235, 367, 403.
Doniphan, Gen. A. W., 549.
Donop, Count, 263.
Dorchester Heights, fortified, 199 ; occu
pation of, 200; storming of, 202.
Doughfaces, 551.
Douglas, S. A., SS3, 556.
Dunmore, Lord, bombards Norfolk, 206.
Dundas, Lieut.-Col., 472.
Dunderberg river, 365. :
Early, Gen. Jubal, 574.
East Chester bay, 229.
East river, 222.
Eaton, Gen.. 451.
Edisto river, 474.
Elizabethtown Point, 502.
Elkton, Pa., 299, 300.
Emancipation of the slaves, 569.
Embargo, 526.
Emerson, R. W., 543.
Enos, Col.. 185.
Enterprise and Boxer, 531.
Ericsson, John, 542, 565.
Ericsson, Leif, -ji.
Erie canal, 539.
Erskine, Sir WiUiara, 267.

600

INDEX.

-Essex captures Alert, 530 ; captured by
Phcebe and Cherub, 531.
Eutaw Springs, battle of, 474, 478.
Ewell, Gen., 561.
Ewing, Gen., 258, 262 ; failure of, to join
Washington's attack on Trenton, 263.
Explorers, English, in the sixteenth cen
tury, 12.
Eyre, Col., killed at Fort Griswold, 465.
Fair Oaks, battle of, 566.
Fairfax, Lord Williara, 60, 62.
Fairfield, Conn., British raid, 363.
Falraouth, burning of, 180-182.
Faneuil Hall, 140.
Farragut, Admiral D. G., 564, 573.
Fauquier, Francis, govemor of Vir
ginia, 106.
Federal constitution, 492-499.
Federal convention, 497, 498.
Federahst party, rise of, 511 ; defeat of,
522; opposed to the war with Great
Britain, 529 ; ruined by Hartford con
vention, 534.
Fellows, Gen., 320; batteries, 322; pre
vents Burgoyne's crossing the Hud
son, 321.
Ferguson, Maj. Patrick, sent on expedi
tion to North CaroUna, 422; intirai-
dat^d by the assembUng militia from
the mountains of Georgia and North
Carolina, 423 ; pursued by the militia,
424-426 ; death of, 426.
Fifty-four-forty-or-fight, 546.
Filibusters, 552.
Fillmore, Millard, 551, 554.
, Fish KiU, Burgoyne's array near the,
321, 322.
Five Forks, battle of, 575.
Five Nations, their characteristics, 11.
Flatbush, L.I., 208.
Fleury, Col., 366.
Florida, bought by United States, 536.
Florida, Huguenot settleraent in, 8 ; de
struction of, 8.
Fordham Heights, 242.
Forest, Capt., 261.

Forman's Jersey brigade, 327, 330.
Fort Castle William, 202; Fort Consti
tution, 236; Fort Curaberland, 67, 76,
77; Fort Defiance, 280, 281; Fort
Donelson, 563 ; Fort Duquesne, 66;
attack on, 85; capture of, iro; Fort
Erie, battle of, 533 ; Fort Griswold,
464 ; assault and capture of, 465 ; Fort
Henry, 563 ; Fort Independence, 314 ;
evacuation of, 325 ; Fort Johnston,
382; Fort Lafayette, surrender of the
garrison of, 361 ; Fort Lee, 235, 246 ;
Fort Mercer, 331 ; Fort Mifflin, 325,
331; Fort Mirams, massacre at, 534;
Fort Montgoraery, 236, 315, 316 ; Fort
Motte, capture of, 460 ; Fort Moultrie,
382 ; battle of, 206, 207 ; surrender, 385 ;
Fort Necessity, 67; Fort Niagara,
capture of, 117; Fort Ninety-six, be
sieged, 460 ; Fort Stanwix, 288 ; Fort
Sumter, 560 ; Fort Trumbull, 464, 465 ;
Fort Washington, 226; location of,
224 ; retained by the Americans, 228 ;
in danger, 234-237 ; fall of, 237-246 ;
surrender of its garrison, 246; Fort
Watson, 459 ; Fort William Henry,
surrendered to Montcalra, 104, 105;
Fort Winterraoot, 352, 353; Forty
Fort, 354.
France, treaty with, 340.
Francis, Col., death of, 282.
Franklin, battle of, 573.
Franklin, Benjarain, dealings with Brad
dock, 74, 75 ; has an interview" with
Lord Howe relative to peace, 220,
221 ; signs treaty with France, 340.
Frazer, Gen., 282, 312, 316, 318 ; kiUed,
319.
Fraunces' Tavem, 48S.
Fredericksburg, battle of, 570.
Free-Soil party, 550.
Free-trade between the states, 508.
Freehold, N.J., 342; heights of, 344.
Fremont, Gen. J. C, 554, 566, 574.
French alliance, 339, 340 ; effect of the,
357. 3S8-
French allies, 387, 388.

INDEX.

601

French and Indian war, 50, 51.
French creek, 307.
French encroachraents on the Ohio, 66.
French fleet in Rhode Island, 350, 351.
French frigates destroyed by Capt.
Truxton, 514. *
French pioneers, 7.
French Revolution, its influence upon
American politics, 512.
French war, 68-124.
Frontenac, Count, chastises the Iro
quois, 50.
Frontier posts, held by Great Britain in
disregard of treaty, 513.
Fulton, Robert, 537.
Fur traders, French, 10.
Gage, Thomas, Gen., in Braddock's ex
pedition, 85, 86; appointed to mili
tary command of Massachusetts, 139 ;
his action relative to assemblages in
Boston, 140 ; his opinion of the peo
ple of Boston, 140; countermands
writ for an assembly election, 143;
sends troops to Concord, 149 ; issues
a proclamation against the rebels,
157, 158 ; orders an attack on the for
tifications on Breed's HiU, 161 ; sails
for England, 182.
Galveston, 503.
Gama, Vasco de, voyage of, 3.
Gansevoort, Col., 295; in command of
Fort Stanwix, 288, 289.
Garrison, W. L., 543.
Gates, Gen. Horatio, 342; career of,
146, 147 ; receives an appointraent in
the Continental array, 157; on Lake
Champlain, 237 ; his march from the
Hudson to unite forces with Washing
ton, 251 ; joins Washington at the Del
aware, 255, 256 ; his conduct towards
Washington, 257 ; intrigues of, 275 ;
supersedes Gen. Schuyler, 297, 298;
at Bemis' Heights, 311, 312; rejects
Arnold's proposal to attack Burgoyne,
313; his jealousy of Arnold, 314; his
operations at the battie of Saratoga,

317-320; Burgoyne surrenders to
him, 323-325; interview with Bur
goyne, 324; his popularity, 33r; his
insubordinate conduct, 331 ; weakness
of his character, 338; plots against
Washington, 338 ; appointed to cora
mand of the Southern army, 387 ; his
journey South, 391 ; takes command
in the South, 393 ; orders advance on
Camden, 393, 394 ; his forces routed,
395. 396; raakes a stand at Hills
borough, 398, 399; court of inquiry
ordered to investigate his manage
ment ofthe Southem department, 421 ;
collects his shattered forces at Hills
borough, 430; superseded by Gen.
Greene, 431 ; his downfaU, 431.
Gates, Sir Thomas, shipwrecked on the
Bermudas, 14 ; arrives at Jamestown, 14.
Gatinais, regiment of, 479.
Genesee river, 359.
Genet, " citizen," 512.
Georgia, settlement of, 52; the British
conquer, 354-356.
Germaine, Lord George, announces the
surrender of Yorktown to Lord North,
483-
German troops, employment of, 205, 206.
Germantown, battle of, 325-331; de
scription of, 326 ; effect of the baffle
of, 331-
Gettysburg, battle of, 570.
Gilbert Town, militia at, 424.
Gloucester, Va., fortifications at, 472;
Yorktown and, 479 ; surrender of, 482.
Glover, Col., 259.
Glover's, Col., Massachusetts regiment,
216, 2r7; brigade, 310.
Gold, discovery of, in California, 550.
Gooch, Capt., bearer of message to gar
rison at Fort Washington, 246.
Good feeling, era of, 535.
Gorges, Sir Ferdinando, 27.
Gosnold, Bartholomew, voyage, 27.
Gourgues, Dominique de, 8.
Governor's island, 223.
Gowanus cove, 210.

602

INDEX.

Granby, S.C, Lee captures, 460.
Grant, Col., 148.
Grant, Gen. James, 209, 325, 355.
Grant, Gen. U. S., 563-575.
Grasse, Count de, dispatches received
from, 462; arrival of the French fleet
under the, 467 ; his fleet at the raouth
of York river, 468 ; urges iraraediate
attack on Cornwallis at Yorktown , 469 ;
encounters British fleet under Ad
miral Graves, 469, 470; interview
with Washington, 479 ; his operations
at Yorktown, 4S2; sails for France,
4S3-
Graves, Admiral, 388; offers battle to
Count de Grasse, 470 ; his fleet sails
for New York, 471.
Grayson's regiment, 345.
Great Britain, feeling toward United
States after revolutionary war, 508;
unwiUing to recognize Southern Con
federacy, 559.
Great Meadows, Braddock in the, 83, 84.
Green Mountain boys, 153, 177.
Greene, Gen. Nathanael, 158, 266, 299 ;
notice of, 171 ; in favor of holding
Fort Washington, 235 ; at Fort Wash
ington, 242, 243 ; at Fort Lee, 246 ; ad
vises defence of the Delaware, 248;
his division at Chadd's Ford, 301;
covers the retreat at the Brandywine,
305 ; his proceedings at Germantown,
327-330; recommends an attack on
Sir Henry Clinton immediately after
the battle at Germantown, 341 ; at
Monmouth Court-house, 344, 347;
character of, 387 ; Washington recom-
raends him for the Southern com
mand, 387 ; in command of the army
at Tappan in Washington's absence,
415; notified to raake preparations
for the reception of the prisoner
Andr6, 416; president of the board
of officers to try Andr6, 417; given
the coramand in the South, 422; as
sumes the coramand of the Southern
army, 430-434 ; reorganizes the troops.

432 ; takes post at Hicks' creek, 432 ;
his masterly retreat before CornwaUis,
441-447; joins Gen. Morgan after a
hard ride of 100 miles, 442; hard
ships of his joumey, 445 ; his plans
* to defeat CornwaUis, 446 ; crosses the
Dan pursued by Cornwalhs, 447;
sends Lee to intercept Cornwallis,
448; recrosses the Dan and enters
North Carolina, 449 ; in North Caro
lina, 450 ; encamps at Guilford, 450 ;
prepares for an engagement at Guil
ford Court-house, 451 ; orders a re
treat, 453 ¦; keeps in Cornwallis' tracks
to Deep river, 455; deterraines to
carry the war into South Carolina, 455 ;
Green and Rawdon in South Caro
lina, 458-462 ; besieges Fort Ninety-
Six, 460; encamps on the high hills
of the Santee, 461 ; the success of his
Southern campaign, 461, 462 ; breaks
camp at the Santee hills, 474 ; gains a
victory at Eutaw Springs, 474-478.
Grey, Gen., 330.
Griffin, Col., 258.
Guichen, Count de, 388, 411.
Guilford Court-house, 446; battie of,
448-454.
Hackensack, American army at the, 247.
Hail Columbia, 514.
Hale, J. P., 552.
Halifax, N.C, 448.
HaU, Co/., crosses the Catawba river, 444.
Halleck, Gen. H. W., 564-572.
Hamilton, Alexander, attracts Wash
ington's notice, 224 ; captain of artil
lery, 231 ; opens the message an
nouncing Andre's capture, 414; sets
off in pursuit of Amold, 414 ; leads a
charge on the British redoubts at
Yorktown, 480; at Washington's in
auguration, 505; his financial meas
ures, 509 ; bargain with Jefferson, 510 ;
stoned on the street, 513; tries to
divert votes from Adams, 522 ; kUled
by Aaron Burr, 526.

INDEX.

603

Hampton, CoL Wade, at the battle of
Eutaw Springs, 477.
Hampton Roads, 565.
Hancock, John, 143 ; president of Con
gress, 155 ; excepted in a general am
nesty proclaimed by Gen. Gage, 158^
Hand, Col., 209; holds the British in
check at Throg's Point, 227.
Hanging Rock, N.C, post at, 392.
Hard cider campaign, 545.
Harlem Heights, Washington hastens
to, 222; retreat to, 223; American
army at, 224; British attempt the
American line at, 225 ; Washington's
headquarters at, 228.
Harlera river, 242.
Harraar, Gen., defeated by Indians, 511.
Harper's Ferry, attacked by John Brown,
.SS6.
Harrison, Gen. W. H., 529, 533, 545.
Hartford convention, 535.
Harvard, John, 32.
Harvard University, receives an appro
priation of public funds, 32.
Harvey, Sir, governor of Virginia, 18.
Haverstraw bay, 361, 413, 464.
Hawthorne, Nathaniel, 543.
Head of Elk, 467, 484.
Heath, Gen., 228, 236; 369; sketch of,
237; appointed to the command of
a division in the Continental array,
228 ; in comraand at West Point, 463.
Heights of Abraham, 189.
Heister, Gen., Hessian officer, 209; at
Long Island, 211, 212; at White
Plains, 230.
HeU Gate, 222.
Henderson, Col., 474; at the battie of
Eutaw Springs, 475, 476.
Henry, Patrick, bold speech in Virginia
convention, 148.
Herkimer, Gen., 288 ; against his judg
ment, on the advice of his officers,
advances toward Fort Stanwix, 289;
his troops ambushed, 290 ; wounded,
290 ; death of, 291.
Herrick, Col., 293.

Hessians, at the battle of Long Island,
212 ; on the Delaware, 256 ; flight of,
at Trenton, 262; surrender at Trenton,
263.
Hobklrk's HiU, battle at, 459; Gen.
Greene at, 459.
Holland, Puritans in, 29.
Holraes, O. W., 543.
Hood, Gen. J. B., 573.
Hooker, Gen. Joseph, 570, 572.
Hornet captures Peacock. 530 ; captures
Penguin, 531.
Howard, Col., at the Cowpens, 437,
438.
Howe, Lord, leader of the Ticonderoga
expedition, 108 ; killed, 109.
Howe, Lord Richard, 232; arrives in
New York , 208 ; notice of, 208 ; as
peacemaker, 220, 221 ; his peace
overtures to Congress, 220, 221 ;
issues proclaraation, 249; his fleet
puts to sea frora New York, with
troops for a movement on PhUadel
phia, 285; anchors his fleet in the
Chesapeake, 286;, his fleet on the
Delaware, 325 ; at Sandy Hook, 349.
Howe, Sir William, general, commands
a detachment at Bunker HiU, 162;
meditates a renewed attack on the
Araeriean works, 164; wounded, 165 ;
his popularity, 169 ; threatens to bum
Boston, 202 ; compelled to evacuate
Boston, 204; addresses commission
ers of Congress, 221 ; his operations
about New York, 234, 235; captures
Fort Washington, 242; in winter
quarters at New York, 256 ; receives
intelligence of the discomfiture of the
garrison at Trenton, 266; baffled in
his attempts on Philadelphia, 275;
makes a landing at the head of Ches
apeake bay, 298 ; at the Brandywine,
300, 301 ; inactivity of, after the battle
ofthe Brandywine, 306; eludes Wash
ington on the Schuylkih, and cap
tures Philadelphia, 308, 309 ; distribu
tion of his forces at Philadelphia and

604

INDEX.

Germantown, 325, 326; his military
career in America comes to an end,
340; dissatisfaction in England with
his conduct of the carapaign, 360.
Howe, Gen. Robert, in command of
American array in Georgia, 355, 356.
Hubbard, Col., 293.
Hubbardton, St. Clair's rear-guard at
tacked at, 282.
Hudson, Henry, voyage of, 24.
Hudson Highlands, defences of the,
360; posts on the, 236, 237.
Hudson river, British ships on the, 222 ;
clear the barrier on the, 226 ; the ob
structions of the, 226.
Huger, Gen., 445, 452.
Hughes, Col., impresses vessels for the
transport of American troops in the
retreat from Long Island, 217.
HuU, Gen. Wiliiam, unjustly conderaned
for surtendering Detroit, 532.
Humphreys, Col., in Shays' rebellion.
Hurapton, Col., his troops slaughtered
at the Brandywine, 308.
Hunters, in Braddock's expedition, 73.
Huntington. Gen., distress of his troops,
333-
Hutchinson, Anne, banished from Mas
sachusetts, 34 ; murdered by Indians,
34-
Hutchinson's river, 229.
lUinois, S37.
Impressraent of American seamen, 526.
Inauguration of Washington, 504-506.
Indian country in western New York
laid waste by Gen. SuUivan, 359.
Indian depredations in Virginia, 100-102.
Indian frontier in 1789, 507, 539 ; war of
1790-94, 511 ; power broken by Harri
son and Jackson, 537.
Indiana, 537.
Indians of North America, 10.
Inflexible. 238, 260.
Internal iraproveraents, 541.
Inventions, in time of Jackson's presi
dency, 543.

Iowa, 550.
Iroquois, French hostilities with the, 11.
Irving, Washington, 543.
luka, battle of, 568.
Jackson, Gen. Andrew, subdues the
Creeks, 534; defeats the British at
New Orleans, 535; invades Florida,
536; president, 540; puts down the
nuUifiers, 542 ; corrupts the civil ser
vice, 544; his war on the United
States bank, 545.
Jackson, Gen. T. J., "Stonewall," 561,
566, 570.
Jamaica, L.I., 208.
James I. and the London Company,
17, 18.
Jameson, Lieut.-Col., sends Andre's
papers to Gen. Washington, 409 ; his
strange conduct in regard to Andr6,
409.
Jaraestown colony, settleraent of, 13 ;
land, systera of, 15.
Jay, John, 498 ; on the general disorder
of public affairs under the Articles of
Confederation, 494 ; his treaty, 513.
Jefferson, Thomas, governor of Vir
ginia, 458; 512; vice-president, 513;
author of Kentucky resolutions, 516 ;
president, 523 ; purchases the Louis
iana territory cf Napoleon, 524.
Johnson, Andrew, 564.
Johnson, Col. Guy, 167; incites the
Indians to hostUities, 173; vrith his
retainers and Indian foUowers in Can
ada, 174.
Johnson, Sir John, a Tory, 167.
Johnson, Sir William, 72, 73, 116 ; gains
at Crown Point, 96, 98 ; his death, 167.
Johnson's " Greens," 289, 290.
Johnston, Gen. A. S., 563.
Johnston, Gen. J. E., 561, 566, 572, 573,
S7S-
Kansas-Nebraska biU, 552.
Kansas, struggle for, 554.
Kearsarge and Alabama, 573.

INDEX.

605

Kenesaw Mountain, battie of, 573.

Kennebec

river expedition, 184.

Kent island, Clayborne's claira to, 20.
Kentucky, 538, 561, 563.
Kentucky resolutions, 516, 542.
Kieft, William, govemor of New York
26.
King, Rufus, candidate for presidency
53S.
King's Bridge, N.Y., 224, 227, 235, 401,
463-
King's Mountain, battie of, 421-428.
Kingston, N.J., 272, 273.
Kingston, N.Y., burned by the British,
316.
Kirkwood's Delaware infantry, 477.
Knowlton, Capt, 162.
Knox, Gen. Henry, notice of, 183;
brings supplies to the Continental
army, 199; directs the artillery in
crossing of the Delaware, 259 ; causes
the attack on the Chew's House, 329 ;
with Washington on the Hudson, 411 ;
at Yorktown, 480, 481; bids Washing
ton farewell at the close of the war,
489 ; letter in Shays' rebeUion, 494 ; a
correspondent of Washington's, 498 ;
at the inauguration of Washington,
505-
Kosciusko, G««., fortifies Bemis' Heights,
310.
Knyphausen, Gen., zzg, 244, 303, 348,
372; advances at Fort Washington,
235; attempts the passage of the
Hudson at Chadd's Ford, 304, 305;
at Monmouth Court-house, 343, 344 ;
in command of New York, 370.
Lafayette, Marquis de, 511; offers his
services to the American cause, 285,
286 ; joins Sullivan at the Brandywine,
304'; advises attack on Gen. Clinton,
' ,^2 . given comraand of the ad
vance corps, 342; yields the coramand
to Gen. Lee, 343! Cornwallis and, in
Virginia, 457. 4S8; operations against
Cornwallis at Yorktown, 466, 467;

appeals to Count de Grasse, not to
withdraw his fleet from York river,
472; his operations at the siege of
Yorktown, 479.
Lake Champlain, 237; British fleet on,
B38-241; encouragmg prospects of
the campaign on, 242.
Lake George. &> WiUiam Johnson, 97 ;
battle at, 97, 98.
Lamb, Capt.. 177, 192, ig6.
Lamb, CoL, 413.
Lancaster road, 302.
Langdon, President oi Harvard College,
159-
La Salle, Robert de, 49, 50.
Laudonni^re, R6n6 de, 8.
Laurens, Col., 382.
Lawrence, Col. John, judge-advocate-
general at Andre's trial, 417.
Lawson, Gen., 450, 461.
Lear, Tobias, 519.
Learned, Col., 203.
Lechmere Point, fortified, 199.
Ledyard, Williara, raakes a stubborn
defence of Fort Griswold, 465.
Lee, Arthur, in France, 340.
Lee, Gen. Charles, 207 ; career of, 144,
145 ; temperament and characteris
tics, 147 ; his visits to Mount Vernon,
147 ; given command of troops near
King's Bridge, 227 ; criticises Wash
ington, 228 ; made a division com
mander, 228 : reconnoitres at White
Plains, 230 ; at Northcastle, 236 ; plots
against Washington, 248 ; crosses the
Hudson, 250; made prisoner, 250-
25s ; circumstances of his capture,
253, 254 ; his conduct at Baskingridge,
252 ; his conduct while a prisoner,
274, 275 ; treasonable doings, 275 ;
exchanged, 341 ; his influence in the
army, 341 ; opposes Washington's of
fensive movement against Clinton,
342 ; reinstated as the second in com
raand in the army, 341 ; allows Lafey-
ette to take his place at the head of
the advance corps, 342; changes his

606

INDEX.

mind, 343; Washington orders hira
to make an attack on Clinton at Mon
mouth Court-house, 343; arrives at
Freehold, 344 ; rebuked by Washing
ton for non-compliance with his or
ders, 346, 347 ; demands an apology,
349; court-martiaUed and disraissed
from the service, 350 ; his funeral, 350 ;
his warning to Gates, 387.
Lee, Col. Henry, 475, 495 ; notice of, 299.
Lee, Gen. Robert Edward, 62, 299, 561,
566,570-575.
Lee, Richard Henry, 206.
Leif Ericsson, 2.
Leopard and Chesapeake, 527.
LesHe, Gen., 230, 231, 267; in South
Carolina, 434, 452.
Lewis and Clark, expedition to Oregon,
S2S> 546-
Lewis, Lawrence, 518.
Lexington, battie of, 148-152; British
losses at, 152.
Liberty Tree, 140.
Lincoln, Gen., 228, 314; sent to take
command ofthe Southem department,
356 ; repulsed at Savannah, 369 ; his
operations at Charleston, 380-387 ; his
surrender, 385 ; opens the first parallel
at Yorktown, 478, 479 ; returns north
ward in command of the army at
Yorktown, 484 ; one of Washington's
correspondents, 498.
Lincoln, Abraham, 543, 556, 560, 562,
569. S74. S7S-
Literature, in Jackson's time, 543.
Little Belt, 529.
Livingston, Col. Brockholst, 193, 309;
aide-de-camp to Gen. Arnold, 310 ;
Livingston, Robert, 505.
Livingston, WiUiam, governor of the
Jerseys, 248.
Lizard, frigate, 188.
Locke, John, 47.
Log-rolUng, 510.
London and Plymouth Company, 13.
London Company, fall of the, 17; its
charter annulled by James I., 18.

Long Island, battle of, 208-220; the
Americans retreat from, 215-219;
secrecy of the raovements of the
Americans, 217 ; successful embarka
tion of the American troops, 217, 218.
Longfellow, H. W., 543.
Loudon, Lord, 103-105.
Louisburg, capture of, 51 ; restored to
the French, 51 ; expedition to, 104 ; re
captured, 107, 108.
Louisiana purchase, 524, 553.
Louisiana, state of, 537, 542.
LoveU, James, concemed in the Con
way Cabal, 338.
Lowell, J. R., 549.
Lundy's Lane, battle of, 533.
Lyon, Gen. Nathaniel, 562.
McCrea, Miss, 287.
McClellan, Gen. G. B., 561, 562, 566,
567, 574-
McDougall, Gen., 230, 327; defends
Chatterton's Hill, 231 ; commandant
at West Point, 362 ;
McDowell, Gen., at King's Mountain,
425-
McDowell, Gen. Irwin, 561, 566.
McGowan's ford, 443.
McKonkey's ferry (TaylorsviUe), N.J.,
258.
McLane, Col. Allen, 328.
McLean, John, 555.
Macdonough's victory on Lake Cham
plain, 534.
Madison, James, 498, 509, 516, 528.
Magaw, Col., 235, 242, 246.
Magellan, voyage of, 5-7.
Maine, 537.
Majoribanks, Maj., 476.
Malmedy, Col., 475.
Manhattan Island, the Dutch on, 24.
Marblehead fisheries. Col. Glover's reg
iment, 216, 219, 259.
Marcy, W. L., author of one of the most
infamous remarks recorded in history,
544-
Maria, schooner, 240.

INDEX.

607

Marion, Gen. Francis, carries on irregu
lar warfare against the British in
South Carolina, 428, 458 ; called the
Swamp Fox, 429 ; pursued by Tarle
ton, 429 ; in the engagement at Eutaw
Springs, 475.
Marshall, John, 523.
Maryland, Catholic eraigration to, 19;
settleraent of, 19; intolerance of the
Protestants in, 20 ; Virginia and Mary
land, 20; Calvert's charter annulled,
21 ; remains true to the Union, 561 ;
invaded by Lee, 567.
Mason and SlideU, 562.
Massachusetts, the name, 30.
Massachusetts Bay, province of, its
settlement, 30-32 ; forra of govern
ment, 31 ; Episcopacy not tolerated,
31 ; its charter threatened, 32 ; colonial
government coins money, 39 ; the char
ter annulled, 44, 45 ; becomes a royal
province, 45, 46; political condition
of, 46 ; alteration of its charter, 138,
139 ; enforceraent of obnoxious par-
liaraentary measures, 139; rebellion
in, 142; Continental Congress de
clares the province absolved frora
aUegiance to the crown, 155.
Matthew, Gen., 244.
Matuchen hiUs, 327.
Manhood, CoL, 269, 271.
Manhood's artiUery, 270.
Maxwell's infantry driven at the Brandy
wine, 302, 305 ; engages the enemy at
White Clay creek, 300.
Maxwell's Virginia brigade, 327.
Meade, Gen. G. G., 570.
Megantic, Lake, i85.
Meraphis, battle of, 564.
Mercer, Gen., 248, 249, 268.
Merchant raarine of United States, de
stroyed by idiotic legislation, 558.
Merrimac and Monitor, 565.
Mexican war, 549.
Michigan, 539, 547.
Middlebrook, N.J., Washington's head
quarters at, 356.

Middletown, N.J., 343, 344.
Mifflin, Gen., 171, 490, 501 ; arrives at
the American camp at Long Island,
216 ; directed to cover the American
retreat, 217; mistakes Washington's
orders, 218; retreats, 219; his inef
ficiency as quartermaster-general,
338; concerned in the plot against
Washington, 338.
Milan and Berlin decrees, 526.
Militia in the colonies, 146.
Military task ofthe United States in the
Civil War, 558.
Military dictatorship, suggested to
Washington by Col. Lewis Nicola,
484-486.
" Millions for defence, not one cent for
tribute," 514.
MiUspring, battie of, 563.
Mingo Indians, 359.
Mississippi, 537.
Mississippi, discovery of the, 50.
Missouri, 537, 561, 563.
Missouri compromise; 538, 549, 553.
MobUe Bay, battie of, 573.
Mohawks, Champlain attacks the, 11.
Mohawk country, 72.
Molucca islands, 7.
Monckton, CoL, 347.
Monk's Corner, 478.
Monmouth, battie of, 341-350.
Monroe, James, 261, 514, 536.
Monroe doctrine, 536.
Montcalm, successes of, 102; death of,
122.
Montgomery, Gen. Richard, notice of
174. ^75 i leader of expedition to
Canada, 177; defection in his ranks,
187; determines an assault in Que
bec, 192-194 ; surprises the enemy at
Quebec, 195 ; death of, 195 ; his burial
at Quebec, 198 ; his widow, 316.
Montgomery, Maj.. 465.
Montreal, Iroquois attack on, in 1689,
ir ; capitulation of, 123, 124.
Montresor, Capt., 219.
Monts, Sieur de, 9.

608

INDEX.

Morgan, Gen. Daniel, 226; joins the
Continental array at Cambridge, 173 ;
leads an attack on Quebec, 196 ; com
peUed to surrender, 197; sent by
Washington to gain possession of
Bemis' Heights, 317; harasses Bur
goyne's right wing, 319; at Greene's
command proceeds to Ninety-Six,
432; Tarleton sets out to overtake
him, 435, 436 ; takes post at the Cow
pens, 437 ; gains a victory over Tarle
ton at the Cowpens, 439 ; eludes Corn
wallis, 440 ; baffles Cornwallis in his
pursuit of Greene's array, 442, 443.
Morgan's corps of rifleraen, 309, 312.
Morris, Gouverneur, rainister to France,
S14-
Morris, Robert, 265.
Morristown, N.J. , 247, 251, 272; Penn
sylvania line in winter quarters at,
421.
Moultrie, Col. WiUiara, 207.
Mount Desert, receives its name from
Champlain, 9.
Mount Independence, 281.
Mount Vernon, 125, 126.
Mowatt, Lieut., orders the burning of
Falraouth, 182.
Muhlenberg's brigade, 305.
Murray, Vans, rainister to France, 515.
Musgrave, CoL, at the Chew house,
Gerraantown, 327, 328.
Napoleon I., 515, 521, 529, 534.
Napoleon III., wishes to recognize
Southern Confederacy, 559.
Narragansetts, their fortress attacked by
Gov. Winslow, 42.
Nash, Gen., death of, 331.
Nash's North CaroUna brigade, 327,
329.
Nashville, battle of, 573.
Natchez Indians, 10.
Naval engageraent on the Chesapeake,
470.
Naval victories of United States over
Great Britain, 530-532.

Navasink, N.J., 342.
Navigation laws, 558.
Nebraska biU, 552.
New Arasterdara, Dutch population of,
in r664, 25 ; surrender of, to Col. Rich
ard Nichols, 26.
New England, beginnings of, 27, 37;
called North Virginia, 27 ; cessation of
the exodus to, 36, 37 ; Indian depre
dations, 1675-78, 43.
New England army, 155.
New England confederacy, 37, 38.
New France and the English colonies,
53-
New Hampshire, set off from Massachu
setts, 34.
New Hampshire grants, 153.
New Haven, capture of, 363.
New Haven colonies, 36; annexed to
Connecticut, 40.
New London, Conn., capture and de-
, struction of, 464, 465.
New Mexico, 548, 551.
New Netherlands, founding of, 24-26;
war with the Indians, 1643-45, 25;
Dutch West India Company, 25,
overthrow of the Dutch government,
25 ; EngUsh in, 26.
New Orleans, French settlement of, 52 ;
battle of, 535 ; captured by Farragut,
564-
New RocheUe, 229.
New York City, Verrazzano's voyage, 8 ;
Tories in, 167, 16S ; defences of, 208 ;
evacuation of, 221-226 ; British ships
open fire on the American works, 222 ;
British effect capture of, 225 ; bay of
New York, frozen, 372 ; British evac
uate, 487 ; triuraphal entry of Araeri
ean army, 487, 4S8 ; ceremonies at
Washington's reception as president,
502 ; increase of population, 539, 543.
New York colony: see New Nether
lands.
Newark, N.J., 248.
Newburgh, N.Y., Washington rejoins
the array at, 484,

INDEX.

609

Newton inlet, 223.
Newtown, N.Y., battle at, 359.
Niagara, British post at, 352 ; proposed
attack on, 358.
Nichols, Col., 293.
Nicholson, Commodore, 502.
Nicola, Col. Lewis, makes extraordinary
proposals to Washington regarding a
dictatorship, 484, 485.
Ninety-Six, District of, 385.
Nixon's brigade, 283, 310.
Non-importation agreement, 141, 142.
Non-intercourse act, 528.
Northcastle, 235; AndrS arrives as a
prisoner at, 409.
Nook's hih, 199, 204.
North, Lord, conciliating bills of, 339 ;
his reception of the news of the down
fall of Yorktown, 483.
Northern invasion, of 1777, 274.
Northmen, 1.
NuUification, 516, 542.
Ogden, Aaron, bearer of dispatches to
Clinton, conceming Andr6, 418.
Oglethorpe, James, 52.
O'Hara, Gen., 445.
Ohio, Washington's expedition to the,
65.
Ohio Company, 64.
Old South raeeting-house, 45, 140, 183.
Orangeburg, S.C, British array in, 461.
Orders in Council, 526.
Oregon, exploration of, 525 ; dispute
with Great Britain about, 546.
Oriskany, battle of, 287-291.
Oswald, Col., at Monmouth, 346.
Oswego, Fort, 103.
Otis, Jaraes, Secretary of the Senate,
SOS-
Pacific ocean, discovery ofthe, 6 ; Drake
and Cavendish in the, 12.
Pacolet river, 432.
Pakenham, Sir E., 534.
Palisades, 247.
Panic of 1837, commercial, 545.

Paramus, Washington haUs the army
at, 349-
Parker, Commodore Hyde, 355.
Parker, Sir Peter, 206.
Parker, Theodore, 551.
Parliaraent, the Long, 37.
Parties, rise of, 511.
Patterson's brigade, 310.
Patton's regiment, 345.
Paulding, John, 407-409.
Peace Democrats, 559.
Peace, treaty of, 486.
Peacock captures Epervier, 531; cap
tures Nautilus, 532.
Pea Ridge, battle of, 563.
Peekskill, 236, 237, 279.
Pell's Point, 229.
Penn, WiUiara, Pennsylvania granted,
IS. 48, 49-
Pennsylvania, charter of, 49.
Pennsylvanians, attitude of, toward the
American cause, 249.
Pequot war, 35.
Percy, Lord, 151, 226, 232, 235, 243, 244.
Perry, O. H., his victory on Lake Erie,
533-
Perryville, battle of, 568.
Philadelphia, disquietude at, 258 ; Amer
ican army in, 287; reception of the
news of the Brandywine disaster in,
306; capture of, 309; Clinton aban
dons, 342; disaffection in, to the
American cause, 373.
Philip's, King, war, 41-43.
Phillips, Gen., 280.
PhiUips, WendeU, 551.
Phcemx, 226, 242.
Pickens, CoL, 474, 475 ; at the battie of
the Cowpens, 437-439.
Pickering, CoL, 151.
Pierce, F., president, 552.
Pigott, Sir Robert, 163, 351.
Pilgrim Fathers, 28, 29.
Pinckney, CoL. 305, 382 ; abandons Fort
Moultrie, 384.
Pinckney, C C, 514, 522.
Pine-tree shiUings, 39.

610

INDEX.

Pine's bridge, 232, 236, 406.
Pitcairn, Maj.. 149.
Pluckarain, N.J., 272.
Plyraouth, Dermer lands at, 1620, 27.
Plymouth colony, growth of, frora 1640
to 1670, 29; Separatists settle, 29.
Pocahontas, raarriage of, to John Rolfe,
IS-
Polk, J. K., president, 548.
Polk, Gen. Leonidas, 563.
Pomeroy, Seth, 143.
Pompton, the Jersey line in winter
quarters at, 421.
Pontiac's war, 130.
Pope, Gen. John, 564, 567.
Population of United States in 17S9,
507 ; in 1815, 537 ; in i860 greater
than that of Great Britain and Ireland,
SS8.
Port Hudson, 564.
Port Royal, permanent settiement of, 9.
Port Royal island, 381.
Port Royal, 562.
Porter, Gen. Fitz John, wrongly charged
with misconduct at second battle of
Bull Run, and sharaefuUy treated, 567.
President and Little Belt. 529.
Porterfield, CoL, 393, 394.
Posey, Maj., 366.
Poutrincourt, 9.
Prescott, CoL, fortifies Breed's HiU, 159,
160.
Prevost, Gen., ordered to Savannah, 355.
Prevost, Dr., chaplain of Congress, 506.
Prideaux, Gen., leads an expedition to
Niagara, 116, 117.
Princeton, N.J., 265 ; victory at, 267-
273-
Pringle, Capt., 238, 240.
Prisoners, exchange of, 226.
Proctor, Gen., 533.
Progress ofthe United States, conditions
of, 507.
" Protection " of industries, 510, 541.
Provincial congress assembles at Con
cord, 143.
Puritans, 28.

Putnam, Gen. Israel, 144, 159, 162, 210,
226,258 ; his retreat to Harlera Heights,
223, 224; his coraraand in the Jerseys,
236 ; in command at Philadelphia, 251.
Putnam's Connecticut troops, stampede
of, 222.
Quakers in Boston, 38, 39.
Quaker road, 268, 269.
Quebec, siege of, 51, ii8-r2o; capture
of, 122; Araeriean attack on, 191-
198 ; Arnold before, 205.
Queenstown Heights, battle of, 533.
Rahl, G««., 231,244, 256; raoves against
the Araericans on Chatterton's Hill,
230 ; learns of a proposed raovement
by Washington, 260 ; death of, 263.
Railroads, introduction of, 542.
Raisin river, massacre at the, 533.
Raleigh, Sir Walter, in Virginia, 12-14.
Ramsey, CoL, at Monmouth, 346.
Rarasour's Mills, 441.
Rapelye, Mrs., informs the British of the
American retreat from Long Island,
219.
Raritan, 249, 342.
Rawdon, Lord, reinforces Clinton, 383 ;
posted at Camden, 390, 394, 395 ; in
command of Cornwallis' army, 427;
attacks Greene at Hobklrk's Hill, 459 ;
evacuates Camden, 460; takes post
at Orangeburg, S.C, 461; pursued
by Greene and Lee, 461.
Rawlings, CoL, 245.
Red Clay creek, 300.
Red Hook, battery at, 211.
Reed, Col. Joseph, 248, 264, 373 ; his at
titude toward Arnold, 374.
Reedy Fork, 450.
Reformation, Protestant, 28.
Reprisal, act of, 182.
Republican party, old, 512; new, 554.
Resaca, battle of, 573.
Retreat through New Jersey, 247.
Retreat from Ticonderoga, 281.
Revenue acts of 1767, 134.

INDEX.

611

Revolution, beginnings ofthe, 130; first
great defensive carapaign of the, 207.
Rhode Island expedition, 300-352.
Rhode Island, British evacuate, 368;
settlement of, 33.
Ribaut, Jean, 8.
Richmond, capital of Southern Con
federacy, 561, 575.
Riedesel, Baron, Hessian general, 276
281, 312, 317.
Riedesel, Baroness, sufferings of, during
Burgoyne's campaign, 322, 323.
Riots, acts for the suppression of, 138.
Roanoke island, Raleigh's attempt at
settlement of, 13.
Robinson, Col. Beverly, concerned in
the Arnold treason, 402, 404; pleads
for Andre's release, 415.
Robinson house, 400, 412.
Rochambeau, arrival of, 387, 388 ; joins
Washington on the Hudson, 462;
breaks camp, 463 ; at West Point, 464.
Roebuck, 226, 242.
Rosecrans, Gen. W. S., 568, 571.
Rotation in office, 544.
Royal coraraissioners, visit of the, 1664,
40, 41.
Royal Savage, 239.
Rutledge, Edward, on coraraittee for
conference with Lord Howe, 220;
governor of South Carolina, 382.
St. Augustine, settied by Spaniards, 8.
St. Clair, Gen. Arthur, 261, 501, 505;
victorious at Princeton, 271 ; strange
movements of, in the North, 278, 279;
evacuates Ticonderoga, 280; arrives
at Castleton, Vt., 282, 283; reaches
Fort Edward, 283; constructs defen
sive works at Moses Creek, 284 ; de
feated by Indians near the Wabash,
5"-
Saint John, Canada, 242; invested by
Gen. Montgomery, 177; capture of,
187 ; besieged by Amold, 189.
St. Lawrence river, explored by Car-
tier, 8.

St. Leger, at Fort Stanwix, 288 ; plans
ambuscade for Gen. Herkimer, 289;
his Indian allies routed by Herkiraer,
290 ; continues siege of Fort Stanwix,
291 : flight of, 295.
St. Lucia, secret expedition to, 355.
St. Siraon, Marquis de, 467, 469, 484.
Salera, seat of govemment in Massachu
setts, 138.
Salem, N.C, 446.
Saluda river, 460.
San Salvador, Colurabus' first voyage
to, 4.
Sandy Hook, 342.
Saratoga, first battle near, 309-314;
second battie of, 316-320.
Savannah, Ga., captured by the British,
356; the Americans and French re
pulsed at, 369.
Scannel, Col. Alexander, 218; taken
prisoner by the Hessians, 473.
Schenectady, massacre at, 51.
Schofield, Gen., 573, 575.
Schuyler, Gen. Philip, 257, 337 ; account
of, 166; appointed commander of
New York, 168; holds a conference
with the Six Nations at Albany, 174 ;
at Ticonderoga, 175 ; blamed for feil-
ure of the Canada expedition, 205; at
Fort Edward, 278 ; sends Arnold to
Fort Stanwix, 292; superseded by
Gates, 297, 398; slighted by Gates,
309; meeting between Schuyler and
Burgoyne, 324.
Schuyler mansion destroyed, 321.
Scott, Dred, SSS-
Scott, Gen. Winfield, 533, 549, 552, 561.
Screw propeUers, 542.
Sea of darkness, 3.
Secession of slave states, 559.
Sedition laws, 515.
Self-govemraent in the United States,
508.
Seminole Indians, 10.
Seneca Indians, 359.
Separatists, or Brownists, 29.
Sevier, CoL, 425.

612

INDEX.

Seward, W. H., 552.
Shannon and Chesapeake, 531.
Sharpshooters in the Continental army,
173-
Shays' rebeUion, 494, 495, 497.
Shelby, Co/., 425.
Sheldon, CoL, 410.
Shenandoah valley, Jackson's carapaign
in, 566 ; Early's carapaign in, 574.
Sherman, Roger, 505.
Sherman, Gen. W. T., 568, 572, 573.
Sherrard's Ford, 442.
Shiloh, battle of, 564.
Shippen, Miss Margaret, and Benedict
Amold, 373, 374.
Shirley, Maj. -Gen., 98, 99.
Slavery, in the Virginia colony, 16;
growth of, 537.
Slaves, emancipation of, 569.
Slave trade, illegal renewal of, 555.
Slidell and Mason, 562.
Smallwood, Gen., 330, and the Mary
land mUitia, 307 ; retarded in a move
raent to co-operate with Wayne, 308.
Sraallwood's battalion, 231 ; desperate
fighting of, 213, 214.
Sraith, John, his adventures at James
town, 14 ; explores coast from Penob
scot to Cape Cod, 27.
Smhh, Joshua, agent for Arnold in his
negotiations with Andr6, 403, 404;
acts as Andr6's guide, 405, 406;
arrested, 416 ; tried for coraplicity in
Arnold's plot, 420.
Smith, CoL, wounded, 150.
Somers, Sir George, shipwrecked at the
Bermudas, 14.
South, exhausted state of the, 433.
South Carolina, Slavery in, 48 ; charac
ter of the inhabitants, 380 ; topogra
phy and natural features of, 391;
Greene and Rawdon in, 458-462;
nuUification, 542 ; secession, 559.
Southem campaign, 368-370.
South Sea, 6.
Spain unfriendly to United States, 507 ;
sells Florida to United States, 536.

Spanish colonies, revolt of, 536.
Spaniards, in Mexico, Peru, and the
West Indies, 7.
Speedwell's Iron Works, 453.
Spicer, Maj., 303.
Spoils system, 544.
Spottsylvania, battle of, 572.
Spyt den Duivel creek, 245.
Squatter sovereignty, 553.
Starap Act, 130, 131 ; opposition to it in
Virginia, 132.
Stark, John, 158, 162; his attack on
Trenton, 261 ; in the battle of Ben
nington, 293-295.
Staten island, 463 ; British fleet at, 217.
Stearaboats, invention of, 537.
Stedman, CoL. on the conciliatory
measures of Lord North, 339.
Stephens, A., vice-president of Confed
erate states, 560.
Sterling, CoL, 244.
Steuben, Baron, 505 ; drills the Ameri
can army, 339 ; before Yorktown, 479.
Stevens, Gen., 395, 396, 441, 449; at the
battie of Guilford Court-house, 452.
Stewart, CoL, 453 ; at the battie of Mon
mouth, 346, 347.
Stickney, Col., 293.
Stirling, Lord, 210, 226, 236, 242, 249,
250 ; checks the British attack at Long
Island, 211; surrender of, 214; his
command of the left wing at Mon
mouth, 347.
Stone Mill, at Newport, 2.
Stone River, battie of, 568.
Stonington, Conn., bombarded, 181.
Stony Point, 236, 464 ; capture of, 361 ;
Americans regain, 364-367; evacu
ated, 367.
Stowe, Mrs. H. B., 551.
Stuart, CoL, British commander in
South Carolina, 461; takes post at
Eutaw Springs, 474 ; defeated at Eu
taw Springs, 475-478.
Stuart dynasty, fall of the, 45.
Sub-treasury system, 545.
Sugar Hill, 279.

INDEX.

613

Sullivan, Gen. John, 205, 208, 226, 228,
254, 299 ; taken prisoner, 212 ; carries
message from Lord Howe to Con
gress, 220 ; on the raarch to Trenton,
260; coraraands the right wing of the
Araeriean army, 302 ; in the battie of
Brandywine, 304; at Germantown,
327, 328 ; in the Rhode Island cam
paign, 351 ; retreats, 352 ; devastates
the Indian country in western New
York, 356-359.
Sumner, Charles, 552, 554.
Sumter, Gen. Thoraas, 394, 395, 458;
account of, 391, 392; exploits in the
swaraps of South Carolina, 392;
eludes Tarleton, 398; threatens the
British posts in Ninety-Six, 429; de
feats Tarleton at the Cowpens, 430.
Sunbury, Ga., captured, 356.
Talleyrand, Prince, tries to levy black
mail on the United States, 514.
Tallmadge, Maj., induces Jameson to
recaU the messenger having Andr6 in
charge, 409, 410 ; holds Andr6 a pris
oner, 411.
Tappan, N.J., Washington at, 390.
Tariffs, 541.
Tarleton, Lieut.-CoL, 381 ; remarks on
the Southern campaign, 379 ; in North
Carolina, 386; charges and routs
the militia, 396; surprises Surater's
camp, 397, 398 ; endeavors to entrap
Marion, 428, 429 ; attacks Gen. Sura
ter at Black Stock HUl, 429, 430 ; sets
out to head off Morgan, 435, 436 ; en
gages Morgan at the Cowpens, 438,
439; defeated, 440; skirraish with Lee,
451 ; makes a raid in Virginia, 458 ;
his criticism of CornwaUis at York-
town, 474.
Tartar, 226.
Taxation, direct and indirect, 510.
Taylor, Gen. Zachary, 548 ; president,
55°-
Tea-party, Boston, 136, 137.
Tecumseh, 529, 533.

Ten Broeck, Gen., 319.
Tennessee, 538.
Texas, annexation of, 547.
Thames, battie of the, 533.
Thomas, Gen. G. H., 563, 571, 573.
Thomas, Gen. John, raarch to Dorches
ter Heights, 200.
Throg's Neck, 226, 227.
Throg's Point, 229.
Thunderer, 238.
Ticonderoga, 144, 238, 242, 274; battie
of, 108-110; capture of, 152-154; de^
fence of, 237 ; fall of, 277-281 ; recap
tured, 314 ; evacuation of, 325.
TUghraan, Tench, 233.
Tippecanoe, battle of, 529.
Tobacco cultivation in the colony of
Virginia, 16.
Tories hanged at King's Mountain, 426,
427-
Trent, affair of the, 562.
Trenton, N.J., Washington at, 249;
victory of the Araericans at, 255-263 ;
reception of Washington at, 501,
502.
Tripolitan war, 525.
Triumph, 486.
Troublesorae creek, 450, 451.
Tmrabull, Col. John, 172, 279.
Tmrabull, Joseph, commissary general
of the Continental army, 173.
Truxton, Capt., his naval victories over
the French, 514.
Tryon, Gov., Tory principles of, 168;
ravages Connecticut by Clinton's or
ders, 362, 363.
Turkey creek, 435, 440.
Turtle bay, 222.
Tyler, John, president, 545.
Uncle Tom's Cabin, 551.
United States and Macedonian, 530.
Utah, 551.
Valcour island, battie of, 237-242.
Valentine's Hill. 228.

614

INDEX.

Valley Forge, Continental army at, 331-
338; breaks camp at, 342; encarap
raent at, 370.
Van Buren, Martin, 545, 550.
Van Dom, Gen., 56S.
Van Wart, Isaac, one of Andre's cap
tors, 407-409.
Varick, CoL, 309.
Varnura, Gen., distress of his troops,
333-
Vaughan, Gen., 315, 361.
Venango, Washington's mission to, 64.
Vermont, disputed territory, 152; ad
raitted to the Union, 538.
Verplanck's Point, fort at, 360, 405.
Verrazzano. in New York harbor, 8.
Vespucci, Araerigo, 5.
Vicksburg, 564, 568, 570, 571.
Vikings, I.
Ville de Paris, 471.
Vinland, 2.
Viomenil, Baron de, 480;
Virginia, the English in, 12; forra of
government of the colony of, 17 ;
under Charles I., 18 ; James l.'s code
of laws for, 18 ; cavaliers of, 20, 22 ;
population in 1670, 21 ; under Charles
II. , 21, 22; Bacon's rebellion, 22; po
litical condition between 1675 and
1775, 23; the frontier of, infested by
Indians, 100-102 ; the House of Bur
gesses protests against the measures
of pariiament, 13S ; proceedings in re
gard to Boston Port biU, 138 ; dissolu
tion of the assembly, 138, 139; Corn
wallis and Lafayette in, 457, 458 ; reso
lutions of 1798, 516; its importance to
the Confederacy, 561.
Vulture, ship, 402-405.
Waldecker, 229.
Wallace, Sir James, 315.
Wallpeck, N.J., 252.
War, second, with Great Britain, 528-
S3S-
War vessels fitted out to check British
depredations, 181.

Ward, Gen. Arteraas, 143, 152, 159, 161.
Warner, Col. Seth, 154, 294.
Warren, Jaraes, 492.
Warren, Joseph, gives warning of Gen.
Gage's intended raid, 149.
Warren tavern, 307.
Washington, Augustine, 57.
Washington, George, childhood and
youth, 55; ancestry of, 55; his edu
cation, 56; at Hobby's school, 57; his
raother, 58 ; corapUes a code of mor
als and manners, 61; acquaintance
with Miss Grimes, 62; surveys the
Shenandoah valley, 63; appointed
public surveyor, 63 ; first campaign of,
65 ; surrenders at Fort Necessity, 67 ;
invited to join Braddock's staff, 71 ;
his rebuke of Braddock, 78 ; illness
of, at the Youghiogheny, 82 ; rejoins
Braddock, 84 ; returns to Mount Ver
non after Braddock's defeat, 95 ; visits
Boston in 1756, 98, 99; his efforts to
raise militia for frontier defence, loi ;
relations with Gov. Dinwiddie, 106;
collects mUitia for Bouquet's expedi
tion, no; meets Martha Custis, no;
ordered to WilUarasburg, no; his
marriage engagement, in; arrives at
Fort Cumberland, in ; opens a road
to Bouquet's headquarters, in;
elected a member of the House of
Burgesses, 112; declines to absent
himself frora his military duties to
attend, 112; impatient at the delays
in the Bouquet expedition, 112; his
plan of raarch adopted, 112; at the
capture of Fort Duquesne, 115; re
tires frora railitary life, 115; his
marriage, 116; in the House of
Burgesses, 124; at home, 124-
129; daily life at Mount Vemon,
128 ; instructs the Virginia railitia,
146; commander-in-chief, 154-159;
entertains hopes of reconciliation
with Great Britain, 155 ; appointed
coraraander-in-chief, 156; joins the
army at Carabridge, i65', joumey to

INDEX.

615

Boston, i66 ; takes command of the
army, i68, 169; strengthens the de
fences of the camp, 172; organizes
the array, 172; selects Amold for
commander of expedition to Canada,
176; censures Ethan AUen, 179; ac
cepts the proffered services of Henry
Knox, a Boston bookseller, 183; la
ments the lack of patriotic sentiment
in the array, 184; his confidence in
Arnold, 185 ; commendatory letter to
Arnold, 191 ; his plan for raising siege
of Boston, 199, 200; at Dorchester
Heights, 201 ; exhorts the soldiers,
202; declines to receive a commu
nication frora certain inhabitants of
Boston, 203; fortifies Nook's HiU,
and hastens the evacuation of Boston,
204 ; receives the thanks of Congress
for his skUful management of the
campaign, 204; first great defensive
campaign, 207-273; at the battle of
Long Island, 211-215 ; witnesses Lord
Stirling's defeat, 213, 214 ; his anxious
vigil on the night after the battie, 215 ;
cause of the defeat at Long Island,
215 ; holds a council of war, 217 ;
superintends the erabarkation from
Long Island, 218 ; censures Gen. Mif
flin, 218 ; his reputation enhanced by
the skilful management of the Ameri
can retreat, 220; orders reraoval of
stores from New York, 222 ; enraged
at the cowardice of some of his troops,
223 ; estabHshes his headquarters at
Harlera Heights, 224 ; addresses Con
gress on the situation, 225; recom
mends a reorganization of the army,
225; decamps from the island of
Manhattan, 228; divides the army
into four divisions, 228; Congress
passes a resolution requesting Wash
ington to maintain the obstructions
of the Hudson, 228; encaraps at
White Plains, 229; strengthens his

position, 232;

the battie of White

Plains, 232-234; his care for the

wounded, 232 ; retires to Northcastle,
233. 234 ; on Howe's plans, 234 ; favors
abandonment of Fort Washington,
235 ; letter to Gen. Greene on the de
fence of Fort Washington, 235 ; his
instructions to Gen. Lee on the de
fence of the Hudson, 236; places
Gen. Heath in command of the Hud
son, 237 ; at Fort Lee, 242 ; his anx
iety for the safety of Fort Washing
ton, 243 ; a witness of the assault on
Fort Washington, 245, 246; his emo
tions at the slaughter, 246 ; instructions
to Magaw, 246 ; moves to the Hack
ensack, 247, 248 ; orders Gen. Lee to
join the raain army, 248; retreats to
Brunswick, N.J., 248, 249; reaches
Trenton, 249; considers the expedi
ency of a retreat to Virginia, and as
a last resort across the AUeghanies,
249, 250; crosses the Delaware, 251;
invested with absolute military author
ity by Congress, 255 ; strength of his
army at the Delaware, 256; plans
attack on the Hessian posts, 258 ; re
ceives a letter from Gates, 259 ; critical
situation of the array, 260; gains a
victory at Trenton, 261-263 ; induces
the re-enlistment of expired volunteers,
265 ; crosses the Delaware, 266 ; wishes
to follow up the victory at Trenton
by a vigorous move, 266; his situa
tion before the battle of Princeton,
267 ; makes a night march, 268 ; his
plans for surprising Cornwallis, 269 ;
rallies Mercer's brigade, 270 ; holds
a council of war, 271 ; pursues the
eneray frora Princeton, 271 ; the
"American Fabius," 273 ; receives the
news of the faU of Ticonderoga, 278 ;
sends reinforcements to Schuyler, 279 ;
takes post at the Hudson Highlands,
279 ; his efforts to frustrate Burgoyne,
283; sends Arnold to Fort Stanwix,
284; sets out with the army for the
Delaware, 285; visits Philadelphia,
385; meets Lafayette, 286; cheered

616

INDEX,

by news of the battle of Bennington,
295 ; seeks to engage Howe before
Philadelphia, 300 ; addresses the
army, 300; concentrates his forces
at Chadd's Ford, 301, 302; a messen
ger brings him the intelligence of
Cornwallis* flank movement at the
Brandywine, 303 ; directs Greene to
cover the retreat of the right wing, at
Brandywine, 305 ; retreats to German-
town, 306; decides to offer battle to
Howe, 306; crosses the Schuylkill,
307; Howe eludes him, and marches
to Philadelphia, 309; encamps at
Pott's Grove, 325 ; advances on the
British at Germantown, 325, 326; his
plan of attack, 327 ; encamped at Val
ley Forge, 331-338; Gates' schemes
against him, 331 ; complains to Con
gress of the inefficiency of the supply
department, 333 , describes to Congress
the deplorable condition of the troops,
333-335 ; replies to criticisms on the
inactivity ofthe army, 334, 335 ; sends
out foraging expeditions, 336 ; encour
ages the soldiers, 337 ; magnanimous
conduct of, 337 ; his Fabian policy, 338 ;
sends detachments to harass Clin
ton's rear, 342 ; breaks camp at Val
ley Forge, 342 ; gives Lee command
of the advance corps, 343 ; informed
of Lee's retreat at Monmouth, 345;
dissatisfaction with Lee's course, 345 ;
stormy interview with Lee, 346, 347 ;
comment on Lee's conduct, 348;
places Lee under arrest, 349, 350;
takes up line of march to the Hudson,
349; encamps at King's Ferry, 351;
plans for co-operation with the French,
351 ; takes post at Middlebrook, NJ.,
356; deplores sectional feeling, 357;
his plans for the campaign of 1779,
357. 358 ; perplexed by Clinton's move
ments, 362; operations against Stony
Point, 364-366 ; abandons Stony Point,
367, 368; contemplates a combined
attack with D'Estaing on New York,

368 ; sends troops for the defence of
Georgia and South Carolina, 369;
makes a new disposition of his forces,
369 ; levies on New Jersey for supplies,
371; reprimands Arnold at the bid
ding ofa court-martial, 378 ; solicitude
for South CaroUna, 379 ; on the de
fences of Charleston, 382, 383 ; con
gratulates the army on the arrival of
the French allies, 388 ; gives up project
against New York, 388 ; takes post at
Tappan, 390 ; learns of Grates' defeat
in the South, 399; confers with Ro
chambeau at Hartford, 399 ; returns
to the Hudson, 411 ; visits West Point
to see Arnold, 413; hears of Ar
nold's treason, 414; receives a com
munication from Arnold giving the
motives of his conduct, 415 ; directs
Greene to move the army to King's
Ferry, 415, 416; sends Andr6 under
guard to camp, 416 ; appealed to, in
Andre's behalf, 417 ; communicates
with Clinton, on Andre's case, 418;
his sympathy for Andr6, 419 ; selects
Greene for the Southern command,
422 ; his view of the situation in the
South, 433 ; cheered by the ratification
of the Articles of Confederation, 434 ;
his march against Cornwallis, in Vir
ginia, 462-468 ; confers with Rocham
beau, 462 ; plan for co-operating with
the Count de Grasse, 462; prepara
tions for Virginia expedition, 463 ;
encamps at Haverstraw, 464; with
Rochambeau at West Point, 464 ; in
Philadelphia, 466 ; hears of the arrival
of the French fleet under the Count
de Grasse, 467; communicates with
the Count de Grasse, 467; in Balti
more, 468 ; entertains French officers
at Mount Vernon, 468; arrives at
Williamsburg, 470 ; demurs at the
Count de Grasse's intention of putting
out to sea, 471; interview vrith De
Grasse, 471 ; in front of Yorktown,
473 ; opens the attack on Yorktown,

INDEX.

617

479 ; perilous position of, during the
attack on the redoubts, 480, 481 ; sub-
mhs terms to CornwaUis, 482 ; visits
Philadelphia in 1783, 484 ; approached
with dishonorable propositions by Col.
Nicola, 484-486 ; leads the army into
New York City, 487, 488 ; takes leave
of the army, 488, 489 ; adjusts his ac
counts with the treasury, 489; for
mally delivers up his coraraission to
Congress, 491 ; enthusiasticaUy re
ceived on his journey home, 490 ; re
turns to Mount Vernon, 491 ; his
speech on resigning his command,
491 ; his views of the confederation,
492 ; in favor of a strong national gov
ernment, 493 ; consulted by coramis
sioners of Maryland and Virginia
relative to navigation regulations, 493 ;
a delegate to the Federal convention,
496 ; his influence in public affairs,
496 ; president of the Federal conven
tion, 497 ; at Mount Vernon, 498 ; his
comments on the results of the Fed
eral convention, 498 ; chosen president
of the United States, 499-501 ; notified
of his election, 500; journey to the
seat of government, 501 ; ceremonies
at his reception in New York, 502;
his inauguration, 504-506; suppresses
whiskey insurrection, 511 ; his policy,
512; rebukes Genet, 513; abused
by the newspapers, 513; refuses
to be candidate for a third term,
513; appointed to command the
army, with rank of lieutenant-general,
514; life at Mount Vemon, 517; his
death, 520; favored abolition of
slavery, 521 ; universal grief at his
death, 521.
Washington, Lawrence, 56.
Washington, Martha, no, in.
Washington, Col. William, 261, 439, 452 ;
at the battle of the Cowpens, 437;
at the battie of Eutaw Springs, 474-
477-
Washington, city, how its site was de

terrained, 510; federal government
moved thither, 523; captured by
British, 534.
Wasp and Frolic. 530 ; Reindeer. 531 ;
Avon, 531.
Wateree, Surater's corps captures re
doubt at the, 397.
Wateree river and ferry, 394, 395.
Watts, Maj., 289.
Wayne, Gen. Anthony, 304; opposes
Knyphausen at Chadd's Ford, 305,
306; atterapts to get in the rear of
Howe's array, 307, 308; his detach
ment attacked, 308 ; advises an attack
on Clinton, 341, 342; joins the ad
vance corps, 342; captures Stony
Point, 364-366; defeats the Indians
near Toledo, 511.
Webster, Col., 453, 454.
Webster, Daniel, 543, 546, 552.
Weedon's brigade, 301.
West, discovery of the great, 49, 50.
Western states, settlement of, 539.
West Virginia, 561.
Westchester county, N.Y., 463.
West Point, 237, 369, 463, 464 ; W^ash-
ington takes raeasures for the protec
tion of, 362 ; Arnold assigned to com
mand, 390.
Whig party, rise of, 54r.
Whigs, attitude of, as to reconciliation,
220.
Whipple, Commodore, 382; before
Charleston, 384.
Whiskey insurrection, 510.
White Clay creek, 300.
White Plains, American army moves
toward, 226-229; Americans encamp
at, 229; battle of, 230-234; British
retire from, 234.
Whitaey, Eli, 537.
Whittier, J. G., 543.
Wilderness, battle of the, 572.
Wilkes, Capt.. 562.
Wilkinson, Gen.. 314, 324, bearer of a
raessage frora Gates to Washington,
252; Lee explains his plans to, 252;

618

INDEX.

his views of Lee's conduct, 254, 255 ;
escapes capture by the party who
made Lee prisoner, 254 ; his memoirs,
258.
Willett, CoL, raakes a successfiil sortie
at Fort Stanwix, 291.
Williams, Maj., captured, 318.
WiUiams, David, one of Andr6's cap
tors, 407.
Williaras, Col. Jaraes, 425, 426.
WiUiams, Col. Otho, commands rear
guard of Greene's army, 447 ; evades
CornwaUis, 447 ; at the battle of Eutaw
Springs, 475, 476.
Williaras, Roger, 33.
Williamsburg, allies encamp at, 472.
Wilmington, N.C, 442 ; CornwaUis halts
at, 456.
Wilmot Proviso, 549.
Winchester, Gen., defeated at the river
Raisin, 533.

Winchester, Va., threatened Indian at
tack on, 100.
Winnsborough, N.C, Comwalhs at, 428.
Winthrop, John, at Saybrook, Conn., 35.
Wisconsin, 550.
Wolfe, Gen., 116; expedition of, to
Quebec, 118-120.
Wolfe's Cove, 188.
Writs of assistance, 131.
Wyoming massacre, 352, 353.
X. Y. Z. dispatches, 514.
Yadkin river, 422, 444.
" Yankee doodle," 151.
Yeardley, George, govemor of James
town, 16.
Yorktown, CornwaUis takes post at, 458 ;
fortifications of, 472; opening of
the siege, 479 ; capture of British re
doubts, 480, 481 ; CornwaUis capitu
lates, 482 ; rejoicings at the &U of, 483.

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