YALE
UNIVERSITY LIBRARY

The EUCHARIST of BUDDHISM.

o
THE

BUDDHISM OF TIBET

LAMAISM

WITH ITS MYSTIC CULTS, SYMBOLISM AND MYTHOLOGY,
AND IN ITS BELATION TO INDIAN BUDDHISM.

L. AUSTINE WADDELL, M.B.,
F.L.S., F.R.G.S.,
MEMBBR OF THE HOYAL ASIATIC SOCIKTY, ANTHROPOLOGICAL ISSTITUTE, ETC.,
SURGEON-MAJOR H.M. BKNGAL ARMY.

LONDON :
W. H. ALLEN & CO., LIMITED,
13, WATERLOO PLACE, S.W.
1895.
[All rights reserved.]

AVYMAN AND SONS, LIMITED,
PBINTEKS,
LONDON AND KEDHILL.

W12.

TO
VILLIAM TENNANT GAIEDNER,-M.D., LL.D., F.R.S.,
in admiration of his noble character,
philosophic teaching, wide culture, and
many labours devoted with exemplary fidelity to
the interpretation of nature and the service of man,
this book
is respectfully dedicated
by The Author.

PEEFACE

NO apology is needed for the production at the pre
sent time of a work on the Buddhism of Tibet,
or " Lamaism " as it has been called, after its priests.
Notwithstanding the increased attention which in recent
years has been directed to Buddhism by the speculations
of Schopenhauer and Hartmann, and the widely felt
desire for fuller information as to the conditions and
sources of Eastern religion, there exists no European
book giving much insight into the jealously guarded
religion of Tibet, where Buddhism wreathed in romance
has now its chief stronghold.
The only treatise on the subject in English, is Emil
Schlagintweit's Buddhism in Tibet l published over thirty
years ago, and now out of print. A work which, however
admirable with respect to the time of its appearance, was
admittedly fragmentary, as its author had never been in
contact with Tibetans. And the only other European
book on Lamaism, excepting Giorgi's curious compilation
of last century, is Koppen's Die Lamaische Hier archie
1 Leipzig and London, 1863. That there is no lack of miscellaneous litera
ture on Tibet and Lamaism may be seen from the bibliographical list in the
appendix ; but it is all of a fragmentary and often conflicting character.

PREFACE.

wad Kirche ' published thirty-five years ago, and also a com
pilation and out of print. Since the publication of these
two works much new information has been gained, thoughj
scattered through more or less inaccessible Russian,
German, French, and Asiatic journals. And this, com
bined with the existing opportunities for a closer study of
Tibet and its customs, renders a fuller and more syste
matic work now possible.
Some reference seems needed to my special facilities for
undertaking this task. In addition to having personally^
studied "southern Buddhism" in Burma and Ceylon; and
" northern Buddhism " in Sikhim, Bhotan and Japan ;
and exploring Indian Buddhism in its remains in "the
Buddhist Holy Land," and the ethnology of Tibet and its
border tribes in Sikhim, Asam, and upper Burma ; and
being one of the few Europeans who have entered the
territory of the Grand Lama, I have spent several years in
studying the actualities of Lamaism as explained by its
priests, at points much nearer Lhasa than any utilized for
such a purpose, and where I could feel the pulse of the
sacred city itself beating in the large communities of its
natives, many of whom had left Lhasa only ten or twelve
days previously.
On commencing my enquiry I found it necessary to
learn the language, which is peculiarly difficult, and known
to very few Europeans. And afterwards, realizing the
rigid secrecy maintained by the Lamas in regard to their
seemingly chaotic rites and symbolism, I felt compelled to
purchase a Lamaist temple with its fittings ; and prevailed
on the officiating priests to explain to me in full detail
the symbolism and the rites as they proceeded. Perceiv
ing how much I was interested, the Lamas were so oblig-

1 Berlin, 1859.

PREFACE.

ing as to interpret in my favour a prophetic account
which exists in their scriptures regarding a Buddhist in
carnation in the West. They convinced themselves that
I was a reflex of the Western Buddha, Amitabha, and
thus they overcame their conscientious scruples, and im
parted information freely. With the knowledge thus
gained, I visited other temples and monasteries critically,
amplifying my information, and engaging a small staff of
Lamas in the work of copying manuscripts, and searching
for texts bearing upon my researches. Enjoying in these
ways special facilities for penetrating the reserve of
Tibetan ritual, and obtaining direct from Lhasa and
Tashi-lhunpo most of the objects and explanatory
material needed, I have elicited much information on
Lamaist theory and practice which is altogether new.
The present work, while embodying much original
research, brings to a focus most of the information on
Lamaism scattered through former publications. And
bearing in mind the increasing number of general readers
interested in old world ethics, custom and myth, and in the
ceaseless effort of the human heart in its insatiable craving
for absolute truth ; as well as the more serious students of
Lamaism amongst orientalists, travellers, missionaries and
others, I have endeavoured to give a clear insight into
the structure, prominent features and cults of this system ,
and have relegated to smaller type and footnotes the more
technical details and references required by specialists.
The special characteristics of the book are its detailed
accounts of the external facts and curious symbolism of
Buddhism, and its analyses of the internal movements
leading to Lamaism and its sects and cults. It provides
material culled from hoary Tibetan tradition and explained
to me by Lamas for elucidating many obscure points in
primitive Indian Buddhism and its later symbolism. Thus

PREFACE.

a clue is supplied to several disputed doctrinal points of
fundamental importance, as for example the formula of
the Causal Nexus. And it interprets much of the inter
esting Mahayana and Tantrik developments in the later
Indian Buddhism of Magadha.
It attempts to disentangle the early history of Lamaism
from the chaotic growth of fable which has invested it.
With this view the nebulous Tibetan " history " so-called
of the earlier periods has been somewhat critically
examined in the light afforded by some scholarly Lamas
and contemporary history ; and all fictitious chronicles;
such as the Mani-kah-'bum, hitherto treated usually as
historical, are rejected as authoritative for events which
happened a thousand years before they were written and
for a time when writing was admittedly unknown in
Tibet. If, after rejecting these manifestly fictitious
" histories " and whatever is supernatural, the residue
cannot be accepted as altogether trustworthy history, it
at least affords a fairly probable historical basis, which
seems consistent and in harmony with known facts and
unwritten tradition.
It will be seen that I consider the founder of Lama
ism to be Padma-sambhava — a person to Avhom previous
writers are wont to refer in too incidental a manner,
Indeed, some careful writers ' omit all mention of his
name, although he is considered by the Lamas of all sects
to be the founder of their order, and by the majority of
them to be greater and more deserving of worship than
Buddha himself.
Most of the chief internal movements of Lamaism are
now for the first time presented in an intelligible and
systematic form. Thus, for example, my account of its

1 E.g. W. E. S. Ralston in his Tibetan Tales.

PREFACE. xi
sects *nay be compared with that given by Schlagintweit,1
to which nothing practically had been added.2
As Lamaism lives mainly by the senses and spends its
strength in sacerdotal functions, it is particularly rich in
ritual. Special prominence, therefore, has been given to
its ceremonial, all the more so as ritual preserves many
interesting vestiges of archaic times. My special facilities
for acquiring such information has enabled me to supply
details of the principal rites, mystic and other, most of
which were previously undescribed. Many of these
exhibit in combination ancient Indian and pre-Buddhist
Tibetan cults. /The higher ritual, as already known,
invites comparison with much in the Roman Church ;
and the fuller details now afforded facilitate this com
parison and contrast.
But the bulk of the Lamaist cults comprise much
deep-rooted devil-worship and sorcery, which I describe
with some fulness. /For Lamaism is only thinly and im
perfectly varnished over with Buddhist symbolism, beneath
which the sinister growth of poly-demonist superstition
darkly appears.
The religious plays and festivals are also described.
And a chapter is added on popular and domestic Lama
ism to show the actual working of the religion in every
day life as a system of ethical belief and practice.
The advantages of the very numerous illustrations —
about two hundred in number, mostly from originals
brought from Lhasa, and from photographs by the author
—must be obvious.3 Mr. Rockhill and Mr. Knight have
kindly permitted the use of a few of their illustrations.

1 Op, cit, , 72. 2 But see note on p. 69.
3 A few of the drawings are by Mr. A. D. McCormick from photographs, or
original objects ; and some have been taken from Giorgi, Hue, Pander, and others.

PREFACE.

A full index has been provided, also a chronological
table and bibliography.
I have to acknowledge the special aid afforded me by
the learned Tibetan Lama, Padma Chho Phel; by thaf
venerable scholar the Mongolian Lama She-rab Gya-ts'6;;
by the Nin-ma Lama, Ur-gyan Gya-ts'6, head of the
Yang-gang monastery of Sikhim and a noted explorer of
Tibet ; by Tun-yig Wang-dan and Mr. Dor-je Ts'e-ring i
by S'ad-sgra S'ab-pe, one of the Tibetan governors of
Lhasa, who supplied some useful information, and a few
manuscripts; and by Mr. A.W. Paul, CLE., when pursuing
my researches in Sikhim.
And I am deeply indebted to the kind courtesy of
Professor C. Bendall for much special assistance and
advice ; and also generally to my friend Dr. Islay
Muirhead. Of previous writers to whose books I am specially
under obligation, foremost must be mentioned Csoma
Korosi, the enthusiastic Hungarian scholar and pioneer
of Tibetan studies, who first rendered the Lamaist stores.
of information accessible to Europeans.1 Though to
Brian Houghton Hodgson, the father of modern critical
study of Buddhist doctrine, belongs the credit of dis
covering2 the Indian nature of the bulk of the Lamaist
literature and of procuring the material for the detailed
analyses by Csoma and Burnouf. My indebtedness to
Koppen and Schlagintweit has already been mentioned.

i Alexander Csoma of Koros, in the Transylvanian circle of Hungary, like
most of the subsequent writers on Lamaism, studied that system in Ladak
After publishing his Dictionary, Grammar, and Analysis, he proceeded to
Darjihng in the hope of penetrating thence to Tibet, but died at Darjiling on
the 11th April, 1842, a few days after arrival there, Avhere his tomb now bears
a suitable monument, erected by the Government of India. For details of his
life and labours, see his biography by Dr. Duka.
2 Asiatic Researches, xvi., 1828.

PREFACE.

Jaeschke's great dictionary is a mine of information on
technical and doctrinal definitions. The works of Giorgi,
Vasiliev, Schiefner, Foucaux, Rockhill, Eitel, and Pander,
have also proved most helpful. The Narrative of Travels
in Tibet by Babu Saratcandra Das, and his translations
from the vernacular literature, have afforded some use
ful details. The Indian Survey reports and Markham's
Tibet have been of service ; and the systematic treatises
of Professors Rhys Davids, Oldenberg and Beal have
supplied several useful indications.
The vastness of this many-sided subject, far beyond the
scope of individual experience, the backward state of
'our knowledge on many points, the peculiar difficulties
that beset the research, and the conditions under which
the greater part of the book was written — in the scant
leisure of a busy official life — these considerations may, I
istrust, excuse the frequent crudeness of treatment, as well
(«as any errors which may be present, for I cannot fail to
have missed the meaning occasionally, though sparing
ino pains to ensure accuracy. But, if my book, not-
L»t withstanding its shortcomings, proves of real use to
tiuthose seeking information on the Buddhism of Tibet,
lias well as on the later Indian developments of Buddhism,
juand to future workers in these fields, I shall feel amply
rttirewarded for all my labours.

L. Austine Waddell.

London, Zlst October, 1894.

CONTENTS.

Preface
Note on Pronunciation
List of Abbreviations ...
I. Introductory — Division of Subject
A. HISTORICAL.
II. Changes in Primitive Buddhism leading to
Lamaism ...
III. Rise, Development, and Spread of Lxmaism . . .
IV. The Sects of Lamaism B. DOCTRINAL.
V. Metaphysical Sources op the Doctrine
VI. The Doctrine and its Morality
VII. Scriptures and Literature C. MONASTIC.
VIII. The Order of Lamas
IX. Daily Life and Routine ...
X. Hierarchy and Re-incarnate Lamas

D. BUILDINGS.

XI. Monasteries

PAGE vii
xvii xix
1-4

5-17
18-53
54-75
76-131
132-154 155-168 169-211
212-225226-254 255-286

CONTENTS.

XII. Temples and Cathedrals ...
XIII. Shrines and Relics (and Pilgrims)

PAGE
287-30| 305-323

E. MYTHOLOGY AND GODS.
XIV. Pantheon and Images 324-386
XV. Sacred Symbols and Charms 387-419
F. RITUAL AND SORCERY.
XVI. Worship and Ritual ... .... 420-449J
XVII. Astrology and Divination ... ... ... 450-474)
XVIII. Sorcery and Necromancy... ... ... ... 475-500 ]
G. FESTIVALS AND PLAYS.
XIX. Festivals and Holidays 501-5H|
XX. Sacred Dramas, Mystic Plays and Masquerades 515-568
H. POPULAR LAMAISM.
XXI. Domestic and Popular Lamaism ... ... ... 566-573
APPENDICES.
I. Chronological Table 575-578
II. Bibliography 578-58J

Index 585-59!

PRONUNCIATION.

The general reader should remember as a rough rule that in the
oriental names the vowels are pronounced as in German, and the con
sonants as in English, except c which is pronounced as " ch," n as " ng "
and n as " ny." In particular, words like Buddha are pronounced as if
spelt in English " Bood-dha," Sahya Muni as " Sha-kya M-66-nee," and
Karma as " Kur-ma."
The spelling of Tibetan names is peculiarly uncouth and startling to
the English reader. Indeed, many of the names as transcribed from
the vernacular seem unpronounceable, and the difficulty is not diminished
by the spoken form often differing widely from the written, owing chiefly
to consonants having changed their sound or dropped out of speech
altogether, the so-called " silent consonants." l Thus the Tibetan word
for the border-country which we, following the Nepalese, call Sikhim is
spelt 'bras-ljons, and pronounced " Den-jong,'' and bkra-s'is is " Ta-shi."
When, however, I have found it necessary to give the full form of these
names, especially the more important words translated from the Sans
krit, in order to recover their original Indian form and meaning, I have
referred them as far as possible to footnotes.
The transcription of the Tibetan letters follows the system adopted by
Jaeschke in his Dictionary, with the exceptions noted below,2 and cor
responds closely with the analogous system for Sanskritic words given
over the page. The Tibetan pronunciation is spelt phonetically in the
dialect of Lhasa.
i Somewhat analogous to the French Us parlent.
2 The exceptions mainly are those requiring very specialized diacritical
marks, the letters which are there (Jaeschke's Diet., p. viii.), pronounced ga
as a prefix, eha, nya, the ha in several forms as the basis for vowels ; these I
have rendered by g, eh', n and ' respectively. In several cases I have spelt words
according to Csoma's system, by Avhich the silent consonants are italicized.

PRONUNCIATION.

For the use of readers who are conversant with the Indian alphabets,
and the system popularly known in India as " the Hunterian," the
following table, in the order in which the sounds are physiologidallyi
produced — an order also followed by the Tibetans — will show the
system of spelling Sanskritic words, which is here adopted, and whichi
it will be observed, is almost identical with that of the widely used
dictionaries of Monier- Williams and Childers. The different forms
usedjin the Tibetan for aspirates and palato-sibilants are placed within
brackets : —

{gutturals)

kh(k')

{palatals)

c(c')

ch(ch')

{cerebrals)

{dentals)

th(t')

dh
n
{labials)
p
pMp*)
b
bh
m
{palato-szbil.)
(to)
(to
(«
&ds)
(*')
7
V
r
1
sibilants)
s
h
sh(s')
s
am
am
ABBREVIATIONS.

B. Ac. Ptsbg. = Bulletin de la Classe Hist. Philol. de I'Academie de St. Poters-
bourg.
BimN. J. = Burnouf 's Introd. au Bv.dd. indien.
Burn. II. ¦= „ Lotus de bonne Loi.
cf. = confer, compare.
Osoma An. = Csoma Korosi Analysis in Asiatic Researches, Vol. xx.
Osoma Gfr. = „ „ Tibetan Grammar.
Davids = Rhys Davids' Buddhism.
Desg. = Desgodins' Le Tibet, etc.
Eitel = Eitel's Handbook of Chinese Buddhism.
Jabsch. D. = Jaeschke's Tibetan Dictionary.
J.A.S.B. = Jour, of the Asiatic Soc. of Bengal.
J.R.A.S. = Journal of the Royal Asiatic Soc, London.
HodGs. = Hodgson's Essays on Lang., Lit, etc.
Hue = Travels in Tartary, Tibet, etc., Hazlitt's trans.
KopptN = Koppen's Lamaische Sier.
Marksam = Markham's Tibet.
Marco P. = Marco Polo, Yule's edition.
O.M. = Original Mitt. Ethnolog. Konigl. Museum fur Volkerkunde Berlin.
Pander = Pander's Das Pantheon, etc.
pr. = pronounced.
Rock. L. = Rockhill's Land of the Lamas.
Rock. B. = „ Life of the Buddha, etc.
Sarat = Saratcandra Das.
S.B.E. = Sacred Boohs of the Bast.
Schlag. = E. Schlagintweit's Buddhism in Tibet.
Skt. = Sanskrit.
S.R. = Survey of India Report.
T. = Tibetan.
Tara. = Tdrandtha's Geschichte, etc., Schiefner's trans.
Vasil. = Vasiliev's or Wassiljew's Der Buddhismtts.

INTRODUCTORY.

TIBET, the mystic
Land of the Grand
Lama, joint God
and King of many mil
lions, is still the most
impenetrable country in
the world. Behind its
icy barriers, reared round it by
Nature herself, and almost un-
surmountable, its priests guard
its passes jealously against
foreigners. Few Europeans have ever
entered Tibet ; and none for half a century have reached the
B

Below Tang-kau Pass

INTRODUCTORY.

sacred city. Of the travellers of later times who have dared to
enter this dark land, after scaling its frontiers and piercing

View into S.W. Tibet
(from Tang-kar La Pass, 16,600 ft.).
its passes, and thrusting themselves into its snow-swept deserts,
even the most intrepid have failed to penetrate farther than the
outskirts of its central province.1 And the information, thus
perilously gained, has, with the exception of Mr. Rockhill's, been

1 The few Europeans who have penetrated Central Tibet have mostly been Roman
missionaries. The first European to reach Lhasa seems to have been Friar Odoric, of
Pordenne, about 1330 a.d. on his return from Cathay (Col. Yule's Cathay and the Rod
Thither, i., 149, and C. Makkham's Tibet, xlvi.). The capital city of Tibet referred to
by him with its '-'Abassi " or Pope is believed to have been Lhasa. In 1661 the Jesuits
Albert Dorville and Johann Gruher visited Lhasa on their way from China to India.
In 1706 the Capuchine fathers Josepho de Asculi and Francisco Marie de Toun pene
trated to Lhasa from Bengal. In 1716 the Jesuit Desideri reached it from Kashmir and
Ladak. In 1741 a Capuchine mission under Horacio de la Penna also succeeded in
getting there, and the large amount of information collected by them supplied Father
A. Giorgi with the material for his AlpJiabetum Tibetanum, published at Rome in 1762.
The friendly reception accorded this party created hopes of Lhasa becoming a centre
for Roman missionaries ; and a Vicar apostolicus for Lhasa is still nominated and
appears in the ' ' A nnuario pontificio," though of course he cannot reside within Tibet,
In 1811 Lhasa was reached by Manning, a friend of Charles Lamb, and the only English
man who seems ever to have got there ; for most authorities are agreed that Moor-
croft, despite the story told to M. Hue, never reached it. But Manning unfortunately
left only a whimsical diary, scarcely even descriptive of his fascinating adventures.
The subsequent, and the last, Europeans to reach Lhasa were the Lazarist mission
aries, Hue and Gabet, in 1845. Hue's entertaining account of his journey is well
known. He was soon expelled, and since then China has aided Tibet in opposing
foreign ingress by strengthening its political and military barriers, as recent ex
plorers: Prejivalsky, Rockhill, Bonvalot, Bower, Miss Taylor, etc., have found to their
cost ; though some are sanguine that the Sikhim Trade Convention of this year (1894)
a f°^7 u tm gB f k w? dge,t0 0pen UP the country, and that at no distant
date Tibet will be prevailed on to relax its jealous exclusiveness, so that, 'ere 1900,
" even Cook's tourists may visit the Lamaist Vatican!

LAND OF THE SUPERNATURAL.

almost entirely geographical, leaving the customs of this forbidden
land still a field for fiction and romance.
Thus we are told that, amidst the solitudes of this " Land of the
Supernatural " repose the spirits of " The Masters," the Mahdtmas,

Captain of Guard of Dong-hya Pass.
(S.-Western Tibet.)

whose astral bodies slumber in unbroken peace, save when they
condescend to work some petty miracle in the world below.
In presenting here the actualities of the cults and customs of
Tibet; and lifting higher than before the veil which still hides its

B 2

INTRODUCTORY.

images,

mysteries from European eyes, the subject may be viewed under
the following sections: —
a. Historical. The changes in primitive Buddhism leading to
Lamaism, and the origins of Lamaism and its sects.
b. Doctrinal. The metaphysical sources of the doctrine. The
doctrine and its morality and literature.
c. Monastic. The Lamaist order. Its curriculum, daily life,
dress, etc., discipline, hierarchy and incarnate-deities and re-
embodied saints.
cl. Buildings. Monasteries, temples, monuments, and shrines.
e. Pantheon and Mythology, including saints,
fetishes, and other sacred objects and symbols.
/. Ritual and Sorcery, comprising sacerdotal services for the
laity, astrology, oracles and divination, charms and necromancy.
g. Festivals and Sacred Plays, with the mystic plays and
masquerades. h. Popular and Domestic Lamaism in every-day life, customs,
and folk-lore.
Such an exposition will afford us a fairly full and complete
survey of one of the most active, and least known, forms of exist
ing Buddhism; and will present incidentally numerous other
topics of wide and varied human interest.
P'or Lamaism is, indeed, a microcosm of the growth of religion
and myth among primitive people ; and in large degree an object-
1 isson of their advance from barbarism towards civilization. And
it preserves for us much of the old-world lore and petrified beliefs
of our Aryan ancestors.

II.
CHANGES IN PRIMITIVE BUDDHISM LEADING TO
LAMAISM.
" w11 ! Constantine, of how much ill was cause,
Not thy conversion, but those rich domains
That the first Avealthy Pope received of thee."!
JO understand the origin of Lamaism and its place in the
Buddhist system, we must recall the leading features
of primitive Buddhism, and
glance at its growth, to see
the points at which the strange creeds
and cults crept in, and the gradual
crystallization of these into a religion
differing widely from the parent system,
and opposed in so many ways to the
teaching of Buddha.
No one now doubts the historic
character of Siddharta Gautama, or
Sakya Muni, the founder of Buddhism ;
though it is clear the canonical ac
counts regarding him are overlaid with
legend, the fabulous addition of after
days.2 Divested of its embellishment,
the simple narrative of the Buddha's
life is strikingly noble and human.
Some time before the epoch of Alex
ander the Great, between the fourth and
fifth centuries before Christ,3 Prince
Siddharta appeared in India as an original thinker and teacher,
deeply conscious of the degrading thraldom of caste and the

Sakya Muni.

1 Dante, Paradiso, xx. (Milton's trans.)
2 See Chapter v. for details of the gradual growth of the legends.
3 See Chronological Table, Appendix i.

CHANGES IN PRIMITIVE BUDDHISM.

priestly tyranny of the Brahmans,1 and profoundly impressed with
the pathos and struggle of Life, and earnest in the search of
some method of escaping from existence which was clearly in
volved with sorrow.
His touching renunciation of his high estate,2 of his beloved
Avife, and child, and home, to become an ascetic, in order to master
the secrets of deliverance from sorrow; his unsatisfying search for
truth amongst the teachers of his time ; his subsequent austerities
and severe penance, a much-vaunted means of gaining spiritual in
sight ; his retirement into solitude and self-communion ; his last
struggle and final triumph— latterly represented as a real material
combat, the so-called "Temptation of Buddha":—

Temptation of Sakya Mdni
(from a sixth century Ajanta fresco, after Eaj. Mitra).
" Infernal ghosts and hellish furies round
So^ebenr^V s°me.h°wl'd. *»me ydl'd, some shriek'd,
borne bent at thee their fiery darts, Avhile thou
Sat st unappall'd in calm and sinless peace " • »

cit^'SZrJf dd^T1' "I!6" the™h™^> h«l existed for about three
centuries previous to Uuddna's epoch, according to Mat m;;u„,.- m i /wn .
Lectures, 1891, p. 58)-the initial dates there given are ifv . ™'-? T ^ (
Brahmanas, eighth century b.c. ; Sutra sixth, Ld Buddh sm fifth 'n^ * ^ '
. The researches of Vasiliev, etc., render t probable , ™t B dd ' ?*? f 1
only a petty lord or chief (of. also OldenbeiJ^ t?X V Sddharta's father was
pessimistic view of life may have been ZceAuLnt'Tt^' ™A that ^*'S
through conquest by a neighbouring Idng P ™ by the loss of his territories
3 Milton's Paradise Regained, Book iv

BUDDHA'S LIFE AND DEATH.

his reappearance, confident that he had discovered the secrets of
deliverance ; his carrying the good tidings of the truth from town
to town ; his effective protest against the cruel sacrifices of the
Brahmans, and his relief of much of the suffering inflicted upon
helpless animals and often human beings, in the name of religion ;
his death, full of years and honours, and the subsequent

Buddha's Death
(from a Tibetan picture, after Grilnwedel).
burial of his relics, — all these episodes in Buddha's life are familiar
to English' readers in the pages of Sir Edwin Arnold's Light of
Asia, and other works.
His system, which arose as a revolt against the one-sided de
velopment of contemporary religion and ethics, the caste-debase
ment of man and the materializing of God, took the form, as
we shall see, of an agnostic idealism, which threw away ritual
and sacerdotalism altogether.
Its tolerant creed of universal benevolence, quickened by the
bright example of a pure and noble life, appealed to the feelings

CHANGES IN PRIMITIVE BUDDHISM.

of the people with irresistible force and directness, and soon
gained for the new religion many converts in the Ganges Valley.
And it gradually gathered a brotherhood of monks, which after
Buddha's death became subject to a succession of "Patriarchs,"'
who, however, possessed little or no centralized hierarchal power, \
nor, had at least the earlier of them, any fixed abode.
About 250 B.C. it was vigorously propagated by the great
Emperor Asoka, the Constantine of Buddhism, who, adopting it
as his State-religion, zealously spread it throughout his own vast
empire, and sent many missionaries into the adjoining lands to
diffuse the faith. Thus was it transported to Burma,2 Siam,
Ceylon, and other islands on the south, to Nepal8 and the countries
to the north of India, Kashmir, Bactria, Afghanistan, etc.
In 61 a.d. it spread to China,4 and through China, to Corea, and,

1 The greatest of all Buddha's disciples, Sariputra and Maudgalyayana, who from
their prominence in the system seem to have contributed materially to its success,
having died before their master, the first of the patriarchs was the senior surviving
disciple, Mahakasyapa. As several of these Patriarchs are intimately associated
with the Lamaist developments, I subjoin a list of their names, taken from the
Tibetan canon and Taranatha's history, supplemented by some dates from modern
sources. After Nagafjuna, the thirteenth (or according to some the fourteenth)
patriarch, the succession is uncertain. List of the Pateiabchs.

1. Mahakasyapa, Buddha's senior
disciple.
2. Ananda, Buddha's cousin and
favourite attendant.
3. Sanavasu.
4. Upagupta, the spiritual adviser
of Asoka, 250 B.C.
5. Dhritaka.
6. Micchaka or Bibhakala.
7. Buddhananda.
8. Buddhamitra (= PVasumitra, re
ferred to as president of Kan-
ishka's Council).
9. Parsva, contemporary of Kanishka,
circa 78 a. d.
10. Sunasata (?or Punyayasas).
11. Asvaghosha, also contemporary of
Kanishka, circa 100 a.d.

12. Masipala (Kapimala).
13. Nagarjuna, circa 150 a.d.
14. Deva or Kanadeva.
15. Rahulata (?).
16. Sahghanandi.
17. Sahkhayaseta (?)
18. Kumarada.
19. Jayata.
20. Vasubandhu, circa 400 a.d.
21. Manura.
22. Haklenayasas.
23. Siiihalaputra.
24. Vasasuta.
25. Punyarcitra.
26. Prajnatara.
27. Bodhidharma, who visited China-
by sea in 526 a.d.

2 By Sona and Uttaeo (Maliavanso, p. 71).
3 Bochanan-Hakilton (Acct of Nepal, p. 190) gives date of introduction asAD 33-
probably this was its re-introduction. '
714ADDUring th6 ^^ °f thS EmPer°r Mlng T1- BEAL {Budd- in CW' P- 53) gives

BUDDHA'S RELIGION AND ITS SPREAD.

in the sixth century a.d., to Japan, taking strong hold on all of the
people of these countries, though they were very different from
those among whom it arose, and exerting on all the wilder tribes
among them a very sensible civilizing influence. It is believed to
have established itself at Alexandria.1 And it penetrated to
Europe, where the early Christians had to pay tribute to the
Tartar Buddhist Lords of the Golden Horde ; and to the present
day it still survives in European Eussia among the Kalmaks on
the Volga, who are professed Buddhists of the Lamaist order.
Tibet, at the beginning of the seventh century, though now
surrounded by Buddhist countries, knew nothing of that religion,
and was still buried in barbaric darkness. Not until about the
year 640 A.D. did it first receive its Buddhism, and through it
some beginnings of civilization among its people.
But here it is necessary to refer to the changes in Form which
Buddhism meanwhile had undergone in India.
Buddha, as the central figure of the system, soon became invested
with supernatural and legendary attributes. And as the religion
extended its range and influence, and enjoyed princely patronage
and ease, it became more metaphysical and ritualistic, so that
heresies and discords constantly cropped up, tending to schisms,
for the suppression of which it was found necessary to hold great
councils. Of these councils the one held at Jalandhar, in Northern India,
towards the end of the first century A.D., under the auspices of the
Scythian King Kanishka, of Northern India, was epoch-making,
for it established a permanent schism into what European writers
have termed the " Northern " and " Southern " Schools : the
Southern being now represented by Ceylon, Burma, and Siam ;
and the Northern by Tibet, Sikhim, Bhotan, Nepal, Ladak,
China, Mongolia, Tartary, and Japan. This division, however,
it must be remembered, is unknown to the Buddhists them
selves, and is only useful to denote in a rough sort of way the
relatively primitive as distinguished from the developed or mixed
forms of the faith, with especial reference to their present-day
distribution.

1 The MaMvanso (Tuknoue's ed., p. 171) notes that 30,000 Bhikshus, or Buddhist
monks, came from " Alasadda," considered to be Alexandria.

10 CHANGES IN PRIMITIVE BUDDHISM.

The point of divergence of these so-called "Northern" and
" Southern" Schools was the theistic Mahayana doctrine, which ""
substituted for the agnostic idealism and simple morality of
Buddha, a speculative theistic system with a mysticism of sophis
tic nihilism in the background. Primitive Buddhism practically
confined its salvation to a select few ; but the Mahayana extended
salvation to the entire universe. Thus, from its large capacity as
a " Vehicle " for easy, speedy, and certain attainment of the state
of a Bodhisat or potential Buddha, and conveyance across the sea
of life (samsara) to Nirvana, the haven of the Buddhists, its
adherents called it " The Great Vehicle " or Mahayana ; * while
they contemptuously called the system of the others — the Primi
tive Buddhists, who did not join this innovation — " The Little,
or Imperfect Vehicle, " the Hinaydna,2 which could carry so
few to Nirvana, and which they alleged was only fit for low
intellects. This doctrinal division into the Mahayana and Hinayana, how
ever, does not quite coincide with the distinction into the so-called;
Northern and .Southern Schools ; for the Southern School shows
a considerable leavening with Mahayana principles,3 and Indian
Buddhism during its most popular period was very largely of the
Mahayana type.
Who the real author of the Mahayana was is not yet known.
The doctrine seems to have developed within the Maha-sanghika
or " Great Congregation " — a heretical sect which arose among
the monks of Vaisali, one hundred years after Buddha's deatli,
and at the council named after that place.4 Asvaghosha, who
appears to have lived about the latter end of the first century A.D.,
is credited with the authorship of a work entitled On raising
Faith in the Mahayana.5 But its chief expounder and developer
was Nagarjuna, who was probably a pupil of Asvaghosha, as he
1 The word Tana (Tib., Teg-fa ch'en-po) or "Vehicle "is parallel to the Platonic
oxi^va, as noted by Beal in Catena, p. 124.
2 Tib., Teg-pa dman-pa.
3 Cf . Hiuen Tsiang's Si-yu-Ei (Beal's), ii., p. 133; Eitel, p. 90; Dhabmapaia is
Mahdbodhi Jour., 1892; Taw Sein Eo, Ind. Antiquary, June, 1892.
i The orthodox members of this council formed the sect called Sthaviras or "elders."
s He also wrote a biography of Buddha, entitled- Buddha-Cariia Kavya, translated
by Cowell, in S.B.E. It closely resembles the Lalita Vistara, and a similar epic
was brought to China as early as 70 a.d. (Beal's Chinese Buddhism, p. 90). He is aim
credited with the authorship of a clever confutation of Brahmanism, which was latterly
entitled Vajra Siki (cf. Hodss., III., 127).-

THE MAHAYANA AND NAGARJUNA.

followed the successor of the latter in the patriarchate. He could
not, however, have taken any active part in Kanishka's Council,
as the Lamas believe. Indeed, it is doubtful even whether he had
then been born.1
Nagarjuna claimed and secured orthodoxy for the Mahayana
doctrine by producing an apocalyptic treatise which he attributed
to Sakya Muni, entitled the
Prajnd-pdraTnitd, or " the
means of arriving at the other
side of wisdom," a treatise
which he alleged the Buddha
had himself composed, and
had hid away in the custody
of the Naga demigods until
men were sufficiently enlight
ened to comprehend so ab
struse a system. And, as his
method claims to be a com
promise between the extreme
views then held on the nature
of Nirvana, it was named the
Mddhyamika, or the system " of the Middle Path." 2
This Mahayana doctrine was essentially a sophistic nihilism ;
and under it the goal Nirvana, or rather Pari-Nirvana, while
ceasing to be extinction of Life, was considered a mystical state
which admitted of no definition. By developing the supernatural
side of Buddhism and its objective symbolism, by rendering its

J^Q]-*»)*-ffl"^a

Nagaejuna.

i Nagarjuna (T., kLu-grub.) appears to belong to the second century a.d. He was a
native of Vidarbha (Berar) and a monk of Nalanda, the headquarters of several of
the later patriarchs. He is credited by the Lamas (J.A.S.B., 1882, 115) with having
erected the stone railing round the great Gandhola Temple of " Budh Gaya," though
the style of the lithic inscriptions on these rails would place their date earlier.
For a biographical note from the Tibetan by H. Wenzel, see /. Pali Text Soc,
1886, p. 1, also by Saeat, J.A.S.B., 51, pp. 1 and 115. The vernacular history of
Kashmir (Rajatarangini) makes him a contemporary and chief monk of Kanishka's
successor, King Abhimanyu (cf. also Eitel, p. 103 ; Schl., 21, 301-3 ; Kopp., ii., 14 ;
O.M., 107, 2 ; Csoma, Gr„ xii., 182).
2 It seems to have been a common practice for sectaries to call their own system
by this title, implying that it only was the true or reasonable belief. Sakya Muni
also called his system "the Middle Path" (Davids, p. 47), claiming in his defence of
truth to avoid the two extremes of superstition on the one side, and worldhness or
infidelity on the other. Comp. the Via media of the Anglican Oxford movement.

CHANGES IN PRIMITIVE BUDDHISM.

salvation more accessible and universal, and by substituting good
words for the good deeds of the earlier Buddhists, the Mahayana
appealed more powerfully to the multitude and secured ready
popularity. About the end of the first century of our era, then, Kanishka's
"Council affirmed the superiority of the Mahayana system, and
published in the Sanskrit language inflated versions of the Bud
dhist Canon, from sources for the most part independent of the
Pali versions of the southern Buddhists, though exhibiting a re
markable agreement with them.1
And this new doctrine supported by Kanishka, who almost
rivalled Asoka in his Buddhist zeal and munificence, became.
a dominant form of Buddhism throughout the greater part of
India ; and it was the form which first penetrated, it would seem,
to China and Northern Asia.
Its idealization of Buddha and his attributes led to the creation
of metaphysical Buddhas and celestial Bodhisats, actively willing
and able to save, and to the introduction of innumerable demons
and deities as objects of worship, with their attendant idolatry and
sacerdotalism, both of
which departures Buddha
had expressly condemned,
The gradual growth of
myth and legend, and of
the various theistic de
velopments which now
set in, are sketched in
detail in another chapter,.
As early as about the
first century a.d., Buddha
is made to be existent
from all eternity and
without beginning
And one of the earliest
forms given to the greai> ;
est of these metaphysical I
Buddhas — Amitabha, the"
Buddhaof Boundless Light

Manjdsei
(the Bodhisat-God, holding the Book of Wisdom
and wielding the Sword of Knowledge).

sL^BuLVn Chines« a"d fP^f « Scriptures are translated from the Pali
Beal s Budd. %n China, p. 5) and also a few Tibetan (cf. Chap. vii.).

THEISM AND IMAGE-WORSHIP.

— evidently incorporated a Sun-myth, as was indeed to be ex
pected where the chief patrons of this early Mahayana Buddhism,
the Scythians and Indo-Persians, were a race of Sun-worshippers.
The worship of Buddha's own image seems to date from this
period, the first century of our era, and about four or five
centuries after Buddha's death ;a and it was followed by a variety
of polytheistic forms, the creation of which was probably facili
tated by the Grecian Art influences then prevalent in Northern
India.2 Different forms
of Buddha's image, origin
ally intended to represent
different epochs in his life,
were afterwards idealized
into various Celestial Bud
dhas, from whom the hu
man Buddhas were held
to be derived as material
reflexes. About 500 a.d.3 arose
the next great develop
ment in Indian Buddhism
with the importation into
it of the pantheistic cult
of Yoga, or the ecstatic
union of the individual
with the Universal Spirit,
a cult which had been in
troduced into Hinduism
by Patanjali about 1 50 B.C.
Buddha himself had attached much importance to the practice of

Vajea-pani
(the Wielder of the Thunderbolt).

i Cf. statue of Buddha found at Sravasti, Cunningham's Stupa of Barhut, p. vii. So
also in Christianity. Archdeacon Farrar, in his recent lecture on " The Development of
Christian Art," states that for three centuries there were no pictures of Christ, but
only symbols, such as the fish, the lamb, the dove. The catacombs of St. Callistus
contained the first picture of Christ, the date being 313. Not even a cross existed
in the early catacombs, and still less a crucifix. The eighth century saw the first picture
of the dead Christ. Eabulas in 586 first depicted the crucifixion in a Syriac Gospel.
s Smith's Graco-Boman vnfi.on Civilization of Ancient India, J. A. S.B., 58 et seq. , 1889,
and Gednwedel's Buddh. Kitnst.
3 The date of the author of this innovation, Asahga, the brother of Vasubandhu,

CHANGES LEADING TO LAMAISM.

abstract meditation amongst his followers; and such practices
under the mystical and later theistic developments of his systera|
readily led to the adoption of the Brahmanical calt of Yoga,
which was grafted on to the theistic Mahayana by Asanga, a
Buddhist monk of Gandhara (Peshawar), in Northern India.
Those who mastered this system were called Yogdcdrya Bud
dhists. The Yogacarya mysticism seems to have leavened the mass of
the Mahayana followers, and even some also of the Hinayana; for
distinct traces of Yoga are to be
found in modern Burmese and
Ceylonese Buddhism. And this
Yoga parasite, containing within
itself the germs of Tantrism,
seized strong hold of its host
and soon developed its monster
outgrowths, which crushed and
cankered most of the little life
of purely Buddhist stock yet
left in the Mahayana.
About the end of the sixth
j century a.d., Tantrism or Sivaic
I mysticism, with its worship of
female energies, spouses of the
Hindu god Siva, began to tinge
both Buddhism and Hinduism,
Consorts were allotted to the
several Celestial Bodhisats and
most of the other gods and de
mons, and most of them were
given forms wild and terrible,
and often monstrous, according
to the supposed moods of each
divinity at different times. And
as these goddesses and fiendesses

Samanta-ehadea
(a Celestial Bodhisat).

the twentieth patriarch, has not yet been fixed with any precision. It seems to be
somewhere between 400 a.d. and 500 A.n.-Of . Vasil., B, p. 78; Schiefneb's Tdra,
p. 1/b ; Julien s Uistoire de la vie de Hiuen Tshang, 83, 93, 97, 106, 114.

TANTRIK BUDDHISM.

were bestowers of supernatural power, and were especially ma
lignant, they were especially worshipped.
By the middle of the seventh century a.d., India contained
many images of Divine Buddhas and Bodhisats with their female
energies and other Buddhist gods and demons, as we know
from Hiuen Tsiang's narrative and the lithic remains in India ; x
and the growth of . myth and ceremony had invested the
dominant form of Indian Buddhism with organised litanies and
full ritual.
Such was the distorted form" of Buddhism introduced into Tibet
about 640 a.d. ; and during the three or four succeeding centuries
Indian Buddhism became still more debased. Its mysticism
became a silly mummery of unmeaning jargon and " magic
circles," dignified by the title of Mantraydna or "The Spell-
Vehicle"; and this so-called
" esoteric," but properly " exoteric,"
cult was given a respectable an
tiquity by alleging that its real
founder was Nagarjuna, who had
received it from the Celestial Buddha
Vairocana through the divine Bod-
hisat Vajrasattva at " the iron tower "
in Southern India.
In the tenth century a.d.,2 the
Tantrik phase developed in Northern
India, Kashmir, and Nepal, into the
monstrous and polydemonist doc
trine, the Kalacakra,3 with its de
moniacal Buddhas, which incor
porated the Mantrayana practices,
and called itself the Vajra-ydna,
or " The Thunderbolt -Vehicle," and
its followers were named Vajrd-
cdrya, or " Followers of the Thunderbolt.

Eleven-headed Avalokita.

i See my article on Uren, J.A.S.B., 1891, and on Indian Buddhist Cult, etc., in
J.M.A.S., 1894, p. 51 et seq. ¦
a About 965 a.d. (Csoma, Gr.; p. 192).
3 Tib., 'Dus-Kyi-'lFor-lo, or Circle of Time, see Chap. vi. It is ascribed to the fabu-
I lous country of Sambhala (T., De'jun) to the North of India, a mythical country prob-
' ably founaed upon the Northern land of St. Padma-mm&ta>a, to wit Udyana.

16 CHANGES LEADING TO LAMAISM.

In these declining days of Indian Buddhism, when its spiritual
and regenerating influences were almost dead, the Muhammadaft
invasion swept over India, in the latter end of the twelfth century
a.d., and effectually stamped Buddhism out of the country. The
fanatical, idol-hating Afghan soldiery1 especially attacked the
Buddhist monasteries, with their teeming idols, and they mas-

Nako
(an Indian Buddhist Vajiacarya Monk of the Eleventh Century a.d.).
sacred the monks wholesale ; 2 and as the Buddhist religion, un
like the more domestic Brahmanism, is dependent en its priests.
and monks for its vitality, it soon disappeared in the ahsence of
these latter. It lingered only for a short time longer in the more
remote parts of the peninsula, to which the fiercely fanatical
Muhammadans could not readily penetrate.3
But it has now been extinct in India for several centuries,
leaving, however, all over that country, a legacy of gorgeous
architectural remains and monuments of decorative art, and its
1 See article by me in J.A.S.B., lxvi., 1892, p. 20 et seg., illustrating this fanaticism
and massacre with reference to Magadha and Asam.
2 Tabaqat-i-Ndsirl, Elliot's trans., ii.; 306, etc.
3 Taranatha says it still existed in Bengal till the middle of the fifteenth century A.D.,
under the " Chagala " Raja, whose kingdom extended to Delhi and who was converted
to Buddhism by his wife. He died in 1448 a.d., and Prof. Bendall finds (Cat. Buddh. Skt.
MSS. intr. p. iv) that Buddhist MSS. were copied in Bengal up to the middle of the
fifteenth century, namely, to 1446. Cf. also his note in J.R.A.S., New Ser., xx., 552, anil
mine in J.A.S.B. (Proc), February, 1893.

ITS FORM IN TIBET.

living effect upon its apparent offshoot Jainism, and upon Brah-
manism, which it profoundly influenced for good.
Although the form of Buddhism prevalent in Tibet, and which
has been called after its priests " Lamaism," is mainly that of
the mystical type, the Vajra-yana, curiously incorporated with
Tibetan mythology and spirit-worship, still it preserves there,
as we shall see, much of the loftier philosophy and ethics of the
system taught by Buddha himself. And the Lamas have the keys
to unlock the meaning of much- of Buddha's doctrine, which has
been almost inacessible to Europeans.

IiAMA-WOKSHIP.

Some Lama-pkiests.

III.

RISE, DEVELOPMENT, AND SPREAD OF LAMAISM,

JIBET emerges from barbaric darkness only with the
dawn of its Buddhism, in the seventh century of our
era. Tibetan history, such as there is — and there is
none at all before its Buddhist era, nor little worthy of the
name till about the eleventh century a.d. — is fairly clear on the

1 From a photograph by Mr. Hoffmann.

PRE-LlMAIST TIBET. . 19
point that previous to King Sron Tsan Gampo's marriage in
638-641 a.d., Buddhism was quite unknown in Tibet.1 And it
is also fairly clear on the point that Lamaism did not arise till
a century later than this epoch.
Up till the seventh century Tibet was inaccessible even to the
Chinese. The Tibetans of this prehistoric period are seen, from
the few glimpses that we have of them in Chinese history about
the end of the sixth century,2 to have been rapacious savages
and reputed cannibals, without a written language,3 and followers
of an animistic and devil-dancing or Shamanist religion, the Bon,
resembling in many ways the Taoism of China.
Early in the seventh century, when Muhammad (" Mahomet ")

1 The historians so-called of Tibet wrote mostly inflated bombast, almost valueless
for historical purposes. As the current accounts of the rise of Buddhism in Tibet are
so overloaded with legend, and often inconsistent, I have endeavoured to sift out the
more positive data from the mass of less trustworthy materials. I have looked into
the more disputed historical points in the Tibetan originals, and, assisted by the
living traditions of the Lamas, and the translations provided by Kockhill and Bushell
especially, but also by Schlagintweit, Sarat, and others, I feel tolerably confident that
as regards the questions of the mode and date of the introduction of Buddhism into
Tibet, and the founding of Lamaism, the opinions now expressed are in the main
correct. The accounts of the alleged Buddhist events in prehistoric Tibet given in the
Mani-Kdh-bum, Gyal-rabs, and other legendary books, are clearly clumsy fictions.
Following the example of Burma and other Buddhist nations (cf. Hiuen Tsiang,
Julien's trans., i., 179 ; ii., 107, etc.) who claim for their King an ancestry from the
Sakya stock, we find the Lamas foisting upon their King a similar descent. A
mythical exiled prince, named gNah-ICri-bTsan-po, alleged to be the son of King
Prasenjit, Buddha's first royal patron, and a member of the Licchavi branch of
the Sakya tribe, is made to enter Tibet in the fifth century B.C. as the progenitor
of a millennium of Sron Tsan Gampo's ancestors ; and an absurd story is invented
to account for the etymology of his name, which means " the back chair " ; while.
the Tibetan people are given as progenitors a monkey (" Hilumandju," evidently in
tended for Hanumanji, the Hindu monkey god, cf. Rock., LL., 355) sent by Avalo-
kiteswara and a rakshasi fiendess. Again, in the year 331 a.d., there .fell from heaven
several sacred objects (conf. Rock., B., p. 210), including the Om mani formula,
which in reality was not invented till many hundred (probably a thousand) years
later. And similarly the subsequent appearance of five foreigners before a King, said
to have been named T'o-t'ori Nyan-tsan, in order to declare the sacred nature of the
above symbols, without, however, explaining them, so that the people continued in
ignorance of their meaning. And it only tends still further to obscure the points
at issue to import into the question, as Lassen does (Ind. Alt., ii., 1072), the alleged
erection on Mt. Kailas, in 137 B.C., of a temporary Buddhist monastery, for such a
monastery must have belonged to Kashmir Buddhism, and could have nothing to do
with Tibet.
2 Bushell, loo. cit., p. 435.
i They used knotched wood and knotted cords (Remusat's Researches, p. 384).
c2

20 . RISE OF LAMAISM.
was founding his religion in Arabia, there arose in Tibet a warlike
king, who established his authority over the other wild clans of
central Tibet, and latterly his son, Sron Tsan Gampo,1 harassed the
western borders of China; so that the Chinese Emperor T'aitsung,;;
of the T'ang Dynasty, was glad to come to terms with this young
prince, known to the Chinese as Ch'itsung-luntsan, and gave him
in 641 a.d.2 the Princess 3 Wench'eng, of the imperial house, in
marriage.4 Two years previously Sron Tsan Gampo had married Bhrikuti,
'a daughter of the Nepal King, Amsuvarman ; 5 ' and both of
these wives being bigoted Buddhists, they speedily effected
the conversion of their young husband, who was then, according

1 Called also, prior to his accession (says Rockhill, Life, p. 211) Khri-ldan Sron
btsan (in Chinese, Ki-tsung lun-tsan). His father, g'Nam-ri Sron-tsan, and his an
cestors had their headquarters at Yar-lun, or " the Upper Valley," below the Yar-
lha sam-po, a mountain on the southern confines of Tibet, neaT the Bhotan frontier.
The Yar-luh river flows northwards into the Tsang-po, below Lhasa and near Samye.
This Yar-luh is to be distinguished from that of the same name in the Kham pro
vince, east of Bathang, and a tributary of the Yangtse Kiang. The chronology by
Bu-ton (t'am-c'ad K'an-po) is considered the most reliable, and Sum-pa K'an-po
accepted it in preference to the Baidyur Kar-po, composed by the Dalai Lama's orders,
by De-Srid Sah-gyas Gya-mts'o, in 1686. According to Bu-ton, the date of Sron Tsan
Gampo's birth was 617 a.d. (which agrees with that given by the Mongol historian,.
Sasnang Setzen), and he built the palace Pho-dah-Marpo -on the Lhasa hill when
aged nineteen, and the Lhasa Temple when aged twenty-three. He married the
Chinese princess when he was aged nineteen, and he died aged eighty-two. The
Chinese records, translated by Bushell, make him die early. Csoma's date of 627
(Grammar, p. 183) for his birth appears to be a clerical error for 617. His first
mission to China was in 634 (Bushell, J.R.A.S., New Ser., xii., p. 440).
2 According to Chinese annals (Bushell, 435), the Tibetan date for the marriage is
639 (C, (?., p. 183), that is, two years after his marriage with the Nepalese princess.
3 Kong-jo = " princess " in Chinese.
1 The Tibetan tradition has it that there were three other suitors for this princess's
hand, namely, the three greatest kings they knew of outside China, the Kings of Mag-
adha, of Persia (sTag-zig), and of the Hor (Turl-i) tribes. See also Hodgson's Ess. and
Rockhill's B., 213 ; Csoma's Gr., 196 ; Bodhimur, 338.
5 Amsuvarman, or " Glowing Armour," is mentioned by Hiuen Tsiang (Beal's Ed.
Si-yu-H, ii., p. 81) as reigning about 637, and he appears as a grantee in Fleet's Corpn
Inscrn. Ind. (iii., p. 190) in several inscriptions ranging from 635 to 650 A.D., from
which it appears that he was of the Thakuri dynasty and a feudatory of King of
Harshavardhana of Kanauj, and on the death of the latter seems to have become
independent. The inscriptions show that devi was a title of his royal ladies, and his
635 a.d. inscription recording a gift to his nephew, a svdmin (an officer), renders it prob
able that he had then an adult daughter. One of his inscriptions relates to Sivaist
lingas, but none are expressedly Buddhist. The inscription of 635 was discovered by
C. Bendall, and published in Ind. Ant. for 1885, and in his Jmmtey, pp. 13 and 73. Cf-
also Ind. Ant., ix., 170, and his description of coins in Zeitchr. der Deutsch.

INTRODUCTION OF BUDDHISM. 21
to Tibetan annals, only about sixteen years of age,1 and who,
under their advice, sent to India, Nepal, and •China for Buddhist
books and teachers.2
It seems a perversion of the real order of events to state, as is
usually done in European books, that Sron Tsan Gampo first adopted
Buddhism, and then married two Buddhist wives. Even the
vernacular chronicle,3 which presents the subject in its most
flattering form, puts into the mouth of Sron Tsan Gampo, when
he sues for the hand of his first wife, the Nepalese princess, the
following words : " I, the King of barbarous4 Tibet, do not practise
the ten virtues, but should you be pleased to bestow on me your
daughter, and wish me to have the Law,5 1 shall practise the ten
virtues with a five-thousand-fold body . . , though I have
not the arts . . . ' if you so desire ... I shall build 5,000
temples." Again, the more reliable Chinese history records that
the princess said " there is no religion in Tibet " ; and the
glimpse got of Sron Tsan in Chinese history shows him actively
engaged throughout his life in the very un-Buddhist pursuit of
bloody wars with neighbouring states.
The messenger sent by this Tibetan king to India, at the
instance of his wives, to bring Buddhist books was called Thon-
mi Sam-bhota.6 The exact date of his departure and return are un
certain,7 and although his Indian visit seems to have been within
the period covered by Hiuen Tsiang's account, this history makes
no mention even of the country of Tibet. After a stay in India 8
of several years, during which Sam-bhota studied under the

i The Gyal-rabs Sel-wai Melon states that S. was aged sixteen on his marriage
with the Nepalese princess, who was then aged eighteen, and three years later he
I built his Pho-dah-Marpo Palace on the Red Hill at Lhasa.
1 2 The monks who came to Tibet during Sron Tsan Gampo's reign were Kusara
(? Kumara) and Sahkara Brahmana, from India ; Sila Mafiju, from Nepal ; Hwa-
tl shang Maha-ts'e, from China, and (E. Schlagt., Gyal-rabs, p. 49) Tabuta and Ganuta,
J! from Kashmir.
3 Mirror of Royal pedigree, Gyal-rabs Sel-wai Melon.
4 mT'ah-'k'ob.
* K'rims.
6 • Sambhota is the Sanskrit title for " The good Bhotiya or Tibetan." His proper name
;is Thon-mi, son of Anu.
7 632 a.d. is sometimes stated as date of departure, and 650 as the return ; but on this
-latter date Sron Tsan Gampo died according to the Chinese accounts, although he
(should survive for many (48) years longer, according to the conflicting Tibetan records.
8 " Southern India " (Bodhimur, p. 327).

22 RISE OF LAMAISM.
Brahman Livikara or Lipidatta1 and the pandit Devavid Sinha (or
Sinha Ghosha), he returned to Tibet, bringing several Buddhist
books and the so-called "Tibetan" alphabet, by means of which he
now reduced the Tibetan language to writing and composed for
this purpose a grammar.2
This so-called " Tibetan " character, however, was merely a
somewhat fantastic reproduction of the north Indian alphabet
current in India at the time of Sam-bhota's visit. It exaggerates
the flourishing curves of the " Kutila," which was then coming
into vogue in India, and it ve'ry slightly modified a few letters to
adapt them to the peculiarities of Tibetan phonetics.3 Thonmi
translated into this new character several small Buddhist texts,4
but he does not appear to have become a monk or to have
attempted any religious teaching.
Sron Tsan Gampo, being one of the greatest kings of Tibet and
the first patron of learning and civilization in that country, and
haA'ing with the aid of bis wives first planted the germs of Buddh
ism in Tibetan soil, he is justly the most famous and popular
king of the country, and latterly he was canonized as an incarna
tion of the most popular of the celestial Bodhisats, Avalokita ; and
in keeping with this legend he is figured with~his hair dressed
up into a high conical chignon after the fashion of the Indian
images of this Buddhist god, " The Looking-down-Lord,"
His two wives were canonized as incarnations of Avalokita's
consort, Tara, " the Saviouress," or Goddess of Mercy ; and the
fact that they bore him no children is pointed to as evidence of
their divine nature.5 The Chinese princess Wench'eng was deified

1 Li-byin = Li + " to give."
2 sGrdhi bstan hch'os sum ch'u-pa.
3 The cerebrals and aspirates not being needed for Tibetan sounds were rejected.
And when afterwards the full expression of Sanskrit names in Tibetan demanded
these letters, the five cerebrals were formed by reversing the dentals and the aspirates
obtained by suffixing an h, while the paiato-sibilants ts, tsh, and ds were formed by
adding a surmounting crest to the palatals ch, chh, and j. Jt is customary to say that
the cursive style, the " headless " or U-med (as distinguished from the full form with
the head the U-ch'en) was adapted from the so-called "Wartu" form of Devanagri-
Hodgson, As. Res., xvi., 420 ; Schmidt, Mem. de I'Ac. de Pet., i , 41 ; Csoma, Gr., 201;
Sahat, J.A.S.B., 1888,42.
* The first book translated seems to have been the Karanda-vyulm, sutra, a favourite
in Nepal ; and a few other translations still extant in the Tan-gyur are ascribedtn
him (Csoma, A., and Rock., B., 212.
5 His issue proceeded from two or four Tibetan wives.

ROYAL PATRONS OF BUDDHISM.

as " The white Tara,"1 as in the annexed figure; while the Nepa

lese

princess

<Bri-

bswn," said to be a cor
ruption of Bhri-kuti,
was apotheosised as the
green Bhri-kuti Tara,2
as figured in the chap
ter on the pantheon.
But he was not the
saintlyperson the grate
ful Lamas picture, for
he is seen from re
liable Chinese history
to have been engaged
all his life in bloody
wars, and more at home
in the battlefield than
the temple. And he cer
tainly did little in the
way of Buddhist propa
ganda, beyond perhaps
translating a few tracts
into Tibetan, and build
ing a few temples to
shrine the images re
ceived by him in dower,3
and others which he constructed. He built no monasteries.

Taea, the White.
The Deified Chinese Princess Wench'eng.*

1 E. Schlagintweit (p. 66) transposes the forms of the two princesses, and most sub
sequent writers repeat his confusion.
2 She is represented to have been of a fiery temper, and the cause of frequent
brawls on account of the precedence given to the Chinese princess.
3 He received as dower with the Nepalese princess, according to the Gyal-rabs,
the images of Akshobhya Buddha, Maitreya and a sandal-wood image of Tara; and
from his Chinese wife a figure of Sakya Muni as a young prince. To shrine the
images of Akshobhya and the Chinese Sakya he built respectively the temples of
Ramoch'e and another at Rasa, now occupied by the Jo-wo K'ah at Lhasa(see Chaps, xii.
and xiu ) The latter temple was called Rasa-'p'rul snaii gigtsug-lka-E 'an, and was built
in his twenty-third year, and four years after the arrival of the Chinese princess
(in 644 a.d., Buskbli). The name of its site, Ra-sa, is said to have suggested the
name by which it latterly became more widely known, namely, asLha-sa, or " God's
place " The one hundred and eight temples accredited to him in the Mani-Edh-'hm
are of course legendary, and not even their sites are known to the Lamas themselves.
t After Pander,

24 RISE OF LAMAISM.
After Sron Tsan Gampo's death, about 650 a.d.,1 Buddhism
made little headway against the prevailing Shamanist superstitions,^
and seems to have been resisted by the people* until about a
century later in the reign of his powerful descendant Thi-Sron.
Detsan,2 who extended his rule over the
greater part of Yunnan and Si-Chuen, and
even took Changan, the then capital of
China. This king was the son of a Chinese
princess,3 and inherited through his mother
a strong prejudice in favour of Buddhism.
He succeeded to the throne when only
aw^gw5j|nj»1%54.ii ¦&] thirteen years old, and a few years later* he
- sent to India for a celebrated Buddhist priest
King Thi-Sron Detsan. j.„ „„<-„t,t u j ¦ m-i , , ,
to establish an order in Tibet; and he was
advised, it is said, by his family priest, the Indian monk Santa-
rakshita, to secure if possible the services of his brother-in-
law,5 Guru Padma-sambhava, a clever member of the then
popular Tantrik Yogacarya school, and at that time, it is said, .
a resident of the great college of Nalanda, the Oxford of Buddhist
•India. This Buddhist wizard, Guru Padma-sambhava, promptly re
sponded to the invitation of the Tibetan king, and accompanied
the messengers back to Tibet in 747 a.d.6
As Guru Padma-sambhava was the founder of Lamaism, and is
now deified and as celebrated in Lamaism as Buddha himself,
than whom,. indeed, he receives among several sects more worship,
he demands detailed notice.
The founder of Lamaism, Saint Padma-sambhava or "the Lotas-
1 He was succeeded in 650 by his grandson Mang-Sron-Mang-tsan under the
regency of Sron Tsan's Buddhist minister, Gar (mk'ar), known to the Chinese as
Chiishih (Bushell, loc. cit., 446).
2 Fri-Sron Ideu-btsan. (Cf. Kopp., ii., 67-72 ; Schlag., 67 ; J.A SB , 1881 p 224)
Rock., A, quotes p. 221 contemporary record inbsTan-gyur (xciv., f. 387-391), proving
that in Thi-Sron Detsan's reign in the middle of the eighth century, Tibet was hardly
recognized as a Buddhist country.
3 Named Chin cheng (Tib., Kyim Shah), adopted daughter of the Emperor Tchang
tsong (Bushell, 456). c
* In 747 (Csoma, Gr., 183) ; but the Chinese date would give 755 CBushet.^
• Another account makes the Guru arrive in Tibet in anticipation of the king's wishes,

The Founder of Lamaism, St. Padma-sambhava,
in hia Eight Forma.

RISE OF LAMAISM.

born one,"1 is usually called by the Tibetans Guru Rin-po-ch'e, or
" the precious Guru " ; or simply L6-pon,2 the Tibetan equivalent
of the Sanskrit " Guru " or " teacher." He is also called " Ugyan"
or '< Urgyan," as he was a native of Udyana or Urgyan, correspond
ing to the country about Ghazni3 to the north-west of Kashmir.
Udyana, his native land, was famed for the proficiency of its
priests in sorcery, exorcism, and magic. Hiuen Tsiang, writing a
century previously, says regarding Udyana : " The people are in
disposition somewhat sly and crafty. They practise the art of using
charms. The employment of magical sentences is with them an
art and a study."4 And in regard to the adjoining country of Kash
mir also intimately related to Lamaism, Marco Polo a few centuries
later says : " Keshimur is a province inhabited by people who are
idolaters (¦i.e., Buddhists). . . .
They have an astonishing ac
quaintance with the devilries of
enchantment, insomuch as they
can make their idols speak. They
can also by their sorceries bring on
changes of weather, and produce
darkness, and do a number of
things so extraordinary that no one
without seeing them would believe
them. Indeed, this country is the
very original source from which
idolatry has spread abroad."5
The Tibetans, steeped in super
stition which beset them on every
side by malignant devils, warmly
welcomed the Guru as he brought
them deliverance from their terrible tormentors. Arriving in Tibet
1 For legend of his birth from a lotus see p. 380. 2 sLob-dpon.
a The Tibetans state that it is now named Ghazni, but Sir H. Yule, the great
geographer, -writes (Marco P., i., 155) : " Udyana lay to the north of Peshawar, on the
Swat river, but from the extent assigned to it by Hwen Thsang, the name probably
covered a large part of the whole hill region south of the Hindu Kush, from Ckitral
to the Indus, as indeed it is represented in the Map of Vivien de St. Martin.
(PUerins Bouddhistes, ii.)." It is regarded by FaHian as the most northerly Province
of India, and in his time the food and clothing of the people were similar to those oi
Gangetic India.
* Beal's Si-Yn-Ki, i., 120. 5 Marco P., i., 155.

v-"\ "\

Dor-je Less.
A fiend (.priest) subjected by St. Padma-
sambhava.

ITS FOUNDER AND HIS SORCERY.

in 747 A.D., he vanquished all the chief devils of the land,
sparing most of them on their consenting to become defenders of
his rehgion, while he on his part guaranteed that in return for such
services they would be duly worshipped and fed. Thus, just as the
Buddhists in India, in order to secure the support of the semi-
aborigines of Bengal admitted into their system the bloody Durga
and other aboriginal demons, so on extending their doctrines
throughout Asia they pandered to the popular taste by admitting
within the pale of Buddhism the pantheon of those new nations
they sought to
convert. And
similarly in
Japan, where
Buddhism was
introduced in
the sixth cen
tury A.D., it
made little
progress till
the ninth cen-
tury, when
Kobo Daishi
incorporated it
with the local
Shintoism, by
alleging that
the Shinto dei
ties were em
bodiments of
the Buddhist.
The Guru's
most powerful
weapons in
warring with
the demons
were the Vajra
(Tibetan, dor-je), symbolic of the thunderbolt of Indra (Jupiter),
and spells extracted from the Mahayana gospels, by which he
shattered his supernatural adversaries.

The Twelve Tan-ma She-devils.
Subjected by St. Padma.

RISE OF LAMAISM.

As the leading events of his march through Tibet and his
subjugation of the local devils are of some interest, as indicating.
the original habitats of several of the pre-Lamaist demons, I
have given a condensed account of these in the chapter on the
pantheon at page 382.
Under the zealous patronage of King Thi-Sron Detsan he built
at Sam-yas in 749 a.d. the first Tibetan monastery. The ortho
dox account of the miraculous creation of that building is referred
to in our description of that monastery.
On the building of Sam-yas,1 said to be modelled after the Indian
Odantapura of Magadha, the Guru, assisted by the Indian monk
Santa-rakshita,. instituted
there the order of the Lamas.
Santa-rakshita was made the
first abbot and laboured there
for thirteen years. He now is
entitled Acarya Bodhisat.2
La-ma3 is a Tibetan word
meaning the " Superior One,"
and corresponds to the San^
skrit Uttara. It was restricted
to the head of the monastery,
and still is strictly applicable
only to abbots and the highest
monks; though out of courtesy
the title is now given to
almost all Lamaist monks and
priests. The Lamas have no
special term for their form of
Buddhism. They simply call it " The religion" or "Buddha's
religion"; and its professors are "Insiders," or "within the fold"
(nan-pa), in contradistinction to the non-Buddhists or " Out-

Santa-rakshita .
Indian Buddhist monk of the Eighth
Century a.d.

1 The title of the temple is Zan-yad Mi-gyur Lhun-gyi dub-pahi tsug-lha-Ksan,
or the " Self -sprung immovable shrine," and it is believed to be based on immovable
foundations of adamantine laid by the Guru.
2 And is said to have been of the Svatantra school, fullowing Sariputra, Ananda,
Nagarjuna, Subhahkara, Sri Gupta, and JSana-garbha (cf. Schl., 67; Kopp., ii., 68;
J.A.S.B., 1881, p. 226; Pand., No. 25.
3 bLa-ma. The Uighurs (? Hor) call their Lamas "tuin," (Yule's, Cathay, p. 241,
note).

ST. PADMA'S SORCERY. 29

siders " (chi-pa or pyi-'lin), the so-called " pe-ling " or foreigners
of English writers. And the European term " Lamaism " finds no
counterpart in Tibetan.
The first Lama may be said to be Pal- bans, who succeeded the
Indian abbot Santa-rakshita; though the first ordained member
of this Tibetan order of monks was Bya-Khri-gzigs.1 The most
learned of these young Lamas was Vairocana, who translated many
Sanskrit works into Tibetan, though his usefulness was interrupted
for a while by the Tibetan wife of Thi-Sroh Detsan ; who in her
bitter opposition to the King's reforms, and instigated by the Bon-
pa priests, secured the banishment of Vairocana to the eastern
province of Kham by a scheme similar to that practised by Poti-
phar's wife. But, on her being forthwith afflicted with leprosy, she
relented, and the young " Bairo-tsana " was recalled and effected
her cure. She is still, however, handed down to history as the " Eed
Kahula, she-devil,"2 while Vairocana is made an incarnation of
Buddha's faithful attendant and cousin Ananda ; and on account
of his having translated many orthodox scriptures, he is credited
with the composition or translation and hiding away of many of
the fictitious scriptures of the unreformed Lamas, which were
afterwards " discovered" as revelations.
It is not easy now to ascertain the exact details of the creed —
the primitive Lamaism — taught by the Guru, for all the extant-
works attributed to him were composed several centuries later
by followers of his twenty-five Tibetan disciples. But judging
from the intimate association of his name with the essentials
of Lamaist sorceries, and the special creeds of the old unreformed
section of the Lamas — the Nih-ma-pa — who profess and are ac
knowledged to be his immediate followers, and whose older scrip
tures date back to within two centuries of the Guru's time/it is
evident that his teaching was of that extremely Tantrik and
magical type of Mahayana Buddhism which was then prevalent
in his native country of Udyan and Kashmir. And to this highly
impure form of Buddhism, already covered by so many foreign
accretions and saturated with so much demonolatry, was added a
1 The first seven novices (Sad-mi mi) who formed the nucleus of the order were
ABah Apal Abaits, rfoaris-devendra and Branka Mutik, 'E'on Nagendra, Sagor Vairo
cana, vMa Acdrya rin-ch'en mch'og, gLah-Ka Tanana, of whom the first three were
elderly. 2 gZa-mar gyal. The legend is given in the T'ah-yik Ser-t'eh.

RISE OF LAMAISM.

portion of the ritual and most of the demons of the indigenous
Bon-pa religion, and each of the demons was assigned its proper
place in the Lamaist pantheon.
Primitive Lamaism may therefore be defined as a priestly mix
ture of Sivaite mysticism, magic, and Indo- Tibetan demonolatry,
overlaid by a thin varnish of Mahayana Buddhism. And to
the present day Lamaism still retains this character.
In this form, as shaped by
the Guru, Buddhism proved more
attractive to the people, and soon
became popular. Its doctrine
of Karma, or ethical retribution,
appealed to the fatalism which
the Tibetans share with most
eastern races. And the zealous
King, Thi-Sroh Detsan, founded
other monasteries freely and
initiated a period of great liter
ary activity by procuring many
talented Indian and Kashmiri
scholars for the work of translat
ing the Indian canonical works
and commentaries into Tibetan.1
A Bon -pa Priest. 2 The new religion was actively
opposed by the priests of the native religion, called Bon,3 and
these were supported by one of the most powerful ministers.1
1 The chief translators employed at this time were the Indian monks, VimalaMitra,
Buddha Guhya, Santigarbha, Visuddhi Siiiha, the Tantrik Acharya Dharma-kirti (who
translated the Vajradlidtu Yoga works). The Kashmiri monks, Jina-Mitra, Dana-Sila
and Ananda, assisted by the Tibetan novices, chief of whom was Vairocana. No
translations or works ascribed to Padma-sambhava himself occur in the Tibetan
Tripitaka canon.
2 After Giorgi.
-' The word is derived by Gen. Cunningham (Marco P., i., 287) from Punya, one of
the names of the Soastikas,or worshippers of the mystic fly- foot cross, called in Tibetan
</yuh druh, though Punya is simply " a holy man," and seems original of the Burmese
title for monk, Pongyi. The Bon religion resembles the Taoism of China (see Yule,
loc. cit.; Rock., B., p. 206 et seq., and his L.L., p. 217 n., and J.R. Geog. Soc, May,
1894). It is especially associated with the worship of dragons, or nagds, and its
reputed founder is gS'en-rabs Mi-bo. As now practised, it is deeply impregnated by .
Buddhism. For a list of some of its deities see Sarat, Jour. Indian Buddhist Tat
Soc, Vol. i.
4 Named NamMa-Shanrom-pa-skyes. The ministers who aided the King were Go
Shah-Shi, and Da-gyab-ts'an.

OPPOSED BY INDIGENOUS PRIESTS. 31
Some of the so-called devils which are traditionally alleged to
have been overcome by the Guru were probably such human ad
versaries. It is also stated that the B6n-pa were now prohibited
making human and other bloody sacrifice as was their wont ; and
hence is said to have arisen the practice of offering images of
men and animals made of dough.
Lamaism was also opposed by some Chinese Buddhists, one of
whom, entitled the Mahayana Hwa-shang,1 protested against the
kind of Buddhism which Santa-rakshita and Padma-sambhava
were teaching.2 But he is reported to have been defeated in argu
ment and expelled from the country by the Indian monk Kamala-
sila,3 who, like Santa-rakshita, is alleged to be of the Sva-tantra
Madhyamika school, and the author of many treatises still extant
in the great commentary (Tan-gyur). The excellent Sanskrit-
Tibetan dictionaries (Vyutpatti) date from this literary epoch.
Padma-sambhava had twenty-five disciples, each of whom is
credited with magical power, mostly of a grotesque character.4
1 A Chinese term for a Buddhist monk corresponding to Skt. Upddhydya or
"master." (See Edkin's Diet, and Mayer's Hdbk.)
- Two works by Rwa-sliang zab-mo are found in the Tan-gyur (mDo, xxx., xxxiii.
(Kockhill's B., p. 220).
1 3 Kamala-sila was author of an Indian work ( Tarka) expounding the various philo
sophic systems of India. (Prof. G. Buehler, J. Buddhist Text Soc. of India, i., pt. ii.,
p. x.)
4 1. Nam-k'a nhi-po mounted the sunbeams.
2. Sah-gye-ye-se drove iron bolts into rocks.
3. Gyal-wa-ch'og-yan changed his head into a horse s, and neighed thrice.
i. K'ar-ch'en Ch'o-gyal revived the slain.
5. Pal-ki-ye-se overcame three fiendesses.
6. Pal-ki-Seh-ge enslaved demons, nymphs, and genii.
7. Vairocana obtained the five heavenly eyes of knowledge.
8. Nah-dag-gyalpo attained Samadhi.
9. Yu-druh-Nih-po acquired divine knowledge.
10. Jnana-kumara worked miracles.
11. Dorje-Duh Jem travelled invisibly as the wind.
12. Ye-se-Nah visited the fairy world.
13. Sog-pu-Lha-pal (a Mongol) ensnared ferocious beasts.
14 Na-nam-yese soared in the sky.
15. Pal-ki-Wah-p'yug killed his enemies by signs.
16. Den-ma-tse-Wah had perfect memory.
17. Ka-Wa-pal-tseg perceived the thoughts of others.
18. Shu-bu-pal-seh made water run upwards.
19. Khe-hu-c'ug-lo caught flying birds.
20. Gjral-Wai-Lodoi raised ghosts and converted the corpse into gold.
21. Ten-pai-nam-k'a tamed wild yaks of the northern desert.
22. 'Odan-Wah-p'yug dived into water like a fish.

32 RISE OF LAMAISM.
And these disciples he instructed in the way of making magic
circles for coercing the demons and for exorcism.
The Guru's departure from Tibet was as miraculous in char
acter as his life, and in keeping with the divine attributes with
which he has been invested as " Saviour of a suffering world." 1
23. Ma-t'og rin-ch'en crushed adamant to powder and ate it like meal.
24. Pal-kyi Dor-je passed through rocks and mountains.
25. Lan-dod Kon-ch'og wielded and repelled thunderbolts.
And a twenty-sixth is added : Gyal-wai-Ch'ah c'ub sat cross-legged in the air.
1 After residing in Tibet for about fifty years (say the chronicles, though it is
probable he only remained a few years), and founding Lamaism securely, the Guru,
in 802 a.d., much to the grief of the Tibetans, announced his approaching departure
for fresh religious triumphs in other lands. Addressing the King, he said: "In
Jambudvip are five Raksha countries with 500 towns apiece. The Central Raksha
country is named Sah-do-pal-ri (zahs-mdog-dpal-ri), the king of which is named
Langka of the ten necks (? the ten-headed Kavan). To its east lies Lankapuri, to its
south dGa-bu-c'an, or " The happy " (Skt., Sukhavati or Nandavati), to its west Ko-sha
t'ang-dmar-gling, to its north is Byan-lag fort, to its south-east is Bam-ril-t'od-pa-
mk'ar, to its north-west is Ma-la-gnam-lchags-rtse, to its north-east is Nal-byih
cemetery, and in the south-east is the lake of Phuri. These Kaksha countries are
crowded with men-eating devils, who if not conquered will depopulate the whole
world of Jambudvip, and except me none other can subdue them. I therefore
must go to the stronghold of the Raksha at Sah-do-pal-ri in the country of r$a-
yab-glih or ' The Yak-tail continent,' which lies to the south-west of Tibet. Thither
must I now go."
Then, accompanied by the King and nobles and his two fairy wives (the Tibetan
one of which, named Yes'e-ts'o-gyal was to be left behind), he went to the Gung-
thang La in Mang-yul on the northern confines of Tibet, and there, after giving
farewell advice to the king, priests, and the assembled multitude to keep the doctrine
he had taught them, and the revelations he had hidden in caves throughout the land,
he was enveloped in a glorious rainbow-halo, within which appeared the four great
heroes (dPa-bo) of the world, who assisted him in mounting the celestial horse-car
(named " balaha " or Chang-sal) in which he was now borne away through the sky in
a south-westerly direction, attended by the four heroes and a host of fairies amid
heavenly music and showers of flowers. On his departure the assembled multitude
were distracted with grief and remained transfixed as if dead. Ultimately they
retired below the pass to Srang-Adah-sho-^tsang-dor and the plain Thang-rfpal-mo-
rfpal-thang, where they remained for twenty-five days and nights, and were able to
see the Guru's celestial party, like a shooting star, sailing away through the sky
towards the horizon till lost to sight. After much prayer and worship they sadly
departed on King Thi-Sroh Detsan telling them of the Guru's safe arrival at San-
do-pal-ri, which event he (the king) was able to see through the magical insight -
he had acquired from the Guru. It appeared that the Guru reached Singala after
about two days' journey, and penetrating the iron palace, he entered the body of the
Raksha king named "He of the Skull rosary," and preached the doctrine to the
thousand daughters of the Raksha and the folk of that country. A few days after
wards he departed for Na-yab-glih, and reached the capital Sah-do-pal-ri, where
instantly abstracting the life of the demon-king named Yaksha Me-wal, and entering
his body, the Guru reigns there supreme over the Rakshas, even up till the present
day, and in perpetual youth is preaching there the doctrine of Lamaism in a para
dise which rivals that of Amitabha's western heaven of Suklidvati.

ITS DEVELOPMENT AND SPREAD. 33

And notwithstanding his grotesque charlatanism and uncelibate
life, he is deified and worshipped as the " second Buddha," and
his image under "The eight worshipful Forms"1 is found in
every Tibetan temple of the old sect, as figured at page 25.
Thus established, and lavishly endowed, Lamaism made steady
progress, and was actively patronized by Thi-Sroh Detsan's succes
sors for two generations.2
The eras of Lamaism may be divided into (1) primitive or
"Augustine" (from King Thi-Sroh Detsan's reign to the per
secution), (2) mediaeval, including the reformation, (3) modern
Lamaism, from the priest-kingship of the Dalai Lama in the
seventeenth century.
An interesting glimpse into the professed religion of the earlier
period is given in the bilingual edict pillars " do-ring," erected at
Lhasa in 822 a.d.,3 in treaty with the Chinese. In the text of
these edicts, which has been translated by Dr. Bushell,4 occurs the
following sentence : " They [? the Fan (Tibetan) and the Han
(Chinese)] have looked up to the three precious ones, to all the
holy saints, to the sun, moon, stars, and planets, and begged them
to be their witnesses."
In the latter half of the ninth century 5 under king Balpachan,
the grandson of Thi-Sroh Detsan, the work of the translation of
scriptures and the commentaries of Nagarjuna, Aryadeva, Vasu-
bandhu, etc., was actively prosecuted. Among the Indian trans
lators employed by him were Jina Mitra, Silendrabodhi,8 Suren-
drabodhi, Prajna-varman, Dana-sTla, and Bodhimitra, assisted by
the Tibetans Pal-brtsegs, Ye-s'e-sde, Ch'os-kyi-Gyal-ts'an, and
at least half of the two collections as we know them is the work

i Guru ts'an gye. For description of these see p. 379.
2 Thi-Sroh Detsan died in 786 (Csoma, Gr., 183), and was succeeded by his son,
Mu-thi tsan-po, who, on being poisoned by his mother soon after his accession, was
succeeded by his brother (Sad-na-legs) under the same name (Rockhill, Life, 222), and
he induced Kamalasila to return to Tibet and permanently reside in that country.
This latter was succeeded by his son Ralpachan.
3 These monoliths are assigned by Tibetan tradition (as translated by Sarat. , J. A .S.B.,
1881, p. 228) to Thi-Sroh Detsan's grandson, Ralpachan.
4 Op. cit., 521.
5 According to Tibetan chronology ; but the Chinese make Ralpachan's accession
816 a.d. (Rockhill's B., 223).
« These two were pupils of Sthiramati (Vasiliev, Tdrandtha, 320) D

SPREAD OF LAMAISM.

of their hands.1 And he endowed most of the monasteries with
state-lands and the right to collect tithes and taxes. He seems
to have been the first Tibetan sovereign who started a regular
record of the annals of his country, for which purpose he adopted
the Chinese system of chronology.
His devotion to Buddhism appears to have led to his murder
about 899,2 at the instigation of his younger brother Lah Darma,
— the so-called Julian of Lamaism — who then ascended the throne,
and at once commenced to persecute the Lamas and did his
i tmost3 to uproot the religion. He desecrated the temples and
several monasteries, burned many of their books, and treated
the Lamas with the grossest indignity, forcing many to become
butchers. But Lah Darma's persecution was very mild for a religious
one, and very short-lived. He was assassinated in the third year
of his reign by a Lama of Lha-
luh named Pal-dorje, who has
since been canonized by his grate
ful church, and this murderous
incident forms a part of the modern
Lamaist masquerade.4 This Lama,
to effect his purpose, assumed the
guise of a strolling black-hat devil-
dancer, and hid in his ample sleeves
a bow and arrow. His dancing
below the king's palace, which
stood near the north end of the
present cathedral of Lhasa,5 at
tracted the attention of the king,
who summoned the dancer to his

Black-hat Devil-Dancer.

presence, where the
Lama seized an opportunity while
near the king to shoot him with
the arrow, which proved almost immediately fatal. In the re-

i Rock., B., 225.
» The date is variously given, ranging from 838 (Bushell, 439 and 522) to 899 1*
(Csoma, Gr., 183) ; 902 (Sanang- Setsen, 49) ; 914 (Koppek, ii 72)
s Actively aided byhis minister, sBas-stay-snas. ' '
4 See Chap. xx.
" And not on the Red Hill latterly named " Potala."

ITS PERSECUTION AND REVIVAL.

suiting tumult the Lama sped away on a black horse, which
was tethered near at hand, and riding on, plunged through the
Kyi river on the outskirts of Lhasa, whence his horse emerged
in its natural white colour, as it had been merely blackened by
soot, and he himself turned outside the white lining of his coat,
ani by this stratagem escaped his pursuers.1 The dying words
of the king were : " Oh, why was I not killed three years ago
to save me committing so much sin, or three years hence, that I
might have rooted Buddhism out of the land ? "
On the assassination of Lah Darma the Lamas were not long
in regaining their lost ground.2 Their party assumed the regency
during the minority of Lah Darma's sons, and although Tibet
now became divided into petty principalities, the persecution
seems to have imparted fresh vigour to the movement, for
from this time forth the Lamaist church steadily grew in size
and influence until it reached its present vast dimensions, culminat
ing in the priest-kings at Lhasa.
By the beginning of the eleventh century a.d., numerous Indian y
and Kashmiri monks were again frequenting Tibet.3 And in
1038 a.d. arrived Atisa, the great reformer of Lamaism,4 whose
biography is sketched in outline below, as he figures con
spicuously in Lamaism, and especially in its sects.

i He hid in a cave near the monastery of Brag-Yal-pa, about one day's journey east
of Lhasa.
2 Sanang Setsen says (p. 51) that Lan Darma's son reigned without the Law.
3 Amomg whom were Smriti, who wrote a Tibetan vocabulary named " The Weapon
of Speech"; Dharmapala, who arrived in 1013 a.d., accompanied by Siddhapala,
Gunapala,andPrajna-pala from Eastern India; and Subhuti Sri Santi, who translated
some of the Prajna-paramita.
4 His legendary biography, attributed to his pupil Brom-ton, but apparently of
later date (and probably written by the Dalai in the sixteenth century, as it credits
Brom-ton with being Avalokita's incarnation), has been translated by Sarat in
Jour. Ind. Budd. Text Soc, 1893. I have also consulted the original. (Cf. also Tara.
241, 243 ; Kopp., ii. , 78, 79, 117, 127, 295 ; Schl. , 69, 136 ; Pand., No. 29. ) Atisa's proper
Indian name is Dipahkara Sri-jnana, but he is usually called by the Lamas Jo-vo-
rje-dpal-ldan Atisa, or "The Illustrious Noble Lord Atisha." And he is held to be
an incarnation of Manjusri, the Celestial Bodhisat of Wisdom ; though this seems
merely a pious way of stating that Atisa was the Manjusri of Tibet, or the most
learned in scholastic and astrological lore of all the monks who had previously
visited Tibet ; as India, Nepal, and China already possessed their especial apotheosized
wise man as a Manjusri incarnation. He was born in 980 a.d. (according to his
Tibetan chronicles), of the royal family of Gaur at Vikramanipur (?), in Bengal, his
father being named Kalyana-sri, and his mother Prabhavati, and was ordained at
' , D 2

SPREAD OF LAMAISM

Atisa was nearly sixty years of age when he visited Tibet.1
He at once started a movement which may be called the Lamaist
Reformation, and he wrote many
treatises.2 His chief disciple was Dom- '¦
ton, 3 the first hierarch of
the new reformed sect, the
Kadam-pa, which, three-and-a-
half centuries later, became the
Ge-lug-pa, now the dominant
sect of Tibet, and the estab
lished church of the country.
Atisa's reformation resulted
not only in the new sect,
Kadam-pa, with which he most
intimately identified himself,
but it also initiated, more or

s;a-j*SH- *\AC<\^3* ^

Atisa.

less directly, the semi-reformed
sects of Kar-gyu-pa and Sakya-pa, as detailed in the chapter on
Sects. The latter end of the eleventh century saw Lamaism firmly

the Odantapuri Vihara. He underwent training under both Mahayana teachers
and the Maha Siddhi (grub-ch'en) or wizard-priests, his most notable masters being
Chandrakirti, the Abbot of Suvarnauvip, or Sudliarmanagar, the " Chryse " of the
ancients, near " Thaton " in Pegu, Mativitara of the Mahabodbi Vihara, andtheMaha-
siddhi Naro, who is especially related to the Kar-gyu-pa Sect. On starting for Tibet,
he was a professor of the Vikramasila monastery in Magadha, and a contemporary
of Nayapala, son of King Mahipala.
1 He visited Tibet by way of Nari K'or-sum in 1038 a.d. in the company of the Lama
Nag-tsho, and after starting what may be called the Reformed Lamaism, died in
the sNe-t'ah monastery, near Lhasa, in 1052. It is stated that he came from
Vikramasila at the invitation of the Tibetan King, named Lha Lama Ye-shes-'od, but
his route vid Nari renders this unlikely, and this Lha Lama seems to have been a petty
chief of N.W. Tibet, who was captured about that time by the Nepalese.
2 The following works by Atisa occur in mDo of bsTan 'gyur: 1, Bodhipathapradipa;
2, Carya sangraha pradipa ; 3, Satya dvayavatara ; 4, Madhyamopadesa ; 5, Sangraha
garbha ; 6, Hridaya nischita ; 7, Bodhisattva manyavali ; 8; Bodhisattva karmadi-
margavatara; 9, Saranagatadesa ; 10, Mahayanapatha sadhana varna sangraha;
11, Mahayanapatha sadhana sangraha; 12, Sutrartha samuchhayopadesa; 13, Dasaktf-
sala karmopadesa ; 14, Karma Vibhanga ; 15, Samadhl sambhara parivarta ; 16, Lokot-
tarasaptaka vidhi ; 17, Guru Kriyakrama ; 18, Chittotpada samvara vidlii krama ; 19,
S'iksha samucchaya abhi samaya, delivered by S'ri Dharmapala, King of Suvarnad-
vipa to Dipahkara and Kamala ; 20, Vimala ratna lekhana, an epistle by Dipahkara
to Naya Pala, King of Magadha by Atisa on his departure for Tibet.
' Bmm-stou.

UNDER SASKYA HIERARCHY. 37
rooted, and its rival sects, favoured by their growing popularity and
the isolation of Tibet, were beginning to form at Sakya and
elsewhere strong hierarchies, which took much of the power out
of the hands of the petty chiefs amongst whom Tibet was now
parcelled out, and tended to still further open the country to
Chinese and Mongol invasion.
There seems no evidence to support the assertion that this
Lamaist revival was determined by any great influx of Indian
monks- fleeing from persecution in India, as there is no record of
any such influx about the time of the Muhammadan invasion of
India. In the second half of the thirteenth century, Lamaism received
a mighty accession of strength at the hands of the great Chinese
emperor, Khubilai Khan. Tibet had been conquered by his
ancestor, Jenghiz Khan,1 about 1206 a.d., and Khubilai was thus
brought into contact with Lamaism. This emperor we know,
from the accounts of Marco Polo and others, was a most en
lightened ruler; and in searching about for a religion to weld
together the more uncivilized portions of his mighty empire he
called to his court the most powerful of the Lamaist hierarchs,
namely, the Saskya Grand Lama, as well as representatives of the
Christian and several other faiths, and he ultimately fixed upon
Lamaism, as having more in common with the Shamanist faiths
already prevalent in China and Mongolia than had Confucianism,
Muhammadanism, or Christianity.
His conversion to Buddhism is made miraculous. He is said to
have demanded from the Christian missionaries, who had been
sent to him by the pope, the performance of a miracle as a
proof to him of the superiority of the Christian religion, while
if they failed and the Lamas succeeded in showing him a miracle,
then he would adopt Buddhism. In the presence of the mission
aries, who were unable to comply with Khubilai's demands, the
Lamas caused the emperor's wine-cup to rise miraculously to his
lips, whereat the emperor adopted Buddhism ; and the dis
comfited missionaries declared that the cup had been lifted by
the devil himself, into whose clutches the king now had fallen.
Just as Charlemagne created the first Christian pope, so the
1 The Tibetan accounts state that he was born in 1182 a.d., and was the son of the
Mongol God (? deified ancestor) " The White Gnam-t'e."

38 SPREAD OF LAMAISM

emperor Khubilai recognized 1 the Lama of Saskya, or the Sakya
Pandita, as head of the Lamaist church, and conferred upon him
temporary power as the tributary ruler of Tibet, in return for
which favour he was required to consecrate or crown the Chinese
emperors. And the succession in this hereditary primacy was
secured to the Pandit's nephew, Lodoi Gyal-ts'an (or Mati-
dhvaja), a young and able Lama, who was given the title of
Highness or Sublimity (p'ags-pa). Khubilai actively promoted
I Lamaism and built many monasteries in Mongolia, and a large
one at Pekin. Chinese history 2 attributes to him the organisa
tion of civil administration in Tibet, though it would appear
that he exerted his authority only by diplomacy through these
spiritual potentates without any actual conquest by arms.
The Sakya pope, assisted by a staff of scholars, achieved the
great work of translating the bulky Lamaist canon (Kah-gyur)
into Mongolian after its revision and collation with the Chinese
texts. Indeed, the Lamaist accounts claim for the Sakya Pope
the invention of the Mongolian character, though it is clearly
modelled upon the Syrian ; and Syriac and nestorian missionaries
are known to have worked in Mongolia long prior to this epoch.
Under the succeeding Mongol emperors, the Sakya primacy
seems to have maintained much of its political supremacy, and to
have used its power as a church-militant to oppress its rival sects.
Thus it burned the great Kar-gyu-pa monastery of Dikung about
1320 a.d. But on the accession of the Ming dynasty in 1368 a.d.
the Chinese emperors deemed it politic, while conciliating the
Lamas, as a body, by gifts and titles, to strike at the Sakya
power by raising the heads of two other monasteries 3 to equal
rank with it, and encouraged strife amongst them.
/ At the beginning of the fifteenth century a Lama named
Tson-K'a-pa re-organized Atisa's reformed sect, and altered its
title to " The virtuous order,'' or Ge-lug-pa. This sect soon
eclipsed all the others ; and in five generations it obtained the
priest -kingship of Tibet, which it still retains to this day. Its
first Grand Lama was Tsoh-K'a-pa's nephew, Geden-dub, with
his succession based on the idea of re-incarnation, a theory

i In 1270 a.d.
2 Marco P., ii., 38.
3 The Ka-gyupa, Dikung, and the Ka-dam-pa Ts'al.

UNDER GE-LUG-PA.

which was afterwards, apparently in the reign of the fifth
Grand Lama, developed into the fiction of re-incarnated reflexes
of the divine Bodhisat Avalokita, as detailed in the chapter on the
Hierarchy. In 1640, the Ge-lug-pa leapt into temporal power under the
fifth Grand Lama, the crafty l^ag-wah L6-zang. At the request
of this ambitious man, a Mon
gol prince, Gusri Khan, con
quered Tibet, and made a pre
sent of it to this Grand Lama,
who in 1650 was confirmed in
his sovereignty by the Chinese
emperor, and given the Mon
gol title of Dalai, or "(vast
as) the Ocean." And on ac
count of this title he and his
successors are called by some
Europeans "the Dalai (or
Tale) Lama," though this
title is almost unknown to
Tibetans, who call these Grand
Lamas " the great gem of
majesty " (Gyal-wa Ein-po-
ch'e).1 This daring Dalai Lama, high-handed and resourceful, lost no
time in consolidating his rule as priest-king and the extension of
his sect by the forcible appropriation of many monasteries of the
other sects, and by inventing legends magnifying the powers of
the Bodhisat Avalokita and posing himself as the incarnation of
this divinity, the presiding Bodhisat of each world of re-birth,
whom he also identified with the controller of metempsychosis, the
dread Judge of the Dead before whose tribunal all mortals must
appear. Posing in this way as God-incarnate, he built8 himself the
huge palace-temple on the hill near Lhasa, which he called
Potala, after the mythic Indian residence of his divine prototype

Y rfvOvi

ym^zfa.

^mS

._/ ill >^Zf Is
'21m
Mill?
nf$r^
/fuL
«
ajz.nr;aizi3b3i zj"
\
The First Dalai Lama.
L6-zan G-ya-ts'o or Gryal-wa ua-pa.2
i Cf. Csoma, Gr., 192 and 198; Kopp., ii., 168, 235; J.A.S.B., 1882, p. 27.
2 After Pander. 3 In 1643, Csoma, Gr., p. 190
40

SPREAD OF LAMAISM.

Avalokita, "The Lord who looks down from on high," whose sym
bols he now invested himself with. He also tampered unscrupu-

. :'' \ . ...

Potala, the Palace of the Dalai Lama.
(From a native drawing.)

ously with Tibetan history in order to lend colour to his divine
pretensions, and he succeeded perfectly. All the other sects of
Lamas acknowledged him and his successors to be of divine
descent, the veritable Avalokita-in-the-flesh. And they also
adopted the plan of succession by re-incarnate Lamas and by
divine reflexes. As for the credulous populace, they recognized
the Dalai Lama to be the rightful ruler and the existing govern
ment as a theocracy, for it flattered their vanity to have a deity
incarnate as their king.
The declining years of this great Grand Lama, Nag-wan, were
tro ibled by the cares and obligations of the temporal rule, and his
ambitious schemes, and by the intrigues of the Manchus, who
sought the temporal sovereignty. On account of these political
troubles his death was concealed for twelve years by the minister
De-Si,1 who is believed to have been his natural son. And the
succeeding Grand Lama, the sixth, proving hopelessly dissolute, .
he was executed at the instigation of the Chinese government, .

i sDe-.wid. Csoma's Gram., 191 ; Giokgi's Alph.

ITS PRESENT-DAY DISTRIBUTION. 41
which then assumed the suzerainty, and which has since con
tinued to control in a general way the temporal affairs, especially
its foreign policy,1 and also to regulate more or less the hierarchal
succession,2 as will be referred to presently.
But the Ge-lug-pa sect, or the established church, going on
the fines laid down for it by the fifth Grand Lama, continued to
prosper, and his successors, despite the presence of a few Chinese
officials, are now, each in turn, the de facto ruler of Tibet, and
recognized by the Lamas of all denominations as the supreme
head of the Lamaist church.
In its spread beyond Tibet, Lamaism almost everywhere exhibits
the same tendency to dominate both king and people and to repress
the national life. It seems now to have ceased extending, but
shows no sign of losing hold upon its votaries in Tibet.
The present day distribution of Lamaism extends through states
stretching more or less continuously from the European Caucasus
to near Kamschatka; and from Buriat Siberia down to Sikhim
and Yun-nan. But although the area of its prevalence is so vast,
the population is extremely sparse, and so little is known of their
numbers over the greater part of the area that no trustworthy figures
can be given in regard to the total number of professing Lamaists.
The population of Tibet itself is probably not more than
4,000,000,3 but almost all of these may be classed as Lamaists, for
although a considerable proportion of the people in eastern Tibet
are adherents of the Bon, many of these are said to patronize the
Lamas as well, and the Bon religion has become assimilated in
great part to un-reformed Lamaism.4

1 Thus it procured for Tibet satisfaction from the Gorkhas under Prithivi-narayan
for their invasion of Western Tibet and sack of Tashi-lhunpo in 1768 (Kirkpateick's
Acct. of Nepal, p. 268 ; Buchanan-Hamilton, Nepal, p. 244), and the present seclusion
of Tibet against Europeans is mainly due to Chinese policy.
2 An interesting glimpse into the country of that period is got in the contemporary
record of the.friar Horace della Penna, translated into English by Markham (op. cit.,
p. 320 et seq.)
3 Rockhill, L., p. 296, estimates it at 3,500,000.
* Though it must be remembered that Mr. Rockhill found a large tract of N.E. Tibet
exclusively occupied by B6n-pa. In the north-eastern province of Gya-de, with about
50,000 people, between the Dang River and Chamdo, Mr. Rockhill found that the
B6n-pa religion reigns supreme, and in order to save these people from persecution at
the hands of the Lamaist Government at Lhasa, China itself supervises the adminis
tration of this province. And " all along the eastern borderland of Tibet from the

42 SPREAD OF LAMAISM.

The European outpost of the Lamaist Church, situated amid the
Kalmuk Tartars on the banks of the Volga, has been described in
some detail by Koppen.1
After the flight of the Torgots, about 12,000 cottages of the
Kalmuk Tartars still remained in Kussian territory, between the
Don and the Yaik. Now they number at least 20,000, and con
tain more than 100,000 souls, of which by far the great majority
retain the Lamaist faith. Of course, since the flight, all inter
course with the priest-god at Lhasa is strictly forbidden, nor
are they allowed to accept from him any orders or patents, nor to
send him any ambassadors or presents. Nevertheless, he gives
them secret advice by oracle and otherwise, and maintains their
religious enthusiasm. Thus, even now, he exercises an important
influence on his pious flock on the Volga, so that they can be
considered of the Lamaist church, although the head Lama (for
the Kalmuks still call their head priest " Lama ") is sanctioned at
present by the Kussian government, and no longer by the Dalai
Lama. Altogether, evidently for a reason not far to seek, the number
of priests has greatly increased since their connection with Lhasa
has been cut off. Formerly the Dalai Lama had also on the Volga
a quite disproportionate number of bondsmen or Schabinaren,
whose contributions (taxes) went to Lhasa ; but since the flight of
the Torgots the money remains there, and the Schabinars of the
remaining Ulusse have been divided amongst the several Churulk.
These clergy also would appear to have developed extraordinary
zeal, for in the year 1803 it was reported that the Kalmuk priests
formed a tenth part of the whole population, that they perpetually
enriched themselves at the expense of the people, that they
meddled in everything, and received all the young men who were
averse to labour at their proper calling, etc., etc.
Since 1838 the Eussian government has succeeded, through
the head Lama Jambo Namka, in preventing in some measure
these abuses, and severer laws were issued, especially a.gainst the
Kokonor to Yun-nan, it (the Bdn-pa religion) flourishes side by side with the Lamaist
faith .... and in all the southern portions of Tibet, not under the direct rule
of Lhasa, its Lamaseries may be found. So it seems that this faith obtains in over
two-thirds of Tibet, and that it is popular with at least a fifth of the Tibetan-speaking
tribes." — Geographical Jour., May, 1894.
1 Op. cit., ii., 385 et seq.

ITS PRESENT-DAY DISTRIBUTION. 43
priests interfering in civil affairs ; also several hundred worthless
priests were expelled.
A more precise census of the Eussian empire gives the number
of Lamaist people at 82,000 Kirghis, and 119,162 Kalmuks ; while
the Buriats in Siberia, near the Baikal lake, are estimated at
about 1 90,000.!
Pallas 2 calculated when he visited the Kalmuk country last cen
tury that there was one Lama to every one hundred and fifty or
two hundred tents.
In China, except for a few monasteries at Pekin, etc., and these
mostly of Mongol monks, the Lamaist section of Chinese Budd
hists seems confined to the extreme western frontier, especially
the former Tibetan province of Amdo. Probably the Lamaists
in China number no more than about 1,000,000.
Mongolia maybe considered almost wholly Lamaist, and its popu
lation is about 2,000,000. Its Buddhism became extinct on the ex
pulsion of the race from China in 1368; and its reconversion to
Lamaism did not occur till 1577, as detailed in the Mongol history
by Sanang Setzen,3 who was a great grandson of one of the chief
agents in this movement. Some details of its history are cited in
connection with the Taranatha Grand Lama in the chapter on
hierarchy. The number of Lamas are estimated4 at 10,000 in
Urgya in north Mongolia, 2,000 in Tchaitschi in south Mongolia,
2,000 in Altan Ziima, and 2,000 in Kukukhotum.
Manchuria is largely Lamaist, with a population of about
3,000,000. Ladak, to which Asoka missionaries are believed to have pene
trated, is now entirely Lamaist in its form of Buddhism, and this
is the popular religion-. Its history is given by Cunningham5 and
Marx.6 The population was estimated by Cunningham 7 at 158,000
and the Lamas at 12,000, giving one Lama to thirty laity.

i Koppen, Bulletin- Hist. Phil, de I' Acad, de St. Petersburg, ix., p. 335 ; Keith John-
; ston's Atlas, p. 34. Schlagintweit says, op. cit., p. 12, that among the Buriats Buddhism
is still extending.
2 Seisen, i., 557 (French ed.).
3 Op. cit.
- Koppen, i., p. 381, chiefly based on Hue's data.
5 Ladak, p. 357, et. seq.
6 J.A.S.B., loc.cit.
Op. cit., p. 287.

44 SPREAD OF LAMAISM

Eecent estimates place the population at about 178,000. Spiti
in 1845 had a population of 1,414, and the Lamas were one
hundred and ninety-three, or about one to seven.1
The vernacular history of its introduction into eastern Tur-
kestan or Khoten (Tib., Li-yul) has been translated by Eockhill.2
In Nepal, the number of Buddhists grows every year less under
the active proselytizing Hindu influences of the Ghorka Govern
ment, which places disabilities upon professing Buddhists. But
the majority of the Nepalese Buddhists are now Lamaist.
Bhotan 3 is wholly Lamaist, both in its religion and temporal
government. Its population has been given at about 40,000 to
50,000 families, or a total of 145,200.4 But although it is believed
to be almost as priest-ridden as Sikhim, the number of its priests
is estimated5 only at about 5,000, distributed in the six districts
as follows : In Tassisudon 500, in Punakha also 500, in Paroj300,
in Tongso also 300, in Tagna 250, and in Andipur (or Wandipur)
250, in round sum 2,000. Then come 3,000 Lamas who do not
reside in cloisters, but are employed as officers, making a totahof
5,000, besides which there are a lot of hermits and nuns.
In regard to Sikhim, where Lamaism is the state religion, I
have elicited from original documents and local Lamas full details
of the mode in which Lamaism was introduced into that country.
Some of these are worth recording as showing in a credible manner
the mode in which Lamaism was propagated there, and it was
probably introduced in a similar manner into several of the other
areas in which it is now prevalent.
The Lamas and laity of Sikhim6 and Tibet implicitly believe that
St. Padma-sambhava (Guru Eim-bo-ch'e), the founder of Lamaism,
visited Sikhim during his journeyings in Tibet and its western
borderlands; and although he left no converts and erected no
buildings, he is said to have hid away in caves many holy books fox
the use of posterity, and to have personally consecrated every
sacred spot in Sikhim.
i Major Hay, J.A.S.B., xix., 437.
3 Life, etc., p. 230, et. seq. See also Dr. Huth's German translation of the Em
history. 3 The word is Sanskritic, and its full form is " Bhotanta," or " the end of JSkH®
Tibet" (cf. HoDGS.,i., i., p. 30).
4 Pembeeton's Mission, p. 151.
5 Koppen, ii., p. 363.
0 The annexed illustration is from a photograph by Mr. Hoffmann.

IN SIKHIM.

The authorities for such beliefs are, however, merely the ac
counts given in the works of the patron saint of Sikhim, Lha-tsiin
Ch'em-bo, and the fictitious " hidden revelations " of the Tertons,
all of which are unreliable. And Lha-tsun rather overdoes it by
asserting that the Guru visited Sikhim a hundred times.
Sikhim seems to have been unknown to Tibetans previous to the
latter half of the sixteenth century a.d., and Lha-tsiin Ch'em-bo's
own account of his attempts to enter Sikhim testify to the pre
vailing ignorance in regard to it, owing to its almost impenetrable

Mongol Lama She-rab
Lama Ugyen G/ya-ts'o.

Some Sikhim Lamas. A Kar-gyu Lama.

A Karma Lama.

mountain and icy barriers. And the Tan-yik Ser-t'en, which gives
the fullest account of St. Padma's wanderings, and considered the
most reliable authority, seems to make no mention of Sikhim. It
is extremely improbable that the Guru ever entered Sikhim,
especially as, as we have seen, he certainly did not pass through
that country either when going to or returning from Tibet.
In keeping, however, with the legendary accounts of his visit, it
is alleged by Sikhimite Lamas that their Lord St. Padma entered
the country by the " Lordly pass " Jo-la (Ang., Cho-la) and on the

46 SPREAD OF LAMAISM

east side of the pass is pointed out a rock on which he sat dowu,
called Z'u-ti, or throne,1 and near the pass a spot named Sinmoi
gyip-tsu,2 where he surprised a party of female devils preparing, to
cook their food : here are pointed out two masses of columnar rock
alleged to be two of the stones of the tripod used to support the
cooking-pot of these demons. And he is said to have returned to
Tibet by way of the Je-lep pass, resting en route on the Ku-phu
and creating the Tuko La by " tearing " up the rock to crush an
obnoxious demon.
The introduction of Lamaism into Sikhim certainly dates from
the time of Lha-tsun's arrival there about the middle of the
seventeenth century a.d. By this time Lamaism had become a
most powerful hierarchy in Tibet, and was actively extending its
creed among the Himalayan and central Asian tribes.
Three generations of Tibetan colonists from the adjoining
Chumbi valley had settled on the eastern border of Sikhim, near
Gang-tok. And it is highly probable that these Tibetan settlers
were privy to the entry of the Lamas; as it is traditionally reported
that the ancestor of that Sikhimite-Tibetan, who was promptly
elected king of Sikhim, by Lha-tsun, was a protege and kinsman of
the Sakya Grand Lama. And Lha-tsiin Ch'em-bo seems to have
approached Sikhim via, Sakya, and his incarnations subsequently
appeared in the neighbourhood of Sakya, and even now his spirit
is believed to be incarnate in the body of the present Sakya Lama.
Lha-tsiin was a native of Kongbu, in the lower valley of the
Tsang-po (Brahmaputra), which has a climate and physical appear
ance very similar to Sikhim, and teems with traces of St. Padma-
sambhava, "discovered" by celebrated Lamas, and it had been a
happy hunting ground for the Tertons, or discoverers of the
fictitious treatises called " hidden revelations." Arriving, then,
in a country so like his own, and having the virgin soil of Sikhim
to work upon, Lha-tsiin seems to have selected the most romantic
spots and clothed them in suitable legendary dress in keeping
with his ingenious discovery of St. Padma's previous visits. And
to support his statements he also discovered that his own advent
as the apostle of Sikhim had been foretold in detail, nine hundred
years before, by the Guru himself, in the revelation entitled

bz'ugs khri. s Srin-mohi rgyib gcsug.

IN SIKHIM. 47

" The prophetic mirror of Sikhim." x He seems to have been a
man of considerable genius, with a lively sense of the picturesque ;
and he certainly left his mark on his adopted country of Sikhim,
where his name is now a household word.
The traditional account of his entry to Sikhim associates with
him two other Lamas, to wit, a Kar-tok-pa and a Na-dak-pa ; but
they play an inconspicuous part in the work of introducing
Lamaism, and it is extremely doubtful whether any representative
of these Nih-ma sub-sects arrived in Sikhim at so early a
period. As Lha-tsiin is so intimately identified with Sikhim Lamaism,
being its de facto founder, it is desirable here to give a summary
of his life as extracted from the local histories.
LIFE OF ST. LHA-TSUN, THE PATB.ON SAINT OF SIKHIM.
Lha-tsun Gh'em-bo z isa title meaning " The great Reverend God."
His ordinary religious name is Kun-zan nam-gye,1 or " The entirely
victorious Essence of Goodness." He is also known by the title of
Lha-tsun nwm-Tcha Jig-med,4, or " The Reverend God who fears not the
sky," with reference to his alleged power of flying. And he is some
times called Kusho Dsog-ch'en Ch'emlo, or " The great Honourable
Dsog-c'en " — Dsog-ch'en, literally " The Great End," being the techni
cal name for the system of mystical insight of the Nih-mapa, and
Kusho means " the honourable."
He was born in the fire-bird year of the tenth of the sixty-year cycles,
corresponding to 1595 a.d., in the district of Kongbu, in south
eastern Tibet. Having spent many years in various monasteries and
in travelling throughout Tibet and Sikhim, he ultimately, in the year
1648, arrived in Lhasa, and obtained such great repute by his learning
that he attracted the favourable notice of Nag-wan, the greatest of the
Grand Lamas, who shortly afterwards became the first Dalai Lama.
Indeed, it is alleged that it was mainly through the special instruction
given by Lha-tsiin to the Grand Lama that the latter was so favourably
treated by the Chinese emperor and confirmed in the temporal rule of
Tibet. The detailed account of the saint's meeting with the Grand Lama is
worth citing in illustration of the curious mixture of the crude and the
marvellous which make up the bulk of these indigenous narratives. In

i Den-jon Lungten Sel-wai Melon..
2 Chhem-bo is the Sikhimite mode of pronouncing " Ch'en-po.'
3 Eun-bzan-rnam-rgyal.
* lha-btsun nam mk'ah 'jigs-med.

SPREAD OF LAMAISM

the year previous to that on which the fifth Grand Lama went to
China, which Csoma gives1 as 1649 a.d., the Grand Lama, whue in
his palace at Potala told his attendants, by inspiration, that a sage
would that day visit him, and should be admitted to his presence.
Lha-tsiin, arriving at the site now named Pargo-K'alin, immediately
below Potala — the Lamaist Vatican — blew loudly a k'alin, or trumpet
of human thigh-bone;2 but the castle guard, in ignorance of who the

Mendicant Lama blowing Thigh-bone Tkumpet.

man really was, seized him and tied him to the D6-ring monolith
in the neighbourhood, as a punishment for daring to trumpet so
close to the' castle. The saint, bound in this way, shook the whole hill
of Potala, and so his arrival was brought to the notice of the Grand

i «i-., p. 190.
3 The illustration is from a plio'o by Mr. Hoffmann.

IN SIKHIM. 49

Lama, who ordered his instant release and admission. On coming into
the presence of the Grand Lama he walked boldly up and struck the
latter with his fist and then vomited before him, much to the astonish
ment of the courtier Lamas. The Saint then explained : " You are
shortly going to China ; on the way a great danger besets you, but my
striking you has rid you of that danger. In China you will find your
self in great peril some day ; then consult this paper I now give you,
and you will be relieved. My vomiting in your presence means that
you will ultimately be invested with great power and riches through
me." The dilemma here prophesied was a query by the Chinese
emperor regarding the " essence of the rainbow colour," 1 which quite
confounded the Grand Lama, till he, remembering the episode with the
Saint, consulted the paper and found full information noted therein,
and having completely satisfied the emperor, he received great honour
and riches. The Grand Lama, on his return from China, in gratitude
for services rendered, offered Lha-tsiin much treasure, which the Saint,
however, refused.
Previous to his visit to Lhasa, it is said that the Saint, accompanied
by a few disciples, journeyed to the south-west of Tibet, saying : " Ac
cording to the prophecy of Guru Rim-bo-ch'e, I must go and open the
northern gate of the hidden country of the rice-valleys — De-mo- jong,2
i.e., Sikhim, and I must develop that country religiously." He then
proceeded by way of Tashi-lhunpo and Sakya to Zar, a short distance
to the north of Tashi-rabkha near the Nepal frontier, where he then, or
afterwards, founded a monastery.
He then attempted to enter Sikhim by way of Dsong-ri (Jongri),
but could find no path, and remained many days in a cave named Nam-
gah ts'al,3 " the very pleasant grove," near Kaii-la nan-ma. There " the
everlasting summit of the five repositories (of snow)," the mountain
god, Kah-ch'en dsb'-na i transformed himself into a wild goose and con
versed with the sage ; and here, " according to the prophecy of Guru
Rim-boch'e," he composed5 the book named "the complete Book of
Worship and offerings for Kan ch'en dso-na.6
At this time another Lama of the Kar-tok-pa sub-sect came by Kangla
Nangma searching for a path into Sikhim, and also tried without
success the sPreu-gyab-tak (i.e., " Monkey-back rock," with reference
to its semblance to a monkey sitting with hands behind back), and
Dsong-ri, and the western shoulder of sKam-pa Khab-rag— a ridge of
" Kabru," which runs down to the Rathong river. He then arrived at
the cave of " the very pleasant grove," and met the Saint, who told him
that as he was not destined to open the northern gate, he should go
round and try the western.
Then Lha-tsiin, traversing the Kangla Nangma and finding no road
beyond the cave of Skam-pa Kha-bruk, flew miraculously to the upper

1 'Dsah ts'on sHin po. * mdsod-h'ia rtag-rtse.
2 bras-bmo-ljons. 5 " itsom " is the word used.
3 mnam Agah-ts'al. " gans-ch'en radsod-\fia rnch'od sprin las gnas-yon dsog.
E

50 SPREAD OF LAMAISM
part of " Kabru " (24,000 feet), and there blew his kang-ling, and
after an absence of two weeks flew down to where his servants were
collected and guided them by a road via Dsongri to Norbu-gang, in
Sikhim. Here soon after arrived two other Nin-ma Lamas. By " the western
gate" of Single La came the Kar-tok-pa Lama above mentioned,
named "The Great Soul,"1 and a Lama of the Na-dak-pa sub-sect,
named The Great Sage,2 who had opened " the southern gate" by way
of Darjiling and Namchi respectively. The place where these three
Lamas met was then called by the Lepchas Yok-sam, which means "the
three superior ones or noblemen," a literal translation of "the three
Lamas." The three Lamas held here a council at which Lha-tsiin said : " We
three Lamas are in a new arid irreligious country. "We must have a
' dispenser of gifts ' 3 (i.e., a king) to rule the country on our behalf."
Then the Na-dak-pa Lama said : " I am descended from the celebrated
Tertbn Na-dak Nan-rel, who was a king; I should therefore be the
king." While the Kar-tok-pa Lama declared : "As I too am of royal
lineage I have the right to rule." Then Lha-tsiin said : " In the
prophecy of Guru Rim-bo-ch'e it is written that four noble brothers
shall meet in Sikhim and arrange for its government. We are three of
these come from the north, west, and south. Towards the east, it is
written, there is at this epoch a man named P'iin-ts'ok, a descendant
of brave ancestors of Kham in Eastern Tibet. According, therefore, to
the prophecy of the Guru we should invite him." Two messengers were
then dispatched to search for this P'iin-ts'ok. Going towards the
extreme east near Gangtok they met a man churning milk and asked
him his name. He, without replying, invited them to sit down, and
gave them milk to drink. After they were refreshed, he said his name
was P'iin-ts'ok. He was then conducted to the Lamas, who coronated
him by placing the holy water-vase on his head and anointed him with
the water ; and exhorting him to rule the country religiously, they gave
him Lha-tsiin's own surname of Nam-gye * and the title of " religious
king." P'iin-ts'ok Nam-gye was at this time aged thirty-eight years,
and he became a Lama in the same year, which is said to have been
1641 a.d.
Lha-tsiin then spent the greater part of the rest of his life in
Sikhim, exploring its caves and mountain recesses, composing its
Lamaist legends, and fixing sites for temples and monasteries. He
first of all built a hut at Dub-de, which afterwards became the
monastery of that name. And he is believed to have built rude
shrines at Tashiding, Pemiongchi, and Sang-ria-ch'6-ling ; though
others assert that Tashiding was first occupied by the original
Na-dak-pa Lama.
In appearance Lha-tsiin is usually represented as seated on a leo-
1 Sems Apah ch'en-po. 3 sbyin-dag.
' Rig-'dsin ch'en-po. * mam-rgyal.

IN SIKHIM. 51

pard-skin mat with the right leg hanging down and his body almost
bare — one of his titles is He-ru-ka-pa, which means " unclad." His
complexion is of a dark blue hue. Otherwise he is somewhat like
his prototype Guru Rim-bo-ch'e. A chaplet of skulls encircles his
brow. In his left hand is a skull cup filled with blood, and a trident
topped with human heads rests in front of the left shoulder. The
right hand is in a teaching attitude.
He is believed to be the incarnation of the great Indian teacher
BhTma Mitra. And he himself is held to have been subsequently in
carnated twice as a Sikhim Lama, the last re-incarnation being Jik
¦mi Pa-wo, born at Ok-ja-ling near Sakya, who built the present monas
tery of Pemiongchi.
I cannot ascertain the place of his death or what became of his body,
but he is currently reported to have died in Sikhim of fever contracted
during a visit to India. The dark livid hue of his skin is said to refer
to his death from malignant fever. His chief object in visiting India
was, according to a popular saying, to obtain a rare variety of ruddy
leopard-skin (the sola leopard) which is highly prized by ascetics as a
mat.1 All his clothing and personal effects are carefully treasured in
Sikhim and worshipped as most sacred relics. They were all stored
at Pemiongchi monastery until the Gorkha invasion of last century,
when, for greater safety, most of them were taken to the remote T6-
lung monastery. At Pemiongchi are kept one set of his full dress
robes after the style of Guru Rim-bo-ch'e, including hat and boots, his
hand-drum, bell, and dorje, and a miraculous p'urbu dagger for stab
bing the demons. These objects are only shown at Pemiongchi on
special occasions to wealthy worshippers, and they are highly celebrated
as a certain cure for barrenness. Couples afflicted in this way, and who
can afford the necessary expense, have a preliminary worship conducted
in the Pemiongchi chapel, lasting one or two days. Then the box con
taining the holy relics is brought forth and ceremoniously opened, and
each article is placed on the heads of the suppliant pair, the officiating
priest repeating meanwhile the charm of his own tutelary deity. Of the
marvellous efficacy of this procedure numerous stories are told. And
should two sons result, one of them is certainly dedicated to the
Church. •
Subsequent to Lha-tsiin Ch'em-bo's death in the latter end of the
seventeenth • century, Lamaism steadily progressed in Sikhim till
latterly monks and monasteries filled the country. The list and
detailed descripiton of these are given in the next chapter under
the heading of Monasteries. What civilization and literature the
Sikhimites now possess they owe to Lamaism, and the Lepcha
alphabet too was derived from the Tibetan.
1 Sa gya-gar-tu p'yin ba, don-gsah lai pags-pa.
E 2

52 SPREAD OF LAMAISM
The religions displaced by Lamaism were the Pon (Bon), which
is usually identified with Taouism, and the earlier animistic and
fairy worship of the Lepchas, which can scarcely be called a re
ligion. Numerous traces of both of these primitive faiths are to
be found incorporated in Sikhim Lamaism, which owes any special
features that it possesses to the preponderance of these two
elements. Only two sects of Lamas are established in Sikhim, namely,
the Nin-ma-pa and the Kar-gyu-pa as represented by the Kar
ma-pa. There are no Duk-pa monasteries in Sikhim, nor does there
seem ever to have been any.
The Lamas number nearly one thousand, and are very numer
ous in proportion to the Buddhist population of the country. In
1840 1 the Lepchas and Bhotiyas of Sikhim were estimated at
3,000 and 2,000 respectively, but Mr. White, in his census of
Sikhim in March, 1891, gives the population roughly as: —
Lepchas ... ... ... 5,800
Bhotiyas ... ... ... 4,700
Nepalese, etc. ... ... ... 19,500

30,000

As the Nepalese, who are of very recent immigration, are all
professing Hindus, the Lamas are now dependent on the Bhotiyas
and Lepchas for support ; and we thus get a proportion of one
Lamaist priest to every ten or eleven of the indigenous population.
But this does not represent the full priest-force of those two races,
as it takes no count of the numerous devil-dancers and Lepcha
priests patronized both by Bhotiyas and Lepchas.
In British Sikhim and the Kalim-pong section of British
Bhotan, the Lamaists numbered in the census of 1891 40,520,
of which 3,657 were resident in the town of Darjiling.2
There is no sign of any decrease of Lamaism in Sikhim,
although large numbers of Hinduized Nepalese have lately been
introduced into the country, and the government is no longer in

1 Dr. Campbell in The Oriental, p. 13.
2 " Census of 1891 Eept.," p. 47. The total Buddhists in Bengal, including a few
thousands of Burmese convicts in Bengal jails, numbered 189 122.

IN SIKHIM.

the hands of Lamas. Its Lamaism is so deeply rooted that, in the
absence of any actively anti-Buddhist policy such as has operated
in Nepal, it is unlikely to be much affected by the recent political
changes, at least for many years to come.

Tashiding Monasteey
(in Sikhim).

IV.
THE SECTS OF LAMAISM.
1HE light shed by the lamp of Lamaism, like that of
most other religions, has been broken into variegated
fragments by the prisms of later priests.
No sects appear to have existed prior to Lah-Darma's
persecution, nor till more than a century and a half later. The
sectarial movement seems to date from the Reformation started
by the Indian Buddhist monk Atisa, who, as we have seen, visited
Tibet in 1038 a.d.1
Atisa, while clinging to Yoga and Tantrism, at once began a
reformation on the lines of the purer Mahayana system, by en
forcing celibacy and high morality, and by deprecating the general
practice of the diabolic arts. Perhaps the time was now ripe for
the reform, as the Lamas had become a large and influential body,
and possessed a fairly full and scholarly translation of the bulky
Mahayana Canon and its Commentaries, whieh taught a doctrine
very different from that then practised in Tibet.
A glance at the annexed " Genealogical Tree of Lamaist
Sects " will show that Atisa was the only profound reformer of
Lamaism. The first of the reformed sects and the one with which Atisa
most intimately identified himself was called the Kah-dam-pa,2 or
" those bound by the orders (commandments)"; and it ultimately,
three and a half centuries later, in Tsoh K'apa's hands, became
less ascetic and more highly ritualistic under the title of " The .
Virtuous Style," Ge-lug-pa, now the dominant sect in Tibet, and
the Established Church of Lamaism.
i Part of this chapter appeared in the Asiatic Quarterly for January, 1894.
2 &Kah-#dams-pa.

ORIGIN OF SECTS.

GENEALOGICAL TREE OF LAMAIST SECTS.

Old
Or -Unreformed
^ School.
JjINMAPA.

Semi-re formed
School.

Reformed School

Oatc A.D.
las* 1350
I800 1750t700 J 650
1600 15501500
1450MOO13501300 12501200 1150 MOO105010O0 950 900 650 800

a. . g^o_ ¦ E
c 2. 2. ,ii 8. '£
'l -± A =3 e »z
JS t 7 ^» ^
3 se -Z zao o

NiNMa 7"*/" 1062

3 .3^"
4 i & sec

2s
o <

Tarinat-ia

1220
Circa

rSON|KHAr*A. f^ndtd
Gahldan
1407 A.D

Langdarma. 899 A.D.

TIBETAN
ft0N ^^J»

djan MAHAYANA andTflfllTl>,
BUDDHISM

56 THE SECTS OF LAMAISM.

Atisa's chief Tibetan disciple was Dom-ton,1 or " Pom Bakshi," 2
to whom he taught the mystic Mahayana and Tantrik doctrines
which he himself had learned in India and Pegu. Two
other noted pupils were K'u and Nak; but Dom-ton was the
recognized head of the Kah-dam-pa, and he built, in 1058, the
Ra-Deng 3 monastery to the north-east of Lhasa, which was the
first lamasery of the new sect, though the monastery of T'S-din,4 in
Pu-rang, built in 1025, is considered to have become a Kah-dam-
pa institution by Atisa's residence therein. Dom-ton's successor
was Potova.
The rise of the Kah-dam-pa (Ge-lug-pa) sect was soon followed
by the semi-reformed movements of Kar-gyu-pa and Sakya-pa,
which were directly based in great measure on Atisa's teaching.
The founders of those two sects had been his pupils, and their
new sects may be regarded as semi-reformations adapted for those
individuals who found his high standard too irksome, and too free
from their familiar demonolatry.
The residue who remained wholly unreformed and weakened by
the loss of their best members, were now called the Nin-ma-pa
or " the old ones," as they adhered to the old practices. And now,
to legitimize many of their unorthodox practices which had crept
into use, and to admit of further laxity, the Nih-ma-pa resorted
to the fiction of Ter-ma or hidden revelations.
Just as the Indian monk Nagarjuna in order to secure an orthodox
reception for his new creed had alleged that the Mahayana doctrine
was entirely the composition of Sakya Muni, who had written it
during his lifetime and entrusted the volumes to the Naga demi
gods for preservation until men were sufficiently enlightened to
comprehend so abstruse a system, so in the same way several
Nin-ma Lamas now began to discover new gospels, in caves and

1 'Brom-ston rGyal-wahi 'Byuh-^nas.
2 Bakshi is a general term in Central Asia for those monies called in Tibetan Lob-pon,
or Teacher ; and it is used by Marco Polo ( Yule, i., 305). Pallas says it is Mongolian for
sTon, which means "Guide," and is applied only to the oldest and most learned priest
of a community. But the title sTon (-pa) is usually reserved for Buddha. Yule and
others believe it to be probably a corruption of " Bhikhs/m," a Buddhist mendicant
monk, and Yule shows.it to be used as an equivalent for Lama by Eashiduddin, and
in the Ain-i-Akbari. Possibly it is also related to the " Abassi " of Friar Odoric (Maek-
ham, p. xlvi.). Conf. also Koppen, ii., 105.
3 Rva-sgren.
* mfi-Kii.

SECTARIAN REVELATIONS.

elsewhere, which they alleged were hidden gospels of the Guru,
Saint Padma. And these so-called "revealers," but really the
com/posers of these Ter-ma treatises, also alleged as a reason for
their ability to discover these hidden gospels, that each of them
had been, in a former birth, one or other of the twenty-five disciples
of St. Padma. Table Showing

Descent and Inter-relations

THE CREEDS OF THE REFORMED LAMAIST SECTS.

Ultimate Inspirer.
Adi-Buddha Vajradhara.

Proximate Inspirer.
Maitreya.
Human Teachers,
Asanga
(about 500 A.D.)
through

Human Teachers.
Tilo.
(about 975 a.d.)

(Naro.
Died 1039 a.d.)
1'antra — mfiam-
len-byin-rlabs.

Atisa'

Tantra, — r&ya-ch'en spyod.
Meditative Doctrine, —
Lam-rim. (=PKramamarga).

Proximate Inspirer.
Manjusri. I"
Human Teachers.
Nagarjuna
(about 100 a.d.)
through series of
Disciples to

Vasuputra.

Mixed Tantra.— gsum-
Kar-bsdus na.

Tantra.— Gambhira darsana, or the
deep theory or doctrine. T., zab-mo 61ta.
Meditative Doctrine. — Lam-'brag,
(= ? Phalamarga),

Lama 'Brom-stou.

through series of
Disciples to

Lama Tson-K'apa
founder of
GE-LUG-PA Sect.

Meditative Doctrine. — Maha-
mudra or P'yagch'en.

Lama Mar- pa.

Mila-ras-pa

Lama Dwag-po lha-rje
founder of
KAR-GTD-PA Sect.

Lama K'ug-po-lha-btsas
K'on-dKon-mch'og-rgyal-po,

founder of
8ASKYA-PA Sect.

These " Eevelations " treat mainly of Shamanist Bon-pa and
other demoniacal rites which are permissible in Lamaist practice ;
and they prescribed the forms for such worship. About thirty of

58 THE SECTS OF LAMAISM.

these revelations have been discovered ; but as the number has
been oracularly fixed at one hundred and eight, future contin
gencies are well provided for. These " Revelations," relaxing stall
further the Lamaist obligations, were eagerly accepted by most
Lamas, and they play an important part in the schisms which
subsequently occurred in both old and reformed sects. Indeed,
many of the sub-sects differ from their parent sects merely in
having adopted a different Ter-ma work as an ordinary code of
demoniacal worship.
The sectarian distinctions are of a creedal character, entailing
different ritualistic and other practices, and expressed by a dif
ference in dress and symbols. The creedal differences may be
categorically classed under the heads of —
1. The personality of the primordial deity or Adi-Buddha ;
2. Special source of divine inspiration ;
3. The saintly transmitters of this inspiration ;
4. Meditative doctrine or system of mystical insight ; 1
5. Special Tantra-revelation.
6. Personal Tutelary— a Tantrik demoniacal Buddha of Sivaist
type;
7. Eeligious " Guardian "-demon, usually of Tibetan type.
In considering the sects individually, let us look first at the
sect forming the Established Church— the Gre-lug-pa— as it repre
sents the oldest of the sects, the Kah-dam-pa, and is the purest
and most powerful of all, having now the temporal government
of Tibet in its hands.

The G-e-lug-pa Sect, or Established Church.
The G-e-lug-pa arose at the beginning of the fifteenth century
a.d. as a regeneration of the Kah-dam-pa by Tsoh-K'a-pa or L6-
zan-tak-pa2 or Je-Rim-po-ch'e, though he is better known to Euro
peans by his territorial title of Tsoh-K'a-pa, that is, " Native of
the Onion Country," the district of his birth, in the province of
Amdo, now within the border of China.3
1 ZTa-wa. Skt., Darsana.
2 bio-bam tak-po (Cf. Koppen, ii., 18). O.M., 115 ; J.A.S.B., 1882, p. 53-57 ; Pand.,
No. 41 ; Howoeth, op. cit.
3 He was born in 1355-57 at Kum-bum (see its photograph at page 280).

ESTABLISHED CHURCH OR GE-LUG-PA.

He was probably, as Hue notes,1 influenced by the Roman
Catholic priests, who seem to have been settled near the place of
his birth. Hue's tradition runs that Tsoh K'a-pa had inter
course with a stranger from the West with a long nose and
piercing eyes, who is
believed to have
been a Christian
missionary. He
studied at Zhar-
Ch'uh, in Amdo, and
thereafter at Saskya,
DiRung, and Lhasa.
He wrote many
books,2 and most of
the extant sacerdotal
manuals of the G-e-
lug-pa sect are at
tributed to him. He
died (or, as is popu
larly believed, as-
. cended to Heaven 3)
in 1417, and was
canonized as an in
carnation of Man
jusri (or, as some

Tson-k'a-pa.
rG-gyal-ts'ab-rje (disciple). mK'as-grub-rje (disciple).
Vajra-bhairava (tutelary). A votary.

say, Amitabha, or Vajrapani). And by the Ge-lug-pa he is con
sidered superior even to St. Padma and Atisa, and is given
the chief place in most of their temples. His image is placed
above, and usually between, those of the dual Grand Lamas— the
Dalai and Pan-ch'en— and, like these, he is given the title of
Gyal-wa, or The Jina or Victor. His image is also worn as
a charm in amulet boxes.
Tson-K'a-pa received the traditions of the Kah-dam-pa sect
from the Lama Ch'os skyabs-&zah-po, the seventy-eighth abbot
in succession from Dom-ton.
Unlike Atisa, Tsoh-K'a-pa was an ardent proselytizer, and

i Travels in Tartary, etc., Hazlett's trans., ii., 48.
2 Chief of which was The Gradual Way (Lam-rim).
3 His ascension is celebrated during the Lamaist festival of Lamps.

THE SECTS OF LAMAISM.

spent most of his strength in organization. He collected the
scattered members of the Kah-dam-pa from their retreats, and
housed them in monasteries, together with his new followers,
under rigid discipline, setting them to keep the two hundred and
thirty-five Vinaya rules,1 and hence obtaining for them the title

Ge-lug-pa Monk and Attendant.

of Vinaya-kee^ers or " Dul-wa Lamas." He also made them
carry a begging-bowl, anardha-chuna,2 pray ei -carpet,3 and wear
patched robes 4 of a yellow colour, after the fashion of the Indian
"mendicant monks. And he attracted followers by instituting a

i Including retirement during Lent for meditation, etc.
2 The zla-gam or crescentic cope or cape.
3 #ding-wa.
4 dras-drubs. See detailed description at p. "200.

ESTABLISHED CHURCH OR GE-LUG-PA.

highly ritualistic service, in part apparently borrowed from the
Christian missionaries, who undoubtedly were settled at that time
in Tsoh-K'a, the province of his early boyhood in Western China.
He gave the hat named pdn-ssa-sne-rin, or the "Pandit's long-
tailed cap " ; and as it was of a yellow colour like their dress, and
the old Lamaist body adhered to their red hat, the new sect came
to be popularly called the S'a-ser or " Yellow-cap," in contradis
tinction to the S'a-mar or " Red-cap " and their more aboriginal
B6n-pa co-religionists the S'a-nak or "Black-caps."1
This seems to be the origin of the sect-titles depending on the
colour of the cap. The Kah-dam-pa are said to have worn red
caps, and certainly the extant pictures of Atisa and other Kah-
dam-pa Lamas give them red caps.
Tsoh-K'a-pa named his own monastery, which he built in 1409
about thirty miles east of Lhasa, Gahrdan2 or Paradise, and it is
said that his followers at first
went by the name of Gah-lug-
pa or " Followers of the Gah-
dan fashion " ; but as this name
was ill-sounding it was changed
to the more euphonic Ge-lug-
pa or " Followers of the Virtu
ous order."
The special sectarian dis
tinctions of the Ge-lug-pa,
which represent the earlier
Kah-dam-pa sect, are that this
sect has the mythical Vajra-
dhara as its Adi-Buddha ; and
derives its divine inspiration
from Maitreya — "the coming
Buddha," through the Indian Saints ranging from Asahga down
to Atisa, and through the Tibetan Saints from his disciple
Brom-ton to Tsoh-K'a-pa (Je-Rim-po-ch'e). The Ge-lug-pa mys
tical insight (Ta-wa) is termed the Lam-rim or "the Graded
Path," and their Tantra is the " Vast Doer " (rgya-ch'en spyod).

Vajka-dhaka.

1 See page 196 for pictures of the caps.
s Skt., "Tushita" or the Happy place.

THE SECTS OF LAMAISM.

Its tutelary demoniacal Buddha is Vajra-bhairava (Dorje-'jig-je),
supported by Sam vara (Dem-ch'og) and Guhya-kala, (Sang-dii).
And its Guardian demons are " The Six-armed Gon-po or Lord "

The Tutelary Tam-din's Chaem.
and the Great horse-necked Hayagriva (Tam-din), or the Red
Tiger-Devil. But, through Atisa, the Ge-lug-pa sect, as is graphically shown
in the foregoing table, claims also to have received the essence of
Mahjusri's doctrine, which is the leading Light of the Sakya-pa
sect. For Atisa is held to be an incarnation of Manjusri, the
Bodhisat of Wisdom : which is merely a way of stating that
he was the greatest embodiment of Buddhist Wisdom that
ever visited Tibet. An din the person of Atisa were also united
the essentials of the Kar-gyu-pa sect by his pupilage to the Indian
sage Naro.

KAR-GYU-PA SECT. 63
Thus the Ge-lug-pa sect claims that through Atisa it has
received the special inspiration of Maitreya, and in addition all
that is best in the special systems professed by the other two re
formed sects.
The purer morality practised by the Ge-lug monks gained
them general respect. So, despite their internecine feuds with
the Sakya-pa and other rival sects, its Church grew in size and
influence, and became a powerful hierarchy with the succession
of its chief abbot based upon the theory of Re-incarnation,'
namely, that the spirit of the dead chief after his death is re-born
in a child, who was forthwith found by oracular presage, and in
stalled in the vacant chair.
Tsoh-K'a-pa's nephew, Ge-dun-dub, was installed in 1439 as
the first Grand Lama of the Ge-lug-pa Church, and he built
the monastery of Tashi-lhunpo, in 1445, while his fellow workers
Je-She-rabSeh-age Gyal-Ts'ab-je and Khas-grub-je had built re
spectively De-p'ung (in 1414), and Se-ra (in 1417), the other
great monasteries of this sect.
Under the fourth of these Grand Lamas, the Ge-lug-pa Church
was vigorously struggling for supreme power and was patronized by
the Mongol minister of the Chinese Government named Chong- .
Kar, who, coming to Lhasa as an ambassador, usurped most of the
power of the then king of Tibet, and forced several of the Kar-gyu
and STih-ma monasteries to join the Ge-lug-pa sect, and to wear
the yellow caps.
And, as we have seen in the previous chapter, the Ge-lug-pa
sect in 1640, under its fifth Grand Lama, leapt into temporal
power as the dominant sect in Tibet, and has ever since remained
the Established Church of the country.
Since then, however, the Ge-lug-pa sect has gradually retro
graded in its tenets and practice, till now, with the exception of
its distinctive dress and symbols, celibacy and greater abstinence,
and a slightly more restricted devil-worship, it differs little from
the other Lamaist sects, which in the pride of political power it
so openly despises. The Kar-gyu-pa Sect.
The Kar-gyu-pa, the next great reformed sect after the Ge-lug-
pa, was founded in the latter half of the eleventh century A.d. by

THE SECTS OF LAMAISM.

Lama Marpa1 of Lha-brag, who had visited India and obtained
special instructions from the Indian Pandit Atisa and his
teacher P'am-thih and Naro, the janitor of Nalanda University,
who never visited Tibet. But as Marpa and his successor Mila-
ra-pa, while nominally having
a monastery at Gro-bu-luh and
sGrub - p'ug - matogs, respect
ively, led hermit lives, the
real organizer of this sect was
the Kah-dam-pa Lama, Dvag-
po lha-rje, 2 who founded the
monastery of Ts'ur-lha about
1150. The name Kar-gyu-pa3
means a " follower of the suc
cessive orders," expressive of
the fact that the sect believes
that the rulings of its later
sages are inspired. Naro's
teacher, the monk Tilo or Telo
(about 950 A.D.) i is held to have been directly inspired by the
metaphysical Buddha Vajra-dhara.
Its distinctive features are its hermit practices, meditation in
caves and other retired places, and the following speciali
ties : —
Its inspiration was attributed by their saint Tilo directly to
the Adi-Buddha Vajra-dhara. Its mode of mystic insight (Ta-wa) 1
is named Mahdmudra 5 or " the Great Attitude," also called
U-mahi Lam or " the Middle Path," and its Tantra is " Sum-

Maepa.

1 Marpa, according to Sum-pa K'an-po's Ch'os-'byun, was born at Gro-bu-run
po ^sar, as the second son of dbAn-p'yug-*od, his mother being sKal-ldan sKyd
gjiis. His son when riding to Talung monastery to witness a Lama's dance was
thrown down the cliff and fearfully mangled owing to his horse in » rocky defile
taking fright at the flight of some rock pigeons. This scene is pictured often in
Kar-gyu-pa temples. (Cf. also Pand., No. 32.)
2 Also called xJe sGam-po- Va with title mham-med. He was a native of E. Tibet
beyond Kongbu ; died 1152. (Cf. Pand,, No. 33.)
8 bEah-bvgyud-pa.
4 Cf. TAiiA.i 226, Pand., No. 17.
5 P'yag-rgya-ch'en usually contracted to " ch'ag-ch'en."

St. Mila-ra-pa,

[7b face p.

KAR-GYU SECT. 65

kar-frsuds-sum.1 Its tutelary demon is Samvara. Its guardian
deity " The Lord of the Black Cloak.2 Its hat is " the medita
tion hat with the cross-knees," bearing on its front this emblem as
a badge like a St. Andrew's cross (X), and a conical centre-piece
representing a cave elsewhere. And with these technicalities was
associated a stricter observance of the monastic rules and discipline.
The most popular Kar-gyu-pa saint, and one who, while found
ing no monastery, did more even than Marpa, to establish the sect,
was Marpa's pupil, Mila-ra-pa.3 He never visited India, but led a
wandering ascetic life among the mountains of Tibet, and his
100,000 songs4 containing much Tibetan colouring are popular
amongst all the sects of Lamas, and his name is now a household
word throughout Tibet.
He is pictured, as seen in the annexed illustration, as a thinly-
clad ascetic almost on the Indian model, enduring great hardships
of climate and exposure, and a great magician conquering many
demons. His picture is surrounded by scenes illustrative of the
leading events of his life.
His biography is sketched here in a footnote,5 as he is a person
of importance in Lamaism. It is contained in a bulky volume
i Marpa's scripture was based upon the " mnam-len byin rlabs," which he diluted and
mixed with more mystic Tantras ; hence his Tantra is called " the mixed " (zun-'jug).
The so-called esoteric is the " mdo lugs-stong-pa-nyid," and the esoteric " shags lugs Me
ston dbyer med, which are referred to in the chapter on Doctrine. For some technical
details regarding several sects, see transl. by Saeat, J. A .S.B.,1 883 ; also Ramsay's Diet.
2 m(?on-po bar-nag.
3 Mi-la-ras-pa or "the Cotton-clad." (Cf. Csoma, Gr., 181 ; Tara., 328 ; Pand., No. 31.)
* glu-'bum.
5 He was bora at Kya-nan-tsa in the year 1038 a.d., on the 28th day of the month,
under the planet phur-bu, and named Thos-pa-dgal. His father, Mila-shes-rab-rgyal-
mts'an, was a wealthy merchant of the K'uh-po clan of Uru-chan-ch'og, and his
mother was Gyan-tsa dkar-rgyan. The father died when Thos-pa-dgal (the young
Mila) was only seven years old, leaving his property in his brother's charge till his
son reached his majority at fifteen. This uncle, however, appropriated everything to
himself, and left young Mila and his mother destitute, and even persecuted them.
Young Mila's mother, therefore, sent her son to become a Lama in order to learn the
mt'u-a,rt of destroying people by sorcery. So he started off for Lhun-grub grong
K'an in Gun-t'on-stod, and there joined a party of monks on their way from
Upper Nari to U (or Central Tibet). Passing Yag-sde, and crossing Mar-tsan, he
reached T'on-lun-raga in U, and found at Yar-lun skyo-mo-Krun a learned
"mt'u" teacher named Yun sTon-p'ro-rgyal, who taught him sorcery for several
years, until he obtained the power to destroy his cruel uncle's house and gear. After
being instructed in the mode of compelling hailstorms, he went to Magon (or gTsan-
roh-gi-nar), and then to Ch'os-la sgang, where he became a pupil of Lama Marpa, who
had visited India. Here he was set many tiresome tasks by Marpa, such as building
F

THE SECTS OF LAMAISM.

ascribed to his disciple Ras-ch'uii, and dated from the hermitage
of the latter.

AFFILIATION OF SUB-SBCTS OF THE KAB-GytT-PA.

FOUNDER: MARPA,
a Tibetan and Pupil of Naropa.
b. 1010. I d.

MILA-RA-PA.
b. 1033 d. 1122

Ras-ch'nn Dorje Grags-pa.
b. 1083. a.

Nam naea Dvag-p'o-Lharje
b. I a. 1152.

Ni n ma rev ,
L'ts-'p'rod- lin founa
in Kongbu.

Nin-nia rev..
Padma-Un.

Rinch'en-p'un-ts'og or Bkris-
p'un-ts'ogs
¦ prev. to 1166.
DI-KTOG-PA Sub-sect.

Nag-ofb an-ch'os
{yyalpo foonaea
.sTag-glung Mon.
in 1179.
TA-LUNG-PA Snb-sect.

"Karma Bakshi"
(Ran-'byun-
Dorje or Dus-gsum
mKhyen-pa)
b.1109 | a. 1192
KAR-MAPA Sub-sect.

5prul-sku-
rfba^-fisam-
vangpo, founded
Railing monastery
prev. to 1150
Upper DTJK-PA
Sub-sect. I
Z'abs-arunNag-
aban-rnam-rgyal, JMiaaie ana
Southern
(Bhotanese) DTJG-PA Sub-sect.

Kin-ma rev.,
Padma-ltn.

Nin-marev., Saiigyas. tin.

forts and pulling them to pieces again, and the pictures of these tasks are favourite
subjects for frescoes in Kar-gyu-pa monasteries. As the tasks seemed endless and
Marpa still withheld instruction, the young Mila fled, taking with him the Indian
saint Naropa's six-bone ornaments and padma-raga-ms&ry, which had been in
Marpa's keeping as relics ; and which young Mila obtained possession of by the con
nivance of Marpa's wife, bDag-med-ma. These relics he offered to Lama rNog-pa, who
in return gave him instruction and the meditation of Gron-ldan p'ug-pa. Then
Marpa recalled him and initiated him into the mysteries of the magic circles, and
gave him the esoteric name of dPal-s'es-pa and the common name of Mila-rdo-rje
rgyal mts'an, and set him severe ascetic exercises. Meanwhile Marpa went to India,
and met the monk Naropa at the monastery of Bula-hari, and was taught 'p'o-wa-
ston-'jug, and returned to Tibet by Ch'os-la gah. When Mila returned home, he
found his mother dead, so he dwelt in a cave near by named Kan-mdsod phug.
Then his uncle and aunt assaulted him on his begging excursions,' but though possess
ing the power of destroying them, he preferred to flee from them to Brag Kar-rta-so,
near Kyi-ron, where he remained in meditation for eighteen years,- living solely on

THE KAR-MA-PA. 67
Mila-ra-pa's chief pupils were Dvag-po-lha-rje,1 who continued
the succession of the orthodox Kar-gyu-pa doctrine, and Ra-
ch'uh Dor-je Tag-pa,2 who did not interest himself in organization.
The hermit-feature of this sect rendered it so unattractive,
that several sub-sects soon arose which dispensed with the neces
sity for hermitage. Thus appeared the sub-sects Kar-ma-pa,
Di-kung-pa, Ta-lung-pa, and Duk-pa (the form dominant in Bho-
tan), which differ from each other merely in having each adopted a
different revelation from the Nin-ma sect as a code of demoniacal
worship, and so relaxing the purity of the former Kar-gyu-pa
practice. These differences are shown in the foregoing table.
And the image of the particular founder of the sub-sect shares
with that of their Adi-Buddha, Vajradhara, the chief place in their
temples. «
The Kar-ma-pa sub-sect was founded in the middle of the twelfth
century by Kar-ma-pa Ran-ch'un Dor-je, also named Dii-sum
K'yen-po,3 a pupil of the aforesaid Dvag-po-lha-rje. His monas
tery of S'u-Ts'ur Lha-lun,* built in 1154, at Ts'ur-p'u, about
one day's journey to the north of Lhasa beyond Sera, is still the
headquarters of this, the most powerful of all the Kar-gyu-pa sub-
sects.5 This Kar-ma Lama does not appear to be identical with
the famous "Kar-ma-Bakshi,"6 whose image is the central one in
all Kar-ma-pa temples, for his birth is placed by Csoma later.7 The
ninth head Kar-ma-pa Lama was named dGu-pa-bar Phyug Dor-je,
and was alive in 1725 A.D., when the then raja of Sikhim visited
him in Tibet and was prevailed on by him to establish some
Kar-ma-pa monasteries in Sikhim.
The so-called monastery, though it is only a temple, in the
" Bhotiya-basti " at Darjiling belongs to this sect.
vegetables, and performing many miracles. Then he went to Dig-ri plain, where he
met Pari, the translator, and his pupils. Thereafter he went to 'Brin-yul, and after
wards to a cave in Lab-ci-cu-gar (? Mount Everest), where he died. His favourite
god was Kuvera, the King of the Yaksha genii.
1 Also called rJe-Tsun sGam-po. See Pandee, No. 33.
2 Ras-ch'uii rdo-rje grags-pa, born 1083, founded Ras-ch'un p'ug monastery.
3 Rah-'byun-rdo-rje dus-gsum-mk'yen-po, born 1109, ordained 1124, died 1192.
4 Ts'u-mts'ur.
5 It was zealously patronized by De-si Zan-po, a King of Western Tibet, with his
capital at Shigatse.
6 Cf. Csoma, Gr., 186 ; J.A.S.B., 51, p. 53 ; Pand. No. 39.
7 In Gram., 185, Kar-ma-Bakshi's birth is given as 1177 a.d.
F 2

68 THE SECTS OF LAMAISM.
It differs from its parent sect in having retrograded towards the
Nin-ma-pa practices by adopting the Nih-ma revelation found
in Kong-bo and entitled Le-to Lih-pa,1 or " the locally revealed
merit," and some also have 'Jah-ts'on-pa. Few of the Kar-ma
Lamas are celibate, and Marpa, the founder of the parent sect
(Kar-gyu-pa), was married.
The next great sub-sect is the Dug-pa,2 which also arose with a
pupil of Mila-ra-pa's disciple, Dvag-po. Its founder was Pag-Sam-
Wang-po,3 and it originated in the (/Nam province of Tibet about
the middle of the twelfth century, at the Ralung monastery, near
Gyan-tse, in Tod or Upper Tibet. To emphasize the change the
monastery was called Dug -Railing, and a legend of the thunder-
dragon or Bug is related in connection therewith, and gives the
sectarian title. It adopted the same revelation as the Di-kung-
pa, but there seems some other distinctive tenet which I have not
yet elicited.
Much confusion has been caused in European books by mis
using the name Dug-pa, employing it as a synonym for the
" red-hat " sect, which properly is the Nih-ma.
The Middle Dug-pa and the Lower Dug-pa arose soon after
wards. The Middle Dug-pa adopted the revelation of Sah-gyas-
lin-pa. This is the form of Kar-gyu-pa which now prevails in
Bhotan under the name of Lhd Dug-pa or " Southern " Dug-pa.
Its chief Lama is Z'ab-drun Nag-ban-nam-gyal,4 a pupil of Padma
dkar-po" or "The omniscient white lotus," who leaving Southern
Tibet in the seventeenth century a.d.,5 settled at " IChags-ri rta
mgo " in Bhotan, and soon displaced the Karthok-pa and other
forms of Nin-ma Lamaism then existing in that country, and
which are reputed to have been founded there directly by St.
Padma himself, who entered Bhotan via gZ'as-ma gan and left
it by mDun tsan, and at cZGon-ts'al p'u are still shown his foot
prints on a rock, and at the sPa-te tak-ts'ah or tiger's den.6
1 Las-'prod-lin-pa.
2 'brug-pa. It is Sanskritised in the Chronicle of Nag-wan Nam-gyal as Megha
Seam or " Cloud- voice," thunder being regarded as the dragon's roar.
3 rfPag-isam dban-po, who seems to be identical with, or patronized by, 'Gro-
mgon rtsan-pa rgyal ras, " The Victory-clad Patron of Animals " (? born 1160 A.D.).
* His title is 6dud-'jom-rdorje, or "the Vajra which Softened the Devils."
0 Csoma, J.A.S.B., 1832, 126.
6 According to the Than-yig sde-Kia. some historic notes on the history of Lamaism
in Bhotan are to be found in the book Lho-Ch'os 'byuii.

THE DUG-PA AND SA-KYA-PA. 69
In Bhotan the Dug-pa sect possesses the temporal as well as the
spiritual power, and has suppressed all other sects there. Some
details of its chief monasteries and hierarchs are given in the
special chapters on these two subjects.
The Di-kung-pa,1 another large sub-sect, also originated with a
pupil of Dvag-po. It takes its title from the Di-kung monastery
founded by Rinch'en-p'un-ts'og and Je-spyan-sha-wa, in 1177 a.d.2
Its revelation is Nih-ma the Padma-lin-pa.
The Ta-lung-pa3 issued from the Di-kung-pa and takes its title
from the Ta-lung monastery founded by Nag-dban-ch'os-gyalpo
in 1178. They differ from their parent Di-kung-pa in admitting
also the revelation work adopted by the Kur-ma-pa, namely, the
Le-to lih-pa. The Sa-kya-pa Sect.
The last great reformed sect is the Sa-skya-pa 4 or Sakya, taking
its name from the yellow colour of the scanty soil at the site of
its first monastery in western Tibet, founded in 1071 a.d. It
grew into a most powerful hierarchy, and attained for a time the
temporal sovereignty over the greater part of Tibet before it was
eclipsed by its Ge-lug-pa rival.
Its founder was K'on-dkon-mch'og rgyal-po,5 a pupil of K'ug-
pa lha-btsas, who claimed inspiration from the celestial Bodhisat
of wisdom, Manjusri, through the Indian sages ranging from
Nagarjuna6 to Vasuputra,7 and he mixed together the " old " and
the " new " Tantras, calling his doctrine the " new-old occult
mystery " 8 of " The deep sight." a Its mystic insight is called
" The fruitful path." 10 Its special gospels are Nagarjuna's Ava-
tansaka, Vasubandhu's Paramartha. Its tutelary demon is Vajra

1 'Bri-gun.
2 Csoma, Gram., 185.
3 sTag-luh.
1 Sa-skya-pa, from Sa-skya = "tawny earth."
s Born 1033. Details of the sect are found in its records, The Sa-skya Yig-ts'aii.
6 These are given as Candra-Kirti, Rig-pahi-K'u-p'yug, Buddha "cZgons "-pala.
7 Yab-sras.— Vasuputra seems a title of the great Indian monk Vasubandhu, the
brother of Asafiga, and the special transmitter of Nagarjuna's purer Sautrantika
doctrines, inspired by Manjusri.
8 gsar-nih.
9 zab-mo-blta — Gambhira darsana.
10 mgon-po gur.

THE SECTS OF LAMAISM.

phurpa, for whose and other demonist worship it borrowed the
Nih-ma books, Dorje phurpach'i ch'oga; and from the newer
school were taken Dem-ch'ok, Dorje-kando, Den-z'i, Maha-maha-
ma-yab, Sahgya, t'opa, and Dorje-

The Loed (-fiend) Gue.

dutsi. Its demoniacal Guardians
are " the Guardian of the Tent," 1
and " The Face-Lord." 2 Its Hat
is sa-z'u. But now except in a
few externals it is practically un-
distinguishable from the Nih-
ma-pa. The Sa-kya-pa has two re
formed sub-sects, namely, the
N6r-pa and th-e Jonah-pa.
These differ from one another
only in founders.
The J6-nah-po issued from the
Sa-kya-pa in the person of Je-
Kun-gah-dol-ch'og 3 in the be
ginning of the fourteenth century. To this sect belonged the
illustrious historiographer, Lama-Taranatha.
Taranatha, son of Nam-gyal P'un-ts'ogs, was born in Tsang on
the 8th day of the pig-male- tree year, corresponding to 1573
a.d., and was called Kun-dgah sNyih-po,4 or " The essence of
happiness." He studied in the Jonang monastery, north of Sakya
under the religious name of Taranatha, and in his forty-first year
built himself a monastery in the neighbourhood, which he named
rTag-ferten, and filled it with many images, books, and caityas.
He latterly proceeded to Mongolia at the invitation of the people
of that country, and founded there several monasteries under the
auspices of the Chinese Emperor. He died in Mongolia, and was
canonized under the title of "The Reverend Holiness,"Je-feowi dam-
pa.11 And his "re-incarnate" successors are now installed with
great magnificence as Grand Lamas at Urgya in the Kalkha

1 mGon-po gur.
2 mGon-zhal.
3 Who seems also to be called Dol-bu sher-rgyan. Born 1290, and died 1353.
4 Skt., Anandagarbha. Another account gives the name as Sri-gcod rdorje.
5 >'Je-6tsun dam-pa.

THE SA-KYA AND TARANATHA.

province of Mongolia, to the east of Lob-Nor. Shortly after his
death, both Urgya and his old monastery — which was renamed —

A Sa-skya Lama.

" P'un-ts'o-lih," were forcibly converted into Ge-lug-pa institu
tions, by the aggressive Dalai Lama on his becoming priest-king.
The Nor-pa, founded by Kun-gah Zah-po in 1427, issued from
the Sa-kya-pa at the time of Tsoh-K'apa. Its founder discarded
the Nin-ma element in its Tantrik system, retaining only the
" new." It has many monasteries in eastern Tibet.

THE SECTS OF LAMAISM.

The Nin-ma-pa Sects.
The wholly unreformed section of the Lamas was, as we have
seen, named Nih-ma-pa, or " the old school. It is more freely
than any other tinged with the native Bon or pre-Buddhist
practices ; and celibacy and abstinence are rarely practised. This

Nin-ma Lamas.
is the real " red-hat " sect of Lamas, and not the Dug-pa as is
stated in European books.
It regards the metaphysical Buddha Samanta-bhadra as its
primordial deity or Adi-Buddha. Its mystic insight is Maha-
utpanna (Dsog-ch'en) or " the great ultimate perfection." Its
tutelaries are " The fearful Vajra" (Vajra-" phurba") and Dub-pa-
kah-gye.1 Its guardian demon is " The Lord Gur." 2 It worships

1 sGrub-pa Mtah-brgyad— the tutelary of the Guru St. Padma.
2 Gur-gon, a two-handed demon, the highest of the five " Pal-gon."

THE NIN-MA. 73

the Guru Padma-sambhava, the founder of Lamaism, in a variety
of forms, both divine and demoniacal, expressive of his different
moods at different times, and also his favourite Kashmiri teacher,
Sri Sinha, and the Indian teacher of the latter, Gah-rab Dorje,
who derived his inspiration from the celestial Buddha, Vajra-
satwa, who in turn was inspired by the primordial deity, Saman-
ta-bhadra Buddha.
Its peculiar red cap is named after the Guru " Urgyen-pan-
z'u," and with these characteristics it exhibits a greater laxity
in living than any other sect of Lamas.
But even the Nin-ma-pa, too, has its sub-sects, based on the
adoption of different revelations. Its chief sub-sects are the
Dorje-tak-pa, Mindol-lih, Kar-tok-pa, and Na-dak-pa, named after
their respective founders or parent monastery. But their differ
ences are very trifling.
The Dorje-tak-pa x is named after the greatest of the existent
Nih-ma monasteries, to wit, Dorje-tak, near Sam-yas. It follows
the revelation " found " by rGod-ldem in Zan-Zan Lha brag,
and its chief branches seem to be at Hug-pa-glin, Tsa-ngi Lha-
ri zim-p'ug, and T'eg-mc'og glih.
An offshoot of it is the Nah-dag-pa,2 taking its name from its
founder, Nah-dag, " the owner of dominion," and of royal lineage,
and represented in several Sikhim monasteries.
Scarcely inferior in extent and repute to the Dorje-tak-pa is
the Min-dol-lih-pa,3 also named after its chief monastery, Min
dol-lih. Its revelation was found by bDag-ling-pa, and its chief
branches are at sLe-luh, P'uh-po ri-wo-ch'e. And in Sikhim
it is represented by the large Pemiongchi monastery, which until
a few years ago was in the habit of sending to Min-dol-lih batches
of its young monks for instruction in the higher discipline and
ritual. The Kar-tok-pa,'1 named after Lama Kar-tok, " The under-
stander of the precepts," adopt the revelation of kLoh-ch'en
Rab-^'byuh found in the lake of sGra-mdah. Its chief monas
teries are at Byah-ch'ub-glin and sDe-dge (" Der-ge ") in the
extreme east of Tibet, and the seat of a large printing establish
ment and township famous for its inlaid metal work.
1 )'do-rje-brag-pa. 2 mNah-idag-pa. 3 sMin-^rol Glih. * JKah-rtog-pa.

74 THE SECTS OF LAMAISM.
Lho-brag-lha-luh-pa follow the revelation of Padma-lih-pa like
the Di-kung-pa sub-sect of the Kar-gyu-pa.
The Lha-tsun-pa, named after the founder of Sikhim Lamaism,
adopt the revelation of 'Jah-ts'on-pa, found in Kong-bu, named
the La-t'6-lih-pa. The Z'i-jed-pa.
The Z'i-jed-pa (" the mild doer"), or passionless Ascetic, is a
homeless mendicant of the Yogi class, and belonging to no sect
in particular, though having most affinity with the Kar-gyu-pa.
They are now almost extinct, and all are regarded as saints, who in
their next birth must certainly attain Nirvana. They carry thigh
bone trumpets, skull-drums, etc., and in the preparation of these
instruments from human bones, they are required to eat a morsel
of the bone or a shred of the corpse's skin. The founder of the order
was P'a-dam-pa Sahs-rgyas ( ? Jnanaka- or Pita-Buddha), born at
Jara Sin(d)ha, in India, his father being named brTson-'grus-go-
ch'a and his mother Rasha. He visited Tibet, via Kashmir and
Na-ri, about the beginning of the twelfth century a.d., his final
visit being in 1112 a.d. As this order is highly esteemed in
Tibet, I subjoin some details of its chief saints.1
Summary of Sects.
It will thus be seen that Lamaist sects seem to have arisen
in Tibet, for the first time, in the "latter part of the eleventh
century a.d., in what may be called the Lamaist Reformatio!],
about three centuries after the foundation of Lamaism itself.
They arose in revolt against the depraved Lamaism then pre
valent, which was little else than a priestly mixture of demonolatry

1 In Tibet P'a-dam-pa taught his doctrines to Zhan-zhun-glin-k'awa and bSnpo I'ra-
ch'un-'bruk. Meeting xMan gra-Serpo, of Yar-Huns, he accompanied him to Tsang,
where he gave instruction to Lama sEyo-bsod-nam, who succeeded him.
The second successor was the hermit rMa-sgom, born at Yar-stod-skyer-snar, in
1054 a.d., and forming the rMa order. His pupil was So-ch'un-pa, a dwarf.
The Yogini Ma-gci'g-lab-sgron, born at the southern Ph'a-druk, in 1054 A.D., was
the devoted pupil of rMa.
sffam, another great z'i-jed-pa, was a pupil of dge-s'es-gra-pa, and suffering injury
from a sa-^don demon, he burned its effigy. The demon afflicted bim with dropsy
and leprosy ; but by his zhi-cjed rites he recovered. He died 1119 a.d.
Z'an-dgah-ldan, also a pupil of rMa, was born at Yar-stod-gtsan-z'al, in the tribe
of WTshims zah. His pupils were gNal-ston-dyah ch'uh-'bor, sKyog-sgom bsam-tan,
K'u-sgom jo-dgah, rGya-clar-sen, and Ch'us-pa-dar brtson.

GENERAL SUMMARY.

and witchcraft. Abandoning the grosser charlatanism, the new
sects returned to celibacy and many of the purer Mahayana rules.
In the four centuries succeeding the Reformation, various
sub-sects formed, mostly as relapses towards the old familiar
demonolatry. And since the fifteenth century a.d., the several sects and sub-
sects, while rigidly preserving their identity and exclusiveness,
have drifted down towards a common level where the sectarian
distinctions tend to become almost nominal.
But neither in the essentials of Lamaism itself, nor in its sec
tarian aspects do the truly Buddhist doctrines, as taught by Sakya
Muni, play a leading part.

Sash of Caeved Human Bones
worn by Lamas in Necromancy.
(.Seduced J, see also figure, p. 18.)

THE METAPHYSICAL SOURCES OF THE DOCTRINE.
IS Buddhism is a highly philosophical religion, and
Lamaism, though deeply tinged with non-Buddhist
beliefs, still retains much of the loftier philosophy
and doctrines of Primitive Buddhism and its earlier
developments, we must, in considering the metaphysical basis of
the Lamaist doctrine, glance at the metaphysics of Buddha him
self, as well as that of the Mahayana and the later "develop
ments." And as Buddha's philosophy is based upon his working
theory of the Universe, our subject will fall conveniently under
the heads of (a) Buddha's Theory of the Universe,1 (b) his Meta
physics, and (c) the Metaphysics of the Lamas.
However inconsistent materialism and theistic theories may
appear, with a system avowedly idealistic and practically atheistic,
it certainly seems that Buddha, himself a Hindu and a teacher
of Hindus, did adopt the Hindu mythology and cosmic notions
current in his day, with slight modifications, which were directed
merely towards depriving the gods of their creative functions
and rendering them finite and subject to death and the general
law of metempsychosis.2
His sutras, or sermons, contain numerous references to these
divinities, and the earliest of all authentic Buddhist records
extant, namely, the Asoka edict pillars of the third century B.C.,
show a model Buddhist delighting in calling himself " the beloved
of the Gods"; and in the Barhut Stupa of the second century B.C.

1 General mythology forms a special chapter (xv.), but it is necessary at this stage
to sketch the mythology .which bears directly upon the doctrinal developments.
2 Even in Brahmanic mythology the hosts of the gi ids, including Indra, the greatest
god in Vedic times, are subject to the universal law of dissolution at the end of a
Ealpa, or cycle of time, when the Triad god-head A.U.M. becomes simple soul
(Kr.culiltmaii).

THE BUDDHIST UNIVERSE. 11
the gods and genii are represented with functions identical with
those now allotted to them in the latter-day Buddhism of both
Burma and Tibet, where, as in the orthodox scriptures of both
schools, the gods receive more or less worship on account of the
power which they are believed to possess of bestowing temporal
blessings. And the coming Buddha is believed by all Buddhists
to be even now resident in the Tushita heavens of the gods.
So intimately have these mythological figures been woven into
the texture of Buddism, and especially of Lamaism, which peoples
the world with gorgons and hydras and other dire chimeras, that
without having gained a general idea of their nature and position,
it is impossible to understand the allusions to them which con
stantly crop out in Buddhist rites and dogma. And, indeed, many
of these fantastic beliefs with their deified heroes and Nature-
worship are in reality petrified survivals of the archaic beliefs of
our Indo-Germanic ancestors.
Buddhist Theory of the Universe.
In sketching the Buddhist world-system, with its " antres vast
and deserts idle," existing mostly on the map of the imagination,
it is deemed advisable, in order to avoid needless repetition, to give
at once the Lamaist version, even though this is slightly more
" developed " than the cosmogony of Buddha's day ; although it
cannot be very different after all, for the Lamaist accounts of it
are in close keeping with the Barhut lithic remains, and almost
identical with the versions found among the Ceylonese and other
Buddhists of the south, and the Chinese and Japanese Buddhists.1
This, our human, world is only one of a series (the others being
fabulous) which together form a universe or chiliocosm,2 of which
there are many.
Each universe, set in unfathomable space, rests upon a warp and
woof of " blue air " or wind, liked crossed thunderbolts (vajra),
hard and imperishable as diamonds (vajra), upon which is set
" the body of the waters," upon which is a foundation of gold, on
which is set the earth, from the axis of which towers up the great

1 Cf. also Gioesi, whose figure is attached ; and summary by Buenoujf, ii., 599.
2 Skt., Sarya-loka-dhatu.

78 THE UNIVERSE OF THE BUDDHISTS.
Olympus— Mt. Meru1 (Su-meru, Tib., Ri-rab) 84,000 miles2 high,
surmounted by the heavens, and overlying the hills.
In the ocean around this central mountain, the axis of the uni
verse, are set (see figures) the four great continental worlds with
their satellites, all with bases of solid gold in the form of a tortoise,
— as this is a familiar instance to the Hindu mind of a solid floating
on the waters. And the continents are separated from Mt. Meru
by seven concentric rings of golden mountains, the inmost being
40,000 miles high,3 and named " The Yoke " (Yugandara),4 alter
nating with seven oceans, of fragrant milk,5 curds, butter, blood or
sugar-cane juice, poison or wine, fresh water and salt water. These
oceans diminish in width and depth from within outwards from
20,000 to 625 miles, and in the outer ocean lie the so-called con
tinental worlds. And the whole system is girdled externally by a
double iron-wall (Gakravdla) 312^ miles high and 3,602,625
miles in circumference, — for the oriental mythologist is nothing if
not precise. This wall shuts out the light of the sun and moon,
whose orbit is the summit of the inmost ring of mountains, along
which the sun, composed of " glazed fire " enshrined in a crystal
palace, is. driven in a chariot with ten (seven) horses ; and the moon,
of " glazed water,'' in a silver shrine drawn by seven horses, and
between these two hang the jewelled umbrella of royalty and the
banner of victory, as shown in the figure. And inhabiting the air,
on a level with these, are the eight angelic or fairy mothers.
Outside the investing wall of the universe all is void and in per
petual darkness until another universe is reached.

1 Its prototype, as with the Greek Olympus, is terrestrial, namely, Mt. Kailis,
22,000ft., directly north of Lake Manasarovara in the Himalayas (cf. Maekham, xxiv.).
2 The 84,000 is a mathematical figure expressing multitude. The Tibetan measure
is a " dpag-tshad," which, according to Csoma (Diet.), equals 4,000 fathoms, and hence
a geographical mile, but it is used as the equivalent of the Indian unit of measure
which is translated in the Ceylonese scriptures as a Yojana, i.e., a unit of about 4 to,
about five or six geographical miles.
3 These mountains are severally named the Ox Yoke-holder, Plough-holder, Sandal-
holder, Pleasing Mount, Horse-ear Hill, Demon or Assembly Mount, and Circle or
Edge-holder. 4 The names of the others are Isadara, Karavlka, Sudarsana, Asvabarna, Vinayaka,
and Nemindhara.
5 This ocean of milk was churned by the Brahmanical gods for the recovery of their
elixir vita and the thirteen precious objects. And the churning produced the beauti
ful goddess Lakshmi.— Compare with Aphrodite from the froth of the ocean, and the
proverbial beauty of the Naga water nymphs— the Hindu mermaids.

=TsfT

Cfii.

Ska
The Univebse of the LAmas.
80

THE UNIVERSE OF THE BUDDHISTS.

Of the four " continents " all except " Jambudvipa " 1 are
fabulous. They are placed exactly one in each of the four
directions, and each has a
smaller satellite on either side,
thus bringing the total up to
twelve. And the shapes given
to these continents, namely,
creseentic, triangular, round,
and square, are evidently sym
bolic of the four elements.
These continents, shown in
the annexed figure, are thus
described: —
On the East is Videha,2 or " vast
body " (P). This is shaped like
the crescent moon, and is white
in colour. It is 9,000 miles in
diameter, and the inhabitants are
described as tranquil and mild, and of excellent conduct, and with
faces of same shape as this continent, i.e., creseentic like the moon.
On the South is Jamudvlp1 (F), or our own world, and its centre is the
Bodhi-tree at Budh Gaya. It is shaped like the shoulder-blade of a
sheep, this idea being evidently suggested by the shape of the Indian
peninsula which was the prototype of Jambudvipa, as Mt. Kailas in
the Himalayas and N.E. of India was that of Mt. Meru. It is blue
in colour ; and it is the smallest of all, being only 7,000 miles in
diameter. Here abound riches and sin as well as virtue. The in
habitants have faces of similar shape to that of their continent, i.e.,
somewhat triangular.
On the West is Goclhanya," or " wealth of oxen " (I), which in shape is
like the sun and red in colour. It is 8,000 miles in diameter. Its
inhabitants are extremely powerful, and (as the name literally means,
cow + ox + action) they are believed to be specially addicted to eating
cattle, and their faces are round like the sun.
On the North is Uttara-Kuru," or " northern Kuru "-tribe (M), of
square shape and green in colour, and the largest of all the continents,

li^fa^f^*i|

A FAIKY.3

1 T., Jambu-lih.
2 Lus-'pags.
3 After Pander.
* Some Lamas state that this name is derived from the Jambu tree (Eugenia
Jambolans), while others believe that the name is onomatopoetic for the sound
" Jamb," emitted when the world was thrown by the gods into the outer ocean.
s ba-glan spyod.
0 sgra-mi-snan.

THE G0DL1NGS AND TITANS. 81
being 10,000 miles in diameter. Its inhabitants are extremely fierce
and noisy. They have square faces like horses ; and live on trees,
which supply all their wants. They become tree-spirits on their death ;
and these trees afterwards emit " bad sounds " (this is evidently, like
many of the other legends, due to a puerile and false interpretation of
the etymology of the word).
The satellite continents resemble their parent one in shape, and each
is half its size. The left satellite of Jambudvip, namely, "The ox
tail-whisk continent," is the fabulous country of the Rakshas, to which
Padma-sambhava is believed to have gone and to be still reigning there.
And each of the latter presents towards Mount Meru one of the follow
ing divine objects respectively,1 viz., on the east (? south) the mountain
of jewels, named Amo-likha, shaped like an elephant's head,2 and on
the south, the wish-granting tree,3 on the west the wish-granting
cow,4 and on the north the self-sprung crops.3
In the very centre of this cosmic system stands " The king of
mountains," Mount Meru, towering erect " like the handle of a
mill-stone," while half-way up its side is the great wishing tree,"
the prototype of our " Christmas tree," and the object of conten
tion between the gods and the Titans. Meru has square sides of
gold and jewels. Its eastern face is crystal (or silver), the south
is sapphire or lapis lazuli (vaidiirya) stone, the west is ruby
(padmaraga), and the north is gold, and it is clothed with
fragrant flowers and shrubs. It has four lower compartments
before the heavens are reached. The lowest of these is inhabited
by the Yaksha genii — holding wooden plates. Above this is " the
region of the wreath-holders" (Skt., Srag-dhara), which seems
to be a title of the bird-like, or angelic winged Garudas. Above
this dwell the "eternally exalted ones,"7 above whom are the
Titans. The Titans.
The Titans (Asura8) or "ungodly spirits."
These are pictured in the " Wheel of Life " (at page 108), in the upper
right section. Their leading trait is pride, and this is the world of re-

1 These, according to other accounts, are situate on the flanks of Meru itself.
2 The Yama rocks are on the south. 3 Tib., Yond-'dus-sa-gtol.
4 'dod-'zo-i-ba.
s ma-smos-pi lo-t'og.
s The Ri-wo na-s'ih.
r rtag myos, here the rta may represent " horse " — the horse-headed musicians.
» T., Lha-ma-yin. G

82 THE UNIVERSE OF THE BUDDHISTS.

birth for those who, during their human career, have boasted of being
more pious than their neighbours. The Titans were originally gods ;
but, through their pride, they were, like Satan, expelled from heaven;
hence their name, which means "not a god."1 And their position at
the base of the Mount Meru is intermediate between heaven and
earth. The duration of their life is infinitely greater than the human, and
they have great luxury and enjoyment ; but in pride they envy the
greater bliss of the gods, and die prematurely, fighting vainly against
the gods for the fruits of the heavenly tree and the divine nectar.
Their region is represented in the picture, of an almost colourless
atmosphere. They live in fortified houses. The ground, both inside
and outside the fort, is carpeted with flowers of which the inhabitants,
male and female, make the wreaths and garlands which they wear.
They are dressed in silk; and when the heroes are not engaged in
fighting they spend their time in all sorts of gaiety with their wives.
In the right-hand corner is shown their birth from a lotus-flower
and their obtaining a wish-granting tree and cow. The rest of the
picture is devoted to their misery, which consists in their hopeless
struggle and fatal conflict with the gods. The commander of the forces
is seen in conclave with his leaders,2 horses are being saddled and the
" heroes " are arming themselves with coats of mail and weapons.
Another scene shows the battle raging along the border separating
their country from heaven, and the general mounted with his staff as
spectators in the background. The warriors of the first line are all
killed or horribly mangled by the thunderbolts and adamantine weapons
hurled at them by the gods. One of the weapons possessed alike by
gods and Titans is a spiked disc.
The ultimate fate of every Titan is to die painfully warring against
the gods with whom they are in constant conflict, and they have no ac
cess to the ambrosia with which a wounded god obtains instant recovery.
Another scene (see picture on page 102) depicts the womenfolk gathered
round " The Reflecting Lake of Perfect Clearness '' after the departure
of their lords to the battle. In this lake are mirrored forth all the
doings and ultimate fate of their absent spouses, and there is also shown
the region of re-birth of themselves, which is nearly always hell, owing
to the passionate life which they lead in the Asura world. And while
their lovers die painful and passionate deaths, the misery of the woman-
folk of this world is to look into this fascinating lake and experience
the horror of such hideous spectacles. In the picture some women are
shown peering into the lake, and others on the banks are giving vent
to their grief.

i Analogous to this is the common colloquial term mi-ma-yin or "not a man'
applied to those who lead vicious and dissolute lives.
2 Note that greatness of rank is shown in pictures by enlarged bodily dimensions.

THE HEAVENS OF THE GODS.

The Heavens and the Gods.
Above the region of the Titans, at a distance of 168,000 miles,
are the bright realms of the gods. In the lowest compartment

Guaedian King of tee East,
Yul-k'or-si-un.

of the heavens are the four " great guardian kings of the
quarters" (Tib.,rgyal-c'en de-z'i ; Skt., Cdtur-Mahdrdja), namely: —
G 2

84 THE UNIVERSE OF THE .BUDDHISTS.
1. Dhritardshtra (Yul-k'or-srun '), the white guardian of the
east, and king of the Gandharvas 2 (see figure over page).
2. Virudhaka (P'ag-kye-po 3), the green4 guardian of the south,
and king of the K'umbhandas 6 (see figure page 330).
3. Virupdksha (Ja-mi-zah0), the red guardian of the west and
king of the Nagas 7 (see figure page 289).
4. Vaisravana (Nam-t'6-sra8), the yellow guardian of the north
and king of the Yakshas.9 He is an especial favourite, as he is also,
in another aspect, the god of Riches (see figure on page 370).
Indeed, it would seem that all of the gods, even Indra (Jupiter)
himself, were originally considered to be Yaksha genii.
The subjects of these kings are members of the eight great
classes of supernatural beings.10
These great celestial kings guard the heavens from the attacks
of the outer demons; and have to be distinguished from a more
extended category of guardian gods, the ten Lokpals who guard
the world from its ten directions ; namely, Indra on the east, Agni
(the fire-god) on the south-east, Yama (the death-god) on the south,
Rakshas (? Sura) on the south-west, Varuna (the water-god) on
the west, Vayu (the wind-god) on the north-west, Yakshas on
the north, Soma (the moon) on the north-east, Brahma, above;
Bhupati, below.
The Buddhists divide every universe into three regions, in imita
tion, apparently, of the Brahmanic Bhavanatraya, substituting
for the physical categories (Bhu earth, Bhuva heaven, and Svar
space) of the Brahmans, the ethical categories of Desire (Kama),
Form Rupa and Formlessness (Arupa), which collectively are
known as " The Three Regions " (Trailokya n), and mostly placed
in heaven. They are : —
I. The region of Desire, Kdmadhdtu (Tib., Dod-pahi K'ams),
is the lowest of the three, and comprises the six Deva-
lokas (Tib., Lha-Yul) or heavens of the gods, as well as
the earth.
i yul-'k'or bsruh. o spyan mig-bzan.
2 Dri-za " the Small-eaters." 7 £Lu.
3 'p'ags skyes-pa. s rnamt 'os sras.
4 Sometimes the colours of the North and » #Nod-sbyin or " the injurers."
South Guardians are transposed. 10 See chapter on Mythology.
5Grul-bum. n "K'ams gsum."

THE HEAVENS OF BRAHMA.

II. The region of Form, Rdpadhatu (Tib., gZngs kyi k'ams)
is in the purer heavens of Brahma where form is free
from sensuality. It comprises the sixteen Brahmalokas ;
which are divided into four regions of contemplation
(dhyana). 7
III. The region of Formlessness, Ardpadhdtu (Tib., gZugs
med-pahi k'ams) comprises the four highest of the
Brahma heavens and near to Nirvana.
The heavens are thus diagrammatically shown in the form of the
funereal monument or caitya ; though in other pictures, as in
the foregoing chart of the universe, they form an inverted
pyramid, increasing in size from below upwards.
The celestial Buddhas therein shown are, it is needless to say,
additions of later days.1 Diagram of
The Heavens oe the Buddhists.

The Six Devalokas are in series from below upwards : —
1. Catur-mahardjalcayikas. — The abode of the four guardian kings
of the quarters, already mentioned.
2. Trayastrinsas (Tib., Sum-cu tsa sum) or " The 33 " Yedic gods with
Indra or Sakra (Jupiter) or the Yaksha spirit Vajrapani as chief.

1 Compare with Mr. Hodgson's account (Lang, and Lit., p. 43) of the heavens
according to the Nepalese Buddhists.

86 THE UNIVERSE OF THE BUDDHISTS.
This heaven is the svarga of Brahmanism, and is shown in the upper
compartment of the Wheel of Life.
3. Yama, the Hindu Pluto, the king and judge of the dead.
4. Tushita. (Tib., dGah. Man) or "Joyful place"- — the paradise of the
Bodhisats prior to their final descent to the human world as Buddhas.
Maitreya, the coming Buddha, dwells at present in this heaven.
6. Nirmdnarati (Tib., 'p'rul rfgah).
6. Paranirmita Vasavartin (Tib., gz'&n 'p'rul dbah byed) — the
highest of the heavens of the gods and the abode of Mara.
The Brahmaloka worlds are subject to the God Brahma, and exist
ence ranges from intellectual tranquillity to unconsciousness. These
worlds of meditation (dhyana) are accounted eighteen in number, and
arranged in five groups (3, 3, 3, 2, and 5) corresponding to the five-fold
division of Brahma's world, and are usually named from below upwards
as follows : (1) Brahma parsadya, (2) Brahma purohita, (3) Maha
Brahmana, (4) Paritabha, (5) Apramana, (6) Abhasvara, (7) Parita-
subha, (8) Apramanasubha, (9) Subhakrishna, (10) Utpala, (11) Asa-
iiasatya, (12) Avriha or Vrihatpala, (13) Atapa, (14) Sudasa, (15)
Sudasi, (16) Punyaprasava, (17) Anabhraka, (18) Akanishtha (Tib.,
Og-min) or " The Highest " — the abode of the Primordial Buddha-God,
the Adi-Buddha of the Lamas, viz., Samantabhadra (T., Kuntu-zanpo).
This last, together with the next subjacent Brahmaloka, are according
to the Lamaists eternal, and are placed above the Ariipa Brahmalokas.
The Four Arupa Brahmalokas are 1. Akasanantayatana, 2. Vijnanan-
tayatana, 3. Akincaiiayatana, 4. Naivasaiijnana Sanjnayatana.
The duration of existence in each of those states is for vastly
increasing periods from below upwards, till beyond the sixteenth
immortality itself is reached ; and according to some of the later
Buddhists, each Bodhisat must traverse each of these stages (Bhum)
before he attains Buddhahood.
The typical heaven of the gods — Indra's paradise — is pictured
in the Wheel of Life at page 108. Its atmosphere is yellowj
and in it are portrayed the four states of godly birth, bliss, pas*
sion and misery and death.
Godly Birth. The god is born at once fully developed within a halo
of glory from a lotus-flower,— the oriental symbol of immaterial birth
and is provided with the special attributes of a god, — viz., (1) a lotus-
footstool, (2) splendid dress and ornaments, (3) goddess-companions,1
(4) a wish-granting tree, or pag-sam-shin (Skt., Kalpadaru) 2 which in
stantly yields any fruit or food wished for, and bends to the hand of
the gatherer, its leaves yielding luscious food, its juice nectar, and its
i Apsaras, celestial nymphs — the "houris " awarded to heroes.
2 The wish-granting tree of Indra's heaven is described in the 45th Section of the
S'ilpa S'dstra.

THE HEAVENS OF INDRA (JUPITER).

fruit jewels, (5) a wish-granting cow (Kdma-dhenu or Surabha l) which
yields any drink wished for, (6) self -sprung crops (usually painted as
Indian corn or maize), (7) in a golden stall a jewelled horse-of-fore-
knowledge which Pegasus-like carries his riderwhereverwished, through
out the worlds of the past, present, and future, (8) a lake of perfumed
nectar or ambrosia (Skt., Amrita) which is the elixir vitas and the source
of the divine lustre.2 Shining is a peculiarly divine attribute, and the

Heavenly Bieth.
etymology of the word "divinity," is the root Div, "to shine," the parent
of the Skt. Deva and Latin Dens.
Godly Bliss. The bliss of the gods is depicted by an assembly of be
jewelled gods and goddesses basking in sensuous enjoyment in splendid
palaces in the midst of a charming garden enamelled with flowers, of
which they make their wreaths. Gay birds warble in the foliage, and
noble animals peacefully roam together there. Amongst the quadrupeds
are deer, lions, and elephants with jewelled heads. Amongst the birds
are the peacock, parrot, cuckoo, and the " Kala-pinka," which repeats the
mystic ' Om mani padme, Hum ! " for the language of the gods is the

i Images of these are sold in the Indian bazaars as toys for children. Compare this
myth of the wishing-cow with the parallels related by Professor Weber in Sitzungsbe-
richte der Ecenig Freuss., Acad, zu Berlin., xxvii., 1890.
2 The cup-bearer is Dhanwantari, the Indian Ganymede.

88 THE UNIVERSE OF THE BUDDHISTS.
Deva-nagari or sacred language of India. One of the blissful conditions
of godly life especially dwelt upon, is that the most dainty morsels may
be eaten without sense of repletion, the last morsel being as much
relished as the first.
In the centre of this paradise is the great city of Belle-vue
(Sudarsana), within which is the celestial palace of Vaijayanta
(Amaravati) the residence of Indra (Jupiter), the king of the
gods. It is invested by a wall and pierced by four gates, which
are guarded by the four divine kings of the quarters. It is a
three-storied building ; Indra occupying the basement, Brahma
the middle, and the indigenous Tibetan war-god — the dGra-lha
— as a gross form of Mara, the god of Desire, the uppermost
story. This curious perversion of the old Buddhist order of the
heavens is typical of the more sordid devil-worship of the Lamas
who, as victory was the chief object of the Tibetans, elevated
the war-god to the highest rank in their pantheon, as did the
Vikings with Odin where Thor, the thunder-god, had reigned
supreme. The passionate war-god of the Tibetans is held to be
superior even to the divinely meditative state of the Brahma.
War with the Titans. The gods wage war with the Titans,
who, as we have seen, are constantly trying to seize some of
the precious fruit of the great Yoii-du sa-tol (Skt., Pdrijdta1)
tree, or "tree of the concentrated essence of earth's products,"
whose branches are in heaven, but whose roots are in their
country. The climber which encircles this tree is called the
Jambuti tree, and is the medium by which the quintessence
of the most rare delicacies of Jambudvip are instilled into the
larger tree. And the war-god directs the divine army.
To account for the high position thus given to the war-god, it is
related that he owes it to the signal assistance rendered by him
to the gods in opposing the Asuras.2
The misery of the gods. The god enjoys bliss for almost incal
culable time ; but when his merit is exhausted then his lake of
1 Identified with the beautiful Indian Coral Tree (Erythrina Iiidica).
2 It is related that in former times the gods were defeated by the Asuras in fighting
for the fruits of the great wishing-tree of Paradise ; and the defeated gods under
Indra besought tfSan-bahi-Sdag-po for council. This divinity advised the gods to
call to their aid the war-god dGra-lha, and also to obtain from the depths of the
central ocean the invisible armour and the nine self -created weapons, viz. :— (1)
rMog-bya khyung-keng-riis, a helmet of the skeleton bones of the Garuda bird; (2;
EhrabSi-sliar-lto-rgyab, the coat of mail shining like the sun ; (3) Lba-khebs-rdm-je-

THE HELLS. 89

nectar dries up ; his wish-granting tree, cow and horse die ; his
splendid dress and ornaments grow dim and disappear ; his palace
gets dilapidated ; his flowers and garden fade ; his body, no longer
bathed by nectar, loses its lustre and sweats like mortals, so that
his person becomes loathsome to his goddess-companions and the
other gods, who shun him, and so the poor god dies miserably.1 If
he has led a virtuous life during his existence as a god then he may
be re-born in heaven, otherwise he goes to a lower region and may
even be sent to hell. Buddha was born twenty times as the
god Sakra or Indra (Jupiter) and four times as Brahma.2
The Buddhist Hell.
The antithesis to heaven is hell, which with its awful lessons
looms large on the horizon of the Buddhists. For according to
their ethical doctrine of retribution, and in the case of the more
theistic developments, their conception of God as the supreme
type of right-doing, they picture him like a human judge trying
and punishing the evil-doers;3 although, with truly Buddhist
idealism, these tortures are believed by the more philosophical
Lamas to be morbid creations of the individual's own ideas, a sort
of hellish nightmare. The majority of the Lamas, however, and

go-c'a, necklet ; (4) Lak-hag-mt 'sSn-c 'd-lam-lok, a weapon resisting and returning
glove; (5) sS'in-khebs-mdah-mts'on-kun thub, a breast-plate entirely able to with
stand arrows and other weapons; (6) Pus-khebs-nes-pa-skyobs-c'ed, a knee-cap which
defends against destruction; (7) Phubm-sba-dmar-gling-druq, a six-embossed shield.
The nine sorts of weapons are:— (1) a 'E'orlo or spiked-disc which completely
routes the enemy; (2) a dGra-sta or an axe which chops the enemy; (3) a ral-gri
or sword which slices the enemy ; (4) a gZhu or bow which scatters the brains of
the enemy; (5) a "inDah" or arrow that pierces the vitals; (6) a Zhagspa or
noose which ensnares the enemy; (7) a mDung or spear which pierces the hearts
of the foe; (8) a Ur-rdo, a whirring sling-stone that produces the "ur-r-r"
eound of a thunder-dragon ; and (9) a Dorje or thunder-bolt which demolishes
the enemy. The story seems founded on the Brahmanical legend of Indra
(Jupiter) obtaining from the sea the talismanic banner which conferred victory
over his enemies ; cf. Brihat Sahhita, translated by Dr. Keen, J.R.A.S., vi., p. 44.
The gods having obtained these weapons and armour, invited the war-god, who
,came enveloped in thunder-clouds and attended by his nine sons, and receiving
worship from Indra and the other gods as the price of his assistance, they assailed
and utterly routed the Titans.
1 Compare Haedy, Man, 143.
2 R.D. Buddhist Birth Stories Oi .
3 Cf. Maine's works on Early Law.

90 THE UNIVERSE OF THE BUDDHISTS.

the laity, believe in the real material character of these hells and
their torture.
The Buddhist hell (Naralca 1 ) is a true inferno situated in the
bowels of the human earth like Hades, and presided over by the
Indian Pluto, Yama, the king and judge of the dead, who
however is himself finite and periodically tortured. Every day
he is forced to swallow molten metal. So, as the shade of Achilles
says, " it is better to live on earth as the poorest peasant than to
rule as a prince of the dead." 2
The Great Judgment is determined solely by the person's own
deeds, and it is concretely pictured by the ordeal of scales, where
the good deeds, as white pebbles, are weighed against the sins, as
black counters, in balances, and the judge holds a mirror which
reveals the soul in all its nakedness. " Not in the heavens, not in
the midst of the sea, not if thou hidest thyself in the clefts of the
mountains wilt thou find a place where thou canst escape the force
resulting from thy evil actions." 3 " Through the six states of
transmigration does the power of our actions lead us. A life in
heaven awaits the good. The warders of hell drag the wicked
before the king of hell, Yama, who says to them : — •
" ' Did you not when on earth see the five divine messengers sent to
warn you — the child, the old man, the sick, the criminal suffering
punishment, and the dead corpse ? ' And the wicked man answers —
' I did see them.'
" 'And didst thou not think within thyself : " I also am subject to
birth, old age, and death. Let me be careful to do good works"?' And
the wicked man answers : ' I did not, sire ; I neglected in my folly to
think of these things.'
" Then the king, Yama, pronounces his doom : ' These thy evil deeds
are not the work of thy mother, father, relatives, friends, advisers.
Thou alone hast done them all ; thou alone must gather the fruit.'
And the warders of hell drag him to the place of torment, rivet him to
red-hot iron, plunge him in glowing seas of blood, torture him on
burning coals, and he dies not till the last residue of his guilt has been
expiated." i
Nor is hell a complete expiation of offences, for Buddha is
credited with saying, " A harsh word uttered in past times is
not lost, but returns again," and the Jataka tales are full of
incidents in illustration.
1 dmyal-k'ams, or "the region of torment." Compare with Chinese version in
Beal's Catena, p. 56, seq. a Odyssey, xi., 481.
3 Dhamma-pada, 127. * Deva-dutta-sutta, transl. by H. Olbenbeeg.

HELLS OF BUDDHISM.

THE UNIVERSE OF THE BUDDHISTS.

Hell is divided into numerous compartments, each with a
special sort of torture devised to suit the sins to be expiated.
Only eight hells are mentioned in the older Buddhist books, but
the Lamas and other " northern " Buddhists describe and figure
eight hot and eight cold hells and also an outer hell (Pratyeka
naraka), through which all those escaping from hell must pass
without a guide. The Brahmanical hells are multiples of seven
instead of eight; some of them bear the same names as the
Buddhists, but they are not systematically arranged, and as the
extant lists date no earlier than Manu, about 400 A.D., they
are probably in great part borrowed from the Buddhists.1
The foregoing figure2 shows the
Lamaist hells, but they are seen
in greater detail in " The Wheel of
Life," at page 109.
At the entrance to the great hell
on the bank of the Hindu Styx — the
Baitarani3 or "three path" river —
sits, according to one version, an old
hag, a sort of Prosperine, who strips
off the clothes from the new arrivals,
and hangs them on a tree behind
her.4 She is 160 feet in stature, with
eyes like burning wheels, and she
despatches the condemned souls along
their respective roads in accordance
with the judgment, but sometimes
/ t_y ///*///,, she delays them with endless tasks
The Buddhist Peospeeink °f LeaPing UP St°neS 0n the banks °f
Styx, and so prolongs their agony.
The hot hells stand in tiers, one upon another, beginning at a
depth of 11,900 miles below the surface of the earth, and reach
to a depth of 40,000 miles ; each hell has four gates, outside
each of which are four anfe-hells, thus making altogether 136 hot
hells.

1 See an article by M. Leon Feer, "L'Enfer indien," in the Journal Asiatiquel
xx. (1892), and i. (New Series 189SJ,for lists and description of the Brahmamst hells.
s For the tracing of which I am indebted to Mr. J. C. White.
•> =" The sedent queen."
* Her picture is given from the Japanese.

THE HOT HELLS.

The atmosphere of the hells is of the deepest black :-
" Light was absent all. Bellowing there groan 'd
A noise, as of a sea in tempest torn
By warring winds, the stormy blast of hell."
Dante, Canto v..

29.

Each hell is enveloped by a wall of fire, and the horrible tor
ments are fit to illustrate Dante's Inferno. Indeed, it has been
suggested that Dante
must have seen a
Buddhist picture of
these hells before
writing his famous
classic, so remark
able is the agree
ment between
them. The lictors
(s'in-je) are sav
age flame-en
veloped monsters
with heads of
various animals,
and all their pin-

Hot Hell So. 1.

cers, and other instruments of torture, are red-hot.
The following are the eight great hot hells.
1. Saiijiva 1 = " again revived." Here the wretches are cut and torn
to pieces and then re-united and revived only to suffer the same process
repeated ad infinitum throughout the period spent in this hell.
" Because our wounds heal ever and anon
Ere we appear before the fiend again."
Dante, Canto xxviii., 36.
This restoration of the body, in order to subject it to fresh torture,
is an essential part of the process in all the hells. The body when
thoroughly mangled is restored and the racking torture applied afresh,
so that the agony never ceases. This is the special hell for suicides.
murderers, ignorant physicians who killed their patients, fi'audulent
trustees, and tyrants.
2. Kalasulra2= "black lines." Here the victims are nailed down and
eight or sixteen black lines drawn by the lictors along the body, which
is. then sawn asunder along these lines by a burning hot saw. Another

1 Yah-sos.

2 t'ig-nag.

THE UNIVERSE OF THE BUDDHISTS.

punishment here is the especial one of the slanderer, or busy-body, who
has his or her tongue enlarged and pegged out and constantly harrowed
by spikes ploughing through it. To this hell are assigned those who
during life were disrespectful to their parents, or to Buddha, or the
priests. 3. Samghdta,'1 = "concentrated oppression." Here the guilty are

Hot Hell No. 3.
squeezed and crushed between animal-headed mountains, or monster
iron books. This last is an especial punishment for monks, laymen and
infidels who have disregarded or profaned the scriptures, and also for
priests who have taken money for masses which they have not performed.
Others here are pounded in iron mortars and beaten on anvils. Here
are tortured thieves, those who indulged in hatred, envy, passion, the
users of light weights and measures, and those who cast refuse or dead
animajs on the public roads.
4. Raurava,2 = " weeping and screaming.'' The torture here is to have
molten iron poured down the throat. Those who were prisoners, obstructed
watercourses, or grumbled against the weather (1 clearly the English
hell ! ), or wasted food, are here tortured.

1 bsdus 'joms.

2 nu-'bod.

THE COLD HELLS. 95

5. Mahdraurava,1 = " greater weeping and screaming." Here they are
cooked in seething cauldrons of molten iron. This is the hell for
heretics. 6. Tdpana," = " heat." The condemned is enclosed in a red-hot fiery
chamber. In this hell are punished those who roasted or baked animals
for their food.
7. Pratdpana,3 = " highest heat." A three-spiked burning 'spear is
thrust into the wretch's body, which is then rolled up within red-hot
iron plates. It is the special torture for apostates and those who reject
the truth.
8. Avichi,1 = " endless torture." This is the most severe and longest of
all the infernal torments. The guilty is perpetually kept in flames,
though never consumed. This is the hell for those who have reviled
Buddha, and others who have harmed or attempted to harm Lamaism
or shed the blood of a Lama or holy-man.
The Cold Hells, apparently an invention of the northern Buddhists,
as cold was an idea rather foreign to the Indian mind, are situated on
the edge of the universe below its encircling wall (Cakravala).
They are encircled by icy mountains (see plate, page 109), and have
attendants of appalling aspect, as in the hot hells. They are thus
described : —
1. Arbuda,5=" blistered or chapped." The torture here is constant
immersion of the naked person in ice and glacier water, under which
the body becomes covered with chilblains (which torture may be com
pared with the curse invented by a scribe in the reign of Athelstan for
anyone Who should break the terms of his charters : " May he be
tortured by the bitter blast's of glaciers and the Pennine army of evil
spirits." 6)
2. Nirarbuda.7 The chilblains are rudely scarified, producing raw
sores. 3. Atata," " Ach'u" or " A-ta-ta," an exclamation of anguish beyond
articulate expression — which resounds through this hell.
4. Hahava.9 A worse degree of cold in which the tongue is paralyzed
and the exclamation Kyi-'ii or Ha-ha alone possible.
5. Ahaha.10 Here both jaws and teeth are spasmodically clenched
through cold.
6. LHpala.1' Livid sores which become everted like blue Ut-pal
flowers. 1 Nu-bod Ch'en-po.
2 Ts'a-ba.
* Rab-tu t'sa-wa.
* mnar-med.
5 Ch'u-bur ch'en. Arbn sounds suspiciously like Mount Abu (B
e Quoted by Mr. D. W. Freshfield in /. R. Geog. S., 1894.
» Ch'u-bur-brol-wa.
s A-ch'u.
9 Kyi-'ud.
10 So-t'am-pa.
11 Ot-pal-ltar gas-pa.

96 THE UNIVERSE OF THE BUDDHISTS.
7. Padma.' The raw sores become like red Lotus-flowers.
8. Pundarika.2 Raw sores where the flesh falls away from the bones
like the petals of the great Lotus ; and which are continually pecked
and gnawed by birds and insects with iron beaks.
The frontier or anterior hells at the exit from the great hell are
called "The near (to re-birth) cycle,"3 and are divided into four
sections.4 The first bordering hell consists of hot suffocating
ashes with foul dead bodies and all kinds of offal. Then is
reached a vast quagmire, beyond which is a forest of spears and
spikes, which must be traversed like the razor-bridge in Muhamma-
danism and in Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress. Then succeeds a
great river of freezing water ; on the further shore of which the
ground is thickly set with short squat tree-trunks, each sur
mounted by three spiked leaves which impale the unwary grop
ing fugitives. Reference to these last two localities occurs in
the ordinary litany for the dead, which says "may his c'hu-wo-
rab-med ocean become a small rivulet, and the ts'al-ma-ri tree a
divine wish-granting tree."
In addition to the hot and cold hells are eighty-four thousand
external hells (Ke-ts'e-wa, Skt. ? Lokantarika) situated mostly on
the earth, in mountains, deserts, hot springs, and lakes.
Another state of existence, little better than that of hell, is
the Preta (Tib., Yi-dag) or Manes, a sort of tantalized ghoul or
ghost. This world is placed above hell and below the Sitavan
forest, near Bajgriba, in the modern district of Patna in Bengal.
These wretched starvelings are in constant distress through the
pangs of hunger and thirst.6 This is pictured in the Wheel of

1 Padma-ltar-gas-pa.
2 Padma ch'en-po-ltar-gas pa.
3 Se-'k'or (=? Skt., Prateyka naraka) meaning near to re-birth.
* Named Agni-lchada (me-ma-mur gyi 'obs) or the fiery pit, Eunapanka (Ro-myags
Kyi 'dams) or quagmire of carcases, Ehuradhdrdrana (spu-gri gtams ts'al) or forest of
spikes, and Asidlidravana (ral-gri loma nays-ts'al) or forest of sword-leaves.
5 Thirty-six species are described in five groups, namely : (1) p'yil sgrib-pa chan or
"the foreign or gentile horrid beings," (2) Nang-gi sgrib-pa chan or the Buddhist horrid
beings, (3) Zas-skom-gyi sgrib-pa chan or the eating and drinking horrid beings — these
are they who on eating and drinking have the ingested material converted into lacerat
ing weapons, (4) and (5) kha-thor or free Yi-dags. The latter are not confined
in the Prete-prison, but are free to roam about in the human world — in graveyards.
etc., — and injure man. These are (Beal's Catena, 67) 1, Flat-bodied; 2, Needle-mouthed;
3, Vomit-eaters ; 4, Filth-eaters ; 5, Mist-eaters ; 6, Water-feeders ; 7, Scarcely seen ;
8, Spittle-feeders ; 9, Hair-eaters ; 10, Blood-suckers ; 11, Notion-feeders ; 12, Flesh-

THE MANES OR PRETA.

Life, also in the annexed figure. This is the special torment
for those who, in their earthly career, were miserly, covetous,
uncharitable, or gluttonous. Jewels, food, and drink are found
in plenty, but the Pretas have mouths no bigger than the eye
of a needle, and gullets no thicker in diameter than a hair,
through which they can never ingest a satisfying amount of

Tantalized Spieits.
food for their huge bodies. And when any food is taken it
becomes burning hot, and changes in the stomach into sharp
knives, saws, and other weapons, which lacerate their way out
from the bowels to the surface, making large painful wounds.
They are constantly crying "water, water, give water!" And the
thirst is expressed in the picture by a flame which is seen to issue
from their parched mouths, and whenever they attempt to touch

eaters ; 13, Incense-feeders ; 14, Fever-makers ; 15, Secret pryers ; 16, Earth lurkers ;
17, Spirit-rapper's ; 18, Flame-burners ; 19, Baby-snatchers ; 20, Sea-dwellers ; 21, . . . ;
22, King Yama's club-holders ; 23, Starvelings ; 24, Baby-eaters ; 25, Vital-eaters ; 26,
Bakshas ; 27, Smoke-eaters ; 28, Marsh-dwellers ; 29, Wind-eaters ; 30, Ash-feeders ;
31, Poison-eaters ; 32, Desert-livers; 33, Spark-feeders; 34, Tree-dwellers; 35, Road-
dwellers; 36, Body-killers. H

98 THE UNIVERSE OF THE BUDDHISTS.
I water it changes to liquid fire. Avalokita is frequently figured
I in the act of giving water to these Pretas to relieve their misery.1
And a famous story of Buddha credits the great Maudgalya-
yana, the right-hand disciple of " the Blessed One," with having
descended into the Preta-world to relieve his mother. As this
story, the Avalambana Sutra, dating to before the third century
a.d., gives a very vivid picture of this tantalizing purgatory, and
also illustrates the rites for extricating the starveling ghosts,2 it
is here appended.
MIudgalyayana's descent into the Preta pubgatobt.
Thus have I heard. Buddha at one time was residing in the country
of Sravasti, in the garden of Jeta, the friend of the orphans.* At this
time Mugalan, having begun to acquire the six supernatural powers..
(irrdhi), desiring above all things, from a motive of piety, to deliver
his father and mother, forthwith called into use his power of super
natural sight, and looking throughout the world he beheld his unhappy
mother existing without food or drink in the world of Pretas (hungry
ghosts), nothing but skin and bone. Mugalan, moved with filial pity,
immediately presented to her his alms-bowl filled with rice. His mother,
then taking the bowl in her left hand, endeavoured with her right to ¦•
convey the rice to her mouth, but before it came near to her lips, lo !
the rice was converted into fiery ashes, so that she could not eat thereof.
At the sight of this Mugalan uttered a piteous cry, and wept many
tears as he bent his way to the place where Buddha was located.
Arrived there, he explained what had happened, and awaited Buddha's
instruction. On this the Master opened his mouth, and said, " The sin
which binds your mother to this unhappy fate is a very grievous one ;
from it you can never by your own strength rescue her, no ! nor yet
all the powers of earth or heaven, men or divine beings : not all these
are equal to the task of deliverance. But by assembling the priests of
the ten quarters, through their spiritual energy, deliverance may be
had. I will now recount to you the method of rescue from this and
all similar calamities." Then Buddha continued: "On.the 15th day
of the seventh month, the priests of the ten quarters being gathered
together ought to present an offering for the rescue of ancestors
during seven generations past, as well as those of the present genera
tion, every kind of choice food and drink, as well as sleeping materials
and beds. These should be offered up by the assembled priesthood as
though the ancestors themselves were present, by which they shall
obtain deliverance from the pains, and be born at once in a condition
of happiness in heaven." And, moreover, the World-honoured One
1 See my " Indian Cult of Avalokita," J.R.A. S., p. 1, and plates ii. and iii., 1894.
2 Translated by S. Beal in The Oriental, November 6th, 1875. A dramatized version
is common in China.— Cf. Les Fites annuellement ciUbre's a Emoin, J. J. M. de Geoot.

HARITI, THE CANNIBAL SHE-DEVIL. 99
taught his followers certain words to be repeated at the offering of the
sacrifices, by which the virtue thereof would be certainly secured.
On this Mugalan with joy accepted the instruction, and by means of
this institution rescued his mother from her sufferings.
And so for all future time this means of deliverance shall be effectual
for the purpose designed, as year by year the offerings are presented
according to the form delivered by Buddha.
Having heard these words, Mugalan and the rest departed to their
several places, with joyous hearts and glad thoughts.
Belated apparently to this story is the Lamaist account of " The
queen of the Pretas with the fiery mouth," whom the Lamas
identify with the celebrated Yakshini fiendess Hariti, for whom
and her five hundred sons they daily reserve some of their food,
relating in support of this practice the following story, evidently
borrowed from the story of Hariti in the Ratnakuta Sutra : —
Hakiti, the child-eating yakshini, and " queen of pretas."
Hariti, queen of the hungry ghouls with the burning mouths, had
five hundred children, whom she fed on living children. The great
Buddha, " Mohugalaputra," coming to her dwelling, hid away Pingala,
the youngest and most beloved of her sons, in his begging-bowl, un
known to the gods or demons. The mother, on her return, was drowned
in sorrow at the loss of her favourite son, and in her distress appealed
to the omniscient Mohugalaputra for aid to recover him. The Buddha
then showed her Pingala within his bowl, yet all the efforts of Hariti
and her demons failed to release him. So she besought Buddha for aid,
who replied, " You, with five hundred children, mercilessly devour the
children of men who have only two or three, yet you grieve at the loss
of only one ! " The Preta-queen declared that this one was the most
precious of all, and she vowed that were he released she never again
would devour human children. The Buddha, consenting, restored her
child, and gave her the three Refuges and the five Precepts, and (say
the Lamas) he promised that in future all Buddhist monks would give
her a handful of their daily food.1
This practice is probably derived from the Hindu offering of
food and drink to the manes of departed relatives, the Sraddha
ceremonial. Flying visits of mortals to Hades, having their parallels in

1 The Japanese version of this legend and its pictorial illustration are published
by Sir. A. W. Franks, F.R.S., in Jour. Soc. Antiquaries, Vol. liii., 1892. Buddha further
informed her that "You were the ninth daughter of King Chia-ye at the time of
Buddha Kasyapa, and performed many great and rneritorious actions. But because
you did not keep the precepts you received the form of a demon."
H 2

100 METAPHYSICS.

Odysseu's and Dante's visits to purgatory, are found in Lamaism,
where they are known as De-lok, or "the ghostly returning,"
and are used for stirring the people to good behaviour.
Buddhist Metaphysics.
Buddha, being a Hindu, accepted the Hindu theory of the
universe and its fantastic world-system, with the modifications
above indicated, and he started also with the current notions of
metempsychosis and Karma as part of his mental furniture.
According to the theory of metempsychosis, or more properly
palingenesis, which was not unknown to the ancient Hellenic
and even Jewish literature, and western fairy-tales,
" The soul that rises with us, our life's star
Hath had elsewhere its setting."— Wordsworth.
Death merely alters the form, but does not break the continuity of
the life, which proceeds from death to re-birth, and fresh deaths
to i fresh re-births in constant succession of changing states, dis
solving and evolving until the breaking up of the universe after
a kalpa, or almost an eternity of ages. How Buddha modified
this doctrine will be referred to presently.
Karma,1 or the ethical doctrine of retribution, is accepted as
regards its general principle, even by such modern men of science
as Huxley.2 It explains all the acts and events of one's life as
1 Tibetan, las and p'rin-las.
2 Professor Huxley in his lecture on Evolution and Ethics says :—
" Everyday experience familiarizes us with the facts which are grouped under the
name of heredity. Every one of us bears upon him obvious marks of his parentage,
perhaps of remoter relationships. More particularly the sum of tendencies to act in a
certain way, which we call ' character ' is often to be traced through a long series of
progenitors and collaterals. So we may justly say that this ' character,' this' moral
and intellectual essence of a man does veritably pass over from one fleshy tabernacle
to another and does really transmigrate from generation to generation. In the new
born infant the character of the stock lies latent, and the Ego is little more than a
bundle of potentialities, but, very early, these become actualities : from childhood to
age they manifest themselves in dulness or brightness, weakness or strength, vicious-
ness or uprightness : and with each feature modified by confluence with another
character, if by nothing else, the character passes on to its incarnation in new
bodies. "The Indian philosophers called character, as thus defined, 'Karma.' It is this
Karma which passed from life to life and linked them in the chain of transmigrations ;
and theyheld that it is modified in each life, not merely by confluence of parentage
but by its own acts * *¦* # * „ „ *
" In the theory of evolution, the tendency of a germ to develop according to a

KARMA AND PALINGENESIS. 101
the results of deeds done in previous existences, and it creates a
system of rewards and punishments, sinking the wicked through
the lower stages of human and animal existence, and even to hell,
and lifting the good to the level of mighty kings, and even to the
gods. In this way Buddha explained all the acts and events of his life, his
joys and sorrows, his success and failures, his virtues and weak
nesses, as results of things done by him in previous states of life,
which he recalled to mind as occasion arose for teaching purposes.
And thus those anecdotes of the antecedent lives of the Buddha,
— the so-called " Jataka tales" — with the moral lessons derived
from them, came to be among the most cherished items of
Buddhist belief.1
The various regions of re-birth or " ways " of life, the so-called
Gati,2 are pictorially represented in the accompanying drawing
called " The Wheel of Life." They are given as six (or five, as with
the primitive Buddhists when the Titans were not separately
represented), and are thus enumerated in the order of their su
periority : —
1st. The Gods (Sura or Deva, Tibetan, Lha).
2nd. Titans (Asura, T., Lha-ma-yin).
3rd. Man (Nora, T., Mi).
4th. Beasts (Tiryak, T., Du-do3).
5th. Tantalized Ghosts (Preta, T., Yi-dvag).
6th. Hell (Naraka, T., Nal-k'am).
Bournouf 4 writing from Chinese and Ceylonese sources, classes
man above the Titans, but the order now given is that adopted by

certain specific type, e.g., of the kidney-bean seed to grow into a plant having all the
characters of Phaseolus vulgaris, is its ' Karma.' It is the ' last inheritor and the last
result of all the conditions that have effected a line of ancestry which goes back for
many millions of years to the time when life first appeared on earth.' As Professor
Rhys Davids aptly says, the snowdrop ' is a snowdrop and not an oak, and just that
kind of a snowdrop, because it is the outcome of the Karma of an endless series of
past existences.' "
i Buddha's births are usually numbered at 550, of which the latter and more im
portant are called "the Great Births." For list of different forms of existence ascribed
to Buddha in his previous births see Rhys Davids' Jataka Tales. Cf. also Cowell's
edition of the Jatakas translated from the Pali, and Ralston's Tales from the
Tibetan. 2 "Skt., Gdti; Tib., gro-bahi rigs." 3 Literally " the bent goers."
4 Lotus de la bonne Loi, p. 377.

102

METAPHYSICS.

the Lamas.1 Existence in the first three worlds is considered
superior or good, and in the last three inferior or bad. And these

Th&Bomtvi. n&urtera/, u^aU*o4& 41i£ .Vienna, The t^ttri&r G^npartm&tt*
are, nurttierttC as .',.. tftc- t&ti
Ket to Wheel or Life.
(See p. 109.)
worlds are shown in this relation in the picture, the highest being
heaven, and the lowest hell.
The six regions of re-birth are shown in the middle whorl.
1 Conf., Hardy's Man. of Buddhism, p. 37. The Lamaist account is contained in the
" mnon-pa-I mdsod," translated by Lotsawa Bande-dpal j-tsegs from the work of the
Indian Pandit Vasubandhu, etc.

REGIONS OF RE-BIRTH. 103
They are demarcated from each other by rainbow-coloured cordons
representing the atmospheric zones that separate the different
worlds. No place is allotted to the other phases of existence be
lieved in by the Lamas, namely, the everlasting existence in the
western paradise of Sukhdvati and of the celestial Buddhas and
demoniacal protectors of Lamaism, and the expressed absence of
such expressions of the current modern beliefs favours the claim of
this picture to considerable antiquity.
Of these six states all have already been described except the
third and fourth, namely, the state of being a man or a-beast, a
reference to the Buddhist conception of which is necessary to
understand the picture of The Wheel of Life.
The most pessimistic view is of course taken of human life.
It is made to be almost unalloyed misery, its striving, it perenni
ally unsatisfied desire, its sensations of heat and cold, thirst and
hunger, depression even by surfeiting with food, anxiety of the
poor for their daily bread, of the farmer for his crops and cattle,
unfulfilled desires, separation from relatives, subjection to temporal
laws, infirmities of old age and disease, and accidents are amongst
the chief miseries referred to. The miseries of human existence
are classed into eight sections, viz.: The miseries of (1) birth;
.(2) old age ; (3) sickness ; (4) death ; (5) ungratified wishes and
struggle for existence ; (6) misfortunes and punishments for law-
breaking ; (7) separation from relatives and cherished objects ; (8)
offensive objects and sensations.
In the picture the following phases of life are depicted amongst
others : —
1st. Birth in a cottage.
2nd. Children at play.
3rd. Manhood, village scenes, people drinking wine under shade
of a tree, a man playing a flute, women spinning and
weaving, a borrower, two traders, a drunken man.
4th. Labour bysweat of brow, men tilling a field, gathering fuel
in a forest, carrying a heavy load.
5th. Accident, a man and horse falling into a river.
6th. Crime, two men fighting, one under trial before the judge,
and one undergoing corporal punishment.
7th. Temporal government : the king and his ministers.

104 METAPHYSICS.,

8th. Old age — decrepit old people.
9th. Disease, a physician feeling the pulse of a patient.
10th. Death, a corpse with a Lama feeling whether breath be
extinct, and a Lama at the head doing worship, and a
woman and other relatives weeping.
11th. Funeral ceremonies. A corpse being carried off to the
funeral pyre on the top of a hill, preceded by a Lama
blowing a thigh-bone trumpet and rattling a hand
drum : he also has hold of the end of a white scarf which
is affixed to the corpse. The object of this scarf is to
guide the soul by the white path to the pyre so that it
may be disposed of in the orthodox manner, and have
the best chance of a good re-birth, and may not stray
and get caught by outside demons. Behind the corpse-
bearer is a porter with food and drink offerings, and last
of all a mourning relative.
12th. Religion is represented by a temple placed above all other
habitations with a Lama and monk performing worship ;
and a hermit in his cell with bell, woy'ra-sceptre, and
thigh-bone trumpet; and a stupa or eaitya (ch'orten)
circumambulated by a devotee.
The state of the beasts is one of greater misery even than the
human. In the picture are shown land and aquatic animals of
various kinds devouring one another, the larger preying on the
small ; and also small ones combining to catch and kill the larger
ones. Human hunters also are setting nets, for, and others are
shooting game. Domestic animals are shown laden with burdens,
or ploughing and being goaded ; some are being milked and shorn
of their wool, others are being branded or castrated or having their
nostrils bored, others killed for their flesh or skin, etc. All are
suffering great misery through the anxiety and pains of preying
or being preyed upon. In the water is shown a Naga or merman's
house, with its inmates in grief at being preyed upon by the
Garuda, a monster bird, like the fabled roc, which by the rush of
air from its wings cleaves the sea to its depths in its search for
Ndgas. We are now in a position to consider Buddha's conception of
Human Life —

BUDDHA'S THEORY OF THE UNIVERSE. 105
Buddha's Conception of the Cause of Life
and of Misery.1
Apart from its importance as an illustration of the earlier intel
lectual life of humanity, the Buddhist ontology, the most won
derful, perhaps, the world has seen, possesses a paramount interest
for all who would arrive at a right understanding of the religion
and ethics with which it is associated.
Buddha formulated his view of life into a twelve-linked closed
chain called "the Wheel of Life or of 'Becoming'" (Bhavacakra),
or the Causal Nexus (Pratitya Samutpdda) ; which he is repre
sented, in the Vinaya scripture itself, to have thought out under
the Tree of Wisdom.2 The way in which the narrative is couched,
leads, indeed, to the impression that it was precisely the insight
into this " Wheel of Life " which constituted his Buddhahood, and
distinguished him from the other Arhats. However this may
be, he gave it a very leading place in his philosophy, so that the
stanza recounting its utterance, Ye dharmd hetu,3 etc., termed
by English writers " The Buddhist Creed," is the most frequent of
all Buddhist inscriptions, and was certainly in olden days familiar
to every lay Buddhist ; and it is practically identical with " The
four noble Truths," omitting only the initial expression of
" suffering." 4
i The bulk of this article appeared in the J.R.A.S. (1894), pp. 367, etc.
2 Vinaya Texts, Vol. i., pp. 74-84.
3 " Of all objects which proceed from a Cause
The Tathagatha has explained the cause,
And he has explained their cessation also ;
This is the doctrine of the great Samajta."
„ Vinaya Texts, i., 146.
i This famous stanza, says Professor Rhys Davids ( Vinaya Texts, i., 146), doubtless
alludes to the formula of the twelve Nidanas. " The Chain of Causation, or the doc
trine of the twelve Nidanas (causes of existence) contains, as has often been observed
in a more developed form, an answer to the same problem to which the second and
third of the four Noble Truths (Ariya Sacca) also try to give a solution, viz., the prob
lem of the origin and destruction of suffering. The Noble Truths simply reduce the
origin of suffering to thirst or desire (Ta»iha) in its threefold form, thirst for pleasure,
thirst for existence, thirst for prosperity (see i., 6, 20). In the system of the twelve
nidanas Thirst also has found its place among the causes of suffering, but it is not
considered as the immediate cause. A concatenation of other categories is inserted
between ta»ha and its ultimate effect ; and, on the other hand, the investigation of causes
is carried on further beyond taraha. The question is here asked, what does tawha come
from ? and thus the series of causes and effects is led back to Aviggd (Ignorance) as
its deepest root. We may add that the redactors of the Pitakas who, of course, could
not but observe this parallelity between the second and third Ariya Saccas and the

106 METAPHYSICS.

Yet though this chain forms the chief corner-stone of Bud
dhism, it is remarkable that scarcely any two European scholars
are agreed upon the exact nature and signification of some of its
chief links, while the sequence of several links is deemed self-
contradictory and impossible ; and even the alleged continuity of
the whole is doubted. The best western authorities who have
attempted its interpretation, Childers1 and Prof. H. Oldenberg,
have practically given up the problem in despair ; the latter ex
claiming, " it is utterly impossible for anyone who seeks to find
out its meaning, to trace from beginning to end a connected
meaning in this formula." 2
Such conflict of opinion in regard to this " chain " is mainly
due to the circumstance that no commentary on its subtle formula
has ever been published ; and that the only means hitherto avail
able for its interpretation have been the ambiguous Pali and San
skrit terminology for the links themselves. Thus, for one only
of these links, namely, Sanskdra, the following are some of the
many renderings which have been attempted : —
" Constructing, preparing, perfecting, embellishing, aggregation ;
matter ; Karma, the Skandhas. — ('As a technical term, Sankdro has
several decided shades of meaning ... in fact, Sankharo includes
everything of which impermanence may be predicated, or, what is
the same thing, everything which springs from a cause ' — Childers.) 3
Les Concepts. — (Burnouf) i ; Composition notion (Csoma) ; Willen .
(Schmidt) ; Discrimination (Hardy) ; Les idees. (Foucaux) ° ; Ten
dencies, potentialities, confections (Rhys Davids) ; 6 Gestaltungen :
shapes and forms (H. Oldenberg) ; Conformations (W. Hoey).
This bewildering obscurity of its terminology has somewhat

system of the twelve Nidanas go so far in one instance (Ahguttara Nikaya, Tika
Nipata, fol. ke of the Phayre MS.) as to directly replace in giving the text of the four
Ariya Saccas the second and third of these by the twelve Nidanas in direct and reverse.
order respectively." — Vinaya Texts, i., 75.
1 Colebrooke's Mis. Essays 2nd ed., ii., 453 sea.
2 Buddlia, etc., Eng. trans, by Dr. W. Hoey, p. 226. Recently Mr. H. C. Warren, of
Cambridge, Mass. (Proc. American Oriental Society, Ap. 6-8, 1893, p. xxvii), has ad
vocated a looser meaning for the word paccaya, usually translated " cause," without,
however, getting rid of the more serious difficulties which beset the interpretation of
the chain.
3 Pali Diet., p. 453,
4 P. 503.
5 These last four authors are quoted through Koppen, i., 604.
6 Buddhism, p. 91, where the fifty-two divisions are enumerated.

BUDDHA'S SUBTLE CONCEPTION OF LIFE. )07
displaced the chain from its due prominence in the European
books on the system, notwithstanding the importance claimed for
it by Buddhists.
Now I have lately discovered among the frescoes of the ancient
Buddhist caves of Ajanta, in central India, a picture, over thirteen
centuries old, which supplies a valuable commentary on this sub
ject. It portrays in concrete form those metaphysical conceptions
— the so-called Nidana — which, in their Pali and Sanskrit termi
nology, have proved so puzzling to European scholars. And, as
this picture, supplemented by its Tibetan versions and its detailed
explanation as given me by learned Lamas, who are thoroughly
familiar with it, and possess its traditional interpretation,1 affords
a clue to much that is imperfectly understood, and helps to settle
disputed points -of fundamental importance, these advantages seem
to justify my bringing it to notice, and may also, I hope, justify
my attempt, however crude, at exhibiting its continuity as a com
plete authentic .account of human life from the absolute stand
point of the earliest Buddhist philosophy.
One important result of this new interpretation of the ancient
formula will be to show that it seems to possess more in common
with modern philosophic methods and speculations than is usually
suspected. Indeed, it would scarcely be going too far to say that
at a period before the epoch of Alexander the Great, in the valley
of the Ganges, and at a time when writing was still unknown in
India, an Indian anchorite evolved in the main by private study
and meditation an ontological system which, while having much in
common with the philosophy of Plato and of Kant,2 and the most
profound and celebrated speculations of modern times (such as
those of Bishop Berkeley, and Schopenhauer, and Hartmann), yet
far surpassed these in elaborateness. And as this bold system
formed the basis of Buddhist ethics, its formulas came to be re
presented for teaching purposes in concrete pictorial form in the
vestibules of the Indian monasteries and temples, as they still are
in Tibet and China; and although the impermanence of the

1 As current in mediaeval Indian Buddhism.
2 Buddha seems to have propounded the same truth which Plato and latterly Kant
were never tired of repeating, that " this world which appears to the senses has no
true Being, but only ceaseless Becoming ; it is and it is not, and its comprehension is
not so much knowledge as illusion."

108 METAPHYSICS.

rridterials of the painter's art has unfortunately deprived us
rhost of its traces in India, where Buddhism has been extinct ft
centuries, yet I have found it as a relic in the deserted cave
temples of Ajanta.1
Buddha himself may, as the Lamas relate, have originated the
picture of " The Wheel of Life," by drawing it in diagrammatic
fashion with grains of rice, from a stalk which he had plucked
while teaching his disciples in a rice-field. The introduction of
the pictorial details is ascribed to the great Indian monk Nagar
juna, who lived in the second century A.D., under the patronage of
the successors of the Scythian king Kanishka, who we know from
Hiuen Tsiang employed artists in great numbers in the decoration^
of Buddhist buildings. These pictorial details, however, are alleged*
to be objective representations of the self-same similes used by
Buddha himself, who, as is clear from his Sutras or sermons, con
stantly used homely similes and allegories to illustrate his
doctrines. And a general account of the construction of the
picture occurs in the Divydvaddna.2
The particular Indian painting from Ajanta on which the pre
sent article is based, is attributed to the sixth century of our era,3
while the Tibetan picture which supplements it, is alleged, and
with reason, to be a copy of one brought to Tibet by the Indian
monk " Bande Yeshe," in the eighth century a.d.4

1 See its photograph accompanying my article in J.R.A.S., 1894, p. 370.
2 As noted by Prof. Cowell (Maine's Dissertations on Early Law and Custom, p. 50), for
which reference I am indebted to Mrs. Rhys Davids. In the DivyavadSna, pp. 299-300,
it is related how Buddha, while at the Squirrel's Feeding-ground (Kolandaka) in the
Venuvana forest near Rajagriha, instructed Ananda to make a wheel (cakram karayi-
tavyam) for the purpose of illustrating what another disciple, Maudgalyayana, saw
when he visited other spheres, which it seems he was in the habit of doing. The
wheel was to have five spokes (pancagandakam), between which were to be depicted
the hells, animals, pretas, gods, and men. In the middle a dove (paravata), a ser
pent, and a hog were to symbolize lust, hatred, and ignorance. All round the tire was
to go the twelve-fold circle of causation in the regular and inverse order. Beings
were to be represented "as being born in a supernatural way (anpapadukah) as by the
machinery of a water-wheel falling from one state and being produced in another.",)!
Buddha himself is to be outside the wheel. The wheel was made and placed in the ,
"Grand entrance gateway" (dvarakoshthake), and a bhikshu appointed to interpret it. !
3 Burgess, in Rock Temples, 309.
4 And now at Sam-yas monastery. For a technical description of it by me see
J.A.S.B., lxi., p. 133 seq. A confused copy of the picture was figured by Giorm
(Alphab. Tibet), and partly reproduced by Foucaux, Annales du Music Guimet., Tome ¦
sixieme, 1884, p. 290, but in neither case with any explanatory description of its details.

The Wheel or Life,
the Buddhist Theory of the Universe.

[To face p. 108.

THE PICTORIAL WHEEL OF LIFE. 109
The Tibetan form of the picture l here given should be studied
with its Key (p. 102). It is a disc or wheel, symbolizing the end
less cycle of Life (samsdra), of which each re-birth is a revolution.
The wheel is held in the clutches of a monster, who represents the
hideousness of the Clinging to Life. The broad tire is occupied
by the Causal Nexus, and the nave by the three vices or delu
sions, " The Daughters of Desire," the three vices — Rdga, Dvesa,
Moha. Lust, ill-will, stupidity, which lie at the core of re-birth,
and are figured here, as in the other Indian picture on page 6, as
a dove, serpent, and pig, appropriately coloured red, green, and
black ; while the body of the wheel, which is considered to be in
continuous revolution, is filled with pictorial details of Life in its
several forms, or " The Whirling on the Wheel " of Life. And
outside the wheel is a figure of Buddha, showing that he has es
caped from the cycle, to which he is represented as pointing the
way of escape.
The ancient conception of Life under the figure of a wheel of
which each re-birth is a revolution is not confined to Buddhism
and Brahmanism. This fancy finds an echo more than once in
Hellenic literature.2

1 Skt., Bhavacakramudra ; T., Srid-pahi 'K'or-lohi p'yag-rgya, or shortly " Si-pa E' ar
id." The Tibetan form of the picture is of two styles, the " old " and " new." The
latter is given in the attached plate, and it differs from the " old " only in the intro
duction of a figure of Avalokita or the God of Mercy, in the form of a Sage or Muni,
into each of the six worlds of re-birth, and in one or two different pictorial symbols
for the causes of re-birth.
2 Cf. note by Prof. C. Bendall on "Platonic Teaching in Ancient India." — Athenaum,
10th January, 1891. Mrs. Rhys Davids, commenting on my article (J.R.A.S., 1894,
p. 338), writes: "In the Orphic theogony we come across the notion of re-birth considered
as ". weary unending cycle of fate or necessity — kvkKos rrjs yeveo-zas, 6 rrjs p-olpas
Tpoxis, etc. — from which the soul longs to escape, and entreats the gods, especially
Dionysos (Ai6vv<ros \vaioi deb"l \iaiov), for release, — kvk\ov te A.ij£cu xal ajiam>evo-ai
kok6tt)tos. In the verses inscribed on one of three golden funereal tablets dug up near
the site of Sybaris the line occurs : ' And thus I escaped from the cycle, the painful,
misery-laden' (Inscr.gr. Sicil. et Ital. 641). These allusions may be referred to at
second-hand in Herr Erwin Rohde's study of Hellenic ideas respecting the soul and
immortality, entitled Psyche (4to. Hiilfte, pp. 416 et sea.; 509), recently completed.
Pindar, Empedocles, and Plato, as is well known, all entertained the notion of repeated
re-birth in this world at intervals ranging from nine to one thousand years, repeated
twice, thrice, or an indefinite number of times, and, according to the two latter writers,
often including in its phases incarnation as an animal, or even as a vegetable. And
throughout there runs the Orphic ideas of each re-birth being a stage in a course of
moral evolution and effort after purification. But I do not know whether the actual
image of the wheel occurs in other instances besides those I have quoted. Empedocles,

110

METAPHYSICS.

In the pictorial diagram of human life, as conceived by
Buddhist philosophy, the causal nexus begins at the left-hand
side of the top partition. The twelve links round the rim follow
in the usual order and in evolutionary fashion as follows : —

Causal Category.

Evolutionary Stage.

I. Unconscious Will
II. Conformations

III. Consciousness
IV. Self-consciousness
V. Sense - surfaces and
Understanding

VI.

Contact

Sparsa

VII
VIII.

Feeling
Desire

Vedana
Trishna

IX.

Indulgence

Upddana

Fuller Life

Bhava

Birth (of heir)

Jati

XII.

Decay and Death.

Jaramarana

Unconscious Will.

Avidya

SANSKRIT.
Avidya
Sanskara

Vijnana
Narria-rupa

Chadayatana

Stage of passing from Death to
Rebirth.
Shaping of formless physical
and mental materials (in the
Gata).
Rise of Conscious Experience.
Rise of Individuality — distinc
tion between self and not-self.
Realizes possession of Sense-
Surfaces and Understanding
with reference to outside
world.
Exercise of Sense - organs on
outer world.
Mental and physical sensations.
Desire, as experience of pain or
delusive pleasure.
Grasping greed, as satisfying
Desire, inducing clinging to
Worldly Wealth and desire of
heir to it.
Life in fuller form, as enriched
by satisfying desire of married
life and as means of obtaining
heir.
Maturity by birth of heir (which
affords re-birth to another
spirit).
Maturity leads to Decay and to
Death.
Passing from Death to Re-birth.

The key-note to Buddha's system is that Life in any form must
necessarily, and not merely accidentally, be accompanied by suffer-

for instance sees rather a toilsome road or roads of \ife—apya\4as Hdroio Ke\eiBovs.
With Plato, again, we more readily associate his simile of a re-birth as a fall of the
soul from heaven to earth, as it drives its chariot after the procession of the gods,
through the steed of Epithumia being dragged down by its craving for carnal things
—or, as the Buddhist might say, the steed of Chandarago overcome by Upadana for
the skandhas.
" The question of a genetic connection between oriental and Hellenic notions as to
re-birth is of the greatest interest. Prof. Leopold von Schroeder's opinion that such a
connection exists (Pythagoras und die Inder, especially pp. 25-31) seems on the whole
to be well founded."

THE WHEEL OF LIFE. Ill
ing as others had taught. Anityam Duhkham Andtmakam I1 All
is transitory, painful, and unreal !
Buddha, therefore, set himself the task of solving the mystery
of Life in order to find the way of escape from continual Be
comings, which was clearly involved in misery. Being a Hindu,
he adopted the then, as now, current Hindu notion of metem
psychosis or palingenesis, the doctrine, namely, that death merely
: alters the form, but does not break the continuity of life 2 which
proceeds from Death to Re-birth, and fresh Deaths to fresh Re
births in constant succession of changing states dissolving and
evolving until the breaking up of the universe after a Kalpa,
or almost an eternity of countless ages ; though it would appear
probable that Buddha and the primitive Buddhists denied the
real existence of the material and physical world as well as the
vital. In his ontological scheme, while adopting an agnostic attitude
towards the Hindu gods and their creative functions, Buddha does
not begin by attempting to account for the first life. He accepts
the world as a working system on metempsychological lines, and he
evades the necessity for a supernatural creator by interpreting the
Universe, as Will and Idea, and by placing the Karma or ethical
doctrine of retribution in the position of the Supernatural Con
trolling Intelligence or Creator. Perceiving the relativity of
knowledge and that nature furnishes presumptive evidence that
some evolution has taken place in her methods, he throws his
theory of the vital process into a synthetical or developmental
form, showing a gradual transition from the simple to the com
plex, and proceeding from the homogeneous to the heterogeneous
by an ever-changing cosmic order in which everything is dominated
by causality.
The starting point in Buddha's theory of Life is the connecting
link between the old life and the new. Unfortunately, however,
even on so elementary a point as this, there exists no consensus of
opinion as to what Buddha's view of this link precisely was, for
he concerned himself less with the metaphysical aspects of his
philosophy than with the practical alleviation and removal of
1 Pali, Aniccam Dukham Anattam; in Tibetan, Mi-rtag-pa sdug-bsnal-ba, bdag-
med-ba. 2 But see hereafter.

112 METAPHYSICS,

sorrow. He expressly avoided the use of the term "Soul"
(Atman), as this word was already in use in Brahmanism with the
implication of supernatural and theistic creation. Some say that
he taught there is no continuity between the old life and the new,
that the Karma attaches itself to any spirit which may chance to
be re-born at the time of the person's death. But if this be so,
where is the justice of the Karma doctrine? It is said by some
that the sole-surviving thing is Karma, yet this term is used so
elastically as to include products which belong rather to the
category of the Will-to-live. Others say that Vijndna, or con
sciousness alone, survives ; and so on.1
The view adopted in this paper is based upon that held by one
of the Lamas who explained to me the pictorial Nidanas; and it
has the advantages of being not only intelligible, but consistent,
and seems as reasonable as any ontological theory well can be
which postulates a metaphysical absolute.
Our view holds that there is actual continuity of the Individual
life (or Sattva) between death and re-birth. And this identity of
being is supported by the doctrine of Ekotibhava, which word,
according to its Tibetan etymology, means " to become one un
interruptedly." 2
The Surviving Thing, which is carried on into the new career of
the individual, would indeed seem to be identical with what is now
generally known to occidentals as Hartmann's absolute, " the
1 See J.R.A.S., 1892, p. 1 seq., for a tabular abstract by Prof. Rhys Davids on the
authorities for such conflicting views. ¦*J_"f
2 Ekotibhava is another crux of Buddhism." Childers, in quoting Thero Subhuti's
etymology from eko udeti, writes : " Ekodibhavo, the second Jhana, is said to be cetaso
ekodibhavo, which Burnouf renders ' Unity of the mind ' ; but that this is its true
meaning is very doubtful, as will be seen from the full extract sent me. ... In
accordance with this gloss I would be inclined to render ekodibhavo by ' predomin
ance,' rather than by unity, but I do not feel competent to give a decided opinion as
to its meaning."— Diet., p. 134. Dr. Morris (in the Academy, 27th March, 1886, p. 222)
has a note on the subject, followed by Prof. Max Miiller (Academy, 3rd April, 1886, p.
241), who would derive it from eka+kodi ; and Professor Eggeling has a supple
mentary note in the Pali Text Soc. Jour. (p. 32, 1885), in which it is considered a
mental state, and rendered by Prof. Rhys Davids as "exaltation." Prof. Kern
(Introd. to his translation of the Saddlmrma Pundarika, xvii.) in noting the occurrence
of the word ekotibhava in the Lalita Vistara (p. 147, 8, and 439, 6), rejects Subhuti's
etymology of the word, without assigning any reasons. The Tibetan etymology, how
ever, entirely supports Subhuti. It is translated rGyud-gch'ig-tu-gyur-pa, which
means " to become or to be transformed+one+a thread continuous, uninterrupted " ;
and my Manuscript Tibeto-Sanskrit Dictionary restores the word to Eka+urthanan+
bhava.

UNCONSCIOUS WILL. 113

Unconscious Will"; and to this is attached the Karma or retribu
tion of deeds done in former lives.
This, the first link of the Ontological Chain, begins at the instant
when the mortal envelope is thrown off or changed, that is at
" death," and was termed by Buddha the stage of Avidya, which
literally means "Want of Knoivledge," and usually rendered into
English as "Ignorance" or " Nescience." But the word Avidya is
used in different senses. Its ordinary sense is thus defined in the
Vinaya Texts, L, 76:." Not to know Suffering, not to know the
Cause of suffering, not to know the Cessation of suffering, not to
know the Path which leads to the cessation of suffering, this is
called Ignorance." But Avidya, as the initial link of the Causal
Nexus, is, according to our information, what may be termed the
Ignorant Unconscious-Will-to-Live.
The pictorial representation of this link is a blind she-camel
(" Ignorant " Productive Unconscious Will) led by a driver (the
Karma).1 The camel vividly suggests the long and trying journey of the
Unconscious Will across the desert valley of the shadow of death,
past death itself to the dawn of the new life beyond. The sex of
the camel seems to indicate the potential productiveness of the
Unconscious Will. The blindness of the beast represents the dark
ness of the passage and the blind ignorance of the Unconscious
Will, which through spiritual ignorance or stupidity (Moha) be
lieves in the reality of external objects. And the ignorant animal
is led blindly onwards by its Karma.
In the body of the picture are given the details of the progress
across this initial stage to the next link in the chain of casuality.
The manner in which the Karma determines the kind of new life
is concretely represented as a "judgment scene." Here the sins
are figured as black pebbles, and the good deeds as white, which
are weighed against each other in scales. And according to which
ever preponderates so is the place of re-birth in one or other of the
six states. Thus the kind of new life is entirely determined by
the individual's own deeds or Karma, which creates a system of

1 The Tibetan picture usually depicts " a blind old woman " led by a man. This per
version of the Indian picture seems to me to be due to a mistranslation on the part of
the Lamas, who appear to have constructed their picture from a written description
in which the little known word nga-mo, a she-camel, is interpreted as ga-mo, an old

114 METAPHYSICS.

rewards and punishments, sinking the wicked through the lower
stages of human and animal existence and even to hell ; and lifting
the good to the level of mighty kings and sages, and even to the
gods. Here it may be noted that hell is an idealistic state, a sort
of hellish nightmare, the product of the morbid sinful imagina
tion. The ignorant Unconscious Will, as a homogeneous aggregate
under the influence of the three fires of illusion (Trividagni, lust,
ill-will, and stupidity), is thus led by its Karma to one or other
of the six gati or forms of existence with which begins link num
ber II., namely, Conformations (Sanskdra).
Here our picture and its Lamaist tradition have come to our
aid, and rendered it certain that out of the manifold renderings of
Sanskdra attempted by European scholars, as detailed on a pre
vious page, "Conformations " was the one intended by the primitive
Buddhists ; and the Tibetan translation of the Sanskrit word gives
" impression " or " formation " + " action." The picture is a potter
modelling clay on his wheel, and is identical with the Egyptian
image of the creator. It represents the shaping of the crude and
formless physical and mental aggregates of the Unconscious Will
by the Karma, in accordance with " The Judgment."
" Our mind is but a lump of clay,
Which Fate, grim Potter, holds
On sorrow's wheel that rolls alway
And, as he pleases, moulds. "
C. H. Tawney's trans. Vairdgya Satakam.
These so-called aggregates or Skandha (Pali, Khandha) require
some notice. The Buddhists, in their theory of the nature of
sentient beings, pre-suppose the existence of ideal atoms, external
and internal, which, by aggregation, constitute man and the rest
of the universe. These aggregates or Skandha are grouped into
five classes, which are rendered by Professor Ehys Davids as (1)
the Material Properties and Attributes (Rupa) ; (2) the Sensations
(Vedana) ; (3) Abstract Ideas (Sanna); (4) Tendencies or Potenti
alities (Sankhdra) ; and (5) Reason (Vinndna).1 Only the first
of these sets, or the Rupa Skandha, appear to be operated on in
link number II. or Conformations.
Now the Unconscious Will, no longer amorphous, reaches its
1 Buddhism, p. 90.

RISE OF CONSCIOUSNESS, ETC. 115
next stage of development with the rise of Consciousness, or Con
scious Experience (Vijnana), as the third link in the evolutionary
process. This is figured by a monkey, which some learned Lamas
explained to me as showing that the rudimentary man is becoming
anthropoid, but still is an unreasoning automaton. From this it
will be seen that however abstract its basis of metaphysical con
ceptions, or transcendental the causal machinery by which it is
set in motion, Buddha's evolutionary scheme, in its practical
aspects, must necessarily depend on a tolerably comprehensive and
subtle interpretation of human nature.
The rise of Self-Consciousness (Ndma-rwpa, literally " Name "
+ " Form "), as a result of conscious experience, forms the fourth
link or stage, and is represented by a physician feeling the pulse
of a sick man. Here the pulse denotes the individuality or dis
tinction between " Self " and " Not Self." And its Sanskrit title of
" Name and Form " expresses the commonest features of Individu
ality, " comes Ndmarupa, local form, and name and bodiment,
bringing the man with senses naked to the sensible, a helpless
mirror of all shows which pass across his heart." 1 A variant of
this picture in some Lamaist temples is a man in the act of being
ferried across an ocean. It is the Individual crossing the Ocean
of Life.
As a result of Self-Consciousness, the individual now realises his
possession of The Sense-Surface and Understanding (Ghadaya-
tana). And here again the relatively low place given to the
understanding is quite in keeping with modern philosophy. The
picture represents this link by a mask of a human face, " The
empty house of the Senses " ;2 and the understanding is indicated
by a pair of extra eyes gleaming through the brow of the mask.
At this stage seems to be effected the full union of the hitherto
passive will with the active co-efficients of a human nature as
expressed by " The Three Fires, the Buddhist variant of our Devil,
the World and the Flesh" (Rdga,Dvesa,Moha), though these have
been present concurrently from the initial stage of " Ignorance."3
1 Arnold's Light of Asia.
2 The Tibetan picture represents this literally as " an empty house."
3 These Tliree Fires (Skt., Trividhdgni) seem to have been substituted by Buddha
for the Brahmanical "Three Guna," or moral qualities of animated beings — the "bind
ing qualities of matter" (Mon. Williams's Hind., p. 88) — namely, ~sattva (Goodness or
Virtue), rajas (Activity), and tamas (Darkness or Stupidity), which in a mystical sense
i 2

116 METAPHYSICS.

The exercise of the sense organs and the understanding is Con
tact (Sparsa) forming the sixth link or stage, bringing the indi
vidual into relation with the outside world. It is pictured by
kissing, and in some Tibetan frescoes by a man grasping a plough.
It illustrates the exercise of one of the senses.
From Contact comes Feeling (Vedana), both physical and men
tal, including delusive pleasure, pain, and indifference. It is
pictured by an arrow entering a man's eye,1 evidently a symbolic
of " Perception," but explained by the Lamas in such a way as to
render it translatable by "Feeling."
From the operation of Feeling comes Desire or thirst (Trishna).
This stage, dealing with the origin of Desire, perhaps the most
psychologically interesting in Buddhism, is pictured by a man
drinking wine, and the same metaphor, namely, thirst, which is
the literal meaning of the word for thi* link, and is adopted by Sir
Edwin Arnold in his graceful lines —
" Trishna, that thirst which makes the living drink,
Deeper and deeper of the false salt waves
Whereon they float, pleasures, ambitions, wealth,
Praise, fame, or domination Conquest, love,
Rich meats and robes and fair abodes and pride
Of ancient lines, and lust of days, and strife
To live, and sins that flow from strife, some sweet,
Some bitter. Thus Life's thirst quenches itself
With draughts which double thirst. " 2
Thus the conquest of Desire is the greatest step towards Budd
hist salvation.
The Satisfying of Greed, or Indulgence of Desire (Updddna)
forms the next stage. It is pictured by a man grasping fruit and
storing it up in big baskets. It appears to be, and is so explained
by the Lamas, as a clinging or attachment to worldly objects,
rather than to worldly " existence " as Oldenberg has interpreted
it. With the next stage — the tenth link — namely, Becoming

are interpreted as A, U, M (or OM), the Creator, Preserver, and Destroyer. These three
fires which, according to the Buddhists, lie at the core of re-birth, are Lust (T., 'dod-
c'ags, cf. Jaesoh., p. 281), Anger or Ill-will (T., z'e-sdan), and Stupidity (T., gti-mug or
p'rag-sdog, cf. Jaesch., 207 ; Kopp., i., 33).
i In this particular Tibetan picture the sixth and seventh links have been trans
posed. - The Light of Asia, p. 165.

UPADANA—BHAVA—JATI. 117
(Bhava), we reach one of the alleged obstacles in the chain,
an irreconcilable link which puzzles Oldenberg, and which, to
gether with the next link, is deemed inexplicable and altogether
out of place. Up to the preceding link, the ninth, the evolution
has clearly been that of the life history of a man. The tenth
link is rendered by Oldenberg thus : " From ' Clinging to Ex
istence ' comes Re-birth and the Continuance of Being for yet
another existence.." Very naturally he goes on to say that it is
strange to find a man who has long ago " entered on real life "
suddenly becoming a child again. And adds, " How can a man
be born again when he is old," and before he dies ? for death only
happens in the twelfth stage.
But here it would seem as if Oldenberg has misled himself
by introducing the term " Existence" into the previous link and
by interpreting Bhava as " Re-birth."
For we find that Bhava is pictured by a married woman ; and
the Lamas explain the picture by saying that she is the wife of
the individual whose life-history is being traced. The word is
thus given somewhat the sense of Bhavanan (Childers' Diet. :
" a house-dwelling ") ; or, as it might be rendered, " husband-
ship " ; it is the result of the previous link, namely, Greed or
Indulgence in Worldliness. It is literally fuller ". Becoming "
(Bhava) — Life as enriched "by satisfying the worldly desire of
home, and as a means of obtaining an heir to the wealth amassed
by Greed.
The eleventh stage or link is another of the alleged stumbling-
blocks, which, however, ceased to present any difficulty in the
light of the picture and the Lamas' explanation of it. The picture
shows a parent and child. It is the Maturing of the man's life
by the Birth (Jdti) of an heir, and as a result of the married
existence of the tenth stage. It must be remembered that
according to Buddhist belief there is no propagation of species.
Life is held to be indivisible ; hence the child is no relation to his
parents, as the wandering individual finds its family through its
own inherent Karma. This dogma so opposed to experience and
science carried with it its own refutation ; but it forms no
essential part of the evolutionary chain.
Maturity of Life then leads to Decay and Death (Jardmarana),
the twelfth and final stage, which in turn leads on to link No. 1 — -

118 METAPHYSICS.

Re-birth — and so on as before. This stage is pictured as a corpse
being carried off to cremation or burial.
Let us now look at the Chain as a whole. Here we are met by
the difficulty of finding a suitable expression for the word which
connects the several links, the Pali paccaya, usually translated
" cause " or " concurrent occasion." Prof. Rhys Davids writes
(Vinaya Texts, i., 146) : " Hetu and paccaya (the word so
frequently used in the formula of the Nidanas) are nearly
synonymous. Colebrooke (Life and Essays, Vol. ii., p. 419) says
that the Bauddhas distinguish between hetu ' proximate cause,'
and paccaya (pratyaya) ' concurrent occasion ' ; but in practical
use this slight difference of meaning, if it really existed, has but
little weight attached to it." x Mr. Warren believes 2 that the
term " cause " should be used in a very loose and flexible way, and
in different senses, in discussing different members of the series of
links. But as Prof. Oldenberg's rendering — " From
comes " — seems sufficient for our purpose, while it
preserves uniformity and continuity, it is here adopted. The
Chain then runs as follows :
J This same difference is observed by Tibetan writers. Pratitya is rendered by
rkyen, defined by Jaesohke (Lict.,^. 17) as "a co-operating cause" of an event
as distinguished from its proximate (or, rather, primary original) cause rgyu
(Skt., hetu).
2 Loc. cit. He writes: "Now a great deal of the difficulty experienced by
scholars on this subject appears to me to arise from the too strict way in which
they use the word ' cause,' and from the idea which they labour under that
Time plays an important part here, whereas it would appear to have but a
secondary role.
" The term ' cause ' should be used in a very loose and flexible way, and in different
senses, in discussing different members of this series. The native phrase, of which
Chain of Causation is supposed to be a translation, is paticca-samuppdda. Paticca is a
gerund, equivalent to the Sanskrit pratitya, from the verbal root i ' go,' with the pre
fix prati, ' back ' ; and samuppada stands for the Sanskrit samutpdda, meaning a ' spring
ing up.' Therefore the whole phrase means a ' springing up ' [into existence] with
reference to something else, or, as I would render it, ' origination by dependence.'
The word 'chain' is a gratuitous addition, the Buddhist calling it a wheel, and
making Ignorance depend on Old Age, etc. Now it is to be noted that if a thing
springs up — that is to say, comes into being — with reference to something else, or in
dependence on something else, that dependence by no means needs to be a causal one.
In the Pali, each of these members of the so-called Chain of Causation is said to be
the paccaya of the one next following, and paccaya is rendered ' cause.' But Buddha-
ghosa, in the "Visuddhi-Magga, enumerates twenty-four different kinds of paccaya, and
in discussing each member of the paticca-samuppdda, states in which of these senses it
is a paccaya of the succeeding one.
" The Pali texts very well express the general relation meant to be conveyed by the
word paccaya when they say ' If this one [member of the series] is not, then this
[next following] one is not.' "

THE TWELVE-LINKED CHAIN. 119

" From the Ignorance (of the Unconscious Will) come Con
formations. From Conformations comes Consciousness. From
Consciousness comes Self-Consciousness. From Self-Consciousness
come The Senses and Understanding. From the Senses and
Understanding comes Contact. From Contact come Feeling.
From Feeling comes Desire. From Desire come Indulgence,
Greed, or Clinging (to Worldly Objects). From Clinging (to
Worldly Objects) comes (Married or Domestic) Life. From
(married) Life comes Birth (of an heir and Maturity of Life).
From Birth (of an heir and Maturity of Life) come Decay and
Death. From Decay and Death comes Re-birth with its attend
ant Sufferings. Thus all existence and suffering spring from the
Ignorance (of the Unconscious Will) ."
The varying nature and relationship of these formulae is note
worthy, some are resultants and some merely sequences; char
acteristic of Eastern thought, its mingling of science and poetry ;
its predominance of imagination and feeling over intellect ; its
curiously easy and naive transition from Infinite to Finite, from
absolute to relative point of view.
But it would almost seem as if Buddha personally observed
much of the order of this chain in his ethical habit of cutting the
links which bound him to existence. Thus, starting from the
link short of Decay and Death, he cut off his son (link 11), he cut
off his wife (link 10), he cut off his worldly wealth and kingdom
(link 9), then he cut off all Desire (link 8), with its "three fires."
On this he attained Buddhahood, the Bodhi or " Perfect Know
ledge " dispelling the Ignorance (Avidya), which lay at the root
of Desire and its Existence. Nirvana, or " going out," 1 thus seems
to be the " going out " of the three Fires of Desire, which are still
figured above him even at so late a stage as his " great tempta
tion";2 and this sinless calm, as believed by Professor Rhys
Davids,3 is reachable in this life. On the extinction of these
three fires there result the sinless perfect peace of Purity, Good
will, and Wisdom, as the antitypes to the Three Fires, Lust, Ill-
will, and Stupidity ; while Parinirvdna or Extinction of Life
i In Tibetan it is translated " The Sorrowless State " (mya-nan-med). Cf. also
Bubnoot, i., 19 ; Beal's Catena, 174, 183, etc.
2 See Ajanta picture, p. 6.
3 Buddhism, p. 14 ; also O. Fbankfuetee, Ph.D. (in J.R.A.S., 1880, p. 549), who shows
that the three " fires " are also called the three " obstacles " (Eincana).

120 METAPHYSICS.

(or Becoming) was reached only with the severing of the last
fetter or physical " Death," and is the " going out " of every
particle of the elements of " becoming." 1
Amongst the many curious perversions of the latter Buddhism
of India was the belief that by mystical means, the Sattva or
personal entity may, short of death, and whilst yet retaining a
body, be liberated from the influence of Avidya, and thus form
the operation of the causal nexus, and so secure immortality.
Upagupta and many other noted Buddhist sages are believed to
be yet living through this happy exemption.2
Buddha's metaphysics appears in the light afforded by the chain,
to borrow — like so many other world principles professing to solve
the problem of existence — from the distinctions of psychology,
and to be based on Will. Schopenhauer indeed admits the affinity
of his theory with Buddhism. He writes : " If I were to take the
results of my philosophy as the standard of truth I would be
obliged to concede to Buddhism the pre-eminence over the rest.
In any case it must be a satisfaction to me to see my teaching in
such close agreement with a religion which the majority of men
upon the earth hold as their own." 3 Hartmann's absolute or his
1 These are the so-called Skandhas.
2 Although it is a common belief amongst the Burmese that Upagupta still
survives in this way, and, in consequence, is an object with them almost of
worship, the monks cannot point to any ancient scripture in support of this
popular belief.
3 The World as Will and Idea, by A. Schopenhauer, Eng. trans, by Haldane and
Kemp, 1883, ii., p. 371. Schopenhauer indeed claims to have arrived at such agree
ment independently of Buddha's teaching. He writes : " This agreement, however,
must be the more satisfactory to me because, in my philosophising, I have certainly
not been under its influence ; for up till 1818, when my work appeared, there were
very few exceedingly incomplete and scanty accounts of Buddhism to be found in
Europe, which were almost entirely limited to a few essays in the earlier volumes of
'Asiatic Researches,' and were principally concerned with the Buddhism of the
Burmese" (loc. cit., 371). It is, however, probable that Schopenhauer, such an omni
vorous reader, and withal so egotistic, minimizes his indebtedness to Buddha. For
the Vedanta philosophy, to which Schopenhauer admits his indebtedness, is very
deeply tinged by Buddhist beliefs, and Schopenhauer in his system generally
follows the lines of Buddhism ; and in his later writings he frequently uses Buddhist
works to illustrate his speculations. Thus: "We find the doctrine of metempsy
chosis .... in its most subtle form, however, and coming nearest to the truth
. . ¦. . in Buddhism" (loc. cit, iii., 302). And illustrating his theme "of Denial
of the Will to Live," he refers (loc. cit., iii., 445) to Fausboll's Dliammapadam and
Bdenouf's Introduction; and (p. 303) Spence Haedy's Manual, Obey's Du Nirvana
Indien (p. 308) ; Colebrooke, Sangermano, Transactions St. Petersburg Academy of
Science ; and frequently to the Asiatic Researches.

BUDDHISM AS A PHILOSOPHY. 121

Unconscious includes Unconscious intelligence as well as Uncon
scious Will. In Buddhism intelligence is not denied to Will and
accorded a secondary and derivate place as in German pessimism,
and we may even infer, from what is set forth as to the directing
function of the Karma, as well as from its pictorial representation,
that Buddhism in some sense felt the necessity of attributing an
intelligent quality to the unconscious principle in order that it
might pass from the state of migratory abstractiveness to that of
determinate being. But, on the other hand, there is not here as
an essential feature of the system a deliberate ascription of intelli
gence to the unconscious as with Hartmann. The Unconscious
Will-to-live maintains the changes of phenomena. " The world is
the World's process." All " is becoming," nothing " is." It is
indeed, as has been suggested to me, the Flux of Heraclitus, who
also used the same simile of Fire and Burning. " The constant
new-births (palingenesis) constitute," as Schopenhauer, a Neo-
Buddhist says, " the succession of the life-dreams of a will, which
in itself is indestructible until instructed and improved, by so
much and such various successive knowledge in a constantly new
form, it abolishes or abrogates itself." *
As a philosophy, Buddhism thus seems to be an Idealistic
Nihilism; an Idealism which, like that of Berkeley, holds that
" the fruitful source of all error was the unfounded belief in the
reality and existence of the external world " ; and that man can
perceive nothing but his feelings, and is the cause to himself
of these. That all known or knowable objects are relative to a
conscious subject, and merely a product of the ego, existing
through the ego, for the ego, and in the ego, — though it must be
remembered that Buddha, by a swinging kind of positive and
negative mysticism, at times denies a place to the ego altogether.
But, unlike Berkeley's Idealism, this recognition of the relativity
and limitations of knowledge, and the consequent disappearance
of the world as a reality, led directly to Nihilism, by seeming to
exclude the knowledge, and by implication the existence, not only
of a Creator, but of an absolute being.
As a Religion, Buddhism is often alleged to be theistic. But
although Buddha gives no place to a First Cause in his system,
1 Sohopenhauee's Will and Idea, Eng. trans., iii., 300.

122 METAPHYSICS.

yet, as is well known, he nowhere expressly denies an infinite
first cause or an unconditioned Being beyond the finite ; and he
is even represented as refusing to answer such questions on the
ground that their discussion was unprofitable. In view of this
apparent hesitancy and indecision he may be called an agnostic.
In the later developments, the agnostic idealism of primitive
Buddhism swung round into a materialistic theism which verges
on pantheism, and where the second link of the Causal Chain,
namely, Sanskdra, comes closely to resemble the modi of
Spinoza ;x and Nirvana, or rather Pari-Nirvana, is not different
practically from the Vedantic goal : assimilation with the great
universal soul : " The dew-drop slips into the shining sea."
And the latter developments generally have been directed
towards minimizing the inveterate pessimism of Buddha's ethics
which tends to bring the world to a standstill, by disparaging that
optimistic bias which is commonly supposed to be an essential
element in the due direction of all life-processes.
Lamaist Metaphysics.
After Buddha's death his personality soon' became invested with
supernatural attributes; and as his church grew in power and wealth
his simple system underwent academic development, at the hands
of votaries now enjoying luxurious leisure, and who thickly over
laid it with rules and subtle metaphysical refinements and specu
lations. Buddha ceases even to be the founder of Buddhism, and is
made to appear as only one of a series of (four or seven) equally
perfect Buddhas who had " similarly gone " before, and hence
called Tathdgata,2 and implying the necessity for another " com
ing Buddha," who was called Maitreya, or " The Loving One."

i "All Sentient beings exist in the essence (garbha) of the Tathagata." — Angulimaliya
Sutra (Kah-gyur ; Do, xvi. f. 208, transl. by Rook., B., p. 196).
2 This theory of multiple Buddhas and the introduction of the name Tathdgata
seems to have been introduced by the Sautrantika School (Wass., B., 314). This
doctrine is held by the southern Buddhists. Rhys Davids (B., p. 179) writes : " It is
not so necessarily implied in or closely connected with the most important parts of
his scheme as to exclude the possibility of its having arisen after his death " (cf .
also Davids, p. 13, Buddhist Birth Stories; Senaet's La Le'gende du Buddha).

THEISTIC DEVELOPMENTS. 123
Then these (four or seven) Buddhas or Tathagatas are extended
into series of 24, 35 and 1,000 ; in addition to which there are also
Pratyeka or solitary non-teaching Buddhas.
In the second century after the Nirvana1 arose the Mahasahghika
sect (latterly grouped under Vaibhashika) which asserted that the
Buddhas are illusory and metaphysical; that the traditions re
specting the Buddha having been born into the world as men
are incorrect, that the law is Tathagata,2 that the " Buddhas
have passed beyond all worlds (=Lokottaravadina); s that "Tatha
gata is infinitely extended immeasurably glorious, eternal in
duration, that to his power of recollection (ni-smriti), his
power of faith (sradhabala), his experience of joy, and his life
there is no end ; he sleeps not, he speaks, asks, reflects not, they
say that his existence is ever one, and uniform (one heart), that
all things born may obtain deliverance by having his instruction." i
This theistic phase of Buddhism seems foreshadowed even in
orthodox Hinayana scriptures. Thus in the Mahavagga (i., 6, 8)
Sakya Muni is made to say of himself, " I am the all-subduer ;
the all-wise ; I have no stains, through myself I possess know
ledge; I have no rival; I am the Chief Arhat — the highest
teacher, I alone am the absolutely wise, I am the Conqueror
(Jina). " And the Mahasahghika sect of the Hinayana discussed
the eternity and omnipotence of the Buddha. While the Sau-
trantika section asserted the plurality of the Buddhas.
Indeed, even in southern Buddhism, the expressed deification of
Buddha can scarcely be said to be altogether absent. For Ceylon
monks, following an ancient ritual, chant : —
" I worship continually
The Buddhas of the ages that are past,
I worship the Buddhas, the all-pitiful,
I worship with bowed head.

" I bow my head to the ground and worship
1 Mahdwanso, 20-21 . 116 years after Nirvana, Beal in Ind. Antiq., p. 301. The Tibetan
gives the date 110 years and also (Rockhill, B. , p. 182) 160, which is probably a mis
take for the 116 of the Chinese.
2 Beal, loc. cit.
' Rockhill, B., 183, where is given a detailed translation of the features of the
eighteen Hinayana sects.
4 Beal, loc. cit.

124 METAPHYSICS.

The sacred dust of his holy feet,
If in aught I have sinned against Buddha,
May Buddha forgive me my sin. " l
Here Buddha seems prayed to as an existing and active divinity.2
About four centuries after Buddha's death the Mahayana doc
trine had evolved specialized celestial Buddhas and Bodhisatvas
residing in worlds as fabulous as themselves; and the human
Buddhas are made mere manifestations, and reflexes from celestial
counterparts. The Mahayana development seems an offshoot of the Maha-
sanghika sect of primitive Buddhism. It assumed a concrete form
about the end of the first century A.D. under Asvaghosha, who
wrote the Mahayana Sraddhotanda Sastra; but its chief ex
pounder was, as we have already seen, Nagarjuna.
Buddha, it will be remembered, appears to have denied existence
altogether. In the metaphysical developments after his death,
however, schools soon arose asserting that everything exists (Sar-
vastivada 8), that nothing exists, or that nothing exists except the
One great reality, a universally diffused essence of a pantheistic
nature. The denial of the existence of the " Ego " thus forced the
confession of the necessary existence of the Non-ego. And the
author of the southern Pali text, the Milinda Panha, writing about
150 a.d., puts into the mouth of the sage Nagasena the following
words in reply to the King of Sagala's query, " Does the all-wise
(Buddha) exist ? " " " He who is the most meritorious does exist,"
and again " Great King ! Nirwana is." 5
Thus, previous to Nagarjuna's school, Buddhist doctors were
divided into two extremes : into a belief in a real existence and
in an illusory existence ; a perpetual duration of the Sattva and
total annihilation. Nagarjuna chose a "middle way" (Ma-
dhydmika). He denied the possibility of our knowing that

1 Pdtimokkha, Dickson, p. 5.
2 Though some.hold this to be merely a chant for luck and not real prayer.
3 In the middle of the third century after the Nirvana (Beal, loc. cit.) arose the
realistic Sai-vastivada as a branch of the Sthaviras, " those who say all exists, the
past, future and the present," and are called in consequence " they who say that
all exists," or Sarvdstivddina (Rockhill, B., 184).
* Eastern Mon., p. 300, and Rhys Davids' Questions of Milinda.
5 East. Mon., p. 295.

SOPHISTIC NIHILISM. 125
anything either exists or did not exist. By a sophistic nihilism
he "dissolved every problem into thesis and antithesis and
denied both." There is nothing either existent or non-existent,
and the state of Being admits of no definition or formula.
The Prajild pdramitd x on which Nagarjuna based his teaching
consist of mythical discourses attributed to Buddha and addressed
mostly to supernatural hearers on the Vulture Peak, etc. It
recognizes several grades of metaphysical Buddhas and numerous
divine Bodhisats, who must be worshipped and to whom prayers
should be addressed. And it consists of extravagant speculations
and metaphysical subtleties, with a profusion of abstract termin
ology. His chief apocalyptic treatises2 are the Buddhavatansaka,
Samadhiraja and Ratnakuta Sutras. The gist of the Avatah-
saka Sutra may be summarized3 as "The one true essence
is like a bright mirror, which is the basis of all phenomena, the
basis itself is permanent and true, the phenomena are evanescent
and unreal ; as the mirror, however, is capable of reflecting images,
so the true essence embraces all phenomena and all things exist
in and by it."
An essential theory of the Mahayana is the Voidness or Nothing
ness of things, Sunyata,4" evidently an enlargement of the last
term of the Trividyd formula, Andtma. Sakya Muni is said to
have declared that " no existing object has a nature,5 whence it
follows that there is neither beginning nor end — that from time
immemorial all has been perfect quietude6 and is entirely im
mersed in Nirvana." But Sunyata, or, as it is usually translated,
"nothingness" cannot be absolute nihilism for there are, as
Mr. Hodgson tells us, " a Sunyata and a Maha-Sunyata. We are
dead. You are a little Nothing ; but I am a big Nothing. Also
there are eighteen degrees of Sunyata.7 You are annihilated,

- PrajM begins with chaos. She produced all the Tathagatas, and is the mother
of all Bodhisattvas Pratyeka-Buddhas and Disciples (Conf. Cowell and Eggeling's
Gated, Skt. MS., J.R.A.S., N.S. viii., 3).
2 For some details of these see Csoma's An., p. 400.
3 Beal's Catena, 125.
* Tib., Tong-pa Bid.
3 No-vo-Sid.
6 Zod-manas Zi-ba— " nothing has manifested itself in any form " (Schl., 343).
' Hodgson's Essays, etc., 59.

126 METAPHYSICS.

but I am eighteen times as much annihilated ae you." 1 And the
Lamas extended the degrees of " Nothingness " to seventy.
This nihilistic doctrine is demonstrated by The Three Marks and
the Two Truths and has been summarized by Schlagintweit. The
Three Marks are :
1. Parikalpita (Tib., Kun-tag) the supposition or error ; unfounded
belief in the reality of existence ; two-fold error in believing a thing
to exist which does not exist, and asserting real existence when it is
only ideal.
2. Paratantra (T., Z'an-van) or whatever exists by a dependent or
causal connexion, viz., the soul, sense, comprehension, and imperfect
philosophical meditation.
3. Parinishpanna (T., Yon-grub) " completely perfect " is the un
changeable and unassignable true existence which is also the scope of
the path, the summum bonum, the absolute.
The two Truths are Samvritisatya (T., Kun-dsa-bch'i-den-pa) The
relative truth ; the efficiency of a name or characteristic sign. And
Paramarthasatya (Don-dam-pahi den-pa) the absolute truth obtained by
the self-consciousness of the saint in self-meditations.
The world (or Samsara), therefore, is to be renounced not for its
sorrow and pain as the Hinayana say, but on account of its un
satisfying unreality.
The idealization of Buddha's personality led, as we have just
seen, to his deification as an omniscient and everlasting god ; and
traces of this development are to be found even in southern
Buddhism. And he soon came to be regarded as the omnipotent
primordial god, and Universal Essence of a pantheistic nature.
About the first century a.d. Buddha is made to be existent from
all eternity ( Anada). Professor Kern, in his translation of The
Lotus of the True Law, which dates from this time,2 points out
that although the theistic term Adi-Buddha or Primordial Buddha
does not occur in that work, Sakya Muni is identified with Adi-
Buddha in the words, " From the very beginning (ddita eva)
have I roused, brought to maturity, fully developed them (the
innumerable Bodhisats) to be fit for their Bodhisattva position."8
And with respect to the modes of manifestations of the universal
essence, " As there is no limit to the immensity of reason and
measurement to the universe, so all the Buddhas are possessed of

i A. Lillie, J.R.A.S., xiv., 9. 3 Loc. cit., xxv.
Saddharma Pundarika, xxii.

PANTHEISTIC UNIVERSAL ESSENCE. 127
infinite wisdom and infinite mercy. There is no place throughout
the universe where the essential body of Vairocana (or other supreme
Buddha, varying with different sects) is not present. Far and wide
through the fields of space he is present, and perpetually mani
fested.1 The modes in which this universal essence manifests itself are the
three bodies (Tri-kaya), namely — (1) Dharma-kdya2 or Law-body,
Essential Bodhi,3 formless and self-existent, the Dhyani Buddha,
usually named Vairocana Buddha or the " Perfect Justification,"
or Adi-Buddha. (2) Sambhoga-kdyai or Compensation-body,
Reflected Bodhi, the Dhyani Bodhisats, usually named Lochana or
"glorious"5; and (3) Nirmdna-kdya6 or Transform ed-body,
Practical Bodhi, the human Buddhas, as Sakya Muni.7
Now these three bodies of the Buddhas, human and super
human, are all included in one substantial essence. The three
are the same as one — not one, yet not different. When regarded
as one the three persons are spoken of as Tathagata. But there
is no real difference, these manifestations are only different
views of the same unchanging substance.8
One of the earliest of these celestial Buddhas was given the
title of " The Infinite Light " (Amitdbha), and his personality
soon crystallized into a concrete theistic Buddha of that name,
residing in a glorious paradise (Sukhavati) in the West, where
the daily suns hasten and disappear in all their glory, and hence
supposed by some to include a sun myth or to be related to sun-
worship, probably due to Persian influence; for the chief patrons
of the early Mahayana, about the time of the invention of this
myth, were Indo-Seyths, a race of sun-worshippers.
After Nagarjuna, the chief expounder of the Mahayana philosophy
1 Beal's Catena, 123.
2 T., ch'os-sku.
* Eit., p. 180.
4 long-sku.
s It is singular to find these Buddhist speculations bearing so close a resemblance
to the later Greek theories on the same subject, especially in the plain resemblance of
the o-Sip.a abyoetBh or luciform body, to the Lochana (Rajana) or " Glorious Body " of
the Buddhists. Vide Jhe whole subject of these " bodies " treated by Cudwokth,
Intellec. System, ii., 788; Beal's Cat., 123.
8 sprul-sku.
' On these bodies see also Vasiliev, B. (French ed.), p. 127, and Eitel, 179 seq.
s Beal's Catena, 123.

128 METAPHYSICS.

was Vasubandhu, who was less wildly speculative than many of his
predecessors and composed many commentaries.1 Previous to his
day, the nihilism of the Mahayana had become almost mystic in
its sophistry.
This intense mysticism of the Mahayana led about the fifth
century to the importation into Buddhism of the pantheistic idea
of the soul (atman) and Yoga, or the ecstatic union of the in
dividual with the Universal Spirit, a doctrine which had been
introduced into Hinduism about 150 B.C. by Patanjali. This inno
vation originated with Asahga,2 a monk of Gandhara (Peshawar),
whose system is known as the Yogacarya, or "contemplative"
Mahayana. Asahga is credited with having been inspired directly
by the celestial Bodhisat Maitreya, the coming Buddha, and it
is believed that he was miraculously transferred to the Tushita
heavens and there received from Maitreya's hands the gospels
called "The Five Books of Maitreya," the leading scripture of
this party.
His school, the Yogacarya, and especially its later develop
ment (into which magic circles with mantras or spells were in
troduced about 700 a.d.), was entitled " Mantraydna " or " the
mcmira-vehicle." And Yoga seems indeed to have influenced also
the Ceylonese and other forms of southern Buddhism, among
whom flying through the air and other supernatural powers (Irdhi)
are obtainable by ecstatic meditation (though not expressedly
pantheistic), and the recitation of dhdranis3; and the ten " iddhis "
or miraculous supernatural powers, are indeed regarded as the
attribute of every perfected saint or Arhat.4 " Rahats (Arhats)
flying " is a frequent expression in the southern scriptures, and is
illustrated by numerous paintings in the early caves of Ajanta, in
central India.
It is with this essentially un-Buddhistic school of pantheistic
mysticism — which, with its charlatanism, contributed to the decline
of Buddhism in India — that the Theosophists claim kinship. Its
1 Amitayus siitropedesa, Buddhagotra Sastra, on the Saddharma PundarLka, Vajra
Ch'edika, Dasabhumika, etc. ; and also " the Treasury of Metaphysics" (Abidharma
Kos-sa sastra), containing many Sautrantika principles. »
2 For his date conf . Vasil., 225, 230 and previous note. The works of his younger
brother Vasubandhu, were translated into Chinese 557 a.d.
3 Conf. Haedy's E.M., p., 252, and Geimblot, Sept. Suttaspali, p. 328.
4 Childees' Pali Diet.

PANTHEISTIC MYSTICISM AND THEOSOPHY. 129
so-called " esoteric Buddhism " would better be termed exoteric,
as Professor C. Bendall has suggested to me, for it is foreign
to the principles of Buddha. Nor do the Lamas know anything
about those spiritual mediums — the Mahatmas (" Koot Hoomi ")
— which the Theosophists place in Tibet, and give an important
place in Lamaist mysticism. As we shall presently see, the mysti
cism of the Lamas is a charlatanism of a mean necromantic order,
and does not even comprise clever jugglery or such an interesting
psychic phenomenon as mesmerism, and certainly nothing worthy
of being dignified by the name of " natural secrets and forces."
But with its adoption of Tantrism,1 so-called, Buddhism entered
on its most degenerate phase. Here the idolatrous cult of female
energies was grafted upon the theistic Mahayana and the pan
theistic mysticism of Yoga. And this parasite seized strong hold
of its host and soon developed its monstrous growths, which
crushed and strangled most of the little life yet remaining of
purely Buddhist stock.
Tantrism, which began about the seventh century a.d. to
tinge Buddhism, is based on the worship of the Active Pro
ducing Principle (Prahriti) as manifested in the goddess Kali
or Durga, the female energy (Sakti) of the primordial male
(Purusha or Siva), who is a gross presentation of The Supreme
Soul of the universe. In this cult the various forces of nature
— physical, physiological, moral and intellectual — were deified
under separate personalities, and these presiding deities were
grouped into Mdtri (divine mothers), Ddkkini and Yogini
(goddesses with magical powers), etc. And all were made to
be merely different manifestations of the one great central god
dess, Kali, Siva's spouse. Wives were thus allotted to the
several celestial Bodhisats, as well as to most of the other
gods and demons; and most of them were given a variety of
forms, mild and terrible, according to the supposed moods of
each divinity at different times. And as goddesses and

1 Vasiliev designates this stage as " Mysticism " ,- but surely the developed
Mahayana and Yogacarya doctrines were already mystic in a high degree ;
while the name Tantrik expresses the kind of mysticism and also conveys a sense
of Sivaist idolatry, although the word " Tantra," according to its Tibetan etymology
(rgyud), literally means " a treatise," it is restricted both in Buddhism and Hinduism
to the necromantic books on Sakta mysticism. K

130 METAPHYSICS.

she-devils were the bestowers of natural and supernatural
powers and were especially malignant, they were especially
worshipped. About this time the theory of Adi-Buddha,1 which, it has
been seen, existed about the first century a.d., underwent more
concrete theistic development. He becomes the primordial god
and creator, and evolves, by meditation, five celestial Jinas or
Buddhas of Meditation (Dhyani Buddhas), almost impassive,
each of whom, through meditation, evolves an active celestial
Bodhisat-son, who possesses creative functions,2 and each human
Buddha, though especially related to a particular one of the five
celestial Buddhas of Meditation, is produced by a union of re
flexes from each of these latter. For pictures of these deities, see
the chapter on the pantheon, where also I give a table present
ing the inter-relations of these various celestial Buddhas, Bodhi-
sats, and human Buddhas, and also incorporate their mystic
symbolism, although this was probably added in the later Mantra-
yana stage.
It will be seen that the five celestial Jinas are so distributed
as to allot one to each of the four directions,3 and the fifth is
placed in the centre. And the central position thus given him,
namely, Vairocana, is doubtless associated with his promotion to
the Adi-Buddhaship amongst certain northern Buddhists; though
the reformed and unreformed sects of Lamas, differ as regards
the specific name which they give the Adi-Buddha, the former
calling him Vajradhara, doubtless selected as bearing the title
1 Tib., mCh'og-hi dafi-pohi Sahs-rgyas.
2 "According to this system," says Mr. Hodgson, J.A.S.B., xii., 400, "from an
eternal, infinite and immaterial Adi-Buddha proceeded divinely, and not genera-
tively, five lesser Buddhas, who are considered the immediate sources (Adi-Buddha
being the ultimate source) of the five elements of matter, and of the five organs
and five faculties of sensation. The moulding of these materials into the shape
of an actual world is not, however, the business of the five Buddhas, but it is de
volved by them upon lesser emanations from themselves denominated Bodhisattvas,
who are thus the tertiary and active agents of the creation and government of
the world, by virtue of powers derived immediately from the five Buddhas,
ultimately from the one supreme Buddha. This system of five Buddhas provides
for the origin of the material world and for that of immaterial existences. A
sixth Buddha is declared to have emanated divinely from Adi-Buddha, and this
sixth Buddha, Vajrasattva by name, is assigned the immediate organization of
mind and its powers of thought and feeling."
s The five "wisdoms" which the human Buddha embodies are: Ch'o-ki byin ki
ye-s'es, Melon ta-bahi, Nambar-ned-ki, Sosor tog-pahi, Gya-wa du-pahi ye-s'es.

POLYTHEISTIC DEVELOPMENTS. 131
of " Vajra " so dear to Tantrik Buddhists, while the unreformed
sects consider him to be Samantabhadra, that is, the celestial son of
Vairocana. And the Adi-Buddha is not considered wholly inactive
or impassive, for he is frequently addressed in prayers and hymns.
Sakya Muni is the fourth of the Manushi or human Buddhas of
this age, and his Dhyani Buddha is Amitabha, and his corres
ponding celestial Bodhisat is Avalokitesvara, the patron-god of
Lamaism, who is held to be incarnate in the Grand Lama.
The extreme development of the Tantrik phase was reached with
the Kala-cakra, which, although unworthy of being considered
a philosophy, must be referred to here as a doctrinal basis.
It is merely a coarse Tantrik development of the Adi-Buddha
theory combined with the puerile mysticisms of the Mantra-
yana, and it attempts to explain creation and the secret powers of
nature, by the union of the terrible Kali, not only with the
Dhyani Buddha3, but even with Adi-Buddha himself. In this way
Adi-Buddha, by meditation, evolves a procreative energy by which
the awful Samvhara and other dreadful Dakkini-fiendesses, all
of the Kali-type, obtain spouses as fearful as themselves, yet
spouses who are regarded as reflexes of Adi-Buddha and the
Dhyani Buddhas. And these demoniacal "Buddhas," under the
names of Kala-cakra, Heruka, Achala, Vajra-vairabha,1 etc., are
credited with powers not inferior to those of the celestial Buddhas
themselves, and withal, ferocious and bloodthirsty; and only to
be conciliated by constant worship of themselves and their female
energies, with offerings and sacrifices, magic-circles, special
mawim-charms, etc.
These hideous creations of Tantrism were eagerly accepted by
the Lamas in the tenth century, and since then have formed a
most essential part of Lamaism; and their terrible images fill
the country and figure prominently in the sectarian divisions.
Afterwards was added the fiction of re-incarnate Lamas to
ensure the political stability of the hierarchy.
Yet, while such silly and debased beliefs, common to the Lamas
of all sects, determine the character of the Tibetan form of the
doctrine, the superior Lamas, on the other hand, retain much of
the higher philosophy of the purer Buddhism.
1 Compare with the Pancha Raksha, and see chapter on pantheon, pp. 353 and 363.
K 2

Lamas sending Papee-hoeses to Travellers.1

VI.
THE DOCTRINE AND ITS ETHICS.
HE simple creed and rule of conduct which won its
way over myriads of Buddha's hearers is still to be
found in Lamaism, though often obscured by the
mystic and polydemonist accretions of later days. All
the Lamas and most of the laity are familiar with the doctrinal
elements taught by Sakya Muni and give them a high place in
their religious and ethical code.
A keen sense of human misery forms the starting-point of
Buddha's Law or Dharma,2 the leading dogma of which is pro
pounded in " The Four noble Truths,"3 which may be thus sum
marized : —
1. Existence in any form involves Suffering or Sorrow.4
i After Hue.
2 Dharma is best rendered, says RnYS Davids (Buddit., p. 45), by " truth " or
righteousness, and nob by "Law," which suggests ceremonial obseiwances and out
ward rules, which it was precisely the object of Buddha's teaching to do away with.
3 Anja Batydni. T., 'p'ag,s-pa Jden-pa 6z'i.
* The word for Misery (Skt., A srava ; T. 'zag-pa) means " drops," so-called because it
oozes or drops (zag) from out the different regions of the six ayatanas (or sense-sur-

THE TRUTHS OF THE PATH. 133
2. The Cause of Suffering is Desire and Lust of Life.
3. The Cessation of Suffering is effected by the complete con
quest over and destruction of Desire and Lust of Life.
4. The Path leading to the Cessation of Sufferimg is " The
noble Eight-fold Path," the parts 1 of which are : —
1. Right Belief 5. Right Means of Livelihood
2. „ Aims 6. „ Endeavour
3. „ Speech 7. „ Mindfulness
4. „ Actions 8. „ Meditation.
Thus Ignorance (of the illusive idealism of Life) is made the
source of all misery, and the right Knowledge of the nature of
Life is the only true path to emancipation from re-birth or Arhat-
ship ; -and practically the same dogma is formulated in the well-
known stanza called by Europeans " the Buddhist Creed." 2 And

faces) as drops water through holes (Rockhill's Uddnavarga, 10). It seems to convey
the idea of tears as expressive of misery.
1 Anga.
2 " The Buddhist Creed," found so frequently on votive images, is : —
Ye dharma hetuprabhava
Eetun teshdn tathdgatd
Hyavadata teshdn, ca yo nirodlia
Evamuddi mahdsramanah.
It has been translated by Rhys Davids ( Vin. Texts., i'., p. 146) as follows : —
Of all objects which proceed from a Cause
The Tathagata has explained the cause,
And he has explained their Cessation also ;
This is the doctrine of the great Samana.
The Second Stanza, also found frequently on Buddhist votive images in India (see
Buenouf's Lotus, p. 523, and Cunningham's Arch. Surv. Rep. Ind., i., pi. xxxiv., fig.
1, First Stanza), is according to its Tibetan form : —
Sarvapdpasyd karanam
EusalasyopasapraddmSvacittam paridamanu
Etad Buddhdnusdsanam.
Which has been translated by Csoma thus : —
" No vice is to be committed ;
Every virtue must be perfectly practised ;
The mind must be brought under entire subjection.
This is the commandment of Buddha."
In Tibetan the first stanza of " the Creed " is widely known, and is ¦¦—
Ch'os-nam t'am-c'ad rgyu-las byun
De-rgyu de-z'in-gs'egs-pas gsuns
rGyu-la 'gog-pa gan-yin-pa
'Di-skad gsuh-ba dge-spyon-ch'i.

134

THE DOCTRINE AND ITS MORALITY.

the bulk of the Buddhist scriptures is devoted to the proofs and
illustrations of the above dogma.
The Moral Code, as expressed in its most elementary form of
rules for the external conduct, forms the well-known decalogue
(dasa-sila) which enunciates its precepts in a negative and pro
hibitive form, namely : —

1. Kill not.
2. Steal not.
3. Commit not Adultery.
4. Lie not.
5. Drink not Strong Drink.
6. Eat no Food except at the
stated times.

7. Use no Wreaths, Ornaments
or Perfumes.
8. UsenoHighMatsorThrones.
9. Abstain from Dancing, Sing
ing, Music, and Worldly
Spectacles.
10. Own no Gold or Silver and
accept none.

Buddha peeaching the Law
(in the Deer-park [Mriga-dawa] at Benares).

The first five (the panca-sila) are binding upon the laity ; the
whole ten are binding only on the monks; but the layman on cer
tain fast-days, in accordance with a pious vow, observes also one or
more of the next four (Nos. 6 to 9). The more austere rules for
monastic discipline are indicated in the chapter on the monkhood.

BUDDHA'S SERMONS. 135
Sakya Muni's sermons, as presented in the earlier and more
authentic scriptures, have all the simple directness and force
which belong to sayings of " the inspired." As an illustration of
his moral teaching, his popular sermon on " What is the Greatest
Blessing ? " (the Mahgala Sutra)1 is here appended : —
Buddha's Sermon on What is the Greatest Blessing ?
Praise be to the Blessed One, the Holy One, the Author of all
Truth !
1. Thus I have heard. On a certain day dwelt the Blessed One2 at
Srivasta, at the Jetavana monastery, in the Garden of Anathapindaka.
And when the night was far advanced, a certain radiant celestial
being, illuminating the whole of Jetavana, approached the Blessed One
and saluted him, and stood aside, and standing aside addressed him
with this verse : —
Many gods and men yearning after good have held divers things to
be blessings ; say thou what is the greatest blessing ?
1. To serve wise men and not serve fools, to give honour to whom
honour is due, this is the greatest blessing.
2. To dwell in a pleasant land, to have done good deeds in a former
existence, to have a soul filled with right desires, this is the greatest
blessing. 3. Much knowledge and much science, the discipline of a well-
trained mind, and a word well spoken, this is the greatest fclessing.
4. To succour father and mother, to cherish wife and child, to follow
a peaceful calling, this is the greatest blessing.
5. To give alms, to live religiously, to give help to relatives, to do
blameless deeds, this is the greatest blessing.
6. To cease and abstain from sin, to eschew strong drink, to be
diligent in good deeds, this is the greatest blessing.
7. Reverence and lowliness and contentment and gratitude, to receive
religious teaching at due seasons, this is the greatest blessing.
8. To be long-suffering and meek, to associate with the priests of
Buddha, to hold religious discourse at due seasons, this is the greatest
blessing. 9. Temperance and chastity, discernment of the four great truths,
the prospect of Nirvana, this is the greatest blessing.
10. The soul of one unshaken by the changes of this life, a soul
inaccessible to sorrow, passionless, secure, this is the greatest blessing.
11. They that do these things are invincible on every side, on every
side they walk in safety, yea, theirs is the greatest blessing.
Indeed, Buddha's teaching is not nearly so pessimistic as it is

1 From Professor Childers' translation. 2 Bhagava.

136 THE DOCTRINE AND ITS MORALITY.
usually made to appear by its hostile critics. His sermon on
Love (Mitra Sutra) shows that Buddhism has its glad tidings of
great joy, and had it been wholly devoid of these, it could never
have become popular amongst bright, joyous people like the Bur
mese and Japanese.
The stages towards Arhatship 1 or emancipation from re-birth
are graduated into a consecutive series of four (catta,ro-margd)
paths, a fourfold arrangement of " the eightfold paths " above men
tioned ; and these depend upon the doctrinal comprehension of the
devotee, and his renunciation or not of the world, for the higher
stages were only reachable by celibate monks (sramana) or nuns
(sramanerd), and not by the ordinary laity or hearers (sravaka).
Those who have not yet entered any of these stages or paths are
"the ignorant and unwise ones." And Meditation (dhydna) is the
chief means of entry. The first and lowest stage or step towards
Arhatship is the Srottdpatti, or the entering the stream — the
state of the new convert to Buddhism. He is called Sotapanno,
" One who has entered the stream," inevitably carrying him on
ward — though not necessarily in the same body — to the calm ocean
of Nirvana.2 He, .now, can only be re-born 3 as a god or man, and
not in any lower births, though his metempsychoses may yet last
countless ages.4
In the second stage the graduate is called Sakrid-agamin, or
" he who receives birth once more " on earth. He has freed him
self from the first five fetters.
In the third stage he is called An-agami, or " one who will not
come back " to earth. Such a person can only be re-born in a
Brahma heaven, whence he reaches Nirvana.
The fourth and highest stage is the attainment of Arhatship
in this life. Such a graduate will at death experience no re
birth. After Buddha's death seems to have arisen the division of

i Arhant (Pali, Araha, Rahan, Rahat) as its Tibetan equivalent, dgra-bcom-pa, shows,
is derived from AH, an enemy, and han, to extirpate, i.e., " he who has extirpa'ted his
passions." It seems to have been applied in primitive Buddhism to those who com
prehended the four Truths, and including Buddha himself, but lately it was restricted
to the perfected Buddhist saint (Laidlay's Fallian Ki, 94 ; Buen., i., 295 ; ii., 297 ;
Kopp., i., 400; Jaesch., 88).
2 Haedy's Eastn. Mon., Chap. xxii.
•* Only seven more births yet remain for him.
1 According to northern Buddhism for 80,000 kalpas, or cycles of time.

ARHATSHIP AND BODHISATSHIP. 137
Arhats into the three grades of Simple Arhat, Pratyeka-Buddha,
and Supreme Buddha, which is now part of the creed of the
southern school.
Firstly, " the Simple Arhat who has attained perfection
through his own efforts and the doctrine and example of a Supreme
Buddha, but is not himself such a Buddha and cannot teach others
how to attain Arhatship.
"Secondly, and second in rank, but far above the Simple
Arhat, the Pratyeka-Buddha or Solitary Saint, who has attained
perfection himself and by himself alone and not . . . through
the teaching of any Supreme Buddha.
"Thirdly, the Supreme Buddha, or Buddha par excellence (once
a Bodhisattva), who, having by his own self- enlightening insight
attained perfect knowledge (sambodhi) . . . has yet delayed
this consummation (parinirvana) that he may become the saviour
of a suffering world ... by teaching men how to save
themselves.1 The leading religious feature of the Mahayana doctrine was its
more universal spirit. Its ideal was less monastic than the
Hinayana, which confined its advantages practically to its
coeobitical monks. The Mahayana endeavoured to save all beings
by rendering Bodhisatship accessible to all, and thus saving all
beings in the ages to come. It also called itself the " Vehicle of
Bodisats," thus constituting three vehicles (Triyana) which it
described as — (1) Of the hearers or disciples (Sravaka), whose
vehicle was likened to a sheep crossing the surface of a river ; (2)
of the Pratyeka-Buddhas, or solitary non-teaching Buddhas, whose
vehicle was likened to a deer crossing a river ; and (3) of the
Bodhisats, whose vehicle is likened to a mighty elephant which
in crossing a river grandly fathoms it to the bottom. These
vehicles " are, in plain language, piety, philosophy, or rather
Yogism, and striving for the enlightenment and weal of our fellow-
creatures. . . .~ Higher than piety is true and self-acquired
knowledge of eternal laws ; higher than knowledge is devoting
oneself to the spiritual weal of others."2 It thus gave itself the
highest place.
Its theory of Bodhisatship is, to use the words of Professor
1 Summary by Mon. Williams's Buddhism, p. 134 2 Keen, op. cit., p. xxxiv.

138 THE DOCTRINE AND ITS MORALITY.

Rhys Davids, "the keynote of the later school just as Arhatship
is the keynote of early Buddhism.1 The Arhats being dead cannot
be active, the Bodhisattvas as living beings can : " the Bodhi-
sattvas represent the ideal of spiritual activity; the Arhats of
inactivity." But, as Professor Kern shows, one of the earliest of the Mahayana
scriptures, the Saddharma pwndarika, dating at least about the
second century A.D., goes further than this. It teaches that every
one should try to become a Buddha. "It admits that from a prac
tical point of view one may distinguish three means, so-called
Vehicles ' (ydnas), to attain summum bonum, Nirvana, although
in a higher sense there is only one Vehicle — the Buddha Vehicle." 2
To obtain the intelligence (Bodhi) of a Buddha, and as a Bodhi
sat to assist in the salvation of all living beings, the six Pdra-
mitd or transcendental virtues must be assiduously practised.
These cardinal virtues are : —
1. Charity (Skt., ddna3) 4. Industry (virya6)
2. Morality (sila4) 5. Meditation (dhydna7)
3. Patience (kshdnti 5) 6. Wisdom (prajna3)
To which four others sometimes are added, to wit : —
7. Method (updya9) 9. Fortitude (balau)
8. Prayer (pranidhdna 10) 10. Foreknowledge (? dhydna 12)
Sakya Muni, in his last earthly life but one, is held to have satis
fied the Pdramitd of Giving (No. 1 of the list) as prince Visvantara
(" Vessantara ") as detailed in the Jataka of the same name.
Asoka, in his gift of Jambudvipa; and Siladitya, in his gifts at
Prayag (Allahabad), as described by Hiuen Tsiang, are cited as
illustrations of this Pdramitd.
Meditation, the fifth Paramita, was early given an important
place in the doctrine, and it is insisted upon in the Vinaya.13
Through it one arrives at perfect tranquillity (samddhi), which is
believed to be the highest condition of mind. And in the later

i Origin, p. 254. 2 Sacr. Bks. East, xxi., p. xxxiv.
3 sbyin-pa, Csoma, Analy., 399 ; Burnouf, Lotus, p. 544.
1 ts'ul-k'rims. 5 bzod-pa. e botson-'gruj.
' bsam-gtan. 8 s'es-rab. 9 t'abs.
10 smon-lam. u stobs. i2 ye-s'es.
13 For stages of meditation see Bigandet's Legends, etc., 446. Bodhidharma in the fifth
century a.d. exalted meditation as the means of self -reformation.

PARAMITAS— PARADISE OF AMITABHA 139
days of mysticism this led to the ecstatic meditation of Yoga,
by which the individual becomes united with and rapt in the
deity. The ten stages through which a Bodhisat must pass in order
to attain perfection. These stages are called " The Ten1 Heavens "
(dasa bhumisvara2), and are objectively represented by the
ten "umbrellas" surmounting the spire of a caitya, and one
of the treatises of the "nine canons" is devoted to their de
scription.3 In the natural craving after something real and positive, " When
the theory of a universal void became the leading feature of the
Buddhist scholastic development, the question pressed upon the
mind was this : If all things around us are unreal and unsub
stantial, is there anything in the universe real or any true ex
istence ? The answer to this question was that " on the other
shore," that is, in that condition which admits of no birth or
death, no change or suffering, there is absolute and imperish
able existence." 4
The chief of these regions is the western paradise of Amitabha,
named Sukhavati, or " the Happy Land," 5 a figure of which is here
given, as it is the goal sought by the great body of the Buddhists
of Tibet, as well as those of China and Japan. Its invention dates
at least to 100 a.d.,6 and an entry to it is gained by worshipping
Amitabha's son, Avalokita, which is a chief reason for the spell
of the latter, the 0m mani padme Hum, being so popular.
In the seventh century A.D., under Buddha-palita, and in the
eighth or ninth, under Candrakirti, a popular development arose
named the Prasanga Madhyamika (Tib.,T'al gyur-va7), which by a
hair-splitting speculation deduces the absurdity and erroneousness
of every esoteric opinion, and maintained that Buddha's doctrines
establish two paths, one leading to the highest heaven of the
universe, Sukhavati, where man enjoys perfect happiness, but con-
1 They are sometimes accounted thirteen in Nepal (Hodgson, Lang., 16) and also by
the Nih-ma Lamas.
2 See alsoLAiDLAY's FaHian, p. 93 ; J.R.A.S.,xl, 1,21. Sometimes they are extended
to thirteen. Hodgs., supra cit. 4 Beal's Catena, 275.
? For its description see Beal's Catena, p. 117 seq.; Max Mullee's trans, of Sulchdmti-
vyuha, S.B.E., xlix. ; and Saeat, J.A.S.B., 1891.
6 Max Mullee, op. cit., supra ii., xxiii. Avalokita's name also occurs here.
' Vasiliev, B., 327, 357 ; Csoma, J.A.S.B., vii., 144.

fM'fci

I*
If

Iff

fSfPf Kill
fe'lt I

fi^rtfi"IP

MAGICAL POWERS— SIDDHI.

141

nected with personal existence, the other conducting to entire
emancipation from the world, namely, Nirvana.1
The Yoga doctrine of ecstatic union of the individual with the
Universal Spirit had been introduced into Hinduism about 150
B.C. by Patanjali, and is not unknown to western systems.2 It
taught spiritual advancement by means of a self-hypnotizing
to be learned by rules. By moral consecration of the individual
to Isvara or the Supreme Soul, and mental concentration
upon one point with a view to annihilate thought, there resulted
the eight great Siddhi or magical powers, namely (1) " the
ability to make one's body lighter, or (2) heavier, or (3) smaller,
(4) or larger than anything in the world, and (5) to reach
any place, or (6) to assume any shape, and (7) control all natural
laws, to ' Hang like Mahomet in the air,
Or St. Ignatius at his prayer,'3
and (8) to make everything depend upon oneself, all at pleasure
of will — Iddhi or Riddi." On this basis Asahga, importing
Patanjali's doctrine into Buddhism and abusing it, taught4 that
by means of mystic
formulas — dhdranis
(extracts from Maha
yana sutras and other
scriptures) and mantra
(short prayers to
deities) — as spells,
" the reciting of which
should be accompanied
by music and certain
distortion of the fingers
(mudra), a state of
mental fixity (samddhi)
might be reached char
acterized by neither
thought nor annihilation of thoughts, and consisting of sixfold
i Schlagt., 41-42.
2 Compare the remark of Beal, " the end to which Plotinus directed his thoughts was
to unite himself to the Great God ; he attained it by the unitive method of the Quietists."
—Critical Diet., art. Plotinus, quoted through Beal's Catena, 150.
3 Hudibeas, Gesta Roman, 326.
1 His doctrine is contained in the treatise entitled Yogicarya-bhumi Sastra.

Mystic Attitudes or Fingees.

142 THE DOCTRINE AND ITS MORALITY.
bodily and mental happiness (Yogi), whence would result endow
ment with supernatural miracle-working power." These miracu
lous powers were alleged to be far more efficacious than mere moral
virtue, and may be used for exorcism and sorcery, and for purely
secular and selfish objects. Those who mastered these practices
were called Yogacarya.
But even in early Buddhism mantras seem to have been used
as charms,1 and southern Buddhism still so uses them in Paritta
service for the sick,2 and also resorts to mechanical contrivances for
attaining Samadhi, somewhat similar to those of the Yogacarya.3
And many mystic spells for the supernatural power of exorcism
are given in that first or second century a.d. work, Saddharma
Pundarika.4 In the mystic nihilist sense, as the name of a thing was as
real as the thing itself, the written spell was equally potent with
the spoken, and for sacerdotal purposes even more so on account of
the sacred character of letters, as expressing speech and so exciting
the intense veneration of barbarians. No Tibetan will wantonly
destroy any paper or other object bearing written characters.
The general use of the mystic OM, symbolic of the Hindu
Triad AUM, The Creator, Preserver, and Destroyer, probably dates
from this era ; though in the Amaravati tope is figured a pillar of
glory surmounted by OM pVoceeding from the throne supposed to
be occupied by Buddha.5 It is doubtful whether its occurrence in
some copies of the Lalita Vistara and other early Mahayana works,
as the first syllable of the Opening Salutation, may not have been
an after addition of later scribes. The monogram figured on
page 386 is entitled " The All-powerful ten," 6 and is in a form
of the Indian character called Ranja or "Lantsa."
The Tantrik cults7 brought with them organized worship,
litanies, and pompous ritual, offerings and sacrifice to the bizarre

i Eullavagga, v., 6. 2 East. Mon. Rhys Davids' Milinda, 213.
3 Haedy's E.M., chap. "Ascetic Bites." See also the mandala diagrams, p. 252 ; and
" The Contemplation Stone," J.R.A.S., 1894, p. 564.
4 See also Beal's Catena, p. 284, etc.
5 Fergusson's Tree and Serp. Worship, pi. lxxi., figs. 1 and 2.
6 Nam-bc'u-dbah-ldan ; cf . also Chinese name for the Srastika. The letters are 0,
U, H, K, S, M, L, V, R, Y.
' Cf. my Indian- Buddhist Cult of Avalokita, etc., J.R.A.S., 1894; Buenouf's Intro ,
465.

SPELLS— MANTRAS AND DHARANIS.

143

or terrible gods and goddesses for favours, temporal and spiritual.
A supreme primordial Buddha- god and superhuman Buddhas and
Bodhisats, together with their female energies, mostly demoniacal,

Magic" Cikcle." 1

demand propitiation by frequent worship and sacrificial offerings.
This Tantrik ritual is illustrated in the chapters on worship.
The excessive use of these mystic Mantras, consisting mostly of
unmeaning gibberish, resulted in a new vehicle named the
Mantra-ydna, which is a Tantrik development of the Yoga phase

1 From Japan.

144

THE DOCTRINE AND ITS MORALITY.

of Buddhism. Charmed sentences (dhdrani) supposed to have
been composed by these
several divinities them-
selves, are used as
incantations for pro
curing their assistance
in peril as well as in
ordinary temporal
affairs. And by means
of these spells and'
mummerythe so-called
" magic circles " are
formed by which the
divinities are coerced
into assisting the vot
ary to reach "the other
shore." And the
authors of this so-
called "esoteric"
system gave it a re
spectable antiquity by
alleging that its
founder was really
Nagarjuna, who had
received it in two
sections of vajra and
garbha-dhatu from
the celestial Buddha

Vajra-sattva, within
"the iron tower" in
southern India. Its
authorship is, as even
Taranatha himself ad
mits, most obscure.1
The Mantra-ydna
asserts that the state
of the " Great en-

Yantea of ManjuseI.
(From Japanese.)

i Taean., 113.

Magic-Ciecle or Avalokita.

[To face p. 144.

MAGIC-CIRCLES. 145

lighted or perfected"1 that is, Buddhaship, may be attained in
the present body (composed of the six elements) by following the
three great secret laws regarding the body, speech, and thought,2
as revealed by the fictitious Buddha, Vajrasattva.
Its silly secrets so-called comprise the spells of the several
divinities, and the mode of making the magic-circles (manclala)
of the two sorts — the outer and inner (vajradhdtu and garbha-
dhdtu) ; though something very like, or analogous to, magic-circles
are also used in southern Buddhism.3
Some idea of its contemptible mummery and posturing and
other physical means for spiritual advancement is to be gained
from the following three exercises which every Lama should daily
perform : —
The " meditative posture of the seven attitudes " is daily assumed by
the Lama with his associates, in order to subjugate the five senses.
These attitudes are — (1) sitting with legs flexed in the well-known
attitude of Buddha ; (2) the hands resting one above the other in the
lap ; (3) head slightly bent forward ; (4) eyes fixed on the tip of the
nose ; (5) shoulders " expanded like the wings of a vulture ; " (6) spine
erect and " straight like an arrow " ; (7) tongue arching up to the
palate like the curving petals of the eight-leaved lotus. While in this
posture he must think that he is alone in a wilderness. And he now,
by physical means, gets rid of Eaga, Moha, Dvesa— the three " original
sins " of the body — and these are got rid of according to the humoral
physiology of the ancients in the three series of d&uma, roma, and
rkyan-ma. After taking a deep inspiration, the air of the roma veins
is expelled three times, and thus " the white wind " is let out from the
right nostril three times in short and forcible expiratory gusts. This
expels all anger. Then from the left nostril is thrice expelled in a
similar way " the red air " which rids from lust. The colourless
central air is thrice expelled, which frees from ignorance. On con
cluding these processes, the monk must mentally conceive that all

1 Maha-utpanna or " Atiyoga, Tib., dsog-ch'en.
2 sKu, Sun, T'ug. This doctrine seems almost identical with that of the Shin-
gon-shu sect of Japan described by B. Nanjio in his Jap. Buddh. Sects, p. 78.
Taranatha also mentions Nagarjuna's name in connection with its origin, which he
admits is most obscure. It probably arose at the end of the seventh century a.d., as
in 720 a.d. Tajrabodhi brought it with its magic-circles to China.
3 These elaborate circles of coloured clay, etc., are described in detail by Hardy, E.
M., 252, etc., and I have seen diagrams of an apparently similar character in Burmese
Buddhism. Compare also with the mechanical contrivance " the Octagon " (Tib.,
Dab-c'ad) used in the rite sGrub-byed, to concentrate the thoughts and coerce the she-
devils (Dakkini) who confer miraculous powers described. Schlag., p. 247. Cf. also
" Meditation-stone."

146

THE DOCTRINE AND ITS MORALITY.

ignorance, lust and anger — the three original sins — have "disappeared
like frost before a scorching sun."
He then says the " a-lia-ki," keeping his tongue curved like a lotus
petal. This is followed by his chanting " the Yoga of the Lama,"
during which he must mentally couceive his Lama-guide as sitting over
head upon a lotus-flower.
The mere recital of mystic words and sentences (mantra or

Mystic Attitudes.
(Lamas of Established Church.)

dhdrani [T., Z'uh]), and their essential syllable (the germs or
seed, so-called vija) is held to be equivalent to the practice of the
Paramitas, and subdues and coerces the gods and genii, and pro
cures long life and other temporal blessings, and obtains the
assistance of the Buddhas and Bodhisats. Although these

MYSTIC ATTITUDES.

147

Dhdrariis1 were likely introduced to supply the need for incanta
tions their use is alleged to be based upon the doctrine of un
reality of things. As existence is ideal, the name of a thing is
equivalent to the thing itself, and of a like efficacy are the
attitudes (mudra) of the fingers, symbolic of the attributes of
the gods. Thus Om is an acceptable offering to the Buddhas,
Hri dispels sorrow, and by uttering Ho, samddhi is entered. Of
such an ideal nature also were
the paper horses of Hue's
amusing story, which the
Lamas with easy charity be
stowed on belated and helpless
travellers, as figured at the top
of this chapter.
These postures and parrot
like exercises, as practised by
the unreformed and semi-re
formed sects, according to
the book entitled The com
plete esoteric Tantra 2 and the
reputed work of Padma-sam
bhava, are as follows. The cor
responding Ge-lug-pa rites are
not very much different : —
1st. — The mode of placing the three mystic words, body, speech
and thought (ku, sun and t'uk).
2nd. — The nectar-commanding rosary.
Srd. — The jewelled rosary-guide for ascending.
ith. — Secret counsels of the four Yogas.
5th. — The great root of the heart.
&th.—The lamp of the three dwellings.
7th. — The bright loosener of the illusion.
8th. — The water-drawing " dorje."
9th. — The secret guide to the fierce Dakkini.
10th. — The drawing of the essence of the stony nectar.
11th. — Counsel on the Dakkini's habits.
12th. — Fathoming the mystery of the Dakkinis
13th. — Counsel for the Dakkini's heart-root.
lUh. — The four words for the path of Pardo (limbo).
15th. — The Pardo of the angry demons.

•(JS3JA.
Lotus-petals of Heaet.
On meditating upon Celestial Buddhas.
(A Stage in the Magic-Circle.— After Nanjio.)

Conf. Buenout, i., 522-74 ; Vasiliev, 153, 193. 2 jrsan-snga^s /pyi rgyad
L2

148

THE DOCTRINE AND ITS MORALITY.

IQth. — To recognize theGyalwa Big-na or the five celestial Buddhas.
Then "Happiness" is reached — this goal is the sensuous
happiness of the Jina's Paradise or of Sukhavati, that of
Amitabha, the Buddha of Infinite Light.
The transcendental efficacy attributed to these spells fully ac
counts for their frequent repetition on rosaries and by mechanical
means in the " prayer-wheel," flags, etc.
Thus, the commonest mystic formula in Lamaism, the " Om-
ma-ni pad-me Hum," — which literally means " Om! The Jewel in
the Lotus ! Hum ! " — is addressed to the Bodhisat Padmapani

Ni£- CV. <S O

Z~tkm

•shut's

S^ <^ s^5^ cv

The Peayee-Wheel Formula.
Om-ma-^ni pad-me Hum.
who is represented like Buddha as seated or standing within a
lotus-flower. He is the patron-god' of Tibet and the controller of
metempsychosis. And no wonder this formula is so popular and
constantly repeated by both Lamas and laity, for its mere utter
ance is believed to stop the cycle of re-births and to convey the
reciter directly to paradise. Thus it is stated in the Mani-kah-
bum with extravagant rhapsody that this formula " is the essence
of all happiness, prosperity, and knowledge, and the great means
of deliverance " ; for the Om closes re-birth amongst the gods,
ma, among the Titans ni, as a man, pad as a beast, me as a
Tantalus, and Hum as an inhabitant of hell. And in keeping with
this view each of these six syllables is given the distinctive colour
of these six states of rebirth, namely Om, the godly white; ma,

PRAYER-WHEELS AND OM-MANI FORMULA. 149

tat

the Titanic blue; ni, the human yellow; pad, the animal green;
me, the " Tantalic " red ; and
Hum, the hellish black.
But the actual articulation
is not even needed. The mere
inspection of this formula is
equally effective, and so also is
+v,„ • c ii. ¦ • • ,- The OM MANI Foemula
the passing Of this inscription (inIndian..B»ya" characters of about the
before the individual. And to seventh century).
be effective it does not require to be actually visible, it is therefore
printed thousands and millions 1 of times on long ribbons and
coiled into cylinders and inserted into the " prayer-wheels " so-
called, which are revolved everywhere in Tibet, in the hand (see
pages 45, 218, etc.), and as great barrels turned by hand or water
or wind,2 and also printed on stones and on cloth-flags which flutter
from every house, so as to ensure the cessation of metempsychosis
by re-birth in the western paradise.
The origin of this formula is obscure. The earliest date for it
yet found is the thirteenth century a.d.3
What seems to be a more expanded version of this spell is
known to a few Lamas and is met with in Japanese Buddhism
namely, " OM! Amogha Vairocana Mahdmud/ra MANI PADMA
Jvala-pravarthtaya HUM! " But this is addressed to the first
of the Dhyani4 Buddhas, namely, Vairocana, to whom also the
Japanese Mantrayana sect ascribe their esoteric doctrine, but the
ordinary Lamaist formula is unknown in Japan, where its place
is taken by " Ndmo O-mi-to Fo,'\ or " Hail to Amitabha, the
Buddha of Boundless Light."
1 In some of the larger prayer- wheels it is printed 100,000,000 times (Baron Schilling,
cf. Schlag., 121.
2 For wind-prayer vanes, cf. Rock., L., p. 147 cf. ; also Gioegi, 508.
3 Rockhill, in The Land of the Lamas, London, 1891, page 326, notes that Wilhehn de
Rubruk, writing in the second half of the thirteenth century a.d. (Soc. de Geog. de
Paris, iv., page 283) states regarding the Buddhist monks of Karakorum : " Habent
etiam quocumque vadurit semper in manibus quandam testem centum vel ducent-
orum nucleorum sicut nos portamus paternoster et dicunt semper hec verba on man
baccam, hoc est Deus, tu nosti, secundum quod quidam corum interpretatus est michi,
et totiens exspectat, remunerationem a Deo quotiens hoc dicendo memoratur." Mr.
Rockhill also, I find, independently arrives at a similar conclusion to myself as regards
the relatively modern composition of the Mani-Skah-sbum. Cf . also Hue, ii. ; Kopp., ii.,
59-61. * W. Andebson, Catal. Jap. Paintings Brit. Mus.

150

THE DOCTRINE AND ITS MORALITY.

From its mystic nature the Om Mani formula is interpreted
in a great variety of ways, including amongst others the
phallic,1 though this latter sense is seldom accorded it. The
heterodox B6n-pa followers repeat it in reverse fashion, thus
making it mere gibberish.2
THE MYSTIC FORMULAS FOE THE EOSABIES.
The repetition of the mystic formulas for the beads follows the
prayer, properly so-called, and is believed to contain the essence
of a formal prayer, as well as to act as a powerful spell. The
formulas are of a Sanskritic nature, usually containing the name
of the deity addressed, but are more or less wholly unintelligible
to the worshipper.'
Different mantras are needed for different deities ; but the one
most frequently used by the individual Lama is that of his own
tutelary deity, which varies according to the sect to which the
Lama belongs.
The formulas most frequently used are shown in the following
table : —

Name of Deity.

The Spell.

Special kind of
Rosary used.

Dor-je jik-je.3

Om ! Ya-man-ta-taka hum

Human skull or

Skt., Vajra-

phat !

" stomach -stone. "

bhairava

2.
Cha-na dorje.4
Om ! Vajrapani hum phat !
Kaksha.
Skt., Vajrapani.
Om ! Vajra dsan-da maha
ro-khana hum !
Ditto.
Tam-din.5
Om ! pad-ma ta krid hum
Red sandal or coral.
Skt., Hayagriva.
phat !
4.
Cha-ra-si or T'ug-je-
ch'enbo.6 Skt., Avalokita.
Om ! mani pad-me hum !
Conch-shell or crystal.
5.
Dbl-ma jan-k'u.7
Om ! Ta-re tut-ta-re ture
Bo-dhi-tse or tur
Skt., Tara.
sva-ha !
quoise.
6.
Db-kar.8
Om ! Ta-re tut-ta-re mama
Bodhitse.
Skt. , Sitatara.
a yur punye-dsanyana
pusph-pi-ta ku-ru sva-ha !
Om ! sar-ba Bud-dha dakkin-
7.
Dor-je p'ag-mo.9
Ditto.
Skt., Vajra-
ni hum phat !
varahi.
8.
'O-zer-can-ma. l0
Om ! Ma-rl-cye mam sva-
Ditto.
Skt., Marm.
ha !
1 As noted by Hodgson.
2 The characteristic B6n-pa mantra is however :
Jaesch., D., 408 ; Desgodins, 242.
a rdo-rje-'jigs-byed. * p'yag-na rdo-rje.
6 T'ugs-rje-c'en-po. » sgrol-ma jan-k'u.
8 do-rje p'ag-mo. io 'od-zer-c'an-ma.
Ma-tri-mu-tri sa-la dzu." Cf.
5 rta-mgrin.
0 sgrol-dkar.
SPELLS FOR ROSARIES— VAJRAYANA.

151

Name op Deity.

The Spell.

Special kinds of
Rosary used.

Gon-po nag-po.1

Om ! Sri Ma-ha-ka-la hum

Raksha.

Skt., Kalanatha,

phat sva-ha !

10.

Nam-se.2

Om ! Vai-sra-vana ye sva-

Nanga-pani.

Skt., Kuvera.

ha !

11.
Dsam-b'a-la.3
Om ! Jam-bha-la dsalen-
Ditto. >
Skt., Jambhala.
dra ye sva-ha !
12.
Sen-ge-da.4
Om ! a-hrih Sin-ha-nada
Conch-shell or crystal.
Skt., Sinhanada.
hum phat !
13.
Jam-yang.5 Skt. .Manjughosha.
Om ! a-ra-pa-ca-nadhi !
Yellow rosary.
14.
Dem-ch'ok.6
Om ! hrih ha-ha hum hum
Bodhi tse.
Skt., Samvara.
phat !
15
Pad-ma jun-na.7
Om ! Vajra Guru Padma
Coral or bodhitse.
Skt., Padma-sam
sid-dhi hum !
bhava.
The concluding word phat which follows the mystic hum in
many of these spells is cognate with the current Hindustani word
phat, and means " may the enemy be destroyed utterly ! "
The laity through want of knowledge seldom use with their
rosaries any other than the well-known " Jewel-Lotus " formula.
Such mechanical means of spiritual advancement by promising
immediate temporal benefits, have secured universal popularity ;
and possess stronger attractions for gross and ignorant intellects
over the moral methods of early Buddhism. The Chinese
literati ridicule the repetition of these mantras by saying,8
" Suppose that you had committed some violation of the law, and
that you were being led into the judgment-hall to receive sen
tence; if you were to take to crying out with all your might
' Your Worship ' some thousands of times, do you imagine that
the magistrate would let you off for that ? "
On the evolution, in the tenth century, of the demoniacal Bud
dhas of the Kalacakra, the " Mantra "-vehicle was developed into
" The Thunderbolt-vehicle " or Vajraydna, the proficient in
which is called Vajrdcdrya. According to this, the most depraved
form of Buddhist doctrine, the devotee endeavours with the aid of
the demoniacal Buddhas and of fiendesses (Ddkkini) and their
1 mgon-po nag-po.
4 seh-ge-sgra.
3 dsam b'a-la.
« bde-mch'og.
2 rnam-sras.
s 'jam-dbyangs.'
7 pad-ma byun-gnas.
8 Remusat, As. Misc. Most conspicuous amongst the authors of diatribes against
Buddhist worship was Han Yii in the eighth or ninth centuries a.d. Cf. Mayees.
152 THE DOCTRINE AND ITS MORALITY.

magic-circles to obtain the spiritual powers of Siddhi 1 or " The
accomplishment of perfection or of one's wishes." Although the
attainment of Siddhi is below the stage of Arhatship, the Lamas
value, it more highly than the latter on account of its power of
witchcraft. Its mystic insight is classed as the external (Ch'ir-
dub), internal (Nah-dub), and esoteric or hidden (Saii-dub),
and correspond to the body, speech, and thought. Its followers
are called Vajracarya and its rules are detailed by Tson K'hapa.
Its recognized divisions3 are: —
VAJKAYANA.
Lower Tantra Upper Tantra

Kriya Tantra Carya Tantra Yoga Tantra Anuttara Tantra
bya-rgyud spyod rnal-byor bla-na med-pahi-gyvd
In only the last, or Anuttara Tantra, have the tutelary demons
spouses.3 The rampant demonolatry of the Tibetans seems to have
developed the doctrine of tutelary deities far beyond what is
found even in the latest phase of Indian Buddhism, although
I find at many of the mediaeval Buddhist sites in Magadha,
images of several of the devils which are so well-known in Tibet
as tutelaries.
Each Lamaist sect has its own special tutelary fiend, which may
or may not be the personal tutelary of all the individual Lamas of
that particular sect; for each Lama has a tutelary of his own
selection, somewhat after the manner of the ishtd devatd of the
Hindus, who accompanies him wherever he goes and guards his
footsteps from the minor fiends. Even the purest of all the
Lamaist sects — the G-e-lug-pa — are thorough-paced devil-wor
shippers, and value Buddhism chiefly because it gives them the
whip-hand over the devils which everywhere vex humanity with
disease and disaster, and whose ferocity weighs heavily upon
all. The purest G-e-lug-pa Lama on awaking every morning,
^ — — , — — — . — ¦ — ¦ — ,
1 Siddhi, which seems (according to Sir Mon. Williams, Budd., 536), to correspond to
the stage below Arhatship. Eighty Siddhas (saints) are sometimes mentioned. And
amongst their supernatural Irdhi powers they obtain " the Rainbow Body " ('jah-
lus), which vanishes like the rainbow, leaving no trace behind.
2 Cf. Jaesch., D., 112.
3 The directions for these cults are found chiefly in the Nin-ma " revelations " or
terma books.

COERCING THE TUTELARY-FIENDS. 153
and before venturing outside his room, fortifies himself against
assault by the demons by first of all assuming the spiritual guise
of his fearful tutelary, the king of the demons, named Vajrabhairava
or Samvara, as figured in the chapter on the pantheon. The
Lama, by uttering certain mantras culled from the legendary
sayings of Buddha in the Mahayana Tantras, coerces this demon-
king into investing the Lama's person with his own awful aspect.1
Thus when the Lama emerges from his room in the morning, and
wherever he travels during the day, he presents spiritually the ap
pearance of the demon-king, and the smaller malignant demons,
his would-be assailants, ever on the outlook to harm humanity,
being deluded into the belief that the Lama is indeed their own
vindictive king, they flee from his presence, leaving the Lama
unharmed. A notable feature of Lamaism throughout all its sects, and
decidedly un-Buddhistic, is that the Lama is a priest rather than a
monk. He assigns himself an indispensable place in the religion
and has coined the current saying " Without a Lama in front there
is no (approach to) God." He performs sacerdotal functions on
every possible occasion ; and a large proportion of the order is
almost entirely engaged in this work. And such services are in
much demand ; for the people are in hopeless bondage to the
demons, and not altogether unwilling slaves to their exacting
worship. The Chinese contempt for such rites is thus expressed in a
sacred edict of the emperor Yung-Ching.2 " If you neglect to
burn paper in honour of Buddha, or to lay offerings on his altars,
tie will be displeased with you, and will let his judgments fall upon
your heads. Your god Buddha, then, is a mean fellow. Take for
a pattern the magistrate of your district. Even if you never go
near him to compliment him or pay court to him, so long as you

1 This process, called lha-sgrub-pa, implies (says Jaeschke, D., 52) not so much the
making a deity propititious to man (Csoma's definition in his Diet.) as rendering a god
subject to human power, forcing him to perform the will of man. This coercion of
the god is affected by saints continuing their profound meditation (sgom-pa) for months
and years until the deity, finally, overcome, stands before them visible and tangible;
nay, until they have been personally united with and, as it were, incorporated into
the invoked and subjected god. The method of effecting this coercion, of obliging
a god to make his appearance, is also called sgrub-tabs.
2 Bemusat, As. Miscell.

154 THE DOCTRINE AND ITS MORALITY.
are honest folk and attentive to your duty, he will be none the less
ready to attend to you ; but if you transgress the law, if you
commit violence, or trespass on the rights of others, it would be
useless for you to try a thousand ways of flattering him ; you will
always be subject to his displeasure."
Thus had these various influences warped the Buddhist doctrine
in India, ere it reached Tibet, and there the deep-rooted demon-
worship made Lamaism what it is : a priestly mixture of Shamanist
cults and poly-demonist superstitions, overlaid by quasi-Buddhist
symbolism, relieved by universal charity and other truly Buddhist
principles, and touched here and there by the brighter lights of
the teaching of Buddha.
But notwithstanding its glaring defects, Lamaism has exerted a
considerable civilizing influence over the Tibetans. The people
are profoundly affected by its benign ethics, and its maxim, " as a
man sows he shall reap," has undoubtedly enforced the personal
duty of mastery over self in spite of the easier physical aids to
piety which are prevalent.
And it is somewhat satisfactory to find that many of the
superior Lamas breathe much of the spirit of the original
system. They admit the essentially un-Buddhist nature of
much of the prevalent demonolatry, and the impropriety of its
being fostered by the church. They regard this unholy alliance
with the devils as a pandering to popular prejudice. Indeed,
there are many Lamas who, following the teaching of the
earlier Buddhism, are inclined to contemn sacerdotalism al
together, although forced by custom to take part in it.

Novice-Lama beading Sceiptuees.

VII.

THE SCRIPTURES AND LITERATURE.
HE sacred books embodying the "Word" of Buddha
are regarded by the Lamas, in common with all other
Buddhists, as forming the second member of the
Trinity— "The Three precious Ones"— in whom the
pious Buddhist daily takes his " refuge."
The books themselves receive divine honours. They are held

156 THE SCRIPTURES AND LITERATURE.
materially sacred, placed in high places, and worshipped with
incense, lamps, etc. j1 and even fragments of books or manu
scripts bearing holy words are treasured with the utmost rever
ence. It is deemed the grossest profanity for anyone to throw
even a fragment of holy writ upon the ground or to tread
upon it, and in this way the Tibetans, like the Chinese, not in
frequently express their contempt for Christianity by utilizing,
as soles for their shoes, the bundles of tracts which our mission
aries supply to them.
But Buddha, like "the Light of the World," and unlike
Moses and Muhammad, wrote nothing himself; nor does it
appear that his words were even reduced to writing until
about 400 years or more after his death,2 so it is unlikely
that most of his sayings have preserved their original form,
wholly unaltered, in the process of handing them down orally
during several centuries.
The Lamaist scriptures are faithful translations3 from the
Sanskrit texts,* and a few also from the Chinese, made mostly in
the eighth and ninth, and the eleventh to the thirteenth centuries
1 The scriptures are actively worshipped even by southern Buddhists. " The books
are usually wrapped in cloth, and when their names are mentioned an honorific is
added equivalent to reverend or illustrious. Upon some occasions they are placed
upon a kind of rude altar near the roadside, as I have seen the images of saints in
Roman Catholic countries, that those who pass by may put money upon it in order to
obtain merit " (Haedy's East Mon., 192). Compare also with Hindus paying respect to
their Sastras with garlands and perfumes and grains of rice, and the Sikhs to their Granth.
2 The words were at first transmitted down orally ; their recital (bhana = to speak)
is one of the duties of a monk even now. The southern (Pali) scriptures are stated
to have been first reduced to writing in Ceylon in 88-76 B.C., in the reign of King
Vartagamani (Tuenoue, Mahavanso, 207), and the northern by king Kanishka in
the second half of the first century a.d. But as writing was certainly in use in Asoka's
day — 250 B.C. — it is probable that some scriptures were committed to writing at an
earlier period than here assigned to the complete collect. Cf. Oldenbeeg, Vinaya Trip.
xxxviii. s The verbal accuracy of these translations has been testified by Max Miiller, Rhys
Davids, Cowell, Foucaux, Feer, Vasiliev, Rockhill, etc.
i Indian, Kashmiri and Nepalese scriptures. A few of the Tibetan translations were
made from the Pali, e.g., vol. 30 of Sutras (Rockhill's Udvanavarga, x). Some very old
Indian MSS. still exist in Tibet. His Excellency Shad-sgra Shab-pe, one of the Tibetan
governors (bKah-blon) of Lhasa, while at Darjiling about a year ago, on political
business, informed me that many ancient Buddhist manuscripts, which had been
brought from India by mediaeval Indian and Tibetan monks, are still preserved in
Tibet, especially at the old monasteries of Sam-yas, Sakya, Nar-thang and Phiin-tsho-
ling. These manuscripts, however, being worshipped as precious relics, and written
in a character more or less unknown to the Lamas, are kept sealed up and rarely
seen by the Lamas themselves.

THE BOOKS— THE CANON. 157
A.D. ; and a very few small volumes, those first translated into
Tibetan, date to the epoch of Thon-mi Sambhota, about 645 a.d.
None of these Tibetan translations, however, seem to have been
printed until comparatively recent times, though the exact date
of the introduction of printing into Tibet is as yet unknown.
The Tibetan so-called "books" are, strictly speaking, only xylo
graphs, being printed from rudely carved wooden blocks. Mov
able type is unknown, and a large proportion of the books are still
written in manuscript. The great canon, the Kah-gyur, was, it
seems, only printed for the first time, at least in its collected
form, about two hundred years ago.
The paper, which is remarkably tough, is made from the inner
bark of a shrub,1 and comes mostly from Nepal and other parts of
the sub -Himalayas, and the Chinese border-lands. The smaller
abstracts from the scriptures, used by the more wealthy devotees,
are sometimes written on ornate cardboard, consisting of several
sheets of paper pasted together, and varnished over with a black
pigment, upon which the letters are written in silver or gold ;
and occasionally they are illuminated like missals.
Books now abound in Tibet, and nearly all are religious. The
literature, however, is for the most part a dreary wilderness of
words and antiquated rubbish, but the Lamas conceitedly be
lieve that all knowledge is locked up in their musty classics, out
side which nothing is worthy of serious notice.
The Lamaist scriptures consist of two great collections, the
canon and the commentaries, commonly called the " Kang-gyur,
or properly the Kah-gyur,2 and Tan-gyur." 3
The great code, the Kah-gyur, or " The Translated Command
ment," is so called on account of its text having been translated
from the ancient Indian language,4 and in a few cases from the
Chinese. The translators were learned Indian and Kashimri Pan
dits and a few Chinese monks, assisted by Tibetan scholars.5
The code extends to one hundred or one hundred and eight
volumes of about one thousand pages each, comprising one thou-
1 The Daphne Cannabina. See Hodgson in J.A.S.B., 1832, i., p. 8, for an account of
' its manufacture.
2 bkah-'gyur.
3 bstan-'gyur,
* rgya-gar-skad, or " Indian language," and Usually employed as synonymous with
" Sanskrit." 5 L6-tsa-wa.

158 THE SCRIPTURES AND LITERATURE.
sand and eighty-three distinct works. The bulk of this colossal
bible may be imagined from the fact that each of its hundred or
more volumes weighs about ten pounds, and forms a package
measuring about twenty-six inches long by eight inches broad and
about eight inches deep. Thus the code requires about a dozen
yaks for its transport ; and the carved wooden blocks from which
this bible is printed require, for their storage, rows of houses like
a good-sized village.
The Kah-gyur is printed, I am informed, only at two places in
Tibet : the older edition at Narthang,1 about six miles from
Tashi-lhunpo, the capital of western Tibet and headquarters of the
Grand Panch'en-Lama. It fills one hundred volumes of about one
thousand pages each. The later edition is printed at Der-ge 2 in
eastern Tibet (Kham) and contains the same matter distributed in
volumes to reach the mystic number of one hundred and eight.
In Bhotan an edition is printed at Punakha ; 8 and I have heard
of a Kumbum (Mongolian) edition, and of one printed at Pekin.
The ordinary price at Narthang is about eight rupees per volume
without the wooden boards. Most of the large monasteries even
in Sikhim possess a full set of this code. The Pekin edition pub
lished by command of the emperor Khian-Lung, says Koppen, sold
for £600 ; and a copy was bartered for 7,000 oxen by the Buriats,
and the same tribe paid 1,200 silver roubles for a complete
copy of this bible and its commentaries.4 The Kah-gyur was
translated into Mongolian about 1310 a.d. by Saskya Lama
Ch'os-Kyi 'Od-zer under the Saskya Pandita, who, assisted by a
staff of twenty-nine learned Tibetan, Ugrian, Chinese and Sans
krit scholars, had previously revised the Tibetan canon by col
lating it with Chinese and Sanskrit texts, under the patronage of
the emperor Kublai Khan.
The contents of the Kah-gyur and Tan-gyur were briefly
analyzed by Csoma,6 whose valuable summary, translated and

1 sN'ar-tan. '¦> sDe-dge.
3 So I have been told.
1 And a copy also of this edition seems to be in the St. Petersburg Academy of
Sciences, obtained about 1830 by Baron Schilling de Canstadt, together with about
2,000 Mongolian and Tibetan treatises. — Bulletin Historico-philologique del 'Acadlmie de
St. Piterbourg, torn, iv., 1848, pp. 321-329.
5 Vol. xx., As. Researches,

THE CANON. 159

indexed by Feer,1 and supplemented in part by Schiefner and
Rockhill, forms the basis of the following sketch. Hodgson's copy
of the Kah-gyur, on which Csoma worked at Calcutta, contained
one hundred volumes, and appears to have been printed from the
wooden types prepared in 1731, and which seem to be still in
use at Narthang.
The Kah-gyur is divisible into three 2 great sections, the Tripi-
taka,3 or three vessels or repositories, corresponding generally to
the less inflated Pali version of the Tripitaka of the southern
Buddhists, which has, however, no counterpart of the mystical
Sivaist treatises, the Tantras. The three sections are : —
I. The Dul-va (Skt., Vinaya), or Discipline, the compilation of
which is attributed to Upali,4 in thirteen volumes.
II. The D6 (Skt., Sutra), or Sermons (of the Buddhas), compiled
by Ananda6 in sixty-six volumes inclusive of Tantras. As these dis
courses profess to be the narrative of the disciple Ananda,6 who is
believed to have been present at the originals as uttered by Bud
dha, most of these Sutras commence with the formula : Evam
mayd srutam, " Thus was it heard by me ; " but this formula now
is almost regarded by many European scholars as indicating a
fictitious sutra, so frequently is it prefixed to spurious sutras, e.g.,
the Amitabha, which could not have been spoken by Buddha or
recited by Ananda. The Lamas, like the southern Buddhists,
naively believe that when Buddha spoke, each individual of the
assembled hosts of gods, demons, and men, as well as the various
kinds of lower animals,7 heard himself addressed in his own
vernacular. III. The Ch'os-non-pa (Skt. Abidharma), or Metaphysics,

1 M. Leon Feer published in 1881 a translation of Csoma's Analysis under the
title Analyse du Eandjour et du Tandjour in the second volume of the " Annales du
Musee Guimet," and appended a vocabulary giving all the names which occur in
Csoma's Analysis, with an Index and Table Alphabitique de Ouvrages dus Eandjour.
And he gave further extracts in Vol. v. of the same serial.
2 Another classification of the canonical scriptures, especially amongst the Nepalese,
is given by Hodgson (Lang. 13, 49) as " The nine scriptures (Dharmas)," namely :
1. PrajSa paramita. 2. Gandha-vyuha. 3. Dasa-bhiimisvara. 4. Samadhi-raja. 5.
Lankavatara. 6. Saddharma Pundarika. 7. Tathagatha guhyaka (containing the
secret Tantrik doctrines). 8. Lalita Vistara. 9. Suvarna-prabhasa.
3 sde-snod jsum. ¦* Nye-var-'K'or. 5 'Kun-dgah-wo.
6 At the first great council when Buddha's word was collated
7 Cf. also Beal's Romantic Legend, 244-254, Gya Tscher Rol-pa, ch. 26.

160 THE SCRIPTURES AND LITERATURE.
including Transcendental Wisdom (S'er-p'yim, Skt., Prajnd Pd
ramitd), attributed to Maha, Kasyapa, in twenty-one volumes.
These three sections are mystically considered to be the anti
dotes for the three original sins; thus the discipline cleanses
from lust (Rdga), the sermons from ill-will (Dvesa), and the
wisdom from stupidity (Moha).
By subdividing the Do or Sutra section into five portions, the
following sevenfold division of the canon results : —
" I. Discipline or Dul-va (Skt., Vinaya), in thirteen volumes, deals
with the religious discipline and education of those adopting the
religious life, and also contains Jdtakas, avadanas, vyakaranas, sutras,
andridanas." (It is the Vinaya of the Sarvastivadains, and its greater
portion has been abstracted by Rockhill.1) It is sub-divided into seven
parts :
1. "The Basis of Discipline or Education (dul-va-gz'i, Skt., Vinaya
Vastu), in four volumes (K, K', G, and N), translated from the Sanskrit
in the ninth century by the Pandits Sarvajfiyadeva and Dharmakara
of Kashmir and Vidyakara-prabha of India, assisted by the Tibetan
Bandes dPal-gyi lhunpo and dPal-brtsegs. (The chief Jataka and other
tales interspersed through these volumes form the bulk of Schiefner's
collection of Tibetan tales, translated into English by Ralston.)
2. " Sutra on Emancipation (So-vor-t'ar-pai-mdo, Skt., Pratimoksha
Sutra)2 in 30 leaves.
3. " Explanation of Education (Dul-va nam-par-'byed-pa, Skt.,
Vinaya vibhdga) in four volumes. Enumerates the several rules
(K'rims) of conduct, 253 in number, with examples of the particular
transgression which led to the formation of these laws. Directions
for dress and etiquette.
4. " Emancipation for Nuns (dGe-slon mahi so-sor thar pai mod, Skt.,
Bhikshuni pratimoksha Sutra), 36 leaves in the ninth volume (T).
5. "Explanation of the Discipline of the Nuns (Skt. , Bhik. Vinaya
vtbhaga) in preceding volume (T).
6. " Miscellaneous Minutiae concerning Religious Discipline (Dul-va
p'ran-ts'egs-kyi gz'i, Skt., Vinaya Kshudraka Vastu), in two volumes.
7. "The highest text book on Education" (Dul-va gzun bla-ma
Vinaya Uttara Grantha), in two volumes (N and P), and when spoken
of as " the four classes of precepts " (lin-de-zhi) the division comprises
1, 2 and 3, 6 and 7.
II. Transcendental Wisdom (" Ses-rab kyi p'a-rol-tu p'yin-pa," or
curtly, "Ser-ch'in" (Skt., Prajndrpdramitd), in twenty-one volumes.

1 The Life of the Buddha, etc. Also in part, but not directly for the Dulva, by
Schiefner in his Tibetische Liebenbescriebung Sakra, impl., St. Petersburg, 1849.
2 Cf. translation from the Tibetan by Rockhill, and from the Pali by Rhys Davids
and Oldenbeeg, Vinaya Texts.

THE CANON. 161

They contain, in addition to the metaphysical terminology, those
extravagantly speculative doctrines entitled Prajna-paramita, which
the Mahayana school attributes to Buddha's latest revelations in his
mythical discourses mostly to supernatural hearers at the Vultures'
Peak at Rajgriha.1 There is no historical matter, all is speculation,
and a profusion of abstraction.
The first twelve volumes, called 'Bum (Skt., Sata Sahasrikd) or
"the 100,000 (slokas of Transcendental Wisdom)," treat fully of
the Prajna-paramita at large, and the remaining volumes are merely
various abridgments of these twelve. Thus the three volumes called
Ni-k'ri (pron. Nyi-thi) or " the 20,000 (slokas)" is intended for those
monasteries or individuals who cannot purchase or peruse the full text ;
while the single volume, entitled the brgyad-ston-pan (ashta sahasrika)
or 8,000 (slokas), contains in one volume the gist of the Prajna-para
mita, and is intended for the average and junior monks. This is the
volume which is figured on the lotus which Manjusri, the Bodhisat
of wisdom, holds in his left hand. And for the use of the schoolboys
and the laity there is a recension of three or four leaves, entitled
"Transcendental Wisdom in a few letters" or Yige-nun-du (Skt.,
Alpa akshara).2 And mystically the whole is further condensed into
" the letter A, which is considered " the mother of all wisdom," and
therefore of all men of genius ; all Bodhisatvas and Buddhas are said
to have been produced by "A" since this is the first element for
forming syllables, words, sentences, and a whole discourse.
One of the most favourite Sutras and a common booklet in the
hands of the laity, is "the Diamond-cutter" (rDo-rje gc'od-pa, Skt.,
Vajrach'edika)- In it Bhagavati (Sakya) instructs Subhuti, one of his
disciples, in the true meaning of the Prajna-paramita.3
The full text (Bum) was translated from the Sanskrit in the ninth
century by the Indian pandits Jina Mitra and Surendra Bodhi, and
the Tibetan interpreter Ye-s'es-sde.
III. " Association of Buddhas " (P'al-c'ar, Skt., Buddhavatansaka),
in six volumes. Description of several Tathagatas or Buddhas, their
provinces, etc. Enumeration of several Bodhisats, the several degrees
of their perfections, etc.
This great Vaipulya (or developed Sutra) is alleged to have been
preached by Buddha in the second week of his Buddhahood and before
he turned the " Wheel of the Law" at Benares. And it is asserted to
have been delivered in nine assemblies at seven different places, and is
thus given pre-eminence over the first historic discourse at Sarnath.
IV. "The Jewel-peak" (dkon-brtsegs, Skt., Ratna-kuta). Enu-
1 They are alleged to have been delivered in sixteen assemblies at the following
sites : Gridhrakuta, Sravasti, Venuvana, and the abode of the Paranirmita-vasa-
vartins. cf. Bun. Nanjio's Jap. Budd. Sects, p. xvii.
2 This probably corresponds to the Mahaprajna paramita hridaya Sutra, translated
by Beal (Catena, 282), and perhaps the original of the more expanded treatises.
3 It has been translated from the Sanskrit by Cowell, Mahayana Texts, ii., xii.
M

162 THE SCRIPTURES AND LITERATURE.

meration of several qualities and perfections of Buddha and his
doctrine. V. The Aphorisms (Tib., mDo or mDo-sde Sutra or Sutrdnta).
Ihe amplified or developed Sutras are called Vaipulya. In a general
sense, when the whole Kha-gyur is divided into two parts, mDo and
rGyud, all the other divisions except the rGyud are comprehended in
the mDo class. But in a particular sense there are some treatises
which have been arranged under this title. They amount to about
270, and are contained in thirty volumes. The subject of the works
is various. The greatest part of them consist of moral and meta
physical doctrine of the Buddhistic system, the legendary accounts of
several individuals, with allusions to the sixty or sixty-four arts, to
medicine, astronomy, and astrology. There are many stories to ex
emplify the consequences of actions in former transmigrations, descrip
tions of orthodox and heterodox theories, mural and civil laws, the six
kinds of animal beings, the places of their habitations, and the causes
of their being born there, cosmogony and cosmography according to
Buddhistic notions, the provinces of several Buddhas, exemplary
conduct of life of any Bodhisat or saint, and in general all the twelve
kinds of Buddhistic Scriptures l are to be found here.
The second volume (K) contains the romantic biography of
Buddha — the Lalita Vistara, translated by M. Foucaux.2 The seventh
volume (J) contains the Saddharma Pundarika,3 or White Lotus of the
Holy Law, translated from the Sanskrit into French by Burnouf, and
into English by Prof. H. Kern,4 and the most popular treatise with
Japanese Buddhists. The eighth volume (N) contains "the Great
Decease " (Mahdparinirvdna). The ninth volume has, amongst others,
the Surangama Samddhi Sutra referred to by FaHian. The twenty-
sixth volume (L), folios 329-400, or chapters of " joyous utterance "
(Udanas), contains the Uddnavarga,5 which Schiefner showed to be the
Tibetan version of the Dhammapada ; and which has been translated into
1 This twelve-fold division (gsuh rab yan-lay bc'u-gnLs) I here extract from the
Vyutpatti in the Tan-gyur: 1. Sutran (mdo-sdehi-sde) discourses. 2. geyam (dbyaiis
kyis Ssfiad), mixed prose and verse. 3. Vyakaranan (lun du-Jstan), exposition. 4.
Gdtlul (Tshigs-su-bc'ad), verse. 5. Uddnan (C'ed-du-Jrjod). 6. NidanaA (glih-gzhi).
7. Avaddnan (rtogs-pa-brjod). 8. Ilirrittahan (de-lta bw byun). 9. Jataka (skyes-pa-
rabs). 10. Vaipulyan (shin-tu-rgyas), very expanded. 11. Atbhiitdharmmah (rmad-
du byun), mysteries. 12. Upadesah (gtun-la-xlbab). This division, says Burnout
(Introd., p. 45-60), writing of Nepalese Buddhism, is made up of the older nine angas
mentioned by Buddhagosha, a.d. 450, to which were added at a later period Nidana,
Avadana, and Upadesa. Conf. also Childees' Diet., Buenouf's Lotus, 355, 356;
Haedy's Man. ; Hodgson's Ess., 15 ; Rhys Davids' Budd., 214.
2 Also summarised by Csoma (A nal., 413) andVASiL.,2}., 3,4, 176; Feee's Intro., p. 72.
Also abstracted by Rockhill, B., ii. ; and in part from the Sanskrit by Raj. Mitra.
3 Dam-pahi ch'os padma dkar-po.
* Vol. xxi., Sacred Books of the East.
6 Ch'ed-du brjod pai ts'oms ; see also Csoma's An., -p. 477. Its commentary by Praj-
fiavarman (a native of Bengal who lived in Kashmir in the ninth century — Tdrandtlia,
p. 204, Rockhill, xii.) is in Vol. lxxi. of Tan-gyur.

THE CANON. 163

English with copious notes by Mr. Rockhill. It contains three hundred
verses, which " are nearly identical with verses of the Dhammapada ;
one hundred and fifty more resemble verses of that work." The varia
tions show that the northern translation was made from a different
version than the Pali,1 and from, as Mr. Rockhill believes,2 a " Sanskrit
version in the dialect prevalent in Kashmir in the first century B.C., at
which period and in which place the compiler, Dharmatrata,3 prob
ably lived."
From this (Do) division of the Kah-gyur are culled out the Indian
mystic formulas, mostly in unintelligible gibberish, which are
deemed most potent as charms, and these form the volume named
mDo-man gzuh4 osdus, or curtly, Do-maii or "assorted aphor
isms " — literally " many Sutras." These formulas are not used in
the worship of the Buddhas and superior gods, but only as priestly
incantations in the treatment of disease and ill-fortune. And as
these spells enter into the worship of which the laity have most
experience, small pocket editions of one or other of these mystic
Sutras are to be found in the possession of all literate laymen, as
the mere act of reading these charms suffices to ward off the demon-
bred disease and misfortune.
The remaining divisions of the canons are : —
VI. Nirvana (Mya-nan-las-'das-pa), in two volumes. An extended
version, part of the eighth volume of the mDo on " The Great Decease,
or Entire deliverance from Pain." " Great lamentation of all sorts of
animal beings on the approaching death of Shakya ; their offerings or
sacrifices presented to him ; his lessons, especially with regard to the
soul. His last moments ; his funeral ; how his relics were divided and
where deposited." "° ___
VII. Tantra (j-gyud), in twenty -two volumes. "These volumes in
general contain mystical theology. There are descriptions of several
gods and goddesses. Instruction for preparing mandalas or circles
for the reception of those divinities. Offerings or sacrifices presented
to them for obtaining their favour. Prayers, hymns, charms, etc.,
addressed to them. There are also some works on astronomy, as
trology, chronology, medicine, and natural philosophy."6
In the first volume (K) are found the Kalacakra doctrine T and
Sambara. In the third the history of the divine mothers Vdrdhi, etc.
1 Rockhill's Uddnavarga, ix.
2 Loc cit., x.
3 Taranatha, p. 54, lig. 8.
1 gz'uhs = Skt. dharani, which is a mystic spell like the Hindii Mantra,
5 Csoma, An., p. 487.
6 Csoma, An., p. 487.
' Csoma, Gram., p. 172; Diet., 488.
M 2

164 THE SCRIPTURES AND LITERATURE.
In the seventeenth volume (M) the expelling of devils and Naga-
worship. The Tathagata-guhyaka contains a summary of the Sivaic
esoteric doctrine.
The word " Tantra," according to its Tibetan etymology, literally
means ' " treatise or dissertation," but in Buddhism as in Hinduism, it
is restricted to the necromantic books of the later Sivaic or Sakti
mysticism. The Tantras are arranged into " The four classes " (gyud sde bzhi) :
1. Kriyd Tantra (bya-bai-r gyud).
2. Cdryd T. (spyod-pai rgyud).
3. Yoga T. (rual-'byor rgyud).
4. Anuttara Yoga T. (rnal-'byor bla-na med-pai rgyud) or " The
peerless Yoga."
The first two form together the lower division ('og-ma), and the
latter two the higher division (gon-ma). It is only in the Anuttara
Yogatantras, including the Atiyoga (Ds og-ch'en), that the tutelary
fiends and their Jinas have female energies or Matris.
Those translated from the eighth to the eleventh centuries a.d. are
called " the Old," while the latter are " the New." Amongst those
composed in Tibet are the Hayagriva, Vajraphurba and sKu-gsun-t'ugs
yon- tan 'p'rin las. THE COMMENTARIES (TAN-GYUR).
The Buddhist commentators, like those of the Talmud, overlay
a line or two with an enormous excrescence of exegesis.
The Tibetan commentary or Tan-gyur is a great cyclopedic
compilation of all sorts of literary works, written mostly by
ancient Indian scholars and some learned Tibetans in the first
few centuries after the introduction of Buddhism into Tibet,
commencing with the seventh century of our era. The whole
makes two hundred and twenty-five volumes. It is divided into
the classes — the rGyud and mDo (Tantra and Sutra classes in
Sanskrit). The rGyud, mostly on tantrika rituals and ceremonies,
make eighty-seven volumes. The mDo on science and literature
one hundred and thirty-six volumes. One separate volume con
tains hymns or praises on several deities and saints. And one
volume is the index for the whole.2 The first sixteen volumes
of the mDo class are all commentaries on the Prajna-paramita.
Afterwards follow several volumes explanatory of the Madhyamika
philosophy (of Nagarjuna) which is founded on the Prajna-paramita.3

i Jaeschke, p. 112. 2 Csoma, An., 553.
3 A few of the individual treatises have been translated, either in full or abstract,
by Schiefner, Rockhill, etc. Nagarjuna's Friendly Epistle (bches-pahi p'rin yig), by
Wenzel in J. Pali Text Soc, 1886

COMMENTARIES AND VERNACULAR, 165
One volume contains the Tibeto-Sanskrit dictionary of Buddhist
terminology, the " bye-brag-tu rtogs byad (pron. je-tak-tu tog-je)
— the Mahavyutpati.1 Under this heading would also come the
later commentaries, such as the Bodhi-patha(in Mongolian — Bodhi
Mur). Its contents include rhetoric, grammar, prosody, mediaeval
mechanics, and alchemy. But its contents have not yet been
fully examined.2 THE INDIGENOUS TIBETAN LITERATURE.
The indigenous works composed in Tibet are for the most part
devoted to sacred subjects. The secular books exist, as a rule,
in manuscript, as the printing is in the hands of the monks.3
The sacred books may be divided into (a) apocryphal and
(6) authentic or quasi-authentic.
The apocryphal works are the most numerous and most popular.
Chief amongst these are the fictitious " revelations " or Terma
books, already referred to in describing the part which they played
in the origin of the sects of Lamaism. These Terma books may
be recognized by their style of caligraphy. For instead of the
opening sentences and chapters commencing with the hook-like
symbol for Om, duplicated or triplicated, as on the cover of this
book, and the punctuation periods being vertical lines, as in
ordinary orthodox books, the Terma books commence with the
ordinary anusvdra (am), or a vertical stroke enshrined in a
trefoil-like curve, and their periods are marked by two small
circles one over the other, like the Devanagari visarga, but with
a curved line with its concavity upwards, intervening. These
" revelations," it will be remembered, pretend to be the composi
tion of St. Padma, the founder of Lamaism.4

1 The Sanskrit text of which has been published by Maiyaneff ; and much of it is
abstracted in the Buddhistische Triglotte, printed by Schiefner, St. Petersburg, 1859.
2 The 2nd vol. of the Annales du Music Guimet contains some additional notes on
the Tan-gyur by M. Leon Feer.
3 Most of the printing-monastic establishments issue lists of the books which they
sell. 4 Amongst the better known are : The Golden Rosary of Displayed Letters (T'ug-
yig gser-'p'reh), found by Sang-gyas gling-pa ; The Displayed Lotus Orders (Padma
bkah-t'an), found by O-rgyan gling-pa ; Ka-t'ang Zang-gling ma ; The Lamp En-
lightener of Prophecy (Lung-brtan gsal-bai sgron-me). Also of this nature are :
The Directions for the Departed Soul to find its way to bliss (Pa-cha-to's-sgrol).

166 THE SCRIPTURES AND LITERATURE.
To this revelation class belong also the fictitious works attri
buted to King Sron Tsan Grampo.1
Of the other most common apocryphal works found in Sikhim
are the Nd-yik, or " Story of the Sacred Sites of Sikhim," and Lha-
tsun's inspired manual of worship for the great mountain god
Kanch'en-dso-ha (English, Kinchinjunga). Each monastery pos
sesses in manuscript a more or less legendary account of its own
history (deb-t'er), although this is kept out of sight. In the
Lepcha monasteries and in the possession of a few Lepcha laymen
are found the following, mostly translations from the Tibetan :
(1) Tdshi Sun, a fabulous history of St. Padma-sambhava; (2) Guru
Ch'6 Wan; (3) Sakun de-lok, the narrative of a visit to Hades by
a resuscitated man named Sakun ; 2 (4) Ek-doshi man-lom — forms
of worship.
The large work on the Naga demigods — the Lu-'bum dkar-po —
is regarded as a heterodox B6n-po book.8
As authentic works may be instanced, the religious chronologies
(Ch'os-'byuh) and records (Deb-t'er) by Bu-ton, and Padma-kar-
po ; the histories (Suh-'bum) of Zhva-lu L6-tsa, and Taranatha's
well-known history of Buddhism in India, and a useful cyclo
pedia by an Amdo Lama entitled T'ub-dbah bstan-pahi Nima ;
and as quasi-authentic the fifth Grand Lama's " royal pedigree." *
All begin with pious dedicatory sentences and usually end with
the Buddhist wish that the writer may acquire merit through
his literary work.
But most of the autobiographies so-called (rNam-t'ar) and re
cords (Yig-tsan or deb-t'er) are legendary, especially of the earlier
Lamas and Indian monks are transparently fictitious, not only on
account of their prophetic tone, though always " discovered " after
the occurrence of the events prophesied, but their almost total
absence of any personal or historic details. Some of the later ones
x (1) Mani bKah-bum (already referred to), the legendary history of Avalokita and
a maze of silly fables. (2) S'alch'em or Sron Tsan Gampo's Honourable Will or
Testament, and (3) an exoteric volume entitled " The Sealed Commands," bka-rgga-
ma, which is kept carefully secreted in some of the larger monasteries. It belongs to
the silly esoteric class of books called SaA-nak.
2 Cf. also the play of Nahsa, The Brilliant Light, Chap. xx.
3 A German translation by Schiefner of the smaller version has been published by
the St. Petersburg Acad. (Das Weisse Ndga Hnnderh tmtsend.) Cf. also Rockhill, L.,
p. 217, n.
4 gyal-rabs [Skt., Rajvansa].

INDIGENOUS BOOKS. 167
deahng with modern personages are of a somewhat more historical
character, but are so overloaded by legends as to repel even en
thusiastic enquirers.
The leading ritualistic manuals of the various sects are of a
more or less authentic character, and small pocket editions of these
prayer books (smon-lam) and hymns (bstod-tsogs) are very
numerous.1 Individual Lamas possess special books according to
their private means and inclinations, such as the 100,000 songs1 of
the famous mendicant sage Mila-rd-pa on the worship of Tara,
and other favourite or tutelary deities, and the mode of making
their magic-circles. Mongol Lamas have the Dsang-lun. The
specialist in medicine has one or more fantastic medical works,
such as Mannag-rgyud, S'ad-gyud; and the Tsi-pa or astrologer
has the Baidyur karpo and other books on astrological calculations
and sorcery, many of which are translated from the Chinese.
Some further details of ritualistic books are found in the
chapters on the monkhood and on ritual, where several abstracts
are given.
The secular works, through most of which runs a more or less
Buddhistic current, are mainly annals or chronicles (16-rgyu).
Good and clever sayings and reflections (rtogs-brjod), as " The
precious rosary" (rin-ch'en-p'ren-wa), a collection of proverbs, and
drinking songs.
Tales more or less fabulous (sgruhs). The best known of these is
that of Ge-sar (= ? Ozar or Cesar), who is described as a mighty war-like
king of northern Asia, and who is made to figure as a suitor for the
hand of the Chinese princess before her marriage with Sron Tsan Gam
po, although it is evident the legendary accounts of him must be more
ancient. Baber 3 refers to the story-book named Djriung-yi 4 songs. °
i The Ge-lug-pa monk's manual is " The Bhikshu's Timely Memoranda (dGe-slon-
gi-du-dran), and his other special books are the two volumes by Tson K'apa entitled :
The Gradual Path (Lam rim c'en-bo), a doctrinal commentary based on Atisa's version
of the Bodi Patha Pradip, and The Gradual Path of Vajradhara (rDor-c'an Lam-
rim), a highly Tantrik book. (Cf. Csoma, Or., 197.) For Bodhi-mur (Bodhi-patha), see
Schmidt's Ssanang Ssetsen.
2 gLu-b'um.
3 Op. cit., p. 88.
4 Rock., B., p. 288, suggests this maybe rGyus-yi-dpe.
5 Amongst indigenous geographical works is " A Geography of the World " (Dsam-lin
gye-she). The references to countries outside Tibet are mainly confined to India, and are
even then very inexact. Its most useful section is that descriptive of Tibet, translated
by Saeat, J.A.S.B., 1887, pp. 1 et seq. See also Wei-tshang thn shi, abstracted by
Klaproth from the Chinese. Cf. also Csoma's enumeration of Tibetan works, J.A.S.B.,
vii., 147 ; ix., 905.

168 THE SCRIPTURES AND LITERATURE.
THE LAMAIST LIBRARY.
The Lamaist library is usually situated within the temple.
The large books are deposited in an open pigeon-holed rackwork.
The sheets forming the volume are wrapped in a napkin ; and
the bundle is then placed between two heavy wooden blocks, as
covers, which bear on their front end the name of the book in
letters graved in relief and gilt. The whole parcel is firmly bound
by a broad tape and buckle tied across its middle. These ponderous
tomes are most unwieldy and not easy of reference. When the
book is read away from tables as is usually the case, it is held
across the knees, and the upper board and the leaves as they are
read are lifted towards the reader and repiled in order in his lap.
Before opening its fastenings, and also on retying the parcel, the
monk places the book reverently on his head, saying, "May I
obtain the blessing of thy holy word."
Copyists of manuscript, as well as composers and translators,
usually conclude their work with a short stanza expressing their
pious hope that " this work here finished may benefit the (unsaved)
animals." An enormous mass of Lamaist literature is now available in
Europe in the collections at St. Petersburg, mainly obtained from
Pekin, Siberia, and Mongolia ; at Paris, and at the India Office, and
Boyal Asiatic Society 1 in London, and at Oxford, mostly gifted by '
Mr. Hodgson.2
The St. Petersburg collection is the largest, and extends to
over 2,000 volumes.3
1 Catalogue of these, by Dr. H. Wenzel, in J.R.A.S., 1891.
2 The India Office copy of the canon was presented to Mr. Hodgson by the Dalai
Lama. Notices of these occur in various volumes of the Melana. Asiat. de St. Petersb.

A Lamaist Peocession.1

VIII.

THE LAMAIST ORDER AND PRIESTHOOD.

"Without the Lama in front,
God is not (approachable)." — Tibetan Proverb.
JS in primitive Buddhism, the monastic order or con
gregation of the Virtuous Ones 2 forms the third
member of the Trinity, "The Three most Precious
Ones" of Lamaism. But owing to the rampant
sacerdotalism of Tibet, the order is in a much higher position
there than it ever attained in Indian Mahayana Buddhism, accord
ing to the current Tibetan saying above cited.
The order is composed of Bodhisats both human and celestial.
The latter occupy, of course, the highest rank, while the so-called
incarnate Lamas,3 who are believed to be incarnated reflexes from

1 After Giorgi. 2 Skt., Sangha ; Tib., AGe-dun. 3 sprul-sku, or ku-s'o.

170 THE ORDER OF LAMAS.
a superhuman Buddha or Bodhisat or a reborn saint, are given an
intermediate position, as is detailed in the chapter on the hier
archy. The Lamas are " the Bodhisats who have renounced the world," '
and thus are held to correspond to the Sangha of primitive
Buddhism consisting of the Bhikshus (mendicants), Srdmaneras
(ascetic) and Arhats. The nuns, excepting the so-called incar
nations of celestial Bodhisats (e.g., Dorje-p'agmo), are given an in
ferior position scarcely higher than lay devotees.
While the laity, corresponding to " the pious householders and
hearers " 2 of the primitive Buddhists, who under the Mahayana
system should be " the Bodhisats who reside in their houses," are
practically excluded from the title to Bodhisatship or early Buddha-
hood like the Lamas, and are contemptuously called the " Owners of
Alms," 3 those " bound by fear," 4 and the " benighted people ; " 6
although the lay devotees are allowed the title of Updsaka and
Updsikd 6 if keeping the five precepts, and those who are uncelibate
are called " the pure doer " ; 7 while the Nen-t'o or Nen-nd 8
keep four of the precepts.
The supreme position which the Lamas occupy in Tibetan society,
both as temporal and spiritual rulers, and the privileges which they
enjoy, as well as the deep religious habit of the people, all combine
to attract to the priestly ranks enormous numbers of recruits. At
the same time it would appear that compulsion is also exercised
by the despotic priestly government in the shape of a recognized
tax of children to be made Lamas, named bTsun-gral Every
family thus affords at least one of its sons to the church. The
first-born or favourite son is usually so dedicated in Tibet.9 The
other son marries in order to continue the family name and in
heritance and to be the bread-winner ; and many families contribute
more than one, as the youths are eager to join it.
1 Pravrajya.
2 Hodgs., Illus., p. 98; Haedy, E.M., p. 12.
3 sbyin-bdags
* 'jigs-rten-p&.
5 mi-nag-pa.
e AGe-bsKen. This title is also applied to' a novice, probationer, or candidate. Cf.
KSpp., ii., 252; Schlag., 162; Jaeschk., D., 85.
' mts'an-spyod.
8 gsfien-gnas.
9 Conf. also Pandit, A. K. In Sikhim it is the second son ; and also in Ladak (Marx,
lot. cit.).

GRADES OF MONKS. 171
Thus in Tibet, where children are relatively few, it is believed
that one out of every six or eight of the population is a priest. In
Sikhim the proportion is one to ten.1 In Ladak one-sixth.2 In
Bhotan one to about ten. GRADES.
In every monachism there are naturally three hierarchical
seniorities or ranks, namely : the scholars or novices, the ordained,
and the reverend fathers or the priests, just as in the common
guilds or arts are the grades of the apprentice, the journeyman,
and the master. Indian Buddhism had its grades of the Srama-
nera (or the novice), of the expert Sramana or Bhikshu (the mode
rate one or beggar), and of the Sthavira or Updydhya (master or
teacher). #
Lamaism has naturally these necessary degrees of clerical
maturity and subordination, and by dividing the noviciate into
two sections it counts four, thus : —
1. The clerical apprentice or scholar. The customary title of
this first beginner in holy orders is Ge-nen, which means " to
live upon virtue," and is a translation of the Sanskrit word
Upasaka or lay-brother. This word has a double meaning ; it
shows firstly the simple lay believer, who has promised to avoid the
five great sins ; and secondly the monastic devotee or scholar, who
keeps the ten precepts and is preparing for the holy orders to
which he partly belongs through the clothes he wears and the official
acknowledgment which he has received. He is also called Rab-
byuh or " excellent born." The Mongols call these " Schabi,"
and Bandi, Banda, or " Bante,"3 which latter word seems to be
of Indian origin. The Kalmaks call them Manji.4
2. The Ge-ts'ul, the commencing, but not quite fully ordained
monk, an under priest, or deacon, who keeps the thirty-six
rules. 3. Ge-long or " virtuous or elerical beggar," the real monk, the
priest, over twenty-five years of age, and who has been fully
ordained, and keeps the two hundred and fifty-three rules.
1 See my Lamaism in Sikhim.
2 Knight, op. cit, p. 130.
3 Cf. Jaeschke, D., 364.
4 The Santals of Bengal, who are believed to be of the so-called Turanian descent,
call their chiefs Manji.

172

THE ORDER OF LAMAS.

4. The K'an-po, which means the master or Abbot (Skt.,
Upddhydya). He is the end, the true extremity of the Lamaist

A Tibetan Doctoe of Divinity.
Ay Abbot.

monachism, because he has under him all the scholars, novices,
and common monks. And although the regenerated or re-incar-

CURRICULUM. 173

nated monks, the Chutuktus, and sovereign priest-gods are above
him,1 their originals were essentially nothing else than abbots.
He it is, who in the early time was probably the only one to be
honoured by the title Lama (Guru or master), and to whom is
given this title even to the present time; although he may be
called a Grand Lama to distinguish him from the other cloister
inhabitants. Only the larger cloisters have a K'an-po, who has
the right to supervise several smaller Lamaseries and temples,
and whose position seems to be such that he is compared as a rule
with the catholic bishop.2 THE CURRICULUM.
In sketching the details of the curriculum of the Lama, I give
the outlines of the course followed in the greatest of the monastic
colleges of the established church of Tibet — the Ge-lug-pa — as
related to me by Lama-graduates of these institutions, namely,
of De-pung, Sera, Gah-ldan, and Tashi-lhunpo, as these set the
high standard which other monasteries of all sects try to follow,
and marked departures from this standard are indicated in a
subsequent note.
The child who is the Lama-elect (btsan-ch'uh) stays at home
till about his eighth year (from six to twelve), wearing the red or
yellow cap when he is sent to a monastery, and educated as in a
sort of boarding-school or resident college, passing through the
stages of pupil-probationer (da-pa), novice (ge-ts'ul), to fully-
ordained monk (ge-loh), and, it may be, taking one or other of
the degrees in divinity, or a special qualification in some particular
academic department.
As, however, the applicants for admission into these monastic
colleges have usually passed the elementary stage and have already
reached, or nearly reached, the stage of noviciate at some smaller
monastery, I preface the account of the course in great mon
astic colleges by the preliminary stage as seen at the leading
monastery in Sikhim, the Pemiongchi, which is modelled on that
of the great Nin-ma monastery of Mindolling.
Preliminary Examination — Physical. — When the boy-candi-

1 Those K'an-pos who have gone through the Tantra or rgyud-pa course have a
higher repute than the others.
2 Koppen, ii., 254.

174 THE ORDER OF LAMAS.
date for admission is brought to the monastery his parentage is
enquired into, as many monasteries admit only the more respect
able and wealthier class.1 The boy is then physically examined
to ascertain that he is free from deformity or defect in his limbs
and faculties. If he stammers, or is a cripple in any way, or bent
in body, he is rejected. When he has passed this physical exam
ination he is made over by his father or guardian to any senior
relative he may have amongst the monks. Should he have no
relative in the monastery, then, by consulting his horoscope, one
of the elder monks is fixed upon as a tutor, who receives from the
lad's father a present of money,2 tea, eatables, and beer.3 The
tutor or elder (Ger-gan) 4 then takes the boy inside the great hall
where the monks are assembled, and publicly stating the parentage
of the boy and the other details, and offering presents of beer, he
asks the permission of the elder monks (db U-ch'os) to take the
boy as a pupil. On this being accorded the boy becomes a pro
bationer. As a probationer he is little more than a private schoolboy under
the care of his tutor, and doing various menial services. His hair
is cropped without any ceremony, and he may even wear his
ordinary lay dress. He is taught by his tutor the alphabet (the
" Ka, K'a, Ga," as it is called),5 andjafter wards to read and recite
by heart the smaller of the sacred books,6 such as : —
Leu bdun ma, or " The Seven Chapters " — A prayer-book of St.
Padma. Bar-c'acZ lam gsel or " Charms to clear the way from Danger and
Injury " — A prayer to St. Padma in twelve stanzas.
Sher-phyin — An abstract of transcendental wisdom in six leaves.
sKu-rfm — A sacrificial service for averting a calamity.
Mon-lam — Prayers for general welfare.
sDig sags, or "The Confession of Sins." 1 The mere act of reading

i At Pemiongchi only those candidates who are of relatively pure Tibetan descent
by the father's side are ordinarily admitted.
2 In Sikhim definite fees are payable at the different ceremonies for admission to
the order, as detailed in my Lamaism in Sikhim, amounting to about 150 Rs., in the
case of the highest monastery— Pemiongchi. In Bhotan it is stated (Pemberton's
Report, p. 118 ; Turner's Embassy, 170) that the fee is 100 Bhotanese rupees.
3 This, of course, would not be offered in a Ge-lug-pa monastery.
4 dge-rgan, or " the Virtuous Elder." 5 See p. xviii.
e Such small manuals are about eight or ten inches long by two to three inches
broad, and usually have the leaves stitched together.

TEXT-BOOKS AND LESSONS. 175
this holy booklet even as a school exercise cleanses from sin. Most of
the monasteries possess their own blocks for printing this pamphlet.
Both the text and its translation are given by Schlagintweit.2
vDov gchod— A Sutra from the book of transcendental wisdom.
P'yogs-bc'ui-p'yogs-dral, or description of the ten direc
tions ... 6 pages.
Namo Guru — " Salutation to the Guru "... ... ... 5 „
mC'od-'bul — To give offerings ... ... ... ... 6 ,,
gTorma — Sacred cake ... ... ... ... ... 8 ,,
bSaiis bsur — Incense and butter-incense ... ... ..: 5 ,,
lTo-mc'od — Rice offering ... ... ... ... ... 4 ,,
Rig-'dsin snbn-'gro — The first essay of the sage ... ... 4 ,,
Drag-dmar snbn-'gro — The primer of red fierce deity ... 4 ,,
bKa, brgyed — " The eight commands " or precepts ... 4 ,,
bDe gs'egs kun 'dus — The collection of the Tathagatas ... 4 „
Yes'es sku mc'og — The best foreknowledge ... ... 5 ,,
rTsa-gdun bs'ag-gsal — The root-pillar of clear confes
sion ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 4 ,,
The young probationer is also instructed in certain golden
maxims of a moral kind, of which the following are examples : —
Buddhist Proverbs : —
Whatever is unpleasing to yourself do not to another.
Whatever happiness is in the world has all arisen from a wish for
the welfare of others. Whatever misery there is has arisen from
indulging selfishness.
There is no eye like the understanding, no blindness like ignorance,
no enemy like sickness, nothing so dreaded as death.
A king is honoured in his own dominions, but a talented man every
where. " The four Precipices in Speech. — If speech be too long, it is te
dious ; if too short, its meaning is not appreciated ; if rough, it rufiles
the temper of the hearers ; if soft, it is unsatisfying.
" The Requirements of Speech. — Speech should be vigorous or it will
not interest ; it must be bright or it will not enlighten ; it must be
suitably ended, otherwise its effect is lost.
" The Qualities of Speech. — Speech must be bold as a lion, gentle and
soft as a hare, impressive as a serpent, pointed as an arrow, and evenly
balanced as a dorje held by its middle (literally " waist ").
" The Four Relations of Speech. — The question should first be stated.
The arguments should be duly connected, the later with the earlier.
Essential points should be repeated. The meanings should be illus
trated by examples.
1 The word for sin is " scorpion," thus conveying the idea of a vile, venomous, claw
ing, acrid thing.
2 Op, cit., pages 122 to 142.

176 THE ORDER OF LAMAS.
" The religious king Sron-Tsan Gampo has said (in the Mani-kah-
'bum) : " Speech should float freely forth like a bird into the sky, and
be clothed in charming dress like a goddess. At the outset the object
of the speech should be made clear like an unclouded sky. The speech
should proceed like the excavation of treasure. The arguments should
shoot forth nimbly like a deer chased by fresh hounds, without hesita
tion or pause."
"Assemblies. — People assemble for three purposes, namely, for, (a)
happiness, (b) sorrow, and (c) worldly gossip. The assemblies for happi
ness are three, namely, (1) for virtuous acts, (2) for worship in the temples,
and (3) for erecting houses and for feasts. The assemblies for virtuous
acts are four, viz., the gathering of the monks, the gathering of the laity
for worship, writing and copying holy books, and giving away wealth
in charity. There are six kinds of assemblies for worship, namely, the
gathering of the rich, the gathering in a separate place of the common
men, the gathering for thanksgiving of those who have escaped from
their enemy's grasp, traders returned safely and successfully, sick men
who have escaped from the devouring jaws of death, and youths on
gaining a victory.
" The eight acts of Low-born persons. — -Using coarse language, im
politeness, talking with pride, want of foresight, harsh manners, star
ing, immoral conduct, and stealing.
The ten Faults. — Unbelief in books, disrespect for teachers, render
ing one's self unpleasant, covetousness, speaking too much, ridicul
ing another's misfortune, using abusive language, being angry with
old men or with women, borrowing what cannot be repaid, and
stealing. Invoking " The Blessing of Eloquence " (nag-byin-rlabs). This is a
Mantrayana rite instituted by the " great saint " K'yun-po (Skt.,
Garuda or Puna, or Brika.)1
" I go for refuge to the Three Holy Ones ! May I attain perfection
and benefit the animal beings. The one who brought me to the light
is at the tip of my tongue and the white Om made up of the words is
above the moon : the white Ali (vowels) go by the right circle, the red
Ka-li (consonants) go by the left and the blue Ktan-snin by the right."
I repeat them secretly after deep contemplation :
" Om ! a, a, i, i, u, u, ri, ri, li, li, e, ai, o, ou, angah ! swaha ! (This
is to be repeated thrice.) Om ! Ka, Kha, Ga, Gha, fta (and here follow
all the letters of the alphabet). (Three times). Om ! ye dh6rma
(here follows 'The Buddhist Creed' thrice.) Through the rays of the
seed of the mantra-rosary and the power of the blessings of speech, I
summon the accomplishments of the seven precious rgyal-srid and
' The eight glorious signs.' " By repeating the above one attains accom
plishment in speech.
During this training the boy's relatives call about once a month
1 Cf. also the " Garuda Charm," figured at p. 387.

NOVICIATE. 177

to enquire after his progress and health, and to pay the tutor his
fees for the lad's board and education.
After two or three years of such rudimentary teaching, when
the boy has committed to memory the necessary texts (amounting
to about one hundred and twenty-five leaves), his tutor sends in
an application for his admission as a novice.
The mode of admission to the noviciateship in the great De-
pung monastery is as follows : —
THE NOVICIATE.
The tutor-Lama of the applicant for the noviciateship addresses
the head monk (spyi-rgan) of his section for permission to admit
the applicant, and at the same time offers a ceremonial scarf1 and
the fee of ten rupees. Then, if the applicant be found free from
bodily defects and otherwise eligible, a written agreement is
made out in the presence of the head monk and sealed by the
thumb. To get his name registered in the books of that particular school
of the monastery to which he is to be attached, the pupil and his
tutor go to the abbot2 or principal of that school and proffer their
request through the butler or cup-bearer,3 who conducts them to
the abbot, before whom they offer a scarf and a silver coin (preferably
an Indian rupee), and bowing thrice before him, pray for admis
sion. Amongst the questions now put are : Does this boy come of
his free will ? Is he a slave, debtor, or soldier ? Does anyone
oppose his entry ? Is he free from deformity, contagious disease,
or fits V Has he neglected the first three commandments ? Has
he committed theft, or thrown poison into water, or stones from a
hillside so as to destroy animal life, etc. ? What is his family ?
and what their occupation ? and where their residence ? On giving
satisfactory replies, he is then required to recite by heart the texts
he has learned ; and if approved, then the names of the pupil and
his tutor are written down and duly sealed by the thumbs, and a
scarf is thrown around their necks, and the boy, who has been
dressed in princely finery, has his dress exchanged for the yellow
or red robe in imitation of Sakya Muni's renunciation of the
world ; while, if he is rejected, he is ejected from the monastery,
1 lha-rdsas. '* mk'an-po. J gsol.

178 THE ORDER OF LAMAS.
and his tutor receives a few strokes from a cane, and is fined
several pounds of butter for the temple lamps.
The approved pupil and his tutor then proceed to the head
Lama (z'al-ho) of the great cathedral (common to the colleges of
the university), and, offering a scarf and a rupee, repeat their
requests to him, and the names of the pupil and tutor and his
sectional college or residentiary club are registered, so that should
the pupil misconduct himself in the cathedral, his teachers, as well
as himself, shall be fined.
The neophyte is now a registered student (da-pa),1 and on
returning to his club, he is, if rich, expected to entertain all the
residents of the club to three cups of tea. If he has no relatives
to cook for him, he is supplied from the club stores; and any
allowance2 he gets from his people is divided into three parts,
one-third being appropriated by his club for messing expenses.
Then he gets the following monkish robes and utensils, viz., a
sTod-'gag, bs'am-t'abs, gzan, zla-gam, z'wa-ser, sgro-lugs^ a cup, a
bag for wheaten flour, and a rosary.
Until his formal initiation as an ascetic, " the going forth from
home" (pravrajyd-vrata), by which he becomes a novice (Ge-ts'ul,
Skt., Sramana), the candidate is not allowed to join in the religious
services in the monastery. So he now addresses a request to the
presiding Grand Lama3 to become a novice, accompanying his
request with a scarf and as much money as he can offer.
The ceremony of initiation is generally similar to that of the
southern Buddhists.*
On the appointed day — usually on one of the fast days (Upo
satha), the candidate has his head shaven all but a small tuft on
the crown s; and he is conducted by his spiritual tutor (upadhyaya)
before a chapter in the assembly hall, clad in the mendicant's
robes, on putting on which he has muttered a formula to the
effect that be wears them only for modesty and as a protection

1 grva-pa.
2 'gyed.
3 dGe-lden-K'ri-rin-po-c'he, or s'Kyabs-mgon-rin-poch'e.
* Cf. Mahavanso, i., 12. UpaSampmdd-Eammardka, translated by F. Spiegel, op. cit.
Rhys Davids, B., p. 159.
a My friend, Mr. A. von Rosthorn, informs me that the Lamas of eastern Tibet
usually pass through an ordeal of initiation in which six marks are seared in their
crown with an iron lamp, and called Dipamkara, or " the burning lamp."

INITIATION. 179

against heat, cold, etc. The officiating head Lama, sometimes
the Grand Lama, addressing the student by his secular name,
asks, " Do you subject yourself to the tonsure cheerfully ? " On
receiving a reply in the affirmative, the presiding Lama cuts off
the remaining top tuft of hair from the head of the novice, who
is like Chaucer's monk,
"His hed was balled, and shone like any glas."
The Lama also gives the kneeling novice a religious name, by
which he is henceforth known,1 and exhorting him to keep the
thirty-six precepts and the thirty-six rules, and to look upon the
Grand Lama as a living Buddha, he administers the vows to the
novice, who repeats clearly three times the formula, "I take refuge
in Buddha, in the Law, and in the Assembly."
The ceremony concludes with the presentation of a scarf and
ten silver coins.2
At the next mass, the boy is brought into the great assembly
hall, carrying a bundle of incense sticks ; and is chaperoned by a
monk named the " bride-companion " (ba-grags), as this ceremony
is regarded as a marriage with the church. He sits down on
an appointed seat by the side of the " bride-companion," who
instructs him in the rules and etiquette (sGris) of the monkish
manner of sitting, walking, etc.
The initiation into the Tantrik Buddhist priesthood of the
Vajracaryas is detailed below in a foot-note.8
i Extra titles are also bestowed, says Sarat, on the descendants of the old
nobility. Thus, Nag-tshang families are given title of Shab-dung ; the sons of high
officials and landowners Je-duh ; and the gentry and Sha-ngo family Choi-je.
2 Tankas.
s The following account of the initiation of the Vajracarya priests, as given by
Mr. Hodgson for Nepal (III., p. 139) :—
" Early in the morning the following things, viz., the image of a Chaitya, those of
the Tri Ratna or Triad, the Prajna P&ramita scripture, and other sacred scriptures, a
kalas, or water-pot, filled with a few sacred articles, a platter of curds, four other
water-pots filled with water only, a chivara, mendicants' upper and lower garments, a
Pinda p&tra (alms-bowl) and a religious staff, a pair of wooden sandals, a small mixed
metal plate spread over with pounded sandal-wood, in which the image of the moon is
inscribed, a golden razor and a silver one, and lastly, a plate of dressed rice, are col
lected, and the aspirant is seated in the svastikdsana and made to perform worship to
the Guru Mandala, and the Chaitya, and the Tri Ratna and the Prajna Paramiti
Sastra. Then the aspirant, kneeling with one knee on the ground with joined hands,
entreats the Guru to make him a Bandya, and to teach him whatsoever it is needful
'for him to know. The Guru answers, O ! disciple, if you desire to perform the Prav-
rajya Vrata, first of all devote yourself to the worship of the Chaitya and of the Tri
N 2

180 THE ORDER OF LAMAS.
The novice is now admitted to most of the privileges of a monk,
and after a period of three years he passes out of the preliminary
stage (rig-ch'un), and is then entitled to have a small chamber or
cell to himself, though he is still called a student (da-pa), and, in-

Ratna : you must observe the five precepts or Pancha Siksha, the fastings and the
vows prescribed ; nor speak or think evilly ; nor touch any intoxicating liquors or
drugs ; nor be proud of heart in consequence of your observance of your religious and
moral duties."
" Then the aspirant pledges himself thrice to observe the whole of the above pre
cepts ; upon which the Guru tells him, ' If while you live you will keep the above
rules, then will I make you a Bandya.' He assents, when the Guru, having again
given the three Rakshds above-mentioned to the Chela, delivers a cloth for the loins to
him to put on. Then the Guru brings the aspirant out into the court-yard, and having
seated him, touches his hair with rice and oil, and gives those articles to a barber.
The Guru next puts on the ground a little pulse and desires a Chela to apply it to his
own feet. Then the Guru gives the Chela a cloth of four fingers' breadth and one
cubit in length, woven with threads of five colours, and which is especially manufac
tured for this purpose, to bind round Ms head. Then he causes the aspirant to per
form his ablutions, after which he makes pujd to the hands of the barber in the name
of Visvakarma, and then causes the barber to shave all the hair, save the forelock, off
the aspirant's head. Then the paternal or maternal aunt of the aspirant takes the
vessel of mixed metal above noted and collects the hair into it. The aspirant is now
bathed again and his nails pared, when the above party puts the parings into the pot
with the hair. Another ablution of the aspirant follows, after which the aspirant is
taken again within, and seated. Then the Guru causes him to eat, and also sprinkles
upon him the Pancha Garbha, and says to him, ' Heretofore you have lived a house
holder, have you a real desire to abandon that state and assume the state of a monk ? '
The aspirant answers in the affirmative, when the Guru, or maternal uncle, cuts off
with his own hand the aspirant's forelock. Then the Guru puts a tiara adorned with
the images of the five Buddhas on his own head, and taking the kalas or water-
pot, sprinkles the aspirant with holy water, repeating prayers at the same time over
him. " The neophyte is then again brought below, when four Nayakas or superiors of
proximate Viharas and the aspirant's Guru perform the Pancha Abhisheka, i.e., the
Guru takes water from the kalsa and pours it into a conch ; and then ringing a bell
and repeating prayers, sprinkles the water from the conch on the aspirant's head ;
whilst the four Nayakas taking water from the other four water-pots named above,
severally baptize the aspirant. The musicians present then strike up, when the
Nayakas and Guru invoke the following blessing on the neophyte : ' May you be
happy as he who dwells in the hearts of all, who is the universal Atman, the lord of
all, the Buddha called Ratnasambhava.' The aspirant is next led by the Nayakas and
Guru above stairs, and seated as before. He is then made to perform pujd to the
Guru Mandal and to sprinkle rice on the images of the deities. The Guru next gives
him the Chivara and Nivasa and golden earrings, when the aspirant thrice says to
the Guru, ' 0 Guru, I, who am such an one, have abandoned the state of a householder
for this whole birth, and have become a monk.' Upon which the aspirant's former
name is relinquished and a new one given him, such as Ananda, Shari, Putra, Kasyapa,
Dharma, Sri Mitra, Paramita Sagar. Then the Guru causes him to perform pujd to the
Tri Ratna, after having given him a golden tiara, and repeated some prayers over
him. The Guru then repeats the following praises of the Tri Ratna : ' I salute that

INITIATION. 181

deed, all the monks, from the novice to the more senior (par-pa),
and even the full monk (ge-lon) retain the same title in the
chief monasteries of Tibet — the term "Lama" being reserved to
the heads of the monastery.
The novice now undergoes a severe course of instruction, during
which corporal punishment is still, as heretofore, freely inflicted.
The instruction is mainly in ritual and dogma, but crafts and
some arts, such as painting, are also taught to those showing
special aptitude. The spiritual adviser of the young monk is
called "the radical Lama,"1 and as he initiates the novice into the
Buddha who is the lord of the three worlds, whom gods and men alike worship, who
is apart from the world, long-suffering, profound as the ocean, the quintessence of all
good, the Dharma Raja and Munindra, the destroyer of desire and affection, and vice
and darkness ; who is void of avarice and lust, who is the icon of wisdom. I ever in
voke him, placing my head on his feet.
" ' I salute that Dharma, who is the Prajna Paramita, pointing out the way of perfect
tranquillity to mortals, leading them into the paths of perfect wisdom ; who, by the
testimony of all the sages, produced or created all things ; who is the mother of all
Bodhisatwas and Sravakas. I salute that Sangha, who is Avalokitesvara and Mai
treya, and Gagan Ganja, and Samanta Bhadra, and Vajra Pani, and Manju Ghosha,
and Sarvanivarana Vishkambhin, and Kshiti Garbha and Kha Garbha.' The aspirant
then says to the Guru, ' I will devote my whole life to the Tri Ratna, nor ever desert
them.' Then the Guru gives him the Dasa S'iksha or ten precepts observed by all the
Buddhas and Bhikshukas, and commands his observance of them. They are : 1 . Thou
shalt not destroy life. 2. Thou shalt not steal. 3. Thou shalt not follow strange
faiths. 4. Thou shalt not lie. 5. Thou shalt not touch intoxicating liquors or drugs.
6. Thou shalt not be proud of heart. 7. Thou shalt avoid music, dancing, and all such
idle toys. 8. Thou shalt not dress in fine clothes nor use perfumes or ornaments. 9.
Thou shalt sit and sleep in lowly places. 10. Thou shalt not eat out of the prescribed
hours. " The Guru then says, ' All these things the Buddhas avoided. You are now become
a Bhikshu and you must avoid them too ; ' which said, the Guru obliterates the Tri
Ratna Mandala. Next, the aspirant asks from the Guru the Chivara and Nivasa, the
Pinda Patra and Khikshari and Gandhar, equipments of a Buddha, a short staff sur
mounted by a Chaitya and a water-pot. Add thereto an umbrella and sandals to com
plete it. The aspirant proceeds to make a Mandal, and places in it five flowers and
five Drubakund, and some Khil, and some rice ; and assuming the Utkutak Asan, and
joining his hands, he repeats the praises of the Tri Ratna above cited, and then again
requests his Guru to give him suits of the Chivara and the like number of the Nivasa,
one for occasions of ceremony as attending the palace, another for wearing at
meals, and the third for ordinary wear. He also requests from his Guru the like
number of Gandhar or drinking cups of Pinda Patra, and of Khikshari. One entire
suit of these the aspirant then assumes, receiving them from the hands of the Guru,
who, previously to giving them, consecrates them by prayers. The aspirant then
says, 'Now I have received the Pravrajya Vrata, I will religiously observe the
Sitla-Skandha and SamAdhi-Skandha, the Prajfia-Skandha and the Vimukti-Skand-
rha.'"
1 rTsa wai blama. This is not, as Schlagintweit states (op. cit., 139), in any way
restricted to particular " priests who originated a specific system of Buddhism."

182 THE ORDER OF LAMAS.
mysterious rites he is held by the latter in especial reverence all
through life.
Frequent examinations are held and also wrangling or public
disputations. In every cloister is a teacher of the law, who, as a rule, takes
the highest rank after the chief. But in the larger ones are
regular schools or universities, in which the holy books are syste
matically explained, and theology, etc., is taught. The most
celebrated ones of these are of course those near Lhasa and
Tashi-lhunpo, which are visited by students from all provinces of
the Lamaist church. In the countries of southern Buddhism the
cloister schools are divided after the three branches of the codes,
into three sections, the Sutras, Vinayas and Abhidharmas. In
Tibet the division practically is the same, though sometimes is
added a medical one, and also a mystic faculty for magic and con
juration, which, however, seems to be united as a rule with the-
section for philosophy and metaphysics (Abhidharma), for which
in some Lamaseries special schools are established.
Every Lama belongs to one or other of these faculties, and the
position which he occupies inside the brotherhood depends on the
number and class of holy books which he has gone through and
understands thoroughly.
As soon as the bell sounds he has to go to his respective room or
class, to start with his lection, to receive new ones, to listen to the
explanations of the professor, etc., etc., and to prepare for examina
tions and disputations.
Examinations. — Within a year after his admission to the order
he must attempt to pass the first professional examination, and in
the following year or two the second examination for promotion.
And until he passes these examinations he must perform for the
first three years the menial offices of serving out tea, etc., to the
elder monks in the assembly hall.
The examinations are conducted in the presence of the heads of
the monastery and the assembled monks, who observe a solemn
silence, and the test is for the candidate to stand up in the assem
bly and recite by heart all the prescribed books.1 The ordeal is a
i An idea of the nature of this is got from the following list of text books for the
first examination at Pemiongchi, which comprise the worship necessary for three
" magic-circles," viz. : The first is the magic-circle of dKon-c'og spyi 'dus Rig-'dsin

EXAMINATIONS FOR ORDINATION. 183
very trying one, so that the candidate is given a companion to
prompt and encourage him. The first examination lasts for three
days ; and nine intervals are allowed daily during the examination,

'dsah ms'an iiing-poi c'os 'k'or (or " Banquet to the whole assembly of the Gods and
Demons ") This book contains about sixty pages, and its recitation takes nearly one
whole day. It comprises the chapters : —
(1) Ts'e-sgrub or The obtaining of long life.
(2) Z'i-k'ro — The mild and angry deities.
(3) Guru-drag — The fierce form of Padma-sambhava.
(4) Seh-gdoirma — The lion-faced demoness.
(5) Ch'osskyoh Mahakala Yes'es mgonpo.
(6) T'an-lha (Mt. Thang-lha with its spirit " Kitinff^js a northern guardian of
Sikhim), mDsod-lha, Lha-ch'en and sMan-bsjtifn?— Local and mountain deities.
(7) bsKan bs'ags, ts'ogs and Tas'i-smon-lam.
The second comprises the magic-circle of the collection of the Tathagathas and " the
powerful great pitying one" (Avalokita) — bDe-gs'eg.s-kiin 'dus-gar-dbah, T'ugs-rje
chen-po, of about 40 pages. .
Then follow the magic circles of the fierce and demoniacal deities Guru-Tdrag-dmar,
K'rowo-rol wai gtor-zlog and Drag poi las Gurui-gsol-'debs len-bdun-ma, K'a 'don ch'os
spyod. The books for the second examination, requiring to be recited by heart, are the
following : —
(1) The worship of "The lake-born Vajra" (mTs'o-skyes-rdorje) — i.e., St. Padma-
sambhava— and " the sage Guru who has obtained understanding " (Rig
'dsin rtog sgrub-guru).
(2) The three roots of sagedom (Rig 'dsin rtsa-gsum) —
(a) Rig 'dsin lhamai-las.
(b) Ts'e-sgrub k'og dbugs. •
(c) gSang sgrub donyi sfiih-po.
(3) The deeds of Dorje P'agmo (rDorje p'ag-moi-las), the great happiness of zag-
med (zag-med Jde-ch'en), and the four classes of the fierce guardians— c'os
srun drag-po sde 6zhi. The names of these demons are — on the east, kLu-
bdud Munpa nagpo ; on the south, Srinpo Lanka-mgrim-bchu ; on the west,
Mamo S'a-za p'ra-gral nag-po ; on the north, gS'enpa sPu-gri-dmarpo.
(4) The subjugation of the host of demons— The offering to the Dhyani Buddhas
bdud dpuh zil non, Kun-bzan, mc'od-sprin.
(5) The sacrificial ceremony bskang bshags, viz., Rig 'dsin bskang-bshags, Phagmai
bskang bshags.
(6) The prayer of the glorious " Tashi " — the Lepcha name for Padma-sambhava
— Tashi smon-lam.
The above books reach to about fifty-five pages.
(7) The circle of the eight commanders of the collected Buddhas. bKah-bgyad
Sde gsegs 'duspai dkyil-'khor kyi las and Khrowo-rol wai gtor-zlog gyi
skori bkah brgyad. This has about forty pages. [The names of the eight
commanders, bKah-bgyads, are— (1) C'e-mch'og, (2) Yah-dag, (3) gS'in-rje,
(4) rTa-mgrin, (5) Phurpa, (6) Mamo, (7) 'Gad stoh, (8) Rig-'dsin.]
When the young monk recites by heart all these books satisfactorily, and so passes
this examination, he is not subject to any further ordeal of examination : this being
the final one.

184 THE ORDER OF LAMAS.

and these intervals are utilized by the candidates in revising the
next exercise, in company with their teacher.
Those who disgracefully fail to pass this examination are taken
outside and chastized by the provost.1 And repeated failure up to a
limit of three years necessitates the rejection of the candidate from
the order. Should, however, the boy be rich and wish re-entry,
he may be re-admitted on paying presents and money on a higher
scale than formerly, without which no re-admission is possible. If
the rejected candidate be poor and he wishes to continue a religious
life, he can only do so as a lay-devotee, doing drudgery about the
monastery buildings. Or he may set up in some village as an un
orthodox Lama-priest.
The majority fail to pass at the first attempt. And failure on
the part of the candidate attaches a stigma to his teacher, while
in the event of the boy chanting the exercises correctly and with
pleasing voice in the orthodox oratorical manner, his teacher is
highly complimented. PUBLIC DISPUTATIONS.
The public disputations are much more attractive and favourite
exercises for the students than the examinations. Indeed, the
academic feature of the monastic universities of Tibet is perhaps
seen at its best in the prominence given to dialectics and dispu
tations, thus following the speculative traditions of the earlier
Indian Buddhists. In the great monastic universities of De-pung,
Tashi-lhunpo, Serra and Gah-ldan, each with a teeming population
of monks, ranging from about 4,000 to 8,000, public disputations
are regularly held, and form a recognized institution, in which
every divinity student or embryo Lama must take part. This
exercise is called expressing " the true and innermost essence (of
the doctrine) " (mTs'an-nid) , in which an endeavour is made to
ascertain both the literal sense and the spirit of the doctrine,2
and it is held within a barred court. Some details of the
manner in which these disputations are held are given below.3
1 Ch'os-k'rims-pa.
2 Conf. also Jaeschke, Diet., p. 454, who is inclined to identify this " school " with
the Vaiseshkas (or Atomists) Kopp, i., 691.
3 Within the court-ch'os-ra where the disputations are held are seven grades
('dsin-ra), namely : (1), Eha-dog-dkar-dmar ; (2), Tchedma ; (3), P'ar-p'yin ; (i), mDsdd ;
(5), 'Dulwa ; (6), db Uma ; (7), bsLab-btub.
At these disputations there are tree-trunks, called the Sal-tree trunk (Shugs-sdon),

ORDINATION AND DEGREES. 185
ORDINATION AND DEGREES.
After a course of such training for twelve years, each student is
eligible for full ordination, the minimum age for which is twenty,
and the ceremony is generally similar to that of the initiation.
Those who prove their high capabilities by passing with excep
tional distinction through the disputations and examinations
conducted by the assembled Lamaist literati and the heads of
one or more cloisters, receive academic and theological degrees
lchah-ma-sdohpo, and yubu ; and bounded by a wall, and inside the court is covered
by pebbles (rdehu). In the middle there is a great high stone seat for the lord
protector (sKyabs-mgon), and a smaller seat for the abbot (mk'anpo) of the school,
and one still smaller for the chief celebrant.
On reaching the enclosure, the auditors take their respective seats in the seven
grades, in each of which discussions are held. One of the most learned candidates
volunteers for examination, or as it is called, to be vow-keeper (Dam-bchah). He
takes his seat in the middle, and the others sit round him. Then the students stand
up one by one, and dispute with Mm.
The scholar who stands up wears the yellow hat, and, clapping his hands together
says, Ea-ye ! and then puts his questions to the vow-keeper, who is questioned by
every student who so desires ; and if he succeeds in answering all without excep
tion, then he is promoted to a higher grade. In any case, one is transferred to
another grade after every three years.
After twenty-one years of age the rank of dGe-'ses is obtained, though some clever
students may get it even at eleven. The abbot of the college comes into the en
closure seven days every month, and supervises the disputations of the seven grades.
When a candidate has reached the bslab-btub grade, he is certain soon to become
a dGe-s'es. The great disputation, however, is held four times a year, in spring, in summer, in
autumn, and in winter, in a great paved courtyard, and lasts five or seven days. On
these occasions, all the scholars and abbots of the four schools of the colleges of
De-pung congregate there. And all the learned students of the four schools who
belong to the grade of bslab-btub volunteer for examination, and each is questioned
by the students who ply their questions, says my Lama, " just like flies on meat."
When the voluntary examinee has successfully replied to all the questions he goes to
the abbot of his own school, and, presenting a silver coin and a scarf, he requests
permission to be examined on the Lhasa mass-day. If the abbot receives the coin
and scarf, then the application is approved, and if not, the student is referred to
his studies. In the great Lhasa mass all the monks of Serra, De-pung, and Gah-ldan
congregate, and examinations are held every seventh day, and the dGe-s'es of the
three monasteries of Serra, De-pung, and Gah-ldan act as examiners. If the volun
teer can answer them all, then the Lord Protector throws a scarf round his reck,
and he thus receives the title of dGe-s'es — somewhat equivalent to our Bactu >r of
Divinity. The newly-fledged dGe-s'es is now known as a sEya-ser-med-pa-dGe-bs'es or "The
yellowless-pale Ge-s'e" (pale + yellow =" laymen and priests," says Jaeschkb, D.,
p. 25). Then he must give soup (called dGe-bs'es T'ugpa) to all the students of
his school and club, each student getting a cupful. The soup is made of rice, mixed
with meat and butter, and different kinds of fruits. Then the abbot of the school
and the Spyi-so of his club, and all his friends and relatives, each gives him a Kha-
dag scarf and a money present.

186 THE ORDER OF LAMAS.
and honours, by which they become eligible for the highest and
most privileged appointments.
The chief degrees are Ge-s'e, corresponding to our Bachelor of
Divinity ; and Rab-jam-pa, or Doctor of Divinity.
The degree of Ge-s'e,1 or " the learned virtuosi," may be
called B.D. It is obtained, in the manner above detailed, bv
giving proof in open meeting of the Lamas 2 of his ability to trans
late and interpret perfectly at least ten of the chief books of his
religion. The Ge-s'e is eligible to go in for the higher special
departments, to which a non-graduate, even though he may he
a ge-long, and as such senior to the young Ge-s'e, is' not
admitted.8 Many of them become the head Lamas or lord
protectors (skyabs-mgon) of the government monasteries of the
established church, not only in Tibet, but in Mongolia, Amdo,
and China. Others return to their own fatherland, while some
pursue their studies in the higher Tantras, to qualify for the
much coveted post of the Khri-pa of Gah-ldan.
The degree of Rab-jam-pa4 " verbally overflowing, endlessly,"
a doctor universalis, corresponds with our Doctor of Theology, or
D.D., and is, it seems, the highest academical title of honour
which can be earned in the Lamaist universities, and after a
disputation over the whole doctrine of the church and faith. The
diploma which he receives entitles him to teach the law publicly,
and authorizes him to the highest church offices not specially
reserved for the incarnate Lamas. And he is given a distinctive
hat, as seen in the foregoing figure, at the head of this chapter.
It is said that in Tibet there are only twelve cloisters who have
the right to bestow this degree, and it is even more honourable
than the titles bestowed by the Dalai Lama himself. Bat this
is, as a matter of course, a very expensive affair.
The titles of Ch'o-je5 or "noble of the law," and Paniita or

i dG«w'ej. It seems to be the same as the Tung-ram-pa of Tashi-lhunpo and the
Kabs-bchu, Koppen, u. ; it also seems to be " p'al-ch'en-pa "
2 Apparently a joint board of representatives of the three great monasteries afore
said, De-pung, etc. Conf. also Pandit A. K. on " Gisi "
• The Ge-s'e of the three great Ge-lug-pa monasteries may be admitted to one or
other of the four Lings or royal monasteries : Tse-nam-gyal, sTan-gyal-ling, Kun-de-
Img, and Gyud-sTod-smad, and he may become a ,-Tse-drung of the Grand Dalai
Lama s royal monastery at Potala.
* Rabs-'byams-pa, and seems to be the same as the Eah-c'an of Tashi-lhunno
" Ch'o*-rje. e '

OFFICIALS AND DISCIPLINE. 187
" learned," are bestowed by the sovereign Grand Lamas on those
doctors who have distinguished themselves through blameless
holiness and excellent wisdom. And between these two seems
to lie the title of Lo-tsa-wa or " translator." The relative ranks
of Bab-jam-pa and Ch'o-je may be seen from the fact that after
the second installation of Buddhism in Mongolia, the former were
put by law on the same footing as the Tai-jis or barons or
counts ; and the latter as Chungtaijis or marquesses or dukes.
Did the dignity of the Pancfrita allow a more exalted rank, the
consequence would be that only the holy princes from K'an-po
upwards, that is to say, the K'an-po, the Chubilghan, and the
Chutukten, only could have it; but of this nothing certain is
known. Thus the K'an-po, the Ch'o-je, and the Bab-jam-pa form the
three principal classes of the higher non-incarnate clergy, and
they follow each other in the order described. The K'an-pos take
amongst them the first place, and are, as a rule, elected out of the
two other classes. As the K'an-po has been compared with a
bishop, so could the C'ho-je perhaps be called " vicar-general "
or " coadjutor." And often in the same cloister by the side of, or
rather under, the K'an-po, are found a Ch'o-je as vice-abbot (a
mitred abbot). In the smaller cloisters the chief Lama as a
rule has only the grade of Ch'o-je or Eab-jam-pa.
Special schools, expressly for the study of magic, are erected in
the cloisters of Bamo-ch'e and Mo-ru. Those who receive here
the doctor's diploma, and thereby acquire the right to carry on
the mystery of science practically, especially conjuring, weather
prophecy, sympathetieal pharmacy, etc., etc., are called Nag-
ram-pa, which means " master of conjuration." Their uniform is
Sivaite, and they probably spring from the red religion, but their
science follows strictly the prescribed formulas in the Kah-gyur,
and is therefore quite orthodox.1 Their practices as augurs are
detailed under the head of sorcery, along with those of the
ordinary illiterate Nag-pa fortune-teller.
OFFICIALS AND DISCIPLINE.
The huge cloisters, with several hundreds and occasionally
several thousands of monks, necessarily possess an organized body

Koppen, ii., 290.

188 THE ORDER OF LAMAS.
of officials for the administration of affairs clerical and temporal,
and for the enforcement of discipline.
At the head of a monastery stands either a re-generated or re
incarnate Lama (Ku-s'o, T'ul-ku, or in Mongolian "Khubilighan")
or an installed abbot (K'an-po, Skt., Upadhdhaya), the latter
being as a rule elected from the capital, and sanctioned by the
Dalai Lama or the provincial head of the re-incarnate Lamas ; and
he holds office only for seven years.
He has under him the following administrative and executive
officers, all of whom except the first are usually not ordained, and
they are elected by and from among the brotherhood for a longer
or shorter term of office : —
1. The professor or master (Lob-pon1), who proclaims the law
and conducts the lessons of the brethren.
2. The treasurer and cashier (C'ag-dso 2).
3. The steward (Ner-pa 3 or Spyi-ner).
4. Provost marshal (Ge-Ko 4), usually two who maintain order
like police, hence also called vergers or censors, and they are
assisted by two orderlies (hag-ner).
5. The chief celebrant or leader of the choir or precentor
(Um-dse). 6. Sacristan (Ku-ner).
7. Water-giver (Ch'ab-dren).
8. Tea waiters (Ja-ma).
To these are to be added the secretaries,5 cooks,6 chamber
lain,7 warden or entertainer of guests,8 accountant,9 bearer of
benedictory emblem,10 tax-collectors, medical monks, painters,
merchant monks, exorcist, etc.
The general rules of conduct and discipline are best illustrated
at the great monastic universities.
The De-pung monastery, with its 7,700 monks, is divided into four
great colleges (grwa-ts'an), namely: (1) bLo-gsal-glin ; (2)sGo-man;
(3) bDe-yahs ; and (4) sttags-pa, and each of these schools of the

1 sLob-dpon. 2 p'yag mdsods. 3 gfier-pa
* dge-bskos, also called Ch'o-k'rims-pa or "religious judge," and the provost of the
cathedral seems to be called Zhal-no.
'spyi-k'yab. • gsol-dpon. ' gzim-dpon.
mgron-gner ch'en. • Tsi-dpon. io p'yag-ts'ang or sku-b'c'ar-mkhan-po.

DISCIPLINE IN MONASTIC COLLEGES. 189
monastery has its own abbot. The monks are accommodated accord
ing to their different nationalities and provinces, each having separate
resident and messing sections, named K'ams ts'an or provincial messing
clubs. The cathedral or great hall of the congregation, named T'sogs-
ch'en lha-k'an, is common to the whole monastery.
Sera monastery, with its 5,500 monks, divided into three collegiate
schools named : (1) Bye-wa, (2) slfJags-pa, and (3) sMad-pa, and each
has its sectional club.
Gah-ldan with its 3,300 monks is divided into two schools, namely,
(1) Byan-rtse, and (2) S'ar-tse, each with its club.
Tashi-lhunpo has three collegiate schools.1
Each club has at least two Lama-officers, the elder of whom takes
charge of the temple attached to the club, and teaches his pupils the
mode of making offerings in the temple.^ The younger officer is a
steward in charge of the storehouse (gNer-ts'ang), and the tea pre
sented by the public (Maii-ja), or " tea-general," and the kitchen (Buh-
k'an). These two Lamas are responsible for the conduct of the
monks of their section, and in case their pupils do wrong, they —
the masters — are fined. These two officers are changed every year.
Entry of Pupil. — The applicant for admission goes to the great
paved court (the rdo-chal) of the monastic club, the masters are called
and ask him whence he has come, and whether he has any relatives or

1 The grand monastery of Tashi-lhunpo is divided, says Saeat (Jour. Bud. Text
Socy. Ind., iv., 1893, p. 14), into forty Eham-tshan or wards, which are placed under
the jurisdiction of the three great Ta-tshang or theological colleges, yiz. : — (a) Thoi-
samling college exercises control over the following Eham-tshan : —
1. Gya Eham-tshan. 10. Ser-ling Eham-tshan.
2. Tiso „ „ 11. Je-pa, also called Sha-pa Ta-shang.
3. Hamdong Kham-tshan. 12. Chang-pa Eham-tshan.
4. Chawa „ „ 13. Leg-thug „ „
5. Tanag „ „ 14. Norpugandan, the first house built
6. Tang-moc'he Eham-tshan. when the monastery was established.
7. Tinke „ „ 15. <Srepa (Hrepa) Eham-tshan.
8. Chunee ,, „ 16. Pa-so Kham-tshan.
9. LMm-bu-tse „ „ 17. Dong-tse Kham-tshan
(b) The following belong to Shar-tse Ta-tshang : —
1. Thon-pa Kham-tshan. 7. Potog-pa Kham-tshan.
2. Gyal-tse-tse Kham-tshan 8. Nefiin „ „
3. Shine „ „ 9. Tom-khaling
4. Lhopa „ „ 10. Deyang-pa.
5. Latoi (Ladak) „ „ 11. Samlo Kham-tshan.
6. Chang-pa „ „ 12. Nenihnag-po Shara.
(c) The following are under KyiZ-khang:—
1. Khogye Klmm-tslw.n. 6. Piling Kham-tshan.
2. Tahgmo „ „ 7. Khafka „ „
3. Rog-tsho „ „ 8. Darpa „ „
4. Lakha „ „ 9. Lhundub-tse Kham-tshan.
5. Dodan „ „ 10. Tsa-oo Kham-tshan, also called Tsa-oo
para.

190 THE ORDER OF LAMAS.
acquaintances in the monastery. If any such there be he is called, and
takes the applicant to his own private chamber. But if the applicant
has no friend or relative there, tea and wheaten flour are given to him,
and he is kept in the Bun-khaii for three days. After which period,
should no one have come to claim him or search for him, one or other
of the two masters of the section take him under their charge, the
head master having the preference, and the proper application for
his admission is then duly made.
For the general assembly hall or cathedral there is a special staff of
officials. The great celebrant (Tsogs-ch'en dbu-mdsad) who leads the
chant ; the two Z'al-no are the provosts ; the two Nah-ma are
subordinate orderlies who look after the conduct of the students ; the
two Oh'ab-rils go round the benches giving water to the monks to
rinse out their mouths after reciting the mantras (as in Hindu rites of
ceremonial purity), and at other times they help the orderlies to look
after the pupils. The Lama dMig-rtse-ma 1 fixes the time for con
gregation and the " tea-general " of the same. The two orderlies
must watch whether the pupils throw away tea or flour, and they
also take general care of the temples.
Early in the morning, about four o'clock, a junior pupil chants
chhbs-*had from the top of the temple of the cathedral. Then each of
the clubs beat their stone bells (rdo-Hing) to awake the occupants, who
arise and wash and dress. They put on the cope (zla-gam), and carry
the yellow hat over their shoulders, and take a cup and a bag for
wheaten flour. Some bow down in the court, others circumambulate
the temple, and others the temple of Manjusri, which is behind the
cathedral, repeating his mantra (Omah-ra-pa-tca-na-dhi).
About one o'clock the Mig-rtse-ma Lama chants the " dmig-rtse-ma " in
a loud voice, and at once the pupils assemble near the two doors, and
having put on their yellow hats, join in the chant. Then after an
interval the ch'abril opens the door, and all enter in proper order
and take their seats according to their rank in their club.2 The yellow
1 Or " The highest idea or imagining " (Skt., Avalambana).
2 At Tashi-lhunpo, says Sakat (Jour. Budd. Text Socy. Ind., iv. ), the monks sit in
nine rows one facing another.
1st row is called Lobiig or Lob-zang bug tal.
2nd Champa tal (the row opposite the gigantic image of
Thoisamling ... i. ^ „ ., , , ,„ Maitreya).
s. Lroiku <a( (the row opposite the satin tapestry).
I. Shuthi tal (the row opposite the huge lamp of the
hall).
Is common to all { 5' Dong tal (the front row opposite the sacerdotal
1 throne of the Grand Lama).
f 6. Ne-ctra tal (the row opposite the painted images of the
Kyil-khang ... {„..,. , sixteen Sthaviras (sages) on the wall).
7. Ne-mngtal (the row opposite the old images of the
I sixteen Sthaviras).
„, . f a D°'-ma tal (the row opposite the image of the god-
Shar-tse ... -; dess Do&na, Tara).
(. 9. Go-gyabfa^ (the row opposite the door of the hall).
Opposite Dong tal is the chapel or Tsang-khang containing the image of Buddha

DISCIPLINE. 191

hat is thrown over the left shoulder, and the cup and the bag are
placed under the knees, and all sit facing to their front.
After the repetition of the refuge formula, headed by the chief
celebrant, the younger provost arises and dons his yellow hat, " sGro-
rtsem-ma," and with an iron rod strikes a pillar with it once, on which
all the students will go into the refectory, where tea is distributed to
each in series, each getting three cupfuls. On drinking it they return
and resume their respective seats, and continue the celebration.
When drinking the tea presented by the populace (mang-ja) sill the
pupils sit silent, and the two c'ab-rils spread a carpet and make a seat in
the middle for the elder provost, who then steps forward and sits
down, and, after having thrice bowed down, then he repeats the
skyabs-'jug, in which the name of the Dispenser of the gifts, who has
offered the tea, is called out, and blessings prayed for to extend the
doctrines of Buddha, to secure long life to the two Grand Lamas, and
absence of strife amongst the members of the monkhood, and that the
rains may descend in due season, and the crops and cattle prosper, and
disease, human and of animals, decrease, and that life be long with
good luck.
After this service in the cathedral, a lecture is given called Ts'ogs-
gtam, in which the rules of etiquette for pupils are laid down, and the
manner of walking and conduct at meetings explained, after which
should there be any pupil who has infringed the rules of discipline, he
is dealt with in an exemplary way, as will be described presently.
The Refectory, or rather tea-kitchen, attached to the cathedrals and
temples, has five regular officials : Two tea-masters (Ja-dpon), who look
after the distribution of the government tea, and the other after the
tea ordered by the provost of the cathedral ; also two menial Ja-ma,
and the superintendent T'ab-gyog-gi dpon-po, who has twenty-five
subordinates on fatigue duty.
The service of general-tea (Man-ja) is given three times daily from
the stock supplied by the Chinese emperor as a subsidy amounting to
about half-a-million bricks. On the 15th, 25th, and the last day of the
month, general-tea is given three times and soup once by the governor
of Gah-ldan palace. There are many dispensers of gifts who offer tea
and a donation ('gyed) amounting to three, fifteen, seventeen silver
srangs pieces ; and it is the custom that if one Tam-ga (about -fs of a
rupee) be offered to the cathedral, then two Tam-gas must be offered
to the college-school, and four to the club. Offerings may be made

which has accommodation for eighty monks. It is in charge of the KyU-khang
Ta-tshang. The chapel of Maitreya (Chamkha?ig; which is three storeys high, and is spacious
enough to contain eighty monks. It is under the charge of Thoisamling College.
Opposite to Dofona tal is Dofrna Lhakhang (the chapel of the goddess Tara). It
can hold forty monks, and is in the charge of Shar-tse Ta-tshang.
Opposite Lobiig is the chapel of Paldan Lhamo. It is said that the image of
Paldan Lhamo contained in it stands in space, i. e. , without any support on any side.

192 THE ORDER OF LAMAS.
solely to the school without the cathedral, and may be made to the
club independently of either. In any case, when offerings are made
to the cathedral, then something must be offered both to the school
and to the club. This custom has existed at De-pung at least from the
time of the great Dalai Lama Sag-wan.
The size of the tea-boilers of the larger monastery and at the Lhasa
temple is said to be enormous, as can be well imagined when it is
remembered that several thousands have to be catered for. The
cauldron at the great Lhasa cathedral is said to hold about 1,200
gallons. A very vigorous discipline is enforced. It is incumbent on
every member of the monastery to report misdemeanours which
come under bis notice, and these are punished according to the
Bratimoksha rules. Minor offences are met at first by simple
remonstrance, but if persisted in are severely punished with
sentences up to actual banishment.
If anyone infringes the rules of discipline short of murder, or oath,
or wine-drinking, or theft, within the club, the two club-masters
punish him; but if within the college or debating-hall, then he is
amenable to the provost of the college.
A member of De-pung who commits any of the ten kinds of " indul
gence " cannot be tried except in the cathedral. The elder provost calls
on the breaker of the rules to stand up in the presence of the assembled
students, and the transgressor rises with bent head and is censured by
the younger provost and sentenced to a particular number of strokes.
Then the two water-men bring in the dGe-rgan of the club and the tutor
of the offending student. The dGe-rgan rises up to receive his censure,
and so also the tutors. Then the offending pupil is seized by the head
and feet, and soundly beaten by the lictors (T'ab-gyog).
The punishment by cane or rod is fifty strokes for a small offence,
one hundred for a middling, and one hundred and fifty for a grave
offence. In the cathedral no more than one hundred and fifty strokes
can be given, and no further punishment follows.
For breach of etiquette in sitting, walking, eating, or drinking, the
penalty is to bow down and apologize, or suffer ten strokes.
The most severe punishment, called "Good or Bad Luck" (sKyid-
sdug), so called it is said from its chance of proving fatal according to
the luck of the sufferer, is inflicted in cases of murder and in expulsion
from the order for persistent intemperance, or theft. After the con
gregation is over the teacher and club-master of the accused are called to
the court, and the provost of the cathedral censures them. Then the
accused is taken outside the temple and his feet are fastened by ropes,
and two men, standing on his right and left, beat him to the number
of about a thousand times, after which he is drawn, by a rope, outside
the boundary wall (fchags-ri) and there abandoned ; while bis teacher
and club-master are each fined one scarf and three silver Srangs.

DISCIPLINE. 193

The rule which is most broken is celibacy. The established
church alone adheres strictly to this rule ; so that, on this account,
many of its monks leave the order, as they are always free to do,
though suffering social disgrace, as they are called ban-lok, or
"turncoats." In the other sects many celibate monks are also
found, especially in the larger monasteries of Tibet ; but the great
majority of the members of the unreformed sects, for instance,
the Nih-ma-pa, also the Sa-kya-pa, Duk-pa, etc., are married
openly or clandestinely.
The Lamas also extend their exercise of discipline outside
the walls of the monastery. Mr. Bockhill witnessed at Kumbum
the following fracas : " Suddenly the crowd scattered to right and
left, the Lamas running for places of hiding, with cries of Gikor
Lama, Gekor Lama ! and we saw, striding towards us, six or eight
Lamas, with a black stripe painted across their foreheads, and
another around their right arms — black Lamas (hei-ho-sang) the
people call them — armed with heavy whips, with which they
belaboured anyone who came within their reach. Behind them
walked a stately Lama in robes of finest cloth, with head clean-
shaved. He was a Gekor, a Lama-censor, or provost, whose duty
it is to see that the rules of the Lamasery are strictly obeyed, and
who, in conjunction with two colleagues, appointed like him by
the abbot for a term of three years, tries all Lamas for whatever
breach of the rules or crime they may have committed. This
one had heard of the peep-shows, Bunch and Judy shows, gambling
tables, and other prohibited amusements on the fair-grounds, and
was on his way with his lictors to put an end to the scandal. I
followed in his wake, and saw the peep-show knocked down, Bunch
and Judy laid mangled beside it, the owners whipped and put to
flight, and the majesty of ecclesiastical law and morality duly
vindicated." 1
As the Lama is comfortably clothed and housed, and fed on the
best of food, he cannot be called a mendicant monk like the Budd
hist monks of old, nor is the vow of poverty strictly interpreted ;
yet this character is not quite absent. For the order, as a body,
is entirely dependent on the lay population for its support ; and
the enormous proportion which the Lamas bear to the laity ren-
"OCKHILL, L., 65.

194 THE ORDER OF LAMAS.
ders the tax for the support of the clergy a heavy burden on the
people. Most of the monasteries, even those of the sects other than the
dominant Ge-lug-pa, are richly endowed with landed property and
villages, from which they derive much revenue. All, however
rely mainly on the voluntary contributions of the worshippers
amongst villagers and pilgrims. And to secure ample aid, large
numbers of Lamas are deputed at the harvest-time to beg and
collect grain and other donations for their monasteries. Most of
the contributions, even for sacerdotal services, are in kind, — grain,
bricks of tea, butter, salt, meat, and live stock, — for money is not
much used in Tibet. Other sources of revenue are the charms,
pictures, images, which the Lamas manufacture, and which are in
great demand; as well as the numerous horoscopes, supplied by the
Lamas for births, marriages, sickness, death, accident, etc., and in
which most extensive devil-worship is prescribed, entailing the
employment of many Lamas. Of the less intellectually gifted
Lamas, some are employed in menial duties, and others are en
gaged in mercantile traffic for the general benefit of their mother
monastery. Most of the monasteries of the established church
grow rich by trading and usury. Indeed, Lamas are the chief
traders and capitalists of the country. DRESS.
The original dress of Buddha's order was adapted for the warm
Indian climate. Later, when his religion extended to colder
climes, he himself is said to have permitted warmer clothing,
stockings, shoes, etc. The avowed object of the monk's dress
was to cover the body decently and protect from cold, mosqui
toes,1 and other sources of mental disturbance.
The dress of a Tibetan monk2 consists of a hat covering his
closely-shaven crown, a gown and girdle, inner vest, cloak, plaid,
trousers, and boots, rosary, and other minor equipments.
LAMAIST HATS AND COWLS.
No hat is mentioned in the Buddhist scriptures as part of the
outfit of a monk, nor does it seem to have been introduced into

* Hauby, East. Mon., 122. s See figures Qn pageg ^ ^ ^ ^

DRESS— HATS AND COWLS. 195
Indian Buddhism even in the later period, judging from its ap
parent absence in the Ajanta cave paintings. It is, however, a
necessity for tonsured heads in a cold climate,1 and it is usually
made in Tibet of thick felt, flannel, or blanket.
The conspicuousness of the cap lent itself readily to its hat
being converted into a sectarial badge. We have seen how the
colour of the cap afforded a rough distinction into yellow, red,
and black hats. But the shape is also an important element
in differentiating hats, both for sectarian and ceremonial pur
poses. The majority of the hats are of an Indian type, a few only
being Chinese or Mongolian.
The two most typical hats are believed by the Lamas to have
been brought from India by St. Padma-sambhava, the founder of
Lamaism, and his coadjutor, Santa-rakshita, in the eighth cen
tury. And both of these hats are essentially Indian in pattern.
To begin with, the hat, numbered j in the figure, named
" The red hat, of the great Pandits " (pan-ch'en-z'wa-dmar).
It is alleged to have been brought from India on the foundation of
Lamaism by the abbot Santa-rakshita, and it is common to all
sects in Tibet except the Ge-lug-pa. Its shape is essentially that
of the ordinary cap used in the colder parts of India during the
winter (see fig. n), with lappets coming over the ears and the
nape of the neck, which lappets are folded up as an outer brim
to the cap in the hotter part of the day. Such a cap is often
worn by Indian ascetics when travelling in India in the winter
time ; and it is quite probable that Atisa, as the Lamas
allege, did arrive in Tibet in such a hat, and possibly of a red
colour. The chief difference in the Lamaist form is that the
crown has been raised into a peak, which gives it a more dis
tinguished look, and the lappets have been lengthened.
Tsoh-K'apa altered the colour of this hat from red to yellow,
and hence arose the title of " Yellow-hat " (S'a-ser), a synonym
for his new sect, "the Ge-lug-pa," in contradistinction to the
" Bed-hat " (S'a-mar) of the Unreformed Lamas. He raised its
peak still higher (see figures b and c in annexed illustration),
1 In India the only need for a head-covering is as an occasional protection against
the sun, but the Indian monk defends his shaven crown from the scorching sun by
his palm-leaf fan.
o 2

196

THE ORDER OF LAMAS.

and lengthened its lappets in proportion to the rank of the
wearer. Thus he gave himself the longest lappets, forming tails

s*£si^>

a. rTse-z'va sgro
6. Pan-ch'en sne-rih.
c. Ditto, in profile.
d. rTse-z'va sgro-rtse.
e. dGon-'dus dbu.
/. Ditto, in profile.
g. T'an-zVa, for abbots and re
incarnations.

Lamas' Hats.
h. sftags z'va-nag.
i. rTazVa, for nTse-drung
j. Pan-ch'en z'va-dmar.
k. Dag z'va-ri-'gra.
I. dGun-zVa.
m, Z'va-dkar skyed k'ra.
n. jo-z'va glin gsum.
u. Jo-z'va rgyun.

p. Saks-z'u of Sakya.
g. Gra-z'a of Taranatha (red).
r. Sakya k'ri z'va.
s. sG-om-z'va dbtJus'gyud.
t. mKah-'grohi dbu-skva.
«. Kar-ma snags z'va.
i\ sKar-maza-z'va.

HATS AND COWLS. 197
down to the waist. The abbots were given shorter tails, and the
ordinary monk shorter still, while the novices were deprived
altogether of the tails. It can be used when walking and riding.
Padma-sambhava's mitre-like hat is the " TJ-gyan-Pandit," the
typical hat of the unreformed Nih-ma sect. It is on the
same Indian model, with the lappets turned up, and divided so
as to suggest the idea of a red lotus, with reference to the ety
mology of St. Padma-sambhava's name, to wit, " The Lotus-
born," and his legendary birth from a red lotus-flower. His native
country was Udyana, between Afghanistan and Kashmir ; and the
tall conical crown is still a feature of the caps of those regions.
It is also called the Sahor (Lahore ?) Pandit's cap. It is worn by
the Nin-ma sect in empowering (abisheka), and in offering
oblations, and in sacred dances. The largest form of this hat,
surmounted by a golden vajra, is called the " Devil subduer "
(dreg -pa zil-non gyi cha lugs), and is figured in the foregoing
picture of St. Padma. It is only worn by the head Lamas when
giving the king holy water, and at the highest festivals.
Many of the hats are full of symbolism, as, for example, Figs, a
and d, as described in the footnote.1
1 rTse-zwa sgro-lugs (Fig. a). This helmet-like hat is common to all
Ge-lug-pa Lamas. It was invented by ^Z'i-bdag ne-ser, and adopted by
the first Grand Lama GedenDub. It is used along with the cope (zla-
gam) when going to mass, and is taken off on entering the temple and
thrown over the left shoulder, with the tails hanging down in front ;
on emerging from the temple it is worn or not according to the monk's
own wishes. Its long tails are stitched to imitate the beaded covers
of a book, so that when the monk grasps the tails, he is to conceive
that he has a grasp of the scriptures ; and again that he is draw
ing to salvation thousands of animals represented by the pile on
the cap. The three lateral stitches in the tails typify the three
classes of scriptures — the Tripitaka, as well as the three original sins
or " fires " and the sin of body, speech and mind, for which the
Tripitaka are the antidotes. The long tails also have to suggest to
him that the doctrines may be extended and long remain. The
marginal stitches represent " the twelve best commands." The inside is
often white to suggest that the monk should keep his heart clean and
pure. The crest represents the doctrinal insight (Zta-wa, Skt., darsana) of
the wearer. As he rises by taking a degree in divinity his crest is
elevated by an extra stitch.
rTse-fwa sked-bts'em differs from the foregoing fn having an-
extra stitch in its crest (see p. 172). It is confined to the re-embodied
mis'an-nid Lamas and those who have taken the degree of d^e-s'e, or B.D.

198 THE ORDER OF LAMAS.
Nuns wear a skull-cap of woollen cloth or fur, coloured yellow or
red, according to their sect.
rTse-ewa sgro rts'e has the highest crest. It is confined to the dGe-
bskul of De-pung monastic university and the degree of D.D.
rTse-zwa sgro-rtse-ma (Fig. d) is confined to the Dalai Lama's chapel-
royal of »\Tse-i\Nam-gyal, and to the four Lings. It is worn during
the (/tor-rgyab sacrifices and dances at these temples only.
dGongs 'dus zwa zur-zur (Figs, e and f). Designed by Pan-ch'en 5Lo-
bza.ii ch'os-kyi »'gyal wzts'an after the shape of dBen-dgon hill. It is
worn by the Grand Pan-ch'en Lama and the four abbots of Tashi-lhunpo
on going to preside at the wrangling disputations.
Pan-zwa sne-rid' ser-po (Figs, b and c). This is a yellow variety of the
red one of the same name, with the tails much lengthened by Tson K'apa.
It is only worn with these long tails by the Dalai Lama, the Pan-ch'en
(Tashi) Lama, the Gah-ldan Khri-rinpo-ch'e, and the Tibetan Lama-
king or regent, during the assembly (fial-k'u) mass and empowering.
It is worn with the gos-ber robes;
sNe-rin zur zwa is worn by the abbots of the colleges and the head
Lamas of smaller monasteries.
T'ah-zwa d5yar-zwa (Fig. g) is the summer hat when riding on horse
back, and is confined to the Dalai and Pan-ch'en Grand Lamas, the
regent, or king, and the re-embodied Lamas, and those abbots who,
having obtained highest honours in divinity, have received from the
Grand Lama the diploma of bdag-rkyen.
rTa-zwa zur ltas dgun-zwa. This is the winter riding hat, and is
confined to the above privileged persons.
Se-teb-rgyun zwa (Fig. o). The summer riding hat for the Tse-drung
grade of Lamas, who are selected on account of their learning and good
looks as personal attendants of the Grand Lama (sKyabs-mgon ch'en).
rTa zwa rgyun-zwa (Fig. i). The winter riding hat of the Tse-drung.
rTse-drung sga-p'ug is used only by the skyabs-myou ch'en-mo in
ascending and descending (? Potala hill).
Zwa-dkar skyid-ka (Fig. m). Worn by the Tse-drung attendants in
summer when accompanying the Grand Lama wearing preceding hat.
Jo-zwa-glin-gsum (Fig. n), " the lord's hat of the three continents."
It is formed after the fashion of the Asura cave, and was worn by the
Indian Jo-wo (Atisa), the reformer of Lamaism, while on his way to Tibet,
at the Nepalese shrine Svayambhunath (T., Bang-'byun) Chaitya;
afterwards it was the hat of his sect, the Kah-dam-pa. In hot weather
its daps are folded up, and in the cold let down. It was originally red,
but changed to yellow by the Ge-lug-pa. Now it is worn only by the
hermits (ri-k*rod-pa) of the Ge-lug-pa or established church, and is
never worn within the monastery or in quarters.
Sa-skya K'ri-zwa (Fig. r). This hat of the Sa-kya sect is of later intro
duction. Originally all the Sa-kya Lamas wore the Urgyen-pen-zwa of
the unreformed party. When they attained the temporal lordship over

HATS AND COWLS. 199
In the outer rainy districts of the Himalayas, in Bhotan and
Sikhim, many Lamas wear straw hats during the summer, or
go bare-headed.
the thirteen provinces of Tibet, the Chinese king " Se-ch'en" presented
this hat to the chief of the sect, his highness 'Phag-pa Bin-po-ch'e,
and its central vajra upon the "unchangeable " crown is after the Chinese
style. It is restricted to those of noble descent (o-dung-pa), and is only
worn when the gduh-brgyud Lama ascends the throne, or in empower
ing devotees, or in the (/Tor rgyab sacrificial offering. Cf . also p. 57.
Sa-zu mt'on grol (Fig. jj). This is a hat of the Sa-kya-pa. It is believed
to confer spiritual insight, and to have been invented by the God of
Wisdom (Manjusri). It is used when empowering the Khri-pa, and for
mass. Sa-skya grwa-zwa (Fig. q.) This is the hat of the Jonah-pa sub-sect, to
which Taranatha belonged. It is worn by the junior Sa-kya monks
during certain masses, at the beginning and the end, also in religious
dances and in the Tor-gya sacrifice.
Karma-pal zwa nag(Fig. t). " The black (fairy) hat of the Kar-ma-pa."
This hat was conferred upon the reverend Bang-'byuh ?-Dorje (Vajra
Svayambhu) by the five classes of witches (Dakkini) when he coerced
them into granting him the Siddhi — power of flying in the air. Each
of the Dakkinis contributed a hair from their tresses, and plaited these
to form this hat. Whoever wears it can fly through the air. It is
kept as a relic at Sa-kya monastery, and only worn in state, or when a
wealthy votary comes to the shrine. On such occasions a monk or.
either side holds the hat to prevent it from carrying off the wearer.
Karma shags-zwa (Fig. u). " The enchanter's hat " of the K-arma-
pa sect. It is shaped after the cake-offering for the angry demons, and
is worn during the dances and the grtor-rgyab sacrifice.
Dwag-zwa ri-'gra (Fig. k). A hat of the Kar-gyu-pa sect, worn when
empowering or preaching. It is shaped after the hill of Dwag-lha
sgam-pa, and was invented by mNam-med-diwag-po lha ?-jes-ts'erih-ma.
sNags pa! zwa nag (Fig. h). The black necromancer's hat. Worn by
the sLob-dpan Lama of the unreformed sect in their g>Tor-rgyab sacri
fice, and in the mystic play in all the sects.
gZah-zwa (Fig. v). " The planet hat." This raven-crowned hat was
designed by Lama Gyun-ston-k'ro-rgyal on seeing the planet Mercury.
It is worn by the Di-kung-pa, Kar-ma-pa, and Nih-ma-pa sects during
the ceremony of "circling the planets" (gzai-bskor) and the striking
and injuring one's enemy (mt'u).
The hat of the Grand Lama of Bhotan (head of the southern Dug-pa
church), and figured at page 226, is called pad-ma-mt'ong or "the
lotus-vision." It has a vo/ro-spikelet which cannot be worn by any
but the supreme Lama. And the hat is finely embroidered with the
cross-thunderbolts, lotus-flower, and thunder dragons (Dug).

200 THE ORDER OF LAMAS.
The Tibetans follow the Chinese in the practice of saluting by
taking off their hat, so in their temples no hats are worn except
during certain ceremonies, and then only a special kind.
THE ROBES.
The robes, which the monks of the established church and the
more celibate monks of the other sects wear during certain
celebrations, are the three vestments of the shape prescribed in
the primitive code of ritual, the Vinaya, with the addition of a
brocaded collared under-vest x and trousers, as seen in the figures.
The material of these robes is usually woollen cloth; but silk,
though against the precepts,2 is sometimes worn by those who
can afford the expense.
The colour of these robes is yellow or red, according to the sect.
Yellow or saffron 3 colour in Tibet is sacred to the clergy of the
established church, the Gre-lug-pa ; and its use by others is penal.
The only instance in which it is permitted is when a layman is
bringing a present to the Ge-lug-pa priests. He then is permitted
to wear during his visit a flat yellow hat like a Tam-o'-Shanter
bonnet. These three orthodox Buddhist raiments are : —
1. The Lower patched robe, named "fz'dn" 4( = Sanghdti). The
cloth is in several largish patches (about twenty-three) and sewn
into seven divisions, and fastened by a girdle at the waist.5
1 stod 'jag.
2 In common with most ascetics, Buddha decreed the monastic dress of his order
to be of as mean a material and cost as possible, and the colour selected was sad
saffron, which, while affording a useful wearable colour not readily soiled, gave
uniformity to the wearer and afforded no scope for worldly vanity in fine dress. Yet
nothing can be more dignified and becoming than the thin loose robe of the Buddhist
monk, falling in graceful drapery, endlessly altering its elegant folds with every
movement of the figure. And the ease with which it lends itself to artistic arrange
ment is seen not only in the Grecian and Indian sculptures of Buddha in a standing
posture, but is even retained somewhat in the thicker and relatively unelegant robes
of the Lamaist monk,- seen in the several figures.
3 Literally nur-smrig or "Brahmani goose " (coloured). This sad-coloured bird, the
ruddy shell-drake, has from its solitary habits and conjugal fidelity been long in
India symbolic of recluseship and devotion, and figures in such capacity on the capitals
of the Asoka pillars.
4 gz'an or ? dras-drubs.
5 The patched robe, which gives the idea of the tattered garments of poverty, is
stated to have originated with Ananda dividing into thirty pieces the rich robe given
to Buddha by the wealthy physician Jivaka, and that robe was sewn by Ananda
into five divisions like this one.

ROBES.

201

2. The Outer patched robe, named Nam-jar (P., ? Antarvd-
saka). The cloth is cut into very numerous pieces, about one
hundred and twenty-five, which are sewn together in twenty-five
divisions. 3. The Upper shawl, named bLd-gos (Uttarasanghdti). Long
and narrow, ten to twenty feet long and two to three feet broad.
It is thrown over the left shoulder and passed under right arm,
leaving the right shoulder bare, as in the Indian style, but the
shoulders and chest are covered by an inner vest. It is adjusted
all round the body, covering both shoulders, on entering the houses
of laymen. And over all is thrown a plaited cloak or cope, cres
eentic in shape.1
But the ordinary lower robe of Lamas of all sects is an ample
plaited petticoat, named " S'am t'abs,"2 of a deep garnet-red colour,
which encircles the figure from the waist to the ankles, and is
fastened at the waist by a girdle, and with this is worn an un-
sleeved vest, open in front like a deacon's dalmatia. On less
ceremonial occasions a sleeved waistcoat is used ; and when travel
ling or visiting, is worn the ordinary Tibetan
wide-sleeved red gown, gathered at the waist
by a girdle ; and always trousers. The
sleeves of this mantle are broad and long,
and in hot weather, or on other occasions
where greater freedom is wanted or the priest
has to administer with bare arms, the arms
are withdrawn from the sleeves, which latter
then hang loose.
A sash is also usually worn, several yards
long and about three inches broad, thrown
over the left shoulder, across breast, and tied
in a bow over the right hip, and the re
mainder swung round the body.3
Thus it will be seen that Lamas of every
sect, the established church included, ordi
narily wear red robes, and it is the colour of ™,mT, _ „,
J ' Water-bottle Wallet.
the girdles (sKe-rag) and the shape and
colour of the hats which are the chief distinctive badges of the

1 zla-gam.

or mt'an-gos.

3 Koppen, ii., 268.

202

THE ORDER OF LAMAS.

sect. The holy- water bottle (Ch'ab-lug), figured on page 201,
which hangs from the left side of the girdle, is also fringed by a
flap of cloth coloured red or yellow according to the sect.
The boots are of stiff red and particoloured felt, with soles of
hide or Yak-hair.
From the girdle hangs, in addition
to the holy- water bottle, a pen-ease,
purse, with condiments, dice, etc.,
sometimes the rosary, when it is
not in use or worn on the neck or
wrist, and the amulet box. And in
the upper flap of the coat, forming a
breast pocket, are thrust his prayer-
wheel, drinking-cup, booklets,
charms, etc.
The dress of the nuns generally
resembles that of the monks. The
head is shaved, and no ornaments
are worn.1 THE .ROSARIES.
The rosary is an essential part of '
a Lama's dress ; and taking, as it
does, such a prominent part in the
Lamaist ritual, it is remarkable that
the Tibetan rosary does not appear
to have attracted particular notice.
As a Buddhist article the rosary
appears only in the latest ritualistic
stage when a belief had arisen in the
potency of muttering mystic spells
and other strange formulas. In
the very complicated rosaries of
Japan2 it has attained its highest
development.
Amongst southern Buddhists 3 the rosary is not very conspicu-

Pen-case, Ink-bottle and Seal.
(The pen-case is silver-inlaid iron from
Der-ge.)

By J. M. James, Trans. Jap. As. Soc., p.

i Cf. Boyle, Mark., p. 109.
2 "Note on Buddhist Rosaries in Japan."
173, 1881.
a I have described Burmese Buddhist rosaries, as well as some of the Lamaist in
J.A.S. £.,1891.

ROSARIES.

203

ous, but amongst Tibetans it is everywhere visible. It is also
held in the hand of the image of the patron god of Tibet — Cha-
ra-si (Skt., Avalokitesvara). And its use is not confined to the
Lamas. Nearly every lay man and woman is possessed of a rosary,
on which at every opportunity they zealously store up merit ; and
they also use it for secular purposes,1 like the sliding balls of the
Chinese to assist in ordinary calculations : the beads to the right
of the centre-bead being
called ta-than and regis
tering units, while those
to the left are called .c'u-
do and record tens, which
numbers suffice for their
ordinary wants.
The Tibetan name for
the rosary is " 'pren-ba,"
pronounced t'eii-wa, or
vulgarly t'eii-ita, and
literally means " a string
of beads."
The rosary contains
108 beads of uniform
size. The reason for this
special number is alleged
to be merely a provision
to ensure the repetition
of the sacred spell a full
hundred times, and the
extra beads are added
to make -up for any
omission of beads
through absent-mindedness during the telling process or for actual
loss of beads by breakage. Che-re-si and Do-ma have each 108
1 The rosary has proved «¦ useful instrument in the hands of our Lama surveying
spies. Thus we find it reported with reference to Gyantse town, that a stone wall
nearly two-and-a-half miles goes round the town, and the Lama estimated its length
by means of his rosary at 4,500 paces. At each pace he dropped a bead and uttered
the mystic " Om mam padm hm," while the good people who accompanied him in his
Lin-k'or or religious perambulations little suspected the nature of the work he was
really doing.

A Rosaey.

204 THE ORDER OF LAMAS.
names, but it is not usual to tell these on the rosary. And in
the later Kham editions of the Lamaic scriptures — the " bka-
'gyur," — the volumes have been extended from 100 to 108. And
the Burmese foot-prints of Buddha sometimes contain 108 sub
divisions. This number is perhaps borrowed, like so many other
Lamaist fashions, from the Hindus, of whom the Vaishnabs possess
a rosary with 108 beads.
The two ends of the string of beads, before being knotted, are
passed through three extra beads, the centre one of which is the
largest. These are collectively called " retaining or seizing beads,"
rdog-'dsin. The Word is sometimes spelt mdo-'dsin, which means
"the union holder." In either case the meaning is much the
same. These beads keep the proper rosary beads in position and
indicate to the teller the completion of a cycle of beads.
This triad of beads symbolizes " the Three Holy Ones " of the
Buddhist trinity, viz., Buddha, Dharma (the Word), and Sangha
(the church, excluding the laity). The large central bead repre
sents Buddha, while the smaller one intervening between it and
the rosary beads proper represents the church and is called " Our
radical Lama " (or spiritual adviser),1 the personal Lama-guide and
confessor of the Tibetan Buddhist ; and his symbolic presence on
the rosary immediately at the end of the bead-cycle is to ensure
becoming gravity and care in the act of telling the beads, as if he
were actually present.
The Gelug-pa, or established church, usually has only two
beads as dok-dsin, in which case the terminal one is of much
smaller size, and the pair are considered emblematic of a vase from
which the beads spring. In such cases the extra bead is sometimes
strung with the other beads of the rosary, which latter then con
tains 109 beads; thus showing that the beads really number 111.
Counters.
Attached to the rosary is a pair of strings of ten small pendant
metallic rings as counters. One of these strings is terminated by
a miniature dorje (the thunderbolt of Indra) and the otherJby-a--g
small bell — in Tantric Buddhist figures the dorje is usually asso
ciated with a bell. The counters on the cZor^'e-string register units
1 tsa-wai bla-ma. -

ROSARIES. 205

of bead-cycles, while those on the bell-string mark tens of cycles.
The counters and the ornaments of the strings are usually of silver,
and inlaid with turquoise. These two strings of counters, called
" count-keepers," x may be attached at any part of the rosary
string, but are usually attached at the eighth and twenty-first
bead on either side of the central bead.
They are used in the following manner : When about to tell
the beads, the counters on each string are slid up the string. On
completing a circle of the beads, the lowest counter on the dorje-
string is slid down into contact with the dorje. And on each fur
ther cycle of beads being told, a further counter is slid down.
When the ten have been exhausted, they are then slid up again,
and one counter is slipped down from the bell-string. The
counters thus serve to register the utterance of 108 x 10 x 10 =
10,800 prayers or mystic formulas. The number of these formulas
daily repeated in this way is enormous. The average daily number
of repetitions may, in the earlier stages of a Lama's career, amount
to 5,000, but it depends somewhat on the zeal and leisure of the
individual. A layman may repeat daily about five to twenty
bead-cycles, but usually less. Old women are especially pious in
this way, many telling over twenty bead-cycles daily. A middle-
aged Lama friend of mine has repeated the spell of his tutelary
deity alone over 2,000,000 times. It is not uncommon to find
rosaries so worn away by the friction of so much handling that
originally globular beads have become cylindrical.
Affixed to the rosary are small odds and ends, such as a metal
toothpick, tweezer, small keys, etc.
Material of the Beads.
The materials of which the Lamaist rosaries are composed
may to a certain extent vary in costliness according to the wealth
of the wearer. The abbot of a large and wealthy monastery may
have rosaries of pearl and other precious stones, and even of gold.
Turner relates2 that the Grand Tashi Lama possessed rosaries of
pearls, emeralds, rubies, sapphires, coral, amber, crystal and lapis-
lazuli. 1 grang-'dsin, but vulgarly they are known as chub-she (c'u-bs'ad) or " the ten
makers." 2 Embassy to Tibet, p. 'J61, 1800.

206

THE ORDER OF LAMAS.

But the material of the rosary can only vary within rather
narrow limits, its nature being determined by the particular sect
to which the Lama belongs and the particular deity to whom wor
ship is to be paid.

Kinds of Rosabies.
Fig, 1. The yellow wooden rosary of Ge-lug-pa sect.
,, 2. The red sandal- wood rosary for Tam-din's worship.
,, 3. The white conch shell rosary for Cha-rasi's worship.
,, 4. The Raksha rosary for the furies' worship.
,, 5. A layman's rosary (beads of unequal size).
,, 6. The human skull (discs) rosary.
,, 7. The isnake-spine rosary.
a=dd-dsin. d=dorge-pendnnt.
Z>=counters. c=& tweezer and tooth-pick.
c=bell-pendant.

ROSARIES. 207

Kinds of Rosaries.
The yellow rosary or Ser-t'en, Fig. 1, is the special rosary of the
Ge-lug-pa or " reformed school," also called " the yellow hat sect "
(S'd-ser). The beads are formed from the ochrey yellow wood
of the C'aii-ch'ub tree, literally "the Bodhi tree" or tree of
supreme wisdom, which is said to grow in central China. The
wood is so deeply yellow that it is doubtful whether it be really
that of the Bipal (Ficus religiosa), of which was the Bodhi tree
under which Gautama attained his Buddhahood. These beads
are manufactured wholesale by machinery at the temple called by
Tibetans Ri-wo tse-ha and by the Chinese V-tha Shan, or " The
Five Beaks," about 200 miles south-west of Bekin. Hue gives a
sketch1 of this romantic place, but makes no mention of its
rosaries. This rosary is of two kinds, viz., the usual form of
spherical beads about the size of a pea, and a less common form
of lozenge-shaped perforated discs about the size of a sixpence.
This rosary may be used for all kinds of worship, including that of
the furies.
The Bo-dhi-tse rosary is the one chiefly in use among the
Km-ma-pa, or " old (i.e., unreformed) school " of Lamas, also
called the S'a-mar or " red-hat sect." It is remarkable that its
name also seeks to associate it with the Bodhi tree, but its beads
are certainly not derived from the Ficus family. Its beads are
the rough brown seeds of a tree which grows in the outer Hima
layas. This rosary can be used for all kinds of worship, and
may also be used by the Ge-luk-pa in the worship of the fiercer
deities. The white conch-shell rosary Tun-fen,2 Fig. 3, consists of
cylindrical perforated discs of the conch shell, and is specially used
in the worship of Avalokita — the usual form of whose image holds
a white rosary in the upper right hand. This is the special rosary
¦of nuns.
The rosary of plain crystal or uncoloured glass beads is also
peculiar to Avalokita.
The red sandal-wood rosary Tsdn-dan-mar, Fig. 2, consists of
perforated discs of red sandal- wood (Adenanthera pavonina) or
1 Travels in Tartary, Tibet, and China. By M. Hue (Hazlitt's trans.), i., p. 79, and
figured under Shrines.
2 Drun-p'ren.

208 THE ORDER OF LAMAS.
other wood of a similar appearance. It is used only in the worship
of the fierce deity Tam-din (Skt., Hayagriva), a special protector
of Lamaism.
The coral rosary — Ch'i-ru-t'eii — is also used for the tutelary
fiend, Tam-din, and by the unreformed sects for their wizard-saint
Fadma-sambhava. Coral being so expensive, red beads of glass
or composition are in general use instead. With this rosary it is
usual to have the counters of turquoise or blue beads.
The rosary formed of discs of the human skull — the t'od-t'en,
Fig. 6 — is especially used for the worship of the fearful tutelary
fiend Vajra-bhairava as the slayer of the king of the Dead. It is
usually inserted within the Bo-dhi-tse or other ordinary rosary ;
and it frequently has its discs symmetrically divided by four large
Raksha beads into four series, one of these beads forming the
central bead. There is no rosary formed of finger-bones, as has
been sometimes stated.
The " elephant-stone " rosary — Lan-ch'en-grod-pa — is prepared
from a porous bony-like concretion, which is sometimes found in
the stomach (or brain) of the elephant. As it is suggestive of
bone, it is used in worship of Yama. The real material being ex
tremely scarce and expensive, a substitute is usually found in
beads made from the fibrous root of the bow-bambu (Z'u-shin),
which shows on section a structure very like the stomach-stone
and its name also means " stomach or digestion " as well as
" bow." The Raksha rosary, Fig. 4, formed of the large brown warty seeds
of the Mceocarpus Janitrus, is specially used by the Ndh-ma
Lamas in the worship of the fierce deities and demons. The seeds of
this tree are normally five-lobed and ridged, and it is interesting ,
from a botanical point of view to find how relatively frequent is the
occurrence of six lobes. Such abnormal seeds are highly prized by
the Tibetans, who believe them to be the offspring of some seeds
of Badma-sambhava's rosary, which, the legend states, broke
at his Halashi hermitage in Nepal, and several of the detached
beads remaining unpicked up, these were the parents of the
six-lobed seeds. The demand for such uncommon seeds being
great, it is astonishing how many of them are forthcoming
to diligent search. This rosary is also commonly used by the
indigenous B6n-po priests, and it is identical with the rosary

ROSARIES. 209

of the Hindus — the rudrdksha (Eudra's or the fierce god Siva's
eyes, with reference to their red colour), from which the Tibetan
name of Raksha is apparently derived.
The Naii-ga pd-ni rosary is used only for the worship of
Namsra, or Vaisravana, the god of wealth ; and by the wizards in
their mystical incantations. It consists of glossy jet-black nuts
about the size of a hazel, but of the shape of small horse chest
nuts. These are the seeds of the Lun-t'an tree which grows in
the sub-tropical forests of the S.E. Himalayas. They are emble
matic of the eyes of the Garuda bird, a henchman of Vajra-pani (a
form of Jupiter) and the great enemy of snakes, and hence is
supposed to be derived the Sanskritic name of the beads, from
ndga, a serpent. Its use in the worship of the god of wealth is
interesting in associating snakes, as the mythological guardians
of treasure, with the idea of wealth.1
The rosary of snake-spines (vertebra?), Fig. 7, is only used by
the sorcerers in necromancy and divination. The string contains
about fifty vertebra?.
The complexion of the god or goddess to be worshipped also de
termines sometimes the colour of the rosary-beads. Thus a tur
quoise rosary is occasionally used in the worship of the popular
goddess Tara, who is of a bluish-green complexion. A red rosary
with red Tam-din, a yellow with yellow Manjusri ; and Vaisravan,
who is of a golden-yellow colour, is worshipped with an amber-
rosary. The rosaries of the laity are composed of auy sort of bead accord
ing to the taste and wealth of the owner. They are mostly
glass beads of various colours, and the same rosary contains beads
of a variety of sizes and colours interspersed with coral, amber,
turquoise, etc. The number of beads is the same as with the
Lamas, but each of the counter-strings is usually terminated by
a vajra: both strings record only units of cycles, which suffice
for the smaller amount of bead-telling done by the laity.
Mode of telling the Beads.
When not in use the rosary is wound round the right wrist like
a bracelet, as in figure on page 172, or worn around the neck with
the knotted end uppermost. i See p. 368.

210 THE ORDER OF LAMAS.
The act of telling the beads is called tan-c'e, which literally
means " to purr " like a cat, and the muttering of the prayers is
rather suggestive of this sound.
In telling the beads the right hand is passed through the
rosary, which is allowed to hang freely down with the knotted
end upwards. The hand, with the thumb upwards, is then
usually carried to the breast and held there stationary during
the recital. On pronouncing the initial word "Om" the first
bead resting on the knuckle is grasped by raising the thumb
and quickly depressing its tip to seize the bead against the
outer part of the second joint of the index finger. During
the rest of the sentence the bead, still grasped between the
thumb and index finger, is gently revolved to the right,
and on conclusion of the sentence is dropped down the palm-
side of the string. Then with another "Om" the next bead
is seized and treated in like manner, and so on throughout the
circle. On concluding each cycle of the beads, it is usual to finger each
of the three "keeper-beads," saying respectively, "Om !" "Ah!"
"Hum!"
> J
The mystic formulas for the beads have already been illustrated.
They follow the prayer, properly so-called, and are believed to con
tain the essence of the formal prayer, and to act as powerful
spells. They are of a Sanskritic nature, usually containing the
name of the deity addressed, and even when not gibberish, as
they generally are, they are more or less unintelligible to the
worshipper. The formula used at any particular time varies according to the
particular deity being worshipped. But the one most frequently
used by the individual Lama is that of his own tutelary deity,
which varies according to the sect to which the Lama be
longs. The other articles of equipment comprise, amongst other
things, a prayer-wheel, vajra- sceptre and bell, skull-drum and
smaller tambour, amulet, booklets. Some even of the higher
Lamas wear ornaments and jewellery.1

1 The Grand Lama of Tashi-lhunpo wore a jewelled necklace, which he presented to
Mr. Bogle (Maekh., cxl.)

MENDICANT'S STAFF.

211

A few possess a begging-bowl and the mendicant's staff,1 but
these are mostly for ritualistic displays, as the Lama is no longer
a mendicant monk living on alms like the Indian Bhikshu of
old. 1 Khar-sil ; Skt., the onomatopoetic hi-ki-le or kha-kha-rean, the alarm-staff with
jingling rings carried by the mendicant monk to drown out by its jingling worldly
sounds from the ears of the monk and to warn off small animals lest they be trod
upon and killed. Its use is explained in Kah-gyur Do, Vol. xxvi., Csoma, An., p. 479.
The Tibetan form is usually tipped by a trident in place of the leaf-like loop.

Alaem-Staff
of a mendicant monk.

p 2

212

IX.

DAILY LIFE ATSTD BOUTINE.

" He who eats Lamas' food
Wants iron jaws." — Tibetan Proverb.1
jLTHOTJGH the Lamas are enslaved in the bonds of ritual
they are not all gloomy ascetics, wrapped up in con
templation, but most can be as blithe as their lay
brothers. Their heavy round of observances, however,
often lies wearily upon them, as may be seen from the frequent
interruptions in the ordinary Lama's saintly flow of rhetoric to
yawn, or take part in some passing conversation on mundane
matters. The daily routine of a Lama differs somewhat according to
whether he is living in a monastery, or
as a village priest apart from his clois
ter, or as a hermit. As with occidental
friars, a considerable proportion, of Lamas
have trades and handicrafts, labouring
diligently in the field, farm, and in the
lower valleys in the forest. But scarcely
ever is he a mendicant monk, like his
prototype the Indian Bhikshu of old.
The routine in the convents of the
established church is seen at its best
in the Grand Lama's private monastery
Mendicant Lama.2 \. i -\ c -m i j.
or chapel-royal 01 iNam-gyal, on mount
Fotala, near Lhasa, and I am indebted to one of the monks

1 Akor zas sa-la \cliag-gi gram-pa dyos.

After Giorgi.

DAILY ROUTINE. 213

of that monastery for the following detailed account of the prac
tice followed there.
Eotjtine in a Monastery of the Established Church.
Immediately on waking, the monk x must rise from his couch,
even though it be midnight, and bow thrice before the altar in
his cell, saying, with full and distinct enunciation : " 0 Guide
of great pity ! hear me !• 0 merciful Guide ! Enable me to keep
the two hundred and fifty-three rules, including abstinence from
singing, dancing, and music, and thoughts of worldly wealth,
eating luxuriously, or taking that which has not been given,"
etc., etc.
Then follows this prayer 2 : "0 Buddhas and Bodhisats of
the ten directions, hear my humble prayer. I am a pure-
minded monk, and my earnest desire is to devote myself towards
benefiting the animals; and having consecrated my body and
wealth to virtue, I vow that my chief aim will be to benefit all
living things."
Then is repeated seven times tbe following mantra from tbe Sutra on
"the wheel-blessing for the animal universe"3: "Om! Sambhara, Sam-
mahd jaba hum ! " Followed also seven times by this extract from
bharabi manaskar maha jaba hum ! Om ! Smara Smarabi manaskara
Norbu-rgyas-pahi-gzhal-med-k'an : "Om! ruci ramini pravartya hum/"
This is followed by " Om ! Khrecara ganaya hri hri svaha ! "
' — a spell which if the monk thrice repeats and spits on the
sole of his foot, all the animals which die under his feet during
that day will be born as gods in the paradise of Indra (Jupiter).
Having done this worship, the monk may retire again to sleep
if the night is not far advanced. If, however, the dawn is near
he must not sleep but employ the interval in repeating several
mantras or forms of prayer (smon-lam) until the bell rings for
the first assembly.
The first assembly, or matin, called " the early gathering " (sna-
tsogs), is held before sunrise. The great bell goes and awakens
everyone hitherto slumbering, and it is soon followed by the great
conch-shell trumpet-call, on which signal the monks adjust their
i I have translated by " monk " the word <2ge-sIofi, which is literally " the virtuous
beggar," corresponding to the Indian Buddhist word Bhikshu, or mendicant.
2 Composed by m'as-grub-hag-dban-rdorje.
3 'gro-wa-yongs-su-bsngo-wai-'khor-loi-mdo.

214 DAILY LIFE AND ROUTINE.
dress and go outside their cell or dormitory to the lavatory stone-
flag or pavement (rdo-&chal) for ablution.
Standing on these stones, and before washing, each monk chants
the following mantra, and mentally conceives that all his sins, as
well as the impurities of his body, are being washed away : " Om!
argham tsargham bimanase! utsusma maha krodh humphat!"
Then with water brought in copper vessels, and with a pinch of
saline earth as soap,1 they perform ablutions usually of a very
partial kind.
After ablution each monk repeats, rosary in hand, the mantra
of his favourite deity (usually Manjusri or Tara), or his tutelary
fiend, as many times as possible.
On the second blast of the conch-shell, about fifteen minutes
after the first, all the fully-ordained monks bow down before the
door of the temple, while the novices bow upon the outer paved
court. All then enter the temple and take their places according
to their grade, the most junior being nearest the door; and during
the ingress the provost-marshal stands rod in hand beside the
door. The monks seat themselves in rows, each on his own mat, cross-
legged in Buddha-fashion, and taking care not to allow his feet to
project, or his upper vestments to touch the mat. They sit in
solemn silence, facing straight to the front. The slightest breach
of these rules is promptly punished by the rod of the provost-
marshal, or in the case of the novices by the clerical sacristan.
At the third blast of the conch-trumpet the following services
are chanted : —
Invoking the blessing of eloquence; the refuge-formula; Tsoii-
K'apa's ritual of lha-brgya-ma.
After which tea is served, but before it is drunk the presiding
Lama says a grace in which all join.
LAMAIST GRACES BEFORE MEAT.
The Lamas always say grace before food or drink. Most of these
graces are curiously blended with demonolatry, though they always are
pervaded by universal charity and other truly Buddhist principles.

1 This earth is called sug-pa, but the higher Lamas use soap : " The Lama minister
of the Grand Lama," says Sarat's narrative, " formerly used to wash his holiness's head
with water and sug-pa powder, but now he uses a cake of P 's transparent soap."

LAMAIST GRACES.

215

And they throw some light on the later Mahayana ritual of Indian
Buddhism, from which they are alleged to have been borrowed.
Before drinking, the Lamas, like the Romans, pour out some of the
beverage as a libation to their Lares, and other gods. A common

Tea Seevice.

grace before drinking tea (which is served out eight or ten times daily
at the temples and cathedrals — the service being interrupted for this
temporal refreshment) is : —
" We humbly beseech thee ! that we and our relatives throughout all
our life-cycles, may never be separated from the three holy ones !
May the blessing of the trinity enter into this drink ! " [Then,

216 DAILY LIFE AND ROUTINE.
here sprinkling a few drops on the ground with the tips of the
fore and middle fingers, the grace is continued : — ]
" To all the dread locality, demons of this country, we offer this good
Chinese tea ! Let us obtain our wishes ! And may the doctrines of
Buddha be extended ! "
The grace before food of the established church, the purest of all
the Lamaist sects, is as follows : —
' ' This luscious food 1 of a hundred tempting tastes, is here reverently offered by
us — the animal beings — to the Jinas (the Dhyani Buddhas) and their
princely sons (celestial Bodhisattvas). May rich blessings overspread this
food ! Om-Ah Hum !
" It is offered to the Lama — Om Guru vajra naividya-ah Hum!
"It is offered to all the Buddhas and Bodhisattvas — Om sarva Buddha Bod
hisattva vajra naividya-ah Hum !
"It is offered to the tutelaries, witches, and defensores jtdei2 — Om Deva
Dakini Sri dharmapala saparivara vajra naividya-ah Hum !
"One piece (is offered) to the powerful demon-lord (rfban-bahi-'byun-po ;
Skt. , Bhutesvara) — Om-Agra-Pinda-ashi bhya svaha !
" One piece to Aprog-ma — Om-Harites-svahd !
" One piece to ' the five hundred brothers or sisters ' i — Om ffarite maha-vajra-
yakshini hara-hara sarva papi-mokshi svaha !
"This food, of little virtue, is offered compassionately and without anger or
pride, or as a return for past favours ; but solely in the hope that we — all
the animal beings — may become holy and attain the rank of the most
perfect Buddhahood. "
When any flesh-meat is in the diet, then the following grace is
repeated seven times in order to cleanse from the sin of slaughter and
ot eating flesh : " Om abira khe-ca-ra Hum ! " And by the efficacy of
this spell, the animal, whose flesh is eaten, will be reborn in heaven.
The following grace is for the special benefit of the donors of pro
visions, tea, etc., to the monastery, and it is repeated before the monks
partake of food so gifted : —
" Salutation to the all-victorious Tathagata Arhat. The most perfect Buddha.
The fiery and most illuminating king of precious light ! Namo ! Samanta-
prabha-ragaya Tathdgataya Arhatesamayak-Buddhdya Namo Manjusri-
ye. Kumara-Bhutaya Bodhisattvaya maha-sattvaya ! Tadyathd! Om

1 Z'al-ms.
" Yidam mK'ah-gro ch'os-skyon.
3 This is the celebrated man-eating Yakshini fiendess, with the 500 children, whose
youngest and most beloved son, Pingala, was hid away by Buddha (or, as some Lamas
say, by his chief disciple, Maudgalyayana) in his begging-bowl until she promised to
cease cannibalism, and accept the Buddhist doctrine as detailed in the Ratnakuta
Sutra. See also the Japanese version of this legend, footnote p. 99. The Lamas assert
that Buddha also promised Hariti that the monks of his order would hereafter feed
both herself and her sons : hence their introduction into this grace ; and each Lama
daily leaves on his plate, a handful of his food expressly for these demons, and these
leavings are ceremoniously gathered and thrown down outside the monastery gate to
these pretas and other starveling demons.
4 The children of the above Hariti.

MASSES FOR SICK. 217

ralambhe-nira-bhase jaye-jayelabdhe maha-materakshinamme parisodhaya
svaha. (The efficacy of reciting this mantra is thus described, says
the Ge-lug-pa manual of daily worship, in the Vinaya- Sutra : "When
this is repeated once all sins will be cleansed, and the dispensers of the
gifts will have their desires fulfilled." Then here follow with : — )
" May I attain bliss by virtue of this gift !
"May I attain bliss by deep meditation, the ceremonial rites, reverence and
the offerings !
"May I attain perfect bliss and the supreme perfection of the real end
(Nirvana) !
"May I obtain the food of meditation of the hundred tastes, power, and bright
ness of countenance by virtue of this food-offering !
" May I obtain rebirths of wisdom, void of thirst, hunger, and disease, by
virtue of this repentance-offering !
" May I obtain unalloyed happiness, free from worldly birth, old age, disease,
and death !
" May the dispenser of these gifts attain perfection by virtue of these, his
liberal gifts !
"May the human beings and all the other animals, obtain deliverance by
virtue of this vast offering !
" May all the Buddhists, Nanda, Upananda, etc., the gods of the natural dwell
ing, the king, this dispenser of gifts, and the populace generally, obtain
everlasting happiness, long life, and freedom from disease.
" May all the human beings, by virtue of this (gift), obtain luck in body and
fore-knowledge.
" May the hopes of animals be realized as by the wish-granting gem (Cinta-
mani) and the wish-granting tree (Kalpataru), and may glory come on all !
mangdlam ! "
After the tea-refreshment, the following services are performed :
The Great Compassionators liturgy, the praise of the disciples or
Sthaviras, the offering of the magic-circle or mandala, though
the great circle is not offered every day, Yon-ten-ihi-gyurma,
and the worship of the awful Bhairava, or other tutelary, such
as Sandus, Dem-ch'og, or Tara. But as these latter liturgies are
very long, they are interrupted for further tea-refreshment. And
at this stage, that is, in the interval between the first and second
portions of the tutelary's worship, is done any sacerdotal service
needed on account of the laity, such as masses for the sick,
or for the soul of a deceased person. In the latter case it is
publicly announced that a person, named so-and-so, died on such
a date, and his relatives have given tea and such-and-such present,
in kind or money, to the Lamas for masses. Then the Lamas do
the service for sending the soul to the western paradise.1 Or, if
the service is for a sick person, they will do the Ku-rim2 ceremony.
The tutelary's service is then resumed, and on its conclusion
tea and soup are served. Then is chanted the S'es-rab snin-
1 See chapter on worship. 2 Not phonetic for " cure him."

218

DAILY LIFE AND ROUTINE.

po, after which the assembly closes, and the monks file out singly,
first from, the extreme right bench, then from the extreme left,
the youngest going first, and the most senior of the re-incarnated
saintly Lamas last of all.
The monks now retire to their cells, where they do their
private devotions, and offer food to their tutelary deities ;
often marking the time to be oc
cupied by particular devotional exer
cises by twirling with the finger and
thumb their table-prayer-wheel, and
while it spins, the exercise lasts.
The orisons are chanted to the
clamour of noisy instruments when
ever the sun's disc is first seen in
the morning. Then the hat is
doffed, and the monk, facing the
sun, and uplifting his right hand to
a saluting posture, chants " It has
arisen ! It has arisen ! The glorious
one has arisen ! The sun of happi
ness has arisen ! The goddess MaricT
has arisen ! Om-Maricinam sva
ha ! " On repeating this mantra of
Marie! seven times, he continues
with: "Whenever I recall your name
I am protected from all fear. I pray
for the attainment of the great stainless bliss. I salute you,
0 goddess Marici! Bless me, and fulfil my desires. Brotect
me, 0 Goddess, from all the eight fears of foes, robbers, wild
beasts, snakes, and poisons, weapons, firewater, and high preci
pices." The second assembly, called "the After-heat" (t'sa-gtih) is
held about1 9 a.m., when the sun's heat is felt. On the first blast
of the conch all retire to the latrine. At the second blast all
gather on the pavement, or, if raining, retire to a covered court
to read, etc. At the third blast — about fifteen minutes after the

Pbayee-cylindee foe Table.

1 Time is only known approximately.'as it is usually, as the name for hour (ch'u-
ts'al) implies, kept by water-clocks (Pee " C'u-ts'al," Ramsay's Diet., p. 63), and also by
the burning of tapers.

ORISONS— VESPERS. 2 1 9
second — all re-assemble in the temple and perform the service of
" Inviting the religious guardian (-fiend)." During this worship
tea is thrice served, and on its conclusion the monks all leave the
temple. The younger monks now pore over their lessons, and
receive instructions from their teachers.
The third assembly, called " Noon-tide," is held at noon. On
the first blast of the conch all prepare for the sitting. At the
second they assemble on the pavement, and at the third they enter
the temple and perform the worship of " bS'ags-pa " and " bSkan-
wa," during which tea is served thrice, and the meeting dis
solves. Each monk now retires to his cell or room, and discarding his
boots, offers sacrifice to his favourite deities, arranging the first
part of the rice-offering with scrupulous cleanliness, impressing it
with the four marks, and surrounding it with four pieces bearing
the impress of the four fingers. After this he recites the " Braise
of the three holy ones." x
Then lay servants bring to the cells a meal consisting of tea,
meat, and pdk (a cake of wheat or tsam-pa). Of this food, some
must be left as a gift to the hungry manes, Hariti and her
sons. The fragments for this purpose are carefully collected by
the servants and thrown outside the temple buildings, where they
are consumed by dogs and birds. The monks are now free to
perform any personal business which they have to do.
The fourth assembly, called " First (after-) noon tea " (dguh-
ja-dan-po) is held about 3 p.m. The monks, summoned by
three blasts of the conch as before, perform a service somewhat
similar to that at the third assembly, and offer cakes and praise
to the gods and divine defenders, during which tea is thrice served,
and the assembly dissolves.
Then the junior monks revise their lessons, and the par-pa or
middle-grade monks are instructed in rhetoric and in sounding
the cymbals and horns. And occasionally public wranglings as
a'ready described are held on set themes to stimulate theological
proficiency. The fifth assembly or vesper, called " The Second (after-) noon
tea " is held about 7 p.m. The conch, as formerly, calls thrice to
1 See chapter on worship.

220 DAILY LIFE AND ROUTINE
the temple, where is chanted the worship of Tah-rak and the
prayers of glory (frkra-shis), during which tea is given thrice,
and the assembly dissolves. After this the monks return to their
rooms till the second night bell sounds, when the junior monks
repeat from memory before their teachers certain scriptures and
other texts; and at the third bell all retire to their cells to
sleep. ROUTINE IN AN UNREFORMED MONASTERY.
The routine in the monasteries of the unreformed or Nih-
ma sects departs considerably from the high standard above
described, and introduces more demonolatry and the worship of
the deified wizard Guru Badma-sambhava.
The practice followed at Bemiongchi monastry is here
described : —
In the morning, after offering the sacred food, incense, and
butter-incense, a conch-shell is blown, on which all the monks
must come out of their chambers. On the second blast all collect
in the great assembly hall, and during this entry into the hall
the provost-marshal stands beside the door with his rod in hand.
All the monks seat themselves in Buddha-fashion, as before
described. The slightest breach of the rules of etiquette and discipline is
promptly punished by the rod of the provost-marshal, or, in the
case of the younger novices, by the sacristan.
When all have been properly seated, then two or three of the
most inferior novices who have not passed their examination, and
who occupy back seats, rise up and serve out tea to the assembly,
as already described, each monk producing from his breast pocket
his own cup, and having it filled up by these novices.
The service of tea is succeeded by soup, named gSol-jam t'ugpa,
and served by a new set of the novice underlings. When the cups
are filled, the precentor, joined by all the monks, chants "the
Sacrificial Offering of the Soup." Three or four cups of soup are
supplied to each monk. The hall is then swept by junior monks.
The precentor then inspects the magic circle 1 to see that it is
-correct, and, this ascertained, he commences the celebration, con-
i No layman is allowed to serve out the monks' food in the temple. The lay ser
vants bring it to the outside door of the building, and there deposit it.

IN UNREFORMED SECTS. 221
sisting of the sNon-gro and the refuge-formula, and Las-sbyau,
on the conclusion of which the assembly disperses.
About 8 a.m. the conch-shell blast again summons the monks to
the assembly hall, where, after partaking of refreshments of tea
and parched grain in the manner already described, a full celebra
tion is done. And on its conclusion the monks disperse.
About 10 a.m. a Chinese drum is beaten to muster the monks
in the assembly hall. At this meeting rice and meat and vege
tables are served out as before, and with this is also served beer
called gSos-rgyab, the " food-sacrifice " (ITo-mch'od) being done as
formerly. A full celebration is then performed, and the meeting
dissolves. In the afternoon a conch-shell is blown for tea, and a Chinese
gong calls for beer, the monks assembling as before, and doing
a full celebration of the worship of the lord (demon) Mahakala, and
the guardians of religion respectively.
When sacerdotal celebrations on behalf of laymen have to be
done, such are introduced within the latter celebration, which is
interrupted for this purpose. And after each of these extra cele
brations the monks remain outside the assembly hall for a very
short time and then re-assemble. On finishing the extra services,
the worship of the religious guardians is then resumed and con
cluded. In the evening another assembly, preceded by tea as refresh
ment, conducts the celebration of sKah-shags with one hundred
and eight lamps.
Another and final assembly for the day is made by beat of drum,
and rice and flesh-meat is served out.
The refreshments and meals usually number nine daily.
LIFE AS A VILLAGE PRIEST.
The monk, immediately on waking, must rise from his couch,
even though it be midnight, and commence to chant the Mi-rtak-
rgyud-bskul, taking care to pronounce all the words fully and dis
tinctly. This contains the instructions of his special Lama-pre
ceptor, and in its recital the monk must recall vividly to mind his
spiritual guide. This is followed by a prayer consisting of
numerous requests for benefits of a temporal nature desired by
the petitioner.

222 DAILY LIFE AND ROUTINE '
Then he assumes the meditative posture of the seven attitudes,1
and gets rid by physical means of the " three original sins."
Then, coercing his tutelary demon into conferring on him his
fiendish guise, he chants " the four preliminary services " : —
The sNon-gro hzi-'byor. These are the refuge formula, which cleanses
the darkness of the body ; the hundred letters, which cleanse all ob
scurity in speech, and the magic-circle of rice, the Mandala, which
cleanses the mind ; and the prayer enumerating the Lamas up to the
most perfect one, which confers perfection on the monk himself.
This is followed by the chanting of bLa-grub, ^,the obtaining of the
Lama," and " the obtaining of the ornaments, sNen-grub."
The mild deity in this worship is called " The Blacid One," 2
and the demon " The Eepulsive." 3 The demoniacal form must
be recited the full number of times which the Lama bound him
self to do by vow before his spiritual tutor, namely, one hundred,
one thousand, or ten thousand times daily. Those not bound in
this way by vows repeat the charm as many times as they con
veniently can.
Having done this, he may retire again to sleep, if the night be
not very far advanced. But if the dawn is near, he must not
go to sleep, but should employ the interval in several sorts of
prayer. As soon as day dawns, he must wash his face and rinse his
mouth and do tbe worship above noted, should he not have
already done so ; also the following rites : —
1st. Prepare sacred food for the six sorts of beings (Rigs-strug-gi-
gtorma) and send it to tantalized ghosts.
2nd. Offer incense, butter-incense, and wine-oblation (gSer-sKyem).
The incense is offered to the good spirits — firstly, to the chief god and
the Lama; secondly, to the class of " king " gods ; and thirdly to the
mountain god " Kanchinjinga." Then offerings are made to the spirits
of caves ( who guarded and still guard the hidden revelations therein
deposited), the " enemy-god of battle," the country gods, the local
demigods, and " the eight classes of deities." The butter-incense is
only given to the most malignant class of the demons and evil spirits.
Some breakfast is now taken, consisting of weak soup, followed
by tea with parched grain. Any especial work which has to be
done will now be attended to, failing which some tantrik or other
1 Seep. 145. - mt'un. » bzle-pa.

AS VILLAGE PRIEST AND HERMIT.

223

service will be chanted. And if any temple or Caitya be at hand,
these will be circumambulated with " prayer- wheel " revolving in
hand, and chanting mantras. Then is done any priestly service
required by the villagers.
About two o'clock in the afternoon a meal of rice is taken
followed by beer by those who like it, or by tea for non-beer
drinkers. About six o'clock p.m. is done the gtor-bsnos service, in which,
after assuming his tutelary dignity, he chants the snon-gro and
refuge formula. Then is done a sacrificial worship1 with bell
and small drum, followed by an invocation to the hosts of Lamas,
tutelaries, and the supernatural defensores fidei.
About 9 or 10 p.m. he retires to sleep.
IN HERMITAGE.
Buddhism in common with most religions had its hermits
who retired like John the Baptist into the wilderness. And such

Hermit-Lama. '¦

periodical retirement for a time, corresponding to the Buddhist
Lent (the rainy season of India, or Varsha, colloq. " barsat "), when
travelling was difficult and unhealthy, was an essential part of the
routine of the Indian Buddhist. Tson K'apa enforced the obser-

1 mCh'oga.

2 After Hue.

224 DAILY LIFE AND ROUTINE.
vance of this practice, but it has now fallen much into, abeyance. .
Brobably the booths which are erected for the head Lamas in
Sikhim during their visits to villages in the autumn, are vestiges
of this ancient practice of retirement to the forest.
Theoretically it is part of the training of every young Lama to
spend in hermitage a period of three years, three months, and
three days, in order to accustom himself to ascetic rites. But this
practice is very rarely observed for any period, and when it is
observed, a period of three months and three days is considered
sufficient. During this seclusion he repeats the spell of his tutelary
deity an incredible number of times. The Mula-yoga sngon-gro,
complete in all its four sections, must be repeated 100,000
times. In chanting the refuge-formula portion, he must prostrate
himself to the ground 100,000 times. The repetition of the Yige-
brgya-pa itself takes about two months ; and in addition must
be chanted the following voluminous services : B'yi-'grub, nan-
'grub, gsah-'grub, bla-'grub, snen-grub, 'prin-las, and bzi-'grub.
Those who permanently adopt the hermit life are called " the
packed-up ones " J and those of the highest rank are " the great
recluses." 2 They are engaged in ascetic exercises and are usually
followers of the Vajrayana system, seeking Siddhi and its wizard
powers by the aid of the Dakkini she-devils and the king-devils
who are their tutelaries. TRADES AND OCCUPATIONS.
•Like western friars, the Lamas have a considerable proportion
of their number engaged in trades and handicrafts. The monks
are practically divided into what may be called the spiritual and
the temporal. The more intelligent are relieved of the drudgery
of worldly work and devote themselves to ritual and meditation.
The less intellectual labour diligently in field or farm and in
trading for the benefit of their monastery ; or they collect the rents
and travel from village to village begging for their parent monas
tery, or as tailors, cobblers, printers, etc. Others again of the
more intellectual members are engaged as astrologers in casting
horoscopes, as painters or in image-making, and in other pursuits
contributing to the general funds and comfort of the monastery.
1 mts'am-s-pa. 2 sgom-ck'en.

TRADES AND DIET. 225
THE DIET.
The diet of the Lamas is the ordinary rather Spartan fare of
the country x consisting mainly of wheat, barley, or buck-wheat
and occasionally rice, milk and butter, soup, tea and meat. The
only flesh-meat allowed is sheep, goat, and yak ; fish and fowl are
prohibited. The fully-ordained monks, the Ge-longs, are supposed
to eat abstemiously and abstain totally from meat ; though even
the Grand Lama of Tashi-lhunpo appears to eat flesh-food.2
Neither the monks of the established church nor the holier
Lamas of the other sects may drink any spirituous liquor. Yet
they offer it as libations to the devils.
1 For food of Tibetans, see Turneb's Embassy, 24-48, etc. ; Pembeeton, 156 ; Moob-
cboft, i., 182, etc. ; Hue, ii., 258 ; Cunningham's Ladak, 305 ; Rock., L., passim.
2 Bogle in Mabkham, p. 100.

Libation-jug and Chalice-cup
(of silver).

A Gband Lama of Bhotan.

THE HIEBABOHY AND BE-INCABNATE LAMAS.
" Le roi est mort, rive le rot! "
" Adam . . . his soul passed by transmigration into David . . . his soul
transmigrated into the Messiah." — The Talmud.1
ABLY Buddhism had neither church nor ecclesiastical
organization. It was merely a brotherhood of monks.
Even after Buddha's death, as the order grew in size
and affluence under the rich endowments from Asoka
and other kingly patrons, it still remained free from anything like

1 Hershon's Treasures of the Talmud, p. 242.

HIERARCHY AND PRIEST-KINGSHIP. 227
•centralized government. The so-called patriarchs had only very
nominal power and no generally recognized position or functions.
And even the later Indian monasteries had each its own separate
administration, and its own chief, independent of the others; a
similar state of affairs seems to have prevailed in Tibet until the
thirteenth century.
The hierarchical system of Tibet seems to date from the thir
teenth century a.d., when the Lama of the Sas-kya monastery was
created a pope by the Great Mongol emperor of China, Kubilai
Khan. This Sas-kya Lama, receiving also a certain amount of tem
poral power, soon formed a hierarchy, and some generations later
we find the other sects forming rival hierarchies, which tended to
take the power out of the hands of the petty chiefs who now
parcelled out Tibet. In 1417, doctor Tson K'apa founded tbe
Ge-lug-pa sect, which under his powerful organization soon de
veloped into the strongest of all the hierarchies, and five genera
tions later it leapt into the temporal government of Tibet, which
it still retains, so that now its church is the established one of the
country. Priest-kingship, a recognized stage in the earlier life of social
institutions, still extends into later civilization, as in the case of
the emperors of China and Japan, who fill the post of high-priest.
It was the same in Burma, and many eastern princes who no
longer enjoy " the divine right of kings," still bear the title of
" god," and their wives of " goddess."
The Grand Lama who thus became the priest-king of Tibet
was a most ambitious and crafty prelate. He was named
Nag-wan L6-zan, and was head of the De-pung monastery. At
his instigation a Mongol prince from Koko Nor, named Gusri
Khan, conquered Tibet in 1640, and then made a present of it to
this Grand Lama, together with the title of Dalai or " the vast "
(literally " ocean ") Lama,1 and he was confirmed in this title
and kingly possession in 1650 by the Chinese emperor. On
account of this Mongol title, and these priest-kings being first
made familiar to Europeans through the Mongols,2 he and his
1 The Tibetan for this Mongol word is xGya-mts'o, and in the list of Grand Lamas
some of his predecessors and successors bear this title as part of their personal
name. And the Mongolian for rin-po-ch'e is " Ertenni."
2 Through the works of Giorgi, Pallas, and Klaproth.
Q 2

228 THE HIERARCHY AND RE-INCARNATE LAMAS.
successors are called by some Europeans " Dalai (or Tale) Lama,"
/ j though the first Dalai Lama was really the fifth Grand Lama of
) the established church ; but this title is practically unknown to
Tibetans, who call the Lhasa Grand Lamas, Gyal-wa Kin-po-ch'e,
or "The gem of majesty or victory."
In order to consolidate his new-found rule, and that of his
church in the priest-kingship, this prelate, as we have seen, posed
as the deity Avalokita-in-the-flesh, and he invented legends
magnifying the powers and attributes of that deity, and trans-

Foue-Handed Avalokita.
(Incarnate in the Dalai Lama.)
ferred his own residence from De-pung monastery to a palace
which he built for himself on " the red hill " near Lhasa, the name
of which hill he now altered to Mount Potala, after the mythic
Indian residence of his divine prototype. He further forcibly
seized many of the monasteries of the other sects and converted
them into his own Ge-lug-pa institutions x ; and he developed the

1 Amongst others he seized the monastery of the great Taranatha, and demolished
many of that Lama's buildings and books, for such an honest historian was not at all
to his taste.

THE FIRST DALAI LAMA-POPE. 229

fiction of succession by re-incarnate Lamas, and by divine re
flexes. The other sects accepted the situation, as they were indeed
forced to do ; and all now, while still retaining each its own separate
hierarchical system, acknowledge the Grand Lama of Lhasa to be

Potala. The Palace of the Dalai Lama.
(From Kircher's China Illustrata.)
the head of the Lamaist church, in that he is the incarnation of
the powerful Buddhist deity Avalokita. And they too adopted
the attractive theory of the re-incarnate succession and divine
reflexes. It is not easy to get at the real facts regarding the origin and
development of the theory of re-incarnate Lamas, as the whole
question has been purposely obscured, so as to give it the appear
ance of antiquity.
It seems to me that it arose no earlier than the fifteenth century,
and that at first it was simply a scheme to secure stability for the suc
cession to the headship of the sect against electioneering intrigues
of crafty Lamas, and was, at first, a simple re-incarnation theory ;
which, however, must not be confused with the orthodox Buddhist
theory of re-birth as a result of Karma, for the latter is never con
fined in one channel. On the contrary, it holds that the spirit of the
deceased head Lama is always reborn in a child, who has to be
found by oracular signs, and duly installed in the vacant chair; and
he on his death is similarly reborn, and so on ad infinitum,

230 THE HIERARCHY AND REINCARNATE LAMAS.
thus securing, on quasi- Buddhistic principles, continuous suc
cession by the same individual through successive re-embodiments^
The first authentic instance of re-incarnate Lamas which I can
find is the first of the Grand Lamas of the Ge-lug-pa, namely, Ge-
den-dub. Had this theory been invented prior to Tson K'apa's death
in 1417 a.d., it is practically certain that the succession to Tson
K'apa would have begun with an infant re-incarnation. But we
find the infant re-incarnationship only beginning with the death of
Tson K'apa's successor, namely, his nephew and pupil, Ge-den-dub
aforesaid ; and from this epoch the succession to the Ge-lug-pa Grand
Lamaship has gone on according to this theory. As the practice
worked well, it was soon adopted by the Lamas of other sects, and
it has so extended that now nearly every great monastery has its
own re-incarnate Lama as its chief, and some have several of these
amongst their higher officials.
The more developed or expanded theory, however, of celestial
Lama-reflexes, which ascribes the spirit of the original Lama to an
emanation (Nirmdna kdya, or, changeable body) x from a par
ticular celestial Buddha or divine Bodhisat, who thus becomes
incarnate in the church, seems to me to have been of much later
origin, and most probably the invention of the crafty Dalai Lama
Nag-wan, or Gyal-wa Na-pa,2 about 150 years later. For, previous
to the time when this latter Grand Lama began to consolidate
his newly-acquired temporal rule over Tibet, no authentic records
seem to exist of any such celestial origin of any Lamas, and the
theory seems unknown to Indian Buddhism.8 And this Dalai
Lama is known to have taken the greatest liberties with the tra
ditions and legends of Tibet, twisting them to fit in with his divine
pretensions, and to have shaped the Lamaist hierarchy on the fines
on which it now exists.
This Dalai Lama, Gyal-wa Na-pa, is the first of these celestial
incarnate Lamas which I can find. He was made, or, as I consider,
made himself, to be the incarnation of the most popular Bud
dhist divinity possible, namely, Avalokita, and to the same rank
were promoted the four Grand Lamas who preceded him, and who,

1 Cf. ante.
2 Literally " The fifth Jina." Cf. also Pand., H., No. 46.
s None of the so-called biographies of Atisa and earlier Indian monks contain
ing any such references can certainly be placed earlier than this period.

ORIGIN OF RE-INCARNATE LAMAS. 231
together with himself, were identified with the most famous king
of Tibet, to wit, Sroh Tsan Gampo, thus securing the loyalty of
the people to his rule, and justifying his exercise of the divine
right of kings ; and to ensure prophetic sanction for this scheme
he wrote, or caused to be written, the mythical so-called history,
Mani kah-'bum. It was then an easy task to adjust to this theory,
with retrospective effect, the bygone and present saints who were
now affiliated to one or other of the celestial Buddhas or Bodhisats,
as best suited their position and the church. Thus, Tson K'apa,
having been a contemporary of the first Grand Lama, could not
be Avalokitesvara, so he was made to be an incarnation of Man
jusri, or " the god of wisdom," on whom, also, Atisa was
affiliated as the wisest and most learned of the Indian monks who
had visited Tibet; and so also King Thi Sron Detsan, for his aid
in founding the order of the Lamas.
It also seems to me that Na-pa was the author of the re-in
carnate Lama theory as regards Tashi-lhunpo monastery and the
so-called double-hierarchy ; for an examination of the positive
data on this subject shows that the first re-incarnate Lama of
Tashi-lhunpo dates only from the reign of this Na-pa, and seven
years after his accession to the kingship of Tibet.
Tashi-lhunpo monastery was founded in 1445 by Geden-dub,
the first Grand Ge-lug-pa Lama, who seems, however, to have
mostly lived and to have died at De-pung.
It will be noticed from the list of Tashi Grand Lamas 1 that
Geden-dub, the founder of Tashi-lhunpo, contrary to the current
opinion of European writers, does not appear as a Tashi Lama at
all. This official list of Tashi-lhunpo, read in the light of the
biographies of these Lamas,2 clearly shows that previous to the
Lama who is number two of the list, and who was born during
the latter end of Dalai Lama Na-pa's reign as aforesaid, none
of the Tashi-lhunpo Lamas were regarded as re-incarnations at
all. The first on this list, namely, Lo-zan Ch'o-kyi Gyal-ts'an,
began as a private monk, and travelled about seeking instruction
in the ordinary way, and not until his thirty-first year was he
promoted to the abbotship, and then only by election and on

1 Presently to be given.
2 Some of which have been translated by Sarat (J.A.S.B., 1882, 26 seq.).

232 THE HIERARCHY AND RE-INCARNATE LAMAS.
account of distinguished ability. It is also interesting to note
that on the death, in 1614, of the fourth Grand Lama of the
Ge-lug-pa (named Yon-tan), whom he had ordained, he was
installed in the abbotship at Gah-ldan monastery, and in 1622, at
the age of 53, he initiated, as fifth Grand Lama, the infant Na
pa, who was then seven years old, and who afterwards became
the great Dalai Lama.
And he continued to be the spiritual father and close friend and
adviser of Na-pa, and seems to have begun those political
negotiations which culminated in the cession of Tibet to his
proUge. When he died, in 1662, his spiritual son Na-pa, who
was 47 years old, and had been 22 years in the kingship, promptly
re-incarnated him, and also made him out to be his own spiritual
father, even as regards the divine emanation theory. Thus the
new-born babe was alleged to be an incarnation of Avalokita's
spiritual father, Amitabha, the Buddha of Boundless Light ; and
he was given a considerable share in the management of the
established church. This, however, merely perpetuated the rela
tions which had actually existed between these two Grand Lamas
as father and son, and which had worked so well, and had such
obvious political advantages in providing against interregnums.
In the hierarchical scheme of succession by re-incarnate Lamas,
the Lhasa Grand Lama, who wields the sovereign power, thus gave
himself the highest place, but allotted the Tashi-lhunpo Grand
Lama a position second only to his own. Below these come the
other re-incarnate Lamas, ranking according to whether they are
regarded to be re-embodiments of Indian or of Tibetan saints. The
former class are called " the higher incarnations " or Tul-Ku,1 and
by the Mongols Khutuktu. They occupy the position of cardinals
and archbishops. The lowest re-incarnate Lamas are regarded
as re-embodiments of Tibetan saints, and are named ordinary
Tul-ku or " Ku-s'o,"2 or by the Mongols Khublighan or Hobli-
ghan ; these mostly fill the post of abbots, and rank one degree
higher than an ordinary non-re-incarnate abbot, or K'an-po,
who has been selected on account of his proved abilities. Most of

1 sPrul-sku.
» sEu-s'ogs. The use of the term for a re-incarnate Lama seems restricted to
Ladak. In Tibet proper this title is applied to any superior Lama, and is even
used in polite society to laymen of position.

SUCCESSION OF LAMAIST POPES.

233

these so-called re-incarnate Lamas are by a polite fiction credited
with knowing all the past life and deeds of individuals, not only in
the present life, but also in former births.
In the unreformed sects, where the priests are not celibate, the
children succeed to the headship. The ordinary hierarchical dis
tinctions of grades and ranks have already been noted in describing
the organization of the order.
The greatest of the Lama hierarchs, after the Grand Lamas of
Lhasa and Tashi-lhunpo, are the great Mongolian Lama at Urgya,
the Sas-kya Lama, and the Dharma Eaja of Bhotan, this last ,'
being practically independent of Lhasa, and the temporal ruler of
Bhotan. Here also may be mentioned the female incarnate
goddess, " The diamond sow " of Yam-dok Lake monastery.
The following list of Tibetan popes, the Grand Lamas of Lhasa,
is taken from the printed list.1 The birth-dates are given upon
the authority of a reliable, trustworthy Lamaist calculator.2
List of Grand (Dalai) Lamas or Popes.

No.

Name.

Birth.

Death.

Remarks.

A.D.

dGe- 'dun grub-pa

1391

1475

2
1475
1543
3
bSod-nams , ,
154315893
1589
1617
4
Yon-tan ,,
5
Nag-dban blo-bsan rGya-
mts'o
1617
1682
First "Dalai."
6
Ts'ans-dbyans rGya-mts'o
16834
1706
Deposed & murdered.
7
sKal-bzan ,,
1708
1758
8
'Jam-dpal ,,
1758
18055 ¦
9
Lun-rtogs , ,
1805s
1S16
Seen by Manning.
10
Ts'ul-K'rims
18197
1837
11
mK'as-grub ,,
1837
1855
12
'P'rin-las ,,
1856
1874
13
T'ub-bstan ,,
1876
Present pope.
The first Grand Lama, Ge-'dun-dub, was born near Sas-kya, and
1 The modern list precedes the historical names by a series of fifty more or less
mythic personages, headed by Avalokita himself.
- Lama S'e-rab Gya-ts'o, of the Ge-lug-pa monastery, Dariiling.
:l Desgodins (La Miss., etc., p. 218) gives 1588.
4 Desg. gives 1682.
s Other accounts give 1798, 1803, 1808 ; cf. also Koppen's List, i., 235.
8 Desg., and this corresponds with Manning's account (Maekh., 265).
7 Desg. gives 1815.
234 THE HIERARCHY AND RE-INCARNATE LAMAS.
not far from the site whereon he afterwards founded Tashi-lhunpo.
His successors, up to and inclusive of the fifth, have already been
referred to in some detail.
On the deposition and death of the sixth Grand Lama for licen
tious living, the Tartar king, Gingkir Khan, appointed to Potala
the Lama of C'ag-poh-ri, named Nagwan Yeshe Gya-mts'o, into
whom the sorcerers alleged that, not the soul but the breath of
the former Grand Lama had passed. It was soon announced,
however, that the sixth Grand Lama was re-born in the town of
Lithang as Kal-zah, the son of a quondam monk of De-pung
monastery. This child was imprisoned by the Chinese emperor,
who had confirmed the nominee of the Tartar king, until the war
of 1 720, when he invested him with spiritual rule at Lhasa ; but
again, in 1728, deposed him, as he was privy to the murder of the
king of Tibet. So he set in his place the Lama " Kiesri " Eim-
poch'e, of the Chotin monastery, four days' journey from Lhasa.1
He seems latterly to have returned to power, and during his reign
in 1749, the Chinese put his temporal vice-regent to death, when
the people flew to arms and massacred the Chinese.2
The ninth is the only Grand Lama of Lhasa ever seen by an
Englishman. He was seen by Manning in 1811, while still
a child of six years old. Manning relates that : " The Lama's
beautiful and interesting face and manner engrossed almost all my
attention. He was at that time about seven years old ; bad the
simple and unaffected manners of a well-educated princely child.
His face was, I thought, poetically and affectingly beautiful. He
was of a gay and cheerful disposition, his beautiful mouth perpetu
ally unbending into a graceful smile, which illuminated his whole
countenance. Sometimes, particularly when he looked at me, his
smile almost approached to a gentle laugh. No doubt my grim
beard and spectacles somewhat excited his risibility. ... He
enquired whether I had not met with molestations and difficulties
on the road," etc.3 This child died a few years afterwards, assassi
nated, it is believed, by the regent, named Si-Fan.
The tenth Grand Lama also dying during his minority, and

1 This latter Lama was in power at Potala in 1730 on the arrival of Horace Della-
penna, from whose account (Maeeh., p. 321) most of the latter details have been taken.
2 Ibid., Ixv.
» Ibid., p. 266.

GRAND DALAI LAMAS. 235
suspicions being aroused of foul play on the part of the regent,
the latter was deposed and banished by the Chinese in 1844, at
the instance of the Grand Lama of Tashi-lhunpo, and a rising of
his confederates of the Sera monastery was suppressed.1
The eleventh also died prematurely before attaining his majority,
and is believed to have been poisoned by the regent, the Lama of
Ten-gye-ling. A young Lama of De-pung, named Ba-deng,2 was
appointed regent, and he banished his predecessor " Pe-chi," who
had befriended Hue ; but proving unpopular, he had eventually to
retire to Pekin, where he died.3 Pe-chi died about 1869, and was
succeeded by the abbot of Gah-ldan.
The twelfth Grand Lama was seen in 1866 by one of our
Indian secret surveyors, who styles him a child of about thirteen,
and describes him as a fair and handsome boy, who, at the
reception, was seated on a throne six feet high, attended on either
side by two high rank officials, each swaying over the child's head
bundles of peacock feathers. The Grand Lama himself put three
questions to the spy and to each of the other devotees, namely :
" Is your king well ? " " Does your country prosper ? " " Are
you yourself in good health ? '-' He died in 1874, and his death is
ascribed to poison administered by the regent, the Tengye-ling
head Lama.
The thirteenth is still (1894) alive. He was seen in 1882 by
Sarat Candra Das, whose account of him is given elsewhere.
The Tashi-lhunpo Grand Lamas are considered to be, if possible,
holier even than those of Lhasa, as they are less contaminated
with temporal government and worldly politics, and more famous
for their learning, hence they are entitled " The precious great
doctor, or Great gem of learning " (Pan-ch'en Rin-po-ch'e),4 or
Gyal-gbn 5 Rin-po-ch'e, or " The precious lordly victor." The
Sa-kya Grand Lamas had been called " Pan-ch'en," or the " Great
doctor " from the twelfth century, but have ceased to hold the

1 Hue, ii., p. 166. This account is disbelieved by Mr. Mayees, J.R.A .S., iv., 305.
- rva-sgren, the " gyal-po Riting " of the Pandit, p. xxiv.
Maekh., xcvii.
¦> Pan is a contraction for the Indian " Pandit," or learned scholar, and rin-po-ch'e =
ratna or gem, or precious, or in Mongolian Irtini or E-deni, hence he is called by
Mongolians " Pan-ch'en Irtini."
5 Vulgarly " gyan-gBn."

236 THE HIERARCHY AND RE-INCARNATE LAMAS.
title since the era of the Dalai Lamas, when the established
church appropriated it to itself.
The following list of " Tashi " Lamas is taken from that printed
at the monastery itself.1
List of "Tashi" Grand Lamas.

No.

Name.

Birth.

Death.

Remarks.

1
o 3
45
6

bLo-bzaii ch'os-kyi rgyal-mts'an
bLo-bzaii ye-she dpal bzan-po
bLo-bzaii dpal-ldan ye-s'es
r Je-bstan pahi fiima
rJe-dpal-ldan ch'os-kyi grags-pa )
bstan-pahi dban p'yug }

A.D. 1569166317382
17811854
1883

A.D. 166217371780
18541882

Bogle's friend, installed
1743.
"Seen by Turner.
Died in August.
Installed last week of
February, 1888.

The third Tashi Lama was the friend of Mr. Bogle, who seems
to be the only European who had the advantage of close and
friendly intercourse with one of the Grand Lamas. Mr. Bogle
gives us a delightful glimpse into the amiable character of this
holy man.3
" The Lama was upon his throne, formed of wood carved and gilt,
with some cushions about it, upon which he sat cross-legged. He
was dressed in a mitre-shaped cap of yellow broad-cloth with long
bars lined with red satin; a yellow cloth jacket,. without sleeves;
and a satin mantle of the same colour thrown over his shoulders.

1 The official list is entitled r>3.n-sku-p'ren rim-pa \tar byon-pa-ni, and gives no dates.
It ends with No. 3 of my list as above, and extends the list backwards to ten
additional names, beginning with the somewhat mythical disciple of Buddha, Su-bhuti ;
and including legendary Indian personages as re-incarnations, as well as the following six
Tibetans, the fourth of which is usually held to be the first of the Tashi-lhunpo Grand
Lamas. As, however, Tashi-lhunpo was only built in 1445, only the latter two of this list
could be contemporary with it, and as is noted in the text, their biographies show that
they were ordinary monks who held no high post, if any at all, at Tashilhuupo.
Supplmentaey List of So-called Pan-ch'en Geand Lamas.
1. E'ug-pa lhas-btsas, of rTa-nag monastery.
2. Sa-skya Pandita (1182-1252).
3. gYun-ston xdo-rje dpal (1284-1376).
4. mK'as-sgrub AGe-legs-Apal zang-po (1385-1439).
5. p&n-ch'en-bSod-nams p'yogs kyi-glan-x>o (1439-1505)
6. dben-sa-pa blo-bzan Don-grub (1505-1570).
2 At " Tashi-tzay," N.E. of Tashi-lhunpo (M., p. 92).
3 Loc. cit., p. 83.

GRAND TASHI-LAMAS. 237
On one side of him stood his physician with a bundle of perfumed
sandal-wood rods burning in his hand ; on the other stood his
So-pon Chumbo l or cup-bearer. I laid the governor's presents
before him, delivering the letter and pearl necklace into his own
hands, together with a white Belong handkerchief on my own part,
according to the custom of the country. He received me in the
most engaging manner. I was seated on a high stool covered with
a carpet. Plates of boiled mutton, boiled rice, dried fruits, sweet
meats, sugar, bundles of tea, sheeps' carcasses dried, etc., were set
before me and my companion, Mr. Hamilton. The Lama drank
two or three dishes of tea along with us, asked us once or twice
to eat, and threw white Pelong handkerchiefs on our necks at
retiring. " After two or three visits, the Lama used (except oh holidays)
to receive me without any ceremony, his head uncovered, dressed
only in the large red petticoat which is worn by all the gylongs,
red Bulgar hide boots, a yellow cloth vest. with his arms bare, and
a piece of yellpw cloth thrown around his shoulder. He sat some
times in a chair, sometimes on a bench covered with tiger skins,
and nobody but So-pon Chumbo present. Sometimes he would
walk with me about the room, explain to me the pictures, make
remarks on the colour of my eyes, etc. For, although venerated
as God's vicegerent through all the eastern countries of Asia,
endowed with a portion of omniscience, and with many other
divine attributes, he throws aside in conversation all the awful
part of his character, accommodates himself to the weakness of
mortals, endeavours to make himself loved rather than feared, and
behaves with the greatest affability to everybody, especially to
strangers. " Teshu Lama is about forty years of age, of low stature, and
though not corpulent, rather inclining to be fat. His complexion
is fairer than that of most of the Tibetans, and his arms are as
white as those of a European ; his hair, which is jet black, is cut
very short ; his beard and whiskers never above a month long ;
his eyes are small and black. The expression of his countenance
is smiling and good-humoured. His father was a Tibetan, his

' He held, according to Turner (p. 246), the second rank in the court of the Tashi
Lama, and was by birth a Manchu Tartar. He was then only about twenty-two
years of age.

238 THE HIERARCHY AND REINCARNATE LAMAS.
mother a near relation of the Eajas of Ladak. From her he
learned the Hindustani language, of which he has a moderate
knowledge, and is fond of speaking it. His disposition is open,
candid, and generous. He is extremely merry and entertaining
in conversation, and tells a pleasant story with a great deal of
humour and action. I endeavoured to find out in his character
those defects which are inseparable from humanity, but he is so
universally beloved that I had no success, and not a man could
find in his heart to speak ill of him
" Among the other good qualities which Teshu Lama possesses
is that of charity, and he has plenty of opportunities of exercising
it. The country swarms with beggars, and the Lama entertains
besides a number of fakirs (religious mendicants), who resort
hither from India. As he speaks their language tolerably well
he every day converses with them from his windows, and picks up
by this means a knowledge of the different countries and govern
ments of Hindustan. . . . He gives them a monthly allowance
of tea, butter, and flour, besides money, and often bestows some
thing considerable upon them at their departure. The Gosains
who are thus supported at the Lama's expense may be in number
about one hundred and fifty, besides about thirty Musulman fakirs.
For although the genius of the religion of Muhamad is hostile to
that of the Lama, yet he is possessed of much Christian charity,
and is free from those narrow prejudices which, next to ambition
and avarice, have opened the most copious source of human
misery." And observing the universal esteem in which the
Grand Lama is held by the monks and people, the looks of
veneration mixed with joy with which he is always regarded,
Mr. Bogle adds " one catches affection by sympathy, and I
could not help, in some measure, feeling the same emotions
with the Lama's votaries,1 and I will confess I never knew a
man whose manners pleased me so much, or for whom, upon
so short an acquaintance, I had half the heart's liking." 2
This Grand Lama, soon after Bogle's departure, died of small
pox. He had, in response to the invitation of the Chinese emperor,
set out for Bekin, attended by 1,500 troops and followers, and
sumptuous provision was made for his comfort during the whole
1 Op. cit., p. 95. 2 p. 133.

GRAND LAMAS OF TASHI-LHUNPO. 239
of the long journey in Chinese territory. The emperor met him
at Sining, several weeks' march from Bekin, and advanced about
forty paces from his throne to receive him, and seated him on the
topmost cushion with himself and at his right hand. To the great
grief of the empress and the Chinese the Lama was seized with
small-pox, and died on November 12th, 1780. His body, placed in
a golden coffin, was conveyed to the mausoleum at Tashi-lhunpo.1
His successor, while still an infant of about eighteen months,
was seen by Captain Turner as the envoy of the British govern
ment. This remarkable interview took place at the monas
tery of Terpa-ling.2 He found the princely child, then aged
eighteen months, seated on a throne of silk cushions and hangings
about four feet high, with his father and mother standing on the
left hand. Having been informed that although unable to speak
he could understand, Captain Turner said " that the governor-
general on receiving the news of his decease in China, was
overwhelmed with grief and sorrow, and continued to lament his
absence from the world until the cloud that had overcast the
happiness of this nation was dispelled by his re-appearance. . . .
The governor anxiously wished that he might long continue to
illumine the world by his presence, ¦ and was hopeful that the
friendship which had formerly subsisted between them would
not be diminished " The infant looked steadfastly
at the British envoy, with the appearance of much attention,
and nodded with repeated but slow motions of the head, as
though he understood every word. He was silent and sedate,
his whole attention was directed to the envoy, and he conducted
himself with astonishing dignity and decorum. He was one of
the handsomest children Captain Turner had ever seen, and he
grew up to be an able and devout ruler, delighting the Tibetans
with his presence for many years, and dying at a good old age.3
He is described by Hue 4 as of fine majestic frame, and astonishing
vigour for his advanced age, which was then about sixty.

1 Oriental Repertory, ii., p. 145 ; and Maekham, p. 208.
2 On the 4th December, 1783.
3 Tuenee's Embassy, etc. The new Tashi Lama was installed in October, 1784, in the
presence of the Dalai Lama, the Chinese Minister or Amban, the Gesub Kimboc'e, and
the heads of all the monastery in Tibet, as described by Purangir Gosain, the native
agent of the Warren Hastings, M., lxxv.
* ii., 157.

240 THE HIERARCHY AND RE-INCARNATE LAMAS.

The Mongolian hierarch at Urgya-Kuren, in the Khalka country,
is called " His holy reverence," or Je-tsun Dam-pa," 1 and is re
garded as an incarnation of the celebrated historian Lama, Tara
natha, who, it will be remembered, was of the Sa-kya sect, which
had identified itself with Mongolian Lamaism, having introduced
the religion there and given the translations of the gospels.
Urgya monastery was doubtless founded by the Sa-kya-pa. However
this may be, on the development of the reincarnate Lama theory,
the Khalka 2 Mongols fixed upon Taranatha as the source of the
re-incarnations for their chief hierarch. And the Dalai Lama,
Nag-pa, who had climbed into power on the shoulders of the
Mongols, had to accept the high position thus accorded to Tara
natha, whom he detested, but he, or one of his early successors,
converted the monastery into a Ge-lug-pa institution.
The hierarch, Je-tsun Dam-pa, was the most powerful person in
the whole of Mongolia 3 during the reign of the emperor Kang-hi
(1662-1723), and had his headquarters at Koukou-Khoton, or
"Blue town," beyond the bend of the Yellow river, when the
Khalkas quarrelled with the Kalmuks or Sleuths and escaped into
territory under Chinese protection. The Kalmuks demanded the
delivery of Je-tsun Dam-pa and his brother, the prince Tuschetu-
Khan, which of course the emperor refused, and sought the
mediation of the Dalai Lama. But the latter, or, rather, his regent
(Tis-ri), for he had been defunct for seven years, to the emperor's
surprise, advised the delivering up of these two princes, and such
a decision was, perhaps, the first sign to him of the great fraud
which was being enacted as Lhasa. To make matters worse, when
the emperor was warring with the Kalmuks " he paid a visit to
Je-tsun Dam-pa, and owing to some fancied want of respect on the
part of the holy man, one of the emperor's officers drew his sword
and killed him. This violence caused a tumult, and soon after
wards it was announced that Je-tsun Dam-pa had reappeared
among the Khalkas, who threatened to avenge his former death.
The emperor engaged the diplomatic interposition of the Dalai

1 rje-btsun-gdam-pa.
2 The Khalkas, so called after the Khalka river, are the representatives of the
Mongol or Yuen dynasty of China, founded by Jingis and Kubilai Khan, and driven
from the throne in 1368. — Maekb., p. xlix.
3 Koppen, ii., 178.

TARANATHA AND SA-KYA HIERARCHS. 241
Lama, who succeeded in pacifying the Khalkas. But it was
arranged that the future births of the Je-tsun Dam-pa should be
found in Tibet, so that the Khalkas might not again have a sym
pathizing fellow-countryman as their high-priest."1
His " re-incarnation " is now always found in central or western
Tibet. The present one is said to have been born in the bazaar
(S'ol) of Lhasa city, and to be the eighth of the series. He is
educated at the De-pung monastery as a Ge-lug-pa Lama ; but the
present one was carried off, when four or five years of age, to
Urga, accompanied by a Lama of De-pung as tutor. A complete
list of these hierarchs and fuller historical information in regard to
them is much needed.2 .
The Sa-kya hierarchs, as we have seen, were once extremely
powerful and almost de facto kings of Tibet. Although the
Sa-kya hierarch is now eclipsed by the established church, he still
retains the sympathy of the numerous adherents of the unre
formed sects, and is now regarded by the Nin-ma-pa as their
head and an incarnation of the Guru himself, and as such scarcely
inferior to the Grand Lama of Lhasa. Sa-kya was founded, as we
saw, by Kungah Nin-po, born in 1090 a.d., and became famous
under Sa-kya Bandita, born 1180, and his nephew was the first of
the great hierarchs.
The list of the earlier Sa-kya hierarchs, whose most prosperous
era was from 1270 to 1340, is as follows 3 : —

List of SA-KYA HIERARCHS.

1. Sas-kya bsan-po.

12. 'Od-ser-seh-ge.

2. S'ah-btsun.

13. Kun-rin.

3. Ban-dKar-po.

14. Don-yod dpal.

4. Chyah-rin bsKyos-pa.

15. Yon-btsun.

5. Kun-gs'ah.

16. 'Od-ser Seh-ge II.

6. gS'afiTdbah.

17. rGyal-va Sah-po.

7. Chah-rdor.

18. Dbah-p'yng-dpal.

8. Ah-len.

19. bSod-Nam-dpal.

9. Legs-pa-dpal.

20. rGyab-va-Tsan-po II.

10. Seh-ge-dpal.

21. dBah-btsun.

11. 'Od-zer-dpal.

Its head Lama is still called by the unreformed Lamas " Sa-kya
1 Maekham's Tibet, xlix.
2 For an account of the journey of the present hierarch from Lhasa to Urga, see
Peking Gazette for 1874, pp. 68, 74 and 124 (Shanghai abstract 1875). The new incarna
tion met by the Abbe Hue in 1844, journeying from Urga to Lhasa appears to have
been the seventh.
3 Cf. also list by Sanang Setsen, p. 121 ; Csoma, Gr., 186 ; Koppen, ii., 105 ; Saeat,
J.A.S.B.. 1881, p. 240. R

242 THE HIERARCHY AND RE-INCARNATE LAMAS.

Ban-ch'en." l The succession is hereditary ; but between father and
son intervenes the brother of the reigning Lama and uncle of the
successor, so as to secure an adult as holder of the headship.
The Bhotan hierarchy is still a strong one and combines the
temporal rule of the country. It ousted all rival sects from the
laud, so that now it has its own sect, namely, the southern Duk-pa
form of the Kar-gyu-pa. According to Mr. (Sir Ashley) Eden, the
Bhotan ese only overran the country about three centuries ago,
displacing the then natives, who are said to have come originally
from Koch Bihar. The invaders were Tibetan soldiers, over whom
a Lama named "Dupgani Sheptun" acquired paramount influence
as Dharma Eaja. On his death the spirit of the Sheptun became
incarnate in a child at Lhasa, who was conveyed to Bhotan. When
this child grew up he appointed a regent for temporal concerns,
called Deb Eaja,2 but this latter office seems to have lapsed long
ago, and the temporal power is in the hands of the lay governors
(Pen-lo) of the country.
The head Lama is held to be re-incarnate, and is named Lama
Ein-po-ch'e, also "The religious king" or Dharma Eaja. His
hat, as seen in the illustration at the head of this chapter,3 bears
the badge of cross thunderbolts, and is surmounted by a spiked
thunderbolt, typical not only of his mystical creed, but also of the
thunder dragon (Dug), which gives its name to his sect — the
Dug-pa. His title, as engraved on his seal figured by Hooker,4
describes him as " Chief of the Eealm, Defender of the Faith,
Equal to Sarasvati in learning, Chief of all the Buddhas, Head
Expounder of the Sastras, Caster out of Devils, Most Learned
in the Holy Laws, An Avatar of God, Absolver of Sins, and
Head of the Best of all Eeligions."
List of the BHOTAN HIERARCHS.

1. Nag-dbah

mam rgyal bdud 'jom-

7. Nag

dbah ch'os kyi dbah p'ug.

rdorje.

8. „

'jig-med rtags-pa (second

2. „ „

'jig-med rtags-pa.

re-incarnation).

3. „ „

ch'os-kyi rgyal mtshan.

9. „

'jig-med rtags norbu.

4. „ „

'jig med dban po.

10. „

„ „ ch'os-rgyal —

5. „ „

Shakya sen ge.

the present Great Bho
6. „ „
'jam dbyahs rgyal mts'an.
tan Lama in 1892.
1 He is entitled by Turner (op. cit., p. 315) " Gongoso Rimbochhe."
2 Kept, cf . Maexh., p. Iv.
3 The figure is from a photo of a Bhotan Lama, and the hat is that of the present
(1893) Grand Lama of Bhotan.
i Himal. Jours, i.
BHOTAN HIERARCH. 243

Each of these Grand Lamas has a separate biography (or nam-
t'ar). The first, who was a contemporary of the Grand Lama
Sonam Gya-tsho, seems to have been married ; the rest are celi
bate. A celebrated Lama of this Dug-pa sect was named Mi-
pam ch'os-Kyi gyal-po.
The Dharma Eaja resides, at least in summer, at the fort of Ta-
shi-ch'o. The palace is a large stone building, with the chief
house seven storeys high, described and figured by Turner and
others. Here live over five hundred monks.
Bogle describes the Lama of his day as " a thin, sickly-looking
man of about thirty-five years of age." 1
He exercises, I am informed, some jurisdiction over Lamas in
Nepal, where his authority is officially recognized by the Gorkha
government. The number of the lesser spiritual chiefs held to be re-embodied
Lama saints is stated2 to be one hundred and sixty, of which
thirty are in Tibet (twelve being "Shaburuh"), nineteen in north
Mongolia, fifty-seven in south Mongolia, thirty-five in Kokonor,
five in Chianido and the Tibetan portion of Sze-ch'wan, and four
teen at Bekin. But this much under-estimates the number in
Tibet. Amongst the re-embodied Lamas in western Tibet or Tsang
are Seh-c'en-Ein-po-ch'e,3 Yanzin Lho-pa, Billuh, L6-ch'en, Kyi-
zar, Tihki, De-ch'an Alig, Kahla, Kon (at Phagri). In Kham, Tu,
Ch'amdo, Derge, etc.
The Lamaist metropolitan at Pekin is called by the Tibetans
" lC'an-skya," and is considered an incarnation of Eol-pahi Dorje.
His portrait is given in the annexed figure. He dates his spiritual
descent from a dignitary who was called to Pekin during the reign

1 Maekh., p. 27.
2 In the Sheng Wu Ki, and registered by the Colonial Board at Pekin. (Mayee)
J.R.A.S., vi., p. 307.
3 The last re-incarnate Lama bearing this title, and the tutor of the Tashi Grand
Lama, was beheaded about 1886 for harbouring surreptitiously Sarat C. Das, who is
regarded as an English spy ; and although the bodies of his predecessors were con
sidered divine and are preserved in golden domes at Tashi-lhunpo, his headless trunk
was thrown ignominiously into a river to the S.W. of Lhasa, near the fort where
he had been imprisoned. On account of his violent death, and under such
circumstances, this re-incarnation is said to have ceased. From the glimpse got of
him in Sarat's narrative and in his great popularity, he seems to have been a most
amiable man.
R 2

244 THE HIERARCHY AND RE- INCARNATE LAMAS.

of K'ang Hi, probably about 1690-1700 a.d., and entrusted with
the emperor's confidence as his religious- vicegerent for inner
Mongolia.1 In Ladak only four monasteries have resident re-incarnate
Lamas or Ku-s'o. Although they are of the red sect, these head
Lamas are said to be
educated at Lhasa.
The present (1893) re
incarnate Lama of
Spitak, the seventeenth
of the series, is thus de-
scribed by Captain
Eamsay.2 "A youth,
26 years of age, who
lately returned from
Lhasa, where he had
been for 14 years. He
was handsomely dressed
in a robe- made of a
particular kind of dark
golden - coloured and
yellow embroidered
China silk, which none
but great personages
are allowed to wear,
and he had on Chinese
long boots, which he
did not remove when he entered the house. His head and face
were closely shaved, and one arm was bare. On entering
the room he bowed, and then presented the customary ' scarf of
salutation,' which I accepted. He impressed me very favourably;
his manner and general appearance was superior to anything I had
seen among other Lamas or people of Ladak."
In Sikhim, where few Lamas are celibate and where the La-
brang Lama is the nominal head of the fraternity with the title
of " Lord protector " (sKyab mGon), the fiction of re-incarnation
was only practised in regard to the Pemiongchi and La-brang

Head Lama of Pekin. s

1 Z.E. 21, Pand., No. 53.

2 Op. cit., p. 69.

* After Griinwedel.

FEMALE RE-INCARNATIONS. 245
monasteries, but has ceased for several generations. In Sikhim,
too, the same tendency to priest-kingship cropped out. Several
of the Sikhim kings were also Lamas ; and when the king was
not a monk, the Lamas retained most of the temporal power
in their hands ; and the first king of Sikhim was nominated by
the pioneer Lamas ; and the ancestor of the present dynasty, a
descendant of the religious king, Thi-Sroh Detsan, one of the
founders of Lamaism, was canonized as an incarnation of the
Buddhist god, Manjusri.
The female re-incarnation, the abbess of the monastery of the
Yamdok lake, who is considered an embodiment of the goddess
Vajra varahi, or " The diamond sow," is thus described by Mr.
Bogle1 : " The mother went with me into the apartment of Durjay
Baumo, who was attired in a gylong's dress, her arms bare from the
shoulders, and sitting cross-legged upon a low cushion. She is also
the daughter of the Lama's (Tashi) brother, but by a different
wife. She is about seven and twenty, with small Chinese features,
delicate, though not regular fine eyes and teeth ; her complexion
fair, but wan and sickly; and an expression of languor and melan
choly in her countenance, which I believe is occasioned by the
joyless life that she leads. She wears her hair, a privilege granted
to no other vestal I have seen ; it is combed back without any
ornament, and falls in tresses upon her shoulders. Her Cha-wa
(touch),like the Lamas', is supposed to convey a blessing, and I did
not fail to receive it. Durjay Baumo spoke little. Dr. Hamilton,
who cured her of a complaint she had long been subject to, used to
be there almost every day."
Let us now look at the manner in which the new re-embodi
ments or re-births of the hierarchs are discovered. On the death
of a re-incarnate Lama his spirit is believed to flit into the soul of
some unknown infant who is born a few days after the death of the
Lama. The mode of determining the child who has been so
favoured is based upon the practice followed in regard to the Grand
Lama of Lhasa, which we will now describe.
Sometimes the pontiff, before he dies, indicates the particular
place and even the family in which he will be re-born, but the
usual practice is to ascertain the names of all the likely male
1 Maekh., p. 109.

246 THE HIERARCHY AND RE-INCARNATE LAMAS.
infants who have been born under miraculous portents just after the
death of the deceased Lama, and with prayer and worship to ballot
a selected list- of names, which are written by a committee of
Lamas on slips of paper and put into a golden jug, and then amid
constant prayer, usually by 117 selected pure Lamas, to draw by
lot in relays, and extending over 31 to 71 days, one of these, which
is the name of the new incarnation. As, however, the Bekin

Testing a Claimant to the Geand. Lamaship. j
court is believed to influence the selection under such circum
stances, the state oracle of Na-ch'un has latterly superseded the
old practice, and the present Grand Lama was selected by this
oracle. Lama Ugyen Gya-tsho relates2 that the present Na-ch'un
oracle prophesied disaster in the shape of a monster appearing as
the Dalai Lama, if the old practice were continued. On the other
hand he foretold that the present Dalai would be found by a pious
monk in person, and that his discovery would be accompanied with
" horse neighings." The " pious monk " proved to be the head
Lama of Gah-ldan monastery, who was sent by the oracle to Chukor-

i After Hue.

2 Loc. cit., para. 59 ; cf. also Hue, ii., 197.

DISCOVERING THE NEW INCARNATION. 247
gye, where he dreamed that he was to look in the lake called Lha-
moi-lamtsho for the future Dalai. He looked, and it is said that,
pictured in the bosom of the lake, he saw the infant Dalai Lama
and his parents, with the house where he was born, and that at
that instant his horse neighed. Then the monk went in search
of the real child, and found him in Kongtoi, in the house of poor
but respectable people, and recognized him as the child seen in
the lake. After the boy (then a year old) had passed the usual
ordeal required of infants to test their power to recognize the
property of the previous Dalai Lama, he was elected as spiritual
head of Tibet.
These infant candidates, who, on account of their remarkable
intelligence, or certain miraculous signs,1 have been selected
from among the many applicants put forward by parents for
this, the highest position in the land, may be born anywhere
in Tibet.2 They are subjected to a solemn test by a court com
posed of the chief Tibetan re-incarnate Lamas, the great lay
officers of state, and the Chinese minister or Amban. The in
fants. are confronted with a duplicate collection of rosaries, dorjes,
etc., and that one particular child who recognizes the properties
of the deceased Lama is believed to be the real re-embodiment.
To ensure accuracy the names are written as aforesaid, and each
slip encased in a roll of paste and put in a vase, and, after prayer,
they are formally drawn by lot in front of the image of the
emperor of China,3 and the Chinese minister, the Amban, unrolls
the paste and reads out the name of the elect, who is then hailed,
as the great God Avalokita incarnate, henoe to rule over Tibet.
An intimation of the event is sent to the emperor, and it is duly
acknowledged by him with much formality, and the enthrone
ment and ordination are all duly recorded in like manner.
Interesting details of the ceremonies as well as of the prominent
part played by China in regulating the pontifical succession, have

1 Circumstantial stories are told of such applicants to the effect, that when only a
, few months old the infants have obtained the power of speech for a few moments and
informed their parents that the Lamas have left Potala to come and claim them.
2 The distant villages of Gada, south-west of Darchhendo (Ta-chhien Lu) and
Lithang, have each produced a Dalai Lama.
3 The emperor Pure Kien Lung, who died 1796, since his final subjugation of Tibet,
has continued to receive homage even posthumously as sovereign of the country.
(Maeco P., loc. cit., L., p. 290.)

248 THE HIERARCHY AND RE-INCARNATE LAMAS.
been supplied by Mr. Mayers1 from the original Chinese docu
ment of Meng Bao, the senior Amban at Lhasa, and from which
the following historic extract is made by way of illustration : —
I. Memorial drawn up on the 9th day of the 12th month of the 20th
year of Tao Kwang (January 30th, 1841), reporting that, on instituting
an investigation among young children for the embodiment of Dalai
Lama, miraculous signs, of undoubted authenticity, have been verified,
which is laid in a respectful memorial before the Sacred Glance.
In the matter of the appearance of the embodiment of the Dalai
Lama, it has already been reported to your majesty that a communi
cation had been received from Ke-le-tan-si-leu-t'u-sa-ma-ti Bakhshi re
porting the dispatch of natives in positions of dignity to inquire into
the circumstances with reference to four young children born of
Tibetan parents, respectively at Sang-ang-k'iiih-tsung in Tibet, the
tribalty of K'ung-sa within the jurisdiction of Ta-tsien-lu in Sze-ch'wan,
and [two] other places. The chancellor has now made a further re
port, stating that in the case of each of the four children miraculous
signs have been shown, and that bonds of attestation have been drawn
up in due form on the part of members of both the priesthood and laity
of the Tibetans. He annexes a detailed statement in relation to this
matter ; and on receipt of this communication your Majesty's servants
have to observe that on the previous occasion, when the embodiment of
the tenth Dalai Lama entered the world, three children were discovered
[whose names] were placed in the urn for decision by lot. As the
chancellor now writes that each of the four children discovered by the
Khan-pu on this occasion has been attended by auspicious and en
couraging omens, we do not presume to arrogate to ourselves the choice
of any one of their number, but, as regards the whole four, have on the
one hand communicated in a Tibetan dispatch with the chancellor re
specting the two children born within the territory of Tibet, and as re
gards the two children born within the jurisdiction of the province of
Sze-ch'wan, have addressed a communication to the viceroy of that pro
vince calling upon them respectively to require the parents and tutors
of the children in question to bring the latter to Anterior Tibet. On
this being done, your majesty's servants, in accordance with the exist
ing rules, will institute a careful examination in person, conjointly with
the Panshen Erdeni and the chancellor, and will call upon the children to
recognize articles heretofore in use by the Dalai Lama ; after which your
servants will proceed with scrupulous care to take measures for in
scribing their names on slips to be placed in the urn, and for the cele
bration of mass and drawing the lots in public. So soon as the indi
vidual shall have been ascertained by lot, your servants will forward a
further report for your majesty's information and commands. They
now present for imperial perusal a translation of the detailed state-
1 W. F. Mayee, Illustrations of the Lamaist System in Tibet, drawn from Chinese
Sources, J.R.A.S.,vi. (1872), p. 284 seq.

DISCOVERING THE NEW INCARNATION. 249
ment of the miraculous signs attending the children that were dis
covered on inquiry. [Enclosure.]
Detailed statement of the miraculous signs attending upon four
children, drawn up for his majesty's perusal from the despatch of the
chancellor reporting the same : —
1. A-chu-cho-ma, the wife of the Tibetan named Kung-pu-tan-tseng,
living at the Pan-j§-chung post-station in Sang-ang-k'iiih-£sung, gave
birth to a son on the 13th day of the 11th month of the year Ki-hai
(19th December, 1839), upon a report concerning which having been re
ceived from the local headmen, the chancellor despatched Tsze-f eng-cho-
ni-'rh and others to make inquiry. It was thereupon ascertained that
on the night before the said female gave birth to her child, a brilliant
radiance of many colours was manifested in the air, subsequently to which
the spring-water in the well of the temple court-yard changed to a milk-
white colour. Seven days afterwards, there suddenly appeared upon
the rock, behind the post-station, the light of a flame, which shone for
a length of time. Crowds of people hastened to witness it, when, how
ever, no single trace of fire remained, but upon the rock there was
manifested an image of Kwan Yin (Avalokita) and the characters of
Na-mo O-mi-to-Fo (Amitabha), together with the imprint of footsteps.
On the night when the child was born, the sound of music was heard,
and milk dropped upon the pillars of the house. When the commis
sioners instituted their inquiry, they found the child sitting cross-
legged in a dignified attitude, seeming able to recognize them, and
showing not the slightest timidity. They placed a rosary in the child's
hands, whereupon he appeared as though reciting sentences from the
Sutra of Amita Buddha. In addressing his mother he pronounced the
word A-md with perfect distinctness. His features were comely and well-
formed, and his expression bright and intellectual, in a degree superior
to that of ordinary children.
In addition to the foregoing report, certificates by the local headmen
and members of the priesthood and laity, solemnly attesting personal
knowledge of the facts therein set forth, were appended, and were
transmitted after authentication by the chancellor to ourselves, etc., etc.
II. Memorial drawn up on the 8th day of the 6th month of the 21st
year of Tao Kwang (25th July, 1841), reporting the verification of the
child in whom there-embodiment of the Dalai Lama has appeared, the
drawing of lots in accordance with the existing rule, and the fact that
the entire population of Tibet, both clergy and laity, are penetrated
with feelings of gratitude and satisfaction : upon the memorial bring
ing which to the imperial knowledge the Sacred Glance is reverently
besought. Your servants have already memorialized reporting that the em
bodiment of the Dalai Lama having made its appearance, a, day had
been fixed for the drawing of lots ; and they have now to state that

250 THE HIERARCHY AND RE-INCARNATE LAMAS.
they subsequently received a letter from the chancellor to the effect that
the children had successively arrived and had all been lodged in the
Sangha monastery at Te King, to the eastward of Lassa, whereupon he
had appointed the 21st day of the 5th month for proceeding to put
them to the proof. On that day, accordingly, your servants proceeded
to the Sangha monastery in company with the Panshen Erdeni, the
chancellor, and all the hut'ukht'u, khan-pn, ko-pu-lun, etc., when it was
ascertained by a careful inquiry into each individual case that the two
children born respectively at Sang-ang-k'iiih-tsung and at La-kia-jih-wa
in Tibet are both aged three years, and the two children born re
spectively in the tribalty of K'ung-sa in the district of Ta-tsien-lu and
at the Tai Ning monastery are both aged four years — that their per
sonal appearance is uniformly symmetrical and proper, and that all alike
display an elevated demeanour. Hereupon the Panshen Erdeni and
his associates laid before them for recognition the image of Buddha
worshipped by the late Dalai Lama, together with the bell-clapper,
swinging drum, and other like articles used by him, all in duplicate, the
genuine objects being accompanied by imitations. The children showed
themselves capable of recognizing each individual article, without hesi
tation, in presence of the assembled clergy and people, who, as they
crowded around to behold the sight, gave vent aloud to their admiration
of the prodigy.
A despatch was subsequently received from the chancellor to the
effect that the supernatural intelligence of the four children having
been tested by joint investigation, and having been authenticated in
the hearing and before the eyes of all, he would request that the names be
placed in the urn and the lot be drawn on the 25th day of the 5th
month ; in addition to which, he forwarded a list of the names bestowed
in infancy on the four children and of the names of their fathers.
Your servants having in reply assented to the proposed arrangement,
masses were performed during seven days preceding the date in ques
tion by the hut'ukht'u and Lamas, of mount Potala and the various
monasteries ; and, on the appointed day, the Panshen Erdeni, the
chancellor, and their associates, followed by the entire body of Lamas,
chanted a mass before the sacred effigy of your majesty's exalted
ancestor, the emperor Pure, offering up prayers subsequently in devout
silence. On the 25th day of the 5th month your servants reverently
proceeded to mount Potala, and placed the golden vase with due devo
tion upon a yellow altar before the sacred effigy. After offering in
cense and performing homage with nine prostrations, they inscribed
upon the slips, in Chinese and Tibetan characters, the infant-names of
the children and the names of their fathers, which they exhibited for
the inspection of the respective relatives and tutors, and of the
assembled Lamas. This having been done, your servant, Haip'u, recited
a chapter from the scriptures in unison with the Panshen Erdeni and
the other [ecclesiastics], in presence of the multitude, and, reverently
sealing up the inscribed slips, deposited them within the vase. The
slips being small and the urn deep, nothing was wanting to secure per-

THE CHILD-HIERARCH. 251
feet inviolability. After the further recital of a chapter by the Pan
shen Erdeni and his associates, your servant, Meng Pao, inserting
his hand within the urn upon the altar, turned the slips over and over,
several times, and reverently proceeded to draw forth one of their
number, which he inspected in concert with the children's relatives and
tutors and the assembled Lamas. The inscription upon the slip was as
follows : " The son of Tse'-wang-teng-chu, Tibetan, from the Tai Ning
monastery. Infant-name, Na-mu-kio-mu-to-urh-tsi. Present age, four
years." The remaining slips having been drawn out and inspected
publicly, the Penshen Erdeni, the chancellor, with the greater and
lesser hut'ukht'u and all the attendant Lamas, exclaimed unanimously
with unfeigned delight and gladsomeness that " by the favour of his
imperial majesty, who has given advancement to the cause of the
Yellow Church, the established rule has now been complied with for ascer
taining by lot the embodiment of the Dalai Lama, and the lot having
now fallen upon this child — who, the son of a poor Tibetan fuel-seller,
has manifested prodigies of intelligence, abundantly satisfying the
aspirations of the multitude — it is placed beyond a doubt that the
actual and genuine re-embodiment of the Dalai Lama has appeared in
the world, and the Yellow Church has a ruler for its governance. The
minds of the people are gladdened and at rest, and the reverential
gratitude that inspires us humble priests is inexhaustible." After this
they performed with the utmost devotion the homage of nine prostra
tions in the direction of your majesty's abode, expressing their reve
rential acknowledgments of the celestial favour. Your servants ob
served with careful attention that the gratitude not alone of the Pan
shen Erdeni and his attendant ecclesiastics proceeded from the most
sincere feelings, but also that the entire population of Lessa, both clergy
and laity, united in the demonstration by raising their hands to their
foreheads in a universal feeling of profound satisfaction.
The infant is taken to Lhasa at such an early age that his
mother, who may belong to the poorest peasant class,1 necessarily
accompanies him in order to suckle him, but being debarred from
the sacred precincts of Potala on account of her sex, she is lodged in
the lay town in the vicinity, and her son temporarily at the
monastic palace of Ei-gyal Phodah,2 where she is permitted to
visit her son only between the hours of 9 a.m. and 4 p.m. She,
together with her husband, is given an official residence for life in
a palace about a mile to the west of Potala and on the way to De-
pung, and the father usually receives the rank of Kung, said to be
the highest of the five ranks of Chinese nobility.-
1 As, for example, in the case of the eleventh Grand Lama, whose father was a
poor fuel-seller.
2 Another account (Mayee, loc. cit., p. 295) states that he is kept at the " Jih-kia''
monastery to the east of Lhasa, or " Chih-ta-wang-pu."

252 THE HIERARCHY AND RE-INCARNATE LAMAS.
At the age of four the child assumes the monkish garb and ton
sure, and receives, a religious name, and is duly enthroned at
Potala in great state and under Chinese auspices, as shown from
the annexed state paper : —
" Memorial dated the 18th day of the 4th month of the 22nd year of
Tao Kwang (27th May, 1842), reporting the conclusion of the ceremony
of enthronement of the embodiment of the Dalai Lama
" In obedience to these commands, Your servants proceeded on the
13th day of the 4th month in company with the Chang-Chia Hut'ukht'u
(the Pekin metropolitan) and the chancellor, followed by their subor
dinate functionaries, the hut'ukht'u, Lamas, and Tibetan officials, to the
monastery on mount Jih-kia, for the purpose of escorting the Dalai
Lama's embodiment down the mountain to the town of Chih-ta-hwang-
pu, on the east of Lassa, where his abode was temporarily established.
Your servants, in respectful conformity with the rules for attendance
upon the Dalai Lama, appointed detachments of the Chinese garrison
troops to form an encampment, and to discharge the duty of body
guards during the two days he remained there. On the 15th, your
servants escorted the embodiment to the monastery at mount P6tala,
where reverent prostrations were performed, and the ceremonial obser
vances were fulfilled before the sacred e&gy of your majesty's ele
vated ancestor, the emperor Pure. On the 16th, your servants
reverently took the golden scroll containing the mandate bestowed by
your majesty upon the Dalai Lama's embodiment, together with the
sable cape, the coral court rosary, etc., and the sum of ten thousand
taels in silver, being your majesty's donations, which they caused to be
conveyed upon yellow platforms to the monastery at mount P6tala, and
deposited with devout care in due order in the hall called Ta Tu Kang.
The couch and pillows were then arranged upon the divan ; and on
the arrival of the Dalai Lama's embodiment in the hall, your servants
and the secretary of the Chang-chia Hut'ukht'u, reverently read out the
golden scroll, embodying your majesty's mandate, to the perusal of
which the embodiment listened in a kneeling posture, facing toward
the east. After the reading was concluded, he received with venera
tion the imperial gifts, and performed the ceremonial of three genuflec
tions and nine prostrations in the direction of the imperial abode, thus
testifying his respectful gratitude for the celestial favours. Having
been invested with the garments conferred by your majesty, the em
bodiment was supported to his seat upon the throne ; whereupon the
chancellor,, at the head of the Tibetan priesthood, intoned a chant of
Dharani formulas, invoking auspicious fortune. All the hut'ukht'u and
Lamas having performed obeisances, a great banquet was opened, and
the ceremonial of enthronement was thus brought to a close. The day
was attended by the utmost fine weather, and everything passed off
auspiciously and well, to the universal delight of the entire body of
clergy and laity of Lassa. This we accordingly bring to your majesty's
knowledge ; and in addition we have to state, that as the embodiment

HIS TRAINING AND MINORITY. 253

of the Dalai Lama has now been enthroned, it is proper, in conformity
with the existing rules, to cease henceforth from using the word ' em
bodiment.' This we accordingly append, and respectfully bring before
your majesty's notice." x
He is now admitted as a novice to the Nam-gyal monastery of
Potala, and' his education is entrusted to a special preceptor and
assistants learned in the scriptures and of unblemished character.2
At the age of eight he is ordained a full monk and abbot of
the Nam-gyal convent and head of the Lamaist church.
The Dalai Lama is, as regards temporal rule, a minor till he
reaches the age of eighteen, and during his minority a regent
carries on the duties of temporal government. And the frequency
with which the Dalai Lama has died before attaining his majority
gives some support to the belief that the regents are privy to his
premature death; and the Chinese government are usually credited
with supporting such proceedings for political purposes.
On the death of a re-incarnate Lama, his body is preserved. The
tombs of the Dalaiand Pan-ch'en Lamas form conspicuous gilt
monuments, sometimes as many as seven storeys high, named
Ku-tun,3 at Potala and Tashi-lhunpo. The holiness of sucha Lama
is estimated in proportion to the shrinkage of his body after death.
The temporal rule of Tibet is vested in a Lama who has the
title of " king." For when Nag- wan acquired the temporal
power he retained this title for one of his agents, also called " The
regent,"4 and "Protector of the earth,"5 and "Governor,"6 and
by the Mongols Nomen-Khan.
A regent is necessary to conduct the temporal government,
especially under the system of papal succession by re-births, where
the new Dalai Lama does not reach his majority and nominal
succession to temporal rule till his eighteenth year. In order to
avoid plotting against the hierarchs, Nag-wan ruled that the regent
must be a Lama, and he restricted this office to the head Lamas of
the monastic palaces or Ling of Lhasa, named Tan-gye-ling,T Kun-
de-ling,8 Ts'e-ch'og-ling,9 and Ts'amo-ling,10 whom, he alleged, by a
1 Maybe, loc. cit., p. 296.
2 The preceptor of the tenth and eleventh Grand Lamas was " Kia-mu-pa-le-i-hi-tan-
pei'-gyam-tso." Mayee, loc cit.
3 sku mdun. 4 Gyal-tshab. 5 Sa-Kyoh. » de-sid.
' bsTan-rgyas-glih. 8 Kun-'dus glin 9 Tse-mch'og glih.
10 Ts'a-mo-glih. A Lama of this monastic palace and a member of Sera, became
the celebrated regent Tsha-tur numa-hang (?" Nomen Khan ").

254 THE HIERARCHY AND RE-INCARNATE LAMAS.
polite fiction, to be re-embodiments of the spirits of the four most
celebrated ministers of the monarchical period. Thus the spirit of
king Sron Tsan Gampo's minister Lon-po Gar is believed to be
incarnate in the Lama of Tan-gye-ling. The office when falling
vacant through death (or deposition) passes cceteris paribus to the
surviving senior of those Lings. The present regent (1893) is
the Kun-de-ling Lama. Tbe regent is assisted in tbe government 1
by four ministers called Kd-lon,2 who were formerly all laymen, but
now some of them are being replaced by Lamas ; also secretaries
(Kd-duii) and district magistrates (Jon-pon). And the two
Chinese political residents, or Ambans,3 have administrative as well
as consulting functions.
With such large bodies of monks comprising so many fanatical
elements, and not at all subject to the civil authorities, who, in
deed, possess almost no police, it is not surprising that fracas are
frequent, and bloody feuds between rival monasteries occasionally
happen. Every monastery has an armoury, and in the minor
quarrels the lusty young monks wield their heavy iron pencases
with serious and even fatal effect.
Since the temporal power passed into the hands of the Lamas,
the Tibetans who, in Sroh Tsan Gampo's day, were a vigorous
and aggressive nation, have steadily lost ground, and have been
ousted from Yunnan and their vast possessions in eastern Tibet,
Amdo, etc., and are now hemmed in by the Chinese into the more
inhospitable tracts.
1 " De-ba zhuh."
2 bKah-blon.
3 " Amban" is not Chinese. It is probably Manchu or Mongolian, cf. Rock., L., 51.
The resident imperial minister of Tibet is colloquially called Chu-tsah tu-chon, and
he is always a Manchu, that is, of- the ruling race.

XL
MONASTEBIES

ISOLATION from the world has always been a desidera
tum of Buddhist monks ; not as penance, but merely
to escape temptations, and favour meditation. The
monastery is named in Tibetan Gon-pa,2 vulgarly
Gom-pa, or " a solitary place " or hermitage ; and most monas
teries are situated, if not actually in solitary places, at least some
distance off from villages, while around others which were origi
nally hermitages villages have grown up later.
The extreme isolation of some of the Tibetan cloisters has its
1 After Hue.
3 dgon-pa. The title C'og-sde, or Choi-de, a " religious place," is especially applied
to temple-monasteries within a village or town. " Lin," or " continent," is applied to
the four greatest monasteries of the established church especially associated with the
temporal government, and is evidently suggested by the four great fabulous conti
nents of the world. gT'sug-lag-k'an' is an academy, though it is used for temples
frequently.

256 MONASTERIES.

counterpart in Europe in the alpine monasteries amid the everlast
ing snows. Some of them are for the greater part -:of the year
quite cut off from the outer world, and at favourable times only
reachable by dangerous paths, so that their solitude, is seldom
broken by visitors. The monastery of Kye-lang in Little Tibet
stands on an isolated spur about 12,000 feet above the sea, and is
approached over glaciers, so that sometimes its votaries are buried
under avalanches. And the site is usually commanding and pic
turesque. Shergol in Ladak, like so many monasteries in cen
tral Tibet, is set on the face of a cliff. It is " carved out of a
honeycombed cliff, forming, with some other cliffs of the same
description, a giant flight of stairs on the slope of a bleak moun
tain of loose stones. The Gompa itself is painted white, with
bands of bright colour on the projecting wooden gallery, so that it
stands out distinctly against the darker rocks. There is not a
sign of vegetation near — all round is a dreary waste of stone. '
Such remote and almost inaccessible sites for many of the
convents renders mendicancy impossible ; bub begging-with-the-
bowl never seems to have been a feature of Lamaism, even when
the monastery adjoined a town or village.
Several monasteries, especially of the Kar-gyu sect, are called
"caves" (hermitages) (or tak-p'u), although any caves which
may exist accommodate only a very small proportion of the residents
of the cloister so named. Yet many gompas, it is reported, passed
through the state of cave-residence as a stage in their career.
Firstly a solitary site with caves was selected, and when the monks
by extra zeal and piety had acquired sufficient funds and influence,
then they built a monastery in the neighbourhood. While, if the
venture were not financially successful, the hermitage remained in
the cave. One of these struggling cave-hermitages exists at Bi-
kyi-sum near Bedong, in British Bhotan. Such caves, as a rule,
are natural caverns, wholly unadorned by art, and are specially
tenanted by the wandering ascetics named Yogacarya and Zi-
jgpa.2 1 Mr. Knight, he. cit., p. 127, where a picture of the monastery also is given.
2 Under this heading come the four great caves of Sikhim hallowed as the traditional
abodes of St. Padma and Lhatsun Ch'embo, and now the objects of pilgrimage even to.
Lamas from Tibet. These four caves are distinguished according to the four cardinal
points, viz. : —
The Noeth Llia-ri airlp'n, or "the old cave of God's hill." It is situated about

THE SITE AND NAME. 257

The site occupied by the monastery is usually commanding and
often picturesque. It should have a free outlook to the east to
catch the first rays of the rising sun ; and it should be built in
the long axis of the hill ; and it is desirable to have a lake in
front, even though it be several miles distant. These latter two
conditions are expressed in the couplet : —
" Back to the hill-rock,
And front to the tarn."1
The door of the assembly room and temple is cceteris paribus
built to face eastwards. The next best direction is south-east,
and then south. If a stream directly drains the site or is visible a
short way below, then the site is considered bad, as the virtue of
the place escapes by the stream. In such a case the chief entrance
is made in another direction. A waterfall, however, is of very
good omen, and if one is visible in the neighbourhoood, the en
trance is made in that direction, should it not be too far removed
from the east.
The name of the monastery is usually of a religious nature,
ideal or mystic, or, like De-pung, borrowed from the name of a
celebrated Indian monastery ; but others are merely place-names
which are often descriptive of the site,2 thus : —
Tashi-Lhdn-po, " The mass of glory."
Sa-skya, the tawny soil.
Min-bol-lin, " The place of perfect emancipation."
The " Himis," monastery in Ladak is called " The support of the
meaning of Buddha's precepts."3

three days' journey to the north of Tashiding, along a most difficult path.
This is the most holy of the series.
The South Kah-do san p'u, or "cave of the occult fairies." Here it is said is a
hot spring, and on the rock are many footprints ascribed to the fairies.
The East sBas2''«, or "secret cave." It lies between the Tendong and Mainom
mountains, about five miles from Yangang. It is a vast cavern reputed to
extend by a bifurcation to both Tendong and Mainom. People go in with
torches about a quater of a mile. Its height varies from five feet to one
hundred or two hundred feet.
The West bDe-ch'enp'n, or "cave of Great Happiness." It is in the snow near
Jongri, and only reachable in the autumn.
1 rgyab ri brag dan mdun ri mts'o.
2 See my "Place, River and Mountain Names of Sikhim," etc., J.A.S.B., 1891.
3Schtag.,179. S

258 MONASTERIES.

San-na-cho-iin (Ang., Sangachiling) gsan, secret or occult, + snags,
spell or magic + c'os religion + glin, a place. " The place of the
occult mystic religion." A catholic Buddhist monastery open to all
classes, including deformed persons, nuns, Lepchas and Limbus.
Padma-tan-ise (Aug., Pemiongchi) = padma (pr. "pama")alotus + yon,
perfect or pure + vtse, the highest " the monastery of the sublime
perfect lotus (-born one, i.e., Padma-sambhava)." A monastery
professing, we believe, only well-born, celibate, and undeformed
monks, and especially associated with St. Padma, who is worshipped
here.
Ta-ka Tashi-din (Ang., Tashiding) = brag (= tag,) a rock + dkar, white
+ bkra-sis (pr. tashi) glory + Iding, a soaring up or elevation.
The original name is likely to have been 'bring, pronounced " ding,"
and meaning the middle, with reference to its romantically
elevated site between two great rivers at their junction. " The
gompa of the elevated glorious white rock." The site, a bold high
promontory at the junction of and between the Great Bangit and
Katong rivers, is believed to have been miraculously raised up by
St. Padma, and amongst other traces a broad longitudinal white
streak in the rock is pointed out as being the shadow of that
saint.
Pho-dan (Ang., Fadung) = p'o-\dan, a sloping ridge ; such is the site
of this gompa and the usual spelling of the name. As, however,
this is the " chapel royal " of the raja, it seems possible that the
name may be p'o-bran (pr. p'o-dan) = palace, " the gompa of the
palace."
La-bran = bla, a contraction of Lama or high-priest + bran, a dwelling.
Here resides the hierarch or chief Lama.
[N.B. — This is one of the very few words in which br is literally
pronounced as spelt.]
Dobje-lin (Ang., Darjeeling) = rdd-rje "the precious stone" or eccles
iastical sceptre, emblematic of the thunder-bolt of Sakra (Indra or
Jupiter) + glin, a place. The monastery from which DarjTling
takes its name, and the ruins of which are still visible on observa
tory-hill, was a branch of the Dorjeling, usually curtailed into
D6-ling (Ang., Dalling) monastery in native Sikhim ; and to dis
tinguish it from its parent monastery, it was termed Ank-du
Dorje-ling (dbang, power + bdus, accumulated or concentrated) on
account of its excellent situation, and powerful possibilities.
De-t'an = De, a kind of tree (Daphne papyraceae, Wall.), from the bark
of which ropes and paper are made + t'an, a meadow = "the
gompa of the De meadow." Here these trees are abundant.
Bi-gon (Ang., Ringim = (ri + dgon, a hermitage = " the hermitage
hill." It is situated near the top of the hill.
T6-lun = rdo, a stone + lun, a valley. This valley is remarkably rocky,
and avalanches of stones are frequent.
En-ce = dben (pr. en), a solitary place + lc'e, a tongue. A monastery
on a tongue-shaped spur.

THE NAMES. 259

Dob-be = sgrub (pr. "dub"), a hermit's cell + sde, a place. "The place
of the hermit's cell " — the oldest monastery in Sikhim, founded by
the pioneer missionary Lha-tsiin Ch en-bo.
P'en-za& = p'an bliss or profit + bzan, excellent. The monastery of
" excellent bliss."
K a-c6-pal-bi (Any. Ketsuperi) = mk'a, heaven + spyod (pr. cho) to
accomplish or reach + dpal, noble + ri = the monaitery of ' ' the
noble mountain of the Garuda (a messenger of the gods) " or " of
reaching heaven."
Ma-ni = ma-ni, a tablet inscribed with " Om mani, etc.," a Mendoh.
" The gompa of the Mendoh. " ; here the gompa was erected near
an old mendong.
Se-non = Se, a sloping ridge -f non, depressed. It is situated on a
depressed sloping ridge ; and is also spelt gzigs (pr. zi), a see-er or
beholder, + ranon, to suppress ; and in this regard it is alleged that
here St. Padma-sambhava beheld the local demons underneath and
kept them under.
Yan-gan = yan, perfect, also lucky + sgan, a ridge. " The monastery
of the lucky ridge."
Lhun-tse = Ihun, lofty + rtse, summit. ' ' The monastery of the lofty
summit."
" Nam-tse = mam, a division or district + rtse. " Lofty division " one
of the subdivisions of native Sikhim, on the flank of Tendong. It
is probable that this is a Lepcha name from tsii = " Seat of govern
ment," as the site is a very old Lepcha one.
Tsun-t'an (Any., Cheungtham)= btsun, a queen; also " respected one,"
i.e., a Lama or monk; also marriage + than, a meadow. This
gompa is situated overlooking a meadow at the junction of the
Lachhen and Lachhung rivers. It may mean " the meadow of
marriage (of the two rivers)," or " the meadow of the Lamas," or
" the meadow of Our Lady " — its full name as found in manuscript
being "htsun-jmo rin-chen t'an," implies that the Lamas derive its
name from " the precious Lady (Dorje-p'ag-mo) " whose image is
prominently displayed within the gompa.
Bab-lin (Ang., Bawling) = rab, excellent or high + glin, a place. This
monastery is situated on a high cliffy ridge.
Nub-lin (Any., Nobling) = nub, the west + glin = "The gompa of the
western place or country." It lies on the western border of Sikhim,
De-kii-lin (Ang , Dikiling) = bde-skyid, happiness + glin = "The place
of Happiness." It is a rich arable site with the beer-millet (murwa)
cultivation.
The site chosen for a monastery must be consecrated before any
building is begun. A chapter of Lamas is held, and the tutelary
deity is invoked to protect the proposed building against all injury
of men and demons. At the ceremony of laying the first stone
prayers are recited, and charms, together with certain forms of
s 2

260 MONASTERIES.

benediction (Tashi-tsig jod), together with relics, are deposited in
a hollow stone.1 And other rites are done. And in repairing a
sacred building somewhat similar services are performed.
The size of the Tibetan monasteries is sometimes immense,
several containing from 3,000 to 10,000 monks, in this the most
priest-ridden country in the world. The larger monasteries are
like small towns, as seen in the original drawing of Tashi-lhunpo
here given, with long streets of cells, two or three storeys high,
and usually surrounding small courtyards which generally con
tain a shrine in the centre. The chief building is "The assembly
hall," which, however, is practically a temple, and is considered
under that head.
There are always small halls for teaching purposes, as the
monasteries serve also as colleges. But these colleges are for the
clergy alone, as Lamas, unlike Burmese monks, are not the
schoolmasters of the people. They teach only those who enter
the order. And the lay populace have to be content with the
poor tuition obtainable in a few schools (Lob-ta) conducted by
laymen. The architecture seems to have preserved much of the mediaeval
Indian style. Mr. Fergusson shows 2 that Nepal, in its architecture
as well as ethnologically, presents us with a microcosm of India
as it was in the seventh century, when Hiuen Tsiang visited
it ; and that the Sikhim monasteries show a perseverance in the
employment of sloping jambs (as in the Tashiding doorway),3
as used two thousand years ago in the Behar and early western
caves ; and the porch of the temple at Pemiongchi shows the form
of roof which we are familiar with in the rock examples of India.
The architecture of the monastery resembles that of the houses
of the wealthy Tibetans, and is often ostentatious. It has been
described in some detail by Schlagintweit, Hue, Eockhill,4 etc.,
as regards Tibet, and by General Cunningham and Mr. Conway as
regards the large monasteries of Ladak. The monasteries in
Sikhim are mean and almost devoid of any artistic interest.
1 Schlag., 178, who there translates the historical document on the founding of
Himis; Csoma's An., p. 503; Cunningham's Ladak, 309.
2 Hist. Ind. and Eastn. Arch., p. 299, et seq.
3 Figured by Hookek, Him. Jovr.
* See also detailed description of the houses of the Lamas of Kumbum in Land of
the Lamas, p. 65.

¦±-i

ii If ^wlSO* £#1^

g 3g£gj._i!fFf

1 »
a?
* 'ST"-"
a— "^e^s*ij^pS£K^
pps
ri^?y^.^> ^ g i-*«i§ fff y^Srdirf „
S3P
Tashi-lhunpo Monastery.
(From a native drawing.)
[ To face p. 260
CAITYAS AND MENDONS.

261

As wood is scarce in Tibet most of the monasteries are built of
stone or sun-dried bricks. Most have flat roofs, some are in the
Chinese style, and -most are surmounted by the cylinders of yak-
hair cloth crossed by a few white ribbons at right angles to each
other, and topped by a crescent and spear, as in figures, and a
curtain of yak-hair cloth bearing similar stripes in the form of a
Latin cross closes the windows. In the outer Himalayas the cells
and dormitories and other buildings cluster round the temple.
And in the temple-monasteries, the ground floor is without win
dows and is generally used as a storehouse, and the upper storeys
are. reached by a staircase or an inclined beam on which notches
are cut for steps ; and the scanty furniture is of the plainest.
The well-known Indian name of a Buddhist monastery, namely,
Arama, or Sahgharama ("the resting-place of the clergy"), more
strictly applied to the grove in which the monastery was situated,
is. applied in Tibet, which is almost destitute of groves, to the
auditory or library of the monastery.1

Ch'oeten and Mendon in Ladak.2

Lining the approaches to the monastery are rows of tall

1 Cf., Jaesch., D., i.

2 After Mr. Knight.

262

MONASTERIES.

" prayer "-flags, and several large funereal monuments— Ch'orten
and long wall-like Mendon monuments.
The Ch'or-
tens,1 literally
" receptacle . for
offerings,"2 are
usually solid
conical masonry
structures, cor
responding 'to
the Caityas and
Stupas or' 'Topes"
of Indian Budd
hism, and origi
nally intended
as relic-holders;
they are now
mostly erected
as cenotaphs in
memoryof ^ Funeeeal Buddhist Monument
Buddha Or Of (A Ch'orten SMljtra or I' Tope").
canonized saints; and they present a suggestively funereal appear
ance. Some commemorate the visits of Lamaist saints ; and
miniature ones of metal, wood, or clay often adorn
the altar, and sometimes contain relics.
The original form of the Caitya, or Stupa,3 was
a simple and massive hemisphere or solid dome
(garbha, literally " womb " enclosing the relic) of
masonry, with its convexity upwards and crowned
by a square capital (toran) surmounted by one or
more umbrellas, symbols of royalty. Latterly they
became more complex in form, with numerous
plinths, and much elongated, especially in regard
Medieval Indian to their capitals, as seen in the small photograph
beazen Caitya. t ¦ ,
(from Tibet.) here given.*

1 mCh'od-r-ten. 2 Skt., Da-garblia.
5 Cf. Hodgs., II. , 30, e seq., for descriptions ; also his views about the respective
meanings of " Caitya "a d " Stupa."
4 In Mr. Hodgson's collection are nearly one hundred drawings of Caityas in Nepal ;
Febgusson's Hist. Ind. and East. Arch., 303; Fekg. and Buegess' Cave-Temples; also
Cunningham's Bhilsa Topes, p. 12.

CAITYAS— CH'ORTEN.

263

The Lamaist Caityas, or Ch'ortens, are mainly of the two forms
here shown. They generally adhere to the Indian type ; but differ
most conspicuously in that the dome in the commonest form
is inverted. Both have more or less elaborate plinths, and on the
sides of the capital are often
figured a pair of eyes, like the
sacred eyes met with in ancient
Egyptian, Greek, and Eoman
vases, etc., and believed to be
connected with sun-worship.
Above the toran is a bluntly
conical or pyramidal spire,
Cuddmani, of thirteen step
like segments, typical of the
thirteen Bodhisat heavens of
the Buddhists. This is sur
mounted by a bell-shaped sym
bol (usually copper-gilt) called
the kalsa, the handle of which
forms a tapering pinnacle
sometimes modelled after a
small Caitya, but often
moulded in the form of one or
two or all of the following
objects : a lotus - flower, a
crescent moon, a globular sun,
a triple canopy, which are
finally surmounted by a
tongue-shaped spike, repre
senting the jyoti or sacred light
of Buddha. And sometimes
round the base of the kalsa is a gilt canopy or umbrella (catra).1
Many of the Lamaist Caityas are, like those of the Japanese,
symbolic of the five elements into which a body is resolved upon
death ; thus, as in the annexed figure, the lowest section, a solid
rectangular block, typifies the solidity of the earth ; above it water
is represented by a globe ; fire by a triangular tongue ; air by a

Tibetan Ch'orten, common fobm.

Cunningham's Bhilsa Topes, 12.

264

MONASTERIES.

Elemental- Ch'orten.

crescent — the inverted vault of the sky, and ether by an acuminated
circle, the tapering into space.
A miniature Ch'orten, containing an enormous number of small
images of Lamaist deities, in niches and in several
inner compartments within folding doors, is called
"the glorious (Ch'orten) of many doors."1 It is
carried about from village to village by itinerant
Lamas for exhibition to the laity.
In the wealthier monasteries the Ch'ortens are
regularly white-washed.
The Mendoits, as figured on page 261, are long
wall-like erections sometimes over a mile in length,
which divide the road into two lateral halves to
allow of the respectful mode of passing it, namely,
with the right hand to the wall. They are faced
with blocks bearing in rudely cut characters the six-
syllabled mystic sentence " Om mani padme hum "
— the same which is revolved in the "prayer-
wheels," and usually called Mani; and its name is said to be
derived from these, namely, Mani-doii, or " The Mani-i&ced." It
usually has a ch'orten terminating it at either end; and occa
sionally it contains niches to burn incense or to deposit the small
clay funereal Caityas,2 and also bears coarsely outlined figures of
the three especial protecting divinities oLLamaisin.3 As it is
a pious act to add to these " Mani " slabs, a mason is kept at the
larger temples and places of special pilgrimage, who carves the
necessary number of stones according to the order and at the
expense of the donating pilgrim.
The small cairns, surmounted by a few sticks, to which rags
are attached by passers by as offerings to the genius loci, like
the "rag-bushes " of India, are called Lab-ch'a, and figured at page
286. As with all sacred objects, these monuments must always be
passed on the right hand,4 according to the ancient custom of
showing respect. And thus, too, it is that the prayer-cylinders
must always be turned in this direction.
In addition to the foregoing objects, there is frequently found in

Ta-shi-gd-man. 2 dharma-sartra. 3 The Rig-sum gon-po. * pradakshina.

RANSOMED CATTLE. 265
the vicinity of the monastery a stone seat called a " throne " for
the head Lama, when he gives al-fresco instruction to his pupils.
One of the reputed thrones of the founder of Sikhim Lamaism
exists at the Bemiongchi Ch'orten, where the camp of visitors is
usually pitched.
There is no regular asylum for animals rescued from the
butchers, to save some person from pending death; but occasion
ally such ransomed cattle are to be found in the neighbourhood
of monasteries where their pension-expenses have been covered by
a donation from the party cured. The animals have their ears
bored for a tuft of coloured rags as a distinctive and saving mark.
In Sikhim not far from most monasteries are fertile fields of
murwa (Meusine corocana), from which is made the country beer,
a beverage which the Sikhim and Bhotanese monks do not deny
themselves. Over 3,000 monasteries are said to be in Tibet. But be
fore giving a short descriptive list of some of the chief monas
teries of Lamadom it seems desirable to indicate the chief pro
vinces into which Tibet is divided.1
Tibet is divided into three sections, namely : —
1. Bod or "Tibet" proper, or the provinces of TJ and Tsang,
hence the name " Weitsang " applied to Tibet by the Chinese.
2. High (or Little) Tibet, or the northern provinces of Tod,
Nari, and Khor-sum.
3. Eastern Tibet, or the provinces of Kham, Do, and Gang.
In Tibet proper the central province of TJ and the western one of
Tsang have their capitals at Lhasa and Tashil-hunpo respectively. TJ
contains the districts of Gyama (and Kongbu, including Bema-
Koi), Di-gung, Tsal-pa, Tsang-po, Che'-va, Bhag-du, Yah-sang, and
Yaru-dag, including the great Yamdok lake. Tsang comprises
the districts of north and south L6-stod, Gurmo, Ch'umig, S'ang,
and S'alu.
Little Tibet is divided into the three circles of sTag-mo Ladvags
(" Ladak "), Mang-yul S'ang Shum, Guge Burang (" Burang "),
1 The best vernacular account of the geography of Tibet is contained in the
Dsam-ling Gye-she of Lama, Tsan-po Noman Khan of Amdo, and translated by
Saeat, J.A.S.B., 1887, p. 1, seq. ; Csoma, J.A.S.B., 1832, p. 123. For scientific
geography, see Markham's Tibet, Indian Survey Reports, Prejvalsky, Rockhill, etc.
D'Anville's map of 1793, compiled on data supplied by Lamas, is still our chief
authority for a large portion of Tibet.

266 MONASTERIES.

comprising the districts of Burang, Mang-yul Sangs-dKar, hCh'i-
va, bLas'a, sBal-te, Shang-shung, upper and lower Khrig-se.
East Nari includes Dok-t'al and lake Manasarovar. The Ladak
and Balti districts of west Nari were conquered by Kashmir in
1840 and are now British dependencies. Ka-che, sometimes used
synonymously with Kashmir, includes the lofty northern steppes
and the gold fields of Thog-Jalung.
Eastern Tibet is the most populous section of the country. The
greater part of the low-lying Do province (Amdo) seems to have
been detached from Tibet by the Chinese about 1720. The south
eastern province of Kham borders on Assam and upper Burma,
and includes the districts of Bo, Lhari-go. The Gang province
consists mostly of high bleak ridges, Pombor, Tsawa, and 'Tsa-
Ch'u. The northern Tsai-dam, comprising many marshes between
Nan-shan and Altentagh mountains, is peopled by Tanguts and
Mongols. The chief monasteries of central Tibet are : —
Sam-yas, which as the first monastery founded in Tibet, deserves first
mention. Its full title is "bSam-yas Mi-'gyur Lhun-gyis grub-pai Tsug-lug-
K'ah " or " The academy for obtaining the heap of unchanging
Meditation." The explorer Nain Singh resided in this monastery in 1874 and has
given a good account of it. It is situated (N. lat. 29° 20', E. long.
91° 26, altitude about 11,430ft.) about thirty miles to the S.E. of
Lhasa, near the north bank of the Tsang-po river amidst hillocks of
deep sand, clothed with scanty herbage. It was built about 749 by
Thi-Sroh Detsan with the aid of the Indian monks, Padma-sambhava
and Santa-rakshita, after the model of the TJdandapur,1 temple-
monastery of Bihar. But the building is believed to have been alto
gether miraculous, and an abstract of the legend is given underneath.2

1 For some details see Sarat, in J. Budd. Texts. Ind., i., p. 4, seq.
2 To consecrate the ground and procure supernatural workers St. Padma made the
magic-circle of rDo-r je-P'ur-pa with coloured stone-dust, and having the K'ro-wo of
the five kinds, and all the necessary offerings arranged in his presence, he worshipped
for seven days. Then the five Jinas (Dhyani Buddhas, Gyal-wa-rigs-lha) appeared
to him, and the king, being empowered, also saw the faces of these five. Then the
Guru created several incarnations of himself, some of whom entered the Mandala,
while some flew up into the sky. These incarnations caused the Tibetan devils to
bring stones and wood from the hills and rivers, and thus the foundation of bSam-yas
academy was begun. Human beings built it by day, while the devils worked at it by
night, and so the great work rapidly progressed.
When the king saw the great piles of gathered wood he was surprised and was

SAM-YAS. 267

Bart of the original building yet remains. The monastery, which
contains a large temple, four large colleges, and several other buildings,
is enclosed by a lofty circular wall about a mile and a half in circum
ference, with gates facing the cardinal points, and along the top of the
wall are many votive brick chaityas, of which the explorer, Nain Singh,
counted 1,030, and they seemed to be covered with inscriptions in
ancient Indian characters. In the centre of the enclosure stands the
assembly hall, with radiating cloisters leading to four chapels, facing
at equal distances the four sides of the larger temple. This explorer
notes that " the idols and images contained in these temples are of pure
gold, richly ornamented with valuable cloths and jewels. The candle
sticks and vessels are nearly all made of gold and silver." And on
the temple walls are many large inscriptions in Chinese and ancient
Indian characters. In the vestibule of the chief temple, to the left of
the door, is a colossal copy of the pictorial Wheel of Life.
The large image of "Buddha," over ten feet high, seems to be called
" the Sam-yas Jing " (Samyas G-yal-po).
The library contains many Indian manuscripts, but a great number
of these were destroyed at the great fire about 1810 a.d.
In a temple close by among the sand is a celebrated chamber of
horrors, built of large boulders, and containing gigantic figures of the
twenty-five Gon-po demons. The images are made of incense, and are
about twenty feet high, of the fiercest expression, and represented
as dancing upon mangled human corpses, which they are also devour
ing. And great stains of blood are pointed out by the attendants as

awestruck, and asked the Guru to explain. The Guru thereon made the Mandala of
the " Five," and worshipping for seven days, the Five transformed themselves
into five kinds of Garuda birds, which were visible to the king. And at that very time
the Guru himself became invisible, and the king saw in his stead a great garuda hold
ing a snake in his clutches and beak ; but not seeing the Guru, the king cried out in
fear. Then the garuda vanished and the Guru reappeared beside him. The country
to the south of Samye was then, it is said, inhabited by the savage " kLa-klo " tribes,
which the Tibetans, through their Indian pandits, termed Nagas (cognate with those
of the Brahmaputra valley). The next day, a Naga, having transformed himself into
a white man on a white horse, came into the presence of the king and said, " O king !
How much wood do you need for building Sam-yas ? as I will supply you with all you
want." On being informed of the requirements, the Naga collected wood to an
enormous extent. ,
The building of the Sam-ye academy (gtsug-lag-k'an) swallowed up the wealth
of the king. So the Guru, accompanied by the king and his ministers, went to the
bank of Mal-gro lake, and keeping the ministers concealed in a small valley, the
Guru began to make a Mandala of the " Five " and worshipped for seven days, after
which Avalokita sinhada, with Amitabha on his head, stood at each of the four direc
tions, where dwell the four gods of the Five. On this the Nagas of the depths
became powerless, and the Guru, addressing them, said, " The wealth of my king
being exhausted, I have come to ask wealth." Next day the banks were found lined
with glittering gold, which the Guru caused the ministers to carry off to the palace.
On this account all the images of gods at Sam-yas are made of solid gold, and of a
quality unequalled in any part of our world of Jambudvip.

268 MONASTERIES.

the fresh stains of bodies which the demons have dragged to the place
during the previous night.
We have already referred to the miraculous account of the building
of this monastery, which is said to rest upon Baksha fiends. On
account of the peculiar safety imparted to the locality by the spells of
the wizard priest, Padma-sambhava, the Tibetan government use the
place as a bank for their reserved bullion and treasure, of which fabu
lous sums are said to be stored there.
Although it is now presided over by a Sa-kya Lama, the majority of
its members are Nih-ma.
Gsh-ldan, the monastery founded by Tsoh-K'a-pa, is one of the four
great Ge-lug-pa or established church monasteries, the others being
De-pung, Sera and Tashi-lhunpo.
Its full name is d Gah-ldan rNam-par Gyal-wahi glin, or the Continent
of completely victorious happiness.
This monastery stands enthroned on the dbAn-K'or hill, about
twenty-five miles E. N.E. of Lhasa. Its founder, Tson-K'a-pa, raised it
to a high pitch of fame and filled it with costly images. The chief
object of veneration is the grand tomb of Tson-K'a-pa, which is placed in
the Tsug-la-k'ah. It is a lofty mausoleum-like structure of marble
and malachite, with a gilded roof. Inside this outer shell is to be seen
a beautiful Ch'orten, consisting of cube pyramid and surmounting cone,
all said to be of solid gold. Within this golden casket, -wrapped in fine
cloths, inscribed with sacred Dharani syllables, are the embalmed
remains of the great reformer, disposed in sitting attitude. Other
notable objects here are a magnificent representation of Cham-pa, the
Buddha to come, seated, European fashion, on a throne. Beside him
stands a life-sized image of Tsoh-K'a-pa, in his character of Jam-pal
Nin-po, which is supposed to be his name in the Galdan heavens. A
rock-hewn cell, with impressions of hands and feet, is also shown as
Tson-K'a-pa's. A very old statue of S'inje, the lord of Death, is much
reverenced here ; every visitor presenting gifts and doing it infinite
obeisance. The floor of the large central chamber appears to be
covered with brilliant enamelled tiles, whilst another shrine holds an
effigy of Tson-K'a-pa, with images of his five disciples (Shes-rab Sen-ge,
K'a-grub Ch'os-rje, etc.) standing round him. The library contains
manuscript copies of the saint's works in his own handwriting.1
Unlike the other large Ge-lug-pa monasteries, the headship of Gah-
ldan is not based on hereditary incarnation, and is not, therefore, a
child when appointed. He is chosen by a conclave from among the
most scholarly of the monks of Sera, De-pung, and this monastery. The
late abbot became ultimately regent of all Tibet. The number of in
mates here is reckoned at about 3,300.
De-pung ('bras-spuhs), the most powerful and populous of all the
monasteries in Tibet, founded in and named after the great Indian-
Tantrik monastery of " The rice-heap " (SrT-Dhanya Kataka) in
1 Abstract from Survey Reports, etc., by Rev. G. Sandberg.

DEPUNG AND SERA. 269
Kalihga and identified with the Kalacakra doctrine. It is situated
about three miles west of Lhasa, and it contains nominally 7, OOO1
monks. It is divided into four sections clustering round the great
cathedral, the resplendent golden roof of which is seen from afar. It
contains a small palace for the Dalai Lama at his annual visit. Many
Mongolians study here. In front stands a stupa, said to contain the body
of the fourth Grand Lama, Yon-tenn, who was of Mongolian nationality.
Its local genii are the Five nymphs of long Life (Ts'erin-ma), whose
images, accompanied by that of Hayagriva, guard the entrance. And
effigies of the sixteen Sthavira are placed outside the temple door. In
its neighbourhood is the monastery of N'a-Ch'uh, the residence of the
state sorcerer, with a conspicuous gilt dome.
Ser-ra, or " The Merciful Hail." 2 It is said to have been so named
out of rivalry to its neighbour, " The rice-heap " (De-pung), as hail is
destructive of rice, and the two monasteries have frequent feuds. In
connection with this legend there is also exhibited here a miraculous
" Phurbu," or thunderbolt sceptre of Jupiter Pluvius.
It is romantically situated about a mile and a half to the north of
Lhasa, on the lower slopes of a range of barren hills named Ta-ti-pu,
, famous for silver ore, and which surround the monastery like an
amphitheatre. Its monks number nominally 5,500, and have frequently engaged in
bloody feuds against their more powerful rivals of De-pung. The Indian
surveyor reported only on the idols of the temple. He says : " They
differ in size and hideousness, some having horns, but the lower parts
of the figures are generally those of men." Hue gives a fuller descrip
tion : " The temples and houses of Sera stand on a slope of the moun
tain-spur, planted with hollies and cypresses. At a distance these
buildings, ranged in the form of an amphitheatre, one above the other,
and standing out upon the green base of the hill, present an attractive
and picturesque sight. Here and there, in the breaks of the mountain
above this religious city, you see a great number of cells inhabited by
contemplative Lamas, which you can reach only with difficulty. The
monastery of Sera is remarkable for three large temples of several
storeys in height, all the rooms of which are gilded throughout.
Thence the name from ser, the Tibetan for ' gold.' In the chief of
these three temples is preserved the famous tortche, which, having
flown through the air from India, is the model from which all others,
large and portable, are copied. The tortche of Sera is the object of great
veneration, and is sometimes carried in procession to Lhasa to receive
the adoration of the people." This " dorje," or rather "phurbu," is
what is called a Tam-din-phurbu, and is said to have originally be
longed to an Indian sage named Grub-thob mdah-'phyar. It was
found on the hill in the neighbourhood named P'urba-Ch'og, having
flown from India. In the 12th month of every year (about the 27th

1 Lama U.G., loc. cit, p. 34, says 10,000.
2 This word is usually spelt ser, and seems never to be spelt gSer, or "gold."

270 MONASTERIES.

day) it is taken out of its casket and carried in state to Potala, where
the Dalai Lama puts it to his head. It is thereafter carried by a high
official of Sera monastery to the Chinese Amban, the governors (Shape)
and the regent, all of whom touch their heads with it. Afterwards
thousands throng to Sera to receive its holy touch on their heads as a
defence against all evil and spells.
In the great assembly hall is a huge image of Avalokita with eleven
heads. Tashi-lhunpo (bkra-s'is Lhun-po), or the " Heap of Glory," the
headquarters of the Paai-ch'en Grand Lama, who to some extent shares
with the Lhasa Grand Lama the headship of the church. Its general
appearance will be seen from the foregoing plate on page 260, from a
native drawing. The monastery forms quite a small town, and not
even Lamas other than established church can stay there over-night.
It is well known through the descriptions of Bogle, Turner, etc. It is
situated near the south bank of the Tsang-po, at the junction of the
Nying river, in 89° 7 ' E. long., 29° 4' 20" N. lat., and altitude, 11,800
feet (Markh., xxvii.). This celebrated establishment has been iong
known to European geographers as " Teeshoo Loombo."
Mr. Bogle describes it x as being built on the lower slope of a steep
hill (Dolmai Bi, or hill of the goddess Tara). The houses rise one over
another ; four churches with gilt ornaments are mixed with them, and
altogether it presents a princely appearance. Many of the courts are
flagged with stone, and with galleries running round them. The alleys,
which are likewise paved, are narrow. The palace is large, built of
dark-coloured bricks, with a copper-gilt roof. It is appropriated to the
Lama and his officers, to temples, granaries, warehouses, etc. The rest
of the town is entirely inhabited by priests, who are in number about
four thousand. Mr. Bogle also describes the interior of several of the
state rooms and temples. On the top of mount Dolmai Bi is a stone
cairn, where banners are always fluttering, and where, on high festivals,
huge bonfires are set ablaze. The lay capital of the province, Shigatse,
lies on the upper ridges to the N.E. of this hill, hardly a mile from
this, the ecclesiastical capital.
The lofty walls enclosing the monastic town are pierced by five gate
ways. Over the eastern gate has been placed, in large carved letters,
a prohibition against smoking within the monastic precincts. The
western gateway seems to be regarded as the main entrance. So, enter
ing the monastic premises there, you find yourself in a sort of town,
with lanes lined by lofty houses, open squares, and temples.
In the centre of the place is the grand cathedral or assembly hall.
Its entrance faces the east. Its roof is supported by one hundred
pillars, and the building accommodates two to three thousand monks
seated in nine rows on rugs placed side by side on the floor. The four
central pillars, called the Ka-ring, are higher than the rest, and support
a detached roof to form the side skylights through which those seated
in the upper gallery can witness the service. The rows of seats arranged

Mark., p. 96.

TASHI-LHUNPO.

271

to the right side of the entrance are occupied by the senior monks, such
as belong to the order of Bigch'en, Bharch'enpha, Torampa, Kah-c'an,
etc. The seats to the left side are taken up by the junior monks, such
as Ge-ts'ul and apprentice monks, etc., of the classes called Dura and
Bigding. The court around it is used by the monks for religious dances and
other outdoor ceremonies. Bound the space are reared the halls of the
college, four storeys in
height, provided with
upper-floor balconies.
North of these buildings
are set up in a line the
huge tombs of deceased
Pan-ch'en Lamas. The
body of each is em
balmed and placed with
in a gold-plated pyramid
raised on a taU marble
table, and this structure
stands within a stone
mausoleum, high and
decorated with gilt
kanjira and small
cylinder -shaped frnials
made of black felt. One
of these tombs is much
bigger than the rest. It
is that of Pan-ch'en Er-
teni, who died in 1779.
There are four con
ventual colleges at
tached to Tashi-lhun
po, all of which receive
students from everypart
of Tibet, who are in
structed in Tantrik rit
ual, and learn large
portions of that divi
sion of the scriptures.
The names of these
colleges are Shar-tse
Ta-ts'an, Nag-pa Ta-
ts'an, Toi-sam Lih, and
Kyil-k'ah Ta-ts'ah. Each of these institutions has an abbot, who is the
tul-wa, or avatar of some bygone saint ; and the four abbots have
much to do with the discovery of the infant successor to a deceased
Pan-ch'en, or head of the monastery. From these abbots, also, one

Tomb of Tashi Lama.1

i After Turner.

272 MONASTERIES.

is selected to act as the prime minister, or chief ecclesiastical adviser
in the government of Tsang. The most imposing building of. the
monastery is the temple and hall of the Nag-pa Ta-ts'ah, known as
the " Nagk'ah," which is the chief college for mystic ritual in Tibet.
Another college, the Toi-san-lih, stands at the extreme northern apex
of the walls, some way up the slope of the Dolmai- Bi hill.
Hard by the last-named premises, is to be observed a lofty building
of rubble-stone, reared to the amazing height of nine storeys. This
edifice, which forms a very remarkable object on the hill-side, was
sketched by Turner, who visited Tashi-lhunpo one hundred years ago,
and his drawing of it is here annexed on opposite page. It is called
Go-Ku-pea, or " The Stored Silken Pictures," as it is used to exhibit
at certain festivals the gigantic pictures of Maitreya and other Buddhist
deities, which are brought out and hung high up as great sheets out
side the walls of the tall building. By the vulgar it is styled Kiku
Tamsa. It is used as a storehouse for the dried carcases of sheep,
goats, and yak, which are kept in stock for feeding the inmates of the
monastery. A wide-walled yard fronts the Kiku Tamsa, and this space
is thronged by a motley crowd when (as is the custom in June and
November) the pictures are exhibited.
The number of monks generally in residence at Tashi-lhunpo is said
to be 3,800. The division into wards and clubs has already been re
ferred to.
The head of the whole monastic establishment resides in the building
called &La-brang, or "The Lama's palace."
Nam-gyal Ch'oi-de is the monastery-royal of the Grand Lama on the
red hill of Potala, where the Dalai Lama holds his court and takes part
in the service as a Bhikshu, or common monk.
Bamo-ch'e and Karma kya monasteries, within Lhasa, are, as already
noted, schools of sorcery, and the latter has a printing house.
" Desherip-gay " (elevation 12,220 feet), a monastery two miles from
the fort of Chamnam-ring in northern Tsang, is subordinate to Tashi-
lhunpo, where the Grand Tashi Lama was resident at Bogle's visit on
account of the smallpox plague at his headquarters. Bogle describes
it as " situated in a narrow valley, and at the foot of an abrupt and
rocky hill . . . two storeys high, and is surrounded on three
sides by rows of small apartments with a wooden gallery running round
them, which altogether form a small court flagged with stone. All the
stairs are broad ladders. The roofs are adorned with copper-gilt orna
ments, and on the front of the house are three round brass plates,
emblems of Om, Han (? Ah), Hoong. The Lama's apartment is at the
top. It is small, and hung round with different coloured silks, views
of Potala, Teshu Lumbo, etc." 1
Jan-lache, a large monastery on the upper Tsang-po, in long. 87°
38' E. ; elevation 13,580 feet. It is eighty-five miles above Tashi-
lhunpo.2

1 Markham, op. rit., d. 82. 2 Markham's Tib., p. xxvii.

TASHI-LHUNPO.

273

The "GS-Ku-pea" or " Kiku-Tamsa " Tower at Tashi-lhunpo.1

1 After Turner,

274 MONASTERIES.

Chamnamrin (Nam-lin), in the valley of the Shing river, a
northern affluent of the Tsang-po, 12,220 feet, seen and visited by Mr.
Bogle. Dorkya ltjgu-don, on the bank of the great Tengri-nor lake.
Ba-deng (Ba-sgren), north-east of Lhasa, a Ka-dam-pa monastery,
founded in 1055 by Brom-ton, Atisa's pupil.
Sa-kya (Sa-skya) " Tawny-soil," is about 50 miles north of Mount
Everest, 48 miles east from Shigatse, and 30 miles from Jang-lache ; E. long.
87° 54', lat. 28° 53'. This monastery gives its name to the Sakya sect,
which has played an important part in the history of Tibet. A consider
able town nestles at the foot of the monastery. The foundation of the
monastery and its future fame are related to have been foretold by the
Indian sage, Atisa, when on his way to central Tibet, he passed a rock,
on the present site of the monastery, on which he saw the mystie Om
inscribed in " self-sprung," characters. Afterwards this establishment
became famous as a seat of learning and for a time of the priest-king.
It is said to contain the largest single building in Tibet, — though the
cathedral at Lhasa is said to be larger. It is seven 1 storeys in height, and
has a spacious assembly hall known as " the White Hall of Worship."
It is still famous for its magnificent library, containing numerous unique
treasures of Sanskrit and Tibetan literature, unobtainable elsewhere.
Some of these have enormous pages embossed throughout in letters of
gold and silver. The monastery, though visited in 1872 by our ex
ploring Pandit No. 9, and in 1882 by Babu Sarat Candra Das, remains
undescribed at present. The Sakya Lama is held to be an incarna
tion of the Bodhisat Manjusri, and also to carry Karma, derivable
from Sakya Pandita and St. Padma.
The hall of the great temple, called 'P'rul-pahi Lha-k'ah, has four
enormous wooden pillars, Ka-wa-min ches zhi, of which the first pillar
is white, and called Kar-po-zum-lags, and is alleged to have come from
Kongbu ; the second yellow, Ser-po zum-lags, from Mochu valley ; the
third red, Marpo Tag dzag, from Nanam on Nepal frontier ; and the
fourth pillar black, Nak-po K'un-shes, from Ladak. These pillars
are said to have been erected by K'yed-'bum bsags, the ancestor of the
Sikhim king.
Ting-ge is a very large Ge-lug-pa monastery to the north of Sakya and
west of Tashi-lhunpo:
Phuntsholing (p'un-ts'ogs-glih) monastery, formerly named rTag-
6rten by Taranatha, who built it in his forty-first year, was forcibly-
made a Ge-lug-pa institution by the fifth grand Lama, Nag-wah.
It is situated on the Tsangpo, about a day's journey west of Tashi-
lhunpo, and one mile to the south-west of it is Jonang, which has a very
large temple said to be, like BudhGaya, aud, like it, of sever al][storeys
and covered -by images ; but both it and Phuntsholing are said to have
been deserted by monks and now are occupied by nuns.
Sam-ding (bsam-ldih ch'oinde). It lies in N. lat 28° 57' 15", and E.
1 De-pung and the larger monasteries in Tibet have several much smaller buildings
distributed so as to form a town.

SAM-DING AND DORJE-PAG-MO. 275
long., 90° 28'. Altitude, 14,512 feet. An important establishment, note
worthy as a monastery of monks as well as nuns, presided over by a
female abbot — the so-called re-incarnate goddess already referred to.1
This august woman is known throughout Tibet as Dorje-P'ag-mo, or
"the diamond sow"; the abbesses of Samding being held to be
successive appearances in mortal form of the Indian goddess, Vajra-
varahi. The present incarnation of this goddess is thirty-three years
old (in 1889) ; and is described as being a clever and capable woman,
with some claim to good looks, and of noble birth. She bears the name
of Nag-rZbah Bin-ch'en Kun-6zah-mo dbAh-mo, signifying " The most
precious power of speech, the female energy of all good "). Under this
lady the reputation which Samding has long enjoyed for the good morals
of both monks and nuns has been well maintained. Among other rules,
the inmates are forbidden to lend out money or other valuables on interest
to the rural folk, usurious dealings being commonly resorted to by the
monastic orders. It is said to be of the Nih-ma sect. The monastery
was founded by one Je-tsun T'inle Ts'oma, a flower of the philosophy
of Po-doh P'yog Legs Nam-gyal, whose writings, to the amazing extent
of one hundred and eighteen volumes, are treasured up in the monastic
library. Yamdok lake is remarkable for its scorpionoid shape, the grotesque
shaped semi-island anchored to the main shore by two necks of land.
Samding is itself placed on the main shore at the juncture of the
northern neck. Being built on a conical hill, it appears to be guarding
the sacred island from intrusion. The monastery stands like a fortress
on the summit of the barren hill some 300 feet above the level of the
surrounding country. Huge flags of stone are piled in ascending steps
up this hill, and a long low wall mounts beside them like a balustrade.
At the top of the steps, a narrow pathway conducts to the foot of the
monastery, which is circled by a high wall. Samding is finely
placed. To the N.E. it fronts the dark and precipitous mountain
spurs which radiate from the lofty central peak of the islands. To the
S.E. it looks over the land towards the illimitable waters of the weird
and mighty Yamdok herself. To the S. it frowns down on the Dumo
Ts'o, the inner lake betwixt the connecting necks of land above-
mentioned, into which are cast the bodies of the defunct nuns and
monks, as food for fishes.
On entering the gates of the monastery, you find yourself in an
extensive courtyard, flanked on three sides by the conventual buildings.
Part of the fourth side of the parallelogram is occupied by a kind of
grand-stand supported on pilasters of wood. Ladders with broad steps,
cased in brass, give admission to the first floor of the main building.
Here, in a long room, are ranged the tombs of celebrities connected in
past times with Samding, including that of the founder, T'inle Ts'omo.
The latter tomb is a richly ornamented piece of workmanship, plated
with gold and studded with jewels. At the base, on a stone slab is
marked the reputed footprint of the saint. In a private, strongly-
1 See page 245.

276 MONASTERIES.

barred chamber, hard by to which no one may be admitted, are laid the
dried mortal remains of all the former incarnations of Dorje P'ag-mo.
Here, in this melancholy apartment, will be one day placed the body of
the present lady abbess, after undergoing some embalming process. To
the grim charnel-house, it is considered the imperative duty of each
incarnate abbess to repair once, while living, to gaze her fill on her
predecessors, and to make formal obeisance to their mouldering forms.
She must enter once, but only once, during her lifetime.
Another hall in this monastery is the dus-k'an, the walls of which
are frescoes illustrative of the career of the original Dorje P'ag-mo.
There, also, have been put up inscriptions recording how the goddess
miraculously defended Samding, when, in the year 1716, it was beset
by a Mongol warrior, one Yung Gar. When the Mongol arrived in
the vicinity of Yamdok, hearing that the lady abbess had a pig's head
as an excrescence behind her ear, he mocked at her in public, sending
word to her to come to him, that he might see the pig's head for him
self. Dorje P'ag-mo returned no angry reply, only beseeching him
to abandon his designs on the monastery. Burning with wrath, the
warrior invaded the place and destroyed the walls ; but, entering, he
found the interior utterly deserted. He only observed eighty pigs and
eighty sows grunting in the du-khang under the lead of a bigger sow.
He was startled by this singular frustration of his project ; for he could
hardly plunder a place guarded only by hogs. When it was evident
that the Mongol was bent no longer on rapine, the pigs and sows were
suddenly transformed into venerable-looking monks and nuns, headed
by the most reverend Dorje P'ag-mo ; as a consequence, Yung Gar,
instead of plundering, enriched the place with costly presents.
A certain amount of association is permitted between the male and
female inmates of this convent, who together number less than 200.
Dorje P'ag-mo retains one side of the monastic premises as her private
residence. It is asserted by the inmates that the good woman never
suffers herself to sleep in a reclining attitude. During the day she may
doze in a chair, during the night she must sit, hour after hour, wrapt
in profound meditation. Occasionally this lady makes a royal progress
to Lhasa, where she is received with the deepest veneration. Up in
northern Tibet is another sanctuary dedicated to Dorje P'ag-mo. This
convent also stands on an islet situated off the west shore of the great
lake, 70 miles N.W. of Lhasa, the Nam Ts'o Ch'yidmo, and is much
akin to Samding, comprising a few monks and nuns under an abbess.
At Markula, in Lahul, is a third shrine of the goddess.1
Di-kung ('bri-guh) about one hundred miles N.E. of Lhasa, is one
of the largest Kar-gyu-pa monasteries. It is said to receive its name,
the "she- Yak," from the ridge on which it is situated, which is shaped
like the back of a yak. It was founded in 1166, by the son of the
Sakya Lama, Koncho Yal-po.

1 Abstract of Sarat's Report, by Rev. G. Sandberg.

MINDOLLING, DORJE-DAG, ETC. 277
Mindolling (smin grol-glih), close to the S. of Samye, a great Nih-ma
monastery, sharing with Dorje Dag, not far off, the honour of being
the supreme monastery of that sect. It lies across the Tsangpo from
Sam-yas in the valley of the Mindolling river, the water of which turns
numerous large prayer-wheels. Its chief temple is nine storeys high,
with twenty minor temples with many " beautiful images " and books.
A massive stone stairway forms the approach to the monastery.
Its chief Lama is a direct descendant of the revelation-finder
Dag-lih. The succession is by descent and not by re-incarnation.
One of his sons is made a Lama and vowed to celibacy, another
son marries and continues the descent, and in like manner the suc
cession proceeds, and has not yet been interrupted since its institu
tion seventeen generations ago ; but should the lay-brother die without
issue the Lama is expected to marry the widow. The married one is
called <jfDun-pa or " the lineage." The body of the deceased Lama is
salted and preserved. The discipline of this monastery is said to be
strict, and its monks are celibate. A large branch of this monastery
is Na-s'i,1 not far distant from its parent.
Dorje-dag, between Sam-yas and Lhasa, is a headquarters of the
Unreformed Lamas. It has had a chequered history, having been de
stroyed several times by the Mongols, etc. , and periodically restored.
Pal-ri (dpal-ri), a Nih-ma monastery between Shigatse and Gyangtse,
where lives the pretended incarnation of the Indian wizard, Ld-pbn
Huhkara. Shalu monastery, a few miles E. of Tashi-lhunpo. Here instruction
is given in magical incantations, and devotees are immured for years in
its cave-hermitages. Amongst the supernatural powers believed to be
so acquired is the alleged ability to sit on a heap of barley without dis
placing a grain ; but no credible evidence is extant of anyone display
ing such feats.
Guru ch'o-wajt, in Lhobrak, or southern Tibet, bordering on
Bhotan. This monastery is said by Lama U. G.2 to have been built
after the model of the famous monastery of Nalanda in Magadha.
The shrine is surrounded by groves of poplars, and contains some im
portant relics, amongst others a stuffed horse of great sanctity (belong
ing to the great Guru) which is called Jamlin-nin-k'or, or " the horse
that can go round the world in one day." 3 Observing that the horse
was bereft of his " left leg," U. G. enquired the cause, and was told
how the leg had been stolen by a Khamba pilgrim with a view of
" enchanting " the ponies of Kham. The thief became insane, and his
friends took him to the high priest of the sanctuary for advice, who
instantly divined that he had stolen some sacred thing. This so
frightened the thief that the leg was secretly restored, and the thief
and his friends vanished from the place and never were seen again.
1 U. G., loc. cit., p. 26.
2 Loc. cit, p. 23.
3 Compare with the sacred horse of Shintoism, etc.

278 MONASTERIES

The upper Lhobrak is well cultivated ; barley, pea, mustard, wheat,
and crops of rape were noticed by U. G., surrounding the monastery of
Lha Lung. With some difficulty he obtained permission to see the
sacred objects of the monastery, whose saintly founder, Lha Lung, has
three incarnations in Tibet. One of them is the present abbot of the
monastery, who was born in Bhotan, and is a nephew of the Paro
Penlo. The monastery is well endowed by the Tibetan government,
and rituals are encouraged in it for the suppression of evil spirits and
demons. Sang-kar Gu-t'ok, also in the Lhobrak valley, has one hundred
monks, and is a small printing establishment.1
Kar-ch'u, also in the Lhobrak valley, said 2 to be one of the richest
monasteries in Tibet, and to contain many bronzes brought from
Magadha in the Middle Ages. Pilgrims carry off from here the holy
water which percolates into a sacred cave.
Gyan-tse, on the Painom river, east of Tashi-lhunpo. Its monastery
is named Palk'or Ch'oide. Its hall is reported by Lama Ugyan Gya-ts'o
to be lit by 1,000 lamps. In lofty niches on the three sides, N.,
E., and W. (implying evidently that the entrance is on the S.), are
placed " three huge images of Buddha — Jam-yang, Chanrassig, and
Maitreya," copper-gilt. Here also he notes " stone images like those
at Buddha Gaya. In the lobby is a collection of stuffed animals,
including tigers."
The foregoing are all in the U and Tsang provinces. In Kham, in
eastern Tibet, are many large monasteries, the largest of which are
perhaps Derge and Ch'ab-mdo (Chiamo), with about 2,000 monks and
large printing press.
Derge (sDe-sge), at the town of that name, and capital of one of the
richest and most populous of Tibetan provinces, containing " many Lama-
serais of 200 or 300 monks, some indeed of 2,000 or 3,000. Each family
devotes a son to the priesthood. The king resides in a Lamaserai of
300 monks."3
Other large monasteries of eastern Tibet are Karthok and (?) Bi-
wochce on the Nul river, under the joint government of two incar
nate abbots.
In southern Tibet in the district of Pema Kbd (map-name Pema-
koi) are the monasteries of Dorje-yu (founded by Terton Dorje-thokmi),
Mar-pun Lek-puh (built by Ugyen Dich'en-lin-pa), Mendeldem,
Phu-pa-ron, Kon-dem, Bho-lun, C'am-nak, Kyon-sa, Narton, Binc'h-
ensun (built by Ugyen Dodulih-pa, the father of Dich'en-lih-pa), Tsen-
c'uk, Gya-pun, Gilin, and Demu, which are all Nih-ma, except Chamnak
and Demu, which are Ge-lug-pa, and all except the last are on the
west or right bank of the Tsangpo river, and the number of monks in
each is from ten to thirty. Amongst the chief shrines are Horasharki
Ch'orten, Mendeldem's shrine, and " Buddu Tsip'ak."

i Explorer R.N.'s account (S.R., 1889, p. 50). 2 Lama Ugyen Gya-ts'o, loc. cit., 25.
8 Baber, Suppl, Papers, R. Geog. Socy. ; see also Rockhill, L., 184, etc., 96.

IN CHINA.

279

in china.

In China proper there seem to be no truly Lamaist monasteries of
any size except at Pekin and near the western frontier. The Pekin
monastery is called " everlasting peace " (Yun-ho Kung), and is main
tained at the imperial expense.1 Its monks, over 1,000 in number, are
almost entirely Mongolian, but the head Lama, a re-incarnate abbot,
and his two chief assistants, are usually Tibetans of the De-pung, Sera,
and Gah-ldan monasteries, and appointed from Lhasa. The abbot,
who is considered an incarnation of Bol-pa-dorje, already figured,
lives within the yellow wall of the city, and near by is the great
printing-house, called " Sum-ju Si," where Lamaist books are printed
in Tibetan, Chinese, and 'Mongolian. In the chief temple " the

Monastery of U-tai-Shan.2
great wooden image of Buddha, seventy feet high, richly ornamented
and clothed, holding an enormous lotus in each hand, and with
the traditional jewel on his breast. In each section of his huge gold
crown sat a small Buddha, as perfect and as much ornamented as the
great one. His toe measured twenty-one inches. On each side of him
hung a huge scroll seventy-five feet long, bearing Chinese characters
and a series of galleries, reached by several flights of stairs, surrounded
him. The expression of his great bronze face was singularly lofty.
Near by were two magnificent bronze lions and a wonderful bronze urn ;
many temples filled with strange idols hung with thousands of silk
hangings, and laid with Tibetan carpets ; all sorts of bronze and

1 Edkin's Relig. in China, 65.

2 After Hue.

280

MONASTERIES

enamel altar utensils, presented by different emperors, among them
two elephants in cloisonne ware, said to be the best specimens of such
work in China, and the great hall, with its prayer-benches for all the
monks, where they worship every afternoon at five."
Another celebrated monastery is the Wu-tai or U-tai-shan, "The
five towers" in the north Chinese province of Shan-si, and a cele
brated shrine.
The great monastery of Kubum (Kumbum), in Sifau, lies near the
western frontiers of China. It is the birth-place of St. Tsoh-K'a-pa,
and has been visited and described by Hue, Bockhill, etc. Its photo-

Kumbum (T'a-erh-ssu).2
graph by Mr. Bockhill is here by his kind permission given. Its
Mongolian name is T'a-erh-ssu.3
Here is the celebrated tree, the so-called "white sandal" (Syringa
Villosa, Vahl), which the legend alleges to have sprung up miracu
lously from the placental blood shed at Tsoh-K'a-pa's birth. Its leaves
are said to bear 100,000 images, hence the etymology of the name of
the place (sKu-'bum). The. image markings on the leaves are said to
represent " the Tathagata of the Lion's Voice " (Sen-ge Na-ro), but Hue
describes the markings as sacred letters.4

1 Newspaper Acct. , 1890.
, After Rockhill.
3 Rockhill, /., 57- said to mean " the Great Tent (Tabernacle) '
4 Cf. also ibid., 58, etc.

IN MONGOLIA. 281

Hue's account of it is as follows : " At the foot of the mountain on
which the Lamaserai stands, and not far from the principal Buddhist
temple, is a great square enclosure, formed by brick walls. Upon
entering this we were able to examine at leisure the marvellous tree,
some of the branches of which had already manifested themselves above
the wall. Our eyes were first directed with earnest curiosity to the
leaves, and we were filled with absolute consternation of astonishment
at finding that, in point of fact, there were upon each of the leaves
well-formed Tibetan characters, all of a green colour, some darker,
some lighter, than the leaf itself. Our first impression was suspicion
of fraud on the part of the Lamas ; but, after a minute examination of
every detail, we could not discover the least deception, the characters
all appeared to us portions of the leaf itself, equally with its veins and
nerves, the position was not the same in all ; in one leaf they would be
at the top of the leaf ; in another, in the middle ; in a third, at the
base, or at the side ; the younger leaves represented the characters
only in a partial state of formation. The bark of the tree and its
branches, which resemble those of the plane-tree, are also covered with
these characters. When you remove a piece of old bark, the young
bark under it exhibits the indistinct outlines of characters in a
germinating state, and, what is very singular, these new characters are
not unfrequently different from those which they replace. We
examined everything with the closest attention, in order to detect some
trace of trickery, but we could discern nothing of the sort, and the
perspiration absolutely trickled down our faces under the influence of
the sensations which this most amazing spectacle created.
" More profound intellects than ours may, perhaps, be able to supply
a satisfactory explanation of the mysteries of this singular tree ; but,
as to us, we altogether give it up. Our readers possibly may smile at
our ignorance ; but we care not so that the sincerity and truth of our
statement be not suspected." 1
The large temple (Jo-wo-k'ah) is described by Bockhill.2

IN MONGOLIA.
In Mongolia the chief monastery is at Urgya-Kuren, on the Tula
river in the country of the Khalkas, about forty days' journey west of
Pekin, and the seat of a Eussian consul and two Chinese ambassadors.
It is the seat of the Grand Lama, who is believed to be the incarnate
historian, Lama Taranatha, and he is called- Je-tsun Tamba, as detailed in
the chapter on the hierarchy, and its monks are said to number over
14,000, and during the great new year festival over 20,000 are present.
It contains twenty-eight colleges (sGgra-ts'ah).
The monastery is named Kurun or Kuren, and is described by Hue.
The plain at the foot of the mountain is covered with tents for the use
of the pilgrims. Viewed from a distance, the white cells of the Lamas,
1 Hue, ii., p. 53. 2 Rockhill, L., 66.

282 MONASTERIES

built on the decfivity in horizontal lines one above the other, resemble
the steps of an enormous altar, of which the temple of Taranatha
Lama appears to constitute " the tabernacle." Hue says it contains
30,000 monks !
Kuku Khotun, or " blue city," near the northern bend of the Yellow
river, is said by Hue to have formerly been the seat of Jetsun-Dam-pa.
It contains five monasteries with about 20,000 Lamas.
IN SIBERIA.
In south Siberia, amongst the Buriats, near the Baikal lake, a large
monastery is on a lake thirty versts to the north-west of Selinginsk,
and the presiding monk is called the K'an-po Pandita, and claims to be
a re-incarnate Lama.1 IN EUROPE.
The Kalmak Tartars on the Volga have only temporary, nomadic
cloisters and temples, that is to say tents, in which they put up their
holy pictures and images, and celebrate divine service. Such temporary
cloisters are called " Churull," and consist of two different sorts of tents
or Jurten (Oergo), the assembly hall of the clergy (Churulliin-Oergb)
and of the gods and image hall (Schitani or Burchanun- Oergo). Some
of these Churulls contain a hundred priests.
IN LADAK AND LITTLE TIBET.
He-mi (or " Himis " of survey map). This fine old monastery is
situated about 11,000 feet above the sea-level, in a lateral ravine that
joins the Indus, a day's journey (eighteen miles SSE.) above Leh, on
the left bank of that river. From its secluded position this was one of
the few monasteries which escaped destruction on the invasion of the
country by the Dogras under Wazir Gerawar, who ruthlessly destroyed
much Lamaist property, so that more interesting and curious objects,
books, dresses, masks, etc., are found at Himis than in any other
monastery in Ladak. It was built by sTag-stan-ras-ch'en, and its
proper title is Ch'an-ch'ub sam-lin.
The " Himis-fair," with its mask plays, as held on St. Padma-sam
bhava's day in summer, is the chief attraction to sight-seers in Ladak.
This Lamasery is at present still the greatest landowner in Ladak, and
its steward one of the most influential persons in the country. The
Lainas seem to be of the Nih-ma sect (according to Marx 2 they are
Dug-pa, but he appears to use Dug-pa as synonymous with Red cap
sect). To the same sect also belongs Ts'en-re and sTag-na. A fine
photograph of this monastery is given by Mr. Knight,3 and one of its
courts is shown iu his illustration of the mystic play reproduced at p. 528
" The principal entrance to the monastery is through a massive door,
from which runs a gently sloping and paved covered way leading into a
1 Koppen, op. cit. 2 Loc. cit, 133. » Where Three Empires Meet

IN LADAK. 283

courtyard about 30 x 40 yards square, having on the left hand a narrow
verandah, in the centre of which stands the large prayer-cylinder
above mentioned. The larger picturesque doorway, the entrance of one
of the principal idol rooms, is in the extreme right hand corner, massive
brass rings affixed to large bosses of brass are affixed on either door, the
posts of which are of carved and coloured woodwork. The walls of the
main building, with its bay windows of lattice work, enclose the court
yard along the right hand side, the roof is adorned with curious cylin
drical pendant devices made of cloth called " Thook " ; each surmounted
with, the Trisool or trident, painted black and red. On the side facing
the main entrance the courtyard is open, leading away to the doorways
of other idol rooms. In the centre space stand two high poles " Tur-
poche," from which hang yaks' tails and white cotton streamers printed
in the Tibetan character. Innumerable small prayer-wheels are fitted
into a hitch that runs round the sides of the courtyard. A few large
trees throw their shade on the building, and above them tower the
rugged cliffs of the little valley, topped here and there by Lhatos, small
square-built altars, surmounted by bundles of brushwood and wild sheep
horns, the thin sticks of the brushwood being covered with offerings of
coloured flags printed with some mantra or other.1
Lama-Yur-bu, elevation about 11,000 feet.2 Said to be of the Di
kung sect, as also the monasteries of .sGah-noh and Shan.
The name Yur-ru is said to be a corruption of Yun-druh — the
Svastika or mystic fly-foot cross.
Tho-ling or Tho'lding (mt'o-glih), on the upper Sutlej (in map of
Turkistan it is Totlingmat, " mat " = " the lower," i.e. lower part of the
city). It has a celebrated temple in three storeys, said by some to be
modelled after that of Budha Gaya, and the Sham-bha-la Lam-yig con
tains a reference to this temple : " It had been built (a.d. 954, Schl.)by
the Lo-tsa-wa Bin-zah-po. The Hor (Turks?) burnt it down, but at
some later date it was rebuilt, and now, in its lowest compartment, it
contains the ' cycle of the collection of secrets.' " Adolph von
Schlagintweit visited it.3
Theg-Ch'og is a sister-Lamasery to He-mi, north of the Indus, in a
valley which opens out opposite He-mi. Che-de, vulg. Chem-re (survey
map : Chim-ray) is the name of the village to which the Lamasery
belongs. Kor-dzogs in Ladak, 16,000 feet above the sea (J.D., 11). Tik-za
(Thik-se) is said (Marx) to be a Ge-Zdan (?Ge-lug-pa) monastery, as also
those of Sah-kar (a suburb of Leh), Likir and Bi-dzoh. It is pictured
by Mr. Knight.3
Wam-le (or " Han-le ") in Bukshu, a fine Lamasery figured by
Cunningham. It is about 14,000 feet above sea-level. Its proper
name is De-ch'en, and it was built by the founder of the one at Hemi.
Masho is affiliated to Sa-skya.
1 Godwin-Austen, loc. cit., p. 72. 2 Marx, loc. cit. ; Cunningham, et. al.
3 See Results of Scientific Mission.

284 MONASTERIES

Spi-t'ug, Pe-tub, or " Pittuk " (sPe-t'ub), a Lamasery and village on
the river Indus, five miles south-west of Leh. The Lamas belong to
the " Ge-ldan-pa " order of Lamas. The Lamasery has an incarnated
Lama. Sher-gal, figured by Knight, loc. cit., p. 127.
Kilang (Kye-lah) in British Lahul, romantically situated near
glaciers, at an elevation of about 12,000 feet.
Gu-ge, where several translations were made over 800 years ago, and
still of repute for printing and for its elegant manuscripts.
Kanum, in Kunaor or Kanawar, where Csoma studied. Also Dub-lih,
Poyi, and Pahgi. IN NEPAL.
In Nepal there appear to be no Lamaist monasteries of any size,
at least in the lower valleys. At the principal Buddhist shrines in
that country a few resident Lamas are to be found.

IN BHOTAN
In Bhotan the largest monasteries are Tashi-ch'o-dsong and Pun-t'ah
or ? " Punakha" (spun-t'ah bde-ch'en), each, it is usually said, with over
1,000 monks, though according to other accounts, under 500.
Tashi-ch'o-dson (bKra-shis ch'os rdsoh), or "The fortress of the
glorious religion," forms the capital of Bhotan and the residence, at
least in summer, of the Grand Lama of Bhotan — the Dharma Eaja and
Deb Baja. It has been visited and described by Manning, Bogle,
Turner,1 Pemberton,2 etc.
The other chief monasteries in Bhotan, all of the Duk-pa sect, the
established church of the country, are : dbU-rgyan rtse, Ba-kro
(Pato or Paro) 'Bah, rTa-mch'og rgan, Kra-ha-li, Sam-'jin, K'a Ch'ags-
rgan-K'a, Ch'al-p'ug. Of these the first three were formerly Kart'og-pa.
In British Bhotan there are a few small monasteries, at Kalimpong,
Pedong, etc. in sikhim.
In regard to Sikhim, as my information is complete, I give it in
detail in tabular form on opposite page.
In addition to the monasteries in this list are several religious build
ings called by the people gompas, but by the Lamas only " temples "
(Lha-k'ah), such as De-thah, Ke-dum, etc.
The oldest monastery in Sikhim is Dub-de, founded by the pioneer
Lama, Lhatsiin Ch'embo. Soon afterwards shrines seem to have been
erected at Tashiding, Pemiongchi, and Sang-ha-ch'o-ling over spots conse
crated to the Guru, and these ultimately became the nuclei of monas-

1 Bogle and Turner in 1774 and 1783. Markham, op. cit.
2 In 1837-38. Op. cit.

IN SIKHIM.

285

teries. As the last-named one is open to members of all classes of
Sikhimites, Bhotiyas, Lepchas, Limbus, and also females and even
deformed persons, it is said that the monastery of Pemiongchi was

List of Monasteries in Sikhim.

<M t'tj
o a

o
SJ8

"c3'1

Map Name.

Vernacular Name.

Meaning of the Name.

Hffl

•° 9
as
Zi

Sanga Chelling

gsaii nags ch'os
glin
sgrub-sde

The place of secret spells . . .

1697

Dubdi

The hermit's cell

1701

Pemiongchi . . .

pad-ma yantse
btsan-mk'ar ...

T he sublime perfect lotus . . .

1705

108

Gantok

The Tsen's house

1716

Tashiding

bkra-s'is-ld n

The elevated central glory

1716

Senan

gzil-grnon

The suppressor of intense

fear
1716
8
7
Rinchinpong . . .
rin-ch'en spuns
The precious knoll
1730
8
8
Ralong
ra-blan
1730
80
9
Mali
mad-lis
...
1740
15
10
Ram thek
Ram-tek
A Lepcha village name . . .
1740
80
11
Fadung
p'o-branbtsun-t'an
The chapel royal
1740
100
12
Cheungtong ...
The meadow of marriage
(of the two rivers)
178S
8
13
Ketsuperri
mk'a spyod
The noble heaven-reach
dpal ri
ing mountain
11
14
Lachung
t'an-mA-ch'en...
The large plain
1788
5
15
Talung
rdo-lun
The stony valley
1789
90
16
Entchi
rab-brten-glin
The high strong place
The excellent banner, or
1840
15
17
Phensung
p'an-bzan
good bliss
1840
100
18
Kartok
bKah-rtog
The Kartok (founder of a
.^
schism)
1840
20
19
Dalling
rdo-glin
" The stony site," or the
place of the " Dorjel-
ing " revelation-finder ...
1840
8
20
Yangong
gyan sgan
" The cliffy ridge," or "the
lucky ridge "
1841
10
21
Labrong
bla-bran
The Lama's dwelling
1844
30
22
Lachung
pon-po sgan . . .
Ihun-rtse
The Bon's ridge
1850
8
23
Lintse
The lofty summit
1850
15
24
Sinik
zi-mig
1850
30
25
Ringim
ri-dgon
Hermitage hill
1852
30
26
Lingthem
lin-t'am
A Lepcha village name . . .
1855
20
27
Changhe
rtsag-nesLa-cn'en
28
Lachen
The big pass
1858
"8
29
Giatong
zi-'dur
1860
8
30
Lingqui
lin-bkod
The uplifted limb
1860
20
31
Fadung
'p'ags rgyal ...
The sublime victor
1862
8
32
NoblineNamchi
nub-glin .
The western place
1875
5
33
rnam-rtse
The sky -top
1836
6
34
Pabia
spa-'bi-'og sindtam
1875
20
35
Singtam
A Lepcha village name . . .
1884
6
286

MONASTERIES.

designed, if not actually built, by Lha-tsiin as a high-class monastery
for orthodox celibate monks of relatively pure Tibetan race. Pemiong
chi still retains this reputation for the professedly celibate character
and good family of its monks ; and its monks alone in Sikhim enjoy
the title of ta-san or " pure monk," and to its Lama is reserved the
honour of anointing with holy water the reigning sovereign.
The great majority of the monasteries in Sikhim belong to the Lha-
tsiin-pa sub-sect of the Jfih-ma, only Namchi, Tashiding, Sinbn, and
T'ah-moch'e belong to the Na-dak-pa sub-sect, and Kar-tok and Doling
to the Kar-tok-pa sub-sect of the same. All the Nih-ma monasteries are
practically subordinate to that of Pemiongchi, which also exercises
supervision over the Lepcha convents of Ling-t'am, Zimik, and P'ag-
gye. Lepchas are admissible to Eigbn as well as Sang-ha-ch'bling.
Nuns are admitted to a few monasteries in Sikhim, but their
number is extremely small, and individually they are illiterate.
The names of the monasteries, as will be seen from the transla
tions given in the second column of the table, are mostly Tibetan,
and of an ideal or mystic nature ; but some are physically de
scriptive of the site, and a few are Lepcha place-names, which are
also of a descriptive character.

A Lamaist Cairn.
Lab-ch'a, afterHuc.

sgr.

Lhasa and its Cathedral.
(From a native drawing.)

[To face p. 287.

XII.
TEMPLES AND CATHEDEALS.
j N primitive Buddhism the temple had, of course, no place.;
It is the outcome of the theistic development with its
relic-worship and idolatry, and dates from the later
and impurer stage of Buddhism. The Lamaist temple
is called " God's house " (Lha-k'ah).
It is usually the central and most conspicuous building in the
monastery, and isolated from the other buildings, as seen in the
foregoing illustrations. The roof is surmounted by one or two
small bell-shaped domes of gilt copper1 ; if a pair, they are
placed one on either end of the ridge, and called jircl 2 ; if a solitary
one in the middle of the ridge, it is called " the banner." 3 They
are emblematic of the royal umbrella and banner of victory. At
the corners of the roof are erected cloth cylinders called gebi.i The
building is often two storeys in height, with an outside stair on
one flank, generally the right, leading to the upper flat. In front is
an upper wooden balcony, the beams of which are rudely carved, also
the doors. The orientation of the door has already been noted.
In approaching the temple-door the visitor must proceed with
his right hand to the wall, in conformity with the respectful
custom of pradakshina widely found amongst primitive people.6
In niches along the base of the building, about three feet above
the level of the path, are sometimes inserted rows of prayer-barrels
i See pp. 271 and 273.
2 Spelt "knjira," (?) from the Skt., kanca, golden.
3 rgyal-mts'an.
* Gebi — cylindrical erections from three feet high and about a foot wide to a greater
size, covered by coiled ropes of black yak-hair and bearing a few white bands trans
verse and vertical, and when surmounted by a trident are called Cab-dar.
5 The Romans in circumambulating temples kept them to their right. The Druids
observed the contrary. To walk around in the lucky way was called Deasil by the
Gaels, and the contrary or unlucky way withershins or widdersinnis by the lowland
Scotch. See Jamieson's Scottish Diet. ; R. A. Armstrong's Gaelic Diet., p. 184 ; Crooke's
Tntrod. ; Rockhill. L., p. 67*

288

TEMPLES AND CATHEDRALS.

which are turned by the visitor sweeping his hand over them as
he proceeds.
The main door is approached by a short flight of steps ; on as
cending which, the entrance is found at times screened by a large
curtain of yak-hair hung
from the upper balcony,
and which serves to keep
out rain and snow from the
frescoes in the vestibule.
Entering the vestibule,
we find its gateway
guarded by several fear
ful figures.1 These usually
are —
1. The tutelary demon
of the ground, usually a
red devil (Tsan) a brawny-
limbed creature of elabor
ate ugliness, clad in skins,
and armed with various
weapons, and differing in
name according to the
locality.2 2. Especially vicious de
mons or dii minor es of a
more or less local char
acter. Thus, at Pemi
ongchi is the Gyal-po
S'uk-dAn with a brown
face and seated on a white
elephant. He was form
erly the learned Lama Sod-nams Grags-pa, who being falsely
charged with licentious living and deposed, his spirit on his death
took this actively malignant form and wreaks his wrath on all who
do uot worship him — inflicting disease and accident.3
1 Compare with description of Chinese Budd. temples by Eitel, Lects. on Buddhism.
2 Thus the local devil of Ging temple near Darjiling is called " The Entirely Victorious
Soaring Religion" (Ch'os-ldih rnam-rgyal).
3 Compare with the malignant ghosts of Brahmans in India. Cf. Tawney's Eatha
Sarit Sdgara, ii., 338, 511 *

Temple-door Demon.

THE VESTIBULE.

289

3. A pair of hideous imps, one on either side, of a red and bluish-
black colour, named S'em-ba Marnak,1 who butcher their victims.

Guardian King of the West.
(Virupalisha.)
4. Here also are sometimes portrayed the twelve Tan-ma— the
aerial fiendesses of Tibet, already figured, who sow disease and who
were subjugated by St. Badma.
Confronting the visitor in the vestibule are the four colossal

1 vKi-kan.

290 TEMPLES AND CATHEDRALS.
images (or frescoes) of the celestial kings of the Quarters, who
guard the universe and the heavens against the attacks of the
Titans and the outer demons, as described at page 84. They are
clad in full armour and are mostly of defiant mien, as seen in their
figures over the page and at pages 83 and 330. Two are placed
on each side of the doorway.
Sometimes the guardian of the north is given a yellow, and the
guardian of the south a green, complexion, thus suiting the com
plexion of the guardians to the mythic colours of the cardinal
points. They are worshipped by the populace, who credit them
with the power of conferring good luck and averting the calamities
due to evil spirits. And in the vestibule or verandah are also
sometimes displayed as frescoes the Wheel of Life and scenes
from the Jatakas or former births of Buddha ; and here also
may be figured the sixteen great saints or Sthavira (Arhans or
"Eahans").1 In the smaller temples which possess no detached chapels for
larger prayer-barrels, one or more huge prayer-barrels are set at
either end of the vestibule, and mechanically revolved by lay-
devotees, each revolution being announced by a lever striking a
bell. As the bells are of different tones and are struck alternately,
they form at times a not unpleasant chime.
The door is of massive proportions, sometimes rudely carved
and ornamented with brazen bosses. It opens in halves, giving
entry directly to the temple.
Such grand cathedrals as those of Lhasa will be described
presently. Meanwhile let us look at a typical temple of ordinary
size. The temple interior is divided by colonnades into a nave and
aisles, and the nave is terminated by the altar — generally as in the
diagram-plan here annexed. The whole of the interior, in which
ever direction the eye turns, is a mass of rich colour, the walls to
right and left being decorated by frescoes of deities, saints, and
demons, mostly of life-size, but in no regular order ; and the
I warns are mostly painted red, picked out with lotus rosettes and

1 For their descriptions and titles see p. 376. Amongst the common scenes also re
presented here are " The Harmonious Four " (mt'un-pa mam b'zi), a happy family,
consisting of an elephant, monkey, rabbit, and parrot ; and the long-lived sage (mi-
ts'e-rih) with his deer, comparable to the Japanese (?) Ju-ro, one of the seven genii of
Good Luck, and the long-lived hermit, Se-nin.

THE INTERIOR.

291

other emblems. The brightest of colours are used, but the general
effect is softened in the deep gloom of the temple, which is dimly
lit only by the entrance door.
Above the altar are placed three colossal gilt images in a sitting
attitude, "The Three Barest Ones," as the Lamas call their trinity;
though none of the images are considered individually to represent

Diagrammatic Ground-plan of a Temple in Sikhim.

1. Fresco of local demon.
2. Fresco of Ki-kang Mar-nak devils.
3. Fresco of guardian kings of quarters.
4. Prayer-barrels,
5. Station of orderlies.
6. Table for tea and soup.
7. Seat of the provost.
8. Seat of the water-giver.
the two other members of the Tri-ratna, or "Three Gems,"
The particular images of this triad
u 2

9. Seats of monks
10, Seat of abbot or professor.
11. Seat of choir-leader.
12. Seat of king or visitant head Lama.
13. Site where lay-figure of corpse is laid for
litany.
14. Head Lamas' tables.
15. Idols.

namely Dharma or Sangha.

292 TEMPLES AND CATHEDRALS.
depend on the sect to which the temple belongs ; Sdkya Muni is
often given the central position and a saint (Tson K'a-pa or Badma-
sambhava) to the left of the spectator and Avalokita to the right,
Barticulars and figures of the principal of these idols are given
in the chapter on images.
Sakya Muni is figured of a yellow colour with curly blue hair,
and often attended by standing figures of his two chief disciples,
Maugdalayana on his left and Sariputra on his right, each with an
alarm-staff and begging-bowl in hand. In the temples of the
unreformed sects, St. Badma-sambhava and his two wives are
given special prominence, and many of these images are regarded
as " self-sprung : "
"No hammers fell, no ponderous axes rung ;
Like some tall palm the mystic fabric sprung."1
But even this order of the images is seldom observed. Most
frequently in the Ge-lug-pa temples Tson K'a-pa is given the
chief place, while in Nih-ma it is given to the Guru, and this is
justified by the statement put into his mouth that he was a second
Buddha sent by Sakya Muni specially to Tibet and Sikhim, as
Buddha himself had no leisure to go there. Sometimes Sakya's
image is absent, in which case the third image is usually the
fanciful Buddha of Infinite Light, Amitabha, or Amitayus, the
Infinite Life. In many sectarian temples the chief place is
given to the founder of the particular sect or sub-sect.
Banged on either side of this triad are the other large images
of the temple. Though in the larger fanes the more demoniacal
images, especially the fiendish " lords '' and protectors of Lamaism,
are relegated to a separate building, where they are worshipped
with bloody sacrifices and oblations of wine and other demoniacal
rites inadmissible in the more orthodox Buddhist building. Some
of such idol-rooms are chambers of horrors, and represent some of
the tortures supposed to be employed in hell.
The alleged existence of images of Gorakhnath in Tashiding,
Tumlong, and other Sikhim temples 2 is quite a mistake. No such
image is known. The name evidently intended was " Guru
Binbo-ch'e."

1 Heber's Palestine.
2 Campbell, J.A.S.B., 1849; Hooker, Him. Jours., i., 323; ii., p. 195; SirR. Temple,
Jour., p. 212; Sir M. Williams, Buddhism, p. 490.

THE INTERIOR. 293

The large images are generally of gilded clay, and in Sikhim the
most artistic of these come from Ba-to or " Baro" in Bhotan. A
few are of gilded copper and mostly made by Newaris in Nepal.
All are consecrated by the introduction of pellets of paper inscribed
with sacred texts as detailed in the chapter on the pantheon.
Amongst the frescoes on the walls are displayed numerous
Lamaist saints and the pictorial Wheel of Life, though this last is
often in the vestibule.
There are also a few oil-paintings of divinities framed, like
Japanese Kakemonos, in silk of grotesque dragon-patterns with a
border, arranged from within outward s, in " the primary " colours
in their prismatic order of red, yellow, and blue. Some of these
pictures are occasionally creditable specimens of art.
The seats for the several grades of officials and the Lamaist
congregation are arranged in definite order. The general plan of
a small temple interior is shown in the foregoing diagram. Along
each side of the nave is a long low cushion about three inches high,
the seat for the monks and novices. At the further end of the
right-hand cushion on a throne about 2\ feet high sits the abbot
or professor (Dorje Ld-pon),1 the spiritual head of the monastery.
Immediately below him, on a cushion about one foot high, is his
assistant, who plays the si-nen cymbals. Facing the professor, and
seated on a similar throne at the further end of the left-hand
cushion, is the l/m-dse2 or chief chorister or celebrant, the
temporal head of the monastery; and below him, on a cushion
about one foot high, is the deputy chorister, who plays the large
ts'ogs-rol or assembly-cymbals at the command of the Um-dse,
and officiates in the absence of the latter. At the door-end of the
cushion on the right-hand side is a seat about one foot high for the
provost-marshal, who enforces discipline, and on the pillar behind
his seat hangs his bamboo rod for corporal chastisement. During
the entry and exit of the congregation he stands by the right side
of the door. Facing him at the end of the left-hand cushion, but
merely seated on a mat, is the water-man.
To the left of the door is a table, on which is set the tea and
soup which is to be served out, by the unpassed boy-candidates,
during the intervals of worship.

1 rdo-rje slob-dpon. . " dbU-mdsad.

5 4 3 2 1

294 TEMPLES AND CATHEDRALS.
THE LAMAS' TABLES.
To the right front of the altar stands the chief Lama's table,1
about two-and-a-half feet in length, and one foot in height, and
often elaborately carved and painted with lotuses and other sacred
symbols, as figured at page 215. Behind it a cushion is placed,
upon which is spread a yellow or blue woollen rug, or a piece of a
tiger or leopard, skin rug, as a seat. The table of the abbot or
professor contains the following articles in the order and position
shown in this diagram : — The other two monks who are
allowed tables in the temple are
the chief chorister or celebrant
and the provost-marshal. The
chief chorister's table faces that
, -mt ¦ ¦ te ¦ t °f fne abbot, and contains only a
1. Magic rice-ottering ot universe. . ' J
2. Saucer with loose rice (Ch'en-du holy water vase, bell, dorje and
or ne-sel) for throwing in sacrifice. the large cymbals. The table of
4 Bdf1 hand"dmm' the provost stands in front of
5. Dor/e-sceptre. the seat of that officer, near the
6. Vase for holy-water. door, and contains an incense-
goblet (sang-bur), a bell anddorje.
At the spot marked "13" on the plan is placed the lay-figure
of the corpse whose spirit is to be withdrawn by the abbot. At
the point marked " 12" is set, in all the larger temples in Sikhim,
the throne of the king, or of the re-incarnated Lama — the "pro
tecting lord"2 — when either of them visits the temple.
On each pillar of the colonnade is hung a small silk banner with
five flaps,3 and others of the same shape, but differently named,4
are hung from the roof, and on each side of the altar is a large
one of circular form.5

THE ALTAR AND ITS OBJECTS.
The altar6 occupies the upper end of the nave of the temple ;
and on its centre is placed, as already mentioned, the chief image.

1 mdum-lc'og. 2 Kyab-mgon. 3 Ka-'p'an.
1 Ba-dan. 5 p'ye-p'ur. , 6 mch'od s'am.

THE ALTAR.

295

Above the altar is suspended a large silken parasol,1 the

K-V '.

*4 1 "tfewl

L I

Altar (domestic) of a JTin-ma Lama.
oriental symbol of royalty, which slightly revolves in one or

Umbrella-Canopy.
other direction by the ascending currents of the warm air from

dug.

296

TEMPLES AND CATHEDRALS.

the lamps. And over all is stretched a canopy, called the
" sky " 1 on which are depicted the thunder dragons of the sky.
The altar should have at least two tiers. On the lower and
narrow outer ledge are placed the offerings of water, rice, cakes,
flowers and lamps. On the higher platform extending up to the
images are placed the
m usicalinstrumentsand
certain other utensils
for worship, which will
be enumerated pre
sently. In front of the altar,
or sometimes upon the
altar itself, stands the
temple-lamp,2 a short
pedestalled bowl, into
a socket in the centre
of which is thrust a
cotton wick, and it is
fed by melted butter.
As the great mass of
butter solidifies and re
mains mostly in this
state, the lamp is prac
tically a candle. The
size varies according to
the means and the
number of the temple
votaries, as it is an act
of piety to add butter
to this lamp. One is

Magic-Offering of The Universe.
The T&ice-Mandaui.

necessary, but two or
more are desirable, and
on special occasions 108 or 1,000 small lamps are' offered upon
the altar. Sometimes a cluster of several lamps form a small
candelabrum of the branching lotus-flower pattern.

i nam-yul ; but its more honorific title is bla-bras.
2 mch'od-sHbn.

THE OFFERINGS.

297

Below the altar stand the spouted water-jug1 for filling the
smaller water-vessels, a dish to hold grain for offerings,2 an incense-
holder, and a pair of flower-vases. And on the right (of the
spectator) on a small stool or table is the magic rice-offering,
with its three tiers, daily made up by the temple attendant, and

The Five Sensuous Offerings.

symbolic of an offering of all the continents and associated islands
of the world.
The ordinary water and rice-offerings are set in shallow brazen
bowls,3 composed of a brittle alloy of brass, silver, gold and
pounded precious stones. Their number is five or seven, usually
the former. Two out of the five or seven bowls should be filled with
rice heaped up into a small cone ; but as this must be daily re
newed by fresh rice, which in Tibet is
somewhat expensive, fresh water is
usually employed instead.
Another food-offering is a high,
conical cake of dough, butter and
sugar, variously coloured, named tormd
or z'al-z4, that is, "holy food." It
is placed on a metal tray supported by
a tripod. To save expense a painted
dummy cake is often substituted.
Upon the top of the altar are also sUEI)fjkl,.
usually placed the following objects,
though several of them are special to the more demoniacal worship : —
1. A miniature funereal monument.4

1 ch'ab-bum. 2 nas bzed. 3 mch'od tin.
1 ch'orten. In the room in which worship is done there must be present these three
essential objects : sku-</sum (Skt., Trikdyd) (a) an image, (b) a ch'orten, and (c) a
holy book, which are symbolic of " the Three Holy Ones." In the early Indian caves
this triad seems to have been represented by (p) a Caitya for Buddha, and a Wheel for
Dharma.

298 TEMPLES AND CATHEDRALS.
2. One or more sacred books on each side of the altar.
3. The Lamaist sceptre or Dorje, typical of the thunderbolt of Indra
(Jupiter), and a bell. The dorje is the counterpart of the bell, and
when applied to the shoulder of the latter should be of exactly the
same length as the bell-handle.
4. The holy-water vase l and a metal mirror hanging from its
spout. The holy-water of the vase is tinged with safiron, and -is

Some Altar Objects.
f Lamp (inverted), caitya, holy-water jug.
sprinkled by means of a long stopper-rod, which is surmounted by a
fan of peacock's feathers and the holy kusa grass. Another form is
surmounted by a chaplet, etc., as its frontispiece.
5. The divining-arrow bound with five coloured silks called dddar 2
for demoniacal worship.
6. A large metal mirror ' to reflect the image of the spirits.
7. Two pairs of cymbals. The pair used in the worship of Buddha
and the higher divinities are called si-nen,4 and are of about twelve or
more inches in diameter, with very small central bosses. They are held
vertically when in use, one above the other, and are manipulated gently.
The pair of cymbals used in the worship of the inferior deities and
demons are called rol-mo, and are of shorter diameter with very much
broader bosses. They are held horizontally in the hands and forcibly
clanged with great clamour. Chinese gongs also are used.
8. Conch-shell trumpet (tuns), often mounted with bronze or silver,
so as to prolong the valves of the shell and deepen its note — used with
the sl-nen cymbals.

i k'rus-bum. See fig. Rock., I,., 10B. 2 ?«dah-dar. 3 me-long.
* sil-smyan. * dun.

DEVILS' ALTAR.

299

Devils' Altar.

300 TEMPLES AND CATHEDRALS.
9. Bair of copper flageolets.1
10. Bair of long telescopic copper horns in three pieces,2 and often
six feet long (see illustration on page 17).
11. Bair of human thigh-bone trumpets.3 These are sometimes
encased in brass with a wide copper flanged extremity, on which are
figured the three eyes and nose of a demon, the oval open extremity
being the demon's mouth. In the preparation of these thigh-bone trum
pets the bones of criminals or those who have died by violence are pre
ferred, and an elaborate incantation is done, part of which consists
in the Lama eating a portion of the skin of the bone, otherwise its blast
would not be sufficiently powerful to summon the demons.
12. Bair of tiger thigh-bone trumpets.4 These are not always
present, and the last three instruments are only for the worship of
the inferior gods and demons.
13. Drums (ch'os rna) : —
(a) A small rattle hand-drum or na-ch'un 5 or damaru, like a large
double egg-cup. Between its two faces are attached a pair
of pendant leather knobs and a long-beaded flap as a handle.
When the drum is held by the upper part of the cloth handle
and jerked alternately to right and left the knobs strike the
faces of the drum. It is used daily to mark the pauses be
tween different forms of worship.
(b) The big drum,called ch'o-na," or religious drum. These are of
two kinds, one of which is suspended in a frame and beat only
occasionally and in Buddha's worship. The other is carried
in the hand by means of a stem thrbst through its curved
border. These are beaten by drum-sticks with straight or
curved handles.
(c) The human skull-drum made of skull-caps, and of the same
style as the smaller drum (a) above described.
14. Libation jugs, figured on page 225.
THE CATHEDRAL OF LHASA.
The greatest of all the temples of Lamadom is the great cathe
dral of Lhasa, the St. Beter's of Lamaism, the sketch of which,
here given, was drawn for me by a Lama artist, who visited Lhasa
with this object, and who deliberately sketched the sacred city and
its great temple from the hillock about half a mile to the south
of the city. And with the description of it7 we will close our
account of temples.
This colossal temple, called " The Lord's House " (Jo-wo K'au),
* ?'gye-#lin. " raji-duh. » rkan-grlin.
4 stag dun. r' rha-ch'uh. 6 ch'os-rna.
7 Summarized from the accounts of Hue, etc., and from Koppen, ii., 334.

LHASA CATHEDRAL. 301

stands in the centre of the city of Lhasa, to which it gives its
name, " God's place ; 1 and it is also considered the centre of the
whole land. All the main roads, which cut through Tibet, run out
of it and meet again in it. But it is also the centre of the united
Lamaist church, as it is the first and oldest Buddhist temple of
Tibet, the true metropolitan cathedral of Lamaism. Founded in
the seventh century, on commencing the conversion of the gloomy
snowland, by king Sron Tsan Gampo, for the preservation of
those wondrous images brought to him by his two wives, as before
mentioned, it has, no doubt, in the course of a millennium, received
many additions and enlargements, and in the seventeenth century
it was restored and rebuilt.
Its entrance faces the east, and before it, in a square, stands a
flagstaff, about forty feet high with yak's hair, and horns of yak
and sheep, tied to its base. The main building is three storeys high,
and roofed by golden plates.2 The entrance is in the shape of
a hall, which rests on six wooden pillars, very handsomely deco
rated with engravings, paintings, and gilding. The walls are
covered with rough pictures out of the biography of the founder
of the religion. In the centre of the hall is a swing door, which
is decorated on the outside with bronze, and on the inside with
iron reliefs.
Through this you pass into the ante-court, which is covered by
the first storey. In the wall, opposite the entrance, is a second
door, which brings you inside, on both sides of which stands the
colossal statues of the four great guardian kings ; two on the
right and two on the left side. This brings us into a large pillared
hall, which has the form of the basilica, and is divided by colon
nades into three long and two cross-aisles. The light comes from
above in the middle or broadest aisle, where a transparent oilcloth
serves instead of glass. Through this the whole temple is lighted,
because there are no side windows. On the outside of the two

i The name Lhasa is properly restricted to the great temple. Sron Tsan Gampo
appears to have been the founder of the city now generally known to Europeans as
Lhasa. It is recorded that he exchanged the wild Yarlung valley, which had been
the home of his ancestors, for the more central position to the north of the Tsangpo,
a village named Rasa, which, on account of the temple he erected, was altered to
Lha-sa, or " God's place." An old form of the name is said to be friga-Zdan.
2 These plates are said to be of solid gold, and gifted by the son of the princeling
Ananmal, about the end of the twelfth century a.d.

302

TEMPLES AND CATHEDRALS.

side aisles, i.e., on the north and south side, as the entrance is
towards the east, is a row of small cells or chapels, fourteen to the
right and just as many to the left. The two cross-aisles form the
background, and are separated from the long aisle by silver lattice
work. Here are the seats of the lower priests for common prayer-

Ground-plan of Lhasa Cathedral.1
meetings. From the west cross-aisle a staircase leads into the
holy of holies. On the left of this we see, by ascending behind
silver rods, fifteen plates of massive silver, which are covered with
innumerable precious stones, and contain representations of the
Buddhist dogmatics and mysticism. We see there, for instance,
the Buddhist system of the world, the circle of the metempsychosis

1 After Giorgi. I have not reproduced the references as they are not sufficiently
concise.

LHASA CATHEDRAL. 303
with its different states. From the stairs above we come into a
cross-aisle, which has just as many pillars as the two lower ones,
and is also the inner front hall of the sanctuary. The latter has
the form of a square, in which are six chapels, three on each of
the north and south flanks. In the middle is the place for the
offering altar, which, however, is only erected on certain occasions.
On the other side of the altar, on the west side of the holy of
holies, also in the lowest depth of the whole edifice, is the quad
rangular niche, with the image of Sakya Muni. Before the entrance
in this, to the left, is raised the throne of Dalai Lama, very high,
richly decorated, and covered with the customary five pillows of
the Grand Lamas. Beside this stands the almost similar one of
the Tashi Grand Lama ; then follow those in rotation of the
regenerated Lamas The abbots, and the whole non-incarnate
higher priesthood have their seats in the cross-aisle of the sanc
tuary. Opposite the throne of Dalai Lama, on the right from
the entrance of the niche, is the chair of the king of the Law,
not quite so high as those of the regenerate Grand Lamas, but
higher than those of the others. Behind him are the seats of the
four ministers, which are not so high as those of the common
Lamas. On the west side of the niche stands the high altar, which is
several steps high. Upon the top of the higher ones we see small
statues of gods and saints made of massive gold and silver ; upon
the lower ones, as usual on Buddhist altars, lamps, incensories,
sacrifices, and so on ; upon the highest, behind a silver gilt screen,
the gigantic richly-gilded image of Buddha Sakya Muni, wreathed
with jewelled necklaces as native offerings. This image is named
" The gem of majesty " ( Jo-vo Bin-po-ch'e), and represents Buddha
as a young prince in the sixteenth year of his age. It, according
to the opinion of the believers, was made in Magadha during
Buddha's lifetime, and afterwards gifted by the Magadha king to
the Chinese emperor in return for assistance rendered against
the Yavan invaders ; and given by the Chinese emperor to his
daughter on her marriage with the king of Tibet, in the seventh
century A.D. Flowers are daily showered upon it. Beside this
one— the highest object of reverence — the temple has also in
numerable other idols ; for instance, in a special room, the
images of the goddess Sri Devi (Bal-ldan Lha-mo). There is

304 TEMPLES AND CATHEDRALS.
also a celebrated image of the Great Bitying Lord — Avalokita —
named "the self-created pentad . " 1 Also images of historical persons
who have made themselves worthy of the church ; amongst whom
one sees there the aforesaid pious king and his two wives, all three
of whom are canonized ; also his ambassador, who was sent by him
to India to fetch from there the holy books and pictures.2
In this large and oldest temple are lodged great numbers of
other precious things and holy relics, consecrated presents, gold
and silver vessels, which are openly exhibited at the beginning of
the third Chinese month.
Bound about these stand many wooden or copper prayer-
machines. The surrounding wings of the building contain the
state-treasures, the magazines, in which are stored everything
necessary for divine service, the monks' cells, the lecture-rooms ;
in the higher storeys also the residences of the highest state officers,
and special rooms for the Dalai Lama. The whole is surrounded
with a wall, at which are several Buddhist towers, which, as in
the case of the large temple, are covered with gilded plates. No
women are allowed to remain within the walls during the night,
a prohibition which extends to many Lamaist cloisters.

1 ran byun fea-Wan. So called because it is reputed to have formed itself by emana
tions from : Thug-je ch'enpo (Avalokita), T'ul -ku-geyloh — the artist, Sroh Tsan Gampo,
his Chinese wife, and his Newari wife. And the location of each of these in the
image is pointed out. 2 Koppen says an image of Hiuen Tsiang is also there.

Benedictory Clay Seal of Grand Tashi Lama,
given to Pilgrims.
(Full size.)

Lama-Pope blessing Pilgrims.1

XIII.

SHBINES, BELICS, AND BILGBIMS.
JILGEIMAGES are most popular in Tibet. The country
contains an infinite number of sacred sites, reputed
re-incarnated or supernatural Lamas, self-created
images, relics of the Buddhas, holy footprints, sancti
fied trees, etc., to which the pious throng with gifts of gold and
other precious offerings ; while many extend their pilgrimages to
places outside Tibet, to China, Bhotan, Sikhim, Nepal, Kashmir,
Turkestan, and India, to places hallowed by St. Badma-sam-
bhava, or by Buddha himself.
The most holy of all sites, according to the Lamas, in common
with all Buddhists — like Mecca to the Muhammadans — is the
Tree of Wisdom at Buddh-Gaya, in India, with its temple known to
Tibetans as Gandhola,2 where Sakya Muni attained his Buddha-
1 After Giorgi.
z dri-gtsah-k'ah, or "The Untainted (pure) House." It was built in seven days by
the high-priest " Virtue " (dge-ba). See also Taranatha, 16, 4, etc. At the Bodhi-
manda (byah-ch'ub-sfiih-po) is the diamond-throne (vajrasana, Tib., Dorje-dan),
so called on account of its stability, indestructibility, and capacity of resisting all
worldly shocks. X

306

SHRINES, RELICS, AND PILGRIMS.

hood, and which is believed to be the hub of the world. After
this come the site of Buddha's death, Kusinagara ; and the eight
great Caityas which enshrined his bodily relics ; the mythical
mount Botala1 in the south; the mythical Shambhala in the
north ; the Guru's Fairy-land 2 in Udyana in the west ; and
" The three hills," or U-tai Shan, in northern China, the original
seat of the God of Wisdom, Manjusri ; and Lhasa, the St. Beter's
of the Lamas, and the seat of Buddha's vice-regent upon earth.
The Indian shrines are seldom visited by Lamas and Tibetans
on account of the great distance and expense. I have listened
several times to the prayers of Lamas and Tibetan laity at the
great Buddh-Gaya temple, which, strange to say, is still held by un
sympathetic Hindu priests who prey upon the Buddhist pilgrims.
These prayers were divided
between petitions for temporal
prosperity and for " the great
ultimate perfection," or Nir
vana. They make offerings to
the Tree of Wisdom, but their
oblations do not take the form
of watering it with eau de
Cologne and gilding it, as do
some of the Burmese.
At the shrines under Bud
dhist management, the pil
grims carry off, as relics,
printed charms and fragments
of the robes of re-incarnated
Lamas and other holy men,
leaves of sacred trees, etc.,
which are carefully treasured
as amulets and fetishes. And
these objects and holy water
^work most miraculous cures in
a manner which is not un-

Pilgkim Lamas.

known even in Christian Europe.3

1 ri-bo gru-'dsin. '' mk'a-'gro glih.
3 Those Europeans who sneer at the " pagan " superstitions of the East may find

INDIAN SHRINES. 307

The fullest Tibetan account of Indian shrines is found in the
book named Jambu-glin spyi bs'ad, a compilation containing a
very confused abstract of Hiuen Tsiang's celebrated treatise.1
In regard to the site of Buddha's death, the Lamas have placed
it in Asam.
In conversations some years ago with Lamas and lay Buddhists
at Darjiling, I was surprised to hear that Asam contained a most
holy place of Buddhist pilgrimage called " Tsam-ch'6-4un,"2 which,
it was alleged, next to the great temple at Buddh-Gaya, was the
most holy spot a Buddhist could visit. Asam is usually regarded
as being far beyond the limits of the Buddhist Holy Land, and
the Chinese pilgrims, FaHian and Hiuen Tsiang in the fifth and
seventh centuries of our era, to whom we are mainly indebted for
our knowledge of ancient Buddhist geography, not only do not
mention any holy site in Asam, but Hiuen Tsiang, who visited
Gauhati at the invitation of the king of Kamrup, positively notes
the absence of Buddhist buildings in Asam.3
I therefore felt curious to learn further particulars of this
important site in Asam, which had apparently been overlooked
by geographers.
amongst themselves equally grotesque beliefs. For example, the Holy Coat of Trices,
and one of the most recent miracles, the Lady of Lourdes. Lourdes, as a miracle place,
dates from 1858, when a little girl had a vision of " a beautiful and radiant lady."
Eighteen times the glorious apparition was seen by the girl ; then it was seen no more.
Twenty thousand persons by that time had gathered to the rendezvous. On one of the
last occasions the girl, as if obeying a sign from her visitant, went to a corner of the
grotto where the appearances occurred, and scratched in the dry earth. The gaping
crowd saw water rise and the girl drink. Then a little streamlet made its way to the
river. In a short time the spring gave 120,000 litres a day. And the wonders of
miraculous healing effected by this water are the theme of the learned and the
ignorant alike. In 1872 the number of pilgrims amounted to 140,000, and this
year the same number appeared at the health-giving spring. Over 12,000 brought
1,100 sick. They had come from Paris and the north in seventeen pilgrimage
trains, and this year (1894), according to the newspapers, two train-loads steamed
out of London for the same convent. There is a band of trained attendants, who
do good service, and the sick are dipped by experts and cared for. As the patient
is immersed, some of the assistants, with arms uplifted, pray with him. Some
of the sick quietly undergo the dip, as if resigned to whatever may befall them.
Others beat the water in agony, and clutch at hands near, but all pray — these last
with loud cries of despair to heaven: " Cure us, Holy Virgin. Holy Virgin, you
must cure us." There is great ecclesiastical ceremonial, elevation of the host, priests
with lighted tapers, and high dignitaries be-robed and be-mitred. " The cures " are
duly certified — they are as marvellous as any by a well-advertised specific.
1 For a translation of a smaller one see my article in Proc. A.S.B., Feb., 1893.
2 rTsa-mch'og-groh. See J.A.S.B., lxi., pp. 33 seq.
3 Si-yu-ki, trans, by Beal, ii., p. 196.
x 2

308 SHRINES, RELICS, AND PILGRIMS.
In Jaschke's Tibetan dictionary 1 I found the name " rTsa-
mch'og-groh" defined as a "town in west Asam where Buddha
died," and this statement, it is noted, is given on the authority of
the " Gyalrabs," a vernacular history of Tibet. Csoma de Koros
also notes 2 that "the death of Shakya, as generally stated in the
Tibetan books, happened in Asam near the city of Kusa or Cama-
rupa (Kamrup). "
Here, then, was a clue to the mystery. Buddha's death, it is
well known, occurred between two sal trees near Kusinagara or
Kusanagara, in the north-west provinces of India, thirty-five
miles east of Gorakhpur, and about one hundred and twenty miles
N.N.E. of Benares ; and the site has been fully identified by Sir
A. Cunningham 3 and others from the very full descriptions given
by Hiuen Tsiang and FaHian. The name Kusanagara means
" the town of Kusa grass " ; i and as the early Lama missionaries
in their translation of the Buddhist scriptures habitually trans
lated all the Sanskrit and Bali names literally into Tibetan, Ku
sanagara was rendered in the "Kah-'gyur" canon as "rTsa-mch'og-
gron," from " /tsa-mch'og," kusa grass, " grong," a town ( = Sskt.,
nagara). Now, near the north bank of the Brahmaputra, almost opposite
Gauhati, the ancient capital of Kamrup, is, I find, an old village
named Sdl-Kusa, and it lies on the road between Gauhati and
Dewangiri, one of the most frequented passes into Bhotan and
Tibet. With their extremely scanty knowledge of Indian geo
graphy, the Lamas evidently concluded that this " town of Sdl-
Kusa " was the " town of Kusa," where Buddha entered into
Nirvana between the two sal trees — seeing that the word sal was
also incorporated with the equivalent of " Tsam-ch'6-duh," and that
in the neighbourhood was the holy hill of Hajo, where, as will be
seen hereafter, there probably existed at that time some Buddhist
remains.

1 p. 437.
2 Asiatic Researches, xx., p. 295.
3 Arch. Sure. India Repts., i., 76 ; xvii., 55, etc.
* Kusa grass (Poa cynosuroides), the sacrificial grass of the Hindus, is also prized by
the Buddhists on account of its having formed the cushion on which the Boddhisattva
sat under the Bodhi tree. It is also used as a broom in Lamaic temples and as
an altar decoration associated with peacock's feathers in the pumpa or holy water
vase.

SITE OF BUDDHA'S DEATH. 309
No description of this Buddhist site seems to be on record,
except a very brief note by Col. Dalton 1 on the modern Hindu
temple of Hajo, which shrines a Buddhist image. So as I have had
an opportunity of visiting the site, and enjoyed the rare advantage
of being conducted over it by a Lama of eastern Tibet who chanced
to be on the spot, and who had previously visited the site several
times, and possessed the traditional stories regarding it, I give
the following brief description of it in illustration of how the
Lamas, originally misled by an identity of name, have subse
quently clothed the neighbourhood with a legendary dress in
keeping with the story of Buddha's death, and how this place,
with its various associated holy spots, is now implicitly believed
by the pilgrims to be tbe real site of Buddha's pari-nirvdna.
And in this belief, undeterred by the intemperate heat of the
plains, Buddhist pilgrims from all parts of Bhotan, Tibet, and
even from Ladak and south-western China visit these spots and
carry off scrapings of the rocks and the soil in the neighbourhood,
treasuring up this precious dust in amulets, and for placing beside
their dead body, as saving from dire calamities during life, and
from transmigration into lower animals hereafter. Authentic
specimens of this dust, I was informed, commanded in Tibet
high prices from the more wealthy residents, who had personally
been unable to undertake the pilgrimage.
The Hajo hill, or rather group of hills, where is situated, according
to the current tradition of the Lamas, the spot where Buddha " was de
livered from pain," lies to the north (right) bank of the Brahmaputra
about nine miles north-west from Gauhati (Kamrup), north latitude 26°
11' 18" and east long. 91° 47' 26", and four or five miles north of Sdl-
Kusa. The hill rises directly from the plain, forming a strikingly bold
and picturesque mass ; and it is a testimony to its natural beauty to
find that the hill has attracted the veneration of people of all religious
denominations. The semi-aboriginal Mech and Koch worship it as a
deity under the name of Hajo, which means in their vernacular " the
hill." The Buddhists formerly occupied one of the hillocks, but are
now displaced by the Brahmans, who restored the temple, which is now
one of the most frequented Hindu temples in Asam. The Muham-
inadans also have crowned the summit of the highest peak with a
mosque. The cluster of hills presents a very symmetrical appearance as seen
from a distance, forming a bold swelling mass culminating in three

1 J.A.S.B., 1855, Ixxi., p. 8,

310 SHRINES, RELICS, AND PILGRIMS.
trident-like peaks, the central one of which is pre-eminent, and is re
garded by the Buddhists as emblematic of Buddha. The high peaks
on either side of this are identified with Buddha's two chief disciples,
Sariputra and Maudgalyayana. This triad of peaks is seen from a
great distance, and it is only on near approach that the smaller hillocks
are observed. These latter number about sixteen, and are called N'e-
ten c'u-du, or " the sixteen disciples " of Buddha.
The most holy site, according to the Buddhists, is a bare flattish
shoulder of rock, about eight yards in diameter, situated at the north
west base of the hill. This is stated to be the Sil-wa ts'al-yi tur-do, or
" the pyre of the cool grove," where Buddha died, and where his body
was cremated. The rock here bears several roughly-cut inscriptions in
Tibetan characters of the mystic sentences, " Om mani padme hum,"
" Om ah hum," " Om," etc., and coloured rags torn from the vestments
of the pilgrims are tied to the bushes in the neighbourhood. The
Hindus have carved here on the rock a figure of the four-armed Vishnu,
which the Brahman priests call Dhubi, or " the washerwoman of the
gods," and the rock they call "Letai dhupinir pat."
It is worthy of note that the Lamas, for the benefit of the resident
population of Tibet, have made copies of this spot in at least four places
in Tibet, viz., at : —
1. Ra-rgyab, in the south-east outskirts of Lhasa city.
2. P'a-pon Far, in the north suburbs of Lhasa.
3. P'ur-mo c'he, about twelve miles to the north-east of Tashi-lhun
po. 4. Sel-brag.
These sites were consecrated by placing on them a piece of rock
brought from this Asam site, now under report ; but the latter spot
bears the distinctive prefix of Gyd-gar, or Indian, implying that it is
the original and genuine site.
A high cliff, close to the west of this spot, is called " the vulture's
mound hill," as in Tibet vultures usually frequent the neighbourhood
of the tur-do cemeteries, and in belief that it is the Gridha Kuta Giri
hermitage of Buddha.1
A short distance beyond this spot, in the jungle, is a roughly-hewn
stone basin, about six feet in diameter, called by the Lamas San-gyama
ko-ko, or the pot in which the S in-je — the death-demons — boil the heads
of the damned. The Brahmans, on the other hand, assert that it is the
bowl in which Siva or Adi-purusha brewed his potion of lust-exciting
Indian hemp, and they point to its green (confervoid) watery con
tents in proof of this. They also state that a snake inhabits the
depths of the bowl; but it was certainly absent at the time of my
visit. Advancing along the pathway, leading up-hill, we pass a few colum
nar masses of rock lying near the path, which are pointed to as frag
ments of Buddha's staff with which he unearthed this monster bowl.

bya-rgyod p'uh poi ri.

SITE OF BUDDHA'S DEATH. 311

Climbing up the hill we reach the temple of Kedaranath, which is
approached by a very steep roughly-paved causeway. At the entrance
is a long inscription in granite " in old Bengali characters, those being
the characters adopted by the Asamese. Adjoining this temple is the
shrine of Kamalesvar or " the lord of the Lotus." Here is a tank
called by the Lamas " Tso mani bhadra," or " the lake of the notable
gem " ; and they state that many water-sprites (Naga, serpents or
dragons) came out of this pond on the approach of Buddha and pre
sented him with jewels. A small cell by the side of this pond is said
to be the place where Buddha set down a mass of butter which had
been brought to him as a gift, and the stone linga and yoni (phallus
and its counterpart), now shrinediihere by the Hindus, are pointed to as
being this petrified butter.
Crowning the summit of the hill is a large masjid bufit by Lutfullah,
a native of Shiraz, in the reign of the emperor Shah Jahan, in 1656
a.d., with a Bersian inscription.1
A detached conical hillock, about 300 feet above the plain, lying
about half-a-mile to the north-east of the hill, and now crowned by the
Hindu temple of Madhava, is identified with " the great caitya "
which was erected over the cremated relics of the Tathagatha's body.
The present shrine of the temple seems to be the original shrine of
an older Buddhist temple, which, according to both Buddhist and
Asamese tradition, formerly existed here — the upper portion only is
modern. Col. Dalton has described the general details of this building,
and he states : " The Brahmans call the object of worship Madhab, the
Buddhists call it Mahamuni, the great sage. It is in fact simply a
colossal image of Buddha in stone. Its modern votaries have, to con
ceal mutilation, given it a pair of silver goggle-eyes and a hooked gilt
silvered nose and the form is concealed from view by cloths and chap-
lets of flowers ; but remove these and there is no doubt of the image
having been intended for the ' ruler of all, the propitious, the asylum
of clemency, the all- wise, the lotus-eyed comprehensive Buddha.' "
This large image of Buddha is called by the more learned Lama-visi
tors Munir Muni Mahamuni, i.e., "The Sage of Sages, The Great Sage."
It is the original image of the shrine, and is stated by the Brahmanic
priests, who call it Madhab, to be of divine origin and an actual embodi
ment or avatar of the god, in contradistinction to the other images
which are called mere "murtis" or hand-fashioned copies of typical
forms of the respective gods represented. This may merely mean that
the Brahmans found this image here, while the others were brought
from the neighbourhood or elsewhere. What seems to be the history
of the mutilation of this image is found in the account of the invasion
of the Koch kingdom of lower Asam by the Musalmans under Mir
Jumlah in 1661 a.d. This chief issued " directions to destroy all the
idolatrous temples and to erect mosques in their stead To
evince his zeal for religion, the general himself, with a battle-axe, broke
the celebrated image of Narain, the principal object of worship of the
i See J.A.S.B., lxi., p. 37.

312 SHRINES, RELICS, AND PILGRIMS.
Hindus of that province." 1 Narayana is one of the names of Madhab
and a patronymic of the Koch raja's ; and Hajo was a seat of the Koch
rajas. And it was at Hajo that Mir Jumlah took the Koch king
prisoner.2 The other images, not mentioned by Dalton, but which must have
existed at the time of his visit, are also of stone and are placed on
either side of the large image. They are four in number and are of
considerable size. According to the Lama-pilgrims they are all Buddhist
images ; but the crypt was so dimly lit, and the images so enveloped in
clothes and wreaths of flowers that I could not distinguish their specific
characters, with the exception of the head and peculiar trident of the
first, and the head of the second, which were characteristic and justified
their recognized names, viz. : —
No. 1. — Ugyan Guru to the left of Mahamuni.
No. 2. — Dorje Dol'6 to the right of Mahamuni.
No. 3: — Sakya Thuba to the right of No. 2.
No. 4. — " Sencha" Muni to the right of No. 3.
Although Hindu priests, as a rule, are not very methodical in their
bestowal of names upon the images which they have appropriated from
Buddhist ruins, still I here give the Brahmanical names as reported by
the attendant priests, as, this being a wealthy temple, the priests were
more learned than usual, and the names should give some idea of the
nature of the images. After stating that the Buddhist pilgrims gave
the above noted names to the images, these priests said that the Brah
manical names were as follows, which, it will be noticed, are Bengali.
I give them in the order of the previous list : —
No. 1. Dwitiya Madhaver murti.
No. 2. Lai Kanaiya Bankat Viharer murti.
No. 3. Basu Dever murti.
No. 4. Hayagriver murti.
In the vestibule are lotus ornamentations and several articles of the
usual paraphernalia of a Buddhist temple, including the following :
A pyramidal framework or wheeless car like the Tibetan Ch'an-ga
chutuk, with lion figures at the corners of each tier, such as is used to
seat the image of a demon which is to be carried beyond the precincts
of the temple and there thrown away. The present frame is used by
the priests of this temple to parade in the open air one of the smaller
images of the shrine (1 Hayagriver), but the image is again returned to
the shrine. Above this throne is stretched a canopy containing the
figure of an eight-petalled lotus flower, and has, as is customary, a
dependant red fringe. On either side is hung a huge closed umbrella.
These articles have been in the temple from time immemorial.
Of the external decoration of the temple, the row of sculptured
elephants along the basement, evidently a portion of the old Buddhist
temple, has been figured by Col. Dalton in the paper above referred to ;
1 Stewart's History of Bengal, p. 289.
- Beveridge, Gal. Review, July, 1890, p. 12.

ASAM SHRINE. 313

and is identical with the decorative style of the Kailas cave temple of
Ellora figured by Fergusson in Flate xv. of his Cave Temples. The
upper walls are covered with sculptured figures nearly life-size. The
ten avatdras of Vishnu are represented with Buddha as the ninth.
The remaining figures are of a rather nondescript character, but they
are mostly male, and nearly every figure carries a trident (trisula) — the
khatam of the Buddhists. The Lamas state that these "figures were for
merly inside the temple, but that Buddha ejected them. And it is
stated that the temple was built in one night by Visvakarma, the
Vulcan of the Hindus and Buddhists.
Attached to the temple is a colony of Natl, or dancing girls,1 who
are supported out of the funds of the temple, and who on the numerous
feast days dance naked in a room adjoining the shrine. These orgies
are part of the Sakti worship so peculiar to Kamrup, but nowhere
is it so grossly conducted as at this temple.2 The Natl and the idol-car
are also conspicuous at the degenerate Buddhist temple of Jagannath
at Buri.
At the eastern base of the hillock, on which this temple stands, is a
fine large tank, called by the Lamas " the lake of excellent water."3
This pond, it is said, was made by Buddha with one prod of his staff,
when searching for the huge bowl already described which he unearthed
here. This pond is also said to be tenanted by fearful monsters.
I have been unable to ascertain positively whether any Buddhist
building existed here previous to the Lamas fixing on the site as the
Kusanagara of Buddha's death. Certainly no monastery existed here at
the time of Hiuen Tsiang's visit to the Kamrup (Gauhati) court in the
seventh century a.d., for he says of this country that "the people have
no faith in Buddha, hence from the time when Buddha appeared in the
world even down to the present time there never as yet has been built
one Sangharama as a place for the priests to assemble." The refer
ence which Taranath4 makes to the great stupa of Kusanagara as being
situated here, in Kamrup, was taken from report, and thus would
merely show that the present Lama-tradition was current during his
time. Any chaitya or other Buddhist building would seem to have
been subsequent to the seventh century ; and in all probability marked
a site visited by the great founder of Lamaism, St. Padma-sambhava,
or one of his disciples. The different accounts of this saint's wander
ings vary considerably, but he is generally credited with having
traversed most of the country between lower Asam and Tibet. And
in this view it is to be noted that the Bhotan Lamas call the chief

1 "Asam, or at least- the north-east of Bengal (i.e., Kamrup), seems to have been in
a great degree the source from which the Tantrica and Sakta corruptions of the
religion of the Vedas and Puranas proceeded" (H. H. Wilson, Preface to Vishnu
Purdna). 2 They have their counterpart in the Up65ov\oi of the Greek Strabo : viii., 6, p. 20.
3 Yon-ch'ab-mts'o.
4 Vassiliev's Le Bouddisme, trad, du Eusse par M. G. A. Comme, p. 44.

314 SHRINES, RELICS, AND PILGRIMS.
image of this shrine Namo Guru or " the teacher/' one of the epithets
of St. Padma-sambhava. And the images on either side of it are also
forms of that saint.
The form of Buddhism here represented is of the highly Tantrik and
demoniacal kind, propagated by Padma-sambhava and now existing
in the adjoining country of Bhotan. Even this mild form of the image
of Ogydn Guru has decapitated human heads strung on to his trident.
The second image is of a more demoniacal kind. The third image is, of
course, Sakya Muni. The fourth image, from its Brahmanical name,
is Tam-din (Skt., Hayagriva), one of the fiercest forms of demons and
an especial protector of Lamaism. The trident is everywhere con
spicuous in the hands of the sculptured figures on the walls, and Shakti
rites are more pronounced here than in any other place in northern
India.1 It is also remarkable to find that the high-priest of the? Hajo
temple, in common with the other high-priests in Kamrup, is called
Dalai, — a title which is usually stated to have been conferred on the
fifth Grand Lama of Lhasa by a Mongolian emperor in the seventeenth
century a.d. ; though the Tibetan equivalent of this title, viz., Gyam-ts'6,
or " ocean," is known to have been used by Grand Lamas previously. As,
however, the word is Mongolian, it is curious to find it naturalized here
and spontaneously used by Brahmans. It seems also to be the title of
village-headman in the adjoining Garo hills. The dalai of this temple
is a married man, but the office is not hereditary. He is elected by the
local priests from amongst their number, and holds office till death.
He resides at the foot of the hill, below the temple, in a large house,
the exterior of which is profusely decorated with the skulls of wild
buffalo, wild pig, deer, and other big game, etc., like the house of an
Indo-Chinese chieftain.
" There does not seem to be in Tibet," says Mr. Fergusson,2 " a
single relic-shrine remarkable either for sanctity or size, nor does
relic-worship seem to be expressed either in their architecture or
their religious forms," and he supports this by saying that as their
deity is considered to be still living, no relics are needed to recall
his presence.
Certainly no immense mounds of the colossal proportions com
mon in Indian Buddhism, and in Burma and Ceylon, appear to
exist in Tibet, but smaller stupas are of very common occurrence ;
and the tombs of the departed Grand Lamas at Tashi-lhunpo, etc.,
are special objects of worship.
It is said that Tibet possesses several large stupas as large as

1 Dancing girls appear to figure to some extent in certain Lamaist ceremonies in
Bhotan, vide Turner's Embassy to Tibet, p. 32.
2 Hist, of Ind. and Eastern Architecture, p. 311.

NEPAL SHRINES. 315

the Maguta stupa of Nepal. This latter is one of the celebrated
places of Lamaist pilgrimage outside Tibet. It is called the
Jal-run k'a-sor ch'o-rten, and lies about two miles to the north
east of Khatmandu, and it is figured at page 262. Immense
numbers of Tibetans, both Lamas and laity, visit the place every
winter, and encamp in the surrounding field for making their
worship and offerings, and circumambulating the sacred spot. It
is the chief place of Lamaist pilgrimage in Nepal, attracting far
mere votaries than the Svayambhunath stupa,2 which is not far
distant. Its special virtue is reputed to be its power of granting
all prayers for worldly wealth, children, and everything else asked
for. Dr. Buchanan-Hamilton, in his account of Nepal, written
about the beginning of the present century, gives a drawing of
the monument, which is of an almost simple hemispherical form,
of the type of the earliest stupas ; and Wright,3 under the title of
" temple of Bodhnath," gives a rough chromo-lithograph of its
more modern appearance, with its additional buildings and invest
ing wall. But no description or account of the monument seems
to be on record.
As I have obtained a copy of the printed booklet which is sold
at the stupa to the pilgrims, I here give a short abstract of its
contents, which are interesting as showing how the stupa is
brought into intimate relation with the chief legendary and
historic persons of early Lamaism. The print is a new revision by
Bunya-vajra and another disciple of " the great Lama Z'ab-cZkar."
This latter Lama, I am informed, lived about thirty years ago,
and gilded the short spire of the stupa and built the present
investing wall.
The book states as follows : —
"This stupa enshrines the spirit of the Buddhas of the ten
directions, and of the Buddhas of the three times (i.e., the present,
past and future), and of all the Bodhisats, and it holds the Dharma-
kaya. 1 Spelt pya.
2 Called by the Lamas 'P'ags-pa Sin Eun (or ? Zan-bkod) ; cf . also Smyambhu purana,
transld., J.R.A.S., 1894, 297. Another stiipa not far off, namely, about ten miles S.E.
of Bhatgaon, and twelve from Khat-mandu, is called sTags-mo-lus-sbyin, and identified
as the site where Buddha in a former birth gave his body to a starving tiger, though
the orthodox site for this story was really uortliern India, cf . FaHian, c. xi.
3 Nepal, pp. 22, 100.

316 SHRINES, RELICS, AND PILGRIMS.
" When king Thi-Sron Detsan 1 asked the Guru,2 at Samyas,3 to
tell him the history of the Ma-gu-ta stupa in Nepal, made by the four
sons of ' the bestower of gifts,' named ' the poor mother Pya-rdsi-ma
(fowl-keeper),' then the Guru thus related (the story) : —
" ' In a former Kalpa — time beyond conception — the Bodhisattva
Mahasattva Avalokitesvara, approached the Tathagatha Amitabha and
prayed for the animals immersed in the miry slough, and after saving
these he went to mount Potala. There he saw hosts of unsaved animals,
innumerable like unto mounds of murwa 4 lees, and (seeing this he)
wept. Two of his pitying tears were born into Indra's heaven as god's
daughters, named respectively Kan-m'a and the little Kan-ma or
Kan-ch'un-ma. This latter having stolen in heaven some flowers,
was as a punishment reborn in earth, in a low pigherd's family in
Maguta in Nepal, under the name of Samvara or '.' the Chief Happi
ness," her mother's name being Purna. On marriage she had four
sons, and her husband's early death left her with the sole care of the
family. She with her family undertook the herding and rearing of
geese for the wealthy, and having in this pursuit amassed much wealth,
she — Ma-pya-rdsi-ma (or mother fowl-keeper)— decided to build a large
stupa in honour of the Tathagatha. She, thereon, went to the king
and begged for a site, saying she wanted only so much ground as one
hide could cover. The king assented, saying " Ja-run," which literally
means " do "-)-" can," i.e., "you can do (so)." 5 Then she cutting a hide
into thin thongs (forming a long rope), enclosed that very large space
which now is occupied by this chaitya. And she, with her four sons,
and a servant, and an elephant and an ass, as beasts of burden, brought
earth and stones, and commenced to build this chaitya by their own
personal labour.
" ' Then the king's ministers appealed to the king to stop such an
ambitious building, as they asserted its magnificence put to shame the
religious buildings of the king and the nobles. But the king answered
"K'a-Sor" — which literally means " mouth + (has) spoken" — and so
refused to interfere. (Thus is the name of the stupa — ' Ja-run K'a-Sor '
— accounted for.)
" ' After four years, when only the base had been laid, the mother
died, but her sons continued the building till its completion. And in
the receptacle was placed one Magadha measure (drona) of the relics of
the Tathagatha Kasyapa. This event was celebrated by the manifesta
tion in the sky, above the stupa, of Kasyapa himself, and the circles of
celestial Buddhas and Bodhisats, and their hosts of retinue, and

1 The king of Tibet who introduced Lamaism.
- 2 i.e., Padma-sambhava, or Ugyan, the founder of Lamaism.
3 The first Lamaist monastery in Tibet.
4 The millet seed (elusine crocanum), about the size of mustard seed, from which is
made the Himalayan beer.
5 This story, and, indeed, the greater part of the legend, seems to have its origin in
a false etymology of the proper names.

SHRINES IN NEPAL, ETC. 317
amongst showers of flowers the gods contributed divine music and
rained perfume. Earthquakes thrice occurred, and through the glory
of the assembled divinities there was no darkness for five nights.
" ' One of the sons then prayed, " May I in my next re-birth be born as
a great scholar (to benefit mankind) " — and he was born as Thunmi
Sambhota1 (the introducer of the so-called " Tibetan " character, and
the first translator of Indian Buddhist texts into Tibetan), circa
650 a.d.
"'The second son prayed in a similar manner, and was re-born as "The
Bodhisattva " 2 (the abbot of the first monastery of Tibet).
" '• Then the elephant or lan-po (hearing these prayers) said, " These
two, neglecting me who contributed so much assistance, are asking all
the good things for themselves, therefore let me be re-born in a form to
destroy them or their work." And he was afterwards re-born as Laii-
darma (the persecutor of Lamaism).
" ' The third son, hearing the elephant's request, prayed that he
might be re-born in a form to neutralize the evil of the elephant's incar
nation; and he was born as Lhodun phel kyi rdorje (the Lama who
murdered Lan-darma, the Julian of Lamaism).'
" This stupa is also worshipped by the Nepalese Buddhists, viz., the
Newars — the semi-aborigines of the Nepal valley, and the Murmi, a
cis-Himalayan branch of Tibetan stock. The name ' Maguta ' — pro
nounced ' Makuta ' — is doubtless a contraction for Makuta bandhana,
the pre-Buddhist ' crested chaitya,' such as existed at Buddha's death
at Kusinagara, in the country of theMallas."
The Gyan-tse Caitya-temple is thus described 3 : —
It is nine storeys high, and is about 100 to 120 feet high and capped
by a gilt dome. A magnificent view of Gyantse town and monasteries
from top storey. Numberless niches filled with images of Buddha and
Bodhisatwas. In the first floor is an image of the religious king
Babtan. The base is fifty paces square. It is only open to public at
the full and new moon.
At those shrines holding or professing to hold relics the fiction
of miraculous increase of the relics is frequently enacted. Thus
at the Maguta stupa and Tashiding Ch'orten are sold small
granules,4 alleged to be obtained by miraculous efflorescence on

1 Who introduced a written character to Tibet.
2 The Indian monk Santa-rakshita, abbot of the first monastery of Tibet (Samyas).
* Sarat's Narrative.
4 On the cremation of the body of a Buddha it is believed that no mere ash results,
but, on the contrary, the body swells up and resolves into a mass of sago-like granules
of two kinds, (a) Phe-dun, from the flesh as small white granules, and (b) ring-srel,
yellowish larger nodules from the bones. It is the former sort which are believed to
be preserved at the holiest Caitya of Sikhim, namely, T'on-wa ran grot, or " Saviour
by mere sight." It owes its special sanctity to its reputedly containing some of the
funereal granules of the mythical Buddha antecedent to Sakya Muni, namel y

318 SHRINES, RELICS, AND PILGRIMS.
the surface of the building from the legendary relics of the ficti
tious Buddha, Kasyapa, alleged to be enshrined therein. But
this practice is common also to southern Buddhism. In the Bur
mese chronicles1 it is stated that the tooth of Buddha, enshrined at
Ceylon, yielded in the eleventh century a.d., to the Burmese king,
" a miraculous incarnation or mysterious growth of homogeneous
substances from the holy tooth," and Col. Phayre adds " and a
somewhat similar mission with a like result occurred about twenty
years ago (about 1860 a.d.).
And in 1892 similar relics were sent from Ceylon to the Tibetan
commissioner at Darjiling. But, after all, such relics are no more
spurious than the innumerable " bits of the true cross," holy
coats, and keys of St. Peter, of Christendom ; nor is their worship
more remarkable than the vestiges of relic-worship which still
survive in the structural features of our chancels, and the black-'
letter day of the Holy Cross in the calendar.
The temple of Buddha's tooth at Fu-chau in China is also a
known place of Lamaist pilgrimage. The tooth is evidently an
elephant's molar.2 That one also at the " Clear water P'u-hsein
monastery " in western Ssu-ch'an seems' to be somewhat similar.
It is described by Mr. Baber as " dense fossil ivory," " about a
foot long, and of a rudely triangular outline."
The sacred mountain of Wu-t'ai or U-tai in northern China,
and the alleged birth-place of Manjusri, now identified with
the metaphysical Bodhisat of Wisdom, is a favourite place of pil
grimage. It has been visited and figured by Hue and others.3
On mount 0 in western Ssu-ch'an, at an elevation of about
11,000 feet, is to be seen " The glory of Buddha"4 — a mysterious
apparition like the giant of the Brocken,3 which is seen occasion
ally by looking over the top of a cliff about 2,000 feet high into
the terrible abyss below. It is a radiant halo of rainbow tints and
it is deemed an emanation from the aureole of Buddha. The
Tibetans visit the place.
Od-srun, or Kasyapa, the relics having been deposited there by Jik-mi Pawo, the
incarnation and successor of St. Lha-tsun.
1 Phatre's History of Brit. Burma.
2 Sir Henry Yule's Marco Polo, hi., ch. xv., where it is figured after Mr. Fortune.
3 Visited and described also by Rev. J. Edkins (Religion in China), Gilmour,
Reichthofen, Rockhill, and more fully described by D. Pokotiloff, St. Petersburg, 1893.
4 In Chinese Eo-Euang. Cf. Baber's Suppl. Papers Geog. Soc, p. 42.
5 Brewster's Natural Magic, 1833, p. 130.

SHRINES IN CHINA AND TIBET. 319
The sacred sites of Tibet are cited in considerable detail in the
vernacular geography already mentioned. And stories abound
of the miraculous efficacy of such pilgrimages, and even of the
manifestations of the divine spirit to worthy worshippers.
Thus a story is related regarding the great image of " tbe
Lord" at Lhasa, which is a parallel to that of the widow's mite :
A poor old widow, destitute of friends and of means, made a long
pilgrimage to Lhasa, but had nothing left as an offering. By
begging she ultimately obtained a morsel of butter, which she
offered in a tiny lamp to the great idol. The god there
upon revealed himself through the idol, which thanked her for her
gift, and spoke to her a few words of comfort. On this miracle
getting noised abroad, a rich merchant set out for Lhasa, arguing
that if the Lord appeared to a poor woman who presented only
one tiny lamp, he would certainly appear to the donor of a host.
So he offered many thousands of lamps -with tons of butter, but
the idol remained impassive and irresponsive.
The circling of the great temple by prostrations on the ground is
an essential part of the devotions, not only of the pilgrims but of
the residents. The day's devotions begin at Lhasa with the gun
fire about 4 a.m. from the Chinese minister's house, and they close
with another gun at 9 or 10 p.m.
After the morning report the people are to be seen in dense
crowds on the circular road, all moving in one and the same direc
tion, as with the hands of a watch. A similar circuit is made by
the devout in the evening, to say nothing of smaller circuits around
individual shrines : at least this is imperative on common folk ; as
to the great and wealthy,1 they urge that their presence would only
interfere with the piety of the people, so they engage substitutes,
who, however, are rigorously required to circumambulate for their
masters. But whether done in person or by proxy, a careful
reckoning is kept of the number of circuits performed, and these,
in occasional cases of excessive devotion, are even executed by the
method of successive prostrations full length on the road, each
prostration beginning where the preceding one ended, called
"KiangK'or." Of the places sacred to the Guru, the most celebrated is the
1 Says A. K. (Henessy's Abstract, p. 293).

320 SHRINES, RELIC'S, AND PILGRIMS.
" Lotus lake " (Ts'o Badma-c'an), on which he is believed to
have been born. It is usually stated to be in Udyana, but other
accounts place, it near Haridwar.1 In Nepal at Halasi on the
bank of the Dudh-Kusi is the famous hermitage of the Guru on
a hill with many fossil remains, which from their description
suggest the outlying Siwaliks range
In the mountains, two days' journey south of Gyang-tse, near the
unreformed monastery of Se-kar, is a celebrated rock-cut cave of
St. Badma, called Kyil-k'or ta-dub. It is thus described2 : —
" We took lighted lamps, and after going 120 paces inside the cavern
we reached an open flat space about twenty feet square, from which a
rock-cut ladder led us up to another open space about ten feet square ;
thirty paces further brought us to a stone seat, said to be the seat of Guru
Badma-sambhava. Behind the seat was a small hole drilled through
the rock : through this hole a wooden spoon about two feet long was
passed by the sister of the Lama who accompanied us, and a small
amount of reddish dust was extracted which is said to be the refuse of
the Guru's food. This we ate and found very sweet to the taste. Then
after lighting some sacred lamps and asking a blessing, we descended by
another flight of steps to a place where a stream issues from the face of
the rock. The total length of the cave from the entrance of the stream
is about a quarter of a mile. There are ascents and descents, and many
turns and twists through narrow passages where only one man can go
at a time, and many people are afraid to risk exploring the place. If
the lamp were to go out there would be no finding the way back again."
Colossal images of Jam-pa or " The Loving One " (the Buddha
to come), and sometimes of Avalokita are occasionally carved on
, cliffs. A monster image of the god Maitreya (Jam-pa), three
storeys in height, is mentioned by explorer A. K. ; 3 the figure
is internally of clay, and is well gilded externally ; it is seated
on a platform on the ground floor, and its body, passing succes-

1 One account given me says that three days from the town in northern India
named Nirdun (? Dehra Dun) lies Ramnagar, thence four days Haraduar, where there
is a railway station, thence on foot two days to Guruduar, whence Ts'o Padma is
eight days distant amongst seven hills, like Mt. Meru. In regard to it, the Sham-bha-
la Lam-yig contains the following passage : " At the city of the king Da-ya-tse of
Pu-rang, in consequence of water striking against coal, at night the coal is seen
burning. It is said of this coal and water, that they have the peculiarity that the
water, if introduced into the stomach of man or beast, turns into stone."
2 Lama U. G. S.R., loc. cit., p. 20.
3 Henessy, S.R., loc. cit., para 19. An image similar to this, thirty feet high, but of
gilt copper, is noted by the Lama U. G., loc. cit., p. 22. Lake at Rohch'am Ch'en, near
the crossing of the Tangpo, near Yam-dok.

RECEPTION BY LAMAIST POPE. 321
sively through the second and third floors, terminates in a jewelled
and capped colossal head above the latter floor ; in all, the figure
and platform are said to be seventy or eighty feet high. Now, as an
essential feature in Tibetan worship is the performance of circuits
around an image, it will be seen that the pilgrim in circling
this image of Jam-pa is compelled by circumstances to perform
three different series of circumambulations on as many floors ;
at first around the god's legs, next around his chest, and lastly
around his head.
But, after all, the greatest pilgrimage to which a Lamaist devotee
looks is to the Buddhist-god incarnate at Lhasa, the Grand Dalai
Lama. Accounts of the culmination of such a pilgrimage have been
recorded by Manning and others. The infant Grand Lama, who
received Manning, was altogether a prodigy. A reception by the
Grand Tashi Lama, one of the many witnessed by Mr. Bogle, is
thus described by that gentleman * (see figure, page 305) : —
" On the 12th November, a vast crowd of people came to pay
their respects, and to be blessed by the Lama. He was seated
under a canopy in the court of the palace. They were all ranged
in a circle. First came the lay folks. Everyone, according to
his circumstances brought some offering. One gave a horse,
another a cow ; some gave dried sheep's carcasses, sacks of flour,
pieces of cloth, etc. ; and those who had nothing else presented
a white Pelong handkerchief. All these offerings were received.
by the Lama's servants, who put a bit of silk with a knot upon it
tied, or supposed to be tied, with the Lama's own hands, about the
necks of the votaries. After this they advanced up to the Lama,
who sat cross-legged upon a throne formed with seven cushions,
and he touched their head with his hands, or with a tassel hung
from a stick, according to their rank and character. The cere
monial is this : upon the gylongs or laymen of very high rank he
lays his palm, the nuns and inferior laymen have a cloth interposed
between his hand and their heads ; and the lower class of people
are touched as they pass by with the tassel which he holds in his
hand There might be about three thousand people
1 Op. cit, p. 85. A grander reception is described by him at p. 98.

322 SHRINES, RELICS, AND PILGRIMS.
— men, women, and children — at this ceremony. Such as had
children on their backs were particularly solicitous that the child's
head should also be touched with the tassel. There were a good
many boys and some girls devoted to the monastic order by having
a lock of hair on the crown of the head cropped by the Lama with
a knife. This knife came down from heaven in a flash of lightning.
. . . . After the Lama retired, many people stayed behind
that they might kiss the cushions upon which he had sat."
The ordinary receptions by his holiness have been described by
the survey spy A. K.1 Since his worshippers are in thousands, and
it is only to those who are wealthy or of high degree that he can
afford to address even a brief sentence or two, this is always done
in a deep hoarse voice, acquired by training in order to convey the
idea that it emanates from maturity and wisdom. Seated cross-
legged on a platform some six feet high, he is dressed to be
worshipped in the usual colours of priesthood, i.e., red and yellow,
and with bare arms, as required of all Buddhist priests, and holds
a rod from the end of which hangs a tassal of silk, white, red, yellow,
green, and blue. The pilgrim, coming in at the entrance door,
advances with folded hands as if in prayer, and resting his head
against the edge of the platform above him, mentally and hastily
repeats the petitions he would have granted. These unuttered
prayers the Dalai Lama is understood to comprehend intuitively ;
he touches the pilgrim's head with the bunch of silk in token
of his blessing, and the worshipper is hurried out at the east door
by attendants, only too happy if he has passed say half a minute
in the vicinity of the great priest. This is the common procedure.
Persons of rank or substance are permitted to mount the platform
and to perform obeisance there, receiving the required blessing
by actual touch of the Dalai Lama's hand ; subsequently such
worshipper may be allowed a seat below the platform where a few
hoarse utterances of enquiry may be addressed to him by the
Dalai Lama, and he may also be given some food.
The account of one of these more select receptions, to which
Baber Sarat gained admission in disguise, is here abridged from
his narrative.
" We are seated on rugs spread in about eight rows, my seat being in
1 Loc. cit, edited by Henessy, para. 20.

RECEPTION BY LAMAIST POPE. 323
the thhd row, at a distance of about ten feet from the Grand Lama's
throne, and a little to his left. There was perfect silence in the grand
hall. The state officials walked from left to right with serene gravity,
as becoming their exalted rank in the presence of the supreme vice-
regent of Buddha on earth. The carrier of the incense-bowl (suspended
by three golden chains), the head steward, who carried the royal
golden teapot, and other domestic officials then came into his holiness's
presence, standing there motionless as pictures, fixing their eyes, as it
were, on the tips of their respective noses.
"The great altar, resembling an oriental throne, pillared on lions of
carved wood, was covered with costly silk scarves ; and on this his
holiness, a child of eight, was seated. A yellow mitre covered the
child's head, his person was robed in a yellow mantle, and he sat cross-
legged, with the palms of his hands joined together to bless us. In
my turn I received his holiness's benediction and surveyed his divine
face. I wanted to linger a few seconds in the sacred presence, but was
not allowed to do so, others displacing me by pushing me gently. The
princely child possessed a really bright and fair complexion with rosy
cheeks. His eyes were large and penetrating. . . . The thinness of
his person was probably owing to the fatigues of the ceremonies of the
court, of his religious duties, and of ascetic observances to which he
had been subjected since taking the vows of monkhood. . . . When
all were seated after receiving benediction, the head steward poured
tea into his holiness's golden cup from the golden teapot. Pour assis
tant servers poured tea into the cups of the audience. Before the
Grand Lama lifted his cup to his lips a grace was solemnly chanted.
Without even stirring the air by the movements of our limbs or our
clothes, we slowly lifted our cups to our lips and drank the tea, which
was of delicious flavour. Thereafter the head butler placed a golden
dish full of rice in front of his holiness, which he only touched ; and
its contents were then distributed. I obtained a handful of this con
secrated rice, which I carefully tied in one corner of my handkerchief.
After grace had been said, the holy child, in a low indistinct voice,
chanted a hymn. Then a venerable gentleman rose from the middle
of the first row of seats, and, addressing the Grand Lama as the Lord
Avalokita Incarnate, recited the many deeds of mercy which that
patron saint of Tibet had vouchsafed towards its benighted people.
At the conclusion he thrice prostrated himself before his holiness, when
a solemn pause followed ; after which the audience rose, and the Grand
Lama retired.
"One of the butler's assistants gave me two packets of pills, and the
other tied a scrap of red silk round my neck. The pills, I- was told,
were Chinlab (blessings consecrated by Buddha-Kashyapa and other
saints), and the silk scrap, called sungdu (knot of blessing), was the
Grand Lama's usual consecrated return for presents made by pilgrims
and devotees."

y 2

324

XIV.
PANTHEON, SAINTS, AND IMAGES.
" Since we left off to burn incense to the Queen of Heaven and to pour out
drink-offerings to her, we have wanted all things and have been consumed by
the sword and famine." — Jeremiah xliv., 18.1
JAMAIST mythology is a fascinating field for explor
ing the primitive conceptions of life, and the way in
which the great forces of nature become deified. It
also shows the gradual growth of legend and idolatry,
with its diagrams of the unknown and fetishes; and how Buddhism
with its creative touch bodied forth in concrete shape the abstract
conceptions of the learned, and, while incorporating into its pan
theon the local gods of the country, it gave milder meanings to
the popular myths and legends.
The pantheon is perhaps the largest in the world. It is peopled
by a bizarre crowd of aboriginal gods and hydra-headed demons,
who are almost jostled off the stage by their ' still more numerous
Buddhist rivals and counterfeits. The mythology, being largely of
Buddhist authorship, is full of the awkward forms of Hindu fancy
and lacks much of the point, force, and picturesqueness of the
myths of Europe. Yet it still contains cruder forms of many of
these western myths,2 and a wealth of imagery.
Brimitive Buddhism, as we have seen, knows no god in the
sense of a Creator or Absolute Being ; though Buddha himself
1 Compare with the analogous Buddhist " Queen of Heaven," Tara or Kwan-yin, pp.
435, etc.
2 Cf. V. A. Smith " On the Gr*co-Roman influence on the Civilization of Ancient
India," J.A.S.B., 1891-92, p. 50, etc. Also Prof. Grunwedel, loc. cit.

EARLY BUDDHIST MYTHOLOGY. -325
seems to have been in this respect an agnostic rather than an
atheist. But, however, this may be, the earliest Buddhist mythology
known to us gives the gods of the Hindus a very prominent place
in the system. And while rendering them finite and subject to the
general law of metempsychosis, yet so far accepts or tolerates the
current beliefs in regard to their influence over human affairs as to
render these gods objects of fear and respect, if not of actual
adoration by the primitive Buddhists.
The earliest books purporting to reproduce the actual words
spoken by the Buddha make frequent references to the gods and
demons. And in the earliest of all authentic Indian -records, the
edict -pillars of Asoka, we find that model Buddhist delighting to
call himself "the beloved of the gods." The earlier Buddhist
monuments at Barhut, etc., also, are crowded with images of gods,
Yakshas and other supernatural beings, who are there given attri
butes almost identical with those still accorded them by present-
day Buddhists. Every Buddhist believes that the coming Buddha
is at present in the Tushita heaven of the gods. And the
Ceylonese Buddhists, who represent the purer form of the faith,
still worship the chief Indian gods and are addicted to devil-
worship and astrology.1
But the theistic phase of Buddhism carried objective worship
much further than this. For as Buddha himself occupied in
primitive Buddhism the highest central point which in other
faiths is occupied by a deity, his popular deification was only
natural. In addition to the worship of Buddha, in a variety of forms, the
Mahayana school created innumerable metaphysical Buddhas and
Bodhisats whom it soon reduced from ideal abstractness to
idolatrous form. And it promoted to immortal rank many of the
demons of the Sivaist pantheon ; and others specially invented by
1 Rhys Davids, B., p. 7. " In the courtyard of nearly all the wiharas (monasteries) in
Ceylon there is a small dewala (or god-temple) in which the Brahmanical deities are
worshipped. The persons who officiate in them are called Eapavas. They marry.
The incantations they use are in Sanskrit (Bast. Mon., p. 201). The chief -gods
worshipped are Vishnu, Kataragama, Nata who in the next Kalpa is to become
Maitreya Buddha, and Pattini Deva. Other temples belong to tutelaries, e.g., Saman
Deva, the tutelary of Buddha's foot-print, Sri-pade (Rept Service Tenures Commission,
Ceylon, 1872, p. 62). It is probable that this Pattini is the tutelary goddess of
Asoka 's capital, Patna. Cf. my Discovery of exact site of Pdtaliputra, etc., 1892."

326 PANTHEON, SAINTS, AND IMAGES.
itself as defensores fidei ; and to all of these it gave characteristic
forms. It also incorporated most of the local deities and demons
of those new nations it sought to convert. There is, however, as
already noted, reason for believing that many of the current
forms of Brahmanical gods were suggested to the Brahmans by
antecedent Buddhist forms. And the images have come to be of
the most idolatrous kind, for the majority of the Lamas and
almost all the laity worship the image as a sort of fetish, holy in
itself and not merely as a diagram or symbol of the infinite or
unknown. The Lamaist pantheon, thus derived from so many different
sources, is, as may be expected, extremely large and complex.
Indeed, so chaotic is its crowd that even the Lamas themselves do
not appear to have reduced its members to any generally recognized
order, nor even to have attempted complete lists of their motley
deities. Though this is probably in part owing to many gods
being tacitly tolerated without being specially recognized by the
more orthodox Lamas.
The nearest approach to a systematic list which I have seen, is
the Pekin Lama's list so admirably translated by the late Mr.
Bander,1 but this, as well as all the other extant lists, is
defective in many ways and only fragmentary.
The chief Tibetan treatises on the Lamaist pantheon according
to my Lama informants, are : —
(a) Z'a-lu L6-tsa-wa's, " The means of obtaining The Hundred (gods).2
This is said to be the oldest of the extant systematic works on Lamaist
deities and seems to date from about 1436 a.d., when Z'a-lu succeeded
to the great Pandit Atisa's chair at Gah-ldan monastery. Zha-lu Lo-
ch'en, "the great translator," states that he translated his description
from one of the three great Indian works by Pandit Bhavaskanda
•entitled "Slokas on the means of obtaining (tutelary and other
deities)." 3 The term " the hundred " which occurs in the title of this
and the following treatises refers only to the chief divinities ; for the
total number described is much greater.
(b) Bari L6-tsa-was "The Hundred precious Manifestations of Nar
thang." " This work issuing from the great press at Narthang near
Tashi-lhunpo is said to deal mainly, if not solely, with those omitted by
Z'alu, and is placed about the sixteenth century a.d.
1 Das Pantheon des Tscltangtscha Hutuklu, etc.
2 sGrubs-t'ub brgya-rtsa.
3 Sgrub-t'ub ts'ig bc'ad, Skt. ? Sadanait sloka.
4 rin-'byuh sNar-t'ah brgya-rtsa.

THE LAMAIST PANTHEON. 327
(c) Taranatha's "The Hundred precious Appearances." 1 This work by
the great historiographer Lama Taranatha contains mainly residual deities
omitted by the two previous writers ; but it is chiefly devoted to the
more demoniacal forms.2 This work dates from about 1600 a.d. and
was, I think, printed at Bhun-ts'o-ling near Narthang ; but I omitted
to note this point specially while consulting the book at Darjiling.3
(d) The Dalai Lama Nag- wan L6-zanGya-ts'6's "autobiography," written
in the latter half of the seventeenth century a.d. In its mythological
portion it describes chiefly those aboriginal Tibetan deities which had
become grafted upon orthodox Lamaism.
All the foregoing works have been consulted by me except the second
or Narthang text, which seems to be the same book referred to by
Pander.4 The Pekin work translated by Pander and dating from 1800
a.d., seems to have been a compilation from the above sources in regard
to those particular deities most favoured by the Chinese and Mongolian
Lamas, though the descriptions with the Pekin list are often meagre and
frequently different in many details compared with the earlier work of
Z'a-lu.5 Another book, also, it would seem, printed in China, was ob
tained by Mr. Bockhill.6
I cannot attempt, at least at present, to give any satisfactory
classification of such a disorderly mob, but I have compiled from
the foregoing sources a rough general descriptive list, so as to give
a somewhat orderly glimpse into this chaotic crowd of gods,
demons, and deified saints.
Arranged in what appears to be the order of their rank, from
above downwards, the divinities seem to fall under the following
seven classes : —
1. Buddhas. — rCelestial and human.
2. Bodhisats. — Celestial and human, including Indian saints
and apotheosized Lamas.
3. Tutelaries. — Mostly demoniacal.
4. Defenders of the Faith, and Witches (Dakkini).
5. Indian Brahmanical gods, godlings, and genii.
1 Rin-'byuh-brgya rtsa.
* Gon-po, Skt., Natha ; and Lha-mo, Skt., Kali.
3 It may probably be a version of this work which Pander (Zeitschrift fur Ethnologic,
p. 54, Berlin, 1889) refers to as published at Urgya by a successor of Taranatha rJe-6tsun
i/dam-pa. 4 Op. cit, p. 63.
5 With these lists may also be compared the illustrated Buddhist pantheon of the
Japanese, Butzu dsg-dsui, reproduced in parts in Prof. J. Hoffman at Leyden in
Siebold's Nippon Archiv zur Beschreibung von Japan, Vol. v. , and by Dr. W. Anderson
in his admirable Catalogue of Jap. Paintings in British Museum.
6 It gives pictures of the gods and saints with their special mantras.

328 PANTHEON, SAINTS, AND IMAGES.
6. Country gods (yul-lha) and guardians (srun-ma), and Local
gods.
7. Personal gods, or familiars.
The tutelaries, however, overlap the classes above them as well as
the next one below, and some of the " guardians " are superior to
the Indian gods. The first four classes, excepting their human
members, are mostly immortal,1 while the remainder are within
the cycle of re-births.
Before giving the list of these various divinities, and descriptive
details of the images of the more important ones, let us look at
the typical forms and attitudes, the material, and methods of exe
cution of images in general.
The immense numbers of images abounding in Tibet are not
confined to the temples, but are common in the houses of the
laity, in the open air, as talismans in amulet-boxes, and painted or
printed as screens, and on the title-pages of books, and as charms,
etc. The artists are almost exclusively Lamas, though a few of the
best idols in Lhasa are made by Newari artisans from Nepal, who
are clever workers in metal and wood. Some also are painted by
lay-artists, but such images must be consecrated by Lamas in
order to be duly efficacious as objects of worship, for most of the
images are credited with being materially holy, Uke fetishes, and
capable of hearing and answering prayers. The mode of executing
the images, as regards the materials, the auspicious times to com
mence the image, and to form the most essential parts, such as
the eyes, are all duly defined in the scriptures, whose details are
more or less strictly observed. Many of the more celebrated idols
are believed by the people and the more credulous Lamas to be
altogether miraculous in origin — " self-formed," or fallen from
heaven ready fashioned.2
The images are executed in various ways : as statues or bas-
reliefs (sku) and medallions, and as pictures (sku-t'ah or z'al-t'an).3
The statues are sometimes of colossal size,4 especially those of
1 The Lamas do not generally, as do the Nepalese Buddhists, restrict immortality to
Adi-Buddha. 2 The Hindus entertain the same belief as regards their ap-rupi idols, which are
mostly ancient Buddhist ones.
s Lit. =flat + image.
4 Schlagintweit describes (Bud., p. 220) one of these colossal images at Leh as "the
Buddha in Meditation," and as higher than the temple itself, the head going through

THE IMAGES AND PAINTINGS.

329

Maitreya, or " The coming Buddha," which are occasionally rock-
cut ; but most are less than life-size.
Of statues the most common form is the plastic,1 all of which
are gilt or coloured. They are often cast, as bas-reliefs, in
moulds, and are formed of coarse papier-mache, or clay, bread-
dough, compressed incense, or variously-tinted butter,2 and the
larger ones have a central framework of wood. The plastic image
or moulded positive is then dried in the sun — excepting, of course,
those made of butter, — and it is afterwards painted or gilt.
The gilt-copper images 3 are more prized. The costly ones are
inlaid with rubies, turquoises, and other
precious stones. Less common are those
of bell-metal,4 while the poorer people are
content with images of brass or simple
copper. Wooden images5 are not com
mon, and stone images6 are least frequent
of all, and are mostly confined to the
shallow bas-reliefs on slabs, or rock-cut
on cliffs. Internal organs of dough or
clay are sometimes inserted into the bodies
of the larger images, but the head is
usually left empty; and into the more
valued ones are put precious stones and
filings of the noble metals, and a few grains
of consecrated rice, a scroll -bearing "the
Buddhist creed," and occasionally other
texts, booklets, and relics. These objects are sometimes mixed with
the plastic materia], but usually are placed in the central cavity, the
entrance to which, called " the charm-place," r is sealed up by the
consecrating Lama.8 And the image is usually veiled by a silken
scarf.9 Here also may be mentioned the miniature funereal images or
the roof. " The body is a frame of wood, dressed with draperies of cloth and paper,
the head, the arms, and the feet are the only parts of the body moulded of clay."
1 'jim-gzugs.
2 Hue's Souv., ii., p. 95 ; Rockhill, Land, i., p. 69. In Ceylon temporary images are
said to be made of rice. — Hardy's East. Mon., 202.
3 gser-zahs-sku. 4 li-ma. 5 S'ih-sku. 6 rdo-sku. 7 zun-zhug.
8 This ceremony is called " rabs-gnas zhug-pa." Cf. Csoma, A., p. 403.
» The images of the fierce gods and goddesses especially are veiled. The veil cover
ing the face of Devi is called " Lha-moi zhab-k'ebs. It is a white silken scarf, about

Amitayus.
(Gilt-copper from Lhasa.')

330

PANTHEON, SAINTS, AND IMAGES.

caityas, moulded of clay or dough, with or without the addition^of
relics,1 and corresponding to the dharma-sarira of the Indian
stupas, and mentioned by Hiuen Tsiang in the seventh century
a.d. Small consecrated
• medallions of clay are
also given by the Dalai
and Tashi Grand Lamas
to donors of largess, in
return for their gifts,
one of which is figured
as a tail-piece on page
304. The pictures are
mostly paintings , seldom
uncoloured drawings,
and many of them are
of considerable artistic
merit. The style and
technique are, in the
main, clearly of Chinese
origin. This is
especially seen in the
conventional form of
clouds, water, etc.,
though the costumes
are usually Tibetan,
when not Indian. The
eye of the Buddhas and
the more benign Bod
hisats is given a dreamy
look by representing the
upper eyelid as dented
at its centre like a
cupid's bow, but I have
noticed this same pecu
liarity in mediaeval Indian Buddhist sculptures.
eighteen-inches broad, with red borders about al^t~wide Ami on it are dr _wn h
odours several of the auspicious symbols, the swastika, elephants' tusks, conch, jewels
also the goad, etc., and the mystic spell Bhyc-x
1 Called sa-tseh'a.

Guardian King of the South.
Virudhaka.

THE PAINTINGS. 331

The paintings are usually done on cloth, frescoes1 being mostly
confined to the mural decoration of temples. The colours are very
brilliant and violently contrasted, owing to the free use of crude
garish pigments, but the general colour effect in the deep gloom
of the temple, or when the painting is toned down by age, is often
pleasing. The cloth used is canvas or cotton — seldom silk. It is prepared
by stretching it while damp over a wooden frame, to which the
margin of the cloth is stitched ; and its surface is then smeared
over with a paste of lime and flour, to which a little glue is some
times added. On drying, its surface is rubbed smooth and slightly
polished by a stone, and the drawing is then outlined either by
hand with a charcoal crayon, or, in the more technical subjects, by
a stencil-plate consisting of a sheet of paper in which the pattern
is perforated by pin-holes, through which charcoal dust is sifted.
The lines are then painted in with Chinese ink, and the other
colours, which are usually crude pigments imported from China or
India. The colours are simply mixed with hot thin glue, and as
the picture is unvarnished, Lamaist paintings are especially
subject to injury by damp.
On completion, the artist puts a miniature figure of himself in a
corner at the bottom in an adoring attitude. The painting is then
cut out of its rough easel-frame, and it has borders sewn on to
it, consisting of strips of coloured silk or brocade, and it is mounted
on rollers with brazen ends, somewhat after the manner of a map
or a Japanese Kakemono.2, But it is not so elongated as the latter,
nor is it so artistically mounted or finished.
The mounted Tibetan painting has a tricoloured cloth border of
red, yellow, and blue from within outwards, which is alleged to
represent the spectrum colours of the rainbow, which separates
sacred objects from the material world. The outer border of blue
is broader than the others, and broadest at its lowest border, where
it is usually divided by a vertical patch of brocade embroidered
with the dragons of the sky.
A veil is usually added as a protection against the grimy smoke
of incense, lamps and dust. The veil is of flimsy silk, often

1 'dabs-ris.
3 Cf . W. Anderson's Catalogue Japanese Pictures ; Nott and Gliddon, Indig. Races,
302.

332 PANTHEON, SAINTS, AND IMAGES.
adorned with' sacred symbols, and it is hooked up when the
picture is .exhibited.
Now we are in a position to consider the detailed description of
the images. The various forms of images fall into characteristic
types, which, while mainly anthropomorphic, differ in many ways
as regards their general form, attitude, features, dress, emblems,
etc., yet all are constructed, according to a special canon, so that
there is no difficulty in distinguishing a Buddhist image from a
Brahmanical or a Jain.
The forms of images differ broadly, as regards the general type
or mode of the image, the posture of the body (sedent or other
wise), and the attitude in which the hands are held, the number
of arms, which are emblematic of power, and the symbols or in
signia which they bear, as signifying their functions.
The general type of Buddha's image is well-known. It is that
of a mendicant monk, without any ornaments and with tonsured
hair, and it is also extended to most of the mythical Buddhas. It
is called the Muni or saint-type,1 and it is usually represented
upon a lotus-flower, the symbol of divine birth.
Extra to this type, the three others most common are : —
1st. " The Mild " calm form (Z'i-wa2) or Bodhisat type.
2nd. " The Angry " type (T'o-wo% of the " Howler " (Rudra
and Marut), or Storm-deity of Vedic times.
3rd. "The Fiercest" fiend type (Drag-po or Drag-s'e*) ;
a fiercer form of No. 2, and including the " lord "-
fiends.6
These latter two types are confined mainly to Tantrik Buddhism,
which, as with Tantrik Hinduism, gives each divinity a double or
treble nature with corresponding aspects. In the quiescent state
the deity is of the mild Bodhisat type ; in the active he is of the
Angry or Fiercest-fiend type. Thus the Bodhisat Manjusri, the
God of Wisdom, in his ordinary aspect is a " Mild " deity (Z'i-wa);
as " The Fearful Thunderbolt" (Bhairava-vajra), he is an "Angry"
1 t'ub-bzugs.
2 Tibeto-Sanskrit dictionaries give " Siva " as well as " Santi " as the Sanskrit
equivalent of this word, so it may literally mean a mild form of the Sivaist gods.
3 E'ro-bo from the Skt. Erodha, anger.
4 Drags-po or Drags-gs'ed.
s mGon-po — Skt., Ndtha.

THE MILD DEITIES.

333

deity (T'o-wo); and as "The six-faced dreadful King-demon,"1 he
is of " The Fiercest Fiend " type (Drag-po).2
To avoid unnecessary repetition in the detailed descriptions, it
seems deshable to give here a general note on these typical mild
and demoniacal aspects, and also on the attitudes of the body and
of the fingers.
The "Mild" (Z'i-wa) deities are of what has been called by some Euro
pean writers " the Bod
hisat type." They are
figured as young hand
some Indian princes and
princesses, seated
usually on lotus thrones,
and are thus described
by Z'a-lu : The figure
looks proud, youthful,
beautiful,3 and refined.
The body emits a halo
of innumerable rays of
light, figured as radiat
ing wavy lines, with
tremulous lines alter
nating. The dress is
of the Indian style,
with one silk shawl for
the lower limbs, and
one for the upper, a
head ornament (or
crown) of precious
things, an ear-ring, a
close - fitting necklace,
and a doshal or garland
reaching down to the
thigh, and a Semondo
or shorter garland reacbr
ing to the navel, an
armlet, wristlet, brace
let, anklet, girdle (ok-
pags), and a sash (dar-
'p'yan) with fringes. The
1 gdoh-drug-ch'an 'jig-byed bdud-las mam rgyal.
2 According to the rhyme :
rje-btsun 'jam dbyans k'ros-pa-ni
rdo-rje 'jigs byed 'jigs par byed, -
k'ro-bor rgyal-po gdon drug c'an.
s For the (80 or 84) secondary beauties, cf . Buenouf's Lotus, App., viii. , Hardy's Man.,
367, Raj. L. Mitra's Lalita Vist. For description of Hindu Idols, see Brihat Samhita,
translated by Dr. Kern, J.R.A.S.,v\., 322.

Amitayus.
The Buddha of Boundless Life.
above ornaments are accounted thirteen.

334

PANTHEON, SAINTS, AND IMAGES.

The hair of the gods is dressed up into a high cone named ral-pa'-t'or-
tshugs, and the forehead usually bears the tilak or auspicious mark.
The goddesses are given a graceful form with slender waist and swelling
breasts, and their hair is dressed into plaits which lie on the hinder
part of the neck, and they beam with smiles.
The " Angry" type {To-wo) is terrible in its elaborate ugliness,
with disproportion
ately large head,1
scowling brows, and
cruel, callous eyes,
and usually with a
third eye in the
centre of the fore
head. 2 Z'a-lu de
scribes them as fat,
brawny-limbed, and
menacing in atti
tude, standing or
half-seated upon some
animal, their lips a-
gape, showing their
great canine, fangs,
and rolling tongue;
their wolfish eyes
are glaring, the
beards, eyebrows, and
hair are either
yellow, red, reddish-
yellow, or greyish-
yellow, and the hair
is erect, with occa
sionally a fringe of
curls on the fore
head, believed by some to represent coiled snakes. The females,
as in the annexed figure,3 except for their full breasts and the
absence of beards, do not differ in appearance from the males.
1 Cf. Schlag.,.B.,p. 222, for measurements of proportions of several of these images.
2 Trilocana, a character also of the Hindu Bhairava and Kali and their demon troop
of followers, the gana.
3 After Pander.

The She-devil DEVI.
T., Lha-mo.

FIERCE DEITIES AND POSTURES.

335

All these fiends have six ornaments of human bones, namely: (1)
ear ornament, (2) necklet, (3) armlet, (4) bracelet, (5) anklet (but some
have snake-bracelets and anklets), and (6) a garland of circular bodies,
fixed to boifte-heads (seralkha), and corresponding to the semodo of the
Z'i-wa, and occasionally they have a doshal garland. The foregoing
is according to the Indian canon, but the Tibetan style enumerates for
them thirteen ornaments, namely : (1) the raw hide of an elephant, as
an upper covering, (2) skins of human corpses as a lower garment, (3)
a tiger skin inside the latter, (4) Brahma's thread (ts'an-skud), (5 to 10)
the six bone ornaments above noted, (11) Tilak mark on forehead, of
blood, (12) Grease (Z'ag) on either side of mouth, and (13) ashes
smeared over body.
The " Fiercest " Fiends — (Drag-po and Gon-po) closely re
semble the above " Angry Deities." Thpy have usually chaplets
of skulls encircled by
tongues of flames ; and they
tread upon writhing victims
and prostrate bodies.
As regards the Postures of
the images, the chief sedent
postures, and especially char
acteristic of the several forms
of Buddha himself, and
secondarily of the celestial
Buddhas and Bodhisats are
as follows : —
(1) "The adamantine, un
changeable, or fixed pose "
(Skt., Vajra (2) Palana1) sedent
in the well-known cross-legged
Buddha posture. The legs are
locked firmly and the soles
directed fully upwards. This
is the pose of deepest meditation, hence it is also called, when the
hands lie loosely in the lap, the " Dhydna or meditative mudra."
(2) "TheBodhisat-pose" (Skt.,Satva (I) palana2) differs from No. 1 in
having the legs looser and unlocked. The soles are scarcely seen. This
is the pose of first emergence from meditation.
(3) " The sub-active pose " (Skt. (?) Niyampalana) 3 is emerged farther
from meditation. It has the legs unlocked, the left being quite under
the right, and the soles invisible.

Sakya in Meditation.

1 rdo-rje skyil-drun.

jems-dpa skyil druh.

Skyil dkruh chuh zad.

336

PANTHEON, SAINTS, AND IMAGES.

(4) "The Enchanter's pose" (Skt., Lalita1), i.e., after the manner of
" The Enchanter " Manjusri. Here the right leg bangs down with an
inclination slightly inwards and the left is loosely bent.
(5) Maitreya's pose.2 Sedent in the European style with both legs
pendant. The chief attitudes of the hands and fingers (mudras3) are the
following, and most are illustrated in the figures : —

The Five Celestial Jinas (or Buddhas).
Amogha-siddhi.
Amitabha. Vairocana. Akshobhya.
Ratna-sambhava.
1. " Earth-touching," or the so-called " Witness " attitude (Skt.,
Bhusparsa* ), with reference to the episode under the Tree of Wis-

rol-ba bzugs.

2 byams bzugs.

p'yag-rgya.

sa-gnon.

ATTITUDES OF HANDS. 337

dom, when Sakya Muni called the Earth as his witness, in his tempta
tion by Mara. It affects only the right hand, which is pendant with
the knuckles to the front. It is the commonest of all the forms of the
sedent Buddha, and almost the only form found in Burma and Ceylon.
It is also given to the celestial Buddha Akshobhya, as seen in the
figure on the preceding page.
2. " The Impartial " (Skt., Samdhitan1), or so-called " meditative
posture " (Skt., Samddhi 2). Besting one hand over the other in the
lap in the middle line of the body, with the palms upwards, as in
Amitabha Buddha (see the attached figure).
3. " The best Berfection " (Skt., Uttara-bodhi "). Index-finger and
thumb of each hand are joined and held almost in contact with the
breast at the level of the heart, as in the celestial Buddha Vairocana
in the figure on the opposite page.
4. " Turning the Wheel of the Law " (Skt., Dharma-cakra i).
Dogmatic attitude with right index-finger turning down fingers of
left hand, figured at page 134.
5. " The best Bestowing " (Skt., Varada s). It signifies charity. The
arm is fully extended, and the hand is directed downwards with the
outstretched palm to the front, as in " the Jewel-born " Buddha Batna-
sambhava, who is figured on the opposite page.
6. " The Brotecting," or " Befuge- giving "(Skt., Saran11). With arm
bent and palm to front, and pendant with fingers directed downwards,
as in No. 5.
7. " The Blessing of Fearlessness " (Skt. ? Abhaya). The arm is
elevated and slightly bent. The hand elevated with the palm to the
front, and the fingers directed upwards, as in Amqgha-siddha Buddha,
figured over page. It is also the pose in the episode of the mad elephant.
8. "The Breaching"7 differs from No. 7 in having the thumb bent,
and when the thumb touches the ring-finger it is called "The
triangular 8 (pose), see figure on page 5.
9. " The Bointing Finger." 9 A necromantic gesture in bewitching,
peculiar to later Tantrism.
The halo, or nimbus, around the head is subelliptical, and never
acuminate like the leaf of the pipal or Bodhi tree (Ficus
religiosa). The fierce deities have their halo bordered by flames (see
figure page 330). An additional halo is often represented as sur
rounding the whole body, as figured at pages 333 and 335. This con
sists of the six coloured rays of light, and it is conventionally repre
sented by wavy gilt lines with small tremulous lines alternating.
Colour, too, is frequently an index to the mood. Thus, white
1 mfiam-bz'ag. 2 tin-he 'dsin. 3 byah-chub-mch'og.
* ch'os 'k'or-bskor. 5 mch'og-sbyin. 6 skyab-sbyin.
' ch'os 'c'ad. 8 pa-dan rtse gsum. 9 sdigs-dsub.

338

PANTHEON, SAINTS, AND IMAGES.

and yellow complexions usually typify mild moods, while the red,
blue and black belong to fierce forms, though sometimes light
blue, as indicating the sky, means merely celestial. Generally the
gods are pictured white, goblins red, and the devils black, like their
European relative.
The Buddhas and other divinities, as well as the superior
devils, are figured upon a lotus-flower, a symbol of divinity.
The lotus-flower, on which the Buddhas and mild divinities are
figured, is the red lotus (Nelumbium speciosum) ; while the fiercer
divinities, including frequently Avalokita, and all those demons
who are entitled to lotus-cushions, should have a pinkish variety
of the white lotus (Nymphma esculenta), the petals of which are
much notched or divided, so as to resemble somewhat the
Acanthus in Corinthian capitals. The blue lotus is the special
flower of Tara, but it is conventionally represented by the Lamas
as different from the Utpal (Nymphcea sp.), as figured on the oppo
site page.
A remarkable feature of most Tantrik Buddhist images is the
frequent presence of a Buddha seated on the head of the image
TABLE SHOWING
The Surmounting JINAS in Buddhist Images.

JINAS.

*
Vairocana.

Akshobhya.

Eatnasam- bhava.

Amitabha.

Amogha- siddoa.

Surmounted Buddhas.

Maitreya

Muni-vajrasan

Amitayus

Maitreya

Sur7nounted

P Samanta

Vajra-pani

Ratna-pani

Avalokita

Visva-papi

Bodhisats.

bhadra

Manju-gliosha

Pita Jambhala

Padma-pani

Prajna-para

(adhicakra)

Pita Vaisra-

Tara

mita
Jfianasattva
vana
(pita)
Manjusri
Vasudhara
Vetuda-Marici
Sita
" Kan-wa-
Mahasahasran
P raj na-paramita
bhadra "
Vijaya
Pita-Vijaya
Sita-Ushnlsha
Surmounted
Kaia-Tamari
Rakta-yakiha
Hayagriva
Kui*u-kulle
KltODHA-
Sasmuka-Yama
Krodha Avalo
Maha-
fiends.
Kala-Jambhala
Acala-Khroda
kita Pita
Brikuti
Mayuri
raja
(?*. . .'Kal-
«
Ri-klirn-lomii-
pa)
gyon mar
Kuru-kulle
"Hunmdsad"
' ' rTogs-pa las-
Khroda raja
jnnwa-
" San-nags rje
Ku.ru-
'dsin-ma "
kulla"
Maha-pratyan-
"gBilba tpal
gira
ch'en-mo "
LOTUSES— SURMOUNTING BUDDHAS.

339

or amidst the hair. The existence of such surmounting images
in the Tantrik Buddhist sculptures of India was noted by Dr.
Buchanan-Hamilton in his survey of Bihar x at the beginning of
this century, but since his time the subject has attracted only

as w - S"S|
Utpa1. Blue Lotus. White Lotus. Asok. Naga-tree.
LOTUSES and other flowers of conventional form.
the merest incidental notice of writers on Indian Buddhist an
tiquities,2 who seem to have considered all such images to be
figures only of Avalokita, because Hiuen Tsiang mentioned that a
certain image of Avalokita had Amitabha seated in his hair.
As the subject is interesting, and of some importance, I give
in the table the results of my study of a large series of Lamaist
pictures containing such figures, and descriptions of others ex
tracted from the works of Bandits " gZ'onnu " Gupta, Sritari,
Kalamtara, Lhan-skyes rolwa-kun-rigs, and Bhavaskandha.
The surmounting image represents the spiritual father of the
particular Bodhisat or deity ; and he nearly always is one or other
of the five Jinas, as the Tibetans term them,3 or the Buddhas
of Meditation (Dhyani-Buddha), as they are called by the
Nepalese Buddhists. In a few cases the coming-Buddha Maitreya
is figured with Sakya Muni on his head, as indicating spiritual
succession rather than parental relationship, but it is the latter
which is the rule.

1 Eastern India, i.
2 India Archaological Survey Repts., by Sir A. Cunningham ; West India Arch. S.
Repts., by J. Bubgess ; Catalogue of Archaolog. Collection in Indian Museum, by J.
Andebson. 3 rgyal-ba rigs-lha — or " The Pentad Victors." No one seems to hare noticed this
constant use by the Lamas of the word Jina for the celestial Buddhas, whom the
Nepalese term Dhyani-Buddha, though it is interesting in regard to Jainism in its
relations to Buddhism.
z 2

340

PANTHEON, SAINTS, AND IMAGES.

Occasionally the surmounting Jinas are represented by their
mystic emblems of a wheel, vajra, jewel, lotus, or visva-vajra, as
will be described presently. Thus Eatnasambhava is usually
represented by a jewel on the head of his spiritual reflex Jambhala,
the god of wealth. And it is to be noted that when, as often
happens, the image is surrounded by figures of the five Jinas in
an arc outside the halo, then its own special surmounting parent
occupies the central position in that arc, whilst the others are
placed two on each side at a lower level.

English Name.

Tibetan.

Sanskrit.

1. a pike

K'atvah

khatvanga

a trident

K'a- 'tvafi-rtse-gsum

trisula

2. hand-drum

Da-ma-ru

damaru

3. chisel-knife

Gri-gug

kartrika

4. thunderbolt

rDo-rje

vajra

5. cross-thunderbolt

sNa-ts'ogs rdo-rje

visva-vajra

6. rosary

Preh-ba

mala

7. Lotus-flower (white or

Pad-ma

red)

padma

blue lotus J

Ut-pal

utpal

Asoka-flower '
"Naga's tree "(cactus

Mya-nan-med pahi-shin

asoka

£Lu-shin

or coral) 1

naga-taru
8. alarm-staff
'K'ar-gail
hikile, or khakhara
begging-bowl
'Lun-bzed
patra
9. wish-granting gem
(Yid bz'in) Norbu
(cinta-) mani
10. flames
Me-ris
11. snare2
z'ags-pladril-bu
pasa
12. bell
ghanta
13. wheel
'K'or-lo
cakra
14. skull-cup
15. thunderbolt-dagger
T'od-k'rag
kapala
p'ur-bu
phurbu (?)
16. spear
17. club
gDun
Be-con
gada
18. dirk or dagger
'Chu-gri
19. sword
Ral-gri
adi
20. axe
dGra-sta
parasu (?)
21. hammer
T'o-ba mt'o-ba
mudgara
22. iron-goad
IC'ags-kyu
23. mace
Ben
24. thigh-bone trumpet
rKau-duh
25. conch-shell trumpet
Dun
saiikha
26. iron-chain
lChags-sgrog
27. skeleton-staff
dByug-pa
28. See No. 1 (a)
29. water-pot
Bum-pa
kalasa
anointing vase
sPyi-glugs
fly-whisk
rNa-yab
chauri
banner
rGyal-mts'an
dhvaja
1 See figures on previous page.
2 To rescue the lost or to bind the opponents.
Lakshmi.
A symbol of Siva, Varuna, and
INSIGNIA.

341

The objects or insignia which the several figures hold in their
hands refer to 'their functions. Thus, Manjusri, the god of
wisdom, wields the sword of the truth in dissipating the dark
ness of ignorance, and in his left he carries the book of Wisdom

Insignia and Weapons of the Gods, etc
upon a Lotus-flower, thus symbolizing its supernatural origin ; and
he rides upon a roaring lion to typify the powerfully penetrating
voice of the Law.

342 PANTHEON, SAINTS, AND IMAGES.
The chief of these insignia and other objects held in the hands
of the images are shown in the foregoing illustration \ and are
as follows ; the numbers in this list correspond to those in the
figures. We now can look into the details of the principal members of
the pantheon.
The vast multitude of deities forming the Lamaist pantheon is,
as already mentioned, largely created by embodying under differ
ent names the different aspects of a relatively small number of
divinities with changing moods. Such expressed relationship,
however, seems occasionally a gratuitous device of the Lamas in
order to bring some of their indigenous Tibetan deities into rela
tionship with the earher and more orthodox celestial Bodhisats of
Indian Buddhism. But the various forms have now all become
stereotyped, and even a trivial difference in title yields a different
form of image. Thus the images of " Maitreya " and " Bhrikuti "
differ much from those of " Bhadraka Maitreya " and " Arya Bhri-
kuti." And different writers differ in some of the minor details
in their description of some of these stereotyped forms. Thus we
have images described as " in the fashion of Nagarjuna," or of some
one or other celebrated Indian monk or Lama.
First in our classification come the Buddhas, human and celes
tial. I. The Buddhas.
The innumerable forms of the Buddhas, the fabulous terrestrial,
the celestial and metaphysical, are all, with a few exceptions, based
upon the five conventional attitudes ascribed to the historical
Buddha, as marking the chief episodes of his Buddhahood. And
of these " the Witness attitude " is in Tibet, as in Indian and
southern Buddhism, the most common. Additional varieties are
obtained by giving to these images different colours, ornaments,
and symbols. Almost all are sedent in the well-known cross-legged
attitude of Buddha's image ; few are standing, and the recumbent
or dying posture is very rarely seen in Tibet.
The typical Buddha is conventionally represented as a man of

1 After Pandeb, Panth., p. 108.

THE BUDDHAS. 343

the most perfect form and beauty.1 The face, usually of Aryan type
and unbearded, wears a placid and benign expression. The head
is bare, and the hair roughly tonsured and curly,2 with a protu
berance 3 on the crown or vertex upon which is sometimes repre
sented a diadem.4 He is clad in mendicant's garb, without any
jewellery. The shawl 5 usually leaves the right shoulder bare, ex
cept when representing him preaching or walking abroad in public.
He sits under the pipal-tree, the " Tree of Wisdom," upon a
cushion of lotus-flowers set upon a throne covered by a mat,6 sup
ported by lions or other animals, as a sort of heraldic shield. And
the throne is sometimes surmounted by a framework bearing at
its sides the figures of a rampant lion trampling upon an elephant,
and surmounted by a " water-lion," 7 topped by a garu^a-bird as
the centre-piece or keystone of the arch.
1. Sdkya Muni Bhagavdn.
T., S'akya-t'ub-pa bc'om-ldan 'das.
This typical form of the Buddha is figured as at page 6, but
the right hand should be in the pose of Akshobhya at page 336. It
represents Sakya Muni at the greatest epoch of his life, namely,
under the " Tree of Wisdom," at the instant of his attaining his
Buddhahood. He has the general characters of a Buddha as
already described. He has a golden complexion, with tonsured
indigo-coloured hair, and wears the three robes of a religious
mendicant, without any ornaments. He sits in "the indestructible "
pose, with right hand in " witness attitude," and sometimes a
begging-bowl rests on his lap. He is seated upon a cushion of

1 Possessing " the thirty beauties" and "the eighty secondary beauties." These
include a lotus mark.on each palm and sole.
2 The ragged contour of Sakya's cropped hair in his images is ascribed to his having
on his great .renunciation cut off his tresses with his sword. The cut locks of hair
were carried to heaven, where the gods enshrined them in "the tomb of the Jewelled
Tresses " (Cudamani Caitya), which is still a regular object of worship with Burmese
Buddhists. 3 Skt., Ushnisha ; Tib., Tsug-tor.
* Skt., Cuda. The peculiar flame-like process intended to represent a halo of
rays of light issuing from the crown, so common in Ceylon images, is not distinctly
represented by the Tibetans, and at most by a jewel.
5 Tib., Lagoi. 6 Tib., Ten-kab
i Described by Hiuen Tsiang, Beal's translation of Si-Yu-Ei, ii., p. 122.

344 PANTHEON, SAINTS, AND IMAGES.
sacrificial grass,1 set upon a lion-supported lotus-throne at the
spot at Buddh-Gaya, in Gangetic India, afterwards called " the
adamantine throne." 2 In this, his final struggle for the Truth,
the powers of darkness which assailed him are concretely repre--
sented as Mara, the demon of Desire, and his minions, and the
" three fires " of desire are still pictured as being above him.
Mara denies the good deeds in this and former lives, which
qualified Sakya Muni for the Buddhahood, and calls upon him to
produce his witness. Whereupon the embryo Buddha touches
the ground and instantly the old mother Earth, Dharitri or Dharti
Mata,3 appears riding upon a tortoise (symbolic of the earth),
bearing in her hand a "pantsa" garland, and she addresses the saint,
saying, " I am your Witness," — hence the name of this attitude of
Buddha, the "Earth-touching " or " Witness." The legend goes on
to relate that the earth-spirit, wringing her hair, caused a huge
river to issue therefrom, which swept away Mara and his hordes.
This episode of wringing the hair and the destruction of Mara and
his minions is frequently depicted in Burmese temples ; and the
custom amongst the Burmese of pouring water on the ground at
the conclusion of a religious service is, I am informed by a
Burmese monk, an appeal to the earth-spirit to remember and
bear witness to the particular good deed when men have forgotten
it. In the larger images of this form of Buddha he is frequently
figured with his two favourite disciples standing by his side, Sari-
putra on his right, and Maudgalyayana on his left.
This title of Bhagavdn, or " The Victorious," * is in Tibet the
most frequently used of all Buddha's titles, after Sakya Muni and
Tathagata. Other recognized forms of Sakya's image are : —
(a) Sakya in the four other sedent attitudes, and the standing and
dying, or the so-called " lion "-postures.
(b) Jo-wo Bin-po-che, " The Brecious Lord," as a young Indian
prince of sixteen.
(c) Vajrasan Muni (T'ub-pa rdo-rje gdan tso-'k'or-gsum).

1 Kusa (poa cynosuroides).
2 Vajrasana (T., rdo-rje-gdan, pron. Dorje-den).
3 Cf. Taylor's Primitive Culture, i., 326 ; ii., 270.
* Le bien-heureux (Burn., i., 71 ; and Jaesch., D., 147).

MYTHIC HUMAN BUDDHAS. 345
(d) T'ub-pa dam-ts'ig gsum-bkod (Band., No. 86).
(e) Bhagavan ekajata (Csoma's An., p. 591).
(f) Buddha-kapala (Sans-rgyas t'od-pa : Band., No. 69) — a very de
moniacal form.
And here also seem to come the mythological series of " The
Six Muni," the presidents of the six worlds of re-birth — see "Wheel
of Life." These appear to be identical with " The Six Jizb " of
the Japanese, though tbe "Jizo " are usually alleged to be forms
of Kshitigarbha. Here also should probably come " The King
of the powerful Nagas " * which seems to represent Buddha
defended by the Naga Muchilinda, who seems to be a historic
person, a helot (that is Naga) villager of Muchilinda, a hamlet
which adjoins Buddh-Gaya.
2. The Seven Heroic Buddhas (of the Past) 2 or Tathagatas?
This is a fabulous arrangement of human Buddhas, for none
of them are historical except the last, to wit, Sakya Muni. Yet
it was of early origin, as this series of images, and each of the
number with his special tree of wisdom, is found in the Stupa
of Barhut, which is assigned to about 150 B.C., and they are also
enumerated in the southern scripture, the Digha-nikdya.
In keeping with their imaginary character, all are given the most
extravagant size and duration of earthly life.4
Their number is sometimes extended to nine. The most cele
brated of the antecedent Buddhas is Dipamkara (Tib., Mar-me-
mdsad), " The Luminous." This imaginary Buddha is considered
by some of the Lamas to be the first of the series of the seven
earthly Buddhas preceding Sakya Muni, but by the Ceylonese he
is placed as the twenty-fourth predecessor.5 He is represented as
the first teacher of Sakya in one of the former births of the latter,
and a favourite Jataka-tale frequent in the Gandhara sculptures in
the British Museum, and as a current picture in Burmah shows

1 kLu-dbah-gi-rgyal-po ; Skt., Nagesvara raja. — His face is white and his body blue ;
he is sitting in rdo-rje skyil-kruh. Symb. — His two hands are in the mudra of han-
'gre-las-'don-par-mdsad-pa (or causing the animal beings to be delivered from misery)
and are held over the heart. He has no ornaments. Behind him is a screen and
flower and a seven-hooded snake canopy. Cf. Pander, p. 71.
2 Sahs-rgyas dpah-bohiduns. 3 De-bz'in gs'egs-pa.
4 Cf. Cs., An. ; Turner, J.A.S.B., viii., 789; Haedy's Man., 94.
» The Nepalese place him as the ninth predecessor of the historical Buddha (Hodgs.,
/., p. 135). Cf. Hoffmann in Siebold's Nippon Pantheon, v., 77. "The Twenty-four
Buddhas" are Dipamkara, Kaundinya, Mahgala, Sumanas, Raivata, Sobhita, (?) Ana-

346 PANTHEON, SAINTS, AND IMAGES.
the self-sacrifice of the embryo Sakya Muni in throwing himself
over a puddle to form a stepping-stone for the Buddha Dipamkara
(Sumedh?) — suggestive of Sir W. Baleigh's gallantry to Queen
Elizabeth under somewhat similar circumstances.
Dipamkara's image, which is figured in the Vajracedika,1 is
frequently perforated by innumerable sockets, into which small
lamps are set. This practice is evidently suggested by the
concrete rendering of his name as " the burning lamp."
The Seven Buddhas are usually enumerated as: —
1. Vipasyin (T., rNam-gzigs); hands "earth-touching" and "impartial."
2. Sikhin (T., gTsug-gtor-c'an) ; hands " best-bestowing " and " im
partial." 3. Visvabhu (T., T'am-ch'ad-skyob) ; hands "meditative."
4. Krakucandra (T., K'hor-wa-hjigs) ; hands " protecting " and " im
partial." 5. Kanaka-muni (T., gSer-t'ub) ; hands "preaching" and "im
partial." 6. Kasyapa (T., 'Od-sruns) has his right hand in " best bestowing " ;
and the left holds a piece of his robe resembling an animal's ear (see
figure on page 5). Each is dressed in the three religious garments, and
sits in the " unchangeable or adamantine " pose, or stands.
7. Sakya Muni (T., S'akya t'ub-pa) in "the preaching attitude."
" The Three Holy Ones " are seldom, if ever, concretely represented
in Tibet by Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha; nor have I found such
a triad figured in Indian Buddhism, though many writers have
alleged the existence of them, without, however, bringing forward
any proofs. A triad of large images often occupies the centre of
the Lamaist altar, the central one being usually the founder of the
particular sect to which the temple belongs, and the other two
varying with the whim of the local Lama.
THE CELESTIAL BUDDHAS.
The ideal origin of the celestial Buddhas has already been
referred to in the chapter on doctrine. The five celestial Bud
dhas were invented in the earlier theistic stage of Buddhism.
The first of the series seems to have been Amitabha, or "the
Boundless Light," a title somewhat analogous to the name of the
oldest of the mythical human Buddhas, " the Luminous " (Dipam
kara). This metaphysical creation first appears in works about the
vama-darsin, Padma, Narada, Padmottara, Sumedhas, Sujata, Priya-darsin, Artha-
darsin, Dharma-darsin, Siddharta, Tishya, Pushya, Vipasyin, Sikhin, Visvabhu,
Krakucandra, Kanaka-muni (or Konagamana), and Kasyapa.
1 Csoma, An.

CELESTIAL BUDDHAS. 347
beginning of our era, and seems to embody a sun-myth and to
show Bersian influence. For he was given a paradise in the west,
to which all the suns hasten, and his myth seems to have arisen
among the northern Buddhists when under the patronage of
Indo-Scythian converts belonging to a race of sun-worshippers.
Indeed, he is believed by Eitel and others to be a form of the
Bersian sun-god ; and he was made the spiritual father of the
historical Buddha.
Afterwards he was quintupled, apparently to adapt him to the
theory of the five earthly Buddhas, the coming one and the four
of the past, as well as to the other mystical groups of five — the five
senses, the five skandha^, the five virtues, five cardinal points
where the centre makes the fifth. And each one of these five
celestial Buddhas was made to preside over a particular direction, as
already detailed. Images of this series of Buddhas are found
amongst the lithic remains of India about the seventh century
A.D., if not earlier.
In the more developed theory, tending towards monotheism, a
First Great Cause, under the title of the primordial or Adi-Buddha,
is placed above these five celestial Buddhas as their spiritual
father and creator. And to this rank was promoted the first and
central one of the metaphysical Buddhas, namely, Vairocana, ". The
Omni-present " or his reflex Samantabhadra, " The All Good."
These three series of Buddhas are arranged according to the
mystical theory of the three bodies of Buddha (Tri kdya) ; x
namely, (a) the Dharma-kdya, or law-body, which has been
termed "essential wisdom (Bodhi) " and is self-existent and ever
lasting, and represented by Adi-Buddha, (b) Sambhoga-kdya or
adorned body, or reflected wisdom, represented by the celestial
Jinas, and (c) Nirmdna-kdya, or changeable body, or practical
wisdom represented by Sakya Muni and the other human
Buddhas. Though in a more mystic sense Sakya Muni is con
sidered to be an incarnate aggregate of the reflected wisdom of
all the five celestial Jinas.
But these five celestial Jinas were latterly held to unite also within
themselves both the forms of metaphysical bodies, both the Dharma-
kaya and the Sambhoga-kaya. Hence arose two series of their
images. 1 Cf. Hodgs.,-&s.., 27,58,64;- Koppen, ii., 25 ; Schlag., 51, 210 ; Eitel, Handb., passim.

348 PANTHEON, SAINTS, AND IMAGES.
The original series of these images of the strictly ascetic
Buddha-type was by a materializing of the word called the religious
(ascetic) or Dharma type — and such images may or may not
hold begging-bowls; while the other is literally represented as
"adorned bodies" (Sambhoga-kaya) in the same postures as the
foregoing, but adorned with silks and jewels, and wearing crowns,
like kingly Bodhisats. In this latter series, " the five Jinas " bear
individually the same names as their prototypes, except the
second and fourth, who are named respectively Vajrasattva (or
"the indestructible or adamantine-souled") and Amitdyus, or
"the boundless life," instead of Akshobhya, "the immovable,"
and Amitabha, " the boundless light." These alternative names,
however, it will be seen, empress very similar and almost synony
mous ideas.
Side by side with these developments arose the theory of celestial
Bodhisat sons. The celestial Jinas absorbed in meditation in
heaven could hold no contact with the sordid earth, so as agents for
the salvation and protection of mortal men and animals they evolved
sons, who, though celestial, were given active functions on the earth.
As in the other developments, this new theory first and most
firmly attached to those creations most intimately associated with
the historical Buddha. His celestial father, Amitabha, evolved the
celestial Bodhisat Avalokita or Badma-pani, who still remains the
most popular of all the celestial Bodhisats.
But the popular craving for creative functions in their gods led,
in the Tantrik stage, to the allotment of female energies to these
celestial Bodhisats. Thus Tara, the goddess of Mercy, was given to
Avalokita. And the extreme Tantrik development under the Kala
cakra system x awarded female energies also to each of the celestial
Buddhas, and even to the primordial Adi-Buddha himself.
Thus we have celestial Buddhas and Bodhisats and their female
energies. Of the celestial Buddhas there are the following series :
— (1) The primordial Buddha-god, or Zdi-Buddha. (2) The
five celestial Victors (Jina). (3) The adorned forms of these
latter, like kingly Bodhisats. (4) The Tantrik forms with ener
gies, mostly demoniacal Buddhas. And from several of these were
latterly evolved other forms with special attributes ; also medical
and other Buddhas. 1 In its Anuttara-yoga section.

CELESTIAL BUDDHAS. 349
The Primordial Buddha-God.1
As found in Lamaism, he is most actively worshipped by the old
or unreformed school, under the title of "The all-good religious
body." Skt., Dharma-kdya Samantabhadra ; Tib., Kun-tu bzan-po.
He is figured of a blue colour, and often naked, sitting in
Buddha fashion, with his hands in the meditative pose.
The established Lamaist church gives somewhat similar func
tions to Vajradhara, whom, however, they regard as a sort of celes
tial offshoot of Sakya Muni; while others of the semi-reformed
sects seem, like the Nepalese, to credit Vajrasattva with supreme
power as the primordial Buddha-god.
The Five Celestial Victors or Jina.
Skt., Pancajati Jina : T., rgyal-ba rigs-lna.
These are figured on page 336 2 ; and for the sake of clearness
and convenience of reference, I have tabulated (see following
page) the objective characters and relationships of these divinities.
All the forms sit in the same Buddha-like attitude,3 but the pose
of the hands is characteristic.
The technical description of their attitudes and colour is as
follows : —
Akshobhya (T., Mi-skyod-pa), blue in colour, has his right hand in
" witness " attitude and left in " impartial."
Vairocana (T., rNam-snah), white with hands in " best perfection ''
attitude. Batnasambhava (T., Bin-'byun), yellow, has his right hand in
" bestowing " attitude, and left in " impartial."
Amitabha (T., 'Od-pag-med), red, in " meditative " (Tin-ne-'dsin) atti
tude. Amogha-siddhi (T., Don-yod-</rub-pa), green, has his right hand in
"protecting " (skyabs-sbyin) attitude, and left in " impartial."
Each sits in the indestructible or " adamantine " pose, and differs
only from the images of the human Buddha in having no begging-bowl
in the lap.
In another and more common series, each is adorned with silks and
jewels like a kingly Bodhisat, see page 333.
Other Celestial Tantrik Jinas.
Another series of celestial Buddhas was formed by adorning the
five Jinas with a crown, silks, and jewels, like a kingly Bodhisat,
1 t'og-mahi Sahs-rgyas. 2 Conf. also Hodgson's figures from Nepal in Asiatic
Researches, xvi. 3 i.e., Vajra-palanga. See p. 335.

Table
The Objective
The Five CELESTIAL

Direction where
located.1

Names of the Jinas.

Mode of holding
hands.
(Mudra.)

Animal as
Throne-
Support. {Vahan.)

Colour.
(These seem
colours of
the five
elements —
not the
quarters.)

Symbolic
Objects or
Insignia.2

Central.

East.

South.

West.

North.

Vairocana
(j-Nam-par snah-
mdsad).

Akshobhya
(Mi-fokyorf-pa).

Eatnasambhava
(Rin-ch'en' byun-
grnas).

Amitabha
(*Nan-ba mthsJi-
yas, or, 'Od-dpag-
med).

Amogha-siddhi
(Don-yod-'orub-pa)

' Teaching," or,
' ' Turning the
Wheel of the Law. '
Dharma -cakra. 3

"Witness,"—
"touching the
f round."usparsa.

"Bestowing." Vara.

' Meditative. '
Dhydna.

Blessing of Fear
lessness. "
Abhaya.

Lion.

Elephant.

Horse.

Peacock.

" Shang-
shang, "
a winged
dwarf.
= ? Kin-

White
= space.

Blue
= air.

Wheel, Cakra.

Thunder bolt,
Vajra.

Golden- Jewel,
yellow Ratna.
= earth.

Bed
= light.

Green
= water.

Red Lotus,
Rakta-

Cross
Thunder bolt,

vajra.

N.B. — The Sanskrit names are in italics and the Tibetan equivalents in brackets.
i In magic-circles, however, the special form of the celestial Buddha to which the
2 This symbol is represented on the special Tantrik vajra, and bell of each of these
! This refers to the witness episode of Mara's temptation, see page 344.
* Being in the teaching attitude, Vairocana Buddha is held to be the Buddha who
1 He is usually made an emanation from all of the celestial Jinas. ,

Characters of
BUDDHAS or JINAS.

1 Essential or
"-Germ" Spell.
{Vija.)

" Adorned"
Active 'Reflex .
{Sambhogakaya.)

Female Reflex (?
Sahgha-prajnam
naya) or Energy.

Bodhisat Reflex, or
Spiritual Sons.
(Jinaputra.)

Earthly Reflex, a&
Buddha.
(Manuski Buddha.)

Om.

Hum.

Tram (or
Khram)

Hm.

Vairocana 2nd. Vajradhdtisvari (nam-mkah-
d&yids-p'ug-me).

Vajra-sattva
(rDo-rje-sems- "

Ratnasambhava 2nd

Amitdyus
(Tse-dpag-med).

A mogha-siddhi 2nd.

Locana.

Mdmakl.

? Pandard or Sita
(gos-dKar-mo).

. . . Tara
(dam-ts'ig-*groZ- ma).

Samantabhadra (Kuntu-zan-po).

Vajrapani
(p'yag-rdo'r).

Ratnapani
(p'ag-rin-ch'en).

A valohita — the
common title of
Padma-pavi
(sbyan ras-zigs).

Visvapani
(p'ag na-ts'og).

Krakucandra
fK'or-ba-'jigs).

Kanaka Muni
(g'ser-t'ub).

('Od-sruns).

Sakya Muni
(S'akya-t'ub-pa).1'

Maitreya
(Byam-pa).

Mandala is addressed occupies the centre.
Jinas and the colour of the vajra and bell are the same as that of the Jina they symbolize.

especially personifies Wisdom.

352 PANTHEON, SAINTS, AND IMAGES.
of " the mild deity " type. Of these the best kuown are Amitayus,
Vajradhara, and Vajrasattva.
" The Buddha of Infinite or Eternal Life," Skt., Amitayus
or Aparimitdyus ; Tib., Ts'e-dpag-med. He is, as figured at
pages 329 and 333, of the same form as his prototype Amitabha
Buddha, but he is adorned with the thirteen ornaments, and he
holds on his lap the vase of life-giving ambrosia.
Other forms of Amitayus are the four-handed white A., the red
A., the King A., Tantracarya A., and Bas-ch'un's A.
The following two divinities, esoteric so-called, are accorded by
the Lamas the position of Buddhas, though they are Bodhisat-
reflexes from or metamorphoses of Akshobhya, and they both
resemble in many ways their relative and probable prototype
Vajrapani : —
" The Adamantine or Indestructible-souled." (Skt., Vajrasattva ;
T., r Dor-je dSems-pa), The Everlasting.
" Tbe Indestructible or Steadfast holder." Skt., Vajradhara ;
T., rDorje 'Ch'aii).
He is figured at page 61, and holds a vajra and a bell. In tbe
exoteric cults he is called " the concealed lord " (Guhya-pati, T., Sah-
bahi'dag-po). He is a metamorphosis of Indra, and, like him, presides
over the eastern quarter, and he seems the prototype of most of those
creatures which may be called demon-Buddhas. And though, as
above noted, the established church regards this Buddha as a reflex
from Sakya Muni himself, it also views him as the presiding celestial
Buddha, analogous to the Adi-Buddha of the old school.1
Some Tantrik forms of Amogha-siddha, etc., are : —
Don-yod z'ags-pa (Fa., 96).
„ z'ags-pa sna-ts'ogs cZ6an-po.
„ lc'ags-kyu.
„ mch'od-pa'i nor-bu.
Other forms of celestial Buddhas and Bodhisats are : —
j-Do-rje mi-k'rugs-pa (Ba., No. 87).
Vajradhatu : rdor-dbyins (Ba., No. 77).
rNam-snan mnon-byan (Ba., No. 83).
Vajragarbha Jina : rGyal-ba riDo-rje sniii-po.
,, rin-c'hen-'od-'p'ro.
Surasena Jina : rGyal-ba cZpa'bo'i-sde, etc., etc.
(See Ba., p. 71 for about thirty more), and cf. Butsu dzo-dsui, p. 62, for
" the Secret Buddhas of the 30 days."
i Cf . Schl., 50 ; Koppen, ii., 28, 367 ; Hodqs., 27, 46, 77, 83 ; Schief. , Tara. , 300 ; Pand.,
No. 56.

MEDICAL BUDDHAS. 353

Demoniacal Buddhas.
The later Tantrik forms include many demoniacal Buddhas : —
Guhya-Kala (T., gSan-'dus).
Buddha Kapala, Sans-rgyas t'od-pa (Band., No. 69).
Vajrasana-mula, rDo-rje </dan-6zhi (Band., No. 70), etc.
The special relationships of the Buddhas to certain fiends is seen
in the foregoing table of surmounting Jinas.
The Thirty-five Buddhas of Confession.
These imaginary Buddhas or Tathagatas are invoked in the so-
called Confession of Sins.1 Their images are evolved by giving
different colours to the Buddhas in the five elementary sedent
attitudes. And they, together with " the thousand Buddhas," 2
may be considered as concrete representations of the titles of the
historical human Buddha.
The Highest Healers and Medical Tathagatas.
T., sMan-bla-bde-gs'egs brgy&d.
This is a very popular form of Buddha as " The supreme
physician," or Buddhist iEsculapius, and is probably founded upon
the legend of the metaphysical Bodhisat, " The medicine-king "
(Bhaisajyaraja), who figures prominently in several of the
northern scriptures as the dispenser of spiritual medicine. The
images are worshipped almost as fetishes, and cure by sympathetic
magic. The first of the series, namely, the beryl, or Beduriya
Buddha, is also extremely popular in Japan under the title of
"The lord Binzuru" (Binzura Sama), a corruption evidently, it
seems to me, of the Indian word " Beduriya," although the Japan
ese themselves3 believe it to be derived from Bbaradhvaja, one of
the sixteen Arhats.
These iEsculapic Buddhas are much worshipped in Tibet, in
ritual by pictures, seldom by images as in Japan, where, as the
latter are so much consulted by the people, and also doubtless
owing to their essentially un-Buddhist character, they are usually

1 Dig-pa t'am-c'ad s'ag-par ter-choi, details in Schlag., p. 123 seq. It is not to
be confused with the section of the Pratimoksha, properly so called.
2 See list of Buddha's thousand names by Prof. Schmidt, B. Ac, St. Petersbg.
3 Banyio Nanjio, Chamberlain's Handbook to Japan. A A

354 PANTHEON, SAINTS, AND IMAGES.
placed outside the central shrine. The supplicant, after bowing
and praying, rubs his finger over the eye, ear, knee, or the particu
lar part of the image corresponding to the patient's own affected
spot, and then applies the finger carrying this hallowed touch to
the afflicted spot. The constant friction and rubbing of this rude
worship is rather detrimental to the features of the god.
This group of medical Buddhas is figured in Schlagintweit's
atlas, but erroneously under the title of " Maitreya." They are : —
1. Sans-?-gya« sman-gyi ola Bedurya'i 'Od-Kyi rgyal-po, or, " King of
beryl-light, the supreme physician Buddha." Like all of the series, he
is of Buddha-like form, garb, and sedent attitude. He is indigo-
coloured ; his right hand is in mch'og-sbyin pose, and in his palm he
holds the golden Arura fruit (myrobalans). His left hand is in mfiam-
6z'ag pose, and holds a begging-bowl of Bai-dur-ya (beryl-stone). Cf.
Butsu Yakushi in Butsu-dzo-dsui, p. 26 ; Schf., Leben, 84; Band., No. 142.
2. mNon-mk'yen-rgyal-po is red in colour, with hands in mch'og-
«byin and miiam-bz'ag pose. Of, Band., No. 141.
3. Ch'os-sgrags-rgya-mts'o'i-dbyans is red in colour, with hands in
/wch'og-sbyin and mnam-Jz'ag pose. Of. Band., No. 140.
4. Mya-nan-med-mch'og-cZpal is light red in colour, with both hands
in mfiam-6z'ag pose. Cf. Band., No. 139.
5. grSer-Szah-dri-med is yellowish-white in colour, with right hand in
ch'os-'ch'ad mudra, and his left in mnain-oz'ag pose. Of. Band., No. 138.
6. Bin-ch'en-zla-wa (or sgra-dbyans) is yellow-red in colour; his
right hand is in ch'os-'ch'ad, and his left in mnam-oz'ag pose. Cf Band
No. 137.
7. mtsh'an-legs yohs-grags dpal is yellow in colour. His right hand
is in ch'os-'ch'ad, and his left in mfiam-oz'ag pose. Cf. Band. No. 136.
And in the centre of the group is placed, as the eighth, the image
of Sakya Muni.
In this relation it is rather curious to note that some cele
brated Europeans have come to be regarded as Buddhas. "The
common dinner-plates of the Tibetans, when they use any, are of
tin, stamped in the centre with an effigy of some European ce
lebrity. In those which I examined I recognized the third Napo
leon, the Brince and Brincess of Wales, and Mr. Gladstone, all
supposed by the natives to represent Buddhas of more or less
sanctity." 1 II. Bodhisats (Celestial).
These are the supernatural Bodhisats, the active reflexes from
the relatively impassive celestial Buddhas. The human Bodhi-

1 Babee, Sicpp. Papers, Eoyal Geog. Soc. , p. 200.

CELESTIAL BODHISATS. 355
sats, or the saints, are referred by me to. the end of the pantheon,
though the Lamas usually place them above the dii minores, and
many of them next to the celestial Bodhisats themselves.
The Lamas head the list with the metaphysical Bodhisat of
wisdom, Manjusri ; but following what appears to be the order of
development of these divinities, I commence with Maitreya, the
coming Buddha, who, indeed, is the only Bodhisat known to
primitive Buddhism and to the so-called " southern " Buddhists
of the present day, the Burmese, Ceylonese, and Siamese ; though
the Lamas place him fourth or later in their lists, giving priority
to tbe especially active Bodhisats which the Mahayana created, the
mythical Manjusri, Vajrapani, and Avalokita, whom they have
made their defensores fidei of Lamaism, with the title of " The
three lords " * and given functions somewhat like the analogous
triad of Brahmanism, Brahma, Siva and Vishnu.
The female Bodhisats, Tara, etc., are given towards the end of tbe
list, though they might more naturally have been placed beside
their consorts.
Maitreya, " The loving one," the coming Buddha or Buddh
ist Messiah. T., Byams-pa (pr. " Jam-pa " or " Cham-pa.")
He is usually represented adorned like a prince,2 and sitting on
a chair in European fashion with legs down, teaching the law.3 He
is at present believed to be in the Tushita heaven. His image is
frequently rock-carved or built in colossal form several storeys
high in Tibet, as he is credited with gigantic size.
Manjusri or Manjughosha, " The sweet-voiced," the god of
wisdom or Buddhist Apollo, and figured at page 12. T., 'Jam-
pahi dbyans (pr. Jam-yang).
He is "Wisdom deified, and seems a purely metaphysical creation
unconnected with any of his later namesakes amongst . the
Buddhist monks in the fourth or fifth centuries of our era, or
later. His chief function is the dispelling of ignorance. He
presides over the law, and with his bright sword of divine know
ledge* cuts all knotty points, and carries in his left the bible of
transcendental Wisdom, the Brajna-paramita, placed upon a lotus-
flower.6 He is the especial patron of astrology. In keeping with
his pure character he is strictly celibate, one of the few of the
1 Rig-sum mgon-po, the Lamaist Trimurti. " Of the mild, z'i-wa type.
3 Cf. Pand., No. 151. 4 Ses-rab ral-gri 5 Cf. Koppen, ii., 21.
A A 2

356 PANTHEON, SAINTS, AND IMAGES.
Mahayana deities who is allotted no female energy.1 He usually
sits, as in the figure, in the Buddha attitude. He is given several
other modes.
Most of the countries where northern Buddhism prevails have
their own special Manjusri. Thus China has a quasi-historical
Manjusri of about the fifth century a.d., located near the U-tai
Shan shrine; and Nepalese Buddhism has another of the same
name as its tutelary saint.2
Vajrapani, " The wielder of the thunderbolt," a metamor
phosis of Jupiter (Indra)3 as the spiritual son of the second celestial
Buddha, Akshobhya. T., p'yag -na-rdo-rje (pronouced chana-dorje
or chak-dor.)
He is figured at page 13, and of the fierce fiend type, black or
dark blue in colour, and wields a Vajra (rdo-rje) in his uplifted right
hand, while in his left he holds a bell or snare or other implement
according to his varying titles, of which there are fifteen or more.4
Hiuen Tsiang mentions his worship in India in the seventh
century a.d.5
Avalokita (or Avalokitesvara or Mahdkaruria), " The keen
seeing lord, the great pitier and lord of mercy." T., spyan-ras-
gzigs (pr. Chd-rd-zi), T'ugs-rje-ch'en-po.
His origin and various forms I have described in some detail
elsewhere.6 The spiritual son of the celestial Buddha Amitabha,
he is the most powerful and popular of all the Bodhisats, and the
one which the Dalai Lamas pretend to be the incarnation of.
Other forms of this deity are Padma-pdni, the Lotus-handed
Khasarpdni, Sihhanada (T., sen-ge-sgra), the Eoaring Lion,
Hala-hala, Arya-pala (" Aryabolo "), etc.
Avalokita, being a purely mythological creation, is seldom like
Buddha represented as a mere man, but is invested usually with
monstrous and supernatural forms . and attributes. The earliest
Indian images of Avalokita yet found by me, dating to about the
1 Though the Prajna, must be somewhat of this character.
2 Cf. Archasol.W.Ind., 9, xxvi., 18. Pa., No. 145.
3 Dyaush-pitar, or heavenly father of . the Hindus, becomes " Jupiter " or " Pies-
piter " of the Romans, and " Zeus " of the Greeks.
* Cf. for more common form, Arch. W.Ind., 9, xxvii., 23, and Pa., 84, 146, 169,
170, 171.
5 Beal's trans., ii.
° J.R.A.S., 1894, p. 51, et seq., wher« twenty-two forms are described.

AVALOKITA OR PADMA-PANI. 357
sixth century a.d., clearly show that Avalokita's image was
modelled after that of the Hindu Creator Prajdpati or Brahma ;
and the same type may be traced even in bis monstrous images
of the later Tantrik period, and his images usually bear Brahma's
insignia, the lotus and rosary, and often the vase and book. His
commonest forms found in Tibet are :
The Four-handed form, see figure on page-228. This repre
sents him as a prince, with the thirteen ornaments, of white com
plexion, and sitting in the Buddha posture with the front pair of
bands joined in devotional attitude (and often as clasping a jewel);
while the upper hand holds a crystal rosary, and the left a long-
stemmed lotus-flower, which opens on the level of his ear.1
His monstrous eleven-headed form is figured at page 15.- It is
usually standing. In addition to the double pair of hands, it has
others carrying weapons to defend its votaries. It represents the
wretched condition of Avalokita when his head split into pieces
with grief at seeing the deplorable state of sunken humanity.
But this form, too, seems based on the polycephalic Brahma.2
The eleven heads are usually arranged, as in the figure, in the
form of a cone, in five series from below upwards, of 3, 3, 3, 1 and
1, and the topmost head is that of Amitabha, the spiritual father
of Avalokita. Those looking forward wear an aspect of 'benevo
lence ; the left ones express anger at the faults of men; while the
right faces smile graciously at tbe good deeds or in scorn at evil
doers. This form is frequently given a thousand eyes, a concrete
materialistic expression of tbe name Avalokita, " He who looks
down" or Samanta-mukha, "He whose face looks every way."3 The
fixing of the number of eyes at one thousand is merely expressive
of multitude, and has no precise numerical significance. And un
like the thousand-eyed god of Brahmanic mythology— Indra —
Avalokita's extra eyes are on his extra hands, which are symbolic
of power, and most of their hands are stretched forth to save the
wretched and tbe lost. The eye, which is ever on the look-out to
1 Cf. A.W.I., xxvi., p. 17; Pa., No. 147 and my Art. J.R.A.S., loc. cit.
2 Cf. my art. above cited. The head-splitting is associated with the presence of an
obstacle, in early Buddhist works. Thus in the Dialogues of Menander (Milinda,
Rhys Davids' trans., p. 222), in regard to the raiser of an obstacle it is said, " then
would his head split into a hundred or into a thousand pieces."
3 Cf. Bubnouf's Lotus, p. 428 ; Beal's Catena, 384.

358 PANTHEON, SAINTS, AND IMAGES.
perceive distress, carries with it a helping hand — altogether a most
poetic symbolism. Of this type there are many modes, differing
mainly in colour and degrees of fierceness.
The other supernatural male Bodhisats1 are not so commonly
met with. The chief are :
Samantabhadra, " The all good." T., Kuntu-bzan-po.
He is figured at page 14,2 and is the son of the celestial Buddha
Vairocana, and is to be distinguished from the Adi-Buddha of the
same name. He is of the " mild " type, and usually mounted on
an elephant, and he is frequently associated with Manjusri3 as
attendant on Buddha.
Kshitigarbha, "The matrix of the earth."4
T., Sa-yi sfiin-po.
Akdsagarbha, " The matrix of the sky."
T., Nam-k'ahi-nin-po.'
Sarva nivarana vishkambhini. T., sgBib-pa rnam sel.e
(? Jndnaguru), Master of divine foreknowledge.7
T., Ye-s'es bla-ma.
(? Prabhdketu), The crown of light.8
T., 'Od-kyi-tog.
Pranidhdnamati. T., sMon-lam blo-gros.9
Sdntendra, The foundation of power.10
T., dbAh-po z'i.
FEMALE BODHISATS.
The chief and most active of the supernatural female Bodhisats
or " energies " are Tara and Marici.
Tara, The saviour, or deliverer. T., sgBol-ma (pr.' Do-ma).
She is the consort of Avalokita, who is now held to be incarnate
in the Dalai Lamas, and she is the most popular deity in Tibet,
1 For description of some of these in the Ajanta caves, see art. by me in Ind.
Antiquary, 1893.
2 From the Japanese Butzu Dz6-dsui, p. 127. The form figured, which is generally
like that in Lamaism, is entitled Samantabhadra-Yama. Cf. also W. Anderson's Cat.,
p. 81, No. 57.
3 Cf . Pand., No. 152, and No. 55. The Japanese call him Fugen.
4 Fig. Pand., No. 148. « Fig. Pand., No. 150.
c Fig. Pand., No. 149. 7 Fig. Pand., No. 153.
s Fig. Pand., No. 154. » Fig. Pand., No. 155.
io Fig. Pand., No. 156.

TARA, THE SAVIOURESS.

359

both with Lamas and laity. She corresponds to the goddess
of mercy and queen of heaven (Kwan-yin) l of the Chinese, and
has her literal analogy in biblical mythology (see the heading
to this chapter), and she has several analogies with "the Virgin ; " 2
but she is essentially Indian in origin and form.
Her most common form is " the green Tara," and much less
common is " the white Tara," whose worship is almost confined to
the Mongols. Her other numerous forms, of which the names of
" the twenty-one " are daily on the lips of the people, are seldom
pictured, except the fiendish form Bhrikuti?
The green Tara. T., sgEol-ma ljan-k'u — pronounced Dol-jang.
She is represented (see the figure) as a comely and bejewelled
Indian lady with uncovered head, and of a green complexion,
seated on a lotus, with her

left leg pendant, and hold
ing in her left hand a long-
stemmed lotus-flower.
The white Tara. T.,
sgBol-ma dkar-po — or
sgBol-dkar (pr. D6-kar).
She is figured (see p. 23)
as an adorned Indian lady
with a white complexion,
seated Buddha-like, and
the left hand holding a
long-stemmedlotus-flower.
She has seven eyes, the
eye of foreknowledge in
the forehead, in addition
to the ordinary facial pair,
and also one in each
palm and on each sole.
Hence she is called " The
seven-eyed white Tara."

"SIE

f'vr^-'gT;**-

Taba, the Green.
She is believed by the Mongols to be incarnate in the White Czar.
Tara with the frowning brows — Bhrikuti Tara. T., kKo-gner-
gyo-ba-hi sgEol-ma (pronounced T'o-nyer-chan).
1 Or in Japanese Ewan-non, a translation of "Avalokita."
2 For note on Tara's origin, see my article in J.R.A.S., 1894, pp. 63, etc.
8 For detailed description of twenty-seven forms, see ibid.

360

PANTHEON, SAINTS, AND IMAGES.

This Tara is dark indigo-coloured, and usually with three faces,
all frowning.

The Twenty-one Tabas.
The list of the names of " tbe twenty-one Taras " given below,1
and known to almost all lay Tibetans, indicates many of her
attributes.

1 Titles of "The
1-. Tara, the supremely valiant (Pra-
sura Tara).
2. „ of white-moon brightness
(Candrojasa Sita Tara).
3. „ the golden coloured (Gauri
T).
4. „ the victorious hair-crowned
(Vshnishahiaya T.).
5. „ the " Huh "-shouter (Humdd
T).
6. „ the three-world best worker.
7. „ suppressor of strife.
8. ,, the bestower of supreme
power.
9. „ the best providence.

Twenty-one Taras."
10. Tara, the dispeller of grief.
11. „ the cherisher of the poor.
12. „ the brightly glorious.
13. „ the universal mature worker.
14. „ with the frowning brows
(Bhrikuti Tara).
15. „ the giver of prosperity.
16. ,„ the subduer of passion.
17. „ the supplier of happiness
(Sar'siddhi T.).
18. „ the excessively vast.
19. „ the dispeller of distress.
20. „ the advent or realization
spiritual power (SiddhdrtdTdrd).
21. „ the completely perfect.

TUTELARIES AND MARICI.

361

Marici, The resplendent. T., 'Od-zer 'c'an-ma.
She was originally the queen of heaven, a Buddhist Ushas, or
goddess of the dawn, a metamorphosis of the sun as the centre
of energy, curiously coupled with the oriental myth of the primaeval
productive pig. In another aspect she is a sort of Brosperine, the
spouse of Yama, the Hindu Bluto.
While in her fiercest mood she is
the consort of the demon-general,
"The horse-necked Tamdin" a
sort of demoniacal centaur. In
another mode she is " The adam
antine sow" (Sk.t.,Vajra-vdrdhi;
T., rDo-rje B'ag-mo), who is
believed to be incarnate in the
abbess of the convent on the
great Balti lake,1 as already de
scribed. In her ordinary form she has - -+- \
three faces and eight hands, of i^j-^-*s.-c<^c*(

Marici, or Varahi.
(or " The Diamond Sow.")

which the left face is that of a
sow. The hands hold various
weapons, including an araju, axe, and snare. She sits in " the en
chanting pose " upon a lotus-throne drawn by seven swine,2 as in
the figure. III. TUTELARIES.
Although the tutelaries (T.,Yi-dam) belong to different classes
of divinities, it is convenient to consider them together under one
group. The important part played by tutelaries in every-day life, their
worship, and the mode of coercing them, have already been
described. The qualifications demanded in a tutelary are activity com
bined with power over the minor malignant devils. Thus most of
the superior celestial Buddhas and Bodhisats may be, and are,
tutelaries. But the favourite ones are the great demon-kings,

1 Cf. Chapters x. and xi., and also Giorgi.
2 Cf. Pand., No. 163, whose figure is reproduced above.

362 PANTHEON, SAINTS, AND IMAGES.
and also some of the inferior fiends who have been promoted in
diabolic rank for their adherence to the cause of Buddhism.
All the five celestial Jinas are tutelaries, but it is their Tan
trik forms, such as Vajrasattva and Vajradhara, and Amitayus,
which are especially utilized in this way ; and most common of all
are those who have consorts (sakti), as these are considered to be
most energetic.
Of the Bodhisats, those most common as tutelaries are Ava
lokita and Manjusri, the demon Vajrapani, Tara, and Marici.
The demon-kings, however, are the favourite ones. They are
repulsive monsters of the type of the Hindu devil Siva.1 These
morbid creations of the later Tantrism may be considered a sort of
fiendish metamorphoses of the supernatural Buddhas. Each of
those demon-kings, who belong to the most popular section of
Lamaist Tantrism — the Anuttara yoga — has a consort,2 who is
even more malignant than her spouse.
There are several of these ferocious many-armed monsters, all
of the fiercest fiend type already described, and all much alike in
general appearance. But each sect has got its own particular
tutelary-demon, whom it believes to be pre-eminently powerful.
Thus the established church, the G-e-lug-pa, has as its tutelary
Vajra-bhairava, though several of the individual monks have Sam-
bhara and Guhyakala as their personal tutelaries.
Vajra-bhairava, or " The Fearful thunderbolt." (T., rDo-rje-
'jigs-byed). See figure on opposite page.
This is a form of Siva as the destroyer of the king of the dead,
namely, as YamdntaJca. Yet with truly Lamaist ingenuousness this
hideous creature is believed to be a metamorphosis of the mild and
merciful Avalokita. His appearance will best be understood from
his picture here attached.3 He has several heads, of which the
lowest central one is that of a bull. His arms and legs are in
numerable, the former carrying weapons, and the latter trample
upon the enemies of the established church.
It will be noticed that these writhing victims are represented

1 As in the type also of the " Pancha Raksha."
2 Skt., Matrikd, or mother ; T., Yum, and the pair are called "the father-mother," T.,
Yab*yum. s After Pander, No. 61, which see for some details.

TUTELAR Y-DEMONS.

363

of the four ancient classes of beings, namely, gods, men, quadru
peds, and birds.
Others of these tutelary devils are : —
Samvara (T., bDe-mch'og '), the chief of happiness, also called dpal-
'k'or-lo-sdom-pa Guhyukala (T., gSan-'dus2), "the secret time."
Vajra-phurba, the phurba-tlx\va.Aer\>o\t.
Dub-pa-kah-gye (or ? dGyes-pa-dorje).
These are the tutelary fiends of the Kar-gyu, Sa-kya, and the
unreformed Nin-ma sects respectively. Others are He-vajra (Kye-

Vajra-bhairava.
(Tutelary ftend of established church.)
rdorje), Buddhakapala (Sans-gyas-t'od-pa), Yama (gsin-rje), but they
do not here require special description.
IV. Defenders of the Faith.
Skt., Dharmapdla ; T., Ch'os-skyon.
These are the demon-generals or commanders-in-chief who
execute the will of the tutelaries— tbe demon-kings. In appear-

1 Pand,, No. 63, and Csoma, An., p.

2 Pand., Nos. 62 and 68.

364

PANTHEON, SAINTS, AND IMAGES.

ance they are almost as hideous and fierce as their fiendish
masters, and each commands a horde of demons.
They are of the fiercest fiend type (the Drag-po and To-wo)
already described. The females are metamorphoses of the Hindu
fiendess, Kali Devi. A few local country gods have also been pro
moted to the position of defenders of the faith.
Of those of tbe Drag-po or To-wo type, the chief are : — ¦
" The horse-necked (fiend)," Skt., Hayagriva ; T., rTa-mgrin,
pron. Tam-din. He is figured as shown here,1
with a horse's head and neck
surmounting his other heads.
There are many varieties of him2;
see also his figure at p. 62.
" The immoveable," Skt.,
Acala ; T., Mi-gyo-ba.
He is also found in the Japanese
Buddhist pantheon as "Fu-do."3
" The slayer of the death-
king," Skt., Yamamdri,* T.,
yS'in-rj e gs'ed, a form of Bhairava,
£ jzn, -OiX) J$' S'?iS)^r and held to be incarnate in the
Tam-din Dalai Lama as the controller of
f(General tutelary of established church.) metempsychosis.
" The Goddess or The queen of the warring weapons."
Lha-mo (or pal-ldan-Lha-mo) ; Skt., Devi (or Sri-Devi). And
also, in Tibetan, dMagzor rgyal-mo.
This great she-devil, like her prototype the goddess Durga of
Brahmanism, is, perhaps, the most malignant and powerful of all
the demons, and the most dreaded. She is credited with letting
loose the demons of disease, and her name is scarcely ever men
tioned, and only then with bated breath, and under the title of
" The great queen " — Maha-rani.
She is figured, as at page 334,6 surrounded by flames, and riding

i After Pander.
2 Cf. Pa., No. 166, 167, 168, 213.
3 Cf. Chamberlain's Handbook to Japan. Pand., No. 174.
* Cf. Pander, No. 212.
3 After Pander, No. 148. Cf. Schlas., 112.

DEMON-PROTECTORS. 365
on a white-faced mule, upon a saddle of her own son's skin flayed
by herself. She is clad in human skins and is eating human
brains and blood from a skull ; and she wields in her right hand a
trident-rod. She has several attendant " queens " riding upon
different animals.
She is publicly worshipped for seven days by the Lamas of all
sects, especially at the end of the twelfth month, in connection with
the prevention of disease for the incoming year. And in the cake
offered to her are added amongst other ingredients the fat of a
black goat, blood, wine, dough and butter, and these are placed in
a bowl made from a human skull.
THE LORD-DEMONS.
T., mGbn-po ; Skt., Ndtha.1
These form a class of demon-generals, of the fiercest Drag-po
type. Each Lamaist sect has chosen one as its defender, whom it
claims to be pre-eminently powerful, thus : —
" The six-armed lord," 2 T., mGon-po p'yag-drug, is the chief
minister of the tutelary fiend of the established church.
"The lord of the black cloak," or "The four-armed lord,"
T., mGon-po Gur, is the general of the tutelary Samvara of the
Kar-gyu-pa sect. And he is the fiend-general of the old unre
formed sect — the Nin-ma-pa. He is figured at page 70.
These " lords " are said to number seventy-five. Several of them
are referred to in regard to their masks in the chapter on the
mystic play. The highest is the bird-faced Garuda. Other
important ones are : —
"The lord of foreknowledge," T., ye-ses mGon-po; Skt.,
Jnanandtha; and formerly called " The devil Mata-ruta."
" The black lord." T., mGon-po Nag-po ; Skt., Kdldndtha.
"The great potent sage." T., bLo-c'an dban-p'ug-ch'en-po.
Both of these latter bear titles of the Hindu Siva, Mahakala.

1 This name suggests relationship with the " Nats " of the Burmese Buddists, though
most of these Nats are clearly Hindu Vedic deities, and as their number is said to be
37, probably they are the 33 Vedic gods of Indra's heaven plus the four-fold Brahma
or the four guardians of the quarter. For list of the Nats cf. App. by Col. Sladen in
Anderson's Mandalay to Momein, p. 457.
2 Pand., No. 230.

366 PANTHEON, SAINTS, AND IMAGES.
Dakkinis, or Furies.
T., mkah-'gro-ma, or " Sky-goer " ; Skt., Khecara.
These Dakkinis are chiefly consorts of the demoniacal tutelaries,
and the generals of the latter. Many of them seem to be of an
indigenous nature like the Bon-pa deities. One of the most
common is " The lion-faced " (Sen-gehi-67don-c'an). Several others
are described and figured by Bander.1
Here also may be placed the eight goddesses, who are probably
metamorphoses of " the eight mothers." They encircle the
heavens and are figured in many of the magic-circles, usually of
beautiful aspect and with the following characters : —
1. Lasya (T., sGeg-mo-ma), of white complexion, holding a mirror
and in a coquettish attitude.
2. Mala (T., Bren-ba-ma), of yellow colour, holding a rosary.
3. Gitd (T., grLu-ma), of red colour, holding a lyre symbolizing
music. 4. T., Gar-ma, of green colour, in a dancing attitude.
5. Pushpa (T., Me-tog-ma), of white colour, holding a flower.
6. Dhupa (T., oDug-spos ma), of yellow colour, holding an incense-
vase. 7. Dipa (T.,^Nah-grsal-ma), of red colour, holding a lamp.
8. Gandha (T., Dri-ch'a-ma), of green colour, holding a shell-vase of
perfume. V. GODLINGS AND ANGELS.
These DU minores are the gods and lesser divinities of Aryan
and Hindu mythology, degraded to this low rank on account of
their inclusion within the wheel of metempsychosis, and from their
leading lives only partially devoted to Buddhist duties. The
morality of these gods is, generally, of a higher order than their
counterparts in the Greek or Boman mythology.
Collectively they are called " The eight classes," and are made
subordinate to the tutelary-fiends and their generals ; and in the
order of their rank, are thus enumerated2 : —
1. The Gods— Skt., Deva; T., Lha.
2. Serpent-demigods (mermaids) — Naga ; kLu.

1 Nos. 127, 187, 188, 189, 191, 192, 223, 224, 226, 227, 228.
Cf. Bournouf,

G0DL1NGS AND ANGELS. 367
3. Genii — Yaksha ; gNod-sbyin.
4. Angels — Gandharva ; Dri-za.
5. Titans — Asura ; Lha-ma-yin.
6. Bhoenix — Garuda; Namk'ah-ldin.
7. Celestial musicians — Kinnara ; Mi-'am-c'i.
8. TheGreatReptiles(creepers),.Mia/iora<7a.,- ITo-'bye-ch'en-po.
The Gods are the thirty-three Vedic gods, which have already
been described as regards their general characters.1 They are
usually figured, like earthly kings of the " mild deity " type, on
lotus-thrones. The chief gods are made regents or protectors of
the quarters; though in the later legends they have delegated
these duties to subordinates, the " kings of the quarters '' ; see
page 84.
The great Indra (Jupiter, T., br&ya-byin), on the east.
Yama (Bluto, T., gSin-rje), on the south.
Varuna (Uranus, T., Ch'a-'lha2), on the west.
Kuvera (Vulcan3, T., gNod-sbyin), on the north.
The remainder of the ten directions are thus apportioned : —
S.E. to Agni (Ignis, the fire-god ; T., Me-lha), or Soma the
moon or Bacchus.
S.W. to Nririti (the goblin ; T., Srin-po).
N.W. to Marut (the storm-god ; T., rLun-lha).
N.E. to Isa (T., dbAng-ldan).
Nadir to Ananta (or "mother-earth"; T., 'Og-gis-bdag).
Zenith to Brahma (Ts'ans-pa4).
The first and the last of the above, namely, Indra and Brahma,
are represented as attendant on Buddha at all critical periods of
his earthly life — the former with a third and horizontal eye in the
forehead, acting as his umbrella-carrier, and the latter usually four-
handed and headed, carrying the vase of life-giving ambrosia. The
Brahmanical god Vishnu is called K'yab-'jug.
Yama (T., S'in-rje), the Hindi! Bluto, the judge of the dead
and controller of metempsychosis, is the most dreaded of these

1 They comprise eleven Rudras, eight Vasus, and twelve Adityas.
2 The god of the Waters, formerly the god of the Sky.
3 Kuvera or Vaisravana "the renowned" is identified by Genl. Cunningham with
the Greek Hephaestus, and the Homeric epithet Periklutos always applied to Vulcan.
4 Also Me-mjad kyi bdag-po, or Master of the Universe.

368 PANTHEON, SAINTS, AND IMAGES.
divinities. He is represented in the Wheel of Life as the central
figure in hell ; but he too has to suffer torment in his joyless
realm. His special emblem is a bull; thus the great tutelary
demon Vajra-bhairava, by having vanquished the dread Yama, is
represented with the head of a bull under the title of Yamantaka
or " the conqueror of Yama."
The most favourite of the godlings is the god of wealth,
Jambhala, a form of Kuvera or Vaisravana. He is of portly form
like his relative or prototype, the Hindu Ganesa. In his right
hand he holds a bag of jewels, or money, or grain, symbolic of
riches, and in his left an ichneumon or " mongoose,"1 which is the
conqueror of snakes — the mythical guardians of treasure.
The Nxga or Dragon-demigods are the mermen and mermaids
of the Hindu myth and tbe demons of drought. They are of four
kinds: (1) celestial, guarding the mansions of the gods; (2)
aerial, causing winds to blow and rain to fall for human benefit ; (3)
earthly, marking out the courses of the rivers and streams ; (4)
guardians of hidden treasures, watching the wealth concealed
from mortals.
The Nagas are usually given the form of snakes, as these inhabit
the bowels of the earth, the matrix of precious stones and metals;
while in their character of rain-producers they are figured as
dragons. From their fancied association with treasure they are
often associated with the god of wealth, Vaisravana and his
mode Jambhala. Indeed, the great Naga king Mahakala, the
" Dai Koko " of the Japanese, seated on his rice-bales, like our
chancellor of the exchequer on his wool-sack, and his attendant
rats as symbols of prosperity, form almost a facsimile of the
Buddhist god Jambhala, who, like his prototype Ganesa, seems
of Naga origin. Indeed, one of his titles is " lord of the water "
(Jalendra)? The Naga community, like the human, is divided
into kings, nobles, and commoners, Buddhists and non-Buddhists.3

1 Skt., Nakula; T., Ne-'ule. Herpestes sp. ( ppharaonis). It is figured vomiting jewels.
2 Cf. also Beal's Catena, 417.
s The Naga kings Nanda, Upananda, Sagara, Dritarasa, and Anavataptu are
Buddhists and therefore exempt from attack by Garudas. For many particulars
regarding Nagas, cf. Meglia-Sutra, transl. by Prof. C. Bendall, J.R.A.S., 1880, pp. 1
seq. ; Beal's Catena, 50, etc. ; Schiefner's trans, of the kLu-'bum dKar-po ; also my list
of Naga kings and commoners, J.R.A.S., 1894.

COUNTRY-GODS. 369

Of the remaining classes, the Yaksha and Asura have already
been described. The female Yaksha — the Yakshini — are the
" witch-women," the stealer of children of general myths. In
addition there are also the malignant spirits and demons,1 of
whom among the Bakshas, the already mentioned she-devil Hariti,
" the mother of the Daity a-demons," is the chief.2
VI. The Country-Gods.
The country-gods (Yul-lha), and the country-guardians (Srun-
ma) are of course all indigenous, though some of them have been
given quasi-Buddhist characters. Ruling over a wider sphere, they
occupy a higher rank than the more truly local genii, the locality-
or foundation-owners — the Z'i-bdag of the Tibetans.
These indigenous gods, godlings, and demons are divided after
the Indian fashion, roughly into eight classes, namely : —
1. G-ods (Lha), all male, white in colour, and generally genial.
2. Goblins or G-hosts (Tsan), all male, red in colour. These are
usually the vindictive ghosts of Lamas, discontented priests ; and
they are vindictive. They especially haunt temples.3
3. Devils (bDud), all male, black in colour, and most malignant.4
These are the ghosts of the persecutors of Lamaism, and cannot be
appeased without the sacrifice of a pig.5
4. Blanets (gZah), piebald in colour (Kra-bo).
5. Bloated fiends (dMu), dark-purple colour (smug-po).e
6. Cannibal fiends (Srin-po), raw flesh-coloured (sa-za), and blood
thirsty. 7. King-fiends (rGyal-po), the wealth-masters (dkor-bdag),
white (? always) in colour, the spirits of apotheosized heroes.

1 The malignant spirits are also divided into ?
Preta (T., Yi-dvag).
Eumbhanda (Grul-bum).
Pisacha (Sa-za).
Bhiita ('Byuh-po).
Putana (<Srul-po).
Eataputana (Lus srul-po).
Unmdda (sMyo Jyed).
2 On Hariti, cf. p. 99, and Eitel, Handbk., p. 62
3 Cf. Jaeschke, p. 423.
4 The 'Dre are especially virulent. Cf . Jaeschke, p. 269 and 434.
5 Cf . also Jaeschke, p. 423.
6 Cf. also Jaeschke, p. 284. B B

Skanda (T., sKyem byed).
Apsmdra (Brjed-byed).
C'liayd ? (Grib gnon).
Rdhsha (Srin-po).
Revati grahd (Nam gru hi^don).
S'akuni grahd (Bya hi gdon).
BrdhmaRdkshasa(BTa,m-zehi-srm-r,o).

370

PANTHEON, SAINTS, AND IMAGES.

8. Mother-she-devils (Ma -mo), black coloured, the " disease mis
tresses" (nad-bdag). They are sometimes the spouses of the
foregoing malignant demons, and cannot be very sharply de
marcated from the other she-devils.
Tbe greatest of the country-gods and guardians have been made
defenders of Lamaism. They are chiefly the spirits of the larger
mountains, and deified ghosts of heroes and ancestors.
The former are figured either as fierce forms of Vaisravana, the
god of wealth, but clad in Tibetan costume, and riding on lions, etc.,
and carrying banners of victory,
such, for example, as mount Kan-
chinjunga, mount Langch'enna,
of western Tsang, etc., as in an
nexed figure; or they are figured
as fiendesses, as for example, the
Tan-ma, or as mild nymphs, as
the five sisters of mount Everest.1
The mountain Kanchinjunga,
on the western border of Tibet,
is known to most visitors to Dar
jiling and northern Bengal. This
graceful mountain, second in
height only to Everest, was for
merly in itself an object of wor
ship, as it towers high above every
other object in the country, and is the first to receive the rays
of the rising sun and the last to part with the sun-set. Kan
chinjunga2 literally means " the five repositories or ledges of the
great snows," and is physically descriptive of its five peaks — the
name having been giving by the adjoining Tibetans of Tsang, who
also worshipped the mountain. But the Sikhim saint, Lha-tsun
Ch'enbo, gave the name a mythological meaning, and the mountain
was made to become merely the habitation of the god of that
name, and the five " repositories " became real store-houses of the
god's treasure. The peak which is most conspicuously gilded by
the rising sun is the treasury of gold; the peak which remains in
cold grey shade is the silver treasury, and the other peaks are the

The Red God of Wealth.

i Tse-rih mc'ed-lha. They are higher in rank than the Tan-ma.
2 Properly Kah-ch'en-mdsod-lha.

LOCAL GODS AND GENII. 371
stores of gems and grain and holy books. This idea of treasure
naturally led to the god being physically represented somewhat
after the style of " the god of wealth," as figured on the opposite
page. He is of a red colour, clad in armour, and carries a banner
of victory, and is mounted on a white lion. He is on the whole
a good-natured god, but father impassive, and is therefore less
worshipped than the more actively malignant deities.
The four greatest deified mountains of Tibet are alleged to be
T'an-lha on the north, Ha-bd-gans-bzan or gNod-sbyin-gan-bza on
the west, Yar-lha z'an-po on the east, and sKu-la k'a-ri on the
south ; but mount Everest, called by the Tibetans Lap-c'i-gan,
is not included here.
The twelve furies ' called Tan-ma have already been referred
to and figured in connection with St. Badma-sambhava's visit.
They are divided into the three groups of the four great she-
devils, the four great injurerS, and the four great medicine-
females,1 of which the last are relatively mild, though all are
placed under the control of Ekajati, a fiendess of the Indian Kali
type, who rides on the thunder-clouds'.
The deified ghosts of heroes and defeated rivals are pictured
usually of anthropomorphic form, and clad in Tibetan style, as for
example, " The holy rDorje Legs-pa," figured at page 26, and
others at page 385. Though some are pictured of monstrous
aspect, and of the fiercest-fiend type already described, as for
instance, Be-har,2 the especial patron of the sorcerers of the
established church.
Be-har is a fiend of the "king" class, and seems to be an
indigenous deified-hero, though European writers identify him with
the somewhat similarly named Indian god, Veda (Chinese wei-to),
who is regularly invoked by the Chinese Buddhists 3 for monastic
supplies and as protector of monasteries ( — Vihar ; henee^ it is
believed, corrupted into Be-har), and chief of the army of the four
guardian kings of the quarters.11
VIL Local Gobs and Genii.
The truly "local gods" or GenU loc% the "foundation owners"4
1 bdud-mo ch'en-mo bzhi, gnod-sbyin ch'en, etc. ; sman-mo ch'en, etc.
2 See his figure in Schlagintweit's Atlas.
3 Remdsat's Notes in Foe-Eoue-Ei; Edkin, Chin. Bwddh., Sarat., J.A.S.B., 1882,
page 67.
* (gZ'i-bdag). B B 2

372 PANTHEON, SAINTS, AND IMAGES.
of the Tibetans, are located to a particular fixed place, and seldom
conceived of as separate from their places'
In appearance they are mostly Caliban-like sprites, ill-tem
pered and spiteful, or demoniacal, Uke the temple-door fiend
figured at page 288 ; and, unlike the higher spirits, they have
no third or " heavenly eye of second sight or omniscience."
The majority are of the " earth owner " class (sa-&dag),
occupying the soil and lakes like plebeian Nagas of the Hindus.
Others more malignant, called " gJTan," infest certain trees, rocks,
and springs, which reputed haunts are avoided as far as possible,
though they are sometimes daubed with red paint or other offer
ing to propitiate the spirit.
In every monastery and temple the image of the genius loci, as
an idol or fresco, is placed within the outer gateway, usually to
the right of the door, and worshipped with wine, and occasionally
with bloody sacrifice, and it is given a more or less honorific name.
The local demon of the red hill near Lhasa, surnamed Botala,
and the residence of the Grand Lama, is called gNan-ch'en Tan.
The one at Darjiling is already referred to at page 288.
THE HOUSE-GOD.
The House-god of the Tibetans seems to be the same as the
"Kitchen-god" (Tsan-kuin) of the Chinese, who is believed to
be of Taoist origin, but adopted into the Chinese Buddhist pan
theon ' as a presiding divinity of the monastic diet. He also
has much in common with the Door-god of tbe Mongols.2
The Tibetan House-god, as shown in his figure at page 573.

1 Edkins, Chin. Buddh., 207. His official birthday is the twenty-fourth day of the
sixth month.
2 The Mongol Door-gods are thus described by Galsang Czomboyef, a recent Russo-
Mongol writer, quoted by Yule (Marco Polo, i. , 250) : "Among theBuryats (who retain
to greatest extent the old customs of the Mongols), in the middle of the hut, and
place of honour is the Dsaiagaohi, or ' Chief Creator of Fortune.' At the door is the
Emelgelji, the tutelary of the herds and young cattle, made of sheep-skins. Outside the
hut is the Chandaghatu, a name implying that the idol was formed of a white hare-skin,
the tutelary of the chase and perhaps of war. All these have been expelled by
Buddhism except Dsaiagaohi, who is called Tengri (= Heaven), and introduced
among the Buddhist divinities " as a kind of Indra. Those placed at side of door are
not prayed to, but are offered a portion of the food or drink at meal times by greas
ing the mouths of the fetishes, and sprinkling some of the broth by them.

THE HOUSE-GOD. 373

is anthropomorphic, with a piggish head, and flowing robes. He
is called " the inside god," 1 and is a genius loci of the class called
by the Tibetans " earth-masters " (Sab-dag).
As he is of a roving disposition, occupying different parts of
the house at different seasons, his presence is a constant source of
anxiety to the householders ; for no objects may invade or occupy
the place where he has taken up his position, nor may it be swept
or in any way disturbed without incurring his deadly wrath.
Thus it happens that an unsophisticated visitor, on entering a
Tibetan house and seeing a vacant place near at hand, sets there
his hat, only, however, to have it instantly snatched up by his
host in holy horror, with the hurried explanation that the god is
at present occupying that spot.
It is some satisfaction, however, to find that all the house-gods
of the land regulate their movements in the same definite and
known order. Thus in the first and second months he occupies
the centre of the house, and is then called " The Gel-thun house-
god." In the third and fourth months the god stands in the doorway
and is called " the door-god of the horse and yak."
In the fifth month he stands under the eaves, and is called
" ya-ngas-pa." In the sixth month he stands at the south-west corner of the
house. In the seventh and eighth months he stands under the eaves.
In the ninth and tenth months he stands in the fire-tripod or
grate. In the eleventh and twelfth months he stands at the kitchen
hearth, where a place is reserved for him. He is then called
" the kitchen-god."
His movements thus bear a certain relation to the season, as he
is outside in the hottest weather, and at the fire in the coldest.
Formerly his movements were somewhat different ; and accord
ing to the ancient style he used to circulate much more exten
sively and frequently.2

1 Nan-lha.
2 As detailed in my article on the subject in Joum. Anthropological Institute, London,
1894.

374 PANTHEON, SAINTS, AND IMAGES.
The other precautions entailed by bis presence, and the penal
ties for disturbing him, are these : —
In the first and second months, when the god is in the middle of
the bouse, the fire-grate must not be placed there, but removed to
a corner of the room, and no dead body must be deposited there.
While he is at the door, no bride or bridegroom may come or go,
nor any corpse. Should, however, there be no other way of in
gress or egress, such as by a window or otherwise, and there be
urgent necessity for tbe passage of a bride, bridegroom, or corpse,
then the images of a horse and a yak must be made with wheaten
flour, and on each of them is placed some skin and hair of each of
the animals represented. Tea and beer are then offered to the
god, who is invited to sit on the images thus provided for
him. The door is then unhinged and carried outside, and the
bride, bridegroom, or corpse passes, and the door is restored to its
place. When he is at the kitchen fire, no part of the hearth can be re
moved or mended, and no corpse may be placed there, nor must
any marriage then take place. And should any visitor arrive, he
must be screened off from the fireplace by a blanket, and a scrip
ture (the " ch'os-mge-khri ") read to avert his wrath.
When he is in the verandah he gives very little trouble. Only
at that time no one may whitewash or repair the outside of the
house. And as a general precautionary measure once every year, and
at extra times, whenever any suspicion arises that the god may
have been slighted or is offended, it is necessary to get the Lamas
to propitiate him by doing " The water sacrifice, for the eight
injurers." VIII. Bersonal Gods or " Familiars,"
These are comparable to the daimon or familiar-spirits of the
Greeks. But in Tibet the body of each individual is beset by a
number of personal sprites.1
Each Tibetan carries the following familiar spirits extra to the two
Buddhist angels, good and bad, which sit upon the right and left
shoulder respectively and prompt to good deeds or to sins, namely,
1 Cf. my Lamaism in Sikhim.

BODILY OR PERSONAL GODS. 375
the p'o, ma, z'an, da, or enemy (-defeating) god, vulgarly called
dab-lha. This enemy-god sits ou the right shoulder of every
Tibetan. Worship of the p'o-lha secures long life and defence against
accident ; by worshipping the da-lha enemies are overcome.
Worship of the ma-Uia and z'ah-lha procures physical strength ;
worship of the yulAha glory and dominion, and of the nor-lha
wealth. The greatest of these gods is the Enemy (-defeating) god, a sort
of Hercules, who resembles in many ways the war-god of the
Chinese — Kwan-te, an apotheosized hero — though the Lamas
endeavour to identify him with the Buddhist Mara, the god of
passion. As seen from his figure, in the upper compartment of
the Wheel of Life at page 102, he is of un-Indian aspect : —
He is of a white colour clad in golden mail and flying on a white
horse through the clouds. In his uplifted right hand he holds a whip
with three knots and in his left hand a spear with a stream of the
five-coloured silks. The blade of the spear is blue, bordered by flames,
and at its base the two divine eyes, and below the blade is a ring of yak-
hair-bristle. His bow-sheath is of a leopard hide and his quiver of
tiger skin. A sword is thrust into his waist-belt, and from each
shoulder springs a lion and a tiger. The mirror of fore-knowledge is
suspended from his neck. He is accompanied by a black dog, a black
bear, and a man-monkey ; and birds circle around his head.
Each class of these local and personal gods has its particular
season for popular worship, thus : — ¦
The Earth-gods (sa-</z'i mi-rig-gi lha) are worshipped especially in the
spring. The Aneestral gods (surra z'an ch'un-gi lha) are worshipped in the
summer season.
The three Upper gods («tod-sum pahl lha) in the autumn ; and
The royal Ancestor of the Tibetan or Sikhim king (ston mi-iiag-gi lha)
in the winter. The first king of Mi-nag in eastern Tibet was a son of
Thi-Sron Detsan, and the Sikhim king is alleged to be of the same
ancestry. It is beyond the scope of our present subject to refer to the
heterodox duties of the aboriginal or Bon-pa order. But it maybe
stated that this latter religion having existed for centuries side by
side with the more favoured Lamaism, it has now come to model
its deities generally on the Buddhist pattern. A reference to one
of the Bon gods, namely, the Bed-Tiger devil, will be found in
the chapter on the mystic play.

376 PANTHEON, SAINTS, AND IMAGES.
The Saints.
The saints of Lamaism may be divided into the Indian and the
Tibetan, inclusive of a few Chinese and Mongolian. They are
usually figured with a halo around their heads, and when attended
by disciples they are always represented much larger in size than
the latter ; and, in keeping with the later fiction of re-incarnate
Lamas, they are usually surrounded by a few scenes of their so-
called former births.
Of the Indian saints the chief are : —
I. The Ten Chief Lusciples of Buddha.
The highest of these is " the model pair," Sariputra and Maha-
Maugdalayana, the right- and left-hand disciples of Buddha, and
generally represented in a standing posture, carrying a begging-
bowl and alarm-staff, or with the hands joined in adoration of
Sakya Muni.1 After these the best known are Maha-kasyapa, the
president of the first council and the first "patriarch," Upali,
Subhuti, and Buddha's cousin and favourite attendant, Ananda.
II. The Sixteen STHAVIRA, or Chief Apostles or Missionaries.
T., gNas-brtan = " The Steadfast Holders (of the Doctrine)."
These are called by the Chinese and Japanese "the sixteen
Rahan " (= Skt., Arhat), or " Lohan."
Several of them lived after Buddha's day; and latterly two other
saints were added to the list, namely, Dharmatrata and Hvashang,
bringing the number up to eighteen. Other conventional groups
of Arhats are the 108, 500, 1,000, etc.2
Each of these Sthavira or Arhats is figured in a fixed attitude,
and each has his distinctive symbol or badge, like our apostles, as
Mark with a lion, Luke with a book, etc.
The descriptive list of these sixteen Sthavira is briefly3 : —
1. Angira-ja (T., Yan-lag 'byun), "the limb-born." Holds incense
censer and cow tail fly -whisk fan. He went as missionary to the Te-Se
mountains around Manasrovara lake (Jabsch., D., 203), or to mount
Kailas (Schief., Lebensb.).
2. Ajita (T., Ma-p'am-pa), "the unconquered." Hands in the
i Cf. CsumA's An., 48 ; Raj. Lai Mitra's trans. Lalita Vist., 10.
2 For descriptions of many of these see Taranatha's mDsad-bryya, and his Hist, of
Ind. Budd., trans, by Schiefner ; also Eitel's Handbk., and Pander's Panth.
3 For their figures and some details cf. Pander's Panth. (loc. cit), pp. 83 et seq.

THE SAINTS— DISCIPLES. 377
"impartial" attitude. A rishi, or sage, of mount Usira (Nos-se-la).1
His statue is one of the few which is prepared singly.
3. Vana-vasa (T., Nags-na-gnas), " forest-dweller." Right hand in
sdigs-Me dsub attitude ; left holds a cow-tail fly-whisk. He went to
" The seven-leaves mountain " (Loma-bdun). According to Schief., he
remained at Sravasti.
4. Kalika (T., Dus-ldan-r dorje), " timely." Wears a golden earring
as a badge. He went to Tamradvipa ( = ? Tamluk in S. W. Bengal).
5. Vajraputra (T., rDo-rje-mo'-bu) " son of the thunderbolt." Bight
hand in sDigs-mdsub attitude, and left carries fly-whisk. He went to
Ceylon. 6. Bhadra (T., bZan-po) " the noble." Bight hand in preaching,
and left in meditative attitude — the latter hand usually bearing a
book. He went to Yamunadvipa.
7. Kanaka-vatsa (T., gSer-be'u), " golden calf." Carries a jewelled
snare. He went to the Saffron-peak in Kashmir.
8. Kanaka-bhara-dvaja. Hands in " impartial '' attitude. He went
to Apara-Godhanya (Nub-kyi-ba glan spyod-glin).
9. Vakula, carries an ichneumon (Nakula) like the god of riches.
On this account, Bander notes (p. 86) that the Tibetans probably knew
this saint as " Nakula." He went to Uttarakuru (byan-gi-sgra-mi-
snan). 10. Rahula (T., sGra-c'an-zin [? 'dsin]). Holds a jewelled crown.
Bander believes that this simile is probably suggested by interpreting
the name as " sgra-rgyan-'dsin," or "holding a crown." He went to
Bri-yan-gu-dvipa ( = ? Brayag, or Allahabad).
ll. Cuda-panthaka (T., Lam-p'ran-bstan). Hands in "impartial"
pose. He went to G-ridrakuta hill in Magadha.2
12. Bharadvaja (T., Bha-ra-dva-dsa-bsod-siioms-len). Holds book and
begging-bowl. Went to the eastern Videka. He is usually identified
with the " Binzuru " of the Japanese.
13. Panthaku (T., Lam-bstan). Hands in preaching attitude with
a book. 14. Nagasena (T., kLu'i-sde). Holds a vase, and an alarm-staff. He
went to " the king of mountains," Urumunda (Nos-yans). This seems
to be the Arhat who is known to southern Buddhists as the author of
the celebrated dialogues with Menander (Milinda).
15. Gbpaka (T., sbed-byed), holds a book. Went to Mt. Bi-hu.
16 (T., Mi-p'yed) Holds " the caitya of perfection." He
went to the Himalayas.
The additional pair of saints who are usually associated with the
above are : —
Dharmatrdta or Dharmatala (T., dGe-bsnen dharma). Holds a vase
and fly- whisk and carries on his back a bundle of books, and he gazes at a
small image of Buddha Amitabha. As he is only a lay-devotee he has
long hair. He Was born in Gandhara and seems to be the uncle of
1 Schief., Lebensb., 92. 2 Cf. Jaesch., D., 372.

378 PANTHEON, SAINTS, AND IMAGES.
Vasumitra. Of his seven works the chief are the TJdanavarga (trans
lated by Bockhill), and the Samyuktabhidharma Sastra.
Hvashang corresponds to the Chinese "Huo-shang" or priest with the
sack.1 He is a sort of lay -patron or "dispenser of alms" to the
disciples ; and is represented as a good-natured person of portly
dimensions, in a sitting position. His attributes are a sack, a rosary
in his right hand and a peach in his left, while little urchins or goblins
play around him. The name in Chinese is said by Bander to be also
rendered "the dense-smoke Maitreya Buddha," and he isexplained as the
last incarnation of Maitreya who is at present enthroned in the Tushita
heavens. In the entrance hall of all the larger temples in China we find
the colossal statue of this big-bellied, laughing Maitreya surrounded by
the four kings of the universe.
III. Other MahAyAna Saints.
The other Indian saints of the Mahayana school who are most
worshipped by the Lamas are : Asvaghosha, Nagarjuna (kLu-grub),
Arya-deva (B'ags-pa-lha), Kumarala, Asanga (T'ogs-med), Vasu
bandhu (dByig-gnan), Dharma-kirti (Ch'os-grags), Candra-kirti
(zla-wa-grags) ; and the more modern Santa-rakshita and Atisa-
Dipamkara. Figures of most of these have already been given.2
IV. Tantrik Wizard-Priests.
T.'Grub-t'ob ch'en or " grub-c'hen (Skt., Siddha or Mahasiddha).
This degraded class of Indian Buddhist priest (see figure on
page 16) is most popular with the Lamas. They are credited with
supernatural powers, by being in league with the demons. They
are usually figured with long untonsured locks, and almost naked.
The chief of these Indian priests is St. Badma-sambhava, the
founder of Lamaism. Others are
Savari (Sa-pa-ri-pa), Bahulabhadra or Saraha (Sa-ra-ha-pa), Matsyo-
dara (Lu-i-pa), Lalita-vajra, Krishncarin or Kalacarita (Nag-po-spyod-
pa) ; and more modern Telopa or Tila and Naro.3 These latter two are
apparently named after the Indian monasteries of Tilada and Nalanda.
St. Badma-sambhava receives more active worship than any of
the others. Indeed, he is deified. He is most commonly worshipped
in the form shown in the centre of the plate on page 24. He sits
dressed as a native of Udyana, holding a thunderbolt in his right
1 Cf. Pander, Panth., p. 89.
2 For additional details see Taranatha's History (Schiefner's transl.), nnd Pander's
Panth., pp. 47, etc. These first four, cf. Julien's Hiuen Tsiang, ii., 214.
3 For some details and figures see Pander, Panth., pp. 50, etc.

TANTRIK SAINTS— ST. PADMA. 379
hand and a skull of blood in his left, and carrying in his left arm
pit the trident of the king of death. The top of this trident
transfixes a freshly decapitated human head, a wizeued head,
and a skull. And the saint is attended by his two wives,
offering him libations of blood and wine in skull-bowls, while
before him are set offerings of portions of human corpses.
He is given seven other forms, wild or demoniacal, which are
shown surrounding him in that picture.
These, his eight forms, together with their usual paraphrase,
are here numerated: —
I.-^GWw Padma Jungnd,1 " Born of a lotus " for the happiness of
the three worlds, the central figure in the plate.
II.-rrGuru Padma-sambhava, " Saviour by the religious doctrine."
III. — Guru Padma Gyelpo, "The king of the three collections of
scriptures" (Skt., "Tripitaka").
TV.=Guru Ddrje D6-loj" " The Dorje or diamond comforter of all."
V. — Guru Nima Od-zer,3 " The enlightening sun of darkness."
VI. — Guru S'akya Sen-ge, " The second Sakya^the lion," who does
the work of eight sages.
VII. — Guru Seng-ge da dok,4. The propagator of religion in the six
worlds — -with " the roaring lion's voice."
VIII. — Guru Ld-ten Ch'og-Se,5 "The conveyer of knowledge to all
worlds."
These paraphrases it will be noted are mostly fanciful, and not justi
fied by the title itself.
As he is the founder of Lamaism, and of such prominence in the
system, I give here a sketch of his legendary history : —
The Guru's so-called history, though largely interwoven with
supernatural fantasies is worth abstracting,6 not only for the

1 guru pad-ma 'byun gnas. Cf. GIorgi, p. 242, and figure p. 552.
2 ido-lje gro-lod.
3 nyi-ma 'od zer.
* Sen-ge sgra sgrogs.
5 blo-idan mch'g-Sred ( or ? Srid).
6 The account here given is abstracted from the following Tibetan works, all of
which are of the fictitious " revelation " order, and often conflicting, but dating, prob
ably, to about six or seven hundred years ago, namely : Padma-bkah-t' an (or " The
displayed Commands of the Lotus-one"); Than-yig gser-'p'ren (or "The Golden
Rosary of Displayed-letters ") ; T/ian'-yig-sde-la (or " The Five Classes of Displayed-
letters"),, and a Lepcha version, entitled Tashi San, or "History of the Glorious
One," written by the Sikhim king (? Gyur-mei Nami-gyal), who, about two centuries
ago, invented the so-called Lepcha characters by modifying the Tibetan and Bengali
letters.

380 PANTHEON, SAINTS, AND IMAGES.
historical texture that underlies the allegorical figures, but also
for the insight it gives into the genesis and location of many of the
demons of the Lamaist pantheon and the pre-Lamaist religion of
Tibet. The story itself is somewhat romantic and has the widest
currency in Tibet, where all its sites are now popular places of pil
grimage, sacred to this deified wizard-priest : —
The Legendary History of the Founder of Lamaism.
Once upon a time, in the great city of Jatumati1 in the Indian
continent, there dwelt a blind king named Indrabodhi,2 who ruled
over the country of Udyana or Urgyan. The death of his only son
plunges the palace in deepest sorrow, and this calamity is followed by
famine and an exhausted treasury. In their distress the king and
people cry unto the Buddhas with many offerings, and their appeal
reaching unto the paradise of the great Buddha of Boundless Light
— Amitabha — this divinity sends, instantly, like a lightning flash, a
miraculous incarnation of himself in the form of a red ray of light to
the sacred lake of that country.
That same night the king dreamt a dream of good omen. He
dreamt that a golden thunderbolt had come into his hand, and his
body shone like the sun. In the morning the royal priest Trignadhara3
reports that a glorious light of the five rainbow-tints has settled in the
lotus-lake of Dhanakosha, and is so dazzling as to illuminate the three
" unreal " worlds.
Then the king, whose sight has been miraculously restored, visits the
lake, and, embarking in a boat, proceeds to see the shining wonder, and
finds on the pure bosom of the lake a lotus-flower of matchless beauty,
on whose petals sits a lovely boy of eight years old, sceptred and
shining like a god. The king, falling on his. knees, worships the
infant prodigy, exclaiming : " Incomparable boy ! who art thou ? Who
is thy father and what thy country?" To which the child made
answer : " My Father / know ! I come in accordance with the prophecy
of the great Sakya Muni, who said : ' Twelve hundred years after me,
in the north-east of the Urgyan country, in the pure lake of Kosha, a
person more famed than myself will be born from a lotus, and be known
as Padma-sambhava, or " the Lotus-born," 4 and he shall be the teacher
of my esoteric Mantra-doctrine, and shall deliver all beings from
misery.' "
On this the king and his subjects acknowledge the supernatural
1 mDses-\dan.
3 This is the form found in the text, while another MS. gives Indrabhuti ; but its
Tibetan translation also given is Spyan-med-'byor-\dan, or "The Eyeless Wealthy One,"
which could give an Indian form of Andhara-basuti.
3 Trig -na-' dsin.
4 Also an epithet of Brahma.

ST. PADMA-SAMBHAVA.

381

nature of the Lotus-born boy, and naming him " The Lake-born Vajra,"1
conduct him to the palace with royal honours. And from thenceforth
the country prospered, and the holy religion became vastly extended.
This event happened on the tenth day of the seventh Tibetan month. »
In the palace the wondrous boy took no pleasure in ordinary pur
suits, but sat in Buddha fashion musing under the shade of a tree in
the grove. To divert him from
these habits they find for him
a bride in p'Od-'c'an-ma,2 the
daughter 3 of king Candra Goma-
shi, of Singala." And thus is he
kept in the palace for five years
longer, till a host of gods appear
and declare him divine, and com
missioned as the Saviour of the
world. But still the king does
not permit .-him to renounce his
princely life and become, as he
desired, an ascetic. The youthful
Badma-sambhava now kills several
bf the subjects, who, in their pre
sent or former lives, had injured
Buddhism ; and on this the people
complain of his misdeeds to the
king, demanding his banishment,
which sentence is duly carried out,
to the great grief of the king and
the royal family.
The princely pilgrim travels to the Shitani cemetery of the cool
grove,5 where, dwelling in the presence of the dead as a Sosaniko 6 he
seeks communion with the gods and demons, of whom he subjugates
many. Thence he was conducted by the Dakkinis or witches of the
four classes to the cave of Ajiiapala,7 where he received instruction

The Lotus-born Baee.

1 mTs'o-skyes rdo-vje; Skt., Sarorulia-rajra.
2 Skt., Bhasadliara or " The Light-holder."
3 The text gives " wife."
* This is probably the Sihhapura of Hiuen Tsiang, which adjoined Udayana or
Udyana; or it may be Sagala.
5 bSil-ba ts'al. This is said to lie to the east of India and to be the abode of Hung-
kara, the greatest of the eight great sages or rig-dsin. For a Mahayana Sutra
delivered here by Buddha, see Csoma, An., p. 517.
5 Sasanika is one of the twelve observances of a Bhikshu, and conveys just ideas
of the three great phenomena, impermanence, pain, and vacuity, by seeing the
funerals, the grieving relatives, the stench of corruption, and the fighting of beasts of
prey for the remains. Buddha in the Dulva (Rock., B., p. 29) is also stated to have
followed the ascetic practice of a Sosaniko, or frequenter of cemeteries.
7 bkah-skyoh, or command + protector ; it may also be Sanskritized as pudarsand-
pula.

382 PANTHEON, SAINTS, AND IMAGES.

in the Asvaratna abankara, after which he proceeded to the countries
of Bancha, etc., where he received instruction in the arts and sciences
direct from old world sages, who miraculously appeared to him for this
purpose. Other places visited by him were the cemeteries of the Biddha
(? Videha) country, where he was called " tbe sun's rays," the cemetery
of bDe-ch'en brdal in Kashmir, where he was called " the chief desire
sage " (blo-ldan mch'og-sred), the cemetery of Lhun-yrub-brtsegs-pa in
Nepal, subjugating tbe eight classes of Dam-sri at Yaksha fort, where he
was named " the roaring voiced lion," and to the cemetery of Lanka
brtsegs-pa in the couutry of Zahor, where he was named Badma-sambha.
At Zahor (1 Lahore), the king's daughter, a peerless princess who
could find no partner worthy of her beauty and intellect, completely
surrendered to the Guru — and this seems to be the " Indian " princess-
wife named Mandarawa Kumari Devi, who was his constant companion
throughout his Tibetan travels. At Zahor the rival suitors seize him
and bind him to a pyre, but the flames play harmlessly round him, and
he is seen within seated serenely on a lotus-floWer. Another miracle
attributed to him is thus related : Athirst one day' be seeks a wine
shop, and, with companions, drinks deeply, till, redolletrting that
he has no money wherewith to pay his bill, he asks the merchant to
delay settlement till sunset, to which the merchant agrees, and states
that he and his comrades meanwhile may drink their fill. But the
Guru arrests the sun's career, and plagues the country with full day
light for seven days. The wine-seller, now in despair, wipes off their
debt, when welcome night revisits the sleepy world.
The leading details of his defeat of the local devils of Tibet are
given in the footnote.1
1 When the Guru, after passing through Nepal, reached Man-yul, the enemy-god
(dgrd-lha) of Z'an-s'un, named Dsa-mun, tried to destroy him by squeezing him
between two mountains, but he overcame her by his irdhi-power of soaring in the
sky. He then received her submission and her promise to become a guardian of
Lamaism under the religious name of rDo-rje Gyu-bun-ma.
E-ka-dsa-ti. — When the Guru reached gNam-t'an-rak'ar-nag, the white fiendess of that
place showered thunderbolts upon him, without, however, harming him. The Guru
retaliated by melting her snow-dwelling into a lake ; and the discomfited fury fled
into the lake T'an-dpal-mo-dpal, which the Guru then caused to boil. But though
her flesh boiled off her bones, still she did not emerge ; so the Guru threw in his
thunderbolt, piercing her right eye. Then came she forth and offered up to him her
life-essence', and was thereon named Gans-dkar-slia-med-rDo-rje-sPyan-gcig-ma, or " The
Snow-white, Fleshless, One-eyed Ogress df the Vajra."
The twelve Tan-ma Furies. — Then the Guru marched onward, and reached U-yug-bre-
mo-snar, where the twelve bstan-ma (see figure, page 27) furies hurled thunderbolts at
him, and tried to crush him between mountains; but the Guru evaded them by
flying into the sky, and with his " pointing-fihger " charmed their thunderbolts into
cinders. And bf his pointing-finger he cast the hills and mountains upon their snowy
dwellings. Thereupon the twelve bstan-ma, with all their retinue thwarted and sub
dued, offered him their life-essence, and^o were brought under his control.
Dam-c'an-rDor-legs.— Then the Guru, pushing onward, reached the fort of U-yvg-bye-

TIBETAN SAINTS. 383

The Tibetan and other non-Indian canonized saints may generally
be recognized by their un-Indian style of dress, and even when
they are bare-headed and clad in the orthodox Buddhist robes
they always wear an inner garment extra to the Indian fashion.
The various Tibetan saints, excluding the apotheosized heroes
already referred to, are held in different estimation by tbe
different sects, each of whom holds its own particular sectarian
tshan'-rdson, where he was opposed by AGe-bshen r Do-rje-legs-pa (see figure, p. 26)
with his three hundred and sixty followers, who all were subjected and the leader
appointed a guardian (bsrung-ma) of the Lamaist doctrine.
Yar-lha-sham-po. — Then the Guru, going forward, reached Sham-po-lun, where the
demon Yar-lha-sham-po transformed himself into a huge mountain-like white yak,
whose breath belched forth like great clouds, and whose grunting sounded like thunder.
Bu-yug gathered at his nose, and he rained thunderbolts and hail. Then the Guru
caught the demon's nose by " the iron-hook gesture," bound his neck by " the rope
gesture," bound his feet by "the fetter-gesture"; and the yak, maddened by the
super-added " bell-gesture," transformed himself into a young boy dressed in white
silk, who offered up to the Guru his life-essence ; and so this adversary was sub
jected. Tan'-lha the great gNan. — Then the Guru proceeded to Phya-than-ta pass, where
the demon gNan-ch'en-t'an-lha transformed himself into a great white snake, With his
head in the country of Gru-gu, and his tail in gYer-mo-than country, drained by the
Mongolian river Sok-Ch'u, and thus seeming like a chain of mountains he tried to bar
the Guru's progress. But the Guru threw the lin-gyi over the snake. Then the
T'ah'-lha, in fury, rained thunderbolts, which the Guru turned to fishes, frogs, and
snakes, which fled to a neighbouring lake. Then the Guru melted his snowy
dwelling, and the god, transforming himself into a young boy dressed in white silk,
with a turquoise diadem, offered Up his life-essence, together with that of all his
retinue, and so he was subjected.
The Injurers. — Then the Guru, proceeding onwards, arrived at the northern Phan-
yul-thang, where the three Injurers — sTing-lo-sman of the north, BTing-sman-zor
gdon-ma, and sTing-sman-ston — sent hurricanes to bar the Guru's progress. On Which
the Guru circled " the wheel of fire " with his pointing-finger, and thus arrestedthe wind,
and melted the snowy mountains like butter before a red hot iron. Then the three
gNod-sbyin, being discomfited, offered up their life-essence and so were subjected.
The Black Devils. — Then the Guru, going onward, reached gNam-gyi-shuy-mthon-
glang-sgrom, where he opened the magic circle or Ma'ndalaoi the Five Families (of the
Buddhas) for seven days, after which all the commanders of the host of bDud-Dexil
offered their life-essence and so were subjected.
The-u-ran. — Then the Guru went to the country of gLa-wa-rkan-c'ig-ma, Where he
brought all the The-u-ran demons under subjection.
The Mi-ma-yin Devils. — When the Guru was sitting in the cave of Senge-brag-phug,
the demon Ma-sans-gyah-spang-skyes-shig, desiring to destroy him, came into his
presence in the form of an old woman with a turquoise cap, and rested her head on
the Guru's lap and extended her feet towards Gye-mo-than and her hands towards
the white snowy mountain Ti-si. Then many thousands of Mi-ma-yin surrounded
the Guru menacingly ; but he caused the F'ive Fierce Demons to appear, an J so he
subjected the Mi-ma-yin.
Ma-mo, etc. — Then he subjected all the Ma-mo and bSemo of Ch'u-bo-ri and Eha-rak,
and going to Sil-ma, in the province of Tsang, he subjected all the sMan-mo. And going

384 PANTHEON, SAINTS, AND IMAGES.
founder to be pre-eminent. Thus the established church gives
the chief place to Tson-K'a-pa and the chief pupils of Atisa ; the
Kar-gyu sect to Mila-ras-pa, the Sa-kya-pa to Sa-kya Bandita, and
so on. And each sub-sect has canonized its own particular chief.
The innumerable Lamas who now pose as re-incarnations of
deceased Lamas, also receive homage as saints, and on their decease
have their images duly installed and worshipped. Some saints are
to the country of Hori he subjected all the Dam-sri. And going to Rong-lung-nag-po
he subjected all the Srin-po. And going to central Tibet (dbf/s) towards the country
of the lake Manasarova (mal-dro), he subjected all the Nagas of the mal-dro lake,
who offered him seven thousand golden coins. And going to Gyn-dsin-phug-mo, he
subjected all the Pho-rgyud. And going to Dung-mdog-brag-dmar, he subjected all
the smell eating Driza (? Gandharca). And going to Gan-pa-ch'u-mig, he subjected
all the dGe-snen. And going to Bye-ma-rab-khar, he subjected all the eight classes
of Lha-srin. And going to the snowy mountain Ti-si, he subjected all the twenty-
eight Nakshetras. And going to Lha-rgod-gans, he subjected the eight planets. And
going to Bu-le-gans, he subjected all the 'dre of the peaks, the country, and the
dwelling-sites, all of whom offered him every sort of worldly wealth. And going to
gLo-bor, he subjected all the nine IDan-ma-spun. Then he was met by Gans-rje-jo-wo
at Pho-ma-gans, where he brought him under subjection. Then having gone to
rTse-lha-gahs, he subjected the vTse-sman. And going to sTod-lung, he subjected all
the brawi. Then having gone to Zul-p' ul-rkyan-gram-bu-t'sal, he remained for one
month, during which he subjugated gzah-bolud and three Dam-sri.
And having concealed many scriptures as revelations, he caused each of these
fiends to guard one apiece. With this he completed the subjection of the host of
malignant devils of Tibet.
Then the Guru proceeded to Lhasa, where he rested awhile, and then went
towards sTod-lun. At that time mnah-bdag-Tgyal-po sent his minister, Lha-bzan-
klu-dpal, with a letter and three golden Pata, silken clothes, horses, and divers good
presents, accompanied by five hundred cavalry. These met him at sTod-lun-gzhon-pa,
where the minister offered the presents to the Guru. At that time all were athirst, but
no water or tea was at hand, so the Guru touched the rock of sTod-lufi-gzhon-pa,
whence water sprung welling out; which he told the minister to draw in a vessel.
Hence that place is called to this day gz'on-pai-lha-ch'u or " The water of the God's
vessel." From Hao-po^ri the Guru went to Zufi-k'ar, where he met King mSah-Jdag-
rgyal-po, who received him with honour and welcome. Now the Guru, remembering
his own supernatural origin and the king's carnal birth, expected the king to salute
him, so remained standing. But the king thought, " I am the king of the black-
headed men of Tibet, so the Guru must first salute me." While the two were
possessed by these thoughts, the Guru related how through the force of prayers done
at Bya-ruh-E'a-shor stupa in Nepal (see p. 315) in former births, they two have
come here together. The Guru then extended his right hand to salute the king, but
fire darted forth from his finger-tips, and catching the dress of the king, set it on fire.
And at the same time a great thunder was heard in the sky, followed by an earthquake.
Then the king and all his ministers in terror prostrated themselves at the feet of the
Guru. Then the Guru spoke, saying, " As a penance for not having promptly saluted me,
erect five stone stupas." These the king immediately erected, and they were named
z' uh-m.'kar-mch'od-rten , and exist up till the present day.

DEMONIFIED PRIESTS.

385

entirely of local repute, and the ghosts of many deceased Lamas
are worshipped in the belief that they have become malignant
spirits who wreak their wrath on their former associates and
pupils. Amongst the earlier Tibetans who are generally accorded the
position of saints are king Sron Tsan Gampo, his two wives
and minister Ton-mi, who were associated with the introduction
of Buddhism to Tibet, king Thi-Sron Detsan, who patronized

fiAQj^M^

Demonified Tibetan Priests.1
the founding of Lamaism, the earlier translators of the scriptures,
and especially those associated with St. Atisa.
One of the popular saints is the famous engineer, T'an-ton
rGyal-po, whose image or picture is often found in Lamaist
temples. He lived in the first half of the fifteenth century a.d.,
and is celebrated for having built eight iron-chain suspension-
bridges over the great river of central Tibet, the Yaru Tsan-po ;
and several of these bridges still survive.2

1 After Pander,
2 Regarding his image in the cathedral of Lhasa, the sacristan related the following
legend to Sarat: T'ah-toh feared the miseries of this world very much, having
inhabited it in former existences. Accordingly he contrived to remain sixty years in
his mother's womb. There he sat in profound meditation, concentrating his mind
most earnestly on the well-being of all living creatures. At the end of sixty years
he began to realize that, while meditating for the good of others, he was neglecting
the rather prolonged sufferings of his mother. So he forthwith quitted the womb,
and came into the world already provided with grey hair, and straightway com
menced preaching.
C C

386

PANTHEON, SAINTS, AND IMAGES.

Certain titles have come to be restricted to particular saints.
Thus " (His) Brecious Beverence " (Je-rin-po-c'e) is St. Tson K'a-pa,
" (His) Beverence " (Je-tsun) is St. Mila-raspa, " (His) Holy Bever
ence " (Je-tsun dam-pa) is Taranatha, " The Teacher " (sLob-dpdn)
is St. Badma-sambhava, and the Sakya Lama is " (His) High
ness."

Mystic Monogram.
(Nam-c'u-Tafi-dan.) See p. 142, f.-n. 6.

Garuda Y antra. Charm.

XV.

SACBED SYMBOLS AND CHABMS.
OST religions of the present day teem with symbolism,
which is woven so closely into the texture of the
creeds that it is customary to excuse its presence by
alleging that it is impossible to convey to the people
spiritual truths except in material fqrms. Yet we have only to
look at Muhammadanism, one of the great religions of the world,
and still actively advancing, to see that it appeals successfully to
the most uneducated and fanatical people, although it is prac
tically devoid of symbolism, and its sanctuary is a severely empty
building, wholly unadorned with images, or pictures. Beople,
however, who are endowed with artistic sense, tend to clothe their
religion with symbolism.
cc 2

388 SACRED SYMBOLS AND CHARMS.
The symbols proper, extra to the symbolic representations of
the deities dealt with in the preceding chapter, are conventional
signs or diagrams, or pictures of animals, mythological or other
wise, or of plants and inanimate objects ; and in Tibet they are
very widely met with. They are painted or carved on houses and
furniture, and emblazoned on boxes and embroidery, and on
personal ornaments, trinkets, charms, etc.
The extremely rich symbolism, found in Lamaism is largely of
Indian and Chinese origin. Its emblems are mainly of a conven
tional Hindu kind, more or less modified to adapt them to their
Buddhist setting. Others are derived from the Chinese, and a few
only are of Tibetan origin. These latter are mostly of a very
crude kind, like the rebuses common in mediaeval England for the
use of the illiterate.
In this place, also, we can most conveniently glance at the
mystic value of numbers ; the " magic-circle " offering in effigy,
of the universe, etc., which enters into the daily worship of every
Lama ; and the charms against, sickness and accidents, ill-luck,
etc., and the printed charms for luck which form the " prayer-
flags," and the tufts of rags affixed to trees, bridges, etc.
The Lotos. — Most of the sacred emblems,-as well as the images
of divinities, it will be noticed, are figured upon a lotus-flower.
This expresses the Hindu idea of super-human origin. The lotus
upon the lake seems to spring from the body of the waters without
contact with the sordid earth, and, no matter how muddy the
water may be, the lotus preserves its own purity undefiled.
The various kinds of lotuses figured at page 339 are given
special uses. The red lotus is common to most deities and divine
symbols ; the white lotus is special to Avalokita ; the blue one to
Tara ; and when a demon is figured upon a lotus the latter is a
pinkish variety of the white form, with the petals much notched
or divided.
The Three Gems (Tri-ratna1), symbolic of the Trinity :
Buddha, his Word, and the Church. These are usually figured
(as in No. 2 on next page) as three large egg-shaped gems, with
the narrow ends directed downwards, and the central member is
placed slightly above the other two, so as to give symmetry to the
group, which is usually surrounded by flames.
1 Tib., dKon-mch'og-gsum, or "The rarest ones."

SVASTIKA AND THE SEVEN GEMS. 389
The Svastika,1 or " fly-foot cross," is a cross with the free end
of each arm bent at right angles to the limbs. It is one of the
most widely diffused of archaic symbols, having been found at
Troy by Schliemann, and among
ancient Teutonic nations as the emblem
of Thor. In Buddhism, the ends of
the arms are always bent in the re
spectful attitude, that is, towards the
left; for the Lamas, while regarding
the symbol as one of good augury, Svastika.
also consider it to typify the con- b. u~odoXm.
tinuous moving, or " the ceaseless
becoming," which is commonly called Life. Sir A. Cunningham
believed it to be a monogram formed from the Asoka characters
for the auspicious words Su + Asti, or " that which is good." 2
It was especially associated with the divinity of Fire, as represent
ing the two cross pieces of wood 3 which by friction produce fire.
The Jains, who seem to be an Indian offshoot of Buddhism,4
appropriate it for the seventh of their mythical saints.5 The
heterodox Tibetans, the Bon, in adopting it have turned the
ends in the reverse direction.
The Seven Gems.6 These are the attributes of the universal
monarch,7 such as prince Siddharta was to have been had he not
become a Buddha. They are very frequently figured on the base
of his throne, and are : —
1. The Wheel.8 The victorious wheel of a thousand spokes. It
also represents the symmetry and completeness of the Law. It is
figured in the early Sanchi Tope.9
2. The Jewel.10 The mother of all gems, a wish-procuring gem
(Cintamani). 1 Yun-druh. Chinese, Chu'- Vang, or "The ten thousand character" ; cf. also Indian
Antiquary, ix., 65, etc., 135, etc., and numerous references in Dumoutier, op. cit., 22-23.
2 Su, meaning " good " or " excellent " (in Greek, en), and Asti is the third person
singular present indicative of the verb As, "to be," and Ea is an abstract suffix.
3 Skt., Arani. ^ * But see Jacobi's works.
s Namely, the Jina Su-parsxa.
e Skt., Sapta-ratna. T., Rin-ch'en sna-bdun ; cf . Haedy's Man, p. 130, and Ala
baster's Wheel of the Law, p. 81.
» Caira-vartin Raja.
8 Skt., Cakra; T., 'E'or-lo.
9 Fergusson, Trei and Sap. Wors.,n\. xxix., Fig. 2.
io Skt., Ratna; T., Norbu.

390

SACRED SYMBOLS AND CHARMS.

3. The jewel of a Wife.1 " The Jasper-girl " who fans her lord
to sleep, and attends him with the constancy of a slave.
4. The gem of a Minister,2 who regulates the business of the
empire. 5. The (white) Elephant.3 The earth-shaking beast, who as a

^n^wj/v

i^oi.vH

il^TdSwjraa^y"

The Seven Gems.

.•IQW^SN^

symbol of universal sovereignty the Buddhist kings of Burma and
Siam borrowed from Indian Buddhism. It seems to be Indra's
elephant Airavata.4
6. The Horse.5 It seems to symbolize the horse-chariot of the
sun, implying a realm over which the sun never sets, as well as
the celestial Pegasus-steed,6 which carries its rider wherever the
latter wishes.7
7. The gem of a General,8 who conquers all enemies.
1 Skt., Stri ; T., Tsun-mo.
2 Skt., (?) Girli or Mahdjana ; T., bLon-po.
3 Skt., Hasti ; T., glan-po.
t This elephant is frequently represented as a miniature bronze ornament or flower-
stand on the Lamaist altar. Mr. Baber records (R. G. Soc. Suppl., paper, p. 33) a
colossal elephant with six tusks, cast in silvery-bronze, in western Ssu-ch'uan. It is
of artistic merit, and carries on its back, in place of a howdah, a lotus-flower, in
which is enthroned an admirable image of Buddha.
5 Skt., Asm; T., rTa-mch'og.
f Aswin or TJchchaihsravas.
i Compare with the divine horse named " Might of a Cloud," from the thirty-three
heavens, which delivered the merchants from the island of Rakshasis. — See Hiuen
Tsiang's Si-Yu-Ki.
8 Skt., Kshatri or Sena-pati; T., dMag-dpbn.

THE SEVEN PRECIOUS THINGS.

391

And to these the Lamas add an eighth, namely, the Vase,1 for
storing all the hidden riches of the three regions of life.
The Seven (Royal) Badges.2
1. The precious House (palace).
,, royal Bobes
„ Boots (embroidered).
,, Elephant's tusk.'
,, Queen's earring.
,, King's earring.
,, Jewel.

2.3.4. 5.

(Kan-san (Gos
(Lham (Lan-ch'en ch'em
(Tsunmo na-ja
(Gyalpo na-ja
(Norbu

Binpoch'e)

The above list seems somewhat confused with " The seven world-

The Seven World-ravishing Gems.
ravishing Gems " here figured.3
The Seven Bersonal Gems.4
1. The Sword-jewel — confers invincibility.
2. The Snake (Aa^a)-skin jewel. It is ten miles long by five broad;
water cannot wet it, nor the wind shake it; it warms in the cold
weather and cools in the hot ; and shines brighter than the moon.
3. The Balace-jewel.
4. The Garden-jewel.
5. The Bobes.
6. The Bed-jewel.
7. The Shoe-jewel. Conveys the wearer one hundred miles without
fatigue and across water without wetting the feet.

1 Bum-pa-ter; Skt., Ealasa.
2 Gyal-ts'an sna bdun.
3 'Jigs-yohs-gyi rin-po-ch'e, namely, bSeru, conch-shell curd, king's earring, queen's
earring, jewelled tiara, three-eyed gem, and the eight-limbed coral. Another enumer
ation gives Padmaraga, indranila, baidurya, margad, vajra, pearl, and coral.
4 Ne-wai rin-poch'e sna bdun.

392

SACRED SYMBOLS AND CHARMS.

A selection of four of these, with the addition of the royal
umbrella, is termed " The five Boyal Insignia,"1 namely : —

The Seven Personal Gems.
1. Ornamental cushion or throne.
2. Umbrella.
3. Sword — emblematic of power of life and death
4. Cow-tail Fly-whisk with jewelled handle.
5. Barti-coloured embroidered shoes.
The Eight Glorious Emblems.2
These auspicious symbols are figured in Buddha's footprints,3
and on innumerable articles, lay and clerical.

The Eight Glorious Emblems.

i Cf. Csoma's An., p. 76 ; Jaeschke's Diet, p. 454.
" Skt., Ashta-mangala ; T., bkra-s'i rtags-brgyad.
1 Said to be symbols of the Vita-raga. Hodgson's L.L., p. 136 ; also J.A .S.B., art.
' Naipdlya Ealydna "

THE EIGHT GLORIOUS EMBLEMS.

393

1. The Golden Fish1
2. The Umbrella ("Lord of the White
Umbrella"2)
3. Conch-shell Trumpet — of Victory
4. Lucky Diagram 3
5. Victorious Banner
6. Vase
7. Lotus
8. Wheel

Set.

matsya
chatra sankhasrivatsadhvaja kalas a
padmacakra

Tib.

gser-na gdugs
dun
dpal-be
rgyal-mts'anbum-pa padma 'k'or-lo

The Eight Glorious Offerings.4
1. Mirror. — The light-holding goddess-form offered a looking-glass
to Buddha Bhagavat when he was turning the wheel of religion,

The Eight Glorious Offerings. ¦
and he blessed it and rendered it holy. (Compare with the mirror in
the Shinto religion of Japan.)
2. The intestinal concretion (gi-ham or gi-'van found in the entrails
1 The credulous Lamas of north-eastern Tibet credited Mr. Rockhill with having
captured the golden fish in the Tosu lake. "When I came back from Tosu-nor
to Shang, the Khanpo (abbot), a Tibetan, asked me where I proposed going ; ' To
Lob-nor,' I replied, not wishing to discuss my plans. 'I supposed that was your
intention,' he rejoined ; ' you have caught our horse and fish of gold in the Tosu-nor,
and now you want to get the frog of gold of the Lob-nor. But it will be useless
to try ; there is in the whole world but the Panchen Rinpoche, of Tashi-lhunpo, who is
able to catch it" ("A Journey in Mongolia andTibet," The Geog. Journ., May, 1894,
p. 376). The Japanese use a wooden fish as a gong.
2 In Sanchi Tope. Fergus., Tree and Serp. Worship, pi. xxxv., Fig. 2.
3 Also the symbol of the tenth Jina (Sitala) of the Jains. Compare with
" Buddha's entrails," see number 2 of next list, also on this page.
4 bkras's-rdsas brgyad. These, together with the foregoing, may be compared
with the Navakosa or Naxanidhi, or nine treasures of Kuvera, the god of riches,
namely, Padma, Mahapadma, Makara, Kacchapa, Mukunda, Nanda, Nila, Kharwa.
And these are related to the so-called Naga kings, " the nine Nandas " of Magadha.

394

SACRED SYMBOLS AND CHARMS.

of certain animals and on the neck of an elephant. The land-guard
ing elephant offered this to Buddha, and he blessed it.
3. Curds (£o). — The farmer's daughter (legs-skyes-ma) offered Buddha
curdled milk, and he blessed it.
4. Dartva grass. — Mangalam, the grass-seller, offered Buddha darwa
grass, which he blessed.
5. The Bilwa fruit (^Egle marmelos). — Brahma offered him bilwa,
which he blessed as the best of fruits.
6. Conch-shell. — Indra offered him a white conch-shell, and he
blessed it.
7. Li-khri. — The Brahman " King-star," offered him Li-khri, and he
blessed it as the overpowering knowledge.
8. The white turnip. — Vajrapani, " the Secret Lord," offered him a
white turnip (yah-dkar), which he blessed as the demon-defeating
turnip. The Five Sensuous Qualities.1
These are figured at page 297. They seem to be a Buddhist
adaptation of the Hindu , " eight enjoyments " (Ashtabhoga),
namely, a grand house, a bed, fine clothes, jewels, wives, flowers,
perfumes, areca-nut and betel. They are offered on the altars and
are: —
1. Bleasing form (Rupa). 4. Luscious eatables (Naiwete).
2. Sound (Sapta). 5. Bleasing-touch and feelings (Sparsa).
3. Berfumes (Gandhe).
Distinctly Chinese in origin are the Trigrams and the following
symbolic animals.
The Trigrams are especially used in astrology, and are de
scribed in the chapter on

le) rGvdn-'Kyil

that subject. They are
based upon the very
ancient Chinese theory of
the Yin- Yang or "the
great extreme " (" Tai-
Ky" 2), where two parallel
lines, in a circle divided
spirally into two equal
tadpole-like segments,
represent, as in the doctrine of the Magi, the two First Causes and
great principles, or contrary influences ( Yin + Yang); such as
1 Skt., Edmaguna, T., 'dod-yohs.
2 Dumoutier, Les Symboles, etc., Annamites.

S VHBOUS
(b) HOR-Y1G
Trigrams.

TRIGRAMS AND DRAGONS.

395

light and darkness, good and evil, male
cold, movement and repose, and so on.
The circular diagram1 is divided by
Japanese, into three segments (as in the
annexed figure a) ; and it will be noticed
that the tails are given the direction of
the orthodox fly-foot cross, for it too,
according to the Lamas, signifies ceaseless
change or " becoming."
The LoNGEViTY-trigram or hexagram,
in both its oblong and circular forms
(fig. b and c), is a modification of the

and female, heat and

the Lamas, like the

Chinese symbol for longevity called Tho.2
The Lamas have also incorporated the
four greatest amongst the Chinese sym
bolic animals, to wit, the Tortoise, the
Bhcenix, Dragon, and Horse-dragon, as
well as the Chinese Tiger, and the Bats.
The Tortoise symbolizes the universe
to the Chinese as well as the Hindus. Its
dome-shaped back represents the vault
of the sky, its belly the earth, which
moves upon the waters ; and its fabulous
longevity leads to its being considered
imperishable. The Dragon 3 seems to perpetuate the
tradition of primaeval flying saurians of
geologic times, now known only through
their fossilized remains. The Lamas and
Chinese Buddhists have assimilated them
with the mythical serpents (Naga) of Indian myth.
The Horse-dragon figures, as it seems to me, very promi
nently in the prayer-flags of Tibet, as we shall presently see.
The Bhosnix (or " Garuda "). This mythical " sky-soarer " 4
is the great enemy of the dragons, and has been assimilated to

* ' ¦ \

Trigrams as Charms.

1 Called rGyan-'k'yil, probably a corruption of the Chinese name.
2 Cf . Dijmoutier, op. git., p. 21.
3 Tib., 'drug ; Chinese Long.
4 Tib., nam-K'ah-ldih. The Chinese call it Con-phu'ong (Dumoutier, p. 48).

396 SACRED SYMBOLS AND CHARMS.
the Indian Garuda, the arch-enemy of the Nagas. And anyone
who has, like myself, seen the bird popularly called Garuda
(namely the Adjutant or Stork) devouring snakes, must realize
why the Indians fixed upon such a homely simile to represent
their myth. It seems to be analogous to the Thunder-bird
of the North American Indians. In a more mystic sense the
Lamas, like the Chinese, believe it to symbolize the entire world ;
its head is the heaven, its eyes the sun, its back the crescent
moon, its wings the wind, its feet the earth, its tail the trees and
plants.1 The Tiger is a deity of the pre-Lamaist religion of Tibet;
and the " Bed-Tiger," as already noted, appears to me to be the
prototype of the favourite Lamaist demon (Tam-din). The tiger is
displayed on all the Tibetan prayer-flags in contest with the
dragon,2 and the five tigers (see figure, page 519) are conspicuous
in the Chinese symbolism prevalent in Annam.3
The group is mystically reputed to symbolize the five elements : the
central yellow tiger is the earth, the upper right blue one is wood,
the lower right red one is fire (also the south), the upper left black
one is water (also the north), and the lower left is metal (also the
west). The Bats, five in number, have come by a confusion of homo
nyms to symbolize the five good Fortunes,4
namely, Luck, Wealth, Long life, Health,
and Beace. They are embroidered on
dresses of high Lamas, sorcerers, maskers,
etc.5 Astrology also uses many other symbols,
The Five Bats of Fortune. , , m
as will be seen hereafter.
The symbolism of colours is referred to in the chapter on
images and incidentally elsewhere.
Symbolic Words used as Numerals in Chronograms.
In chronograms and astronomical and other works, symbolic
names are often used instead of numerals. The rationale of the

1 Cf. also Dumoutier, p. 48. 2 Ngu Ho, see figure, p. 413.
3 Dumoutier, p. 55. * Chinese Ngu Phu'o'c; cf. Dumoutier, p. 51.
0 See also their form on page 4.

SYMBOLIC WORDS. 397
use of such names is generally obvious; thus the individual's body,
the moon, the (one-horned) rhinoceros, express unity from their
singleness. The hand, the eye, wings, twins, denote a pair. And
many of the others are derived from the mythology of the Hindus.
The following are some additional illustrations1 : —
3 = the world — i.e., the three Buddhist worlds of Kama,- Bfipa,
Arupa.
= quality — i.e., the three Guna.
= fire — evidently from its triangular tongue.
= top — probably from the Chinese ideograph of a hill.
4 = a lake or sea — i.e., the idea of fluid requiring to be hemmed in on
all four sides.
5 = the senses — the five senses.
= an element — the five elements.
= an aggregate — the five Skandha.
7 = a sage — the seven Rishi.
8 = a snake — the eight great Nagas.
9 = a treasure — .the nine treasures of Kuvera and the Nandas.
10 = points — the ten points or directions.
12= the sun — with its twelve signs of the Zodiac.
24 = Jina or victor — the twenty-four Jina and Tirthankara.
32 = tooth — the human set of thirty-two teeth.
0 = sky — the " empty " space.
The " Mandala " or Magic Circle-offering of the Universe.
It is almost a matter of history how the great emperor of Asoka
thrice presented India to the Buddhist church, and thrice redeemed
it with his treasure. But it seems to be little, if at all, known that
the Lamas systematically ape Asoka in this particular gift ; and
they are much more magnificently generous than he. For every
day, in every temple in Lamadom, the Lamas offer to the Buddhas
(as well as to the saints and demons) not only the whole of India,
but the whole universe of Jambudvip and the three other fabulous
continents of Hindu cosmogony, together with all the heavens and
their inhabitants and treasures. And although this offering is
made in effigy, it is, according to the spirit of Lamaism, no less
effective than Asoka's real gifts, upon which it seems to be based.
The mode of making this microcosmic offering of the universe
in effigy is as follows ; but to fully understand the rite, reference

1 Taken mostly from Csoma's Grammar, pp. 150, et seq.

398 SACRED SYMBOLS AND CHARMS.
should be made to the illustrated description of the Buddhist
universe, already given at page 79.
mode of offering the mandala.
Having wiped the tray with the right arm or sleeve, the Lama
takes a handful of rice in either hand, and sprinkles some on the
tray to lay the golden foundation of the universe. Then he sets
down the large ring (see figure, p. 296), which is the iron girdle of
the universe. Then in the middle is set down a dole of rice as
mount Meru (Olympus), the axis of the system of worlds. Then
in the order given in the attached diagram are set down a few
grains of rice representing each of the thirty-eight component
portions of the universe, each of which is named at the time of
depositing its representative rice. The ritual for all sects of Lamas
during this ceremony is practically the same. I here append the
text as used by the Kar-gyu sect.
During this ceremony it is specially insisted on that the per
former must mentally conceive that he is actually bestowing all
this wealth of continents, gods, etc., etc., upon his Lamaist deities,
who themselves are quite outside the system of the universe.
The words employed during the offering of the Mandala are the
following, and it should be noted that the figures in brackets
correspond to those in the diagram and indicate the several
points in the magic circle where the doles of rice are deposited
during this celebration or service.
" Om ! Vajra bhummi ah Hum ! "
" On the entirely clear foundation of solid gold is Om 1 bajra-rekhe-
ah Hum.
" In the centre of the iron wall is Hum and Bi-rab (Meru), the king
of Mountains (1).
" On the east is Liis-'p'ags-po (2),
" On the south 'Jam-bu-glin (3),
" On the west Ba-lan-spyod (4), and
" On the north Gra-mi-sfian (5).
" On either side of the eastern continent are Liis (6) and Liis-
'p'ags (7).
" On either side of the southern continent are rNa-yab (8) and
rNa-yab-gz'an (9).
" On either side of the western continent are Yonten (10) and
Lam-mch'og-'gra (11).

MAGIC SYMBOL OF UNIVERSE.

399

DIAGRAM showing
THE COMPOSITION OF THE MANDALA
OFFERING OF THE UNIVERSE

FRONT
The numbers are in the order of
Hi Gyalpo Ri-rabs. .
Sharlii Phag-po". .... A
HI* Jam-bu-ling. I The Great
Nub Pa-lang To /continents
Chang da-mi nyen. .J
Lii „.
Luphag .,.rf ....
Nga-yab
Nga-yab z^a „ , ;.l THE SATELLITE
Yfl-de'ti ' A. .-.. (CONTINENTS
Fiam-chhog do
pa-mi nyen . - .
Da- mi nyen kyi di.
Rin-pochhe-T ri-w6.
'fg-aam Kyi Shing 1 THE * WORLDLY
Dod Jo-i-Loo. -.-... .( Treasures.
Ma-mo pa -i Id thog

the procedure.
ii.nor-10..-
N*r-bu - ¦
Taun-mo....- - ¦ J The Seven
Lfen-po - >Precioub
Lang-po | THINGS
Tam-chhog.
Mag-pSn.
Ter chhen-po-J Bom-pa
Geg-mo-ma. ; ¦ -•
Theng-wa ma. ..
Lu-ma
Gar-ma ..-. J THE 8 MATRI
Me-tog ma. f Goddeb8EB.
Dug-pHma
Nangaol-ma. »
Di chbab ma.

Nyi-ma. - ISunand
35. Da-wa ./Moon.
86. Rinpo-cbhe-tdug.
S7. Ohhog- W nam-par Gyal-w*-i Gym 48bift.
38. Nam-Pa^Q,yftl"w^^n*1[1Ssanfi',

400 SACRED SYMBOLS AND CHARMS.
" And on either side of the northern continent are sGra-mi-sfian
(12) and sGra-mi-sfian-gyi-mda (13).
" There are mountains of jewels (14), wish-granting trees (15), wish-
granting, cows (16), unploughed crops (17), the precious wheel (18), the
precious Norbu jewel (19), the precious queen (20), the precious minister
(21), the precious elephant (22), the precious horse (23), the precious
battle-chief (24), the vase of the great treasure (25), the goddesses
sgeg-pa-ma (26), 'B'ren-wa-ma (27), gLu-ma (28), Gar-ma (29), Me-tog-ma
(30), bDug-spos-ma (31), sNan-gsal-ma (32),Dri-ch'al-ma (33), the sun(34),
moon (35), jewelled umbrella (36), the ensign of victory (37), which is
entirely victorious from all directions, and in the middle are the gods
(38), the most accomplished and wealthy of the beings !
" I offer you all these constituent parts of the universe in their en
tirety, 0 ! noble, kind, and holy Lama ! 0 I tutelary gods of the magic-
circle, and all the hosts of Buddhas and Bodhisats !
" I beg you all to receive these offerings for the benefit of the animal
beings !
" I offer you 0 ! Buddhas ! the four continents and mount Meru
adorned with the sun and moon on a foundation of incense and flowers.
Let all the animal beings enjoy happiness !
" I offer you O ! assembly of all the accomplished supreme beings of
the outside, inside, and hidden regions, the entire wealth and body of
all these ideal regions. I beg you all to give us the best of all real
gifts, and also _the real gift of »Dsogs-pa-ch'en-po (the mystic insight
sought by the Nih-ma) !
" I offer up this fresh magic-circle, through the virtue of which let
no injury beset the path of purity, but let us have the grace of the
Jinas of the three times, and let us, the innumerable animal beings, be
delivered from this illusive world !
" I offer up salutations, offerings, confessions of sins, and repent
ance. "What virtue has been accumulated by myself and others, let it
go to the attainment of our great end. Idam-ratna mandala kamnir-
yaiteydmi !
" I humbly prostrate myself three times to all who are worthy of
worship, with my whole heart and body." Let glory come ! "
But the commonest use of sacred symbols is as talismans to ward
off the evils of those malignant planets and demons who cause
disease and disaster, as well as for inflicting harm on one's enemy.
The symbols here are used in a mystical and magic sense as spells
and as fetishes, and usually consist of formulas in corrupt and
often unintelligible Sanskrit, extracted from the Mahayana and
Tantrik* scriptures, and called dhdrani,2 as they are believed to
"hold" divine powers, and are also used as incantations. Shorter
1 For details of the rest of this service, sec my Lamaism in Sikhim, p. 105.
2 z'uns. m

TALISMANS —EDIBLE CHARMS.

401

forms of these, consisting often of a single letter, are also
used as representing the essence or " germ " of these spells or
mantras, and hence named vija. And the mystic diagram in
which they are often arranged is named Yantra, as in Hindu
Tantrism.1 The forms of these talismans and amulets are innumerable.
The majority are luck-compelling, but different diseases, accidents
and misfortune have each their special kinds.
The eating of the paper on which a charm has been written is
an ordinary way of curing disease, as indeed it had been in Europe
till not so many centuries ago, for the mystic Bt heading our
prescriptions is generally admitted to have had its origin in the
symbol of Saturn, whom it invoked, and the paper on which the
symbol and several other mystic signs were inscribed constituted
the medicine, and was itself actually eaten by the patient. The
spells which the Lamas use in this way as medicine are shown in
the annexed print, and are called " the edible letters " (za-yig).
A still more mystical way of applying these remedies is by the
washings of the reflection of the
writing in a mirror, a practice
not without its parallels in other
quarters of the globe.2 Thus to
cure the evil eye as shown by
symptoms of mind-wandering and
dementia condition — called
"byad-'grol" — it is ordered as
follows: Write with Chinese ink
on a piece of wood the particular
letters and smear the writing over
with myrobalams and saffron as
varnish, and every twenty-nine
days reflect this inscribed wood in a mirror, and during reflection
wash the face of the mirror with beer, and collect a cupful of
such beer and drink it in nine sips.
1 Mooter Williams's Hinduism, 127.
2 "In Gambia," writes the colonial surgeon in his report for 1890 (quoted in. Nature)
" the treatment relied upon for cure, and much practised in the country, is to call
in a man who is supposed to be a ' doctor,' who, after looking at the patient, sits
down at his bedside and writes in Arabic characters on a wooden slate a long rig
marole, generally consisting of extracts from the Eoran. The slate is then washed,
and the dirty infusion is drunk by the patient." D D

Edible Charm.

402 SACRED SYMBOLS AND CHARMS.
But most of the charms are worn on the person as amulets.
Every individual always wears around the neck one or more of
these amulets, which are folded up into little cloth-covered packets,
bound with coloured threads in a geometrical pattern. Others
are kept in small metallic cases of brass, silver, or gold, set with
turquoise stones as amulets, and called " Ga-u." These amulets
are fastened to the girdle or sash, and the smaller ones are worn
as lockets,1 and with each are put relics of holy men — a few
threads or fragments of cast-off robes of saints or idols, peacock
feathers, sacred Kusa grass, and occasionally images and holy pills.
Other large charms are affixed overhead in the house or tent to
ward off lightning, hail, etc., and for cattle special charms are
chanted, or sometimes pasted on the walls of the stalls, etc.2
Most of these charms against accident, disease, and ill-fortune
are in the form figured on the opposite page, which is called
" The Assembly of all the Lamas' Hearts," as it is believed to
contain the essence of all that is most powerful in the Lamaist
spells. It consists of a series of concentric circles of spells surrounded
by flames, amid which in the four corners are the symbols of the
Buddhist trinity symbolized as three gems, a lotus-flower, a thun
der-bolt sceptre, and a flaming dagger with a vajra-hilt. In the
interior is an eight-petalled lotus-flower, each petal of which bears
mystic syllables, and in the centre of the flower is a circular space
of about an inch in diameter, in which is placed the especial mystic
charm, prepared as presently described, and varying according to
the purpose for which the charm is wanted. The outer spells are : —
In the Outmost Circle. — Guard the Body, Mind, and Speech of this
charm-holder ! Rakhya rakhya kuruye svaha ! Angtadyatha ! Om
muni muni mahamuniye svaha. (Here follows " The Buddhist creed "
already given ; followed by the Dhyani Buddhas : — ) Vairocana Om
vajra Alcshobhya Hum, Ratna-sambhava Hri, Bargudhara Hri, Amoga-
siddha Ah !
In Second Circle. — Om ! Nama Samanta Buddhanam, Nama
Samanta Dharmanam, nama Samant \ Samghanam. Om Sititabatrai.
Om Vimala, Om Shadkara, Om Brahyarigar Vajra ustsikhatsa
krawarti sarvayana manta mula varma hana dhanamba. Namkil-

i Figured on page 571. The kidney-shaped ones are called Ga-u ke-ri-ma.
¦' Cf. also Csoma and W. E. Carte, J.A.S.B., ix., 904. See figures of some of these
charms at pages 568, 571, and 572.

GENERAL CHARM.

403

aniba. makriayena keni chatkramtamtata sarban ratsin ratsin dakhinda
bhinda tsiri tsiri giri giri mada mada hum hum phat phat.
In Third Circle. — Guard the Body, Mind, and Speech of this charm-
holder ! Mama ralcya rakhya kuruye swaha. (Here follows the letters of
the alphabet : — ) Ang, a, a, i, I, u, ii, ri, ri, li, IT, e, ai, o. au, ang, a, k,
kh, g, gh, n, ts, tsh, ds, dsa, n, ta, th, d, dh, n, p, ph, b, bh, m, y, r, 1,
w, s, sh, s, h, am !
In Fourth Circle. — Hum, Hum, etc.
In Fifth Circle. — Hri, Hri, etc.

The General Charm Print.
Entitled " The Assembly of Lamas' Hearts."
(Keduced J.)

In Sixth CircU.-Om! A! Hum! Hri! Guru! Deva! DakUnll
Sarvasiddhipala Hum 1 A !
The special charm, which occupies the centre of the diagram,
varies according to the object for which the charm is required. It
D D 2

404 SACRED SYMBOLS AND CHARMS.
consists of a monogram or mystic letter (Sanskrit, vija, or seed),
which represents the germ of a spell or mantra. This letter is
often in the old Indian character of about the fourth or fifth
century a.d., and is inscribed in cabalistic fashion with special
materials as prescribed in the manual on the subject.
As most of these specific charms are of the nature of sympa
thetic magic, and evidently derived from very ancient Indian
sources, probably dating back to Vedic times when the ritual
consisted largely of sympathetic magic,1 I give here a few ex
amples : 2 —
Thus to make the
Charm against Bullets and Weapons. — The directions are as
these : With the blood of a wounded man draw the annexed
monogram (D a) and insert in the vacant space in the centre
of the aforesaid print of " The Assembly of the Hearts of the
Lamas." The sheet should then be folded and wrapped in a piece
of red silk, and tie up with a piece of string and wear around the
neck or an unexposed part of your breast immediately next the skin,
and never remove it.
Charm for Clawing Animals (i.e., tigers, cats, bears, etc.). —
On a miniature knife write with a mixture of myrobalans and
musk-water the monogram (? ZAH) and tie up, etc. (Here the
knife seems to represent the animal's claw.)
For Domestic Broils. — Write the monogram (? BE) and insert
in print and fold up and bind with a thread made of the mixed
hairs of a dog, goat, sheep, and enclose in a mouse-skin, and tie,
etc. (This seems to represent union of domestic elements.)
For Kitchen Cooking Smells offensive to the House-Gods. —
With the blood of a hybrid bull-calf write the monogram GAU
( = cow), and insert it in the print, and fold up in a piece of hedge-
hoT-skin. (Compare with the western Aryan myth of the Greek
hearth-god Vulcan, whose mother Hera, as Io is represented as a
cow.) For Cholera (or "the vomiting, purging, and cramps" ). — With

i Cf. Bergaigne's La religion tedique ; also Frazer.
2 For a fuller account, with illustrations, see my article in Jour. Anthrop. Institute,
1894.

PLAGUE AND SCORPION-CHARMS. 405

the dung of a black horse and black sulphur and musk-water write
the monogram (? ZA), and insert in the print, and fold up in a piece
of snake-skin, and wear, etc. (Here the dung seems to represent
the purging, the horse the galloping course, the black colour the
deadly character, and the snake the virulence of the disease.)
Charm against Blagues.
This charm, figured at the head of this chapter, consists of a
monster figure of the Garuda, the king of birds, with a snake in
its mouth, and each of its outstretched plumes bears a text, and
it also contains the " Buddhist creed." The inscription runs : —
Om ! Bhrum satrirbad namkhamjamram.
Om ! bisdkhrilimili hala svaha !
Om/ bisakhrilimilihalaya skachig !
Guard the holder (i.e., the wearer) of this from all the host of diseases,
of evil spirits and injuries, including contagious diseases, sore-throat,
cough, rheumatism, the black " rgyu-ghgyel," brum-bu, and all kinds
of plague of the body, speech, and mind ! [Here follows the Buddhist
creed.] Habatse habatse hum sod. Suru suru hum sod. Sukarjuka
hum sod. Sati Icarur hum, sod. Kularakhyi hum sod. Merumthuntse
hum sod. Mahakuruy,a guru triga gurunam nayashara ramram duldul
nagatsita pho naga chunglinga shag thumamnyoys sos.
Guard the holder.
Om ! thamitharati sadunte dswaramyhaye svaha !
Another charm for disease is given at page 62, where the
fierce demon Tam-din,. clad in human and animal skins, bears on
his front a disc with concentric circles of spells.
Scorpion-Charm against Injury by Demons.
This charm, figured at page 474, is in the form of a scorpion,
whose mouth, tipped by flames, forms the apex of the picture.
On its shoulder are seated the especial demons to be protected
against. The inscription runs : —
Ayama durur cashana zhamaya.
Hum ! Om ! A ! Hum ! Artsignirtsig !
Namo Bhagavdti Hum ! Hum ! Phat !
A guard against all the injuries of " j-gyalpo," " drimo " (a malignant
demon specially injuring women), " Jtsan " (or red demons), " sa-dag "
(or earth-demons), kin (or naga), including " (/nan " (a plague-causing
subordinate of the naga).

406 SACRED SYMBOLS AND CHARMS.
Against injury by these preserve 1
And the figures are hemmed in by the mystic syllables : Jsa !
Hum ! Hum ! Bam ! Ho !
The huge Tibetan mastiffs are let loose at night as watch-dogs,
and roaming about in a ferocious state are a constant source of
alarm to travellers, most of whom therefore carry the following
charm against dog-bite. It consists of a picture of a dog fettered
and muzzled by a chain, terminated by the mystic and all-power-
fuljthunderbolt-sceptre ; and it contains the following inscribed
Sanskrit mantras and statements : " The mouth of the blue
dog is bound beforehand ! Omriti-sri-ti swaha ! Omriti-sri-ti

?pr~

^^^^«ettr2BS^^^^%^H)^

Charm against Dog-bite.

swaha ! " And this is repeated along the body of the dog,
followed by : —
Om Vajra ghana kara kukuratsa sal sal nan marya smugs smugs
kukuratsa khathamtsa le tsa le mun mun sar sar rgyug kha iha ma chhu
chhinghchhang maraya rakkhya rakkhya ! (It is) fixed ! fixed !
Charm against Eagles and Birds of Brey.
Eagles play havoc with the young herds of the pastoral Bhotiyas
of the Sikhim uplands and Tibet. For this the people use the
annexed charm, which they tie up near their huts. The central
figure is a manacled bird, representing the offending eagle or
other bird of prey ; and around it is the following text : —
" A guard against all injuries of the covetous, sky-soaring monarch
bird. (It is) fixed ! fixed ! Om smege smege bhum bhummu !"
Charm for Killing One's Enemy.
The necromantic charms for killing one's enemy are resorted to

CHARMS AGAINST ENEMIES.

407

mostly in inter-tribal feuds and warring with foreigners. I have
given details of these rites elsewhere.1 They require tbe following
objects : —

1. An axe with three heads, the right of which is bull-headed, the
left snake-headed, and the middle one pig-headed.
2. On the middle head a lamp is to be kept.
3. In the pig's mouth an image of a human being made of wheaten
flour (a linga). The upper part of the body is black and the lower part
red. On the side of the upper
part of the body draw the
figure of the eight great
planets, and on the lower part
of the body the twenty-eight
constellations of stars. Write
also the eight parkha (tri
grams), the nine mewa, the
claws of the Garuda in the
hands, the wing of the eagles
and the snake tail.
4. Hang a bow and an
arrow on the left and load
him with provisions on the
back. Hang an owl's feather on the right and a rook's on the left ;
plant a piece of the poison-tree on the upper part of the body, and
surround him with red swords on all sides. Then a red Bgyangbu
wood on the right, a yellow one on the left, a black one in the middle,
and many blue ones on divers places.
5. Then, sitting in quiet meditation, recite the following : —
" Hum ! This axe with a bull's head on the right will repel all the
injuries of the Hag-pas and Bon-pos — sorcerers ; the snake on the left
will repel all the classes of plagues ; the pig's head in the middle will
repel the sa-dag and other earth-demons ; the linga image in the mouth
will repel all the evil spirits without remainder, and the lamp on the
head will repel the evil spirits of the upper regions. O ! the axe will
cleave the heart of the angry enemy and also of the hosts of evil
spirits ! ! ! etc., etc., etc., etc.

Eagle-chaem.

During the Sikhim expedition of 1888, near Mt. Baul on the
Tukola ridge, where the final attack of tbe Tibetans was made,
there was found one of the mystic contrivances for the destruction
of the enemy. It consisted of an obliquely carved piece of wood,

My Lamaism in Sikhim.

408 SACRED SYMBOLS AND CHARMS.
about fourteen inches long, like a miniature screw-propeller of a
steamer, and acted like the fan of a windmill. It was admittedly
a charm for the destruction of the enemy by cleaving them to
pieces, a device for which there are western parallels. And on it
was written a long, unintelligible Bon spell of the kind called
z'aii-z'uh, followed by a call for the assistance of the fierce
deities Tam-din, Vajrapani, and the Garuda, and concluding with
"phcit, phat" — Break! Destroy! It may also be mentioned here
that the bodies of all the Tibetans slain in these encounters were
found to bear one or more charms against wounds, most of them
being quite new; and some of the more elaborate ones, which con
tained in their centre figures of the other weapons charmed against,
swords, muskets, etc., had cost their wearers as much as twenty- five
rupees a-piece.
And for torturing one's enemy short of death, there is the same
popular practice which is found amongst occidentals,1 namely, of
making a little clay image of the enemy and thrusting pins into it.
The directions for this procedure are : —
Take some of the earth from his footprints ; or better from the house
of some wrecked person, and mixing with dough prepare a small
figure of a man. On its head put thorns. Through the heart's region
thrust a copper needle. Then say following spell : Om Ghate Jam-mo
hdmo hddsam ; during the recital of which move the needle briskly over
the region of the heart. If this process is long continued then the
bewitched person will surely die within the day ; but if done only for a
time, and the needle and thorns are again withdrawn, and the image-
body and needles are washed, the enemy who is thus bewitched will only
suffer temporary anguish, and will recover (for it is against Buddhist
principles to take life). " Brayer-Flags."
The tall flags inscribed with pious sentences, charms, and prayers,
which flutter picturesquely around every Lamaist settlement,
curiously combine Indian with Chinese aud Tibetan symbolism.
It seems a far cry from Asoka pillars to prayer-flags, but it is
not improbable that they are related, and that "the Trees of the
Law," so conspicuous in Lamaism, are perverted emblems of Indian
Buddhism, like so much of the Lamaist symbolism.
Everyone who has been in Burma is familiar with the tall masts
1 Cf. Virgil, Bucol. viii. ; Theocritus, Pharmaceutria.

PRAYER-FLAGS. 409

(tagun-daing),1 with their streaming banners, as accessories of
every Buddhist temple in that country. Each mast in Burma is
surmounted by an image of one or more Brahmani geese, and the
streamers are either flat or long cylinders of bamboo framework
pasted over with paper, which is often inscribed with pious
sentences. The monks whom I^jisked regarding the nature of
this symbol believed that it was borrowed from Indian Buddhism.
Now, the resemblance which these posts bear to the Asoka
pillars is certainly remarkable. Both are erected by Buddhists
for the purposes of gaining merit and displaying aloft pious wishes
or extracts from the law; and tbe surmounting geese form an
essential feature of tbe abacus of several Asoka pillars. The change
from pillar to post could be easily explained, as great monoliths
were only possible to such a mighty emperor as Asoka ; but every
one could copy in wood the pious practice of that great and model
Buddhist who had sent his missionaries to convert them.
Such wooden standards may have been common in Indian
Buddhism, as some Burmese believe, and yet, from their perish
able nature, have left no trace behind. At most of the old rocky
Buddhist sites in Magadha I have seen sockets in the rock, some
of which may have been used for such standards, although many
of the smaller sockets were doubtless used for planting umbrellas
to shelter the booth-keepers in their sale of flower and other offer
ings for the shrines. Most also of the clay models of Caityas in
relief, dug out of the earlier Indian Stupas, show streamers tied to
the top of the Caityas ; and in Ceylon the old Stupas are sur
rounded by what seems to be similar posts.2
Lamaism, which, more than any other section of Buddhism, has,
as we have seen, substituted good words for the good works of the
primitive Buddhists, eagerly seized upon all such symbolism, as for
instance, Asoka's historic gifts in their daily rice-offerings. The
decided resemblance of its " prayer-flags " to the tagun-daing of
the Burmese is3 not more striking, perhaps, than the apparent
1 Mr. St. A. St. John kindly informs me that the etymology is to, something long and
straight + gun, bark or husk + daing, a post.
2 See figures in Ferguson's History of India and Eastern Architecture.
3 These instances seem something more than the simple cloths and banners as propitia
tory offerings, which, of course, are found in most animistic religions — from the " rag-
bushes" of India to the shavings of the Upper Burmese and the Ainos. And the
hypothetical relationship between the Burmese and the Tibetans, based on the affinity

410

SACRED SYMBOLS AND CHARMS.

homology which they present to the Asoka pillars. They are
called by the Lamas Da-cha,1 evidently a corruption of the Indian
Dhvaja, the name given by the earlier Indian Buddhists to the
votive pillars offered by them as railings to Stupas.2
The planting of a Lamaist prayer-flag, while in itself a highly
pious act, which everyone practises at some time or other, does not
merely confer merit on the planter, but benefits the whole country
side. And the concluding sentence of the legend inscribed on the
flag is usually " Let Buddha's doctrine prosper " — which is practi
cally the gist of the Asoka inscriptions.3

Chinese LONGSorsb.
Or Horse-Bragon, "Long-ma.'

But the Lamas have degraded much of their Indian symbolism,
and perverted it to sordid and selfish objects.
The prayer-flags are used by the Lamas as luck-commanding
talismans ; and the commonest of them, the so-called " Airy

of their languages, does not count for much, as no real racial relation has yet been
proved. Probably related to these prayer-flags are the stone pillars called masts or
poles (wei-kan), found in western Su-Ch'uan in China, and figured by Mr. Baber (" A
Journey," etc., Roy. Geog. Soc. Suppl. Papers, i., p. 19).
1 dar-lch'og.
a Cunningham's Stupa of Barh ut.
3 As the legend usually bears a lion and a tiger in its upper corners, while below
are a Garuda-bird and dragon (Naga), it seems not impossible that these may be re
lated to the surmounting lion and the so-called geese of Asoka's pillars. The rites
related to the erection of the Lamaist standard are somewhat suggestive of the Vedic
rite of " raising Indra's banner," which in its turn is probably the original of our May
pole, and Asoka's pillars seem to have been somewhat of the nature of the Jaya>-
tambha.

PRAYER AND LUCK-FLAGS.

411

horse," seems to me to be clearly based upon and also bearing the
same name as " The Horse-dragon " of the Chinese.
This Horse-dragon or " Long-horse " is one of the four great
mythic animals of China, and it is the symbol for grandeur. It
is represented, as in the figure on the opposite page, as a dragon-
headed horse, carrying on its back the civilizing Book of the Law.

CV <\ O A

r4}OT

The Tibetan lungSobse.
Now this is practically the same figure as " The Lung-horse "
(literally "Wind-horse") of the Lamaist flag, which also is used for
th& expressed purpose of increasing the grandeur of the votary ;
indeed, this is the sole purpose for which the flag is used by the
Tibetan laity, with whom these flags are extremely popular.
And the conversion of " The Horse-dragon " of the Chinese into

412 SACRED SYMBOLS AND CHARMS.
the Wind-horse of the Tibetans is easily accounted for by a con
fusion of homonyms. The Chinese word for " Horse-dragon " is
Long-ma?- of which Long = Dragon, and ma = Horse. In Tibet,
where Chinese is practically unknown, Long, being the radical
word, would tend to be retained for a time, while the qualifying
word, ma, translated into Tibetan, becomes " rta." Hence we get
the form " Long-rta." But as the foreign word Long was unin
telligible in Tibet," and the symbolic animal is used almost solely
•for fluttering in the wind, the " Long " would naturally become
changed after a time into Lung or " wind," in order to give it
some meaning, hence, so it seems to me, arose the word Lung-
rta,2 or " Wind-horse."
In appearance the Tibetan " Lung-horse " so closely resembles
its evident prototype the " Horse- dragon," that it could easily be
mistaken for it. On the animal's back, in place of the Chinese
civilizing Book of the Law, the Lamas have substituted the Bud
dhist emblem of the civilizing Three Gems, which include the
Buddhist Law. But the Tibetans, in their usual sordid way, view
these objects as the material gems and wealth of good luck which
this horse will bring to its votaries. The symbol is avowedly a
luck- commanding talisman for enhancing the grandeur 3 of the
votary. Indian myth also lends itself to the association of the horse with
luck; for the Jewel-horse of the universal monarch, such as
Buddha was to have been had he cared for worldly grandeur,
carries its rider, Pe^asus-like, through the air in whatever direc
tion wished for, and thus it would become associated with
the idea of realization of material wishes, and especially wealth
and jewels. This horse also forms the throne-support of the mythi
cal celestial Buddha named Batna-sambhava, or " the Jewel-bo*rn
One," who is often represented symbolically by a jewel. And we
find in many of these luck-flags that the picture of a jewel takes
the place of the horse. It is also notable that the mythical people
of the northern continent, subject to the god of wealth, Kuvera,
or Vaisravana, are " horse-faced."
The flags are printed on the unglazed tough country paper,
i Dumoutier, op. cit., p. 30.
- rLun-rta ; another form of spelling sometimes, though rarely, met with, is kLuri
rta, where kLun is said to mean " year of birth."
3 T., rgyas.

LUCK-FLAGS.

413

and are obtainable on purchase from the Lamas, but no Lama is
necessarily needed for the actual planting of the flag and its
attendant rites.
These luck-commanding or " prayer-flags " are of four kinds : —
I. The Lung-ta proper, as above figured. It is almost square in
form, about four to six inches long, and contains in the centre the
figure of a horse with the mystic jewel Norbu on its back. It is

War op the Tiger and Dragon.

hung upon the ridges of the houses', and in the vicinity of dwel
lings. The printed text of this sort of flag varies somewhat in
the order in which the deified Lamas are addressed, some giving
the first place to St. Fadma, while others give it to the celestial
Bodhisat, Manjursi ; but all have the same general form, with the
horse bearing the jewel in the centre, and in the four corners
the figures or the names of the tiger, lion, the monstrous garuda-

414 SACRED SYMBOLS AND CHARMS.

bird, and the dragon — the tiger being opposed to the dragon, in
accordance with Chinese mythology, as figured over the page.
A translation of one of the prayer-flags is here given : —
Hail ! Vagishwari mum ! (i.e., yellow
TIGEB. Manjusri's spell.) , LION.
Hail! to the jewelinthe Lotus ! Hum\
i (i.e., Avalokita's spell).
Hail ! to the holder of the Dorje ! Hum ! (i.e., Vajrapani's
spell).
Hail ! to Vajrasattva (The Diamond-souled one !)
Hail ! Amarahnihdsiwantiye swaha.
[The above is in Sanskrit. Now follows in Tibetan : — J
Here ! May all of the above (deities whose spells have been
given) prosper [here is inserted the year
of birth of the individual], and also prosper —
the Body (i.e., to save from sickness),
the Speech (i.e., to give victory in disputations),
and the Mind (i.e., to obtain all desires) ;
GAEUDA. of this year-holder [above specified] DBAGON.
and may Buddha's doctrine prosper !
Here it will be noted that the- three great celestial defensores
fidei of Lamaism are invoked through their spells, namely : —
1. Manjusri, who conveys wisdom ; 2. Avalokita, who saves
from fear and hell ; and 3. Vajrapani, who saves from accident
and bodily injury. And in addition to the above are also given
the spells of: 4. Vajrasattva, who purifies the soul from sin;
and 5. Amitayus, who confers long life.
It is interesting to compare with these Tibetan luck-flags the
somewhat similar prayer-flags1 which the Burmese Buddhists
offer at their shrines. " These," says Mr. Scott,2 " are fancifully
cut into figures of dragons and the like, and in the centre contain,
in Bali or the vernacular, sentences like these : —
" By means of this paper the offerer will become very strong.
" By the merit of this paper Wednesday's children will be blessed
by spirits and men.
- " May the man born on Friday gain reward for his pious offer
ing. " May the man born on Monday be freed from Sickness and the
Three Calamities."

i Kyet sha-taing. 2 The Bur-man, i., p. 225.

LUCK-FLAGS.

415

The large Luck-flag "The Victorious Banner."
(Keduced 3.)

416 SACRED SYMBOLS AND CHARMS.
The second form of the Tibetan luck-flag is called cho-pin.1
It is of a long, narrow, oblong shape, about eight to ten inches in
length. This sort of flag is for tying to twigs of trees or to
bridges, or to sticks for planting on the tops of hills. Its text has
generally the same arrangement as form No. 1, but it wants the
horse-picture in the centre. Its Tibetan portion usually closes
with " May the entire collection (of the foregoing deities) prosper
the power, airy horse, age and life of this year-holder and make
them increase like the waxing new moon."
Very poor people, who cannot afford the expense of the printed
charms, merely write on a short slip of paper the name of the
birth-year of the individual, and add " May his lung-hm'se prosper."
One lung-horse for each member of a household must be planted
on the third day of every month (lunar) on the top of any hill near
at hand, or on the branch of a tree near a spring, or tied to the
sides of a bridge; and on affixing the flag a stick of incense is
burned. And a small quantity of flour, grain, flesh, and beer are
offered to the genius loci of the hill-top by sprinkling them around,
saying, So ! So ! Take ! Take !
A more expanded form of the luck-flag is the Gyal-tsan dse-
mo, or " Victorious banner," 2 which is generally of the same form
as that first mentioned, but containing a much larger amount of
holy texts, and also usually the eight glorious symbols, of which
the lotus forms the base of the print. It prospers not only luck
in . wealth, but also the life, body, and power of the individual,
and seems to contain also spells addressed to the goddess Durga,
Siva's spouse.
The Vast Luck-flag. This fourth form of Lung-ta is named
"gLaii-po stob ryyas," or " That which makes vast like the Ele
phant." * It is pasted to the walls of the houses, or folded up and
worn around the neck as a charm for good luck. It consists of
crossed vajras in the centre with a Garuda and a peacock, the
jewelled elephant and the jewelled horse, each bearing an eight-
leaved lotus-disc on which are inscribed the following Sanskrit
and Tibetan texts. The other symbols are " the eight glorious
symbols " already described.

i ibyod-pan.
2 Sometimes rendered into Sanskrit as Arya dhvaja agra-keyur rana maharani.
3 gLan-po stob-i-gyas.

LUCK-FLAGS. 417

And around the margin is the familiar legend " the Buddhist
creed," repeated several times, also the letters of the alphabet,
together with the words " May the life, body, power, and the
' airy horse ' of the holder of this charm prosper his body, speech,
and wishes, and cause them to increase like the growing new
moon ; may he be possessed of all wealth and riches, and be guarded
against all kinds of injury."
In the upper left hand disc : " May the life of this charm-holder be
raised sublimely (like the flight of the garuda here represented). Om !
sal sal hobana sal sal ye swaha ! Om ! Om ! sarba kata kata sata kata
sola ya nata sah wa ye swaha ! Om ! kili kili mili mili kuru kuru hum
hiim ye swaha ! O ! May the life of this charm-holder be raised on
high !
In the upper right-hand disc : " May the body of this charm-holder
be raised sublimely (like the flight of the peacock here represented).
Om ! yer yer hobana yer yer ye svaha ! Om ! sarba Tathagata bhiri
bhiri bata bata miri miri mili mili ae bata sarba gata-gata shramana
sarba gata-gata shramana sarba ! O ! May the body of this charm-
holder be raised on high."
In lower left-hand disc : " May the power of this charm-holder be
raised sublimely (like the precious elephant here represented). Om !
Mer mer hobana mer mer ye swaha ! Om sarva dhara dhara bara dhara
ghi kha ye swaha ! Sarva kili kili na hah hang li sarba bhara bhara
sambhara sambhara ! O ! May the power and wealth of this charm-
holder be increased and all the injuries be guarded against.
In lower right-hand circle : " May the 'Airy horse' of this charm-
holder be raised sublimely (with the celerity of ' the precious horse '
here represented). Om ! lam lam hobana lam lam lam swaha ! Om !
Sarva kara kara phat ! Sarbha dhuru dhuru na phat ! Sarba kata
kata kata na phat! Sarba kili kili na phat! Sarbha mala mala,
swaha ! 0 ! May the ' Lung-horse ' of the charm-holder be raised
on high and guarded against all injury."
In the central disc over the junction of the cross Dor-je is written :
" Om ! neh ya rani jiwenti ye swaha ! 0 ! May this charm -holder;
he given the undying gift of soul everlasting (as the adamantine cross
Dor-je herein pictured)."
In planting these luck-flags a special form of worship is ob
served. And the planting of these flags with the due worship
is advised to be done when ever anyone feels unhappy and down in
luck, or injured by the earth-demons, etc. It is called " The
great statue of the Lung-horse," and is as follows : —
First of all is made a rice-offering of the universe, under a yellow
canoPyi but screened on the four sides by curtains of different colours,
blue on the east, red on the south, white on the west, and black on the
E E

418 SACRED SYMBOLS AND CHARMS.
north. The canopies are to be fixed in the ends of a perfect square
set in the four directions, around which are the twelve-year cycle, the
nine cakes (bs'os) representing the nine Mewas, eight lamps represent
ing the eight parkha, eight planets, twenty-eight constellations of stars,
five Tormas, five yliid (small balls of wheaten flour offered to demons as
ransom), five arrows with silk streamers (mda-dar) of the five different
colours, and many more mdd rgyan-bu and 'p'an. The above must be
arranged by a practical man, and then the ceremony begins with the
fingers in the proper attitude of the twelve cycle of years, and recita
tion of the following in a raised and melodious voice : —
" Kye ! Kye ! In the eastern horizon from where the sun rises, is
a region of tigers, hares, and trees. The enemy of the trees is the Iron,
which is to be found in the western horizon, and where the enemy, the
life-cutting bdiid-devil, is also to be found. In that place are the
demons who injure the life, body, power, and the ' Lung-horse.' The
devil who commands them also lives in the occidental region : he is a
white man with the heads of a bird and a monkey, and holds a white
hawk on the right and a black rlemon-rod on the left. Oh ! Bird and
monkey-headed demon ! Accept this ransom and call back all the in
juring demons.
" Kye ! Kye ! In the southern horizon is a region of horses, snakes,
and fire. The enemy of the fire is the water, etc., etc. 0 ! Bat and
pig-headed demon 1 Accept this ransom and call back all the injuring
demons." ..........
" Kye ! Kye ! In the boundary of the south-eastern horizon is a
yellow dragon-headed demon. O ! Dragon-headed devfl ! Accept this
ransom and call back all the injuring devils.
" Kye! Kye! In the boundary of the south-western horizon is a
yellow sheep-headed woman. O ! Sheep-headed she-devil ! Accept
this ransom and call back all the injuring demons.
" Kye ! Kye ! In the boundary of the north-western horizon there
¦ is a yellow dog-headed demon. O ! Dog-headed devil ! Accept this
ransom and call back all the injuring demons.
" Kye ! Kye ! In the boundary of the north-eastern horizon there
is a yellow bull-headed demoness. O ! Bull-headed she-devil ! Accept
this ransom and call back all the injuring demons !
" 0 ! Upset all the injuring evil spirits, the ill-natured devils, the
demons who injure the life, body, power, and the Lung-horse, the
wandering demons, the ill-luck of bad ' Zimi/-horses,' the fearful
goblins, the bad omens, the doors of the sky, and the earth, and
the injuries of all malignant devils.
" May we be freed from all kinds of injuries and be ' favoured with
the real gift, which we earnestly seek ! ' "
" May virtue increase ! '
" Gloey ! "

LUCK-FLAGS.

419

^j^^^|^lc6g4§teto^^^^^^r^b^taad^l^^i§-d

The " Vast " Luck-flag.
(Reduced |.)

E E 2

¦*$ViMt***iW

^mht&UJLMMii II*.**-* 14

'MRBitiiiilUUXitlttttiMif

Dough .Sacrificial Effigies of the Tibetan Bon Religion.
(Reduced J.)

XVI.
WOKSHIB AND BITUAL.
OBSHIB and priestcraft had no place in primitive
Buddhism. Bious regard for admirable persons, such
as Buddha and the elders, and for ancient cities and
sacred sites, was limited to mere veneration, and
usually took the form of respectful circumambulation (usually
three times), with the right hand towards the admired object,
as in western ceremonial,1 and this veneration was extended to
the other two members of the Buddhist trinity, namely, Buddha's
Word or Dharma, and the Assembly of the Faithful.
After Buddha's death such ceremonial, to satisfy the religious
sense, seems soon to have crystallized into concrete worship and
sacrifice as an act of affection and gratitude towards the Three

i For instance, as in the Scotch highlands, "to make the deazil," or walk thrice in
the direction of the sun's course around those whom they wish well (Gordon-Cuming,
From the Hebrides to tlie Himalayas, ii., 164). We also follow the same rule in passing
decanters round our dinner-tables ; and it is the direction in which cattle tread out
the corn. — Cf. Fradakshina, p. 287

ORIGIN OF WORSHIP.

421

Holy Ones ; and it was soon extended so as to include the worship
of three other classes of objects, namely (1), Bodily relics (Sar-
irika); (2), Images of Buddha's person, etc. (Uddesika) ; and (S),
Vestments, utensils, etc. (Paribhogika). And in justification of
such worship the southern Buddhists quote the sanction of
Buddha himself,1 though of course without any proof for it.
And we have seen how, in the objective phase of Buddhism,
and especially in its Tantrik development, ritual is elevated to the
front rank in importance, and binds
the votaries in the bonds of sacerdo
talism and idolatry. Even in southern
Buddhism there is a good deal of
priestcraft. The monks draw out horo
scopes, fix auspicious days for weddings,
etc., and are sent for in cases of sick
ness to recite the scriptures, and the
pirit as a charm against snakes, and
evil spirits, and devil dances.2
But in Lamaism the ritualistic cults
are seen in their most developed fomij
and many of these certainly bear a
close resemblance outwardly to those
found within the church of Borne, in
the pompous services with celibate
and tonsured monks and nuns, candles,
bells, censers, rosaries, mitres, copes,
pastoral crooks, worship of relics, confession, intercession of " the
Mother of God," litanies and chants, holy water, triad divinity,
organized hierarchy, etc.4
It is still uncertain, however, how much of the Lamaist
symbolism may have been borrowed from Boman Catholicism, or

A Lama Priest.3

1 Hardy's East. Mon., 216.
2 " After the conclusion of the perahera (in the month of Ehala [July] in the god's
temples), the officers, etc., engaged in it, including the elephants, have ceremonies for
the conciliation of lesser divinities and evil spirits performed, called Balibat-netima,
Garayakun-netima, and Waliyakun-netima. The Balibat-netima is a devil dance per
formed for five days after the perahera by a class of persons, named Balibat Gammehela,
superior to the Yakdesso or devil-dancers." — Report of Service Tenure Commissioners,
Ceylon, 1872, p. 60-82.
5 After Giorgi. * Cf. Hue, ii., 50.

422 WORSHIP AND RITUAL.
vice versa. Large Christian communities certainly existed in
western China, near the borders of Tibet, as early as the seventh
century a.d.1
Thus has it happened, in a system which acknowledged no
Creator, that the monks are in the anomalous position of priests to
a host of exacting deities and demons, and hold the keys of hell
and heaven, for they have invented the common saying, "without

1 At Si-ngan-fu, near the eastern border of Tibet, is an edict stone, erected by
the Chinese emperor Tetsung, 780-783 a.d., which contains an account of the
arrival of the missionary Olopan (probably a Chinese form of Rabban-monk) from
Tat'sin (Roman empire), in the year equivalent to a.d. 635, bringing sacred books and
images ; of tbe translation of the said books ; of the imperial approval of the doctrine,
and permission to teach it publicly. There follows a decree, of the emperor Taitsung,
a very famous prince, issued in 638 in favour of the new doctrine, and ordering a
church to be built in the square of Peace and Justice at the capital. The emperor's
portrait was to be placed in the church (in the royal garden of Inifan). Kaotsung
(650-683, the devout patron also of the Buddhist traveller Hiuen Tsiang) continued to
favour it. — See Yule in Marco Polo, ii., 23, where a photograph of the inscription is
given. The edict also states (Kircheh's China Illustrata) that in the years 699 and
713, the Bonzes, or Buddhist idolatrous priests, raised a tumult against the Christians,
which was quelled by order of the emperor Yven-Sun-ci-tao.
The Muhammadan traveller, Abu Zeid al Hassan, writing in the ninth century
(Renaudot's transl., Lond., 1733, p. 42), states that "thousands of Christians " were
massacred in S. W. China.
In the twelfth century Jenghiz Khan and his successors were well inclined to
Christianity ; his principal wife was the daughter of king Ung Khan, who was a
Christian. In the thirteenth century Marco Polo found in the north of Yunnan a few Nestorian
Christians. — Yule, MP., ii., 52.
" In 1246," writes Hue (Chinese Empire, i., p. 141), " Plan-Carpin was sent to the great
Khan of the Tartars by pope Innocent the Fourth. At Khara Khoroum, the capital of the
Mongols, he saw, not far from the palace of the sovereign, an edifice on which was a
little cross ; ' then,' says he, ' I was at the height of joy, and supposing that there must
be some Christians there, I entered, and found an altar magnificently adorned ; there
were representations of the Saviour, the Holy Virgin, and John the Baptist, and a. large
silver cross, with pearls and other ornaments in the centre : and a lamp with eight
jets of light burned before the altar. In the sanctuary was seated an Armenian monk
of swarthy complexion, very thin, wearing nothing but a coarse tunic reaching only
down to the middle of his leg, and a black mantle fastened with iron clasps.' "
And in 1336 letters reached pope Benedict XII. from several Christian Alans holding
high office at the court of Cambaluc, in which they conveyed their urgent request for
the nomination of an archbishop in succession to the deceased John of Monte Corvino.
John Marignalli says of these Alans that in his day there were 30,000 of them at the
great Khan's service, and all at least nominally Christians.— Yule, MP., ii., 164.
And in the fourteenth century, still before Tsong Khopa's era, not only were
missionaries of the Roman Church established in the chief cities of China, but a
regular trade was carried on overland between Italy and China by way of Tana,
Astracan, Otrar, and Kamul.— Yule's Marco Polo, i., 135; Conf. also The Nestorians and
their Rituals, by Dr. Badger.

THE OFFERINGS. 423

a Lama in front (of the votary), there is (no approach to) God."
And so instilled is such belief in the minds of the laity that no
important business is undertaken without first offering worship
or sacrifice.
The necessity for offerings at the shrines of the images, etc., is
now insisted on in all the forms of Buddhism.
The regular offerings will be detailed presently. But there is
no limit to the variety of things that are offered. Wealthy votaries
offer art objects, rich tapestries, gold and silver vessels, jewels, and
the plunders of war, including weapons. In Burma, some of the
earliest knitting and embroidery efforts of young girls are devoted
to Buddha's shrine, along with American clocks and chandeliers,
tins of jam and English biscuits, sardines, and Birmingham um
brellas. And most of these, and still more incongruous objects,
are offered on Lamaist altars ; even eggs are sometimes given.
We have already seen the general form of daily service as prac
tised at Botala and lesser cathedrals and temples, and by isolated
monks in hermitage. Here we shall look at some details of par
ticular acts of worship and celebrations.
Bersonal ablution is enjoined, as a sacerdotal rite preparatory to
worship, on the principle of purity of body being emblematic of
purity of heart. But this ceremonial purification seldom extends
to more than dipping the tips of the fingers in water, and often
even not that, for the Tibetans, like most mountaineers, are not
remarkable for their love of water or soap.
Before commencing any devotional exercise, the higher Lamas
perform or go through a manoeuvre bearing a close resemblance
to " crossing oneself," as practised by Christians. The Lama
gently touches his forehead either with the finger or with the bell,
uttering the mystic Om, then he touches the top of his chest, utter
ing Ah, then the epigastrium (pit of stomach), uttering Hum. And
some Lamas add Sva-ha, while others complete the cross by touch
ing the left shoulder, uttering Dam and then Yam. It is alleged
that the object of these manipulations is to concentrate the parts
of the Sattva, namely, the body, speech and mind, upon the image
or divinity which he is about to commune with.1
1 The Svaha, etc., are held to mean knowledge (Yon-ton) and a kind of Earma
Cp'rin-laa), and the five syllables are mystically given the following colours from
above downwards : white, red, blue, yellow and green.

424 WORSHIP AND RITUAL.
In the worship of every Buddhist divinity there are seven recog
nized stages,1 evidently framed on a Hindu model.2 The stages
are3 : —
1. The Invocation — Calling to the feast or sacrifice.
2. Inviting the deity to be seated.
3. Bresentation of offerings, sacred cake, rice, water, flowers, in
cense, lamps, music, and occasionally a mandala or magic-
circle offering, for which there is a special manual.
4. Hymns in praise.
5. Bepetition of the special spell or mantra.
6. Brayers for benefits present and to come.
7. Benediction.
Many of the Lamaist offerings are of the nature of real sacrifice.
Some of the objects are destroyed at the time of offering. Cere
monies to propitiate demons are usually done after dark, and the
objects are then commonly thrown down " delibare." Frequently
the sacrifice is given the form of a banquet, and accompanied by
games and sacred plays and dances.
What are called " the Essential Offerings or Sacrifice " 4 seem to
represent the earlier and purer offerings of Indian Buddhism, and
are little more than the fresh-cut flowers and incense which were

1 Tib., Yan-lag-bdun.
2 In the Hindu worship of a deity there are sixteen stages of ceremonial adoration
following on the Invocation to come (dvdhan), and the Invitation to be seated (dsan),
and in each stage mantras are chanted. I have italicized those stages which are
found in the above Lamaist ritual : —
1. Pddya, washing the idol's feet.
2. Azgha, washing the idol's hands.
3. Achmana, offering water to rinse
mouth.

The Lamas
dress and bathe
-their idols only
once or twice
a year.
6. Chandan, offering sandal wood, saff
ron, or holi powder.

4. Snana, bathing the
idol.
5. Vastra, dressing the
idol.

7. Akshat, offering rice.
8. Pushpa, offering flowers.
9. Dhupa, offering incense.
10. Dipa, offering lamp.
11. Naividya, offering food.
12. Achmana, second offering of water
to rinse mouth.
13. Tambula, offering betel.
14. Supari or puga, offering Areca nuts
15. Dakshana, offering money.
16. Nizajan, waving lights or camphor.

It may also be compared with the Jaina ritual by Dr. J. Burgess, Indian Antiquary,
i., 357, etc.
a Another enumeration gives : 1, Salutation ; 2, Offering ; 3, Confession of sins
(sdig-'s'ags) ; 4, Rejoicing (yid-rang») ; 5, Exhortation ('skul-wa) ; 6, Prayers for
temporal and other blessings (gsol-gdeb) ; 7, Prayers for spiritual blessing (bsno-ba).
* Ner-spyod mch'od-pa.

STAGES IN WORSHIP.

425

customary offerings even in the seventh century, at the time of
Hiuen Tsiang. These offerings are set upon the altar already de
scribed, before the image worshipped, accompanied by the rhyth
mic recital of incantations and music.
These " essential " or necessary offerings, which are needed

?tfg»wr#»4iitl£g^il *raC!*&*WJVs

Dough Sacrificial effigies
of the Lamas.

in every service of worship, are seven in number, and each bears a
special Sanskritic name descriptive of its nature,1 and must be

1 1. Ar-gham (in Tibetan cO-ySn), or excellent drinking river water.
2. Pa dyam (Tib., zdb-sel*), or the cool water for washing feet.
3. Pukh-pe (Tib., me-tok\), flower.
4. I)hu-pe (Tib., du-pb), incense fumes.
5. A-loke (Tib., man-ysalj), lamp.
6. Gan-dhe (Tib., ti-chab), perfumed water for anointing body.
7. Nai-vi-dya (Tib., zdl-ze\\), sacred food.
8. Shabta (Tib., rol-mo%), cymbals.
This order is reversed in established church and Ear-gyu-pa temples when doing a
certain kind of tutelary deity's worship. The Lamaist account of the history of these
offerings, is that each was offered to Buddha by some celestial or other person)
namely :—
Ar-gham. — Indra, the king of gods, offered this, the water of eight-fold virtues, to
the Buddha for general use.
Pa dyam. — gTsug-na-rin-ch'en, the king of the Nagas, offered z'abs-gsil, the purify
ing water, to the Buddha for washing his feet.
Pukh-pe. — Ganga Devi, the fiendess, offered a flower-rosary to the Buddha for
decorating his head.
Bhu-pi. — " The glorious Kheu," the incense-seller, offered sweet-smelling incense to
the Buddha.
A-loke. — The gold-handed king offered the darkness-clearing light for invigorating his
eyes. * mch'od yon. t z'abs g-sil. { dug-spos. || dri-ch'ab. § zal-zas.

426 WORSHIP AND RITUAL.
placed in the bowls already described,1 and in line in the above
order. In the third and fourth bowls on the top of the rice heaps
should be placed respectively a flower 2 and a stick of incense ; and
in the sixth bowl should be placed perfumed water; and lastly a
cake, into which have been incorporated a few filings of the precious
metals 3 ; but these details are only observed on special occasions.
Ordinarily all of the bowls are filled with plain water. On plac
ing the above offerings in position in the order noted, the benefit
of a full service of worship is obtained by merely chanting the
following hymn : —
A-va-td-ya, A-va-td-ya. Oin vajra ! Argham, Pd-dyam,
Pukh-pe, Dhu-pe, A-loke, Gan-dhe, Ndi-vi-dya, Shab-ta, Prdti-
dsa-yi Swaha ! Which being interpreted is : " Come ! Come !
Om ! The Thunderbolt ! Bartake of these offerings : Excellent river
water for drinking, cool water for washing your feet, flowers for
decking your hair, pleasing incense fumes, lamps for lighting the
darkness, perfumed water for anointing your body, sacred food, the
music of cymbals ! (here the cymbals are sounded). Eat fully !
Swaha ! "
But the high-church Lama, or G-e-lug-pa monk, must chant a
longer service, which is noted below.4

Gan-dhe. — Zur-phud-lnga-pa, the King of Gandarvas, offered Bri-ch'al, the soothing
scent, to the Buddha for refresliing his body.
Nai-wi-dya. — Mgon-Anatha-med-danu athara data zas-sbyin (the lordless+food+
give) the house-owner, offered the food of hundred tastes to the Buddha for support
ing his health.
Shapta. — The divine and Naga-smiths offered Gsil-snyan, the pleasant music, to the
Buddha for cheering his ears. The Buddha blessed each of the offerings, and since
then they are considered sacred.
i Seep. 297.
" The flowers most commonly used for this purpose at Lhasa and sold in booths near
the temples, are the common marigold (Calendula — Tib., gur-Kum me-tog), and white
and blue asters (skal-bzan), and hollyhocks.
3 See annexed figure for the block containing these metals (named Rin-ch'en
brdar-ru, [or p'yema]) ; the metals are usually gold, silver, copper, brass and iron.
4 Namo ratnairayaya I Namo Bliagawate cajra sara foramardu Tatliagataya arhate
samayagasa bndhhayal Tadyatha! Om Vajra Vagra! Mahabodhitsattva Vajre I
Mahabodhimanclop asam Eramana Vajra 1 Sarbo karma awarana bigodhana vajra swdlid !
This mantra invites all the Jinas and their (celestial) sons). Om ! Namo bhagawate
puhpe ketu rajayal Tatliagataya I Arhate samayaka san Budhaya! Tadyatha! Om!
puhpe puhpe swdlul I puhpesu puhpesu puhpesudbhawe! puhpe awakarane swaha I This
should be repeated seven times, after which the magic-circle and food grains should
be offered. When the lamp is offered, the following should be repeated : —
" I arrange this lamp with great reverence, and offer it to the Buddha, the Law, and

THE CAKES.

427

It is customary for every votary on special occasions to offer
one hundred and eight lamps, together with an equal number of

Filing the Five Precious Metals
for the sacrifice.

vessels of rice and of cake. These are placed in four rows, the

the Order. Through the power of this virtuous deed, let me be possessed of illumi
nating knowledge, and let the animal beings be cleared of the misty impurities which
surrounds them."
Then he must rise up, and joining his hands in devotional attitude, chant " The
Invitation " : —
" I beg you 0 Patrons of the animal beings ! Demon-vanquishing gods ! Jinas
and your retinues ! to approach this humble dwelling. I beg you, merciful owners of
miracles, to approach this humble dwelling and receive these offerings."
[Then holding hands horizontally, bow down and say :— ] " I bow down before the
Lamas of the three times and of the ten directions, and before the precious Three
Holy Ones with greatest reverence and oceans of praise." Om ! Namo Mangusriye!
Namassce Shriye I Namo uttamshriyesloaha ! [bow down at once at each recitation of
this mantra"].
The Presentation of offerings : " I here offer up all the most excellent offerings of

428

WORSHIP AND RITUAL.

order of which from before backwards is rice, water, lamps, and
cakes. And for the great demoniacal tutelary's service extra cakes
used on a separate altar with five
ledges (see also figure on page 299),
on each of which are set a series
of one hundred and eight of the
offerings noted, and on special feasts
great bas reliefs of coloured butter
are offered, many of them of artistic
designs.1 A still more elaborate arrange
ment of food-offerings is seen in
the banquet to the whole assembly
of the gods and the demons,
entitled Kon-ch'og - chi - du, .or
" sacrifice to the whole assembly
of Bare Ones," which is frequently
held in the temples. This feast is
observed by Lamas of all sects, and is an interesting sample
of devil-worship. The old fashion is here detailed, but it

Offerings to Tutelary-fiend.
I. Great cake. [ 4. Oake.
2. Wine or blood in a skull. 5. Butter.
3. Rice. | 6. Lamps.

holy drinking water, foot-washing water, flowers, incense, lamp, scented toilet water,
food and music, which I have here arranged in full, to you with all my heart.
' " I confess all my past sins and repent of all my sinful deeds. I beg you to bless
me with mahabodhi, so that I may turn the wheel of the Law and be useful to all the
animal beings.
" I have here arranged the flowers on the pure soil of incense, and \the Mt. Meru,
decked with sun, moon, and the four continents, all of which I offer up to the Buddhas
with my whole heart.
" May all the animal beings be blessed with perfection and purity, arid be born in
brighter regions. Idam Guru ratna mandala kam niryata yami! [Them offer up the
magic-circle in suitable manner, for description of which see previous/ chapter, and
continue.] /
" May my Lama, tutelary deity and the Holy Ones, and the potent Maha-Vajradhara
remain inseparably with the Kumuda flower.
" May all the animal beings be freed from re-births by being born into the pure
regions. " May I be endowed with firm resolve and ability to rescue animal beings from
the worlds of woe.
" May I be endowed with an unfailing ocean of knowledge to enable me to advance
the holy religion among both orthodox and heterodox.
" May my misty ignorance be cleared by the bright rays of Manjusri from on high.
" May my desires be all realized through the grace of the Jinas and their celestial
sons, and the auspicious breath of the Supreme Ones.
i Cf. Hue, ii., 42; Rockhill, L., 70.

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430

WORSHIP AND RITUAL.

sprites of mount Everest, the twelve aerial fiendesses (Tan-ma),
who sow disease, and the more important local gods.
This sacrifice should be done in the temples for the benefit of
the Lamas on the 10th and 15th of every month. On behalf of
laymen it must be done once annually at the expense of. every
individual layman who can afford it ; and on extra occasions, as a
thanksgiving for a successful undertaking, and as a propitiation in
sickness, death, and disaster.
The arrangement of the banquet is shown in the foregoing
diagram : —
In the inmost row are placed the large coloured and ornamented
Baling cakes for (a) the chief Lama-saint, who in the case of
the old school is St. Padma, (b) the tutelary deity, in this case
Guru tak-po, a fierce demoniacal form of the saint, and (c) the
she-devil with the lion-face. For the saint there is also placed on
either side of his cake a skull-cap, the one to his right contain
ing country wine, here called " Ambrosia " (amrita), in Tibetan
literally " devils' juice " ; and the contents of the other are called
blood (rakta), though tea-infusion is usually offered instead. In
the second row are the cakes for the guardians and protector of
Lamaism, usually with Buddha's cake (No. .4) in centre. The
order of the cakes for these guardian demons is as follows — the
attached figures relate to the foregoing diagram : —

No. 5. Tbe Lion-faced demoness.
,, . 6. The four-armed " Lord,"
a form of Mahakala.
„ 7. The god of wealth.
„ 8. The "Euler of Tibet's
guardian" (and in Sik
him the special guar
dian of the Na-dukpa
monasteries).
,, 9. The demon blacksmith
(red and black colour,
rides a goat and carries
an anvil and a bellows,
was made a protector
of Lamaism by St. Pad
ma).
„ 10. The Lord of the Rak-
shas devils.
„ 11. The Locality protector.
„ 12. The Naga demi-gods,
white and black.

No. 13. The Nun-fiendess of Di
kung monastery.
„ 14. The five everlasting sis
ters of mount Ever
est.
,, 15. The spirits of the tank-
drowned persons.
,, 16. The homestead demon-
owner.
,, 17. The country-god Kang-
chen-dsonga (moun
tain).
„ 18. The black devil, red
devil and Naga of
Darjiling or special
locality of temple.
,, 19. The demons who cause
disease.
,, 20. The twelve aerial fien
desses of disease (Tan-
ma)

BANQUET TO DEVILS. 431

No. 21. The demon owners of
the "Ter" caves where
the hidden revelations
are deposited.

No. 22. The black and red devils
and Naga of parent
monastery of the
priests of this temple.

In the third row are placed the " essential offerings " already
described, which are especially intended for the superior gods.
In the fourth and outmost row are an indefinite number of
2"so^-cakes, which are especial dainties as an extra course for all.
These cakes contain ordinary torma cake of cooked rice or barley,
with the addition of some wine, and a mixture of cooked flesh and
all sorts of eatables available.
The stages of the worship in this feast are as follows : —
1st. Invitation to the deities and demons to come to the
feast (Skt., dvdhan). This is accompanied by great
clamour of drums, cymbals, horns and fifes, so as to
attract the attention of the gods and demons.
2nd. Requesting the guests to be seated (Skt., dsan).
3rd. Begging them to partake of the food offered.
4Ih. Praises the goodness and admirable qualities of the
guests. This is done while the guests are partaking of
the essence of the food.
5th. Prayers for favours immediate and to come.
6th. The especial delicacy, the T'sogf-cake, is then offered to
all, on four plates, a plate for each row of guests, and
one plateful is reserved for the Lamas themselves.
Then is done the ceremony of " Expiation for religious duties
left undone," x which wipes off all arrears of religious duty. Here
the sacristan throws skywards, amid great clamour of wind and
brass instruments, several of the T'so<7-cakes to all the demi-gods
and demons not specially included in the feast. One y'so^-cake
is then given to each Lama in the order of his rank, from the
highest to the lowest, as the food has been consecrated by the gods
having partaken of it.
Each Lama must, however, leave a portion, which is collected
carefully, in a plate, in order, from the lowest to the head Lama.
And on the top of these collected fragments is placed a whole
cake. Then a celebration called Lhak-dor is done, and the whole
of these crumbs — the leavings of the Lamas — are contemptuously
thrown down on to the ground, outside the temple-door to the
1 bsKan-gso.

432 WORSHIP AND RITUAL.

starveling ghosts and those evil-spirits who have not yet been sub
jected by St. Padma or subsequent Lamas.
The efficacy of these cake-offerings is urged at length in the
manual of the established church.1
The special rites and celebrations are usually detailed in separate
manuals ; but each Ge-lug-pa monk has a general manual of worship,
etc., entitled " tbe monk's timely Memoranda," " and seems to corre
spond in some measure to the Dina Chariyawa of the Ceylonese, 3
in which are given directions for personal and general devotions
as well as for monastic conduct, from which I have already made
extracts in the chapter on the order.
The service is mostly in Tibetan, which is like the Latin of
the papal mass-books used throughout Mongolia and Lamaist
temples in China, the only exception being the privileged temple
at Pekin.4 Music is much used, though it is in the main an ear-
piercing din of drums, loud trumpets, horns, and clashing cymbals.
The leaders of the choir also have a psalter or score in which the
swelling, rising, and falling notes are curiously represented by
curves, as shown in the annexed photograph ; and the points at
which the several instruments join in the choir are also duly noted
therein. The pauses are marked by bells and cymbals, and the
effect at times of the noisy din and clamour suddenly lapsing into
silence is most solemn, and even impressive in the larger cathedrals
with their pious and sombre surroundings.6

i The Ge-lug-pa manual says : —
The advantages to the chanter of the above service are that : His wishes will be all
realized ; wealth and luck will increase according to his wishes ; he will obtain power,
and all his sins will be blotted out ; he will subject the evil spirits and will duly per
form charity, and the preta will obtain deliverance by being re-born in the heavens,
and he himself will also obtain heaven, and it has been said that he will ultimately
obtain Buddhahood.
The burnt-offering of incense, analogous to the Vedic Homa, but specially in
tended for demons, includes by name the Tan-ma and other Tibetan fiends. It is
a mixture of incense and butter, heated to ignition on coals. The celebration is
detailed above. Cf. also Schlag., p. 249 ; Jaesch., p. 210, for kinds of cakes.
2 dGe-slon-gi dus dran.
3 East Mon., 24, and also " the Daily Manual of the Shaman " of the Chinese. Beal's
Catena, 239.
¦> Cf. Koppen, ii., 228.
5 Although the instruments are wielded with great clamour, each is manipulated
strictly according to rule. Thus with the cymbals, at the word Argham the cymbals
are held horizontally and struck with mid-finger erect. On Pargham, held below waist
and the upper cymbal is made to revolve along the rim of the lowest, etc., etc.

MUSICAL SCORE.

433

fW>$^pjmivt**Mm

F F

434 WORSHIP AND RITUAL.
The daily celebrations of the high church monk, or the Ge-lug-
pa Lama, comprise the following services : —
1. The "Refuge-formula',' (mT'un-mon).
2. mT'un-mon ma-yin-pa.
3. The four-fold prayer for the Animals (Sems-bskyed).
4. Another prayer for Animals (K'yad-par gyi smes-bskyed).
5. Prayer for the Earth (Sa-gz'i byin brlabs).
6. Sacrificial offerings (mCh'od-pa byin brlabs).
7. Invocation to the Jinas (Spyan-'dren).
8. Offering of bathing water to the Gods and Jinas (K'rus-gsol.
" Tui-Sol)."
9. Salutation to Buddhas, Saints and Lamas (P'yag-'t'sal).
10. Offerings of " the necessary things " (mOh'od-pa).
1 1 . Offerings of " five sensuous things " ('Dod-yon-lna).
12. Offerings of " seven precious things " (rgyal-sri sna bdun).
13. Confession of Sins (bS'ags-pa).
14. In praise of the Jinas and Buddha-putras (rJes-su yi-rahs).
15. Turning the Wheel of the Law (Oh'os-'k'or bskor-wa).
16. Prayer for attaining Nirvana (Mya-nan las-mi 'das was gsol-wa
'debs-pa).
17. Prayer for Blessing (bsno-wa).
18 Magic-circle — Ofiering of the Universe.
19. Prayer to Lama-tutor.1
20. The Tutelary's invocation — Yamantaka, etc. (for Ge-lug-pa) and
Guru Tak-po Kah-gye, etc., for Sfin-ma.
21. Sacrificial worship (ch'oga) to the demons, after dark with cake
(torma), incense and wine with the libations (gSer-skyems)
the Kang-s6 banquet.*
We will illustrate a few of these services by some abstracts and
extracts : —
A good sample of the worship of a Lamaist divinity is seen in
that of Tara, the Virgin of northern Buddhism, and the " Goddess
of Mercy."
The manual of Tara's worship 3 is one of the commonest booklets
in Tibet, and is in the hands of nearly all laymen, most of whom
can repeat her hymn and chief seivice by heart.4
i La-mai-gsol-'debs. 3 See p. 429.
3 Abstracted by me in- considerable detail in J.R.A.S., 1894, p. 68, etc.
* The book is entitled " sGrol-ma dkar snon-gyi bstod-pa gzuns," or " The praise and
spells (Dhdrani) of The Pure Original Tara." And in some editions she is termed "Mother
of the Jinas " (rgyal-yum), also " Mother of the Tathagathas." The manual extends
to thirty-eight or forty pages of five lines each. The greater portion, including " The
Exhortation " and " The Hymn," is alleged internally to have been composed by " The
great Vairocana-Buddha of the Ultimate Perfection" [dsog,-pai sans-rgyas rnam

TARA THE SAVIOUR AND GODDESS OF MERCY. 435
Tara's Worship.
Tara's worship, like that of most of the Mahayana and Tantrik
deities, is divided into the seven stages already mentioned.
The service is chanted in chorus, and the measure used in chant
ing the hymn, namely trochaic in eight-syllabled lines, I have
indicated in a footnote to the hymn.
A portion of the manual is here translated —
•' If we worship this sublime and pure-souled goddess when we
retire in the dusk and arise in the morning, then all our fears and
worldly anxieties will disappear and our sins be forgiven. She —
the conqueror of myriad hosts — will strengthen us. She will do
more than this ! She will convey us directly to the end of our
transmigration — to Buddha and Nirvana !
" She will expel the direst poisons, and relieve us from all
anxieties as to food and drink, and all our wants will be satisfied;
and all devils and plagues and poisons will be annihilated utterly ;
and the burden of all animals will be lightened ! If you chant her
hymn two or three or six or seven times, your desire for a son will
be realized ! Or should you wish wealth, you will obtain it, and all
other wishes will be gratified, and every sort of demon will be
wholly overcome." Invocation,
"Hall! 0! verdant Tara!
The Saviour of all beings !
Descend, we pray Thee, from Thy heavenly mansion, at Potala,
Together with all Thy retinue of gods, titans, and deliverers !
We humbly prostrate ourselves at Thy lotus-feet !
Deliver us from all distress ! 0 holy Mother ! "
Presentation of Offerings (Sacrificial).
" We hail Thee ! 0 rever'd and sublime Tara !
Who art adored by all the kings and princes
Of the ten directions and of the present, past and future.
par snan-mdsad ch'en-po] and usually interpreted by the Lamas as referring to
Vairochana, the first of the mythical Jina-Buddhas ; but it may probably be the Kash
mir Monk Vairocana, of the " Great Ultimate Perfection (Ala/ui-i'tpaiuia) " form of the
Buddhist doctrine, who lived in the eighth century a.d., and a noted translator of
Sanskrit Scriptures into the Tibetan. An appendix is signed by Gedun Dub, The
Grand Lama, who built Tashi-lhunpo monastery circd 1445 a.d. F F 2

436 WORSHIP AND RITUAL.

We pray Thee to accept these offerings
Of flowers, incense, perfumed lamps,
Precious food, the music of cymbals,
And the other offerings !
We sincerely beg Thee in all Thy divine Forms '
To partake of the food now offered !
On confessing to Thee penitently their sins
The most sinful hearts, yea ! even the committers of the
Ten vices and the five boundless sins,
Will obtain forgiveness and reach
Perfection of soul — through Thee !
If we (human beings) have amassed any merit
In the three states,2
We rejoice in this good fortune, when we consider
The unfortunate lot of the poor (lower) animals
Piteously engulphed in the ocean of misery.
On their behalf, we now turn the wheel of religion !
We implore Thee by whatever merit we have accumulated
To kindly regard all the animals.
And for ourselves !
When our merit has reached perfection
Let us not, we pray Thee,
Linger longer in this world ! "
Hymns in Tara's Praise. 3
(The translation I have made almost literal. Each separate stanza
is addressed to a special one of Tara's twenty-one forms — the name of
which is given in the margin for reference.)
(Tara, the Mother.) Arya Tara, ! Hail to Thee !
Our Deliveress sublime !

HYMN TO TARA.

437

(1. Tara, the Supremely
Courageous.)

(2. Tara, of White-moon
Brightness.)

<3. Tara, the Golden-
Coloured.)

<4. Tara, the Grand
Hair-piled.)

(5. Tara, the ••Huh"
Shouter.)

(6. Tara, the best Three-
World Worker.)

(7. Tara, the Suppressor
of Strife.)

8. Tara, the B«tower
of SupremePower.)

Avalok'ta's messenger
Bich in power and pity's store.
Hail O Tara ! quick to Save !
Lotus-born of pitying tear
Shed down by The Three- World-Lord,
(Grieving sad for sunken souls.)
Hail ! to Thee with fulgent face,
Brilliant as a hundred moons
Of harvest gleaming in the light
Of myriad dazzling stars.
Hail ! to Thee whose hand is decked
By the lotus, golden blue.
Eager Soother of our woe,
Ever tireless worker, Thou !
Hail ! to Thee with pil'd-up hair,
Where Tathagata sits shrin'd,
Victor1 of the universe.
Thou a saintly victor too !
Hail to thy " tut-tard-hun," 2
Piercing realms of earth and sky,
Treading down the seven worlds,
Bending prostrate everyone !
Hail ! adored by mighty gods,
Indra, Brahma, Fire and Wind,
Ghostly hordes and Gandharvas
AI unite in praising Thee !
Hail ! with Thy dread " tre " and "phat "
Thou destroyest all Thy foes :
Striding out with Thy left foot
Belching forth devouring fire !
Hail ! with fearful spell " tu-re "
Banishing the bravest fiends,
By the mere frown of Thy brows,
Vanquishing whole hordes of foes I
etc., etc., etc., etc.

1 rgyal-wa = Sanskrit Jina.
' This is a portion of Tara's spell, for which see over page.
' Mystic spells used by wizards— phat means break or smash !

438 WORSHIP AND RITUAL.

Tellikg the Bosary.
[Here is repeated on the rosary 108 times, or as often as possible, the
spell or mantra of Tara, namely : Om 1 Ta-re-tu-td-re tu-re Svd ha !
The mantra of Sita Tara is Om ! Ta-re tu-td-re ma-ma d-yur-pun-ye jna-
napush-tin ku-ru Svd-ha !
The rosary used in Sita Tara's worship is a Bodhitse, while Tara re
quires either a Bodhitse or turquoise one.1]
Prayers for Blessings.
We implore thee, 0 ! Bevered Victorious Bhagavati * and Merciful
Dne ! to purify us and all other beings of the universe thoroughly from
the two evil thoughts ; and make us quickly attain the perfection of
Buddhahood. If we cannot attain this perfection within a few life
cycles, then grant us the highest earthly and heavenly happiness and
all knowledge. And preserve us, we beseech Thee, from evil spirits,
plague, disease, untimely death, bad dreams, bad omens, and all the
eight fears and accidents. And in our passage through this world
grant unto us the most perfect bliss, beyond possibility of increase, and
may all our desires be realized without exertion on our part.
Let the holy religion prosper. And in whatever place we dwell, we
beg thee to soothe there disease and poverty, fighting and disputes, and
increase the Holy Beligion.
And may Thy benign3 face always beam on us and appear large like
the waxing moon in forwarding our heart's desire of admission to the
heavenly circle and Nirvana.
Let us obtain the favourite gods* of our former lives and entry
into the prophesied paradise of the Buddhas of the past, present and
future ! Benediction.
Now ! O ! Thou ! The Great Worker !
Thou Quick Soother and Gracious Mother,
Holding the uptal flower !
Let Thy glory come. Mangalam ! "
The offering of the universe as a so-called " magic-circle " is an
essential part of the daily service of the Lamas, and has been
described in the previous chapter.
The following hymn in praise of the Three Holy Ones is recited
at noon with the presentation of the offering of rice.

i But see page 206 for details on " Lamaist Rosaries."
2 bc'om-ldan-'das-ma, pronounced " chom-den-de-ma."
3 In contradistinction to "fury-face" (khro-bo; Skt. krodha).
i sGrub-bahi-lha.
6 bgra-shis shok, pronounced " Td-shi-slw."

HYMN TO THE BUDDHIST TRINITY.

439

Hymn to the Three Holy Ones.
OM ! Salutation to the Omniscient Ones ! Buddha, The Law and
The Church !
Salutation to Buddha Bhagavan, the Victorious and All-wise Tatha-
gata Arhat, who has gone to happiness !

He is the guide of gods and men !
He is the root of virtue.
He is the fountain of all treasure.
He is adorned with perfect en
durance.
He is adorned with all-beauty.
He is the greatest flower of all
the race.
He is admirable in all his actions.
He is admirable in the eyes of all.
He delights in the faithful ones.
He is The Almighty Power.
He is The Universal Guide.
He is The Father of all the Bodhi
sats.
He is The King of all the revered
Ones.
He is The Leader of all the dead.
He owns infinite knowledge.
He owns immeasurable fortitude.
His commands are all-perfect.

His melodious voice isall-pleasing.
He is without equal.
He is without desires.
He is without evil.
He delivers all from sorrow.
He delivers all from sin.
He is free from worldliness.
His senses are the sharpest.
He bravely cuts all knots.
He delivers all from deepest
misery.
He delivers all from this woeful
world.
Hehas crossed theocean of misery.
He is perfect in fore-knowledge.
He knows the past, present and
future.
He lives far from death.
He liyes in the pure blissful land
where, enthroned, he sees all
beings !

Salutation to the Holy Law ! • — (Dharma)
It was the virtue of the ancient
times.
It was the virtue of the middle

It is all-perfect and illuminating.
It is the all-pure Law.
It is perfectly clear.
It is free from disorder.
It is the virtue of the present It is everlasting:
hour. It points the direct path.
It has excellent sense. It realizes the desires of all.
It has excellent words. It benefits the wisest men.
It is unalloyed Law.
The Law has been well ordered and taught in the Vinaya by Bha
gavan. It brings all to perfection ! It fulfils all desires ! It is an
all-sufficient support, and it stops re-birth.
Salutation to The Assembly or Clergy (Sangha) of the Mahayana !

They live in peace.
They live in wisdom.
They live in truth.
They live in unison.

They merit respect.
They merit glory.
They merit the grandest gifts.

440 WORSHIP AND RITUAL.
The goodness of Buddha is immeasurable !
The goodness of The Law is immeasurable !
And the goodness of The Clergy is immeasurable !
By planting our faith on The Immeasurable Ones we shall reap im
measurable fruit in the land of bliss.
Salutation to the Tathagata ! The Merciful Patron, the omniscient
Guide, the ocean of knowledge and glory.
Salutation to the softening Dharma ! the pure gift of the heart, the
deliverer from evil, and the best of Truth.
Salutation to the Assembly ! the deliverer, and guide to the true
faith, the teacher of pure wisdom, and the possessor of the holy know
ledge for cultivating the (human) soil.
The " Eefuge-Formula " of the Lamas.
The " Befuge-formula " of the Lamas, which I here translate,
well illustrates the very depraved form of Buddhism professed by
the majority of Lamas ; for here we find that the original triple
Eefuge-formula (Skt., Trisarana; Pali, Saranagamana) in the
Three Holies, the Triratna — Buddha, The Word, and The As
sembly — has been extended so as to comprise the vast host of
deities, demons and deified saints of Tibet, as well as many of
the Indian Mahayana and Yogacarya saints.
The version here translated is that used by the Kar-ma-pa and
Nin-ma sects of Lamas, but it is practically the same as that in
general use in Tibet, except among the reformed Lamas of the
established church — who address a less extensive circle of saints
and demons, and who substitute St. Tson-K'a-pa for St. Padma-
sambhava. It is extracted from the manual of worship entitled
the sKyabs-'gro, commonly pronounced "Kyamdo,"1 which literally
means "the going for protection or refuge"; and its text is as
follows : —
" We — all beings — through the intercession of the Lama,2 go for
refuge to Buddha !
" We go for refuge to Buddha's Doctrine (Dharma) !
" We go for refuge to the Assembly of the Lamas (Sangha) ! 3
" We go for refuge to the Host of the Gods and their retinue of
tutelaries and she-devils, the defenders of the Beligion, who people
the sky !
i Contributed to Ind. Antiq. 1893.
2 It is a Lamaist axiom, as already noted, that no layman can address the Buddhas
except through the medium of a Lama.
a The Ge-lug-pa formula begins thus : bdag sogs nam-mkah dan mfiams-pai sems-
c'an t'ams-c'ad bLa-ma la skyabs su mch'io, Sans-rgyas-kyi skyabs-su mch'io Ch'os-
kyi skyabs su mch'io, dGe-'dun-gyi skyabs su-mch'io.

THE REFUGE. 441

" We go for refuge to the victorious Lamas, who have descended
from heaven, the holders of Wisdom and the Tantras !
" We go for refuge to the Buddhas of the Ten Directions, and to
the primordial Samantabhadra. Buddha with his spouse ! "
Then the following deities and saints are addressed as refuges :
The Incarnate Sambhoga-kaya, the Mild and Angry Loving One
the Nirmdna-kaya Maha Vajradhara ; the Diamond-souled Guide —
Vajrasatva ; the Jina — the Victorious Sakya Muni ; the most pleas
ing Vajra Incarnate ; the Fierce Holder of the Thunderbolt — Vajra
pani ; the Goddess-Mother, Marici Devi ; the Learned Teacher, Acdrya-
Manjusrl ; the Great Pandita Sri Sinha ; the Jina Suda ; the Great
Pandita Bimala Mitra ; the Incarnate Lotus-born Dharmakaya Padma-
sambhava ; (his wife) the Fairy of the Ocean of Fore-knowledge ; the
Beligious King, Thi-Sron-deu-Tsan ; the Noble Apocalypse-Finder,
Myan-ban ; the Teacher's disciple, the Victorious Sthavira Dang-ma ;
the Beverend Sister, the Lady SinJieswara ; the Incarnate Jina " Zhang-
ton " ; the Guru, clever above thousands ; the Beligious Lord (Dharma-
ndtha) Guru Jo-Ber ; the Illusive Lion Gyaba ; the Great Siddhi, the
Clearer of the Misty moon — grub-ch'en zla-wa-mun-sel ; the Sage
Kumaraja ; the Prince, Bimala Bhaskara ; the renowned Candraklrti ;
the Three Incarnate Kind Brothers ; the Bodhisat, The noble Ocean ;
the Incarnate Sage, the Holder of the religious vajra ; the Entirely
accomplished and renowned Speaker ; the Great Teacher Mahdguru
Dharmaraja ; the Revelation-Finder Fig-po-lin ; the Beligious King
of Accomplished Knowledge * ; the Banner of Obtained Wisdom ; the
Peerless active Vajra; the Radical (Skt., Mula) Lama Asoka;2 the
Lama of the Mula Tantra of the Three Times ; the Sage, the Accom
plished Soul ; the Religious Loving King, the Holder of the Doctrines 3 ;
the Reverend Abbot, the Sky Vajra ; the Noble Jewelled Soul — " Pal-
zan " ; the Assembly of Mild and Angry tutelary Deities ; the Holy
Doctrine of the Great End — Mahotpanna !
" We go for refuge to the Male and Female Saints of the Country !
" 0 ! Lama ! Bless us as You have been blessed. Bless us with the
blessings of the Tantras ! —
" We beg You to bless us with OM, which is the (secret) Body. We
beg You to purify our sins and pollutions of the body. We beg You
to increase our happiness without any sickness of the body. We beg
You to give us the real undying gift of bodily life !
" We beg You to bless us with AH, which is the (secret of . the)
Speech. We beg You to purify the sins and pollution of our Speech.

1 The first Bhotiya king of Sikhim, circ. 1650 a.d.
2 This may be a reference to the great emperor Asoka, or his confessor Upagupta,
the fourth patriarch of the early Buddhist church in India, or it may be only the
title of a Lama. Several also of the foregoing titles which I have translated are
proper names.
3 The sixth Bhotiya king of Sikhim, circ. 1770-90 a.d.

442 WORSHIP AND RITUAL.

We beg You to give us the power of Speech. We beg You to confer
on us the gift of perfect and victorious Speech !
" We beg You to bless us with HUM (pronounced " hum ") which
is the (secret) Thought. We beg You to purify the pollution and sins
of our Mind. We beg You to give us good understanding. We beg
you to give us the real gift of a pure heart. We beg You to em-
¦ power us with The Four Powers (of the heart) !
" We pray You to give us the gifts of the True Body, Speech, and
Mind.1 Om ! Ah ! Hum !
" 0 ! Give us such blessing as will clear away the sins and defilement
nf bad deeds !
" We beg You to soften the evils of bad causes !
" We beg You to bless us with the prosperity of our body (i.e., health)!
" Bless us with mental guidance !
" Bless us with Buddhahood soon !
" Bless us by cutting us off from (worldly) illusions !
" Bless us by putting us in the right path !
" Bless us by causing us to understand all things (religious) !
" Bless us to be useful to each other with kindliness !
" Bless us with the ability of doing good and delivering the animal
beings (from misery) !
" Bless us to know ourselves thoroughly !
" Bless us to be mild from the depths of our heart !
" Bless us to be brave as Yourself !
" Bless us with the Tantras as You Yourself are blessed ! "
" Now ! we — the innumerable animal beings — conceiving that
(through the efficacy of the above dharanls and prayers, we have become
pure in thought like Buddha himself ; and that we are working for the
welfare of the other animal beings ; we, therefore, having now acquired
the qualities of the host of the Gods, and the roots of the Tantras, the
Z'i-wa, rGyas-pa, dBan a,nd P'rin-las, we desire that all the other animal
beings be possessed of happiness, and be freed from misery ! Let us —
all animals ! — be freed from lust, anger, and attachment to worldly
affairs, and let us perfectly understand the true nature of The
Religion ! .
" Now ! 0 ! Father- Mother — Yab-yum — the Dharmakdya Samanta
bhadra ! The Sambhogakaya Santi Khrddaprasaraka, mild and angry
Loving Ones ! The Nirmdna-kaya, Sages of the skull-rosary ! And
the Mula-tantra Lama ! I now beg You all to depart !
" 0 ! Ghosts of Heroes ! Witches ! Demoniacal Defenders of The
Faith ! The holy Guardians of the Commandments ! And all those
t hat we invited to this place ! I beg You all now to depart ! !
" 0 ! most powerful King of the Angry Deities ! The powerful
Isvara, and the host of the Country Guardian Gods ! And all those
i This triad refers to the mystic Yoga or union of " The three secrets," which the
Japanese call, San-mitsu-so-o.

CONFESSION OF SINS.

443

I beg You

others that we invited to this place, with all their retinue !
all now to depart ! ! ! May glory come ! Tashi-shok ! and Virtue ! Ge-o !
Sarva-mangalam ! " Confession or Sins.
The Confession of Sins1 is done twice a month in public
assembly, in presence of the abbot and senior monks. It is no
proper confession, only a stereotyped form chanted in chorus.
The full form is practically the same as in southern Buddhism.2
The shortest form is here given : —
" I here confess the sins which I may have committed by the body,
speech and mind, and through lust, anger and stupidity.
" Listen to me, 0 ! great Vajra-holding Lamas3 and all the Buddhas
and Bodhisats of the ten directions ! I repent of all the sinful acts
which I have committed from the time of my birth up to the present,
such as : committing the ten un virtuous deeds and the five waverings,
transgressing the vows of deliverance, the teachings of the Bodhisats,
the vows of the secret mantras, irreverence, and want of faith in The
Three Rarest Ones, irreverence and want of faith in the abbots and
^teachers ; separation from the holy religion and the best commands ;
want of reverence to the revered clergy ; want of reverence to parents,
and want of reverence to one's faithful fellow-mortals. In short, I
here confess to all the Fit/ra-holding Lamas, the Buddhas and Bodh
isats of the ten directions, all the sins which hinder my reaching the
heaven of deliverance; and I promise never again to commit these
sins." There are also numerous rites on the same lines or by magic-

The Magic-Circle Tabernacle.
1. Chart or Mosaic. . Umbrella.
2. Cakes. ±. Banners.

circles, posturing and mummery, for obtaining supernatural powers

1 gso-byofi. See pages 323 and 501 ; and cf. Schlagintweit, p. 123.
2 Cf . Pratimoksha sutra, " The Book of Deliverance " and its Tibetan version, trans.
by Rockhill. 3 Probably mythical Buddha, Vajradhara.

444

WORSHIP AND RITUAL.

and for purposes of sorcery. Some of these latter I have abstracted
in the chapter on necromancy.
Of special celebrations it will suffice to refer only to one of
the most interesting, which some Europeans who witnessed its
pompous and solemn service, have
compared to the Christian Eu
charist. The " Eucharist "
OF
Lamaism.1
Lamaist liturgy, the cele
bration of which is pictured
as the frontispiece, on ac
count of its dispensation of
consecrated wine and bread,
has been compared by Hue
¦ and others to the Christian
Eucharist, although it is in
reality, as here shown, a
f, if ceremony for gratifying the
rather un-Buddhistic crav
ing after long earthly life. Still,
it nevertheless presents many
parallels to the Christian rite
for conferring on the worthy re
cipient " the life everlasting.''
It is entitled " The Obtaining
of (long) Life," 2 and is a very
good sample of the Lamaist blend
ing of Buddhists' ideas with
demon- worship. "It seems to in
corporate a good deal of the
pre-Lamaist ritual, and its
benedictions and sprinkling of
holy water are suggestive of
Nestorian or still later Chris
tian influences.
This sacrament is celebrated
with much pomp at stated

Lamaism.

1 In the Asiatic Qit rterly, 1894, part of this article was published by me.
a Tib. Ts'e-grub.

THE EUCHARIST OF LAMAISM. 445
periods, on a lucky day, about once a week in the larger temples, and
attracts numerous votaries. Crowds throng to the temple to receive
the coveted blessing. Its benefits are more particularly sought in
cases of actual illness, and when death seems imminent ; but every
village must have it performed at -least once a year for the life of
the general community, and after its performance any prolongation
of life is credited to this service ; while a fatal result is attributed
to the excessive misdeeds of the individual in his last life or in
previous births.
The chief god addressed is Buddha Amitayus or Aparamita,1 " The
(god of) infinite Life," or " The Eternal." Unlike the Chinese Bud
dhists the Lamas never confuse Amitabha (the Buddha of infinite
Light) with his reflex Amitayus ; they represent these differently, and
credit them with different functions. The other gods specially identified
with life-giving powers are " The five long-Life Sisters," 2 mountain
nymphs presiding over the everlasting snows, and to a less degree the
white Tara, and Ushnlsharani ; and even Yama, the Lord of Death
himself, may occasionally be propitiated into delaying the day of
death. The priest who conducts this ceremony for propitiation of Amitayus
and the other gods of longevity must be of the purest morals, and usu
ally a total abstainer from meat and wine. He must have fasted during
the greater part of the twenty-four hours preceding the rite, have
repeated the mantras of the life-giving gods many times, 100,000-times
if possible, and he must have secured ceremonial purity by bathing.
The rite also entails a lot of other tasks for the preparation of the con
secrated pills and the arrangement of utensils, etc., and extends over
two or three days.
The arrangements are as follow : —
Upon an altar, under the brocaded dragon-canopy, within the temple
or in a tent outside, are placed the following articles : —
1. Las-bum, the ordinary altar water-vase.
2. Ti-bum, the vase with pendant mirror and containing water tinged with saffron.
3. dBan-bum, the " empowering vase " with the chaplet of the Five Jinas.
4. Tie-bum, the " vase of Life," special to Amitayus, with a banner of peacock's
feathers and sacred Kusa-grass.
5. Ts'e-ch'aA, or " the wine of Life," consisting of beer in a skull-bowl.
6. Ts'e-ril, or the " pills of Life," made of flour, sugar and butter.
7. Chi-mar, or wafers of flour and butter and rice.
8. mDah-dar, or sacred divining-dagger with silk tassels.
9. rdor-jehi gzun tag, or the divining-bolt, a vajra or thunderbolt-sceptre with eight
ridges to which a string is attached.
In the preliminary worship the pills are made from buttered dough,
and the ambrosia or amrita (Tib., dud-tsi or "devil's juice") is brewed
from spirit or beer, and offered in a skull-bowl to the great image of
1 Tib., Ts'e-pag-med. 2 Ts'e-rin-che-na.

446 WORSHIP AND RITUAL.

Buddha Amitayus. Everything being ready and the congregation
assembled, the priest, ceremonially pure by the ascetic rites above
noted,1 and dressed as in the frontispiece, abstracts from the great
image of Buddha Amitayus part of the divine essence of that deity,
by placing the vajra of his rdor-jehi gzun-t'ag upon the nectar-vase
which the image of Amitayus holds in his lap, and applying the
other end to his own bosom, over his heart. Thus, through the
string, as by a telegraph wire, passes the divine spirit, and the Lama
must mentally conceive that his heart is in actual union with that of
the god Amitayus, and that, for the time being, he is himself that god.2
Then he invokes his tutelary-fiend, and through him the fearful horse-
necked Hayagriva (Tamdin), the king of the demons. The Lama, with
this divine triad (namely, the Buddha and the two demon kings) incor
porate in him, and exhibiting the forms of all three to spiritual eyes,
now dispenses his divine favours. He takes up the Las-bum-va&e and
consecrates its contents, saying,
" Om! namo Tathdgata Abhi-khita samayasriri hum ! Nama candra vajra krodha
Amrita hiimphat!"
Then he sprinkles some pf the water on the rice- offerings (gtor-ma) to
the evil spirits, saying, "I have purified it with svabhava, and con
verted it into an ocean of nectar within a precious Bhum-howl. Om
akaromu-kham ! Sarva dharma nantyanutpanna tatto ! Om ! A !
Hum ! phat ! Svaha ! I now desire to bestow the deepest life-power
on these people before me ; therefore, I beg you demons to accept this
cake-offering, and depart without doing further injury."
Here the Lama, assuming the threatening aspect of the demon-kings,
who are, for the time being, in his body, adds, " Should you refuse to
go, then I, who am the most powerful Hayagriva and the king of tho
angry demons, will crush you — body, speech and mind — to dust ! Obey
my mandate and begone, each to his abode, otherwise you shall suffer.
Om sumbhani," etc. Now, the Lamas and the people, believing that all
the evil spirits have been driven away by the demon-king himself, shout,
" The gods have won ! the devils are defeated ! "
The Lama then proceeds to secure for himself the benedictory power
of life-conferring. He first meditates on " the guardian-deities," mur
muring thus : "The upper part (of the divine abode) is of thunderbolt
1 He usually wears a mantle (stod-gyog), on which are embroidered mystic Chinese
emblems of luck, including the Bat, etc. See pp. 394, 396.
2 In southern Buddhism is found a very similar instance of ceremonial union with a
Buddhist fetish. At the pirit (paritta) celebration " a sacred thread, called the pint
niila, is fastened round the interior of the building, the end of which, after being
fastened to the reading platform, is placed near the relic (of Buddha). At such times
as the whole of the priests who are present engage in chanting in chorus, the cord is
untwined, and each priest takes hold of it, thus making the communication complete
between each of the officiating priests,'*]* relic, and the interior walls of the building.""
— Hardy's E. Monachism, p. 211.

THE EUCHARIST OF LAMAISM. 447
tents and hangings; the lower part of earth-foundation and adamantine-
seat ; and the walls are of thunderbolts. The entire building is a great
tent, protected by precious charms, so that the evil spirits can neither
destroy it, nor can they gain entry. Om ! vajra rakhya rakhya sutra
tikhtha vajraye svdhd / "
Then the magic-circle (mandala) is offered up, saying : —
"If I fail to refer to the successive Lama-saints, my words and deeds will count
for nothing. Therefore must I praise the holy Lamas to secure their blessing towards
the realization of my plans. 0 holy Padma-sambhava,1 in you are concentrated all the
blessings of the present, past and future ! You are the Buddha of the great final
Perfection (Maha-utpanna) who beheld the face of Lord Amitayus. O Saint possessed
of the gift of undying life, of life lasting till the worlds of re-births are emptied ! You
hid away from us, in the snowy regions, the revelation upon the true essence of the
five hundred ' Obtainings of Life.' The one which we now perform is ' the iron palace
of the attainment of life' (Ts'e-grub Ic'ags-kyi-pho-bran), and is extracted from dEon-
mch'og-spyi-'dus. It was discovered by the saint 'Dsah-Ts'on-siiin-po in the cave
where you hid it; and this mode of endowering a person with life has come down to
me through many generations of saints. Now, 0 Lord Amitayus and the host of radiant
gods ! I beg you to sustain the animal beings, vast as the starry host, who now, with
great reverence and praise, approach you. Om a hum! 0 holy shrine of our refuge !
Hri!2 0 Hosts of the Bright World of Light! Pad-ma t'od-phren-rtsal-vajrasa-
mayaja siddhi phala hum I "
Then here is repeated " Ts'e-'gug," or "The Invoking of Life," thus :
" O Lord Amitayus, residing in the five shrines whence glittering rays shoot forth '
0 ! Gandhar ca in the west ! Yama in the south ! Naga raja in the west ! Yaksha in
the north ! Brahma and Indra in the upper regions ! and Nanda and Taksha in the
lower regions ! And especially all the Buddhas and Bodhisatwas ! I beg you all to
bless me and to gratify my wishes by giving me the gift of undying life and by soften
ing all the injuries of the harmful spirits. I entreat you to grant life and implore you
to cause it to come to me. Hri ! I beg your blessing, 0 Buddhas of the three times.
(Dipankara, Sakya Muni and Maitreya).
At this stage the celestial Buddhas, Bodhisats, and other gods are
now supposed to have consecrated the fluid in the vase and transformed
it into immortal ambrosia. Therefore the priest intones the following
chant to the music of cymbals : " This Vase is filled with the immortal
ambrosia which the Five celestial Classes have blessed with the best
Life. May life be permanent as adamant, victorious as the king's,
banner. May it be strong like the eagle (Gyun-drun) and last for
ever. May I be favoured with the gift of undying life, and all my
wishes be realized.
"Buddha! Vajra I Ratna! Padma! Ear ma, Eapdlamdla. Hri mahdrinisaaiju
siddhi phala hum ! Om A Hum cajra Guru Padma siddhi aynkke Hum uijd ! "
The priest now bestows his blessing as the incarnate Amitayus
as well as the other gods of longevity, by laying-on of hands, and
1 A Lama of the established church would usually invoke St. Tson-K'a-pa, and the
subsequent prayer would be slightly different.
2 The Vija-mantra of Avalokita and Amitabha.

448 WORSHIP AND RITUAL.
he distributes the consecrated water and food to the assembled multi
tude. When the crowd is great, the votaries file past the holy Lama.
In smaller congregations the Lama, with the Ti-bum vase in hand,
walks along the rows of kneeling worshippers near the temple door, and
pours a few drops of the holy fluid into the hands of each votary. With
the first few drops the worshipper rinses his mouth, and with the next
few drops he anoints the crown of his head, and the third few drops
are reverently swallowed.
Then the Lama brings the vase of Life and places it for an instant
on the bowed head of each of the kneeling votaries, reciting the spell
of Amitayus (Om Amarani jivantiye svaha), which all repeat. Then
the Lama touches the head of each one with the power-conferring vase;
and afterwards, in similar manner, with the divining-dagger, saying :
" The life which you now have obtained is unfailing like the vajra-
armour. Receive it with reverence ! As the vajra is unchangeable, so
now is your life. Vajra rakhya rakhya svaha ! Worship Amitayus,
the god of boundless Life, the chief of all world-rulers ! May his glory
come, with virtue and all happiness." And all the people shout,
" Glory and all-happiness ! "
Each worshipper now receives from the skull-bowl a drop of the
sacred wine, which he piously swallows ; and each also receives three of
the holy pills, the plateful of which had been consecrated by the touch
of the Lama. These pills must be swallowed on the spot. They are
represented as beads upon the vase which the image of the god
of Infinite Life holds in his lap.
The Lama then takes a seat on a low throne, and the votaries file past
him offering him a scarf and any money presents they may have
to make ; the majority pay in grain, which is piled up outside the door
of the temple. Each then receives a benediction from the Lama, who
places his hand on their heads and repeats the spell of Amitayus ; and
on its conclusion he throws over their shoulder a knotted white scarf
(Tsim-tu) from a heap of consecrated scarves lying at his side. The
colours of the scarves are white for the laity and red for the priests.
Other ceremonies for prolonging life, especially resorted to in severe
sickness, are "The Saving from Death " ('ch'i-bslu) ; the "Ransoming of
another's Life " (srog-bslu) ; Substitution-offering to the devils of an
effigy of the patient, or as a sacrifice for sin (Ku-rim1) as in the illustra
tion given on the opposite page ; Libation of wine to the demons (gSer-
skyems) ; gyal-gsol, etc. All of these services are more or less mixed up
with demonolatry.
Numerous other ceremonies have already been referred to in
other chapters, such as the "Water Baptism " (" Tiii-Sol ")x2 " The
Calling for Luck " (Yan-gug),3 etc., " The Continued Fast" (Nun-
gnas).4 i sKu-rim: cf. Jaesch., D., 22 ; Giorgi's Alpliab. Tib., r. 442; Rockhill's L., p. 114.
2 bKrus-gsol = ablution + to pray or entreat ; see Schlagintweit, Budd., p. 239.
s See p. 447 ; also Schlag., p. 263. 4 Schlag., p. 240.

SACRIFICE-OFFERINGS TO DEVILS.

449

The rites for the attainment of supernatural powers, and for
downright demonolatry, are detailed in the chapter on sorcery
and necromancy. And it is evident that the Lamas or professing

A Guilt-Offering at Tankar.1

Buddhists are conscious of the unorthodoxy of these practices, for
the so-called reformed Lamas, the Ge-lug-pa, do their demoniacal
worship mostly after dark.

i After Rockhill.

G G

Geomantic Trigrams.

XVII.

ASTROLOGY AND DIVINATION.

" That mendicant does right to whom omens, planetary influences, dreams,
and signs are things abolished; he is free from all their evils." — Samma-
Paribbajaniya Sntta, 2.
jIKE most primitive people, the Tibetans believe that
the planets and spiritual powers, good and bad,
directly exercise a potent influence upon man's wel
fare and destiny, and that the portending machina
tions of these powers are only to be foreseen, discerned, and
counteracted by the priests.
Such beliefs have been zealously fostered by the Lamas, who
have led the laity to understand that it is necessary for each indi
vidual to have recourse to the astrologer-Lama or Tsi-pa on each
of the three great epochs of life, to wit, birth, marriage, and death ;
and also at the beginning of each year to have a forecast of the
year's ill-fortune and its remedies drawn out for them.
These remedies are all of the nature of rampant demonolatry
for the appeasing or coercion of the demons of the air, the earth,
the locality, house, the death-demon, etc.
Indeed, the Lamas are themselves the real supporters of the
demonolatry. They prescribe it wholesale, and derive from it
their chief means of livelihood at the expense of the laity.

ITS CHRONOLOGICAL BASIS. 451 ,
Every large monastery has a Ts'i-pa,1 or astrologer-Lama, re
cruited from the cleverest of the monks.
And the largest monasteries may have as astrologer a pupil of
the great government oracle-Lama, the Ch'o-c'on.
The astrologer-Lamas have always a constant stream of persons
coming to them for prescriptions as to what deities and demons
require appeasing and the remedies necessary to neutralize these
portending evils.
The nature of these prescriptions of worship will best be illus
trated by a concrete example. But to render this intelligible, it is
necessary to refer, first of all, to the chrouological nomenclature
current in Tibet, as it is used for indicating the lucky and unlucky
times, as well as much of the worship. And it will be seen to be
more Chinese than Indian in nature. The Chinese calendar is
said to have been introduced by king Sron Tsan's Chinese wife,
but the first sixty-year cycle does not begin until 1026 a.d.2
The Tibetan system of reckoning time, derived from China
and India, is based upon the twelve-year and sixty-year cycles
of Jupiter.3 The twelve-year cycle is used for short periods, and
the particular year, as in the Chinese style, bears tbe name of one
or other of the twelve cyclic animals : —
1. Mouse. 5. Dragon. 9. Monkey.
2. Ox. 6. Serpent. 10. Bird.
3. Tiger. 7. Horse. 11. Dog.
4. Hare. 8.. Sheep. 12. Hog.
And in the case of the sixty-year cycle these animals are combined
with the five elements (namely : Wood, Fire, Earth, Iron, and
Water), and each element is given a pair of animals, the first being
considered male and the second female. I append a detailed list
of the years of the current cycle as an illustration, and for refer
ence in regard to the horoscopes which I shall translate pre
sently. The Tibetan Chronological Table.
The table here given differs from that of Schlagintweit (op. cit. , p. 282) in
making the initial year of the current sixty-year cycle, namely, the fifteenth
1 rTsis-pa — the Chebu of Hooker's Himalayan Jours.
2 Csoma, Gr., 148. The Chinese " Description of Tibet," translated by Elapeoth
(Nowv. Jour., Asiat., iv., 138), states that the Chinese system was introduced by the
Chinese wife of Sroh Tsan Gampo, in 642 a.d.
3 There is also a cycle of 252 years seldom used. Conf. Giorgi, 464-69. Hue, ii.,
368, and Schlag , 284.
GG 2

452

ASTROLOGY AND DIVINATION.

cycle (Rab-jun), coincide with the year 1867 A.D., as this is alleged by the
learned astrologer Lama of Darjiling to be the true epoch, and not the' year

Tibetan Era.

Year

Tibetan Era.

Year

A.D.
Cycle No.
s, 1
Year-name.
A.D.
Cycle No.
.2 3
>>*
o
Year-name.
1858
XIV.
52
Earth- Horse
1890
XV —
24 1 Iron-Tiger
1859
53
,, -Sheep
1891
contd.
25 ,, -Hare
1860
54
Iron-Ape
1892
„
26
Water-Dragon
1861
55
„ -Bird
1893
„
27
„ -Serpent
1862
56
Water-Dog
1894
"
28
Wood-Horse
1863
57
.. -Hog
1895
29
,, -Sheep
1864
58
Wood-Mouse
1896
,,
30
Fire-Ape „ -Bird
1865
59
„ -Ox
1897
31
1866
60
Fire-Tiger
1898
32
Earth-Dog
1867
XV.
1
, , -Hare
1899
33
.. -Hog
1868
0
Earth-Dragon
1900
34
Iron-Mouse
1869
3
,, -Serpent
1901
\\
35
,, -Ox
1870
4
Iron Horse
1902
36
Water-Tiger
1871
5
,, -Sheep
1903
37
,, -Hare
1872
6
Water-Ape
1904
„
38
Wood-Dragon
1873
7
„ -Bird
1905
39
,, -Serpent
1874
8
Wood-Dog
1906
40
Fire-Horse
1875
9
.. -Hog
1907
„
41
, , -Sheep
1876
10
Fire-Mouse
1908
42
Earth -Ape
„ -Bird
1877
11
„ -Ox
1909
„
43
1878
12
Earth-Tiger
1910
„
44
Iron-Dog
1879
13
,, -Hare
1911
,,
45
.. "Hog
1880
14
Iron-Dragon
1912
,,
46
.Water-Mouse
1881
15
,, -Serpent
Water-Horse
1913
47
„ -Ox
1882
16
1914
,,
48
Wood-Tiger
1883
17
,, -Sheep
1915
,
49
,, -Hare
1884
18
Wood-Ape
1916
„
50
Fire-Dragon
1885
19
„ -Bird
1917
,,
51
,, -Serpent
Earth-Horse
1886
20
Fire-Dog
1918
,,
52
1887
21
., -Hog
Earth-Mouse
1919
',
53
,, -Sheep
1888
22
1920
51
54
Iron-Ape
1889
23
„ -Ox.
1921
"
55
„ -Bird.
It is by giving a realistic meaning to these several animals and
elements, after which the years are named, that the Lama-astro
logers arrive at their endless variety of combinations of attraction
and repulsion in regard to their casting of horoscopes and their
prescriptions of the requisite worship and offerings necessary to
counteract the evils thus brought to light. The animals are more
or less antagonistic to each other, and their most unlucky combi
nations are as follows : —
THE ELEMENTS AND CYCLIC ANIMALS.

453

Mouse and Horse. Hare and Bird.
Ox and Sheep. Dragon and Dog.
Tiger and Monkey. Serpent and Hog.
But it is with tbe five elements that the degrees of affinity and
antagonism are most fully defined, according to certain more or

Astrological Figures.1
(On the Tortoise.)
less obvious inter-relations of tbe elements. The recognized de
grees of relationship are: (1) mother, or greatest affection; (2)
son, or neutrality; (o) friend, or mediocre affection, and (4) enemy
or antagonism. The relationships of the elements are thus stated
to be the following : — Maternal.
Wood's mother is Water (for wood cannot grow without water).
Water's ,, is Iron (for water-channels for irrigation cannot be
made, and therefore water cannot come, without
iron).
Iron's „ is Earth (for earth is the matrix in which iron is
found).

1 Modified from Sarat's figure.

454 ASTROLOGY AND DIVINATION.
Earth's mother is Fire (for earth is the ash-product of fire).
Fire's ,, is Wood [for without wood (carbon) fire is not].
Filial.
Wood's son is Fire
Fire's ,, is Earth /,.,,.
Earth's is Iron \ Thls }? me™lj % Tn™ ™J °f Presentmg
the above details.

Iron's ,, is Water
Water's „ is Wood

Hostile.

Wood's enemy is Iron (as Iron instruments cut down wood).
Iron's ,, is Fire (as fire melts iron and alters its shape).
Fire's ,, is Water (as water extinguishes fire).
Water's ,, is Earth (as earth hems in water).
. Earth's ,, is Wood (as wood grows at the expense of and im
poverishes earth).
Amicable.
Wood's friend is Earth (as wood can't grow without earth).
Water's ,, is Fire (as it warms water).
Fire's „ is Iron (as it absorbs heat, and thus assists the con
tinuance of the fire).
Iron's ,, is Wood (as it supplies the handles to iron-weapons and
is non-conducting).
The Tibetan year is lunar, and numbers nominally three hundred
and sixty days ; so that in order to bring it into keeping with the
moon's phases one day is occasionally omitted, and as it is the un
lucky days which are omitted, and these occur irregularly, the
Tibetan year -and months do not always correspond exactly with the
Chinese months and years. And the solar difference is compensated
by inserting seven intercalary months (Da-s'ol) every nineteen1
years. The year begins in February with the rise of the new moon.
The months (Da-wa)2 are named first, second, etc., and the word
Da-wa prefixed thus, Da-wa-tang-po, " first month." The week is
divided into seven days (Za), bearing, as with us (for the Lamas
adopted the Aryan system), the names of the sun, moon, and the
five planets, two being allotted to each day, and is represented
by a symbol (see figure) which is a concrete picture of the name.
1 So says Schlag., op. cit., 288. The intercalary month seems to be added at less in
tervals. According to the Baidyur-Kar-po in 1891 the duplicated month was the
tenth. 2 Zla-wa = moon.

THE PLANETS AND CALENDAR.

455

Name.

Celestial Body.

Its Symbol.

Sun
MoonMars MercuryJupiter

A sun.

A red eye.
A hand.
A thunderbolt.

Wenus Saturn

A garter.
A bundle.

The different days of the week are associated with the elements ;
thus Sunday and Tuesday with Fire, Monday and Wednesday with'
Water, Thursday with Air, and Friday and Saturday with Earth.1
Each hour and day of the week possesses a lucky or unlucky
character, and the days of the month according to their order in
troduce other sets of unlucky combina
tions. Thus the individual days of the
week are divided : Monday and Thursday
are best. Sunday and Tuesday are
rather " angry." Saturday and Wednes
day are only good for receiving things
(Yang-sa) and not for giving away.
Saturday is not quite so gloomy and
malignant as in Western mythology.
The days of the month in their numer
ical order are unlucky per se in this order.
The first is unlucky for starting any
undertaking, journey, etc. The second
is very bad to travel. Third is good pro
vided no bad combination otherwise.
Fourth is bad for sickness and accident
(Ch'u-'jag). Eighth bad. The dates
counted on fingers, beginning from
thumb and counting second in the
hollow between thumb and index finger,
the hollow always comes out -bad, thus
second, eighth, fourteenth, etc. Ninth is good for long journeys
but not for short (Kut-da). Fourteenth and twenty-fourth are

' Symbols of Days of the Week.

1 According to the rhyme :
"Ni-ma mik-mar me K'am ; Da-wa lhak-pa Ch'u- r K'am ;
P'ur-bu da-c'en lun-i K'am ; Pasan p'em-ba Sa-i K'am."

456 ASTROLOGY AND DIVINATION.
like fourth. The others are fairly good cceteris paribus. In ac
counts, etc., unlucky days are often omitted altogether and the-
dates counted by duplicating the preceding day.1
Chinese geomantic figures, the Pu-Kwa (Par-k'a) and the Me-
wa, enter largely into the calculations of the Lama astrologer, and
these are usually figured on the belly of a spread tortoise, as in
the above figure, whose paws sometimes grasp a pole surmounted
by or transfixing a frog.3
The Pu-Kwa or Par-k'a symbolize the great productive and an
tagonistic powers of nature, as summarized in a most interesting
manner by Dr. Legge.
The first character, pu, is the Chinese symbol for divining by the lines
produced through a certain process on the back of a tortoise-shell. It
consists of two lines,3 which may possibly, says Dr. Legge, have been
intended to represent the lines appearing on the shell. The second
character, Kwa, was the symbol for divining by means of the eight
famous trigrams of Fu-hsi, themselves called " the eight Kwa." They
are not characters, but lineal figures composed of whole and divided
lines, on which was built up the mysterious book called the Yi-Khi,
or "Book of Changes," with its sixty-four hexagrams. The eight trigrams
are here shown : —

The whole lines in the figures are styled "the strong," and the
divided lines " the weak." The two represent the two forms of the
subtle matter, whether eternal or created is not said, of which all
things are composed. Under one form the matter is active and is called
Yang ; under the other it is passive, and is called Yin. Whatever is
strong and active is of the Yang nature ; whatever is weak and passive
is of the Yin. Heaven and earth, sun and moon, light and darkness,
male and female, ruler and minister, are examples of these antinomies.
The aggregate of them makes up the totality of being, and the Yi is
supposed to give in its diagram a complete picture of the phenomena of
that totality. It does not give us a sexual system of nature, though of
course the antinomy of sex is in it ; but the lines on which it is con-
1 Klaproth, iv., 137 ; Hue, ii., 370.
2 This may be the sacred three-legged frog. Cf. also my article (Ind. Antiq., 1893)
on " Frog Worship among the Newars."
8 Legge's The Reliy. of China, p. 14, do. 15.

TRIGRAMS AND GEOMANTIC SIGNS. 457
structed embrace other antinomies as well. Authority and power on
one side ; inferiority and docility on the other.
Further, the hidden operation in and through which the change takes
place in nature is said to be that of the Kwei shan,1 usually meaning
" spirits," but here held to be technical. " Shan is Yang, and indicates
the process of expanding ; Kwei is Yin, and indicates the process of
contracting." The fashion of the world is continually being altered.
We have action and reaction, flux and reflux, and these changes are in
dicated in the diagrams, which are worked in divination by manipulating
a fixed number of stalks of a plant called shih (Ptarmica Sibirica), and,
indeed, the form of the trigrams themselves is suggestive of divination
by tivigs.
The usual geomantic arrangement of the Par-k'a is given in
figure. Individually they are named Heaven, Earth, Fire, Thunder,
Mountains, Celestial Water, Terrestrial Water, though the fourth and
eighth are sometimes called Iron and Tree. And Mountain, Iron, and
Water are said to be sons of the Earth and Heaven, while Wind, Fire,
and Tree are their daughters.
It is remarkable, however, that while the Chinese use only the
hexagrams for divination purposes, the Tibetans use only tbe 'tri
grams in this way.*
The Nine Mewa 3 are arranged in the form of a quadratic square
or circle, and the figures usually, as in a magic
square, so disposed as to give the same total
in all directions.
The spirits of the seasons also powerfully
influence the luckiness or unluckiness of the
days. It is necessary to know which spirit has
arrived at the particular place and time when
an event has happened or an undertaking is
entertained. And the very frequent and complicated migrations
of these aerial spirits, good and bad, can only be ascertained by the
Lamas. The most malignant of these evil spirits are a black dog,
a monster with a dragon-tail, a man on horseback, and tbe fabulous
Phoenix; and the seasons are specially assigned to these in the
order of spring, summer, autumn, and winter respectively.4
The almanac which the Lamaist astrologer uses, gives for each

1
5 I 7

1 Legge, op. cit., p. 39.
2 Cf. Prof, de La Couperies' Ancient Chinese Divination Manual — The Yi King-
Paris, 1889.
3 sMe-ba = a blot. Cf . Pallas, Mowj., ii., 229 ; Schlag., 297.
•> Schlag., 299.

458 ASTROLOGY AND DIVINATION.

day the six presiding influences. Thus the page of the almanack
'for the first day of the third month of 1891 (Iron-horse) gives:—

Cyclic Animal

Par-kha

Nidana

Tiger

Li
Mewa
C'ikar

Namarupa

Week-day

Star

P'urba (Thursday)

She-sa

(givingWind).

(giving
Water).
And the general record for the particular month is: This month's
star is moderate and the celestial Mansion is the sheep. Nidana,
Avidya. Element is mid-summer, and named Great P'ire-Horse.
It is time for plants budding and marshes, thunder and birds. The
empty vase is in the east (.-. do not go E.). On the 15th day the
Teacher taught the Kalacakra ; it is a holiday. Thursday; Sunday,
and Tuesday are good. Friday, Saturday, Monday, and Wednesday
are bad. The " Yas " road (i.e., the road on which cake and the
devil's image are to be thrown) is N.W. The "Zin-p'un" (a kind of
genius loci) in the Ox and Sheep days at dawn passes from W. to
E. (.-. at that time be careful).
Lamaist Horoscopes.
The Lamaist horoscopes or Tsis are of several kinds. Those
most commonly sought are for : (a) Birth 1 (h) Whole-Life Fore
cast 2 (c) Marriage 3 (d) Death i and the (e) Annual.5
They are written in cursive characters on a long sheet of paper,
and attested by the stamp of the astrologer. Such manuscript
divinations usually called Sun-ta, are in the case of the more
wealthy clients mounted on silk. A preliminary fee or present
is usually given to the astrologer at the time of applying for the
horoscope, in order to secure as favourable a presage as possible.
Each of the various horoscopes takes into account the conflict or
otherwise of the elementary and astral influences dominant at the
time of the person's birth, as compared with the existing influences
1 sKyed-rtsis 2 ts'-rabs las rtsis. 3 pag-rtsis. 4 gs'in-rtsis.
•¦> sKag-rtsis. Other horoscopes for general and extra divinations are : Gab-tsi or
" Concealed," and Grub-tsi or " the perfect " Astrology ; and the Chinese system is
termed Nak-tsi in distinction to the Indian or Ear-tsi.
HOROSCOPES. 459

at the time consulted. The ordinary horoscope is usually arranged
under the following six heads, namely : — -
1. The year of birth of the individual in its auspicious or inauspicious
bearings. 2. His Park' a, influences.
3. His " Reversed calculation " of age (Log-men). This is evidently
introduced in order to afford a further variety of conflicts.
4. " The Seizing-Rope of the Sky." — This seems to refer to a popular
idea of ultimate ascent to the celestial regions by means of an invisible
rope. 5. " The Earth-dagger." — This is an invisible dagger, and is for the
individual the emblem of stability and safety so long as it is reported to
be fixed firmly in the earth.
6. The Mewa.
And each of these several heads is separately considered in detail with
reference to its conflicts in regard to — (a) the Life (or srog) ; (b) the
Body (or lus) ; (c) the Power or capability (ban-t'an) ; (d) the Luck-
horse (or rlun-rta) ; and (e) the Intelligence (bla).
The particular Parkha and Mewa for the several times are found
by reference to the Lama's almanac as above noted ; but the other
details are elicited by divers calculations made upon the astrologer's
board,1 and in consultation with the various manuals on the subject.
1 The astrologer's board consists of a large napkin on which are drawn squares and
the other necessary geomantic figures, all in a definite and convenient relation to each
other. This napkin is spread on a table, and the calculations are made with coloured
buttons as counters which are kept in a bag — the several elements having each a
recognized colour : thus wood is green, fire is red, earth is yellow, iron is white, and
water is blue. These counters are placed on the coloured squares as in a chess-board,
and are moved according to rule, either transversely from right to left or rice rersd, or
longitudinally over the requisite number of squares. In the top row of the board are
the sixty squares of the sixty-year cycle, all named and in the proper colour of their
elements. And the succeeding rows of squares are those of the Life, Body, Power,
Luck, and Intelligence series, each with its appropriate series of coloured elements.
The other divisions relate to the Parkhas and Mewas.
The calculations are made according to rule backwards or forwards a certain number
of years in the row of the sixty -year cycle squares, and the secondary results come out of
the vertical columns of the Life, Body, etc., series according to the conflict of their
respective elements ; the results being noted by white or black seeds or buttons, which
have the following values : —
The seven recognized degrees of affinity or repulsion are expressed in the astrological
accounts by the following signs of circles and crosses, and during the calculation the
circles are represented by white buttons and the crosses by black buttons or seeds ; —
When the conflict of the elements comes out — Mother, i.e., the best degree = OOO
,i „ „ „ Friend, i.e., the better „ = OO

J Water -+- Water I
1 Earth + Earth I

i.e., a harmless
mixture and .".

O
(Continued over page.)

460 ASTROLOGY AND DIVINATION.
These manuals have their signs inscribed on the belly of a tortoise
(see page 453), and the Mewa occupies the centre.
With this explanation I now give here a sample of a horoscope
for one family for one year's ill-luck, in which the prescribed
worship is italicized. I have added in footnotes some further ex
planations which may be consulted by those interested in knowing
in more detail the methods by which the Lamaist-astrologer makes
his calculations.
"The Misfortune Account of the Family of foe the
Eaeth-Mouse Year (i.e., 1888 a.d.)."
Salutation to MaJJjusri ! '
A. — For the Father of the Family.
I.— According to the BlETH-CONFLICT.
This male, aged 26 years, being born in the Water-Hog year, that year con
flicts with the Earth-Mouse year (the present year) as follows : —

Life = O,

or good. 2

Body = OO,

or better.

Power = XX,

or worse.

Luck-horse = OOO,

or best.

Intelligence = X,

or bad.

1. As modified by " Parkha." — His Parlc'a f or the year is Khon, which
gives the Earth-Sheep year and the following conflict : —
Life = worse.
Body = better.
When the conflict of the elements comes out Son, i.e., neutral = Qx
(Wood -{- Wood} i.e., unmiscibi-

T Wood + Wood} i .
iFire + Eire J- lity,and r.op-
(Iron + Iron J

positionandbad = X
„ „ Enemy, i.e. , worse = XX
Deadly hate, i.e., worst = XXX
For example, water meeting iron, i.e., its " mother," is the very best and .-. = OOO
and the same would be true of fire meeting wood. But wood meeting earth would
= "friend," and therefore = OO; but should earth meet wood, then it would be
" enemy," and therefore = X X ; and water meeting wood = " neutrality," or Qx.
While fire meeting water = " deadly hate," and therefore = X X X . Then the average
of the total is taken as the average result of the conflict. And the several remedies
necessary to avoid each and all of the calamities thus foretold are specified categor
ically in the astrologers' books.
i The metaphysical Bodhisat Manjusri is the presiding divinity of the astrologers,
and he is always invoked at the head of astrologic prescriptions.
2 The year of his birth being the Water-Hog, gives, according to the astrologic table,
Water as the srog for that year, and the present year being the Earth-Mouse year, its
srog, according to the table, is also Water. Therefore Water meeting Water = O, »•«•.
"good." , ,
s The his of these two years are found by the table to give the elements respectively
of Water and Fire. Therefore Water meeting its friend Fire = OO or " better," i.e.,
good of the second degree

. AN ANNUAL HOROSCOPE. 461
Power = worse than bad.
Luck-horse = bad.
Intelligence = worse.
2. As modified by "Reversed Age Calculation." — This gives a " good "
result,1 .'. = O.
3. As modified by " The Seizing-Rope of the Sky." — This gives "good,"2
.". = O- [If it were bad, then prescribed " The closure of the
door to the sky " (spirits)].3
4. As modified by " The Earth dagger." — This gives a medium average,
[If it were had would have to do " The closure of the door to the
earth " (spirits)].4
Thus the summary of the year's conflict as to birth, together with its
prescribed remedies is : —
" Life " has black in excess ; .-.to procure long life have read very much
The Sutra and Dhclranls for Long Life.
" Body " has white in excess ; . •. the Body will be free from sickness
{i.e., only as regards this one aspect of the calculation).
"Power" has black in excess; . ¦. Food shall be scanty, and crops
suffer, and cattle die or be lost. To neutralize it (a) have rend
very much " Yafi-gug " or the Luck- Bestowing and " Nor-
zan" (the Best Wealth) ; (b) offer holy cakes; (c) also give food
and sweets to monks and children.
" Luck " has black in excess ; . \ be careful not to provoke a law-suit or
go on a long journey. To neutralize this (a) do " Du-kar " 100
times ; (b) plant as many ' ' Lun-td '-flags " as years of your age ;
(c) offer in the temple 13 lamps with incense, etc. ; (d) have read
the "mDo-man" very much; (e) make an image of yourself (of
cooked barley or rice) and throw it towards your enemy ; (f) also
make an earthen Caitya.
"Intelligence" has black in excess; . . have read the " La-guk" or
worship for recalling the Intelligence.
II. — According to Park'A —
His Park'a for the year being " khon," he cannot during the year excavate
earth or remove stones. The Nagas and the Earth master-demons are opposed
to him. He is especially liable to the diseases of stiffened joints and skin dis
orders In the second month he is especially subject to danger. The N. and
E. and S. directions are bad for him ; he must not go there. For removing
1 This Log-men or "Reversed + downwards" is a more abstruse calculation
according to the saying : —
" skyes-pa pu-yi stag t'og nas lo grans t'ur,
" bud-med ma-yi sprel-t'og nas lo grans gyen."
For males — the sons of elements — begin from Tiger and count age downwards.
For females — the mothers — begin from Ape and count age upwards.
Thus the birth-year of this individual being Water-Hog, and he being a male, and
the son of Water being Wood, gives us for his Log-men the Water-Tiger year (which =
1854 a.d.). And as he is male, en counting downwards from the Wood-Tiger the num
ber of years of his age (i.e., 26), we get the year Earth-Hare (i.e., 1879 a.d.). And
according to the Log-men Manual, the Earth-Hare year is " 'byor-pa " or Riches, which
is given the value of " good," i.e., — O-
2 This is calculated on the srog of the Log-men year, minus five years. In this case
we have seen Log-men year is the Earth-Hare year. Counting back to the fifth year
gives the Wood-Hog, which has its srog the element water, and the srog of the
present 1888 a.d. year, viz., Earth-Mouse, being also Water, therefore = O or good for
the " sky-seizing Rope."
a See next chapter.
* See next chapter.

462 ASTROLOGY AND DIVINATION.
these evils (a) haveread the " Gyetong-ba" section of the Prajna Paramita, and
(b) do the worship of " Gya-zhi-tong " [ = " The 400," i.e., 100 torma or holy
cakes, 100 lamps and 100 rice and 100 writer offerings], and (c) off er a lamp daily
in worship.
III.— According to Mewa—
His mewa is Dim-mar (= the 7 reds) : therefore the Tsen and Gyalpo demons
give trouble. Dreams will be bad. The gods are displeased. Head, liver, and
heart will give pain, and boils will ensue. To prevent these evils (a) make a
" Tsen mdos " and a " Gyal mdos " (this is somewhat like the Sa-go,1 but with
out the ram's head); (b) The favourite gods and guardians (srung-ma) of
individual : Do their worship energetically ; and (c) ransom a sheep from the
butchers. B. — Foe the Wife.
/. — According to BlRTH-CONFLICT —
This female born in Iron-Monkey year (i.e., 29 years ago). That year com
pared with the Earth-Mouse year (i.e., 1S88 A.D.) gives : —
Life = O X
Body = O X
Power = O O O
Luck = x
Intelligence = O X
1 . As modified by her Parkha, which is Li. These come out respectively,
X X, O O, X X, O, X X.
1. As modified by " Reversed Age Calculation " = x
3. As modified by " The Sky-rope " = Q x
4. As-modified by " The Earth-dagger " = O O O
The total of the year's conflict is . \ : —
Life and Intelligence are bad, like No. 1, and must be treated accord
ingly, and in addition to No. 1.
Body and power are good.
Luck is neutral ; therefore the good people will be kind to you ; and the
bad people will trouble ; therefore it is necessary to, do very
much " Mikha ta-dot," to drive away scandal (from) men's
mouth.
The Sky -seizing Rope is interrupted (i.e., cut) ; therefore —
(1) do very much " te-gyed," and " ser-k'yem " (or oblation of wine to the
gods) ;
(2) prepare a " nam-go '' to close breach in the sky -connection.
The conjunction of her year (Monkey with Mouse) is not good ; . ¦. she
cannot journey far. And if she does any business she will suffer ; . '. have read
" Tdshl tsig-pa."
II. —A ccording to Pa ek'A —
The Park'a being Li, she must not try to build or repair a house or allow
any marriage in her house or spill anyWvater on the hearth. The devil-spirit of a
dead person is offended with her. Headache and eyeache will occur ; . \ (a) do
nob look at fresh flesh meat or blood ; (6) in the 8th month will be especially
bad ; (c) must not go W. or N. W. ; (d) have read the " Do-mang " and " Gye-
tong : " (c) he careful not to provoke quarrels.
III. — According to Mewa—
Her Mewa is " some thing ".: therefore will occur sudden domestic quarrels
of groat seriousness, lying reports of infidelity, also grief among relatives, and
dropsy. To prevent these do —
'(a) Gga :hi (i.e., 100 lamps, 100 rice, 100 irater, and 100 torma); (b)
Lu-tor, or offering of cake to the Sagas and Dug-kar (= white
umbrella-god with 1,000 heads) ; (c) Also ransom a goat.-
1 Vide p. 150.

AN ANNUAL HOROSCOPE. 463

C— Foe the Daughter, aged 7.
I.— According to BlRTH-CONFLICT—
This female, born in the Water-Horse year, 7 years ago. That year
conflicted with the Earth-Mouse year as follows: — x X, O X, X X,
OO, X X.
1. As modifiedby her " Parkha," which iszin. It is : — O 0 0,000,
O X, X X, OO O-
2. As modified by her "Reversed Age Calculation '' = Q
3. As by " Sky-rope " = O X
4. As by " The Earth-dagger" = O X
The total of the year's conflict . •. is, Life, Intelligence, Body, and Luck are
good of 2nd degree, Power is bad ; therefore do as for her father No. 1, pre
viously noted.
" Sky-seizing Rope " and Earth-dagger " are neutral. For evil Sky-seizing
Rope, have read the Sutra " Akasgarbha. "
And for Earth-dagger have read " Sa-yi snying po-l mdo,"
and repeat as frequently as years of age, i.e., 7 times.
The conjunction of her birth year, the Horse, with that of the present year,
the Mouse, is very bad, as these two are enemies ; for this have read the
Chinese "zlon-gan-man."
II. — According to Paek'A —
Her Park'a is zin. Be careful not to break a twig or demolish any tree
sacred to the Nagas or other deities (</nyan), and don't handle a carpenter's
tool for the same reason. In 2nd month when buds come out, it is somewhat
bad for you, as the Nagas are then pre-eminent. The West and N.W.
directions are bad, and have to be avoided. For these evils have read the
" D6-mang." III.— According to MEWA—
Her Mewa is like her father's (No. 1), and therefore do accordingly.

D.— For. the Son, aged 5.
I. — According to Birth-conflict —
This male (son), born in the Wood- Ape year, 5 years ago. That year
compared with the Earth-Mouse year gives : — O X , Q O, O O, X , O X .
1. As modified by his "Parkha," which is kham. It is O X,
0,000,000, OOO-
2. As by " Reversed Age Calculation " = X
3. As by " Sky-rope." = O O
4. As by " Earth-dagger." = X X
The total of the year's conflict . -. is : —
Body. Power, and Luck are good.
Life and Intelligence are neutral or middling.
The Sky -rope is not broken, and therefore good.
The Earth-dagger is withdrawn, and therefore bad.
For the latter —
(a) make as many clay Chaityas as possible ;
(b) the torma-cake of the earth-goddess (Sa-yi-lha-mo) ; and
(cj give also torma-cake to the Naga demigods.
II.— According to " Park'a "—
His Park'a being k'am, don't go to a large river, and to pools and other
waters reputed to he the abode of water-spirits. Don't stir or disturb the
water. Don't go out at night. Don't eat fish. The Tsan fiends are ill dis
posed towards you. These spirits are especially malevolent to you in the 6th
month; . •. be careful then. -Don't go in a S.W. and N.E. direction. Have
read (1) kLu 'bum and (2) Ser-'od dampa 'don.

464 ASTROLOGY AND DIVINATION.
III.— According to Mewa—
This Mewa is ku-mar. The Mamo and Tsan fiends are ill disposed towards
you. For this as (a) make " de-gfiis kyi mdos gton," which is like the Sa-gS
and "Sky-door" with threads and masts, and (b) have read well "gser-'od
gyan skyabs." General Note on the Grand Average of the above.
The Mewa is excessively red. It thus betokens shedding of blood by
accident. Therefore make " Tsan mdos " and the bloody -" Mamo mdos " masts
(see page 464). And have read as much as possible — (1) stobs po-ch' e-i-gsuns,
(2) gza-i yum, (3) nor-rgyun-ma-z gzuns gan-man sgrogs.
The extravagant amount of worship prescribed in the above
horoscope is only a fair sample of the amount which the Lamas
order one family to perform so as to neutralize the current
year's demoniacal influences on account of the family inter
relations only. In addition to the worship herein prescribed there
also needs to be done the special worship for each individual ac
cording to his or her own life's horoscope as taken at birth ; and
in the case of husband and wife, their additional burden of wor
ship which accrues to their life horoscope on their marriage, due to
the new set of conflicts introduced by the conjunction of their
respective years and their noxious influences ; and other rites
should a death have happened either in their own family or
even in the neighbourhood. And when, despite the execu
tion of all this costly worship, sickness still happens, it necessitates
the further employment of Lamas, and the recourse by the more
wealthy to a devil-dancer or to a special additional horoscope
by the Lama. So that one family alone is prescribed a sufficient
number of sacerdotal tasks to engage a couple of Lamas fairly
fully for several months of every year !
A somewhat comical result of all this wholesale reading of
scriptures is that, in order to get through the prescribed reading
of the several bulky scriptures within a reasonable time, it is the
practice to call in a dozen or so Lamas, each of whom reads aloud,
but all at the same time, a different book or chapter for the
benefit of the person concerned.
So deep-rooted is the desire for divination even in ordinary
affairs of every-day life, that, in addition to these elaborate
horoscopes, nearly every Lama, even the most ignorant, and
most of the laity, especially the poorer class who cannot afford
the expense of spiritual horoscopes, seek for themselves presages
by more simple methods, by cards, by rosary beads or pebbles,

DIVINATION BY BONES, CARDS, ROSARY. 465
by dice, by sheep's shoulder blades,' by omens, etc. And the
results are allowed to determine the movements of the indi
vidual, as every traveller who has had to do with Tibetans knows
to his cost. It is a sort of fortune-telling, which, however, is not
resorted to for the mere idle curiosity of ascertaining fortune long
beforehand, but seriously to find the issues of undertakings in
hand or those immediately contemplated by the consulter.
For the purposes of divination most families possess a small
divining manual called md or " mo-pe." 2 These books show
the portent attached to the particular number which is elicited
and also the initiatory spells.
The cards used for most divination purposes are small oblong
strips of cardboard, each representing several degrees of lucky
and unlucky portents suitably inscribed and pictorially illustrated,
and to each of these is attached a small thread.
In consulting this oracle, an invocation is first addressed to a
favourite deity, frequently the goddess Tara, and the packet is
held by the left hand on a level with the face, and, with closed
eyes, one of the threads is grasped, and its attached card is drawn
out. The best out of three draws is held to decide the luck of
the proposed undertaking, or the ultimate result of the sickness or
the other question of fortune sought after.
Divination by the rosary is especially practised by the more
illiterate people, and by the Eon priests. A preliminary spell is
chanted : —
'' gSol ! ye dharma ! Om Sha-kya Muneye svd-hdh ! Kramuneye svci-
hah ! Madahshumuneye svdhdh ! " After having repeated this, breathe
upon the rosary and say " Namo-Gv.ru ! I bow down before the
kind, merciful and noble Lama, the three Holy Ones, the yidam
(tutelary deity), and before all the collections of Dakkinis, religious
protectors and guardians of the magic-circle, and I beg that yoil will
cause the truth to descend on this lot. I also beg you, 0 ! religious
protectors and guardians, Brahma, Indra, the others of the ten direc
tions Nanda and Takshaka, the Naga kings, including the eight great
Nagas, the sun, the eight planets, the twenty-eight constellations of
stars, the twelve great chiefs of the injurers, and the great locality
gods, to let the true light descend on my lot, and let the truth and
reality appear in it."
After repeating the above, the rosary is taken in the palm and
rolled between the two revolving palms, and the hands clapped
1 See description by Pallas, quoted by Rockhill (L., p. 341).
I.e., short for "m6-pecha," or " The md book.'
H H

466 ASTROLOGY AND DIVINATION.
thrice. Then, closing the eyes, a portion of the rosary is seized
between the thumb and finger of each hand, and opening the
eyes the intervening beads are counted from each end in threes.
And according as the remainder is 1, 2, or 3 depends the result.
Thus :—
(1) If One as a remainder comes after One as the previous remainder,
everything is favourable in life, in friendship, in trade, etc.
(2) If Two comes after Two it is bad : " The cloudless sky will be
suddenly darkened, and there will be loss of wealth. So Bim-'gro
must be done repeatedly, and the gods must be worshipped, which are
the only preventions."
(3) If Three comes after Three it is very good : " Prosperity is at
hand in trade and everything."
(4) If Three comes after One it is good : " Rice plants will grow on
sandy hills, widows will obtain husbands, and poor men will obtain
riches." (5) If One comes after Two it is good : " Every wish will be fulfilled
and riches will be found ; if one travels to a dangerous place one will
escape every danger."
(6) If One conies after Three it is good : " God's help will always be
at hand, therefore worship the gods."
(7) If Tivo comes after Three it is not very good, it is middling :
" Legal proceedings will come."
(8) If Three comes after Two it is good: "Turquoise fountains will
spring out and fertilize the ground, unexpected food will be obtained,
and escape is at hand from any danger."
(9) If Two comes after One it is bad : " Contagious disease will come.
But if the gods be worshipped and the devils be propitiated, then it will
be prevented."
The most ordinary mode of divination is by counters of seeds or
pebbles in sets of ten, fifteen, or twenty-one, which may be used
with or without a dice-board. If a dice-board be used, it consists
of small squares drawn on paper to the number of fifteen or of
twenty-one, and each square has got a number within a circle
corresponding to a number in the mo-pe or divination-book. The
set of ten is called " The Ten Fairy Circle," * and requires a board
bearing the outline of an eigbt-petalled lotus arranged as pairs
of petals which correspond to the Tantrik symbols of the five
Jinas (vajra, gem, etc.), the fifth being in the centre, and its pair
of petals is named the "Consort" of the Jina and the Sakti.2 The

i mKal-'gro-ma.
2 Thus rDorje Kahgro, rdo-rje shugs-'gro, the former having higher rank and
better prognosis.

DIVINATION BY SEEDS.

467

counters are white and black pebbles or seeds, only one black one
to each series. And after the invocation to the special deity and
shaking up and mixing all the seeds in the closed palm they are
then told out between the forefinger and thumb of the still closed
palm on to the squares in the numerical order of the latter, and
the number on which the black seed comes out determines by
means of the md-pe book the divination result of the particular
fortune sought for.
The set of fifteen squares is called " Grya-nag-sman-ch'u," or
" The Chinese medicinal water." It consists of a triple series of
five squares, with the numbers arranged as in the sketch. But
properly, as its name implies, the seeds
should be dropped into a vessel of water,
and ho dice-board is then needed. This
kind of divination is used especially in
sickness, hence it is called " medicinal."
But the manual most commonly consulted
for the prognosis and treatment of sickness
is " The calculation of the eight god
desses." This book gives a fixed prognosis
and prescriptions of remedial worship for the month in series of
fours. Thus for its reference, only the day of the month is needed,
and no dice or seeds are necessary.1
The set of twenty-one squares is called " The twenty-one
Taras," after the twenty-one forms of that obliging goddess.
Above the centre of the diagram is a figure
of that goddess, who is specially invoked in
this divination. The numbers run as in
the diagram here given. As a sample of
the oracles I give here a few of the divina
tion-results from Tara's series. If the black
seed falls on 1, 2, 8, or 9, the divination is
as follows: —

Image of Dolma.

17 16

1815

7
6

8
5

9
4

10 3

11 2 1

No. 1. The Jewel. — If you do not go to sea
then you will get the jewel. For merchants'
and thieves' adventures it is good. For your
own house and soul it is excellent. But if you

1 Another manual named Dus-ts'od-rtsis gives similar information in regard to the
particular time of the day of the occurrence in question.
HH 2

468

ASTROLOGY AND DIVINATION.

are sick it is somewhat bad. For travelling you should first feed
people and dogs. You will obtain a son and get temporal power.
Your wishes will ultimately be gratified. You have a thief as an
enemy. No. 2. The Turquoise Spring. — The dried valley will yield springs,
and plants will become verdant, and timely rain will fall. The absent
will soon return. Do the dPan-bstod worship of the enemy god,
and the worship of your own special god (mch'od lha). It is good for
marriage. The Conch Chaitya. — In the supreme 'Og-min heavens it is
the lower animals. In the three worlds of existence is
and auspicious time. Your desires will be realized. Life
If you are ill, whitewash the Caitya and worship in the
The enemy is somewhat near. For merchants the time

No. 8.
good for
long life
is good.
temple. is rather late, but no serious loss will happen. For health it is good.
No. 9. The Invalid. — If an actual invalid it is due to demon of
grand-parents. Agriculture will be bad. Cattle will suffer. To pre
vent this offer the " black " cake of the three heads (^Tor nag mgo
sum) and do " calling for luck." For your wishes, business, and
credit it is a bad outlook. For sickness do " obtaining long life."
Mend the road and repaint the "Mani " stones. Household things
and life are bad. For these read the " do mang" spells, also Du-Kar
and Dok. The ancestral devil is to be suppressed by Srignon. Avoid
conflict with enemy and new schemes and long journeys.
The titles of the other numbers indicate, somewhat the nature of
their contents, namely : —

Golden Dorje.

11.

Golden vase.

17.

Fiendess with red

Painted vase.

12.

Turquoise dragon.

mouth.

Turquoise parrot.

13.

Garuda.

18.

'Gong king-devil.

Verdant plants.

14.

Tigress.

19.

Peacock.

Lady carrying

15.

Sun and moon.

20.

Glorious white

child.

16.

Enemy with bow

conch.

White lion.

and arrows.
21.
The great king.
The foregoing are the forms of dice-boards used by the laity and
the lower clergy. The more respectable Lamas use a circular disc
with twenty-eight divisions in the form of three concentric lotus-
flowers, each of the petals of the two outer whorls bearing a number
which corresponds to a number in the divining manual which is
called " The one who sees all actions." ' The margin of the disc
is surrounded by flames. This more artistic arrangement is shown
in the accompanying figure. As a sample of this oracle I give
here the detail of No. 1 and list of the presiding divinities of the
other numbers.
1 " Las-byed mt'oh-ba, kun-/dan."
DIVINATION BOARDS.

469

No. 1., Bhagavan (a title of Buddha). You are of the wise class,
or if not you will get a wise son. Your god needs to be worshipped
fully, and what you desire will be realized, and you will obtain long
life and freedom from sickness. And if you are a male this blessing
will last for nine years. If you are a female then nine monks must be

iilVrvV-^W-^jf.vnjjjj

Lotus Dice-eoakd.

engaged to read the Nylthi Abidharma, and four monks must do
the dok-pa, clapping of hands to drive away the evil spirits; for in the
south is a king demon who is angry with you and your heart is disturbed
and your temper bad. On this account do the worship of the king
demon and wear his charm. In your house children will be unsafe,
but they will not die. Your valuable goods are likely to go, there
fore do the worship of Nor-t'ub or " the obtaining of wealth."

470

ASTROLOGY AND DIVINATION.

The names of the divinities of the other numbers, which give some
indication of the nature of the divination, are : —

2. Avalokita.
3. Ugyen Rinboch'e.
4. Tara.
5. Vajrapani.
6. Yes'e Norbu.
7. Candan.
8. Indra.
9. Manjusri.
10. Dorje leg-pa.
11. Sirge Sashi.

12. Dorje Gya-t'am.
13. Yuduk Nonmo.
14. Ton-nan Lhamo.
15. Tamch'en Nagpo.
16. Lungpa Kyithik.
17. Durpag Nag.
18. Garwa Bishu.
19. Gyacha kua.
20. Nad-bdak Remati,
god of sickness.

21. Tsunpa.
22. Ch'ui Lhamo.
23. Tuk-zig-pa.
24. SipiKukhor.
25. Damc'a Dzema.
26. Dreo Dagyak.
27. Purnan Ukpu.
28. Nag-nag.

The dice used in divination and fortune-telling are of two sorts,
namely, (a) ordinary ivory or bone dice marked with black dots from
one to six as in European dice, and (b) a solitary wooden cube, on
each of the six sides of which is carved a letter corresponding to a
similar letter in the manual. Here also may be mentioned the
loaded dice used in " The scape-goat ceremony," see the chapter
on festivals.
The ordinary ivory dice are used in a set of three with the Lhamo
Mo or "The goddess' divination manual," which provides for
results from three to eighteen. These three dice are usually
thrown on the book itself from the bare hand after having been
shaken up in the closed palm. More luxurious people possess a
small wooden bowl from which they throw the dice, also a pad on
which to throw them.
The solitary wooden dice is used for divination along with the
manual of Manjusri. It contains on its six sides the six letters,
compound or otherwise, of Manjusri's spell — A, R, P, TS, N,
DI. The wood of this dice should be made of either Manjusri's
sacred " bla " tree, or sandal, or rose-wood, or if none of these
woods are available, then the dice should be made of conch-shell
or glass.
In the manual of this dice the portent of each letter is divided
into the following sections, namely — House, Favours, Life, Medical,
Enemy, Visitors, Business, Travel, Lost property, Wealth, Sickness,
etc., which cover all the ordinary objects for which the oracle is
consulted. As an example I here extract the portents of A : —
" ' A ' is the best of all for great Lamas and for lay officers, and
what you will perform will have a good result. For low people it
means a little sadness ; therefore worship your favourite god.

AUGURIES. 471

" House section. — All your household will be happy and lucky, and
for a time your house will be safe ; but where the cattle dwell, there
a thief and rogue will perhaps come. To avoid this repeat, or get
repeated (by Lamas), 10,000 times the spell of Marici.
" Favours section. — The favours you wish will be got gradually. To
remove the difficulty in the way of getting these repeat, or get repeated,
100,000 times the spell of gra-lna, and also of Devi lo-gyon-ma (this
latter is Om! pisha-tsi par-na-sha-wa-ri sarba dso-la-ta-sha-ma-na-ye swa
ha ! ), and do the Dug-kar with its contained ozlog-Ssgyur (clapping of
bands) celebration.
"Life (Srog). — This is good. But the </DSn demon from the east
and south came with a blue and black article you got. To clear away
this cloud do, or get done, 100,0Q0 grib-sel, and do the Naga worship
and read, or get read, 1,000 times Sherab-Ninpo.
" Medical. — Taking the medicine prescribed for you for a long time
secretly you shall recover. Also burn a lamp nightly from sunset to
sunrise as an bffering to the gods.
" Enemy. — You shall not suffer, as your god is strong and will pro
tect you.
" Visitors — probable. — They are coming, or news of their visit will
soon be received.
" Business. — If you quickly do business it shall be profitable — delay
shall be unprofitable.
" Travel. — The actual leaving of your house shall be difficult, but if
you persevere you shall travel safely.
" Lost property. — If you go to the north-west you shall get the lost
property, or news of it."
A most peculiar application of the dice is for determining the
successive regions and grades of one's future re-births. Fifty-six
or more squares of about two inches wide are painted side by side
in contrasted colours on a large sheet of cloth, thus giving a
chequered area like an ordinary draught or chess-board. Each
square represents a certain phase of existence in one or other of
the six regions of re-birth, and on it is graphically depicted a
figure or scene expressive of the particular state of existence in the
world of man, or beast, or god, or in hell, etc., and it bears in its
centre the name of its particular form of existence, and it also
contains the names of six other possible states of re-birth which
ensue from this particular existence, these names being preceded
by one or other of the following six letters : A, S, E, Gr, D, Y,
which are also borne on the six faces of the wooden cube which
forms the solitary dice for this divination.
Starting from the world of human existence, the dice is thrown,
and the letter which turns up determines the region of the next

472

ASTROLOGY AND DIVINATION.

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Re-bieth Dice-board.
DIVINATION OF RE-BIRTHS. 473
re-birth. Then proceeding from it the dice is again thrown and
the letter turned up indicates the next state of re-birth from this
new existence, and so on from square to square ad infinitum.
Thus for the Lamaist layman there appear only six states of
re-birth ordinarily possible, namely : —
A. The path of the sorcerer; S. Many days' journey (Nin ts'og lam) ;
R. The "bent goers," i.e., the beasts; G. The Unorthodox, i.e., a follower
"of the Bon or pre-Lamaist form of religion in Tibet; D. an Indian
heretic ; Y. a ghostly state in Limbo.
The dice accompanying my copy of this board seems to have
been loaded so as to show up the letter Y, which gives a ghbstly
existence, and thus necessitates the performance of many expensive
rites to counteract so undesirable a fate. But in addition to the
ordinary six states of possible re-birth are the extraordinary states
of re-birth to be obtained by the grand coup of turning up the letter
A five times in succession or the letter S thirteen times in succession.
The former event means direct re-birth in the paradise of St.
Padma and his mythical primordial god, Samantabhadra, while
the latter event is re-birth immediately into the grander paradise
of the coming Buddha, Maitreya.
Every year has its general character for good or evil foretold
in the astrological books (like Zadkiel's),1 but like most oracular
utterances, these prophecies are couched in rather ambiguous
terms, and as there are four or five versions of these forecasts
for each year of the twelve-year cycle in addition to a separate set
for each year of the sixty-year cycle, there is thus considerable
latitude allowed for accounting for most phenomena.
In 1891, during that great visitation of locusts which swarmed
over India and into Sikhim as well, the local Lamas were in great
glee on finding that the plague of locusts2 was down in the Lamaist
1 The ordinary Lamaist forecast for 1891 ran as follows : During this year of the
Iron-Hare, there is fear for the cattle. The valuable crops will be moderate. Dew and
hail excessive. Birds and mice destructive. Robbery and loss of land, fleeing in
habitants. Slowly crops may recover. Black (seeded crops) good, white not good.
Human sickness excessive. In early summer water scanty, with hail and heat after
wards. Slowly progress. If those who otherwise shall certainly die, do " the Life
Ransom," the " Death Hansom " (e.g. releasing small fish from the fishmongers), and
the " Ceremony to Obtain Life," then they shall be safe, etc., etc.
2 The great oriental locust is well-known to the Nepalese and Sikhim highlanders
as an occasional visitant, and I am told that a few of the swarms occasionally pass
actually into Tibet. The Nepalese during this last visitation were to be seen catching
basketfuls of these insects, which they cooked and ate like shrimps with much relish.

474

ASTROLOGY AND DIVINATION.

forecast for that year. I examined the old printed books and
found that in one of the more common versions of the twelve-year
cycle a plague of ch'aga was foretold for that year, and ch'aga is
a short form of the word for "locust." And it seemed that it
could not have come out in the forecaste oftener than about once
in six years.
The more demoniacal forms of divination practised by the pro
fessional oracles and wizards are described in the following chapter.

SCOBPION CHARM

1. Naga snake-spirit.
2. Tsan devil.

3. Ma-mo fiendess.
4. " King "-fiend.

A Br.AOK-HAT SORCEREE.

XVIII.

SORCERY AND NECROMANCY.
" He drew the mystic circle's bound
With skull and cross-bones fenced around ;
He traced full many a sigil there ;
He muttered many a backward prayer
That sounded like a curse."
j ITH the Lamas, as with the ancient Greeks and Romans,
the oracle is a living and highly popular institution.
Dwelling in an atmosphere of superstition, the Lamas,
like the alchemists of old, do not recognize the limita
tion to their powers over Nature. They believe that the hermits

476 SORCERY AND NECROMANCY.
in the mountains, and the monks in their cloisters, can readily
become adepts in the black art, and can banish drought, and con
trol the sun, and stay the storm ; and many of their necromantic
performances recall the scene of the " witches' cauldron " in
Macbeth. Magic, and this mostly of a sympathetic kind, seems to have
crept into Indian Buddhism soon after Buddha's death. In the
form of irdhi, or' the acquisition of supernatural power, it is a
recognized attribute of tbe Arhats, and even among the primitive
Hinayana Buddhists. The Paritta ("pirit") rite of the Southern
Buddhists is essentially of the character of exorcism,1 and portions
of the text of the Saddharma Pundarika, dating to about the first
century of our era, are specially framed for this purpose.
But the Indian cult does not appear ever to have descended to
the gross devil-dancing2 and Shamanist charlatanism of the Lamas;
though even the Lamas seldom, if ever, practise such common
tricks as swallowing knives and vomiting fire, with which they have
been credited. They find plenty of scope for their charlatanism in
playing upon the easy credulity of the people by working them
selves into the furious state of the "possessed," so as to oracularly
deliver auguries, and by the profitable pursuits of necromancy and
sorcery.
,. Every orthodox monastery in Tibet, even of the most reformed
sects, keeps or patronizes a sorcerer, and consults him and follows
1 " Pirit," as practised by the southern Buddhists, is a reading of certain scriptures
as an exorcism against evil spirits in sickness. It addresses itself to "all spirits
here assembled," and says : " therefore hear me, 0 ye spirits ! Be friendly to the
race of men ; for every day and night they bring you their offerings ; therefore keep
diligent watch over them. Ye spirits, etc." (Hardy's E. Mm.). Nagasena in Milinda
(circa, 150 a.d.) is made to say, " The blessed one, 0 king . . . sanctioned Pirit.
And Rhys Davids (Milinda, p. 213), commenting on this remark, states : This is
the oldest text in which the use of the service is referred to. But the word Paritta
(Pirit) is used Eullamgga, v., 6, on an asseveration of love ; for snakes to be used as
what is practically a charm against snake-bite, and that is attributed to the Buddha.
The particular Suttas, Ratana Sutta, Khanda-paritta, Mora paritta Dha^agga-paritta,
and the A*anafiya-paritta, and the Anguli-mala paritta,- and passages here referred
to are all in the Pitakas.
Cf. also a manual of exorcism used in Ceylon, entitled Piruwana-pota.— Haedy's
East Mon., p. 26, 30.
s It will be interesting to And whether the dancing orgies of the Ceylon Buddhists
are in any way related to those of northern Buddhism. The descriptions of Callaway
are insufficient for this purpose. They show, however, that Yama the Death king
figures prominently in the dances.

DEVIL-DANCING SORCERERS. 477
his dictates upon most matters; and there are some cloisters near
Lhasa specially devoted to instruction in this art. Such are, Moru,
Ramo-ch'e, and Kar-mas'a.
The chief wizards are called " Defenders of the faith " (ch'os-
skyon), and the highest of these, namely, Na-ch'un, is the govern-
ment oracle, and is , consulted on all important state occasions
and undertakings. But every monastery of any size has its own
sorcerer, who, however, in the case of the poorer sects, is not
usually considered a member of the brotherhood, and he is allowed
to marry. They possess no literature, and deliver their sayings
orally. Their fantastic equipment and their frantic bearing, as in figure
-at page 475, their cries and howls, despite their name, can scarcely
be of Sivaite origin, but seem clearly to identify them with the
Bon — the grossest of Shamanist devil-dancers. The belief both
in ghosts and witchcraft and the practice of exorcism was so deep-
rooted in the country, that Padma-sambhava gave it a prominent
place in his system, and even Tson-K'a-pa could not do otherwise
than take them over into his yellow sect. And that position with
in the Lamaist priesthood once granted to the heathen sorcerer it
naturally became dogmatic and scholastic,1 and seems to have been
given its present organized shape by the fifth Grand Lama, Nag
Wan, in the seventeenth century ; though even now it is satisfac
tory to find that some of the more intelligent and respectable
Lamas despise such gross exhibitions as an unholy pandering to
the vulgar taste for the marvellous.
The chief sorcerers are called " The revered protectors of re
ligion," Gh'o-kyon or Oh'o-je, and are believed to be incarnations of
the malignant spirit called "kings,"2 who seem to be spirits of
demonified heroes, and still the object of very active popular
worship.3 These king-fiends are alleged to have been originally five
brothers,4 who came from Ch'ad-dumin northern Mongolia,

1 Koppen, ii., 260. 2 rgyal-po.
3 The mode of worshipping these " kings " and the offerings most acceptable to-
them are detailed in the book Eu-na gyal-pou Ean-Sag. " Confession to the five sacred
Kings " and " Confession (Ean-Sag) to the Incarnate Great Ch'o-Eyoh."
4 rgyal-po-sku-nga. . These are said to have been the kings of the east, mystically
called " the Body " and resident at Sam-ya, the king of the west, entitled the Speech,

478 SORCERY AND NECROMANCY.
though now only two (or three) of them seem to be known, and
these are represented by the oracles of Na-ch'un, Karma-s'ar, and
Gadon. The chief of these necromancers was first brought into the order
of the Lamas by the fifth Grand Lama, who seems to have felt,
like the Roman governors, the necessity for placing the divination
for government service under the control of the priests, and he
doubtless realized the political advantages of having so powerful
an instrument entirely within the order. He admitted the augur
of Na-ch'un x to the brotherhood, and made him the state-oracle.
The Necromancer-in-Ordinary to Govebnment.
The Na-ch'un Oracle.
The Necromancer-in-Ordinary to the government is the Na-ch'un
sorcerer. The following details regarding him I have obtained
from a resident of his temple, and also from several of his clientele.2
This demon-king was originally a god of the Turki 3 tribes, and
named " The White Overcast Sky." * and on account of his Turki
descent the popular epic of the famous prince Kesar, who had
conquered the Turki tribes, i.-: not permitted to be recited at De-
pung, under whose segis the Na-ch'un oracle resides for fear of
offending the latter.
He was brought to Tibet by Padma-sambhava in Thi-Sron
Detsan's reign, and made the Ch'o-Kyon or religious guardian
of the first monastery, Sam-ya. There he became incarnate, and
the man possessed by his spirit was styled " The Religious Noble "
or Ch'6-je, and he married and became a recognized oracle with
hereditary descent.
This demon-king is thus identified with Pe-har (usually pro
nounced Pe-kar),& although other accounts make him the fourth
and younger brother of Pe-har.
resident at Na-ch'un, the king of the north, the Deeds, resident at Norbu-gah and
of the south, the Learning, resident at Gah-dong, eight miles west of Lhasa, and of
the centre (? Lamo). Schlagintweit (p. 157) names them, " Bihar Ch'oichoh Da-lha
Luvah and Tokchoi," but this seems to include divinities of other classes.
i About seven miles west of De-pung.
°- Cf . also the vernacular literature : gSer-p'ren ; gyu p'ren ; dnul p'ren, and the
deb-ther Of Nii-ch'uh temple, and of Reting gyal po.
s Hor-pa lha of the Bada sgom-kaw order.
* jNam-t'b dKar-po.
5 Although he is specially associated with monasteries it is unlikely that his name
is a corruption of Bihar (Vihara), as it is spelt rfpe-har, and he has Tibetan attributes.

GOVERNMENT SOOTHSAYER. 479
Many centuries later Pe-har's spirit is said to have transferred
itself to Ts'al-gun-t'an, about four miles E.S.E.of Lhasa, on the way
to Gah-dan, and thence in a miraculous manner to its present
location.1 In the time of the Grand Lama Rag-Wan, in the seventeenth
century, when he extended the Ge-lug-pa order wholesale, he made
the Na-ch'un ch'o-je a Lama of the yellow sect, and gave him the
monastery called De-yang ta-tsan,2 and made him the state oracle.
The reason alleged for the pre-eminence thus conferred is said to be
that he frustrated an attempt of the Newars or Nepalese merchants
of Lhasa to poison the tea-cistern at tbe great festival, by driving a
knife through the vessel, and thus discharging the alleged poison.
Since his promotion within the ranks of the established 'church
he and his successors have been celibate and educated. His
monastery, which is richly furnished and surrounded by gardens,
including a conservatory with stuffed birds, and leopards, and other
animals, now contains one hundred and one monks, many of whom
are real Ge-longs, observing the two hundred and fifty-three Vinaya
rules, and from amongst these his successor is chosen — the succes
sion passing by breath and not by heredity, and it is said that
these sorcerers are very short-lived on account of their maniacal
excitement ; and they probably are addicted to Indian hemp. He
has the title of Kung from the Chinese emperor, a title which is
seldom bestowed even on the Sha-pe or governors (dukes) of
Tibet. He is dressed like a Ge-lug-pa monk, usually in red robes, but
wears a lotus-shaped hat of a yellow colour relieved by red and
topped by a ruby button.
1 The legend states that the spirit of Pehar entered into a resident of Ts'al-guh-
t'an, and said to a Lama named Z'an, "Let us go to Udyana (the country of
Padma-sambhava)." The Lama then shut up the possessed man in a box, which he
flung into the river Kyi. Now the abbot of De-pung had prophesied the previous day
to his pupils, saying, " A box will float down the river, go find it and seize it." The
pupils found the box and brought it to the spot where the Na-ch'uh temple now
stands, namely, about one mile to the S.E. of De-pung, and there they opened it, and
lo ! a great fire came out and disappeared into a tree, and the dead body of a man
was found in the box ; but by the prayers of the abbot the spirit consented to re
turn to the body. And the resuscitated corpse, refusing to enter the pure monastery
of De-pung on the plea of being uncelibate, requested to be granted " a small dwell
ing" where he stood — hence the name of the place Na-ch'uh or "the small dwell
ing." And the identical tree is still to be seen there.
2 Me-yahs gra-^tsan.

480 SORCERY AND NECROMANCY.
This state-sorcerer proceeds in great pomp to Lhasa once
a year, on the second day of the first month, attended by the
magistrate 1 of De-pung, and is accommodated in a special temple
close to the east of the great Jo-wo temple, where he prophesies the
events of the year. His rank is so high that he only visits the
Dalai Lama. Government officials require to visit him when
seeking information in regard to government projects, war, sick
ness, etc. And when he is at home his minister 2 acts as the
government go-between on ordinary occasions, and he and other
sorcerers accompany troops to battle and interpret the portents of
the omens of birds, animals, etc.
He is also consulted by private people who can afford the
expense. In addition to any presents in kind, a money fee of
from ten to 1,000 tankas (silver coins about sixpence) or more
are needed, and these are applied to the support of his large
establishment. The applicant to the oracle must have his request presented in
writing, and when a sufficient number of applications have accumu
lated, the augur is disclosed in a wildly ecstatic state. He throws
rice at the applicants, and becoming more inflamed by fury, he falls
down in convulsions and then replies to questions addressed to
him. The replies are noted down by attendant scribes, and the
document is afterwards sealed — it is said by the sorcerer him
self on his recovery.
The utterances are often couched in poetry or allegory, with
the brevity and ambiguousness of an oracular response.
One of the Na-ch'un sorcerer's responses which I have seen bears
a circular red seal of crossed thunderbolts. It is interesting
rather as a sample of the kind of questions addressed to the oracle
than for the oracular deliverance itself, which is of the ordinary
prosaic kind.
" To the exalted throne (made of the corpses of infidels) on which
rest the feet of the great Religious Protector, the Incarnate Victor-
God of the enemies in all the three worlds, — The Lamp of Wisdom !
" I, this child (Sras), believing in you, with my ten fingers resting on
my heart, petition thus : —
" 1. What is the evil accruing this year on the following persons,
and what the necessary worship (to counteract the evil) ?
ts'ogs-ch'en z'al-'ho. 2 Entitled Lon-po rdo-rje drag-ldan.

ORACLES AND AUGURIES.

481

The Governor ...

... birth year

Iron-Monkey.

Male

... ... ,,

Earth-Hare.

Male

... ... ,,

Fire-Tiger.

Female

Earth-Ox.

Male

... ... . ,

„ Tiger.

Female

Iron-Bird.

Female

Fire-Hare.

Female

Fire-Dog.

" 2. What is the evil, now and hereafter, accruing to the Guide
(Teacher) of Sikhim and Gang-ljong ( = Cw-Tibet) from the foreign
harmers i And what can be done 1
" 3. At the Tibetan farm of D6-ta (near Khamba-jong) the fields for
several seasons have yielded no crops on account of ' dew from want of
clouds.' What remedy is for this 1
" Pray relieve our anxiety. You, who are the best of gods, do not
ever abandon us ; but ever protect us on all sides as by a thick ' tent ! '
Save us ! We worship Thee ! And we offer you this god-like silken
robe ; also this pair of fowls (male and female) !
" This applicant's name is "

The Reply.
"Hei! 1. Read Tara's ritual, and plant ' prayer-flags ' (in number)
according to your age.
" 2. Worship Tara, much, and plant as many of the largest ' prayer-
flags ' as possible.
" 3. Read the Bum (Prajna paramita) and (St. Padma's) T'an-yig, the
three roots (Lama, tutelary and Buddha) ; make the Ts'ogs offering,
also one to Dorje Nam-ch'un, and Yul-K'rus (sprinkling holy water to
purify the country) ; and mollify the country-gods by the Gya-nan
Srun-ma."

THE KARMA-S AR ORACLE.
But the Karma-s'ar ' oracle seems to have been the original one,
and it still is one of those most popularly resorted to. Its sor
cerer is also held to be possessed by the demon-king Pe-har. It is
within Lhasa, and is specially under the segis of the Serra monas
tery, and this indeed is said to have been a chief reason why the
Grand Lama Nag-wan eclipsed it by attaching the state oracle
to his own and rival monastery De-pung.
Yet Karma-s'ar too receives some direct countenance from

1 Or rKar-ma-K'ya.

I I

482 SORCERY AND NECROMANCY.
government, for on the seventh month of each year its sorcerer
proceeds to Serra and delivers there his fore-warnings of portend
ing danger to the church and state for the forthcoming year.
He is not celibate, but has received some education and is able to
read and write, and has a large following of pupils.
He is extensively consulted about political events, and his
deliverances, which are posted up at the south door of his resi
dence at Lhasa as well as at Serra, excite much notice. I quote
here a few examples of his oracular responses : —
The dog is unlikely to catch the fox though both may wear off
their tails (advice to give up pursuing some small though wily
party). The prancing steed thinking only of himself falls over the cliff
(compare with " pride meets a fall ").
The eagle's wings bring the fishes under its power.
The fox will become greater than a mountain-like elephant (fortell-
ing advancement of a crafty underling).
The path of the voracious wolf is barred by a serpent.
The grunting pig with upturned tusks frightens the hawk. (This
is an excuse for evading reply to the question for fear of offending the
authorities.) A more inferior type of sorcerer is the Lha-Ka (probably
Lha-K'a or "God's mouth-piece," also called Ku-t'em-ba. Such
are found frequently in western Tibet, and may be females,1 and
in which case the woman may marry without hindrance to her
profession. These wizards are especially resorted to for the relief
of pain.
This exorcist puts on the mirror over the heart, the masker's
cope, with the five Bats of Fortune, and the five-partite chaplet
of the five Jinas, topped by skulls, a silken girdle (pan-den), and
placing a cake on his head, he calls upon Buddha and St. Padma,
and offers a libation 2 and incense to the demons, and beating a
large drum (not a tambourine or hautboy) and cymbals, calls on
the several country-gods by name, saying : Na-K'an dira c'6-den
su-so-so ! and the advent of the deity is believed to be seen in
the mirror. The first to come is the tutelary, who then brings

i They somewhat resemble the Ufan-gorma and Pa-o of Sikhim, but are not devil-
dancers like the latter. Compare also with the witch-like priestesses called "Day-
gals " of the Hunza tribes mentioned by Dr. Leitner as the mediums of the divine
pleasure and supernatural presence being manifest by ringing of bells, etc.
2 ser-skyem.

NECROMANCERS. 483

the Nagas, dragon-demi-gods and the Dre, which are the most
malignant of all demons.
The divining-arrow is then taken from the plate of flour which
had been offered to these demons, and its blunted point is put on
the affected part. The Lha-ka exorcist now applies his mouth
half-way down the shaft, and sucks forcibly. On this a drop of
blood appears over the painful part, without any abrasion of skin,
and evidently dropped by sleight of hand from the parti-coloured
ribbons of the arrow. It is, however, considered a miracle, and
the patient is led to believe that the demon has been expelled
from the part.
The commonest sorcerer is called Nag-pa or " the Expert in
Incantations." These are very numerous and are more nearly
allied than the Ch'o-je to the original type of the Tibetan, devil-
dancer. But they are not admitted into any of the monasteries
of the reformed and semi-reformed sects.
They are usually illiterate, they marry and wear a peculiar
dress, the most characteristic part of which is the tall conical hat
like that of the orthodox western witch, and pictured at page 475.
It has, however, added to it a broad rim of yak -hair and on either
side a coiled serpent, and it is surmounted by a wt?'ra-topped skull
and peacock feathers with long streamers of the five-coloured silks
such as are used with the divining-arrow.
Their special weapons ' for warring with the demons are : —
1. The Phurbu, a dagger of wood or metal to stab the demons. The
central portion is in the form of a ixyra-thundefbolt which is the part
held in the wizard's hand, and the hilt-end is terminated either by a
sample fiend's-head, or by the same surmounted by a horse's head,
representing the horse-headed tutelary-devil Tam-din.
2. A sword with thunderbolt-hilt.
3. Sling, bows and arrows.
4. The divining-arrow (Dah-dar). This is inserted into a plate of
flour offered to the demons. Other appliances are the magic triangle
(hun-hun) containing talismanic sentences within which the wish of
the votary is inscribed and called lin-ga.
A sash of human bones (rus-rgyan) carved with fiends and
mystic symbols is also worn, and as a breast-plate a magic mirror
of metal which probably is identical with that found in Taoism
and Shintoism.
1 They are called zor, and the edge or point directed against the demons is Zor-
kha.
II 2

484 SORCERY AND NECROMANCY.
The commonest necromantic rites are " the closing of the
doors to the demons of the earth and sky," the exorcising of the
disease-demon, the death ceremonies as a whole, expelling the
death-demon, the lay figure of the deceased and its rites, etc.,
and the exorcising of ghosts. And I here give some details of
these rites. Barring the Door against the Earth-Demons.
The Tibetan genii loci are worshipped in a way presenting
many parallels to the Roman worship of their Lares, the horse-shoe
above the door of our old-fashioned houses, and the skull-trophies
of the Indo-Chinese.1
The local earth-spirits are named " Master Earth " or " Earth-
Masters," 2 and are comparable to the terrestrial Nagas of the
Hindus. The most malignant are the " gnan," who infest
certain trees and rocks, which are always studiously shunned and
respected, and usually daubed with paint in adoration.
The earth-demons are innumerable, but they are all under the
authority of "Old mother Khon-ma." 3 She rides upon a ram,
and is dressed in golden yellow robes, and her personal attendant
is " Sa-thel-nag-po." In her hand she holds a golden noose, and
her face contains eighty wrinkles..
The ceremony of " closing the door of the earth," so fre
quently referred to in the Lamaist prescriptions, is addressed to
her. In this rite is prepared an elaborate arrangement of masts,
and amongst the mystic objects of the emblem the strings, etc. ;
most prominent is a ram's skull with its attached horns, and it
is directed downwards to the earth.
Inside the ram's skull is put some gold leaf, silver, turquoise,
and portions of every precious object available, as well as portions
of dry eatables, rice, wheat, pulses, etc.
On the forehead is painted in ochre-colour4 the geomantic sign

i Certain Himalayan tribes (e.g. the Limbu), and the Lushais (Riebeck's Chittagong
Hill THbes, Lond., 1882), place skulls of animals outside their dwellings. These, I
believe, are intended less as trophies than as charms against spirits.
2 Sa-bdag-po.
3 Apparently derived from the Chinese name of the Pa-Eua for " earth."
* The symbolic colour of the earth.

Emblems to Bar the Demons.

For the earth-demons.

For the sky-demons.

486 SORCERY AND NECROMANCY.
of the park'a Khon, on the right jaw the sun, and on the left jaw
the moon, and over it are placed masks, around
which are wound coloured threads in geometric
patterns ; also pieces of silk (tarzab) rag, and
Chinese brass coins (Aug., " cash ") and several Park'a Kh6n.
wool-knobbed sticks (phaii-k'ra).
Along the base are inserted on separate slips of wood the follow
ing images, etc. : 1, a man's picture; 2, a woman's picture with
a spindle in her hand ; 3, a house picture ; 4, a tree picture
(k'ram-s'iu) ; 5, figures of the geomantic signs eight Parkha and
the nine Mewa.
The whole erection is now fixed to the outside of the house
above the door ; the object of these figures of a man, wife and
house is to deceive the demons should they still come in spite of
this offering, and to mislead them into the belief that the fore
going pictures are the inmates of the house, so that they may
wreak their wrath on these bits of wood and so save the real
human occupants.
Then when all is ready and fixed, the Lama turns to the south
west and chants : —
" O ! 0 ! he! ke ! Through the nine series of earths you are known
as Old Mother Khbn-ma, the mother of all the Sa-dak-po. You are
the guardian of the earth's doors. The dainty things which you es
pecially desire we herewith offer, namely, a white skull of a ram, on
whose right cheek the sun is shining like burnished gold, and on the
left cheek the moon gleams dimly like a conch-shell. The forehead
bears the sign of Khon, and the whole is adorned with every sort of
silk, wool, and precious things, and it is also given the spell of Khon
(here the Lama breathes upon it). All these good things are here
offered to you, so please close the open doors of the earth to the family
who here has offered you these things, and do not let your servant Sa-
thel ngag-po and the rest of the earth spirits do harm to this family.
By this offering let all the doors of the earth be shut. 01 0 ! ke !
ke ! Let not your servants injure us when we build a house or repair
this one, nor when we are engaged in marriage matters, and let every
thing happen to this family according to their wishes. Do not be
angry with us, but do us the favours we ask." Here the priest claps his
hands and shouts : —
" Om kharal dok I Om khamrhil dok ! 1 Benneu swaha ! "

i "The images of men and women made of wool were hung in the streets, and so
many balls made of wool as there were servants in the family, and so many complete
images as there were children (Festus pud Lil. Gyr). The meaning of which custom

BARRING THE DEMONS. 487
Demons of the Sky.
The local-demons of the sky are under the control of " the
grandfather of the three worlds " — Old father Khen-pa — who is
represented as an old man with snow-white hair, dressed in white
robes and riding on the white dog of the sky, and in his hand he
carries a crystal wand. He is the " master " of the sky, and the
ceremony named nam-go, or "the closing of the doors of the
sky," so frequently prescribed by tbe astrologers, is addressed to
him. In it is an arrangement of masts, threads, images, etc., exactly
similar to that used for the Earth-demons, the only difference
being that in this case a dog's skull is used (note that the dog
was especially associated with the analogous Lares worship of the
Romans,1) and it is directed upwards, pointing
to the sky; and the sign of the parkha painted
on the forehead is that of Khen, and is in blue
colours. And the ceremony is the same except Parkha khen.
in its prelude and in the name of the chief servants : —
" 0 ! 0 ! we turn towards the western sun, to the celestial mansion
where the sky is of turquoise, to the grandfather of the three worlds —
Old Khen-pa, the master of the sky. Pray cause your servant, the
white Nam-tel, to work for our benefit, and send the great planet
Pemba (Saturn) as a friendly mes enger," etc., etc.
Another common ceremony of a necromantic character is that
entitled " Prevention from injury by the eight classes (of
demons)." These eight classes of spirits have already been
noted, and the detailed account of their worship has been given
by me elsewhere.2
The demons who produce disease, short of actual death, are
called She, and are exorcised by an elaborate ceremony in which a
variety of images and offerings are made.3 The officiating Lama
invokes his tutelary fiend, and thereby assuming spiritually the

was this : These feasts were dedicated to the Lares, who were esteemed infernal
gods; the people desiring hereby that these gods would be contented with these
woollen images and spare the persons represented by them. These Lares sometimes
were clothed in the skins of doys (Plutarch, in Prob.) and were sometimes fashioned in
the shape of dogs (Plautus), whence that creature was consecrated to them." — Tooke's
Pantheon, p. 280.
1 The meaning of the " dok " is " let all evils be annihilated ! "
2 Lamaism in Sikhim. 3 gsed.

488

SORCERY AND NECROMANCY.

dread guise of this king evil, he orders out the disease-demon
under threat of getting himself eaten up by the awful tutelary
who now possesses the Lama. The demons are stabbed by the
mystic dagger purba. Charmed seeds and pebbles, consecrated
by muttering spells over them, are thrown at the demon. The
charmed seeds are stored in a
small horn (t'un-rva), carved
with scorpions, caityas and var
ious other symbols in relief.1
The ritual itself is a curious
mixture of Indian magic cir
cles with Chinese astrology and
necromancy, and has been de
tailed by me elsewhere.2

Death Ceremonies.
As the rites in connection
with a death include a consider
able amount of devil worship,
they may be noticed in this
place. On the occurrence of a death
the body is not disturbed in any
way until the Lama has ex
tracted the soul in the orthodox
Exorciser's Horn. manner. For it is believed that
any movement of the corpse
might eject the soul, which then would wander about in an
irregular manner and get seized by some demon. On death,
therefore, a white cloth is thrown over the face of the corpse, and
the soul-extracting Lama ('p'o-bo) is sent for. On his arrival all
weeping relatives are excluded from the death-chamber, so as to
secure solemn silence, and the doors and windows closed, and the
Lama sits down upon a mat near the head of the corpse, and com
mences to chant the service which contains directions for the soul
to find its way to the western paradise of the mythical Buddha —
Amitabha.

1 For the Tartar mode of exorcising disease-demons, cf. Hue, i., 75.
2 Lamaism in Sikhim.

DEATH RITES. 489

After advising the spirit to quit the body and its old associations
and attachment to property, the Lama seizes with the fore-finger
and thumb a few hairs of the crown of the corpse, and plucking
these forcibly, he is supposed to give vent to the spirit of the
deceased through the roots of these hairs; and it is generally
believed that an actual but invisibly minute perforation of the
skull is thus made, through which the liberated spirit passes.
The spirit is then directed how to avoid the dangers which beset
the road to the western paradise, and it is then bid god-speed.
This ceremony lasts about an hour.
In cases where, through accident or other svise, the body of the
deceased is not forthcoming, the operation for extraction of the
soul is done by the Lama in spirit while he sits in deep medita
tion. Meanwhile the astrologer-Lama has been requisitioned for a
death-horoscope, in order to ascertain the requisite ages and birth-
years of those persons who may approach and touch the corpse,
and the necessary particulars as to the date and mode of burial,
as well as the worship which is to be done for tbe welfare of the
surviving relatives.
The nature of such a horoscope will best be understood by an
actual example, which I here give. It is tbe death-horoscope of a
little girl of two years of age, who died at Darjiling in 1890.
HAIL TO LAMA MANJUSRI !
The year of birth of this female was the Bull-year, with which the
Snake and the Sheep are in conflict ; therefore those individuals born
in the Snake and the Sheep year cannot approach the corpse. The
death-demon was hiding in the house inside certain coloured articles,
and he now has gone to a neighbouring house where there is a family
of five with cattle and dogs (therefore that other family needs to do
the necessary worship). The death-demon will -return to the house of
the deceased within three months; so there must be done before that
time the " za-de-kha-gyur " service.
Her Pakk'a being Dvd in relation to her death, it is found that her
spirit on quitting her body entered her loin girdle and a sword. [In
this case the affected girdle was cast away and the sword was handed
over to the Lama.] Her life was taken to the east by Tsan and king
demons, and her body died in the west ; therefore, small girls, cousins,
sisters and brothers in that house will be harmed. The deceased's
death was due to Iron. And the death-demon came from the south and
has gone to the east.

490 SORCERY AND NECROMANCY.

Her Mewa gives the " 3rd Indigo blue." Thus it was the death-
demon of the deceased's paternal grandfather and grandmother who
caused her death; therefore take (1) a Sats-ts'a (a miniature earthern
caitya), and (2) a sheep's head, and (3) earth from a variety of sites,
and place these upon the body of the deceased, and this evil will be
corrected. The Day of her Death was Friday. Take to the north-west a leather
bag or earthern pot in which have been placed four or five coloured
articles, and throw it away as the death-demon goes there. The death
having so happened, it is very bad for old men and women. On this
account take a horse's skull, 1 or a serpent's skull 2 and place it upon the
corpse. Her Death Star is Gre. Her brother and sister who went near to
her are harmed by the death-messenger (s'in-je). Therefore an ass's
skull and a goat's skull must be placed on the corpse.
Her Death Hour was soon after sunset. And in the twelfth month
her life was cut. The death-demon therefore arrived in the earthern
cooking pot and bowl of a man and woman visitor dressed in red who
came from the south. Thus the deceased's father and mother are
harmed, and especially so if either is born in the Sheep-year.
Precautions to secure a Good Re-birth. — It is necessary to prepare an
image of Vajrapani, Yajrasattva, and before these to have prayer J
done for the good re:birth of the girl's spirit. If this be done, then she
will be re-born in the house of a rich man in the west.
For deceased's Spirit. — It is necessary to get the Lamas to read the
service (smon-lam) praying for re-birth in the Paradise of Sukhavati.
For Survivors of family. — It is necessary to have read the prayers
for long life, viz., " ts'e-uido '' and " ts'e-c/zuns."
Directions for Removal of Corpse. — Those who remove the corpse
must have been born in the Dog or the Dragon year. The body must
be taken outside of the house on the morning of the thud day follow
ing the death, and it must be carried to the south-west, and be buried
(not burned, or abandoned to birds or dogs).
On obtaining this death-horoscope the body is tied up in a sit
ting posture by the auspicious person indicated by the horoscope,
and placed in a corner of the room which is not already occupied
by the house-demon.
Notice is sent to all relatives and friends within reach, and
these collect within two or three days and are entertained with
food of rice, vegetables, etc., and a copious supply of murwa beer
1 A fragment of such a skull or its image made of dough is usually all that is
used. 2 Dough also will do. .
3 It has frequently been asserted that no prayer is practised in Lamaism. This is
not true : real prayer is frequently done ; the word used here in ^sol-wa-<?tab.

TIBETAN WAKES. 491

and tea. This company of visitors remain loitering in and around
the house, doing great execution with hand-prayer-wheels and
muttering the " Om-mani," until the expulsion of the death-
demon, which follows the removal of the body, and in which cere
mony they all have to join. The expense of the entertainment of
so large a company is of course considerable.
During this feasting, which is suggestive of an Irish " wake,"
the deceased is always, at every meal, offered his share of what is
going, including tobacco, etc. His own bowl is kept filled with
beer and tea and set down beside the corpse, and a portion of all
the other eatables is always offered to him at meal times ; and
after the meal is over his portion is thrown away, as his spirit is
supposed to have extracted all the essence of the food, which then
no longer contains nutriment, and is fit only to be thrown away.
And long after the corpse has been removed, bis cup is regularly
filled with tea or beer even up till the forty-ninth day from death,
as his spirit is free to roam about for a maximum period of forty-
nine days subsequent to death.
And to feed the manes of the deceased is done a sacrifice for
the dead, called Tin-s'ag, suggestive of the Indian Buddhist
practice of Avalambana1 and the Hindu rite of Sradh.2 In
this sacrifice a cake and a quantity of rice are thrown into the
nearest stream or river, after having called the spirits by means of
a small gong struck by a horn, and the chanting by six or more
Lamas of the cake-offering-service, H followed by the repetition by
them of a mantra to the number if possible of 100,000 times."
The soul is now assisted in winging its way to the western
paradise by a group of Lamas who chant by relays all night and
day the litany for sending the soul directly to that paradise. And

1 As a festival (in China on the fifteenth day of the seventh month), cf . Eitel
Handb. " Ulamba " ; Beal, The Oriental, Nov. 6th, 1875, showing that the Avalambana
sutra of sacrifice for the dead was translated into Chinese, circa 265 a.d. Also in
Ceylon, Hardy's Man., p. 59. It is still kept in Europe: "Even at the cemetery of
Pere Lachaise, they still put cakes and sweetmeats on the graves ; and in Brittany the
peasants do not forget to make up the fire, and leave the fragments of the supper on
the table for the souls of the dead of the family who will come to visit their home."
Tylor's Anthrop., p. 351.
2 Theatre of the Hindus, i., 322, n.
3 Namo sarva Tathagata Avalokita om Sambhara hum.
* On feeding the corpse, cf., Taylor's Prim. Cult., i., 482 ; Spencer's Socioloyy, i,
157, 206 ; Farrer's Primitive Manners, 21 ; Lady Wildes, Irish Legends, 118, 140.

492

SORCERY AND NECROMANCY.

a special reading of this service by the assembled monks in the
neighbouring monastery is also arranged for by those who can
afford the expense.
One or more Lamas also read over tbe corpse the guide1 for the
spirit's passage through the valley of horrors intervening between
death and a new re-birth. This passage is somewhat suggestive of
Bunyan's "Pilgrim's Progress," only the demons and dangers
which beset the way are much more numerous and awful. Full

Summoning the Hungry Demons

directions are read out for the benefit of the deceased as to how
to avoid these pitfalls and ogres, and how to find the proper white
coloured path which alone leads to a good re-birth.
It is, however, rather incongruous to find that while the Lama
reading this service is urging the spirit to bestir itself to the
necessary exertions for a good re-birth, the other Lama by his side
in the De-iva-chan service is sending the spirit direct to the
western paradise — a non-Buddhist invention which is outside the
regions of re-birth.

1 t'os-grol.

RELEASING FROM HELL. 493

At this Stage it often happens, though it is scarcely considered
orthodox, that some Lamas find, as did Maudgalayana by his second-
sight, consulting their lottery-books, that the spirit has been sent to
hell, and the exact compartment in hell is specified. Then must be
done a most costly service by a very large number of Lamas.
First of all is done " virtue " on behalf of the deceased ; this con
sists in making offerings to the Three Collections, namely : To
the Gods (sacred food, lamps, etc.); to the Lamas (food and
presents) ; to the Poor (food, clothes, beer, etc.).
The virtue resulting from these charitable acts is supposed to tell
in favour of the spirit in hell. Then many more expensive services
must be performed, and especially the propitiation of " The Great
Pitying One," for his intercession with the king of hell (a form of
himself) for the release of this particular spirit. Avalokita is be
hind to terminate occasionally the torment of tortured souls by
casting a lotus-flower at them. Even the most learned and ortho
dox Lamas believe that by celebrating these services the release
of a few of the spirits actually in hell may be secured.1 But in
practice every spirit in hell for whom its relatives pay suffi
ciently may be released by the aid of the Lamas. Sometimes
a full course of the necessary service is declared insufficient, as the
spirit has only got a short way out of hell, — very suggestive of
the story of- the priest and his client in Lever's story, — and then
additional expense must' be incurred to secure its complete ex
traction. Before removing the corpse from the house, an especial feast of
delicacies, including pork and drink of sorts, are set before it.
And a Lama presenting a " scarf of honour " to the corpse thus
addresses it : —
" You ! (and here the deceased's name is stated) now have received
from your relatives all this good food and drink ; partake freely of its
essence, as you shall not have any more chances ! Por you must under
stand that you have died, and your spirit must be gone from here, and
never come back again to trouble or injure your relatives. Remember
the name of your Lama-teacher, which is ..... , and by his
aid take the right'path — the white one. Come this way ! "
Then the Lama with a thigh-bone trumpet in the one hand and
a hand-drum in the other, and taking the end of a long white
1 Cf. page 93 for Maudgalayana releasing his mother.

494 SORCERY AND NECROMANCY.
scarf,1 the other end of which has been tied to the corpse, he pre
cedes the carrier of the corpse blowing his trumpet and beating
the drum and chanting a liturgy. This scene is figured in the
' Wheel of Life, in the upper part of its human compartment.
He frequently looks back to invite the spirit to accompany the
body, which be assures it is being led in the right direction. And
the corpse-bearer is followed by the rest of the procession, some
bearing refreshments, and last of all come the weeping relatives.
The ceremony of guiding the deceased's spirit is only done for the
laity — the spirits of deceased Lamas are credited with a know
ledge of the proper path, and need no such instruction. The body
is usually carried to the top of a hillock for .burial or cremation.
The corpse is cremated with much ceremony, including some
interesting worship of the Fire-god Agni, as well as of Avalokita,
the Great-hearted Pitying Lord.2
But the cremation or interment of the corpse does not terminate
the death-rites. There needs still to be made a masked lay figure
of the deceased, and the formal burning of the mask and the ex
pulsion from the house of the death-demon and other rites.
Expelling the Death-Demon.
This rite for expelling from the house and locality the demon
who caused the death must be done within two days after the
removal of the corpse. It is called " The turning away of the face
of the Destroying Devil." 3
This ceremony, of the nature of a sacrifice, as well as exorcism,
has been detailed by me elsewhere.1
1 The scarf used in the funeral procession may probably represent the Chinese
hurin-fan, or " soul's banner," which is carried before the coffin in China.
2 As detailed in the book " the deliverance of the entire animal (world) by the
revered Great Pitying One fgro-wa-Kun-grol)."
3 Za-'dre K'a-sgyur.
4 Lamaism in Sikhim ; part of its ritual is the following : —
On a small wooden platform is made the image of a tiger by means of the grass and
mud plaster ; it is fashioned in a walking attitude, with mouth wide open. The mouth
and tusks are made of a dough, and the body is coloured with yellow and brown
stripes, in imitation of a tiger's markings, and around its neck is tied a rope of threads
of five colours.
Then a small image of a man is made by kneaded dough, in which are incorporated
filings from the alloy of the five precious things. Into the belly of this image,
which is called " the eating-demon," is inserted a piece of paper, on which is written
the following banishing spell : " Go, thou devouring devil, having your face turned

EXPELLING DEATH-DEVIL. 495
The Lay Figure of Deceased, and its Rites.
The day on which the corpse was removed a lay figure of the
deceased is made by dressing a stool or block of wood in the
clothes of the deceased, and as a face a mask is inserted of printed

to the enemy ! " It is then clad in pieces of silk, and is placed sitting astride the
tiger's back.
Another figure is of human form, but with the head of a bird. Its face is painted
red, in its belly is inserted paper on which is written, "You devouring devil, don't
remain in this village, but go to the enemy's country." It is then placed in front of
the tiger, and is made to hold the free end of the rope attached to the tiger's neck, as
a groom. Another figure of human shape, but with an ape's head, is placed behind as
driver. . . .
Then around these figures strew morsels of every kind of eatables, grains, fruits,
spices, including raw meat and wine ; also a few small coins of silver and copper.
The following weapons are then enchanted for the conflict, viz., pieces of iron,
copper, small stones, preferably of white and black colours, grains, the root of rampu
for the use of the Lamas. And for the lay army of the household and neighbours, a
sword, knives, reaping hook, yak's tail, a rope of yak's hair with hook at end as
figured with the fierce Con-pa-demons.
When these preparations are completed and the sun has set — for demons can only
move in the darkriess^then the ceremony begins. The head Lama invokes his tute
lary deity to assist him in the expulsion of the death-demon. And with an impreca
tory gesture blows his breath spiritualized by his tutelary deity upon the images.
And the other Lamas loudly beat a large drum, cymbals and a pair of thigh-bone
trumpets. And the laymen armed with the aforementioned weapons loudly shout
and wildly cut the air with their weapons, crying " Begone ! "
After a long incantation the Lama concludes : "0 death-demon do thou now leave
this house and go and oppress our enemies. We have given you food, fine clothes
and money. Now be off far from here ! Begone to the country of our enemies ! !
Begone ! ! ! " And the Lama smites his palms together, while the other Lamas beat
their drums, etc., and the laymen wield their weapons, shouting "Begone!"
" Begone ! " Amid all this uproar the platform containing the image and its atten
dants is lifted up by a layman, one of the relatives, selected according to the
astrologer's indications, who holding it breast high, at arm's length, carries it out
side, attended by the Lamas and laity, shouting " Begone ! " and flourish their
weapons. And it is carried off for about one-eighth of a mile in the direction pre
scribed by the astrologer of the enemy of the people, and deposited, if possible, at a
site where four roads meet.
Meanwhile, to make sure that the demon is not yet lurking in some corner of the room,
the sorcerer-Lama (Ngag-pa) remains behind with a- dorje in his right hand and abell in
his left, and with the dorje he makes frantic passes in all directions, muttering spells,
and with the forefinger and thumb of the right hand, without relinquishing the dorje,
he throws in all directions hot peebles which have been toasted in the fire, muttering
his charms, and concludes : —
" Dispel from this family all the sorceric injury of Pandits and Bons ! ! etc. Turn all
these to our enemy ! Begone ! " Afterwards the Lama, addressing the people, says,
"Now by these angry spells the demon is expelled! 01 Happiness I ^ Then thf
people triumphantly shout : " God has won ! The Demons are defeated ! ! "

496

SORCERY AND NECROMANCY.

paper,1 here figured. Schlagintweit, in giving a specimen of one

form of this print,2 has mistaken

its meaning. The figure
in the centre is not " the
Lord of the Genii of Fire,"
but it is merely intended
to represent the spirit of
the deceased person who
sits or kneels, and some
times with the legs bound,
in an attitude of adoration.
And before this paper
figure, occupying the posi
tion of the face, are set all
sorts of food and drink as
was done to the actual
corpse. This seems essentially a
B6n-pa rite, and is referred
to as such in the histories
of St. Padma, as being
practised by the Bon, and
as having incurred the
displeasure of St. Padma-
sambhava, the founder of
Lamaism.
The Lamas then do the service of the eight highest Buddhas

The Effigy of the Dead Person.
1. Mirror. 3. Lyre.
2. CoDch. 4. Vase with flowers.
5. Holy Cake.

1 mts'an-spyan, or " Jan-ku.'' Compare with the mortuary masks of ancient Greeks,
North American Indians, and E. R. Emerson's Masks, Heads, and Faces, pp. 152, etc.
Its inscription usually runs : —
" I, the world-departing One, .... (and here is inserted name of the deceased),
adore and take refuge in my Lama-confessor, and all the deities, both mild and wrath
ful, and ' the Great Pitier ' forgive my accumulated sins and impurities of former
lives, and show me the right way to another good world ! "
And in the margin or adown the middle of the figure are inscribed in symbolic form
—by the initial letter of the Sanskrit title— the sixth states of rebirth, viz., su = Sura,
a god ; a = asura, na = Xara or man, tri = Triyak or beast, pre = preta or Ghost, Hum =
hell. (This also is a mystic interpretation of Avalokita's mantra, the sixth syllable
of which is made to mean hell, and is coloured black.)
Around the figure are depicted "the five excellent sensuous things," viz., (1) body
(as a mirror), (2) sound (as cymbals, a conch, and sometimes a lyre), (3) smell (a vase
of flowers), (4) essence or nutriment (holy cake), (5) dress (silk clothes, etc.).
2 Op. cit., p. 252.

BURNING THE EFFIGY OF THE DEAD. 497

of Medicine, and also continue the service of the western
paradise. Next day the Lamas depart, to return once a week for the
repetition of this service until the forty-nine days of the ghostly
limbo have expired; but it is usual to intermit one day of the first
week, and the same with the succeeding periods, so as to get the
worship over within a shorter time. Thus the Lamas return after
six, five, four, three, two, and one days respectively, and thus con
clude this service in about three weeks instead' of the full term of
forty-nine days.
Meanwhile the lay figure of the deceased remains in the house
in its sitting posture, and is given a share of each meal until the
service is concluded by the burning of tbe mask.
On the conclusion of the full series of services, the paper-
mask is ceremoniously burned in the flame of a butter-lamp, and
the spirit is thus given its final conge. And according to the
colour and quality of the flame and mode of burning is determined
the fate of the spirit of deceased, and this process usually discovers
the necessity for further courses of worship.1
The ashes of this burned paper are carefully collected in a plate
and are then mixed with clay to form one or more miniature
Caityas named Sa-tsch'a.2 One of these is retained for the
1 The directions for noting and interpreting the signs of this burning paper are con
tained in a small pamphlet which I have translated, entitled : " The mode of Divining
the signs of The Flames during the Burning of the ' Chang ' paper," which I have trans
lated in full in Lamaism in Sikhim. It begins : —
Salutation to " Ch'e-mch'og, Heruka," or the " The most Supreme Heruka ! " The
marking of the five colours of the flames is as follows : —
If the flames be white and shining, then he has become perfect and is born in the
highest region of Ok-min (i.e., The supreme paradise).
If the flames be white and burn actively with round tops, then he has become pious
and is born in the eastern " mngon-dgah," or " The Paradise of Real Happiness."
If they burn in an expanded form, resembling a lotus (padma), then he has finished
his highest deeds and has become religious.
If they be yellow in colour and burn in the shape of " rgyal-mtshan," or " Banner ct
Victory," then he has become religious nobly.
If they be red in colour and in form like a lotus, then he has become religious and
is born in &de-wa-chan, or " The Paradise of Happiness."
If they be yellow in colour and burn actively with great masses of smoke, then he is
born in the region of the lower animals, for counteracting which a ^tsug-lag-khang, or
" An Academy," and an image of the powerful and able Dhyani Buddha (sreang-par-
snang-mdsad) should be made ; then he will be born as a chief in the middle country
(i.e., The Buddhist Holy Land in India)
2 Representing the dharma sarira of Indian Buddhism.
K K

498 SORCERY AND NECROMANCY.

household altar, and the others are carried to any bill near at hand,
where they are deposited under a projecting ledge of a rock, to
shelter them from the disintegrating rain.
On the burning of this paper the lay figure of the deceased is dis
mantled, and the clothes are presented to the Lamas, who carry
them off and sell them to any purchasers available and appropriate
the proceeds.
After the lapse of one year from death it is usual to give a feast
in honour of the deceased and to have repeated the service of the
medical Buddhas. On the conclusion of this service, should the
deceased have left a widow or widower, the latter is then free to
re-marry. To Exorcise Ghosts.
The manes of the departed often trouble the Tibetans as well
as other peoples,1 and special rites are necessary to " lay " them and
bar their return. A ghost is always malicious, and it returns and
gives trouble either on account of its malevolence, or its desire to
see how its former property is being disposed of. In either case
its presence is noxious. It makes its presence felt in dreams or
by making some individual delirious or temporarily insane. Such
a ghost is disposed of by being burned.2
For the foregoing necromantic services the dough images
required as sacrificial effigies are made from wooden moulds, and
the practice is evidently borrowed from the Bon-pa rites which
entailed sacrifices of animal life. But instead of the animals
1 On barring the return of ghosts, cf . Wilson's Essays, ii., 292 ; Tyler's Prim. Cult,
ii., 126; Spencer's Principles of Sociology, i., 147. The Chinese call the Dead or Manes
of men Kwei, alleged to mean the malicious two-legged ghost (Jas. Legge, The Religs. of
China, p. 13), showing that they did not think that man when he was dead had all
ceased to be.
2 For this purpose a very large gathering of Lamas is necessary, not less than
eight, and a " burnt offering " (sbyin-sregs) is made. On --¦ platform of mud
and stone outside the house is made, with the usual rites, a magic-circle or " kyil-
'kAor," and inside this is drawn a triangle named " huh-huh." Small sticks are then
laid along the outline of the triangle, one piled above the other, so as to make a
hollow three-sided pyramid, and around this are piled up fragments of every avail
able kind of food, stone, tree-twigs, leaves, poison, bits of dress, money, etc., to the
number of over 100 sorts. Then oil is poured over the mass, and the pile set on fire.
During the combustion additional fragments of the miscellaneous ingredients reserved
for the purpose are thrown in, from time to time, by the Lamas, accompanied by a
muttering of spells. And ultimately is thrown into the flames a piece of paper on
which is written the name of the deceased person — always a relative — whose ghost
is to be suppressed. When this paper is consumed the particular ghost has received
its quietus, and never can give trouble again.

RAIN-COMPELLING. 499
themselves only their dough-images are now offered. At page 424
are given ink prints from the original dough moulds, reduced to
one-fourth of their size; the moulds are carved in longitudinal
series on the four faces of a block of wood. The B6n-pa moulds
are called "The God's food to go to the Thousand."1
Rain Compelling.
Even the so-called reformer of Lamaism, Tson-K'a-pa, seems him
self to have practised sorcery. The orthodox mode of compel
ling rain in use by the established church is identified with his
name; and is done according to the instructions contained in a book 2
of which he is the accredited author, and which seems to be based
upon the Naga worship as contained in the Sutra "on asking Rain
of the Great Cloud," 3 and may be compared with the method used
by the Mongols.4
The officiating Lama bathes and cleans the place of worship and
sets down an image of Tson-K'a-pa and non- poisonous flowers,
grains and a white cake, and a jewelled vase (or if no jewelled
vase a pure white one may be used washed over with chalk and
sandal wood), and inside the vase place pellets made of dough, spice
and flowers, and over each ball say the mantra of Yama or Tson-
K'a-pa5 one hundred and eight times (or twenty-one or seven times),
and blow over it and insert all the pellets in the vase and cover it
by a red cloth and thus address the Nagas : —
" 0 ! all ye Nagas great and small I come not to harm you but to
ask rain for the good of the world, and especially for this place. It is:
the command of Tson-K'a-pa that ye obey. And if you do not, then
by my mantra spells I will break your heads to atoms. Give it there
fore without delay and leave not this place till rain falls."
Then he places three stones at each of the four comers and
repeats the names of the Jinas or celestial Buddhas of the four
1 sTtoh-rgyas lha-bsahs. 2 dmigs brtse-mai las ts'ogs.
3 bc'ig las c'ar 'bebs skor. Compare with The Mahdmegha Sutra, translated by
Prof. C. Bendall, J.R.A.S., xii., pp. 288-311.
* Among the Mongols the soothsayers throw bezoar stones on the water and these
produce vapor, which it is pretended is the element of clouds— but they don't operate
unless the sky looks rainy, and if they fail they excuse themselves on the plea that
other magicians have counteracted them. E. Rehatsek, Bombay Br. R. A. S. Jour.
xiii., p. 188. 5 The so-called Mig-tse-ma :—
dmigs med brtse pahi gter ch'en spyan-ras gzigs
Dri-med mk'yen-pahi dbang po 'jam-pai %ahs
Gahs ch'an mk'as pai gtsug rgyan Ts'oh-k'a-pa
bLo-bzah grags pahi z'abs la gsol-wa-'debs.
K K 2

500

SORCERY AND NECROMANCY.

directions. And he conceals the vase and its pellets in the water
of a spring in such a way that it cannot be seen ; and he erects in
front a small white tent, within which he places St. Tson-K'a-pa's
image, and the five kinds of offerings (cake, water, flowers, lamps,
fruit and grain). And he calls on the location-god for assistance
and goes on repeating Tson-K'a-pa's manpra and conceives that on
each lamp a glorious image of Tson-K'a-pa appears seated upon
a Naga and raining down cleansing ambrosia upon them, and that
they sparkle with delight and dart their lightning into the sky
where clouds gather and tbe thunder-dragons roar, and rain
falls. Then, naively adds the scripture, real rain will certainly
come.

Thunder-Dragons of the Sky.

501

XIX.
FESTIVALS AND HOLIDAYS.
IHE regular Buddhist festivals ' are all found in Lamaism,
and many more besides of an indigenous and local
origin, related to demonist cul,ts, or the worship of
Nature.
Originally, in Buddha's day, the days of the new2 and full moon
were set apart for fasting, confession, and listening to the Law,
and this institution is strictly observed in Lamaism.
On the first and fifteenth days of each lunar month no animal
food should be taken, even by the laity, and no animal killed,8 and
only on these days are many of the great cathedrals and temples
in Tibet open to the public* These days, however, were afterwards
increased to three or four,4 so that many monks observe a fast four
days monthly, and hence has arisen the idea of some writers that
there is a Tibetan Sabbath 5 ; though the public service and con-
1 'dus-ch'en. nam-gah.
On the reconversion of the Mongols to Buddhism in the sixteenth, century, in the
treaty between the Dalai Lama and Altun Khan, it was stipulated that on the monthly
fast days the hunting or slaughter of animals would be prohibited.
4 Hiuen Tsiang speaks- of six fasts every month, and Julien quotes a Chinese
authority giving the days as the eighth, fourteenth, fifteenth, twenty-third, twenty-
ninth, and thirtieth. FaHian notes that in Ceylon preaching occurred on the eighth,
fourteenth, and fifteenth days of the month. On the fourteenth, fifteenth, twenty-
ninth and thirtieth (says Koppen, ii., 139, 307), "by rule, among the Lamas nothing
should be tasted but farinaceous food and tea, the veiy devout refrain from all food
from sunrise to sunset. The temples are decorated, and the altar-tables set out with the
holy symbols, with tapers, and with dishes containing offerings in corn, meal, tea,
butter, etc., and especially with small pyramids of dough or of rice or clay, and
accompanied by much burning of incense-sticks. The service performed by the priests
is more solemn, the music louder and more exciting, than usual. The laity make
their'offerings, tell their beads, and repeat ' Ommani padme hum' "
5 Gun-san.

502 FESTIVALS AND HOLIDAYS.
fession ' ( Uposatha) are only done as a rule twice a month.2 But
every month is held a high mass or celebration of divine service
in honour of a special deity or saint. And in addition are the
great festivals in which the laity also take part.
The special feasts for the deities and saints of the established
church at Lhasa are here enumerated. The Tibetan year, it
should be remembered, begins about the end of January, so
that the Tibetan month is thus about one month later than ours.
First month. — On the eighth day is Tagon, and from the ninth to
fifteenth the liturgy of the great tutelary fiend Bhairava.
Second month. — On the eighth is Tagon, and from the ninth to
fifteenth is the liturgy of " The Medical Buddhas."
Third month. — On the fifteenth is Tagon, and from the sixteenth to
twenty-second is the celebration of Tu-K'or.
Fourth month. — On the eighth is Tagon, and from the ninth to
fifteenth the worship of " The Great Pitier."
Fifth month. — On the third is Tagon, and from the fourth to tenth is
the liturgy of the tutelary fiend Sambhara.
Sixth month. — On the first is Tagon, and from the second to fourth
rab-tmas, and from ninth to fifteenth is the " white Tara's " liturgy.
Seventh month. — On the eighth is Tagon, and from the ninth to
fifteenth is the liturgy of Mi-'krugs-pa.
Eighth month. — On the eighth is Tagon, and from the ninth to
fifteenth the liturgy of " The nine gods of Immortality."
Ninth month. — From the first to fifteenth the Kah-gyur scriptures
are read, and from the seventeenth to 'twenty-third is the service of
" The Dead Saints," the Sthavira.
Tenth month. — On the eighth is Tagon, and from the ninth to
fifteenth is the worship of the tutelary fiend Guhyakala, and on the
twenty-fifth is the service of " The Five " of Gah-ldan monastery.
Eleventh month. — On the twenty-second is Tagon, and from the
twenty-third to twenty -ninth is tbe celebration of the Tor-gyak of the
fiendish lords. >
Twelfth month. — On the twenty-second is Tagon, and on the twenty-
ninth day of the month begins the great carnival and masquerade of
" Drug-Sc'u lchags-mk'ar-gyi gtor rgyags."
An interesting glimpse into the Lamaist feasts of saints and
divinities as current in the thirteenth century is given by Marco
Polo. The Venetian traveller says : —
When the idol festivals come round these Bacsi (Lamas) go to the
prince and say, " Sire, the feast of such a god is come (naming him).
1 T. , gSo-sbyoh. Mongol. — Mazak.
2 Including the Tu-i-sol cleansing ceremony before referred to.

THE FESTIVALS AND HOLY DAYS.

503

My lord, you know that this god, when he gets no offerings, always
sends bad weather and spoils our seasons. So we pray you to give us
such and such a number of black-faced sheep, and we beg also that we
may have such a quantity of incense, etc., etc., that we may perform a
solemn service and great sacrifice to our idols, and that so they may be
induced to protect us and all that is ours." The great kaan then
orders the barons to give everything the Bacsi have asked for. And
when they have got those articles they go and make a great feast in
honour of their god, and hold great ceremonies of worship, with grand
illuminations, and quantities of incense of a variety of aromatic odours.
And they cook the meat and set it by the idols, and sprinkle the broth
hither and thither, saying that in this way the idols get their bellyful.
Thus it is that they keep their festivals. Each of the idols has a name of
his own and a feast-day, just as our saints have their anniversaries.
It is not easy to give a categorical list of the great popular fes
tivals of the Lamas, for the Tibetans, unlike the Chinese1 and
Japanese, do not seem to possess printed lists of their feast-days,
and the particular event which certain of the days devoted to
Buddha is intended to commemorate is not generally known.
As much confusion has been caused by the official new year
differing in its epoch from the popular styles, and further dis
order is introduced by tbe official Tibetan style differing from
the Chinese, the order of the months in the latter being about
two months earlier, the following list, therefore, has been com
piled by me from somewhat conflicting information supplied by
different Lamas, and can only be considered approximate. Some
of the feasts, such as the Water- festival , are moveable, as men
tioned in the text.
List of the Chief Lamaist Festivals.

Month.

Day.

Festival.

1st.

Carnival.

15th.

Buddha's Incarnation or Concepti
Flowers.

2nd.

29th.

Chase and Expulsion of the
Demon of Bad Luck.

.2 Feast of

' Scape-goat,'

1 See Edkins' Chinese Buddhism, 206-210, for list of Chinese Buddhist festivals.
2 Sahgyas-sku-Mtams-pa, or Chums-su zugs-pac dus mch'od. [Sacrificial festival of
the Conception (of Buddha)].

504

FESTIVALS AND HOLIDAYS.

MoDth.

Day.

3rd.

15th.

4th.

8th.

15th.

5th.

10th.

6th.

4th.

7th.

10th.

8th. i

8th.

9th.

22nd.

10th.

25th.

11th.

1st.

12th.

29th.

Festival.

The Ealacakra, Revelation1 and Sacred Masque
rades.
"Attainment of Buddhahood." Great Renun
ciation.2 Va:i
Buddha's Death, or parinirvana.3 Feast of the
Dead, "All Souls Day."
The Medical Buddhas.4
Birth of St. Padma-sambhava.5
Buddha's Birth and Preaching,8 and "The
Picture Feast."
Birth of St. Padma-sambhava (according to Sikhim
style).
The Water -festival, Rib- Chi.
Descent from Heaven.7
St. Tson-K'a-pa's Ascension.8 Feast of Lanterns.
New Year, Old Style.
Pantomime and expulsion of Old Year.

The Tibetan new-year was formerly celebrated about the
winter solstice in what is now the eleventh month, when the
larders were full,9 and no field work possible in the snow-bound
country, and the days first show signs of lengthening. The return
of the sun, so to say, has at such a season been celebrated by
every nation of any culture. This was the period for popular
festivity and general joy.
Since the government adopted a later date for the new year,
namely, about the beginning of February,10 most of the people
have transferred their festivities to the new date, which is known

i dus-'k'or gsuns-pa.
2 rab-tu byuh-ba, " The highest Being or Becoming."
3 mya-h'an las-'das-pa.
* Sangyas sman bla (=Skt., Bhaisyaguru Buddha) of the Eastern World.
» ch'os-gsuh-pa (K£.,=Religious Speech).
- <j Orgyan rin-po ch'e sku bltams-pa.
7 lha-babs.
8 dga-ldan Ih'a, mch'od.
9 The grain has been stored since two months, and the yak and sheep-flesh since
four to six weeks.
10 In 1892 it was on the 29th February.

TIBETAN NEW-YEAR FEAST. 505
as the "royal new year"1 in contradistinction to the old style,
now called " The cultivators' new year." 2
This altered date, February to the beginning of March, makes
the " new year " a spring festival. Its gay carnival is doubtless
an expression of the self-same feelings, inspired by spring upon
the animate and inanimate world, which prompted the analogous
Roman festivals of Lupercalia, the Festum Stultorum, the Matro-
nalia Festa, the worship of the goddess Anna Perenna, and the
festival of Bacchus, all held about the same season, during the
month of February and the first fortnight of March, and repre
sented in India by the Holi festival.
With new-year's eve commences a grand carnival, which
lasts the greater part of the first month. The people decorate
their doorways and houses with boughs of juniper, etc., prepare
puddings, and lay in a stock of wine, and pass the time eating,
drinking, dancing,3 singing, and games,4 combined with as much
praying as they may feel inclined for. The people flock from the
smaller villages into the larger towns, and the Lamas contribute to
the general amusement by masquerades and pompous processions,
in the intervals of their worship for the general welfare.
The new year is ushered in with high carousal, and first foot
ing and health-drinking are the order of the day, and everyone
is pressed to partake of sweet cakes and puddings, more or less
gaily decorated, and beer and wine ad libitum.5
And while this festivity lasts, that is, during the first four or
six weeks of the year, the temporal government of the city of
Lhasa is removed from its usual custodians, and placed in the
hands of the priests of De-pung monastery, the chief of whom
becomes for the time rex sacrorum, as with the Romans. It is
possible that this is a political sop to the most powerful monastery

1 rgyal-po 16-gsar.
2 So-nam 16-gsar. It is popular in Ladak (Ramsay's Diet., p. 43), and in Sikhim.
3 The dancing is usually done in lines, the men and women apart.
4 The games include archery ; putting the stone (and called Lin-sih ch'en gyal-
po), in which the losers pay forfeits ; acrobats, in the Lhasa festivals these come
usually from Shigatse (Tsang-jo-mo-Kha-rag), and slide down long ropes of yak-hair
from the gilt umbrellas on the top of Potala to the foot of the edict pillars.
5 According to the current saying " The Tibetan New-Year is Wine, the Chinese is
Paper, and the Nepalese is Noise," with reference to the Chinese celebrating their
festivals by display of rod paper flags, and the Nepalese by clamour of noisy instru
ments. Cf. Hue's description of these gala days.

506 FESTIVALS AND HOLIDAYS.
of the established church in Tibet to reconcile it to its exclusion
from the ordinary government of the country, which is now
restricted to the four monasteries in Lhasa called Lings.
The Lama, who is chief judge ' of De-pung, proceeds to Lhasa in
state on the third day of this month, and assumes the sovereignty
of the city. He is received with regal honours, and incense is
burned before him wherever he goes ; and on his arrival at Lhasa
all prisoners are set free except those convicted of the most aggra
vated crimes.
During his dominion he holds absolute power over property, life,
and death; and assisted by thirty deputies, he inflicts severe
punishments and heavy fines for trifling offences, to the financial
benefit of his monastery. It is said that many of his retainers
commit excesses, so that such of the richer classes as may have
incurred, or have reason to believe that they have incurred, the
displeasure of De-pung Lamas, leave the city and live in its
suburbs during this period of priestly rule.
The poorer classes, usually so dirty, now sweep and whitewash
their houses through fear of punishment by Lamas for unclean-
ness. So long as these Lamas govern Lhasa they are feasted at the
public expense or by the richer people,2 and are entertained with
sports. One of the duties of this Rex Sacrorum is to deliver a series
of lectures to the assembled monks on religious history, philo
sophy, and polity; and he is credited with divine powers.
Lhasa, during this festival, contains, it is said, over 30,000
monks,3 from Serra, De-pung, Gah-ldan, etc., so that the city seems
red with the red cloaks of the Lamas. They are engaged the
greater part of the day in worship for the general welfare of
the country and people.
1 His title is Tshogs-ch'en-z'al-hgo.
2 Everyone is expected on the last day of the old year to bring to the monasteries
half a month's rations for the monks, in flesh, grain, butter, etc.
3 The stupendous size of the cooking arrangements and the size of the tea-cauldrons
for such a multitude may be imagined. Each monk receives refreshments at each of
the three daily assemblies at the Lhasa cathedral. After the first assembly at six
a.m., each monk gets tea and soup at government expense, and one penny. At the
second assembly, at eleven a.m., he again gets similar refreshment and one or two
tankas (silver coins value about sixpence), and at three p.m. further refreshment.
During this festival each Lama receives about twenty to twenty-five tanka coins,
which money is mainly provided by the Tengyeling regent.

FLOWER-FEAST. 507

Public worship is done daily in the great cathedral of Lhasa
during the first half of the month, from before dawn till after
dark, and clouds of incense fill the air. The especially holy days
are the third, eighth, tenth, thirteenth, and the fifteenth, or full
moon, which latter day is the greatest gala day of the year, and
seems to be considered the anniversary of Buddha's conception,
and " the goddess " evidently intended for Buddha's mother,
Maya Deva, is worshipped with red flowers,1 and it is believed
that divine blessings if then asked for are more readily granted
at this season than at any other.
People don their gayest dress and jewellery on that day, and ex
change presents freely, and the carnival reaches its climax. The
laity wear masks of coloured cloth, with fringes of bair, in imita
tion of beards. And the Dalai Lama is especially worshipped
on this day, and receives many presents.
On the second day of the month the state sorcerer of Na-ch'un
enters Lhasa, as already noted, and his entry is like that of the
archaic god-king, for none dare look at him, and even high state
officials have been fined for looking at him whilst passing.
On the twenty-sixth day are horse-racing and shooting, and
on the twenty-seventh a grand review of the troops by the
Chinese Amban, and the procession of the holy sceptre from the
Serra monastery for solemn salutation by the Dalai Lama, the
officials, and people, as already mentioned.
During the latter half of the month the demons are worshipped,
and on the thirtieth day Tara's celebration concludes the feasts.
The anniversary of Buddha's death is held on the full moon
(or fifteenth day) of the fourth month, and is evidently combined
with the old Nature-festival in honour of tbe commencement of
summer and the propitiation of the rain-deities.
In the first half of this month (known as Sa-da-wa) the people
do more worship than in any other season of the year. They
count their beads and ply their prayer-wheels with more energy
than usual, and at the larger temples of Lhasa, Tashi-lhunpo, etc.,
the devotees go round the holy buildings by measuring their
length on the ground.
From the tenth to tbe fifteenth even the laity abstain from
1 For an account of this " Feast of the Flowers," see Hue, ii., 39.

508 FESTIVALS AND HOLIDAYS.
flesh, and give away as much alms in charity as they can afford ;
and there appears also to be some idea of ancestor-worship in the
ceremonial. Certainly deceased ancestors and relatives are often
prayed for at this time, which is not many weeks removed from
the great Japanese feast of the dead.
During this feast many of the monks encamp in tents, and
colossal pictures are displayed. Thus at Tashi-lhunpo the pictures
are hung from the great tower named Kiku.1
At this festival, held there on June 30th, 1882, Lama Ugyen
Gyats'o informs us, a great picture of Dipamkara Buddha was dis
played about a hundred feet long, in substitution for other pictures
of the previous days. Next day it was replaced by one of
Sakya Muni and the past Buddhas, and the following day by one
for Maitreya (Jam-pa). On this day women are admitted to the
monastery shrines, from which they are at other times excluded,
and all the people seek the benediction of the Coming Buddha,
by touching the lower border of the picture with their heads.
The rain-deities, the dragons, or Nagas of the sky, are also pro
pitiated on the fifteenth day of the fourth month. A procession is
formed by the lay governors of Lhasa,2 and the high official
Lamas,3 and some other officers, who proceed from the court at
Potala to the great Lhasa cathedral, where the great image of
Buddha is worshipped, and the officers feed the temple-lamp by
pouring into it melted butter in silver ladles.
Then one of the governors and a secretary of state, with
about thirty retainers, go to the Bamo-ch'e temple, via the
Gyambum K'an Caitya, where they also feed the great lamp of
the chief shrine; and here they distribute largess, in the shape
of bits of brick-tea to the paupers, who are here assembled in
rows to receive the customary bounty. _
From Ramo-ch'e the procession passes round the great circular
road, dispensing tea as it goes, via the Mende bridge to the Naga
or dragon-temple. The governor and party here embark in four
or five small boats of hide with wooden frame work, and are rowed
round the moat once in the respectful Pradakshina direction.
They then disembark and ascend the hillock on which stands the
dragon-temple, where, in an inner sanctuary, they deposit
i Figured at p. 273. Its base is sixty paces long, and its height greater. — Ugyen
Gyats'o. bkah-blon Tsi-tung.

WATER-FEAST. 509

offerings of gold and silver among the snake-idols, and this room
is then locked and sealed, only to be opened again the following
year. The laity are now permitted by payment to be rowed round the
moat, and cheer lustily as they go. The avowed object of this
ceremony is to conciliate the Naga demi-gods, so as to secure
timely and sufficient rain for the benefit of crops and animals.
And if, as sometimes happens, rain does fall, it is considered an
extremely lucky- omen.
The anniversary of the birth of Padma-sambhava is observed
mainly by the older party of the Lamaist church. It is held in
Sikhim on the tenth day of the seventh month ; but in many
parts of central and eastern Tibet, as at Sam-yas and mCh'og-^ling,
near Oyantse, and also at Ladak,1 it is held on the tenth day of
the fifth month, and the tenth day of every month is sacred to
him and called " Ts'e-fchu."
¦t On the day previous to this anniversary are held masked dances
of the black-hat Lamas and of the fiends and fiendesses, as fully
detailed hereafter in the chapter on tbe mystic plays, followed on
the tenth by representations of the saint in his eight forms, and
the " Ging," father and mother demons. And if rain now happens,
it is deemed of good augury, and due to these pious celebrations.
The Water-Festival marks the commencement of the autumn,
and usually falls about September.2 It is a thanksgiving feast.
Water, especially of springs, becomes holy and sacred, a veritable
elixir vitas ; as the water sprites now set free their sacred water.
At this season the Tibetans, though not particularly fond of wash
ing and bathing, indulge in this luxury more than usual.3
This festival depends on the appearance above the horizon,
about the eighth month, at early dawn, of the star named Rikhi or
Rishi-agastya, or "Rib-chi," which Colonel C. Strahan, of the Indian
1 Ramsay's Diet., p. 44.
2 In 1891 it happened on the fourteenth day of the eighth month, i.e., on the 17th
September. 3 It is said that Buddha jEsculapius, the founder of medical science according to
the Tibetans, bathed at this season, hence the custom (see Jaeschke's Diet., p. 20).
the cessation of the rains, when nature, having reached her womanhood, decks her-
With this may be compared the so-called Cocoa-nut festival of the Hindus, held at
self in all her wealth of leafy charm, when the grateful people cast thousands of cocoa-
nuts and flowers into the sea to the sea-gods in gratitude, and to secure patronage
and new enterprises during the current year.

510 FESTIVALS AND HOLIDAYS.
survey, informs me must be Canopus1 or Sirios, the Dog-star.
The Tibetans consider this fixed star to be a saint who dwells in
heaven in deep meditation, but who appears in the sky in the
beginning of the eighth month, before dawn2 in the southern
quarter, and through his influence the water at early dawn be
comes ambrosia or life-giving nectar.
Before dawn, therefore, the Tibetans throng to springs and
lakes, and watch eagerly for a glimpse of this star to enable them
to snatch a draught of the glorified water.
And the Lamas go in procession to the lakes and rivers, and
partake in this practice. They cast in offerings to the water-
nymphs and dragon-spirits of the water, and draw and drink the
life-giving and sin-cleansing water, attended by much popular
festivity.8 Tents are erected in the neighbourhood for about two
weeks, during which the multitude drink and bathe in the water,
dance, sing, masquerade, and give vent to their joy, in what may
be considered a cleansing or atonement feast, as well as a thanks
giving. And monastic discipline even is relaxed during this fes
tival, and many monks are allowed to go home on leave.
"The descent of the gods" is evidently founded on the legend
of Sakya Muni's descent from heaven, where he had gone to preach
the saving Law to his regenerated saintly mother; and he descended
thence by a ladder — a glorified sort of Jacob's ladder. It also
marks the end of the rainy season (Varsha), the Buddhist' Lent,*
which Buddha was wont to spend in retirement, in fasting, pray
ing, and holy exercises.
The anniversary of Tson-K'a-pa's ascent to heaven is the
special festival of the established church, of which Tson-K'a-pa
was the founder. It is a Feast of Lanterns, and takes place in
winter, about the beginning of our December, when the days are
near their shortest, and it probably is associated with the great
nature-festival found in other nations at this season, to emphasize
the loss of light, and desire for the return of the sun.

i Arabic Suhail, "to be level." 2 dbugs (literally "breath ").
» Koppen, ii., 313, speaks of the Lamas blessing or consecrating the waters, but this
seems to be a mistake.
4 This, according to General Cunningham (Indian Eras, 3), on account of the ex
tension latterly of the Indian year, must, in the time of Alexander and Asoka, have
commenced in June instead of July, and lasted till October,

FEAST OF LANTERNS. 511

It is celebrated on the twenty -fifth day 1 of the tenth Tibetan
month, by a general illumination 2 of both lay and religious build
ings, like the analogous Dewali festival of the Hindus, and the
lamp (Chiragh) feast of the Muhammadans, and the festival of
Buddha the Burning Lamp (Dipamkara) of the Chinese Budd
hists,3 which also are celebrated about this time.
On this day, in the year 1417, Doctor Tson-K'a-pa died, or was
transfigured as is now believed. The legend says that he appeared
on the stone altar in front of tbe throne at his monastery at Grah-
ldan, and having addressed the assembled multitude, and pro
phesied the future greatness of his church, he ascended into the
Tushita heavens.
The anniversary of this event is called Gran-dan Nam-ch'od, and
is celebrated with great joy and torchlight processions. Altars
and stages are for this purpose erected beforehand, and decorated
with hundreds of lamps and ornamental cakes. On the evening of
the feast is a great procession, before which is carried the image of
Tson-K'a-pa, and torches and lamps, and if they burn brilliantly,
much happiness is prophesied.
Advantage also is taken of this day, at the onset of winter, to
visit the Dalai and other high Lamas, and present them with
bundles of new warm robes, thus corresponding to the ancient
Buddhist " Robe-month " (Chivara Masa), which was the month
following the end of the rains, and on which the mendicants were
provided with new robes on the approach of the cold weather.
In addition to these great feasts are innumerable minor and local
ones, as Lamaism is not behind the Catholic church in accommoda
ting herself to the customs of the people. The Mongols have their
Fire and other special festivals all in Buddhist dress. The worship
of the mountain-god Kan-ch'en-dso-na i has already been referred
to as peculiar to the Sikhimite form of Lamaism, in addition to
which are other local feasts.6

* On the twenty-fourth, or preceding day, the monks of the Serra monastery observe
a special illumination in honour of the decease of their great Lama, rje-byams ch'en-
ch'os rje-gzegs-pu. 2 bzhi-mch'od.
3 On the twenty-second day of the eighth Chinese month.— Edkins' Chinese Budd.,
p. 210.
4 It is held on the fifteenth day of the seventh month. In 1891 it happened on the
nineteenth of August. It lasts for three days ; and the fifteenth of every month is
sacred to this god.
5 Among the local feasts in Sikhim are the Thanksgiving and Prayer-festival (rub-
gnas) for the welfare of the country, held in the ninth month of every year at the To'n-

512 FESTIVALS AND HOLIDAYS.
A somewhat droll and almost dramatic feast is the chase of the
demon of ill-luck, evidently a relic of a former demonist cult.1
It is called " Chongju Sewang," and is held at Lhasa on the twenty-
ninth and thirtieth days of the second month, though it sometimes
lasts about a week. It starts after divine service. A priest represents
a Grand Lama,2 and one of tbe multitude is masqueraded as the
ghost-king. For a week previously he sits in the market-place
with face painted half black and half white, and a coat of skin is
put on his arm and he is called " King of the Years'" (? head).3 He
helps himself to what he wants, and goes about shaking a black
yak's tail over the heads of the people, who thus transfer to him
their ill-luck.
This latter person then goes towards the priest in the neigh
bourhood of the cloister of La-brang and ridicules him, saying :
" What we perceive through the five sources (the five senses) is
no illusion. All you teach is untrue," etc., etc. The acting Grand
Lama contradicts this ; but both dispute for some time with one
another ; and ultimately agree to settle the contest by dice ; the
Lama consents to change places with the scape-goat if the dice
should so decide. The Lama has a dice with six on all six sides
and throws six-up three times, while the ghost-king has a dice
which throws only one.
When the dice of the priest throws six six times in succession
and that of the scape-goat throws only ones, this latter individual,
or " Lojon " as he is called, is terrified and flees away upon a white
horse, which, with a white dog, a white bird, salt, etc., he has been
provided with by government. He is pursued with screams and
blank shots as far as the mountains of Chetang, where he has to
remain as an outcast for several months in a narrow haunt, which,
however, has been previously provided for him with provisions.
We are told * that, while en route to Chetang, he is detained
wa-roh-grol Caitya, at Tashiding monastery ; and the tenth month the anointing and
blessing of the Sikhim king by the head Lama of Pemiongchi.
i What seems a version of this ceremony is celebrated in Ladak (at the village of
Masho) under the name " Nagh-rang," and described by Ramsay, Diet., p. 44.
2 I did not enquire into the personality of this Lama and his relationship, if any, to the
temporary Lama-king of De-pung monastery. Pandit Nain Sing connects this Scape-goat
ceremony with the termination of the De-pung Lama-regent's rule, and makes its
Lama identical with the latter, while Lama II. G. (loc. cit., 32), states that the dice-
throwing Lama belongs to the Chang-chub-Ling monastery.
3 Lo-gon gyal-po.
1 Pandit A. K.'s Survey Rept,

CHASE OF SCAPE-GOAT OF BAD LUCK. 513
for seven days in the great chamber of horrors at Sam-yas monastery
filled with the monstrous images of devils and skins of huge
serpents and wild animals, all calculated to excite feelings of
terror. During his seven days' stay he exercises despotic authority
over Sam-yas, and the same during the first seven days of his stay
at Chetang. Both Lama and laity give him much alms, as he is
believed to sacrifice himself for the welfare of the country. It is
said that in former times the man who performed this duty died
at Chetang in the course of the year from terror at the awful
images he was associated with ; but tbe present scape-goat survives
and returns to re-enact bis part the following year. From Chetang,
where he stays for seven days, he goes to Lho-ka, where be re
mains for several months.
At the beginning of the third month an exhibition is held of
the holy vessels and precious things in the La-brang temple, also
the hanging out of pictures on Potala. There are sowing and
harvest and other non-Buddhist festivals, and special rogation
days of supplications in case of war, famine, and pestilence.
The old year with all its bad luck is despatched with rites of a
clearly demonistic character, and the ceremony, named the
" Throwing away of the Dead Year," 1 is combined with a devil-
dance, as described in the next chapter.
Every household contributes to " ring out tbe old " and " ring in
the new " year. On the 22nd day^of the 12th month each family
prepares a dough image weighing about four pounds, and on it stick
pieces of cloth, woollen or silken, and coins, etc., according to the
wealth of the house-owner, and the demon of ill-luck is invoked to
enter into the image, which is then worshipped, and on the 29th
day, or the last but one of the old year, a Lama is sent for, who
carries the image out of the house and beyond the village to a
place where four paths meet, and there he abandons it.
But for tbe general community a huge image is prepared, and
attached to its top are many threads, and in front of it on the 29th
day a grand dance of the death-devils, etc., takes place, as detailed
in the chapter on the mystic plays. And when it is carried off and
abandoned the laity vie with one another in snatching the threads,

i Lo-s'i sKu-rim. L L

514 FESTIVALS AND HOLIDAYS.
which are treasured as most potent charms, .while the Lamas
return to the temple and perform a service to complete the
expulsion of the dead old year.
And so they go on, feast following feast, till the end of the year,
when the pantomime and carnival commence.

Some Actoes in the Mystic Play.i

XX.

MYSTIC PLAYS AND MASQUERADES.
I ANCY-DRESS balls and the masked carnivals of Europe
find their counterpart in Tibet, where the Lamas are
fond of masquerading in quaint attire; and the popu
lace delight in these pageants, with their dramatic
display and droll dances. The masked dances, however, are
essentially religious in nature, as with the similar pageants still
found among many primitive people, and probably once current
even among the Greeks and Egyptians.2
The Lamas reserve to themselves the exclusive right to act in
"the Mystery-Play," with its manifestations of the gods and demons,
by awe-inspiring masks, etc., while they relegate to lay actors the
sacred dramas, illustrating the former births of Buddha and other
saints, the Jdtakas.

1 From a photograph by Mr. Hoffmann.
2 The myth of the snaky-haired Gorgon, and the death-masks found in ancient

tombs of Mycenae, Kertch, Carthage, Mexico, etc.

L L 2

516 MYSTIC AND SACRED PLAYS. ¦
" The Mystery-Play of Tibet," the name by which the acted
pageant of the Lamas is known to many Europeans, has been seen
by several travellers in Tibet and adjoining Lamaist lands ; but
the plot and motive of the play seem never to have been very
definitely ascertained, owing, doubtless, to the cumbrous details
which so thickly overlay it, and the difficulty of finding competent
interpreters of the plot, as well as the conflicting accounts current
amongst the Lamas themselves in regard to its origin and mean
ing. As I have had opportunities for studying the various versions
of the play with the aid of learned Lamas of several sects, I give
here a brief sketch of what I have elicited regarding what appears
to have been its original character and subsequent developments.
Originally it appears to have been a devil-dancing cult for ex
orcising malignant demons and human enemies, and associated
with human sacrifice and, probably, cannibalism.
Afterwards, during the Buddhist era, the devil-dance, like that
of the Ceylonese, was given a Buddhist dress, which was not diffi
cult, as somewhat analogous displays representing the temptation
of Buddha, seem to be found in Indian Buddhism, as seen in the
annexed figure of a frieze from Gandhara.1 And several leading
indigenous names lent themselves readily to perversion into Bud
dhist names or titles, by a process already practised by the Brah
mans in India, who Sanskritized aboriginal Indian names in order
to bring them within the mythological pale of Hinduism.
The unsophisticated Tibetans still call the mystery-play the
Dance of the Red-Tiger Devil," 2 a deity of the Bon or pre-Bud
dhist religion of Tibet. Tbe original motive of the dance appears
to have been to expel the old year with its demons of ill-luck, and
to propitiate with human sacrifice and probably cannibalism the
war-god and the guardian spirits, most of whom are demonified
kings and heroes, in order to secure good-luck and triumph over
enemies in the incoming year.
Human sacrifice seems undoubtedly to have been regularly prac
tised in Tibet up till the dawn there of Buddhism in tbe seventh
century a.d. The glimpses which we get of early Tibet through
the pages of contemporary Chinese history, show, as Dr. Bushell
1 Figured by Gkuenwedel, Buddh. Eunst in Ind. - sTag-dmar-ch'am.

MOTIVE OF THE MYSTERY-PLAY.

51i

, Demons of Maea in Gandhara Sculptures.
(Lahore Museum.)

518 MYSTIC AND SACRED PLAYS.
translates,1 that " at the new year they (the Tibetans) sacrifice men
or offer monkeys," and so late as the seventh century the annual
rites in connection with the defence of their country were tri-
ennially accompanied by human sacrifice.2
Actual cannibalism is, indeed, attributed to the early Tibetans,3
and the survival of certain customs lends strong colour to the
probability of such a practice having been current up till about
the middle ages. The Tibetans themselves claim descent from a
man-eating ancestry, and they credit their wilder kinsmen and
neighbours of the lower Tsang-po valley with anthrophagous habits
even up to the present day. Vestiges of cannibalism appear to be
preserved in the mystery-play. And of similar character seems
to be the common practice of eating a portion of the human skin
covering the thigh-bone in preparing the bone trumpets, and also,
probably, of like origin is the common Tibetan oath of affirmation,
" By my father's and mother's flesh." 4
The Lamas, however, as professing Buddhists, could not coun
tenance the taking of life, especially human. So, in incorporating
this ancient and highly popular festival within their system, they
replaced the human victims by anthropomorphic effigies of
dough, into which were inserted models of the larger organs, and
also fluid red pigment to represent the blood. This substitution
of dough images for the living sacrifices of the Bon rites is ascribed
by tradition to St. Padma-sambhava in the second half of the
eighth century -A.D. And these sacrificial dough-images, of more
or less elaborate kinds, now form an essential part of the Lamaist
daily service of worship.
The Lamas also, as it seems to me, altered the motive of the
play to hang upon it their own sacerdotal story for their own
glorification and priestly gain. Retaining the festival with its
Bacchanalian orgies for expelling the old year and ushering in
good-luck for the new, they also retained the cutting-up of their
enemies in effigy ; but they made the plot represent the triumph
of the Indian missionary monks (Acarya) under St. Padma-sam
bhava over the indigenous paganism with its hosts of malignant
fiends and the black-hat devil-dancers, and also over the Chinese
heretics. 1 J.R.A.S., New Ser., xii., p. 440. ' Idem, p. 441.
'< Yule's Cathay, 151, and Marco Polo, i., 303. * a-pe.s'a a-me-s'a.

MOTIVE OF THE MYSTERY-PLAY.] 519
The voracious man-eating devils of Tibet were mostly assimi
lated to the Sivaite type of fiend in mediaeval Indian Buddhism,
with which they had so much in common. And the title was
accordingly altered from tag-mar, " the (dance) of tbe red Tiger
(devil) " to its homonym tag-mar (spelt drag-dmar), or " the red
fierce ones." Thus Yama, the Death-king, and his minions form
a most attractive feature of the play, for it is made to give the lay
spectators a very realistic idea of the dreadful devils from whom
the Lamas deliver them; and they are familiarized with the appear
ance of these demons who, according to the Lamas, beset the path
along which the disembodied soul must hereafter pass to paradise.
As this tragedy is so intimately identified with Padma-sam
bhava, the founder of Lamaism, it is acted in its most gorgeous
style on the birthday of that saint, namely, on the tenth day of
the fifth Tibetan month.
But latterly both plot and date were again altered by the
established church of Tibet, tbe Ge-lug-pa sect. This reformed
sect, which dissociates itself as far as possible from St. Padma-
sambhava, who now is so intimately identified with the unre
formed sects, transferred the festival from the end of the old
Tibetan year, that is the eleventh month of the present style, to
the end of its own year according to the new official year.
And it has also, in its version, altered the motive of the tragedy,
so as to make it represent the assassination of the Julian of
Lamaism (Lan-darma) by a Lama disguised as a Shamanist dancer,
and this is followed by the restoration of the religion by the aid
of Indian and Chinese monks, and the subsequent triumph of
Lamaism, with its superior sorcery derived from Buddhist sym
bolism. This version of the play calls the central episode " the strewing
food of the sixty iron castles," ' and it still further alters, as I take
it, the title of the chief character to its further homonym of " Tag-
mar," 2 the red horse-headed Hayagriva, a name borrowed from
Hindu mythology, but evidently, as it seems to me, suggested by
the cognomen of their old familiar fiend, Tag-mar, the red Tiger-
devil, of the pre-Lamaist Bon priests. Tiger-devils are also well-

1 Drug-bchu-lchags mk'ar-gyi gtor-rgyags.
- sTag-(mgrm)-dmar.

520

MYSTIC AND SACRED PLAYS.

known to Chinese mythology,1 while Hayagriva, as a Buddhist
creation, appears to be known only to the Lamaistic form of Buddh-

Eed Tigeu-devil of the Bon.

ism, and his Tantrik book is admittedly of Tibetan composition.
But even as thus adapted by the established church, the purest
of all the Lamaist sects, the play still retains, as will be presently

Tigek-Devils
(of the Chinese. The lower right-hand one is the Eed-tiger ; the central one is yellow).
shown, the devil-dancing Shamanist features, as well as vestiges
of human sacrifice, if not of actual cannibalism.

1 See page 396, and compare also their relatives, the Cat-devils, which latter take
the only form of the cult in Japan.

THE MYSTERY-PLAY. 521

Let us first look at the mystery-play or tragedy as acted by the
Lamas of the old school, at Himis, in Ladak, in Sikhim, Bhotan,
etc., and afterwards refer to the versions as acted by the reformed
and established church.
This play is acted, as already mentioned, by all sects of Lamas,
on the last day of the year when the community is em, fete, by
many of the unreformed sects on St. Padma-sambhava's day.
When -acted at the end of the year it forms part of the ceremony
called " The sacrificial body of the dead year," * and is held on the
last two or three days of the old year, from the 28th to the 30th
of the twelfth month. As the performance is conducted at the
Himis monastery, in Ladak, in a much grander style than was
witnessed by me in Sikhim, and more in the style seen in Tibet, and
as it has been there witnessed and described by several travellers,2 1
shall take the Himis performance as the basis of my description,
and amplify the descriptions of it where necessary.
As the day for the play draws near, the villagers flock in from
the country-side ; and on the morning of the day fixed .for the
performance, the people, decked in holiday attire, throng to the
temple many hours before that fixed for the performance, to secure
good points of view. Seats are provided and reserved only for
the gentry and high officials and visitors. The king and other
grandees have state boxes.
The performance is held M- fresco- in the -courtyard of the
temple (see the photograph on page 528). The orchestra is
sometimes screened off from view, and the maskers assemble
either in the temple or in yak-hair tents, and are treated to re
freshments often, and soup between the acts.
A shrill bugle-call, from a trumpet made out of a human thigh
bone,3 notifies the commencement of the play.
The gongs and shawms strike up a wailing sort of air, which the
musicians accompany by a low chant, and out come trooping a

1 L6-s'i sku-rim. The term sKu-rim is applied to certain indigenous sacrificial
ceremonies, usually with bloody offerings, in contradistinction to the more truly
Buddhist ceremonial offerings, which are named " mch'od " and " ch'oga."
2 Notably H. H. Godwin-Austen (J.A .S.B., 1861, 71 seq.) ; H. A. Jaeschke, ibid., p. 77 ;
Schlagt., p. 233; Knight, loc. cit., where several fine photographs of the play are
given; A. B. Melville, Proc. B.A.S., 1864, p. 478; and Ramsay's West. Tibet., p. 43.
3 Kah-liii.

522

MYSTIC AND SACRED PLAYS.

crowd of the pre-Lamaist black-mitred priests, clad in rich robes
of China silk and brocade, and preceded by swingers of censers.
They make the mystic sign of " The Three," and execute a stately
dance to slow music.
Stretching out the right hand and left alternately, the leaders turn
to the right, and the last in line to the left, both advancing and
retiring towards each other several times, and, reforming the circle
and making the sign of the Trident, they retire.
After these have gone out, then enter a troupe of the man-eat-

Kincs Palace

S(CRETABI*T OFFICES *THE»SURV

Stone Paved Court

OOCHEGTHA

jji

Diagram of Royal Monasteey at Tens-sye-ling, Lhasa
(where mystic play is acted).
ing malignant demons,1 who, with their hordes, vex and harass
humanity. They infest the air, the earth, the water, and are
constantly seeking to destroy man, not unlike their better-known
relative, who, "as a roaring lion, walketh about seeking whom
he may devour." 2 These hordes of demons are intended to illustrate
the endless oppression of man by the powers of evil, against whom
he can of himself do nothing, but occasionally the exorcisms
or prayers of some good Lama or incarnator may come to his
assistance and shield him, but even then only after a fierce and
doubtful contest between the saints and the devils. And only for
a time, too, can this relief from persecution endure, for all the ex-

1 Tib., mGon-pa.

2 I. Peter, v. 8.

THE BALLET OF THE DEVILS. 523
orcisms of all tbe saints are of little avail to keep back tbe advan
cing hordes. The shrieking demons must close in upon the soul
again.1 These demons, now incorporated in Tibetan Buddhism, are
regarded as forms of Durga (Devi), Siva (Natha), and the king of

Demon-Maskers.2
the Dead (Dharmaraja or Yama).3 " Flames and effigies of human
skulls were worked on their breasts and other parts of their raiment.
As their hoods fell back, hideous features of leering satyrs were
disclosed."4 " In their right hand they hold a bell or fan, and in their
left a bowl cut out of a human skull, and round the edge of which
are attached narrow streamers of silk and some plaited ends of
hair. This ghastly ladle is called Bundab. Some of the maskers
hold in the right hand a short stick, with red and blue streamers

1 Knight, loc. cit., p. 201.
' After Godwin-Austen in J.A.S.B., loc. cit.
> The chief of these fiends are Devi, Hayagriva, Khyetapala, Jinamitra, Dakkiraja,
Mud-gontrag-sag, lha-ch'en brgya-po, gzah-ch'en-brgyad-po, kLu-ch'en, brgyad-po,
etc. 4 Knight, p. 203.

524 MYSTIC AND SACRED PLAYS.
of silk; these and the spoons majestically waved about as they go
round in their solemn dance had the most curious effect I ever
saw." '
To these monsters (now coerced by Buddhism) the Lamas offer a
libation of beer, and some rice or mustard-seed, and to all the beings
of the six classes, and especially including the demons, and the
rice or seeds are thrown about freely ; 2 and each Lama present
inwardly prays for the realization of his desire.
At a signal from the cymbals the large trumpets (eight or ten
feet long) and the other instruments, pipes and drums, etc., and
shrill whistling (with the fingers in the mouth), produce a
deafening din to summon the noxious demons and the enemies.
" The music became fast and furious, and troop after troop of
different masks rushed on, some beating wooden tambourines,
others swelling the din with rattles and bells. All of these masks
were horrible, and the malice of infernal beings was well expressed
on some of them. As they danced to the wild music with strange
steps and gesticulations, they howled in savage chorus. . . .
The solemn chanting ceased, and then rushed on the scene a crowd
of wan shapes, almost naked, with but a few rags about them.
. . . They wrung their hands despairingly, and rushed about
in a confused way as if lost, starting from each other in terror when
they met, sometimes feeling about them with their outstretched
hands like blind men, and all the while whistling in long-drawn
notes, which rose and fell like a strong wind on the hills, pro
ducing an indescribably dreary -effect. These, I was told, repre
sented the unfortunate souls of dead men which had been lost in
space, and were vainly seeking their proper sphere through the dark
ness. . . . The variously masked figures of Spirits of Evil
flocked in, troop after troop — oxen-headed and serpent-headed
devils; three-eyed monsters with projecting fangs, their heads
crowned with tiaras of human skulls ; Lamas painted and
masked to represent skeletons ; dragon-faced fiendss,naked save for
tiger-skins about their loins, and many others. Sometimes they
appeared to be taunting and terrifying the stray souls of men —

1 Godwin-Austen, loc. cit., p. 73.
Compare with the confetti pellets and odoured powders thrown about at western
carnivals.

THE SAINTS AND THE DEVILS.

525

grim shapes who fled hither and thither among their tormentors,
waving their arms and wailing miserably, souls who had not ob
tained Nirvana and yet who had no incarnation
Then the demons were repelled again by holy
men ; but no sooner did these last exorcise one hideous band than
other crowds came shriek
ing on. It was a hopeless
conflict. . . . At one
period of the ceremony a
holy man . . . blessed
a goblet of water by laying
his hands on it and intoning
some prayer or charm.
Then he sprinkled the
water in all directions,
and the defeated demons
stayed their shrieking,
dancing, and infernal
music, and gradually crept
out of the arena, and no
sound was heard for a time
but the sweet singing of
the holy choir. But the
power of exorcism was
evanescent, for the routed
soon returned in bowling
shoals." >
The superior effect of
Buddhism over the indi
genous Shamanism is now
shown by the arrival on
the scene of the Indian
monk, Padma-sambhava, and his assistants, or his eight forms ;
or sometimes these are represented as Buddha himself, or the
group of the " Seven Buddhas." 2

Death-Skeleton Masker.

1 Knight, op. cit., p. 207.
Cf. page 345. The same motive appears
Arakan— Hardy, East. Monachism, p. 236.

the Burmese religious dramas at

526

MYSTIC AND SACRED PLAYS.

This scene is thus described: "The loud music suddenly
ceased, and all the demons scampered off shrieking as if in fear,
for a holy thing was approaching. To solemn chanting, low
music and swinging of censers, a stately procession came through
the porch of the temple and slowly descended the steps. Under a
canopy, borne by attendants, walked a tall form in beautiful silk
robes, wearing a large mask representing a benign and peaceful
face. As he advanced, men and boys, dressed as abbots and
acolytes of the church of Eome, prostrated
themselves before - him and addressed him
with intoning and pleasing chanting.
He was followed by six other masks,

Devils Fleeing from the Buddhist Saints.
who were treated with similar respect. These seven deified beings
drew themselves in a line on one side of the quadrangle and
received the adoration of several processions of masked figures,
some of abbots, and others beast-headed, or having the faces of
devils."1 These last are the demon-kings who have been coerced by
Buddhism into becoming guardians •amt-defensores-ftdei of that
religion. And amongst the worshippers are the Pa- wo or " heroes "
with green masks, surmounted by triangular red flags, and girdles,
and anklets of bells ; and the solemnity is relieved by a few

1 Knight, p. 204. These seven masks were, says Mr. Knight, variously explained
as being the Dalai Lama and his previous incarnations, while another " explained
that these were intended for the incarnations of Buddha, and not the Dalai Lama."

STABBING THE ENEMY. 527
Aearyas, or jesters, who play practical jokes, and salute the holy
personages with mock respect .
The enemy of Tibet and of Lamaism is now represented in
effigy, but before cutting it to pieces, it is used to convey to the
people a vivid conception of the manner in which devils attack
a corpse, and the necessity for priestly services of a quasi-Buddhist
sort to guard it and its soul.
Some days previous to the commencement of the play, an image1
of a young lad is made out of dough, in most elaborate fashion,
and as life-like as possible. Organs representing the heart,
lungs, liver, brain, stomach, intestines, etc., are inserted into it,
and the heart and large blood-vessels and limbs are filled with
a red-coloured fluid to represent blood. And occasionally, lam
informed on' good authority, actual flesh from the corpses of
criminals2 is inserted into the image used in this ceremony3 at
the established church of Potala.
This effigy of the enemy is brought forth by the four cemetery-
ghouls,4 and laid in the centre of the square, and freely stabbed
by the weapons, and by the gestures and spells of the circling
hosts of demons, as in the illustration here given.
The necromantic power of the Lamas is here shown much in the
same way as in the Burmese sacred play at Arakan.5 On three
signals with the cymbals, two Indian monks (Aearyas) come out
of the monastery, and blow their horns and go through a series of
droll antics, and are followed by two or more Lamas who draw
around the effigy on the pavement of the quadrangle a magic tri
angle and retire. Then rush in the ghosts, death-demons, "figures
painted black and white to simulate skeletons, some in chains,
others bearing sickles or swords, engaged in a frantic dance around
the corpse. They were apparently attempting to snatch it away
or inflict some injury on it, but were deterred by the magic effect
of the surrounding triangle and by the chanting and censer-swing
ing of several holy men in mitred and purple copes. . . .
"A more potent and very ugly fiend, with great horns on his head

1 Named lin-ka or.
2 Preserved and stored for this purpose at the Ragyab cemetery— in such cases, the
Ge-lug-pa Lamas are said not to touch this defiling flesh.
3 The ceremony is called drag-las.
Tur-t'od-bdag-po. Cf . Hardy's E. Mon., p. 236.

52S

MYSTIC AND SACRED PLAYS.

and huge lolling tongue, ran in, hovered threateningly over tbe
corpse, and with a great sword slashed furiously about it, just fail-

Dance of the Death-demons in Hemis Monastery.1
ing by little more than a hair's-breadth to touch it with each
sweep of the blade. He seemed as if he were about to overcome

1 After Mr. Knight.

THE DANCE OF THE SKELETONS. 529
the opposing enchantment when a saint of still greater power than
he now came to the rescue. The saint approached the corpse and
threw a handful of flour on it, making mystic signs and muttering
incantations. This appeared from his mask to be one of the in
carnations of Buddha. He had more control over the evil spirits
than any other who had yet contended with them. The skeletons,
and also he that bore the great sword, grovelled before him, and
with inarticulate and beast-like cries implored mercy. He yielded
to their supplications, gave each one a little of the flour he carried
with him, which the fiends ate gratefully, kneeling before him;
and he also gave them to drink out of a vessel of holy water/' 1
This usually concludes one day's performance.2 On the follow
ing day adoration is paid to the Jina, by whom unreformed Lamas
seem to intend St. Padma-sambhava. And mustard-seed is blessed
and thrown at the enemy with singing, dancing, and incantations.
And then occurs the ceremony of stabbing the enemy by the phurbu
or mystic dagger.
Four ghouls bring in an object wrapped in a black cloth, and
placing it on the ground, dance round it with intricate steps, then
raising the cloth disclose a prone image of a man, which has been
made in the manner previously described.
Then enter the demon-generals and kings, including the demon
Tam-din, and they dance around the image. They are followed
by the fiendesses, including the twelve Tan-ma, under Devi.
These are followed by the black-hat devil-dancers, and these are,
in the established church version, held to represent the Lama
who assumed this disguise to assassinate king Lan-darma. The
four guards now hold the door to prevent entry of any enemies or
evil spirits. The black-hats dance round thrice and are succeeded
by the god of Wealth, fiendesses, and butchers, the five great
"kings,"3 and their queens and ministers, also the state sorcerer.
of Na-ch'un, and his eight-fold attendants.4

1 Knight, op. cit, p. 208.
2 Mr. Knight (op. cit., p. 209) notes that " Three horses and three dogs were smeared
over with, red paint, and thenceforth dedicated for life to the temple, explained as
scape-goats for the sins of the people," the red paint being held to represent the
sins. 3 These are gyal-ch'en sku lna, yum-lha, Sprul-pu-na and blon-pa.
4 gnas-ch'un, and rdorje grags-ldan — the attendants are male and female with dis
hevelled hair, c
M M

530

MYSTIC AND SACRED PLAYS.

Then enters a fearful fiend named "The holy king of Ke-
ligion," 1 with the head of a bull,- holding in his right hand a
dagger with silk streamers, and in his left a human heart (in
effigy) and a snare, attended by a retinue of fiends and fiendesses,
bearing weapons and dressed in skins,2 human beings, tigers and
leopards ; and the last to enter are tiger-skin-clad warriors with

The Religious King-devil.

bows and arrows. This part of the Demon-king can only be
taken by a monk of the purest morals, and the costly dress which
this actor wears at the play at Potala is one presented by the
emperor of China.

i Dam-ch'an ch'os-rgyal. By some regarded as Vajrabhairava and by others as
Yama or Heruka. On Bull-headed Demons in S. India, cf. Ind. Ant., p. 19.
2 These are made of painted calico or silk.

THE KING-DEVIL CUTS UP THE ENEMY. 531
The King-devil, surrounded by his fiendish hordes, dances and
makes with dagger the gesture of " The Three " ; he stabs the
heart, arms and legs of the figure, and binds its feet by the snare.
He then rings a bell, and seizing a sword, chops off the limbs and
slits open the breast and extracts the bleeding heart, lungs and
intestines. A troupe of monsters, with the heads of deer and yaks, rush in
and gore the remains and scatter the fragments with their horns
and hands to the four directions.1
Underling fiends now collect the fragments into a huge silver
basin shaped like a skull, which four of them carry to the Demon-
king in a pompous procession, in which the black-hat devil-
dancers join. The Demon-king then seizes the bleeding frag
ments, and, eating a morsel, throws them up in the air, when
they are caught and fought for by the other demons, who throw
the pieces about in a frantic manner, and ultimately throwing
them amongst the crowd, which now takes part in the orgie, and
a general melee results, each one scrambling for morsels of the
fragments, which some eat and others treasure as talismans against
wounds, diseases and misfortunes.
The service, which is done by the priest who represents the saint
Padma-sambhava, is here summarized. It is called " The Expel
ling Oblation of the hidden Fierce Ones."2
" Salutation to Padma-sambhava ! I here arrange to upset the
hosts of demons, by the aid of the hidden Fierce Ones. In bygone
ages you guarded the Buddha's doctrines and upset all the harmful
spirits. Now the charge has come to me, 0 ! St. Padma ! Instruct
me as you did prince Pearl and your fairy wife — the Victorious Ocean
of Foreknowledge. You wrote the rite and hid it away in the cave.
Samaya ! rgya ! The sealed secret ! "
Then arrange as a square magic mandala the cemetery, as the abode
of the eight classes of demons. And set down poison, blood, and four
lotus leaves with a red trident in the centre. And draw fire-flames,
doors, etc., according to rule. Above it place a small table and on it a
vessel filled with black grains, and a three-headed cake. Cover it up with
an umbrella and put inside this house a linka (image of wheaten flour),
which represents the injuring demon. Then arrange everything com-
1 According to the reformed Lamas, these animals have to be considered as repre
senting the Lama who assassinated Lah-darma, and the Demon-king represents the
god Mahakala, who delivered Lah-darma into the Lama's hands ; and the graveyard
ghouls are the scavengers who carried off the king's corpse.
2 gTor-zlog and is extracted from the pv. volume of bLa-ma-norbu-rgya-mts'o.
M M 2

532 MYSTIC AND SACRED PLAYS.
plete with the various sorts of offerings, and then do the necessary
rites. First of all invoke one's own tutelary thus : —
"Hum ! 0 ! Chief of fiercest thunderbolts, immovable' and vast as the
sky, the overruling angry one ! I invoke you who are possessed of
supreme strength, and able to subjugate all three empty worlds to
do my desires. I invoke you to rise from the burning sky. I, the
spell-holder, invoke you with great reverence and faith. You must
ripen all the fruits of my desires, otherwise you shall suffer, 0 ! tutelary!1
Arise from the sky and come forth with all your retinue, and quickly
route the demons."
Then here offer a libation of wine.
Now the mantra-holder must mentally conceive that the house is full
of clouds and that he is sitting in the presence of his tutelary ; while
the fire of anger burns outside, the mist of poison floats inside ; the
Las-byed-gs'ed-ma is killing the animals, and the evil spirits are wander
ing about. The devil now must assume a sorrowful state owing to his
separation from his patron and protector.
Then recite the following : —
"Namo ! The commands of the Lama are true, the commands of the
Three Holy Ones true; and so are those of the fierce Thunderbolt
Lama, etc., etc. Through the power of the great truths, Buddha's
doctrines, the image of the noble Lama, the riches of wealthy people
and all the lucky times, let the hosts of demons of the three regions
come forth and enter this linka image. V ' ajra-Agushaja ! '"
Then chant the following for keeping the demons at bay : —
Hum ! Through the blessing of the blood-drinking Fierce One, let
the injuring demons and evil spirits be kept at bay. I pierce their
hearts with this hook ; I bind their hands with this snare of rope ; I
bind their body with this powerful chain ; I keep them down with this
tinkling bell. Now, 0 ! blood-drinking Angry One, take your sublime
seat upon them. Vajor-Agu-cha-dsa ! vajora-pasha-hum ! vajora-spo-da-
va ! vajora-ghan-dhi-ho ! "
Then chant the following for destroying the evil spirits : —
" Salutation to Heruka, the owner of the noble Fierce Ones ! The evil
spirits have tricked you and have tried to injure Buddha's doctrine, so
extinguish them Tear out the hearts of the injuring
evil spirits and utterly exterminate them."
Then the supposed corpse of the linka should be dipped in Pakta
(blood), and the following should be chanted : —
"Hum! 0 ! ye hosts of gods of the magic-circle .' Open your mouths
as wide as the earth and sky, clench your fangs like rocky mountains,
and prepare to eat up the entire bones, blood, and the entrails of all
the injuring evil spirits. Ma-ha mam-sa-la kha hi 1 Ma-ha tsitta-kha-
hi ! maha-rakta kha-hi ! maha-go-ro-tsa-na-kha-hi ! Maha-bah-su-ta
kha-hi ! Maha-keng-ni ri ti kha hi ! "
i Compare this threat with the killing of the gods— in Fkazer's Golden Bough.

FIGHT FOR FRAGMENTS OF EFFIGY. 533
Then chant the following for upsetting the evil spirits: —
" Hum 1 Bhyo ! The black grains and a three-headed cake are duly
set on the Buddha's plate : the weapons flash ; the poisonous vapour
flows; the Fierce Ones thunder their mantras ; the smell of the plague is
issuing; but this three-headed cake can cure all these disasters, and
can repress the injuring demon spirits.
" Bhyo I Bhyo I On the angry enemies ! On the injuring demon
spirits ! On the voracious demons ! turn them all to ashes !
" Mah-ra-ya-rbad bhyo ! Upset them all ! Upset ! Upset !
" ' Let glory Come ' and Virtue ! Sddhu ! "
A burnt sacrifice is now made1 by the Demon-king. He pours
oil into a cauldron, under which a fire is lit, and when the oil
is boiling, he ties to the end of a stick which he holds an image
of a man made of paper, and he puts into the boiling oil a skull
filled with a mixture of arak (rum), poison, and blood, and into
this he puts the image ; and when the image bursts into flame,
he declares that all the injuries have been consumed.
This rite is followed by a procession to abandon a large three-
headed image of dough,2 to tbe top of which many threads and
streamers are tied. This procession of monks is preceded by the
maskers, numbering several hundreds in the larger monasteries,3
clanging noisy cymbals and blowing thigh-bone trumpets, etc.
The laity follow in the rear, brandishing guns and other weapons,
and shouting " Drag-ge-puu c'am." And when the image is
abandoned the crowd tear it to pieces and eagerly fight for the
fragments, which are treasured as charms. A gun is then fired
amid general shouts of joy, and the Lamas return to the temple
for a celebration of worship.
The play is now practically over. The black- cap devil-dancers
again appear with drums, and execute their manoeuvres, and the
performance concludes with the appearance of the Chinese priest,

1 Named Hom-Jsreks ; Skt., Homa. Cf. Vasil., 194 ; Schlag., 251.
' gtor-gyaK.
' At the monastery of Tih-ge, to the west of Tashi-lhunpo, and where this play is
conducted, as at other Ge-lug-pa monasteries, at government expense, this procession,
I am informed, consists of six pairs of thigh-bone trumpet blowers, five censer-
swingers, two pairs of long horn players, several skull libationers, 100 maskers with
small drums, 100 maskers with cymbals, and 100 with large drums, behind whom
walk the ordinary monks, shouting and clapping their hands, followed by the laity
armed with guns and other weapons, and forming a procession over a mile in
length.

534 MYSTIC AND SACRED PLAYS.

entitled Hwashang, who was expelled from Tibet by St. Padma.
This Chinese priest is represented with a fatuous grinning large-
mouthed mask (see fig. 3, page 536), and attended by two boys
like himself. They go through a form of worship of the images,
but being unorthodox, it is ridiculed by the spectators.
This mystic play is conducted at all monasteries of the es
tablished church, at government expense. The greatest of these
performances are held at Potala, Muru Tasang,1 and Tashi-lhunpo
at the end of the old year, and at the priest-king's palace of Teng-
gye-ling on the twenty-ninth day of the eighth month.
At Potala it is held in the courtyard of the Grand Lama's
chapel royal, the Nam-gyal temple -monastery. The dough-
images aud cakes begin to be prepared from the second day of
the twelfth month, and from the third to the ninth the whole
convent is engaged in the worship of the terrible guardian-demons2
of the country, and of Ye-she-Gon-po or Mahakala.
The rest of the month till the eventful day is occupied in re
hearsals and other preparations. Before dawn on the twenty-
ninth, the play-manager, after worshipping the demons, arranges
the banners, instruments, and carpets.8 At the first blast of the
great conch-shell trumpet, tbe populace assemble. On the second
blast the state officials enter and take their seats, the Shab-pe or
state ministers, Dun-k'or, and Tse-dun. And on the third blast,
the Tibetan king-regent enters with all his attendants, and he
invites the attendance of his Defending Majesty,4 the Dalai Lama,
who enters a small state-box5 named " The world's transparency."
The orchestra, which is screened off in a tent, begins by blowing
a thigh-bone trumpet thrice, followed by the great cymbals 6 and
drums ; then out troop the black-hatted" Shamanist dancers, and
the play proceeds as above detailed. In the concluding ceremony
the large cake, surmounted by a human head, is burned, and is
considered to typify the burning of the present enemies of
Lamaism. But the grandest display takes place at the king-regent's own
monastery of Teng-gye-ling, of which I have given a sketch-
plan of the buildings, etc., from information supplied to me by a
monk who has taken part frequently in the play there. The
1 This is chiefly attended by old women and children. 2 &Srun-ma.
3 p'an-rgyal-mts'an p'ye-p'ur, s'am-bu, ba-ran. 4 kyab-mgon rin-po-ch'e.
5 zinx-ch'uh. 6 " The glorious great cymbals."

ROYAL VERSION OF PLAY. 535

Lama who acts as regent is the de facto ruler of Tibet, and is
generally known as " the King '" and also called " The country's
Majesty."2 The superior guests and nobility who have received
invitations are permitted to pitch their tents upon the roof of the
monks' quarters, and the populace are kept outside the arena by
a rope barrier.
An account of the play at Tashi-lhunpo has been given by Mr.
Bogle.8 It took place in a large court under the palace, and the
surrounding galleries were crowded with spectators. Another
short account4 describes_the_ court as surrounded by pillared bal
conies, four storeys high. The GrandLama's seat was on the
second storey. The other seats in tbe lower balcony were oc
cupied by the families of chiefs and nobles. In the upper were
pilgrims and merchants. The stage manager held a dorje and
bell-like Dorje-ch'an, but had an abbot's hat. After a prayer
there entered a figure representing "the celebrated Dharmatala,
who invited the sixteen Sthaviras to China for the diffusion of
Buddhism." His mask was dark with yawning mouth to mean
ecstasy. Numerous scarves were thrown to him by the spectators,
which were picked up by his two wives, with painted yellow com
plexions. Then came the four kings of the quarters, dressed in
barbaric splendour. Following these came the sons of the gods,
about sixty in number, dressed with silk robes, and glittering with
ornaments of gold, precious stones, and pearls. Following these
were Indian acharyas, whose black-bearded faces and Indian dress
excited loud laughter among spectators. Then followed the four
warders of the cemeteries in skeleton dress. Afterwards "the
body of the devil in effigy was burnt, a pile of dry sedge being set
on fire upon it." Incense was burnt on the hill-tops in the neigh
bourhood. The masks used in this play deserve some notice. In Tibet the
great masks5 are made of mashed paper and cloth, and occasionally
of gilt copper.6 In Sikhim and Bhotan, etc., where wood is abun
dant, and the damp climate is destructive to papier-macM, they
are carved out of durable wood.7 In all cases they are fantastically

> r^ryal-pO. 2 bde-mo rin-po-che. a Maekh., p. 106.
* On the 17th February, 1882, by Sarat, in Narrative.
s n'bag. 6 gser-sah.
7 In Sikhim they are made from the giant climber called "zar."

536

MYSTIC AND SACRED PLAYS.

painted, and usually provided with a wig of yak-tail of different
colours.

Some Masks.
1. Ghoul. 4. A fiendess.
2. Bull-headed K'ang. 5. A locality geirus.
3. Hwashang. 6. A "Teacher."
7. Hwashang's s -n.

THE MASKS.

537

The masks may be broadly classed into the following five
groups 1 ; though the so-called reformed Lamas have modified some
of these, as already noted. 1. Drag-mar,2 or "The Terrible Bed One."
Sometimes called Guru Drag-s'ed, or Yes'e-
Gon-po,and "Beligious Protector,"3 andregarded
as the god of Death, Mahakala, and also as a
form of St. Padma-sambhava. His mask is of
hideous anthropomorphic appearance and huge
size, with great projecting tusks and three eyes ;
the vertical eye on the centre of the forehead is
the eye of fore-knowledge. And it bears a
chaplet of, five skulls, with pendants of human
bones.

I. — King of the
Ogres (sKu)

These are generally

The females only differ in having no beards nor horns.

The Ten Awful Ogres, and the Ten Ogresses.
like the above.
The chief are : 2. Lha-mo dMag-zor-ma, identified with KFdi,
the consort of Mahakala, and of a blue colour ;
measly lips. As Ban-'byun-ma she is green,
and her mouth is shut and not gaping as in the
former. 8. Ts'e-ma-ra.* Bed like number one.
4. The Bull-headed (Lan). Black in colour
with three eyes and bearing a banner'' on its
forehead. It is also called " ma-c'an."'6
5. The Tiger-headed (sTag), brown and yellow-
striped. ' 6. The Lion (Sen-ge). White.
7. The Boc, or Garuda (Kyun). Coloured green.
8 The Monkey (spre-ul). Buddy-brown.
9. The Stag (S'a-ba).7 Fawn-coloured.
10. The Yak. ' Coloured black.

II. — The Angry
Ogres (To-wo).

III.— The Ghouls-

11. Tur, or grave-yard ghouls, with skull
masks and clothes representing skeletons.

1 Excluding those of the Buddhas, which are not essential to the play, and seldom
appear. 2 According to some the Garuda (bya-m'kyun) or Roc should occupy the highest
place. It is yellow, with a bird's beak, yak's horns, and erect hair, forming a spiked
crest. It is said to be even superior to the sixteen great saints, the Sthavira.
3 He is also identified with forms known as Na-nih-nag-po, Legs-ldan nag-po, Ber-
nag-po. * Ch'os-skyoh brtse-dmar-ra.
s rgyal-mts'an.
" dma-e'an c'os-rgyal.
' This seems intended for the Indian Sambhar.

V.— The Teachers. <

538 MYSTIC AND SACRED PLAYS.
12. Sa-bdag Genii. These have large hideous
masks but only one pair of eyes, as representing
IV. — The Earth- J their subordinate position. Their chief is called
Master-Demons.^ " The great guardian King," ' and he is
attended by red demons ( Tsan) and black ones
(Dud), etc.
13. Aearyas. These have small cloth masks
of ordinary size, and of a white, or clay, or
black colour ; and their wives are red- or yellow-
complexioned. The hair of these " Teachers " is
blue in colour, and done up into a chignon on
the crown as with Indian Yogis. Although they
represent the early Indian priests who brought
Buddhism to Tibet, they are, as in ancient
India, the buffoons and jesters of the play.
14. Hva-shang. This is a huge,*fatuous, round
mask of a red colour, to represent a historical
Chinese Buddhist monk of the eighth century.
And he is attended by several of his sons 2 with
similar masks.
The dresses of the King-demon and Ogre maskers are of the
most costly silk and brocade, and usually with capes, which show
Chinese influence.8 Those of the others are usually woollen or
cotton. And the robes of those actors who represent the demons,
who get severely cudgelled by their superiors, are thickly padded
to resist the blows which fall on them.
Where there are a number of one class going in processions or
dancing, those dressed alike go in pairs. The weapons carried by
the maskers have already been referred to. Most are made of
wood carved with thunderbolts. The staves of the skeleton
maskers are topped by a death's-head. The sword made by string
ing together Chinese brass coins (" Cash") is called the Silingtun,
from the province of Siling in western China, whence these coins
come to Tibet.
Another religious pantomime, performed, however, by lay actors,
is the Lion-Dance. It is not enacted at the new year, but at
other seasons, when the people are en fite.

1 rgyal-ch'en-po bsrungs bstan-po, and seems related to, or identical with the "Five
Kings " and Heroes (rfpa-o).
- s Ha-p'ug.
s These capes generally show the trigrams and other symbols of luck and long
life including the Bat.

LION DANCE— JATAKAS.

539

The plot is based upon the mythical lion of the Himalayan snows,
which is believed to confer fortune on the country where it resides.
One of these lions was enticed to China by a wizard, and, somewhat
like La Mascotte, the crops and cattle prospered as long as it lived, and
when it died the Chinese stripped off its skin, with which they conduct
this dance. The lion is represented as about the size of an ox.
Its head and shoulders are formed by a framework, which one man
manipulates from the interior, while another man occupies its hind'
quarters. A harlequin mummer with a variety of rough-and-tumble

LlON-DANCE.

antics introduces the beast, which enters with leaps and bounds and
goes through a variety of manoeuvres, including mounting on a table,
and the performance is diversified by the capers of clowns and acrobats.

The Sacred Dramas.
The sacred dramas, which are based upon the Jatakas or former
births of Buddha, are very popular. They are performed by pro
fessional lay actors and actresses, generally known as " A-lche-lha-
mo," though this title " goddess-sister " is strictly applicable only
to the actresses who take the part of the goddesses or their in
carnations. Strolling parties of these actors travel about Tibet,
especially during the winter months, and they frequently act in
the presence of the Grand Lama himself.
The play is usually performed -alfresco, without a stage frame to

540 MYSTIC AND SACRED PLAYS.

the picture, bu4-to_obtain the due sense of illusion it is usually done
at night by lantern-light. The plot is presented in the form of a
chanted narrative, comparable to the chorus of the Greek plays, in
the course of which the several leading characters, dressed in suit
able costume, come forth and speak for themselves. It is thus
somewhat like the narration of a novel with the conversational
parts acted. Some buffoonery is given as a prelude and to also
fill up the intervals between the acts. These buffoons usually are

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V. .
ACTOKS OF THE ViSVANTAEA-PlAY.
the so-called hunters ' ; but sometimes, as in the old Hindu dramas,
tbe buffoons are Brahmans.
The most popular of all the dramas which they play are the
Visvantara (Vessantara) Jataka, or the last great Birth of Buddha,
and the Indigenous drama of Nan-sa, or Tbe Brilliant Light. But
they also at times play amongst other pieces the Sudhana Jataka,2
the marriage of king Sron Tsan Gampo,3 the Indian king (?)
Amoghasiddha,4 and the fiendess D6-ba-zan-mo.5
1 rhon-pa blue masks adorned with cowries, and have kilts of Yak's-hair ropes which
fly round at right angles as the men pirouette like dancing dervishes.
2 Ch'os-rgyal-nor-bzah. 3 rgya-za pal-za.
* rgyal-po don-grub. > 'rgo-ba-bzah-ir.6, the consoit cf Ealesvaia.
PRINCE VISVANTARA. 541
VISVANTARA.
THE GREATEST OF BUDDHA'S. FORMER BIRTHS.
Throughout the Buddhist world the story of prince Visvantara
is the most favourite of all the tales of Buddha's former births.1
It represents the climax of the virtuous practice (the pdrdmita)
of charity, in which the princely Bodhisat, in order to attain Buddha
hood, cuts himself loose from all worldly ties by giving away not
only all his wealth, but also his children and even his beloved wife.
It is one of the most touching of the legendary tales of its class,
and still exercises a powerful fascination for orientals, moving
many to tears. Even the rough Indo-Scythian tribes, who invaded
India about the beginning of the Christian era, could not refrain
from tears when they saw the picture of the sufferings of this
prince.2 It is sculptured on the Sanchi Topes at Bhilsa, and it is
also the most favourite of all the sacred plays with the southern
Buddhists3; though, as Mr. Ealston observes, " such acts of
renunciation as the princely Bodhisat accomplished do not com-
' Of the ten Great (former) Births (Mahajataka) this is considered the greatest, and
it was the last earthly birth but one of the Bodhisat. It purports to have been nar
rated by Buddha himself at the monastery of the Fig-tree (Nigrodha, Ficus Indica) in
Buddha's native country of Kapilavastu, d propos of the over-weening pride of his
own kindred. The Milinda dialogues [Joe. cit.), written about 150 a.d., contain many
references to it.
2 Sung Yun's history, translated by S. Beal, Records, p. 201.
. 3 See Hardy's Man., pp. 116-124. The late Captain Forbes, in his work on British
Brnwa and its People, says : " One of the best I think, and certainly the most inter
esting performances I have seen in Burma, was that of a small children's company in
a village of about two hundred houses. The eldest performer was about fourteen,
the daughter of the head man, a slight pretty girl ; the others boys and girls, younger.
The parents and villagers generally were very proud of their talents, and they were
regularly trained by an old man as stage-manager, prompter, etc. Their principal piece
was the Way-than-da-ra, the story of one of the previous existences of Gan-da-ma, in
which he exemplified the great virtue of alms-giving, and in itself one of the most
affecting and beautifully written compositions in Burma. . . . The little company
used to perform this piece capitally, but the acting of the little maid of fourteen in
the part of the princess could not be surpassed. She seemed really to have lost her
self in her part ; and her natural and graceful attitudes heightened the effect. The
first time I witnessed the performance in going round and saying a word to the tiny
actors, when I came to the little fellow of ten or eleven who had acted the part of the
surly and greedy Brahmin, I pretended to be disgusted with his cruelty to the two
poor infants. This the little man took in earnest, so much to heart that as I learnt,
on my next visit, nothing would induce him to act the part again, and it was not
till his father almost forcibly brought him to me and I had soothed him by what was
deemed most condescending kindness and excited his vanity, that I could obtain a
repetition of the play." Captain Forbes also states that he has seen men moved to
tears by the acting of this play.

542

MYSTIC AND SACRED PLAYS.

Key to Picture of Visvantara Jataka, 34

24
49
23
36
35
38 32 31
40 16
41 42 9a
43 15
45
44
21
14
20
47
i The sonless king and queen be
wailing their lot.
2. A son is obtained after worshipping
the Buddhas.
3. A princess sought for his wife.
4. His suit urged by princess's father.
5. Bride leaving her father's palace.
6. Visvantara meeting his bride.
7. Their family.
8. Giving charity.
9. Brahman sent for the Wishing Gem.
9a. Brahman begging the gem.
10. Prince hesitating to give it.
11. Leads Brahman to his treasury.
12 Brahman refusing other jewels.
13. Prince giving up gem.
14. Placing it on white elephant.
15. Arrival of Brahman with jewel.
16. Its deposit in the enemy's palace.
17. Prince upbraided by his family.
18. Minister urging king to kill prince.
19. Prince saved from lynching.
•20. His banishment.
.21. Citizens bidding him farewell.
22. Brahmans beg bis elephants.
23. Brahmans beg his chariots.
24. He and family proceed on foot. ¦
25. Miraculous crossing of river. S
10
11
48 13
17 7
12
6
36.
27.
19
Travelling to forest of banishment.
In forest.
28. Brahman begging for the children.
29. Children leave-taking.
30. Brahman beating the children.
31. Takes them to his home.
32. Engaged as drudges.
33. Forest hut.
34. Princess gathering food.
35. Birds assisting her. v
36. She is begged by Indra (Jupiter).
37. And is given and taken off.
38. Prince visited by 1,000 Buddhas.
39. Worship by animals, Nagas, etc.
40. His departure from forest with re
stored wife.
41. Gives his eyes to blind beggar.
42. The restored blind man's gratitude.
43. The blind prince led onwards.
44. The Buddhas restore his sight.
45. The wicked king begs forgiveness.
46. The Brahman returns the jewel.
47. Prince's joyous reception.
48. The prince and family at home
again.
49. The prince's re-birth as St. Padma,
. the founder of Lamaism.
The Buddhism of Tibet.

The great Former Birth of Buddha as the Charitable Prince
Visvantara.

[To face p. 542.

PRINCE VISVANTARA. 543
mend themselves to the western mind. An oriental story-teller
can describe a self-sacrificing monarch as cutting slices of flesh out
of his own arms and plunging them in the fire in honour of a
deity, and yet not be afraid of exciting anything but a religious
thrill among his audience. To European minds such a deed would
probably appear grotesque." '
The text of the story, as found in the Tibetan canon,2 agrees
generally with the Pali3 and Burmese4 accounts. I give here
an abstract of the version5 which is currently acted in western
Tibet. It differs in several details from tbe canonical narrative
and in the introduction of some incidents, such as the bestowal of
his eyes, which are usually regarded as pertaining to other Jatakas,
arid it also is given a local Tibetan application, and the founder of
Lamaism, St. Padma, is made to appear as a reincarnation of the
prince Visvantara. To illustrate the text, I give its pictorial
representation as a reduced tracing from a Tibetan painting.
The Omnipotent Pure One,8
oe
The Prince of Charity.
Salutation to the Sublime Lord of the World ! 7
Long long ago, in tbe city of Baidba,8 in India, there reigned a king
named Gridhip,9 who, after propitiating the gods and dragons, had a

1 Tibetan Tales, p. lvii.
2 Kah-gyur, iv., ff . 192-200, translated by Schiefner and Englished by Ralston, in
" Tibetan Tales," p. 257, who also traces its comparative aspect, p. lvii. In the
following account those portions which are identical with the canonical version are
put in quotation marks when given in Ralston's words.
3 Wessantara Jataka, Hardy's Manual, 116-124, and East. Monach., 83-428. Milinda
loc.cit.; Upham, Hid. and Doct. of Buddhism, p. 25 ; S. de Oldenburg, J.R.A.S., 1893,
p. 301.
4 " The Story of We-than-da-ya,'' Englished from the Burmese version of the Pali
text by L. A. Goss, Rangoon, American Bap. Mission, 1886.
5 Translated from the MS. of a company of Tibetan actors from Shigatse. It
generally agrees with the version in the Manikah-bum.
6 Dri-med-kun-Wan (pronounced Ti-med Eun-den).
' Namo aryalokesvara.
8 In the Mani-kah-bum it is called "The Sounding " (sGra-chan). In the Kah-gyur
" Visvanagara." It is believed by Tibetans to be the ancient Videha which they
identify with the modern "Bettiah" in northern Bengal, but it was evidently in
northern India.
» According to the Kah-gyur, Visvamitra ; the Mani-kah-'bum gives " the Voice of the
' Drum-Sound" (agra-dftyang-nsga-sgra), and the Pali "Sanda" and Burmese " Thain
See"'— Goss, loc cit., p. 7.

544 MYSTIC AND SACRED PLAYS.

son born unto him by his favourite queen, " The Pure Young Goddess," '
and the prince was named by the Brahmans the " Omnipotent Pure
Lord of the World " [but we shall call him by the better known name of
Visvantara]. This prince grew luxuriantly, " like a lotus in a pool,"
and soon acquired all accomplishments. He was " addicted to magna
nimity, bestowing presents freely and quite dispassionately and assiduous
in giving away." "When men heard of his excessive generosity, num
berless crowds flocked to beg of him from all directions, and he sent
none of them away without having fully realized their expectations, so
that after a few years of this wholesale almsgiving, no poor people
were left in-the country — all had become rich.
Now, this country owed its prosperity to an enchanted wish-granting
gem,2 which was kept in the custody of the king, and by virtue of
which the stores in his treasury, notwithstanding the enormous amounts
which were daily given away by his son, never grew less. The traditional
enemy of this country, the greedy king " of a barren land,4 hearing of
the prince's vow to bestow any part of his. property on anyone who
asked for it, secretly instructed one of his Brahmans to go and beg from
the prince the enchanted gem.
So the Brahman having arrived at the gate of the palace, threw
himself before the prince, exclaiming, with outstretched hands : " Vic
tory to thee, 0 prince ! our land is famished for want of rain, therefore
give unto me the enchanted Jewel ! "
Now, prince Visvantara was deeply distressed at hearing such a
request, and he hesitated to give away this precious gem, through fear
of offending his father, the king, and the people ; but finding that
the Brahman would accept nothing less than this gem, and reflect
ing that if he refused to give away any of his property which had
been asked from him, his charitable merit would cease, he besought
the blessing of the gem by placing it on his head, and then gave
it away without regret, saying, " May I, by this incomparable gift, be-1
come a Buddha." And the Brahman carried off the gem on a white
elephant to the foreign king, their enemy, who by virtue of the gem
waxed rich and threatened to invade the country, which now became
afflicted by famine and other disasters.
The prince's father and the people, hearing of the loss of the en
chanted gem, were furious with vexation, and tbe enraged minister,
i Lha-ch'ung dri-ma med-pa.
2 Tib., Nor-bu rfgos-'dod-dbung-'jom. ; Skt., Ointdmani. Its properties are analo
gous to La Mascotte. The Lamas say it was given to Buddha Amitabha by a white
Naga of the ocean. In the Burmese version (loc. cit. , p. 12), it is made to be the white
elephant ; but the word Naga means both elephant and the serpent-dragons, or mermen,
the guardians of treasure.
3 Sliin-thi-bstan.
4 mt'a-'k'ob bye-ma-s'ih druh. Kalinga (on the west of the Bay of Bengal). The
Ceylon version (Hardy's Manual, p. 116) makes the rain-producing elephant be
brought from Jayatura, the capital of Sibi, by Brahmans sent by the king of
Kalihga.

PRINCE VISVANTARA. 545
Tara-mdses, seized the prince and handed him over to the scaven
gers1 for lynching, and he was only rescued by the entreaties of the
good minister CandrakirtT and of his wife and children — -for he had,
when of age, married the beautiful princess, " The Enlightening Moon-
Sun," 2 better known as " Madrl," by whom he had two J children, a son
and daughter. The ministers decided that the person who informed
the prince of the arrival of the Brahman should lose his tongue ; he
who brought the Jewel from its casket-box should lose his hands ; he
who showed the path to the Brahman should lose his eyes ; and he
who gave away the Jewel should lose his head. To this the king
could not consent, as it meant the death of his beloved son, so he
ordered the prince to be banished for a period of twenty-five years
to " the black hill of the demons resounding with ravens." *
Then the prince prayed his father's forgiveness, and the king, filled
with sorrow at parting, 'besought his son, saying, " 0, son, give up
making presents and remain here." But the prince replied, " The
earth and its mountains may perhaps be overthrown, but I, 0 ! king,
cannot turn aside from the virtue of giving."
And the good prince implored his father's permission to devote seven
more days to almsgiving, to which the king consented.
Prince Visvantara, addressing the princess, besought her to cherish
their darling children, and to accept the hand of a protecting consort
worthy of her incomparable virtue and beauty. But the princess, feeling
hurt even at the suggestion of her separation, refused to part from
him, and inspired by a desire to comfort the prince, paints in glowing
colours the amenities of life in the forest of banishment, though the
prince protested that it was a wilderness of thorns, beset by tigers,
lions, venomous snakes, and scorpions and demons, excessively hot
during the day, and rigorously cold at night, where there are no houses
or even caves for shelter, and no couch but grass, and no food but
jungle fruits.
The princess, however, replies, " Be the dangers what they may, I
would be no true wife were I to desert you now," and thus refuses to
part from him ; so they set out accompanied by their children,5 riding
in a three-horse chariot and on one elephant.
" When the prince, together with his wife and children, had reached
i Skt., Chandal.
2 Ni-zla-sgron-ma, daughter of king Grags-pa (=Skt., Eirti). Another account says
he also married "The Lamp of the Sky" (Namk'ai sgron-ma), daughter of king Dri-
ma-Med-pa, of the " Lotus " country. And these two are said to have been first met
by him carrying -udumwara flowers on one of his charitable rounds of visiting the
temple.of Buddha Yes'e-/tod-mdsad-tok, or "the Buddha of the Light Diadem of fore
knowledge." The Burmese version states (Goss' trans., p. 11) that he visited "The
Six Temples " six times every month, mounted on his white elephant Pis-sa-ya.
3 Another version gives three children.
* The place of banishment, according to the Pali, was Vankagiri.
5 Named 'Od-zer-tok, and Utpalmani. The southern version gives the name of the
son as Jalin and of the daughter as Krishnajina.
N N

546 MYSTIC AND SACRED PLAYS.
the margin of the forest, all the people who formed his retinue raised a
loud cry of lament. But so soon as it was heard, the Bodhisat addressed
the retinue which had come forth from the good city, and ordered it to
turn back, saying, —
" ' However long any thing may be loved and held dear, yet separation
from it is undoubtedly imminent. Priends and relatives must un
doubtedly be severed from what is dearest to them, as from the trees
of the hermitage wherein they have rested from the fatigues of the
journey. Therefore when ye recollect that all over the world men are
powerless against separation from their friends, ye must for the sake of
peace strengthen your unsteady minds by unfailing exertion.'
" When the Bodhisat had journeyed three hundred yojanas, a Brah
man came to him, and said, ' 0 Kshatriya prince, I have come three
hundred yojanas because I have heard of your virtue. It is meet that
you should give me the splendid chariot as a recompense for my
fatigue.' " Madri could not bear this, and she addressed the begging Brahman
in angry speech : ' Alas ! this Brahman, who even in the forest entreats
the king's son for a gift, has a merciless heart. Does no pity arise
within him when he sees the prince fallen from his royal splendour ? '
The Bodhisat said, ' Find no fault with the Brahman.' 'Why not?'
' Madri, if there were no people of that kind who long after riches, there
would also be no giving, and in that case how could we, inhabitants of
the earth, become possessed of insight. As giving and the other Para-
mitas (or virtues essential to a Buddhaship) rightly comprise the
highest virtue, the Bodhisats constantly attain to the highest insight.'
"Thereupon the Bodhisat bestowed the chariot and horses on that
Brahman with exceeding great joy, and said, ' 0 Brahman, by means of
this gift of the chariot, a present free from the blemish of grudging, may I
be enabled to direct the car of the sinless Law directed by the most ex
cellent Bishi ! '
" When Visvantara had with exceeding great joy bestowed on the
Brahman the splendid chariot, he took prince Krishna on his shoulder,
and Madri took princess Jalim.1 They went forth into the forest,
proceeding on foot, when five Brahmans appeared and begged for their
clothes, which were at once taken off and given to them. The prince
and his family then clothed themselves with leaves, and trudged along
painfully for about a hundred miles, until a mighty river barred their
progress. The prince then prayed, ' 0 ! Great river, make way for
us ! ' Then the torrent divided, leaving a lane of dry land, across
which they passed. On reaching the other side, the prince, addressing
the river, said, ' 0 ! river, resume your course, otherwise innumerable
animal beings lower down your course will suffer misery from drought !
On which the river straightway resumed its course.
" Then, journeying onwards, they reached the forest of penance
i In Hardy's Southern Recension, the boy is called Jaliya and the girl Krishnayina
(Manual, p. 116). — Schiefner.

PRINCE VISVANTARA. 547
among snowy-white mountains and forest-clad l hills; and by the aid of
two mendicants of the Mahayana creed whom they accidentally met,
they fixed on a hillock for their abode. And the prince dwelt there in
a separate cell hue a celibate monk, and took the vow which pleased his
heart, and it was not altogether an unpleasant life. The water welled
out of the ground conveniently near, and flowers and most luscious
fruits appeared in abundance, and the parrots assisted the princess and
children in gathering fruit by nipping the stem of the best fruits on the
highest trees. And the carnivorous animals left off preying on animals
and took to eating grass. The most pleasing songsters amongst the
birds settled near by, and the wild animals treated the young prince
and princess as playmates, and rendered them useful aid. Thus
the young prince riding on a deer, fell off and bruised his arm, when a
monkey at once carried him to a lake and bathed and soothed the
wound with healing herbs.
" One day, when Madri had gone to collect roots and fruits in the
penance-forest, a Brahman 2 came to Visvantara, and said, ' 0 prince of
Kshatriya race, may you be victorious ! As I have no slave, and
wander about alone with my staff, therefore is it meet that you should
give me your two children.' As the Bodhisat, Visvantara, after hear
ing these words, hesitated a little about giving his beloved children, the
Brahman said to the Bodhisat, —
" ' 0 prince of Kshatriya race, as I have heard that you are the giver
of all things, therefore do I ask why you still ponder over this request
of mine. You are renowned all over the earth as the possessor of a
compassion which gives away all things : you are bound to act constantly
in conformity with this renown.'
" After hearing these words the Bodhisat said to the Brahman, ' 0
great Brahman, if I had to giveaway my own life I should not hesitate
for a single moment. How, then, should I think differently if I had
to give away my own children ? 0 great Brahman, under these cir
cumstances I have bethought me as to how the children, when given
by me, if I do give away these two children who have grown up
in the forest, will live full of sorrow on account of their separation
from their mother. And inasmuch as many will blame me, in that
with excessive mercilessness I have given away the children and not
myself, therefore is it better that you, 0 Brahman, should take
me.' '
" The Brahman presses his petition and says, ' It is not right that I,
after having come to you, should remain without a present, and all
my cherished hopes be brought to nought.' On hearing this the prince,
though torn by paternal emotion, gave the children, saying, ' May I, by
virtue of this gift, become a Buddha.'
" Meanwhile, Madri had set off for the hermitage, carrying roots and
fruits, and when the earth shook, she hurried on all the faster towards

1 The chief trees were"Ka-det" (Cralcem Roxburghii).
2 "Zoo-za-ga" of Don-nee-wee-ta in Kalinga, according to the Burmese (Trans., loc.
"''.. p. 35). N N 2

548 MYSTIC AND SACRED PLAYS.
the hermitage. A certain deity who perceived that she might hinder
the surrender which the Bodhisat proposed to make for the salvation
of the world, assumed the form of a lioness and barred her way. Then
Madri said to this wife of this king of the beasts, ' 0 wife of the king of
the beasts, full of wantonness, wherefore do you bar my way ? In order
that I may remain truly irreproachable, make way for me that I may
pass swiftly on. Moreover, you are the wife of the king of the beasts,
and I am the spouse of the Lion of Princes, so that we are of similar
rank. Therefore, 0 queen of the beasts, leave the road clear for
me.' " When Madri had thus spoken, the deity who had assumed the
form of a lioness turned aside from the way. Madri reflected for a
moment, recognizing inauspicious omens, for the air resounded with
wailing notes, and the beings inhabiting the forest gave forth sorrowful
sounds, and she came to the conclusion that some disaster had certainly
taken place in the hermitage, and said, ' As my eye twitches, as the
birds utter cries, as fear comes upon me, both my children have cer
tainly been given away ; as the earth quakes, as my heart trembles, as
my body grows weak, my two children have certainly been given
away.' " With a hundred thousand similar thoughts of woe she hastened
towards the hermitage. Entering therein she looked mournfully
around, and, not seeing the children, she sadly, with trembling heart,
followed the traces left on the ground of the hermitage. ' Here the
boy Krishna and his sister were wont to play with the young gazelles ;
here is the house which they twain made out of earth ; these are the
playthings of the two children. As they are not to be seen, it is pos
sible that they may have gone unseen by me into the hut of foliage
and may be sleeping there.' Thus thinking and hoping to see the
children, she laid aside the roots and fruits, and with tearful eyes
...embraced her husband's feet, asking, ' O lord, whither are the boy and
girl gone ? ' Vi svantara replied, ' A Brahman came to me full of hope.
To whom have I given the two children. Thereat rejoice.' When he
had spoken these words, Madri fell to the ground like a gazelle pierced
by a poisoned arrow, and struggled like a fish taken out of the water.
Like a crane robbed of her young ones she uttered sad cries. Like a
cow, whose calf has died, she gave forth many a sound of wailing.
Then she said, ' Shaped like young lotuses with hands whose flesh is as
tender as a young lotus leaf.1 My two children are suffering, are
undergoing pain, wherever they have gone. Slender as young gazelles,
gazelle-eyed, delighting in the lairs of the gazelles, what sufferings are
my children now undergoing in the power of strangers 1 With tear
ful eyes and sad sobbing, enduring cruel sufferings, now that they are
no longer seen by me, they live downtrodden among needy men. They
who were nourished at my breast, who used to eat roots, flowers, and

1 Properly, " lotus arrow." According to Maximowicz the young lotus leaves are
reed-like or arrow-like in appearance. — Schiefner.

PRINCE VISVANTARA. 549
fruits, they who, experiencing indulgence, were never wont to enjoy
themselves to the full, those two children of mine now undergo great
sufferings. Severed from their mother and their family, deserted by
the cruelty of their relatives, thrown together with sinful men, my two
children are now undergoing great suffering. Constantly tormented
by hunger and thirst, made slaves by those into whose power they
have fallen, they will doubtless experience the pangs of despair.
Surely I have committed some terrible sin in a previous existence, in
severing hundreds of beings from their dearest ones.'
"After gratifying the Bodhisat with these words, the king of the
gods, Sakra, said to himself : ' As this man, when alone and without
support, might be driven into a corner, I will ask him for Madri.' So
he took the form of a Brahman, came to the Bodhisat, and said to him :
' Give me as a slave this lovely sister, fair in all her limbs, unblamed
by her husband, prized by her race.' Then in anger spake Madri to
the Brahman : ' O shameless and full of craving, do you long after her
who is not lustful like you, O refuse of Brahmans, but takes her
delight according to the upright law ? ' Then the Bodhisat, Visvantara,
began to look upon her with compassionate heart, and Madri said to
him : ' I have no anxiety on my own account, I have no care for my
self ; my only anxiety is as to how you are to exist when remaining
alone.' Then said the Bodhisat to Madri : ' As I seek after the height
which surmounts endless anguish, no complaint must be uttered by me,
0 Madri, upon this earth. Do you, therefore, follow after this Brah
man without complaining. I will remain in the hermitage, living
after the manner of the gazelles.'
"When he had uttered these words, he said to himself with joyous
and exceedingly contented mind : ' This gift here in this forest is my
best gift. After I have here absolutely given away Madri too, she
shall by no means be recalled.' Then he took Madri by the hand and
said to that Brahman : ' Receive, 0 most excellent Brahman, this is my
dear wife, loving of heart, obedient to orders, charming in speech, de
meaning herself as one of lofty race.'
" When in order to attain to supreme insight, he had given away
his beautiful wife, the earth quaked six times to its extremities like a
boat on the water. And when Madri had passed into the power of the
Brahman, overcome by pain at being severed from her husband, her
son, and her daughter, with faltering breath and in a voice which
huskiness detained within her throat, she spoke thus : ' What crimes
have I committed in my previous existence that now, like a cow whose
calf is dead, I am lamenting in an uninhabited forest ? ' Then the
king of the gods, Sakra, laid aside his Brahman's form, assumed his
proper shape and said to Madri : ' 0 fortunate one, I am not a Brah
man, nor am I a man at all. I am the king of the gods, Sakra, the
subduer of the Asuras. As I am pleased that you have manifested the
most excellent morality, say what desire you would now wish to have
satisfied by me.'
" Rendered happy by these words, Madri prostrated herself before

550 MYSTIC AND SACRED PLAYS.
Sakra, and said : ' O thou of the thousand eyes, may the lord of the
three and thirty set my children free from thraldom, and let them find
their way to their great grandfather.' After these words had been
spoken the prince of the gods entered the hermitage and addressed the
Bodhisat. Taking Madri by the left hand, he thus spoke to the Bodhi
sat : 'I give you Madri for your service. You must not give her to any
one. If you give away what has been entrusted to you fault will be
found with you.' l
" The king of the gods, in accordance with his promise, caused angels
every night to unloose and nurse the unfortunate children of the
illustrious recluse when the wicked Brahman fell asleep, and only re-
tied them just before he awaked. Afterwards he deluded the Brahman
who had carried off the boy and girl, so that under the impression that
it was another city, he entered the self-same city from which they had
departed, and there set to work to sell the children. When the
ministers saw this they told the king, saying : ' O king, your grand
children, Krishna and Jalinl, have been brought into this good city in
order to be sold, by an extremely worthless Brahman.' When the
king heard these words, he said indignantly, ' Bring the children here,
forthwith.' "
When this command had been attended to by the ministers, and
the townspeople had hastened to appear before the king, one of the
ministers brought the children before him. When the king saw his
grand- children brought before him destitute of clothing and with foul
bodies he fell from his throne to the ground, and the assembly of
ministers, and women, and all who were present, began to weep. Then
the king said to the ministers : " Let the bright-eyed one, who, even
when dwelling in the forest, delights in giving, be summoned hither at
once, together with his wife."
Then the king sent messengers to recall his son; but the latter
would not return until the full period of his banishment was over.
On his way back he meets a blind man, who asks him for his eyes,
which he immediately plucks out and bestows on the applicant, who
thus receives his sight.2 The prince, now blind, is led onwards by his
wife, and on the way meets " The Buddhas of the Three Periods," —
the Past, Present, and Future, namely, Dipamkara, Sakya,3and Maitreya,
who restore the prince's sight.
Journeying onwards he is met by the hostile king who had been the
cause of all his trouble, but who now returns him the gem, and with
it much money and jewels, and he implored the prince's forgive
ness for having caused his banishment and sufferings, and he prayed
that when the prince became a Buddha he might be born as one of his
attendants. The prince readily forgave him, and accorded him his
other requests, and they became friends.

i Ralston, op. cit.
¦* Cf., The " Sibi Jataka."
3 This is rather absurd, as it is supposed to have happened before Sakya's birth.

PRINCE VISVANTARA. 551
On the approach of the prince to the capital, the old king, his
father, caused the roads to be swept and strewn with flowers, and
sprinkled with sweet perfume, and met him with flags and joyous
music. And he gave again into his son's charge all the treasure and
jewels. The prince, thus restored to his former position, resumed his whole
sale bestowal of charity as before, and everyone was happy. The
young princess, Utpalmani, married the son of the Brahman chief,
named Ksheman. And the young prince married the beautiful princess
Mandhara, daughter of king Lja-wai-tok ; and succeeding to the
throne, he left his father free to indulge in his pious pursuit, Charity.
The play concludes by the chief actor, who takes the part of
the charitable prince, giving the piece a local Tibetan applica
tion. He states : I, " The Lord of the World," am afterwards king Sron-
Tsan Gampo (the introducer of Buddhism into Tibet), and my two
wives are afterwards his Chinese and Newari princess-consorts. The
two Bhikshus, who assisted me, are afterwards Thonmi Sambhota (the
minister of king Sron-Tsan, who introduced writing to Tibet), and
Manjusri (the introducer of astrology and metaphysics), the demon
who obstructed the two queens is Sri Vajrapani. And five generations
later, I, Sron-Tsan Gampo, appeared as Padma-sambhava, the founder of
Lamaism. The prince 'Od-zer-tok is Norbu 'Dsin-pa, the princess
Utpalmani is Lhamo dbyan Chan-ma (Saraswati devi). That Brahman
is the black devil Tharba, and his wife is grNod sbyin-ma, or " The
injuring Yakshini." That uninhabited wilderness of the demons, re
sounding with the croaking of ravens, is the snowy region of Tibet.
The dwelling place there of the king is Yar-luns gyalwal-k'ra-'buk ; and
that great river is the Yar-chab Tsan-po (The " Tsanpu " or Brahma
putra). Thus history repeats itself !. Mahgalam ! [and here the people
all shout " Maiigalam — All Happiness,"].
Another popular play is the Sudhdna Jataka,, which is men
tioned by FaHian,1 and is also met with in southern Buddh
ism.2 The Tibetan version is here given.3
The Sudhana Jataka.
Its chief dramatis personal are the following : —
Nor-zan ch'os-skyoh, The Prince Sudhana, without a mask.
Mende-zah-mo, the beautiful fairy Kinnara and two other goddesses.
A black-hat sorcerer.
Non-ba, a hunter in a blue mask holding a jewel.

1 Beal's Records, etc., 157, chap, xxxviii. ; also Raj Mitra, Nepalese Skt. Lit., p. 62.
2 By Upham, under name Sudana or Sutana ; cf . Spence Hardy's Manual, p. 116.
' Nor-bzah.

552 MYSTIC AND SACRED PLAYS.
Ma-cho Ya-ma gen-te, the chief wife of the prince. Wears mask having
right side white (= divine colour) and left side black (= satanic), to represent
her composite disposition.
Luk-zi ch'un-me tak-gye, in sheep-skin coat, flour-smeared face, carrying
reel of wool thread, and a sling.
The seven S'em-pa brothers, armed with swords, etc. , two-eyed, ferocious,
with mouth agape.
The Hermit Lama Toh-soh ch'en bo, with a yellow mask, and carrying a
rosary. The plot is as follows : A serpent-charmer endeavours by in
cantations to capture the Naga which confers prosperity on his
enemy's country. The Naga, alarmed at the potency of the
sorcerer's spells, appeals to a hunter, who kills the sorcerer, and is
presented with a magic noose as a reward for his services. This
noose he bequeaths to his son, Utpala or Phalaka, who one day in
the forest near Valkalayana's hermitage at Hastinapura, hearing a
celestial song sung by a marvellously beautiful Kinnari fairy, he
captured the fairy with his magic noose. The Kinnari to regain
her liberty offered him her jewelled crown, which conferred the
power of traversing the universe. Meanwhile a young prince of
Hastinapura named Sudhana, or Manibhadra,1 engaged on a hunting
expedition, appears upon the scene. He gets the jewel, marries the
Kinnari, and gives her his entire affection. His other wives, mad
with jealousy, endeavour to kill her during his absence, but she
escapes to her celestial country, leaving, however, with the hermit
a charmed ring for the prince should he seek to follow her to her
supernatural home. The prince pursues her, overcoming innu
merable obstacles, and finally gains her, and also obtains her
father's consent to their marriage, and to their return to the earth,
where they live happy ever after.
This story, which is translated in detail by Mr. Ealston, presents
many parallels to western folk-tales. Mr. Ralston remarks in this
regard that " One of these is the capture by the hunter Palaka of
the celestial maiden, the Kinnari Manohara, who becomes Su-
dhana's bride. This is effected by means of a ' fast binding chain '
which the hunter throws around her when she is bathing in a
lake. Her companions fly away heavenwards, leaving her a captive
on earth. This incident will at once remind the reader of the
capture of ' swan-maidens ' and other supernatural nymphs, '
which so frequently occur in popular romances. . . . Mano-
1 Csoma. Analy., p. 542.

THE SUDANA JATAKA— NAN-SA. 553

hara is captured by means of a magic chain. But her power of
flying through the air depends upon her possession of a jewel.
. . . Sudhana's visit to the palace of his supernatural
wife's father, and tbe task set him of recognizing her amid her
ladies, bear a strong resemblance to the adventure which befall
the heroes of many tales current in Europe. A mortal youth
often obtains, and then for a time loses, a supernatural wife,
generally represented in tbe daughter of a malignant demon. He
makes his way, like Sudhana, to the demon's abode. There tasks
are set him which he accomplishes by means of his wife's help,
and the Russian story of ' The Water King,' Grimm's ' Two Kings'
Children,' the Norse ' Mastermaid,' and the Scottish Highland
' Battle of the Birds,' are shown to be European variants or
parallels to this tale." 1
Of indigenous Tibetan plays the chief is :— .
NAN-SA ;
OR,
"The Brilliant Light."
This drama, now translated from the Tibetan 2 for the first time,
is one of the most popular plays in Tibet, and its popularity is
doubtless .owing, not a little, to its local colour being mainly
Tibetan, though, like most of the other plays, it is moulded on the
model of the Buddhist Jatakas.
Its chief scene is laid at Rinang, a few miles to the south-east
of Gryan-tse,3 the well-known fortified town between Tashi-lhunpo
and Lhasa, where the several sites of the story are still pointed
out, and an annual fair held in honour of Nan-sa' s memory. It
also well illustrates the current mode of marriage in Tibet, by
planting an arrow4 on the girl's back, so clearly a survival of the
primitive form of marriage by capture.
1 Op. cit., xlviii.
- I obtained the MS. from a strolling company of actors who visited Darjiling under
the auspices of the Tibetan commissioner. I have curtailed it in places, on account
of the inordinate length of the original narrative.
3 The Tibetan words are romanized according to Csoma de Koros' method of trans
literation. * The arrow was the primitive national weapon of the Tibetans ; and their military
chief or general is still called /»Dah-dpon, or " Commander of the Arrows " ; and a
golden or gilt arrow is a symbol of military command in Tibet.

554 MYSTIC AND SACRED PLAYS.
Dramatis Personal.
Nah-sa (" The Brilliant Light ").
Kun-zahde-ch'en(" The Nobly Virtuous") — Nari- sa's father (wears a red mask),
Myah-sa-sal-dbh (" The Lamp of Bliss ") — Nan-sa's mother.
Dag-ch'en rluk dag- pa ("The Roaring Dragon ") — Lord of Rinang.
So-nam pal-Kye— 7ns minister.
Lha-pu-dar-po (" The Gentle Divinity ") — Nan-sa's son.
Ani Nemo — Lord Rinang's sister.
Lama Shakyai gyal-ts'an — Monk in beggar's guise.
Shin-je Ch'o-wa — The King of the Dead.
Servants, Soldiers, etc.

Act I.
The Re-births of the Deer — A Story of Nan-sa's former Births.
Scene — India. Time — Immemorial.
Om ! Salutation to the Revered and Sublime Tara, ! 1
In bygone times, far beyond conception, there lived in the revered
country of India an old couple of the Brahman caste who during their
youth had no children, but when they waxed old and feeble, a daughter
was born unto them.
This child was secluded till her fifteenth year, when, peeping outside
one day, she for the first time saw the landscape of the outer world.
And as she observed the different classes of people cultivating their
plots, whilst her own family-plot lay neglected, she ran to her mother
and said : " Mother, dear ! the giver of my body ! Listen to me, your
own daughter ! All the different classes of people are busy tilling their
fields while our family-land lies neglected. Now as the time for culti
vation has come, permit me, mother, to cultivate our fields with our
servants ! "
The mother, having granted her request, the daughter proceeded to
work with the servants, and they laboured on till breakfast-time, but
no one brought them food. This neglect caused the girl uneasiness, not
so much on her own account as on that of the servants ; but in the
belief that food would be sent, she laboured on till sunset, when she
and her companions returned home starving.
As they neared the house the girl met her mother bringing some re
freshment for them ; and she asked her why she had so long delayed,
as the servants were quite famished. The mother explained that in
entertaining some visitors who had called during the day, she had quite
forgotten the food for her daughter and servants.
Then the daughter petulantly exclaimed, " Mother ! you are incon
siderate like a grass-eating beast ! " On this the mother cried out: " 0 !
ungrateful one ! I your mother ! who have reared you, and clad and
fed you with the be.st, you now in return call me a beast ! May you in
your next re-birth be born as an ownerless grass-eating beast ! "
1 Nah-sa is held to be an incarnation of the Buddhist goddess Tara.

NAN-SA. 555

So after a time the girl died and was re-born as a deer, according to
the curse of her mother.
In course of time her deer-parents died, and the young doe was left
alone in strict accordance with her mother's curse.
While in such a plight, a handsome young hart, with a mouth like a
conch-shell, came up to her and said : " O, ownerless orphan doe ! hear me,
the hart Dar-gyas, ' The Vast Banner ! ' Where is your mate in grazing
during the three months of spring ? Where is your companion to tend
you down to the river ? Where is the partner who will remain with you
through life ? "
The young doe, timidly raising her head, said : "0, master hart 1
pray be off ! I graze during spring without a partner ! I go down to
the river without a comrade. Gambolling on the hills and dales, I place
my faith on The Three Holy Ones alone ! "
The hart then replied : " 0, noble and virtuous doe ! pray hear me !
I am the ornament of all the herds ! won't you become my mate 1 I
will be your companion when you eat grass. I will be your comrade
when you go to the river ; and I will support you in all your difficulties.
So from this time forth let us be bound in wedlock inseparably, for
doubtless we have been brought together here through the deeds and
fate of our former lives."
Then the doe consenting, these two became partners and lived
together most happily ; and not long afterwards the doe gave birth
to a fawn who was named sKar-ma-p'un-ts'ogs, or " The accomplished
Star." One night the doe dreamt a most inauspicious dream ; and at mid
night she awoke the hart, saying : " Hearken ! 0 deer, Dar-gyas ! I
dreamt as I slept a dreadful dream ! This Yal-wa mountain-ridge was
overspread by a terrible thundering noise, and I saw several hunters
appear. I saw the dogs and hunters pursuing you — the hart — towards
the left ridge of the hill, and I, with our child, the fawn, fled by the
right ridge of the hill. I dreamt again that the decapitated head of a
deer was arranged as a sacrifice, and the skin was stretched out to dry
on the meadow, and oh, the blood ! it flowed down and formed an awful
pool like many oceans ! O, deer ! Sleep no longer ! but arise and let us
fast escape to the highest hills."
But the hart refused to listen to the advice of his mate : and
saying that " the words of females are like unto the dust," he fell
asleep. Not long afterwards, a ring-tailed red hunting dog seemed to be
approaching from the distant barks which now were to be heard dis
tinctly by all the awakened deer.
Too late, the hart then realized that the vision of his doe must have
indeed been true ; therefore he hurriedly gave the following advice to
the doe and the fawn, feeling great pity for them : " 0 ! poor doe and
fawn I flee by the left ridge and make good your escape ! and if we do
not meet again in this life, let us meet in our next life in the pure
kingdom of righteousness ! " On so saying the hart fled ; and the
mother and the fawn made their escape by the left ridgo.

556 MYSTIC AND SACRED PLAYS.
Meanwhile, the hart, hotly pursued by the hunting-dog, was chased
into a narrow gorge where he could not escape; and at that critical
moment a man with his hair bound up, bearded and fearfully fierce-
looking, with pointed eyebrows, and carrying a noose and a bow and
arrow, descended from the top of the cliff, and catching the hart in the
noose he killed it with one shot from bis bow.
Thus everything happened exactly according to the doe's dream.
The deceased hart was afterwards re-born in a respectable family of
Ri-nan-cZpah-k'a, and named Grag-pa-osam-grub, or " The famous
Heart " ; while the doe after death was reborn in ZJan-p'al-k'un-nan-pa,
and was named sNan-sa-'Od-'bum, or " brilliant above a hundred
thousand lights." The fawn after death was re-born as their son, and
assumed the name of Lha-bu-dar-po, or " the gentle divinity."
[Here endeth the first act dealing with " The Re-births of the Deer."]
Act II.
The Life, Marriage, and Death of Nan-sa.
Scene — Rinang. Time — Latter end of eleventh century a.d.
Om I Ma-ni. pad-me Hum ! Oml the Jewel in the Lotus ! Hum]
Long ago, there lived a father named Kun-bzan-bde-ch'en and a
mother named Myan-sa-gsal-sgron in ZJan-ph'an-k'un-Nan-pa, on the
right of Myah-stod-s'el-dkar-rgyal-rtse (Gan-tse).
The mother once had a strange vision, regarding which she thus
addressed her husband : " 0, great father ! Listen ! Whilst asleep, I
dreamt a most auspicious dream ! I dreamt that a lotus-flower blossomed
forth from my body, to which many fairies made offerings and paid
homage. And a ray of light in the form of the letter Tarn, of the
revered goddess Tara's spell, entered my head ! " On hearing this the
father was overjoyed, and exclaimed, "0! Myan-sa-gsal-sgron-ma !
Mark my words; by God's blessing, through our making offerings
unto Him, and as the fruit of our charity to the poor, an incarnate
Bodhisat is about to come unto us ! We must again offer thanks" unto
God and do the several ceremonies."
In course of time a divine-looking daughter was born unto them.
She was peerlessly beautiful, and so was named Nan-sa, " the brilliant
above a hundred thousand lights," and a grand festival was given at
her birth.
By her fifteenth year Nan-sa was fully educated, and matchlessly
beautiful; and though she was most pious, practising fully all the
religious rites, she was most modest, and forgot not her filial love and
duty. In the fourth month of that year, during the summer season, a
grand tournament was given by the king, to which everyone was in
vited, and the whole population of the neighbouring countries, young
and old, flocked to j-Gyal-rtse-sger-tsa to see the sports.1 The games
1 Known as #Nas-snih-&Zuh-'p'hrug.

NAN-SA. 557

were held by order of the great king of Myan-stod-ni-nan-pa for the
selection of a bride fit for his son. The king himself was of a fiery
temper, long like a river, round like a pea, and slender like a stick.
Nah-sa also, having taken leave of her parents, set out for the sports.
Her moon-like face was white as milk, and her neatly-dressed hair
looked like a bouquet of flowers. Thus went she, " the princess," as
she was called, to see the grand spectacle, accompanied by her servants,
carrying the needful presents.
As she neared the market, where the great gathering was held, the
king and prince were looking down from the balcony of their palace,
and the prince at once caught sight of her, and his eyes remained
rivetted on the princess. Whilst the multitude gazed at the players,
the prince followed only the movements of the princess.
The prince being fascinated by the beauty of the princess, soon
despatched to her his chief minister, named 6Sod-nam-dpal-skyed,
who, in compliance with his master's order, brought the princess before
the prince, just as the eagle Khra carries off a chicken.
And the prince, drawing the princess by her shawl with his left
hand and offering her wine with his right, addressed her, saying, —
" 0 ! pretty one ! sweet and pleasing-mouthed ! possessed of the five sen
suous qualities ! Tell me truly, whose daughter are you? Are you the daughter of
a god or a Naga, or are you an angelic Gandharva ? Pray hide nothing from me.
What is your father's name ? What is your birth-giver's name ? Who are
your neighbours ? I am the overruling lord of Mzang-stod-ri-nang ! and called
' The famous Roaring Dragon ! ' or Da-c'hens-'brug-grag-pa.1 My family is
the Grag-pa-bsam-'grub ! I am the jewel of these sheltering walls ! My
age is six times three (18). Will you consent to be my bride ? "
Nan-sa now thinking escape impossible, though she had desired to
devote herself to a religious life, answered the lord Da-ch'en : " Om !
Tara, have mercy on a poor girl void of religion ! 0 ! lord Da-ch'en,
I am called ' The Brilliant above a Hundred Thousand Lights,' and
am of a respectable family. But a poisonous flower, though pretty, is
not a fit decoration for an altar vase ; the blue Dole, though famous,
cannot match the turquoise ; the bird Zchog-mo, though swift, is no
match for the sky-soaring T'an-dkar-eagle, and Nan-sa, though not
bad-looking, is no match for the powerful lord of men."
On hearing this reply of Nan-sa, the minister took up the tur
quoise sparkling in rainbow tints, and, tying it to the end of the
arrow of the five-coloured silks, handed it to the prince, saying, " As
the proverb runs, ' Discontented youths are eager to war, while dis
contented maidens are eager to wed.' Thus, while this maid feigns
disqualifying plainness, she is really anxious to comply with your
wishes ; her pretended refusal is doubtless owing to modesty and the
publicity of such a crowd. Do thou, then, 0 powerful king ! plant
the arrow with the five-coloured streamers on her back, and thus fix
the marriage tie." 1 dgra ch'en.

558 MYSTIC AND SACRED PLAYS.
The prince, thinking that the advice was good, addressed Nah-
sa, saying, " 0! angelic princess! on whom one's eyes are never tired of
gazing, pray hear me. O ! pretty one, brilliant amongst a thousand
lights ! I, the great lord sGra-ch'en, am far-famed like the dragon ! I
am the most powerful king on earth ! And whether you choose to
obey my commands or not, I cannot let you go ! We have been drawn
here by the bonds of former deeds, so you must become my mate for
ever. Though the bow and bow-string be not of equal length and
materials, still they go together ; so you must be my mate for ever, as
we have certainly been brought together here through fate and former
deeds. The great ocean-fish consort with the affluent river fish, so must
you live with me. Though I and you differ much in position, you
must come with me. And from this day forth the maiden Nan-sa is
mine." So saying, he planted the arrow with its five rainbow-coloured
streamers on her back, and set the turquoise diadem on her fore
head. And she, being duly betrothed in this public fashion, returned
to her own home with her servants.
Nan-sa endeavoured to evade the betrothal and enter a convent
instead, but her parents pressed the match upon her and forced her to
accept the prince, and the nuptials were duly celebrated with great
feasting. Seven years later, Nan-sa bore a son, whose beauty excelled the gods,
hence he was named Lha-bu-Dar-pu, " The god's son," and a grand
festival was held in honour of his birth. And Nan-sa, so clever in all
the arts, so pretty and befitting her position, and so universally kind,
that all the subjects loved her, now became endeared to everyone even
more than before. And the three, the prince-father, the princeling,
and Nan-sa, were never separated even for a moment. But Nan-sa was
the jewel of them all, and she was given the keys of the treasury
which had formerly been held by the prince's elder sister, Ani-
Nemo-Ne-tso. Now this old Ani-Nemo, on being' deprived of her keys, became
madly jealous of Nan-sa, and began contriving means to injure her
reputation in the eyes of the prince, her husband.
Ani-Nemo helped herself to the best food and clothes, leaving the
very worst to Nan-sa, who was too mild and good to resent such treat
ment. Ultimately Nan-sa began to feel very sad, and though engaged.
in worldly affairs, she felt keenly the desire to devote herself wholly to
religion, but, she was afraid to reveal her thoughts to her husband and
son. One day while sad at heart, she went to the garden carrying the
young prince, and they all sat down together, the lord resting his
head on Nan-sa's lap. It was autumn, and the summer flowers had
ceased blossoming, and the gold and turquoise-coloured bees had gone.
Then Nan-sa wept on thinking that she could not realize her religious
desires, and that she was separated from her parents, and subject to
the torture of Ani's jealousy. But her lord comforted her, saying,

NAN-SA. 559

" 0 ! beloved Nan-sa, you shall have a chance of seeing your parents
soon, so do not feel sorry. Have patience to remain till the harvest
is gathered. Let us now go to 6Z'un-z'in-rin-ma with our servants and
collect the harvest, as the time is now far advanced." Then they went
there with their servants and Ani.
Now, there arrived at that place the devotee, Dor-grags-Ras-pa,1 and
his servant, and the devotee addressed Nan-sa thus, —
" Om! Salutation to our spiritual father, the Lama !
" 0 ! Nah-sa ! You are like the rainbow on the eastern mead, the rainbow
beautiful and pleasing to see, but quickly vanishing. Now the time for de
voting yourself to religion has arrived.
" 0 ! Nah-sa ! you are like the warbling bird of the southern forest, whose
voice, though pleasing and cheery, is ephemeral. Now the time for devoting
yourself to religion has come.
"0 ! Nan-sa ! you are like the Naga-dragon of the western ocean ; the Naga
possessing vast wealth, but without real substance. Now the time ftfr your
devotion to religion, which is the only true reality, has arrived. On death
nothing can save you but the real refuge of religion. The bravest hero
and the wisest man cannot escape. Now as there is no alternative, you
should avail yourself of this great chance, for once lost it may never be re-
found." On hearing this speech Nan-sa was overpowered with grief. And as
she had nothing to offer -the holy man as alms, for everything was in
charge of Ani, she, with faltering voice, said : " Though I am anxious
to offer you whatever alms you need, yet am I possessed of nothing,
but pray go to that house over there, where you will find Ani with a
sleek face, and seek alms from her."
The devotee and his servant accordingly went and requested Ani-
Nemo to give them some alms, but she replied : " O ! you beggars ! why
have you come begging of me! you plundering crew! you steal at
every chance ! You neither devote yourself to religious purposes in
the hills, nor do you work in the valleys. If you want alms go to
that person over there with the peacock-like prettiness, and the bird
like warbling voice, and the rainbow-like lofty mind, and with a
mountain of wealth, for I am only a poor servant and cannot give you
anything." The two devotees, therefore, returned to Nan-sa, and told her what
Ani had said. So Nan-sa gave alms to the devotees in spite of her fear
of displeasing Ani. The holy man replied, " It will be an auspi
cious meeting an event to look forward to, when Nan-sa and we two
meet again." On this Nan-sa became more cheerful, and giving more
alms to the devotees, bowed down before them and requested their
blessings. Now these proceedings did not escape the wary eye of Ani-Nemo,
who, waxing wroth, came out with a cane in her hand, and thus abused
Nah-sa :
• 1 A wandering Lama of the Kar-gyu-pa sect and contemporary of the great Mila-ras-
pa in the eleventh century a.d.

560 MYSTIC AND SACRED PLAYS.
" You look lovely, but your heart is black and venomous ! Listen to me,
0 peacock-like she-devil Nan-sa ! In those high mountains the holy Buddha
and the great Indian sages sat, but whence came and go devotees like these
Ras-pas ? If you give alms to all of them according to their requests I
would cut you even though you were my own mother ! In the S'on-z'm-rin-
mo of this country the chief products are barley and peas. Now you have
given away as alms all these men asked for, more than your own portion ; and
thus as you, too, are a beggar, go and accompany these others," and so saying,
she began to beat Nah-sa.
Nan-sa, imploring mercy, said : " What else could I do ? I gave
them alms to avoid scandal according to the saying, which runs,
' beggars carry bad news to the valleys, crows flesh to the peaks.'
The giving of alms to the poor and blind and offerings to the holy ones
is a most important duty of every rich family; for wealth collected by
avarice, like the honey collected by house-bees, is of no use to oneself.
Do not, therefore, call these venerable Ras-pas ' beggars,' but respect
and honour them ; and call not a girl a devil for being piously in
clined, or hereafter you may repent it." But Ani only beat her more
mercilessly, and tore her hair, which was like delicate Sete-Uang-pa grass.
And Naii-sa, left alone, wept bitterly, thinking of her misfortunes.
Meanwhile Ani-Nemo went to the lord, her brother, and said, " Hear,
0 ! lord ! Our mistress Nan-sa without doing any of. those things
she ought to, does the opposite. This morning a devotee, beautiful and
of pleasing voice, came up to this place accompanied by his servant, and
Nan-sa, fascinated by his beauty, fell madly in love with him and
behaved too immodestly for me even to describe it to you. As I was
unable to tolerate such conduct I ran down to stop this intercourse,
but was beaten and driven off. Therefore, O ! lord ! have I informed
you so that you can take such steps as you think fit."
The lord rather discredited this story, but remembering the proverb
" women and sons must be well brought up when young, otherwise
they will go wrong," he went to seek Nah-sa, and found her shedding
torrents of tears in solitude. On seeing her he said, " Ah ! Lah-se!
Listen to me ! you naughty Nan-sa ! Lah-se, why have you exceeded
all the bounds of propriety ! Lah-se ! Why did you beat my young
sister ! who gave you authority to do that 1 Lah-se .' Like a dog tied on
the house-top, barking at and trying to bite the stars of heaven ! What
has the fiendess Nan-sa to say in her defence 1 "
Nan-sa meekly replied, " My lord ! were I to relate all that
happened it would only make matters worse, and our subjects shall be
shown such strife as was unknown before. Therefore I refrain from
grieving you, O ! my lord, with any details."
But the lord interpreting the reticence of Nan-sa as sufficient proof
of her guilt, he seized her by the remaining hair, and beat her so un
mercifully that no one but Nan-sa ' could have endured it. And he
dragged her along the ground and inflicted the deepest pain by prick
ing reeds. Just then the male-servant 6Sod-nam-rfpab-skyed and the
female servant 'Dsom-pa-skyid-po came to Nan-sa's aid and besought
their master saying, —

NAN-SA. 561

" 0 ! Great and powerful Lord ! Listen to us, your slaves ! What can
have maddened your majesty to have inflicted such chastisement on your life-
partner? The lovely face of our lady Nah-sa, which shone like the moon
of the fifteenth day, is now bruised and bleeding by -your hands. O ! Lord of
Myah-stod-Ri-nang ! Pray stay your wrath, and you, O ! lady, cease to
weep ! "
Then the lord and his lady allowed themselves to be led away, each
to their own room.
At that time, Lama-S'akyahi-rgyal-mts'an, versed in the doctrine of
"The Great Perfection," lived in the monastery of sKyid-po-se-rag-ya-
lun in the neighbourhood. And perceiving that, according to the
prophecy of the great reverend Mila-ras, the princess Nan-sa was really
a good fairy, he thought fit to advise her to pursue her holy aims.
So dressing himself in the guise of a poor beggar, though his appear
ance rather belied him, and taking a young monkey which knew many
tricks, he went to the window of Nan-sa's chamber and sang this
song,— " O ! lady ! surpassing the godesses in beauty, pray sit by the window, and
cast your eyes hither, so that you may be amused at the tricks of this young
monkey, and lend me your ear to hear clearly the songs of a poor travelling-
beggar, who now stands in your presence.
" In the green.f orests of the eastern Kong-bu country dwell the monkeys
with their young, the wisest of whom clinib the high trees, but the foolish
ones roam recklessly on the ground, tasting the fruits according to their
whims, and one of these unlucky young ones fell into the clutches of a passing
beggar, who tied him by the neck as it deserved (through its Karma), and
subjected it to various tortures in teaching it his tricks.
"In the forests of the southern craggy Mon country the birds rear their
young, of whom the wisest and the strongest soar into the sky, while the
foolish ones perch on the lower trees. Thus Lhe speech-knowing parrot comes
within the grasp of the king who imprisons it and chains it by the feet, as it
deserved ; and it is tortured and troubled when being taught to speak.
"In the western country of Nepal, the country of rice, the bees breed their
young, of whom the fortunate ones sip the juice of the rice-flowers, while the
foolish ones, smelling the rice-beer, come, as they deserved, within the grasp
of the cruel boys, who tear them in their hands for the sake of their honey.
" In the northern country of Tsa-kha, the sheep bring forth lambs, of whom
the fortunate ones graze on the green meadow, frolicking and skipping in
their wild joy, while the unlucky ones come within the grasp of the butchers,
who kill them without mercy.
"In the middle country of Myah-stod-pser-grz'on-rih-mo, the mothers have
children, of whom the wisest spend their lives in the country ; while the un
lucky ones stay with their parents, but the most unlucky of all the pretty
girls is married to a lord, and Ani-Nemo treats her as she thinks she deserves.
Now if this girl fails to remember the inconstancy of life, then her body, though
pretty, is only like that of the peacock of the plains. If she does not stead
fastly devote herself to religion, her voice, though pleasing, is like the vain
cry of the 'Jolmo bird in the wilderness."
Here the man paused, while the monkey began to play many wonder
ful tricks, which amused the young prince ; while Nan-sa, deeply agi
tated by the song, ordered the beggar to enter her chamber, and
addressing him said, " 0 ! traveller in the guise of a beggar ! Listen
to me ! My earnest wish indeed is to devote my life to religion •
I have no earthly desires whatever ; I was forced to become the
0 o

562 MYSTIC AND SACRED PLAYS.
manager of a worldly bouse only through filial obedience to the dictates
of my parents. Now pray tell me, which is tbe most suitable convent for
me to enter, and who is the most learned Lama as a spiritual father ? "
The beggar gave her the information she desired. And Nan-sa, in
her gratitude, bestowed upon him all her silver and golden ornaments.
Now, it so happened that just at this time, the lord arrived, and
hearing the voice of a man in his wife's chamber he peeped in and, to
his great surprise, saw Nan-sa giving a beggar all her jewels, while
the young prince was playing with the beggar's monkey.
Furious at the sight, he entered the chamber, just as the beggar and
his monkey left ; and thinking that Ani's story must indeed be true,
and that his wife had bestowed his property on the devotees, and had
scandalously brought beggars even inside her private chamber, he seized
Nan-sa by the hair and began to beat her most unmercifully, and
Nemo also came and assisted in beating her. They tore the young
prince away from her, and the lord and Ani-Nemo continued beating
Nan-sa until she died. ACT III.
Nan-sa's return from the Dead.
Om ma-ni-pad-me Hurn ! The young prince, unable to bear separa
tion from his mother, stole to her room after the tragedy and found her
lying dead. Rushing to his father with the dreadful news, his father,
in alarm, ran to her prostrate figure, but thinking that Nan-sa was
merely shamming, he exclaimed, " O ! fair Nan-sa, arise ! The starry
heaven betimes is obscured by clouds ; the lovely flowers die at winter's
approach ; you have been harshly treated, but your time has not yet
come ; so, pray arise ! " But the corpse lay still, for its spirit long
had fled.
Then the lord repented him bitterly, but being powerless to revive
her, he had to consent to the customary funeral offerings being made
to The Three Holy Ones, and he gave alms to the poor and blind, and
feasts to the priests. And the death-astrolcger was called and he
ordered that the body should be kept for seven days exposed on the
eastern hill, and care taken that no animal should destroy it, and that
after the eighth day it should be cremated or thrown into a river or
lake. Nan-sa's body was therefore wrapped in a white blanket and
bound on a four-footed bed, and taken to the eastern grassy hill, where
it was deposited in solitude.
Now Nah'sa's spirit on her death had winged its way, light as a
feather, to the ghostly region of the intermediate purgatory, Bardo,
where the minions of the Death-king seized it and led it before the
dreaded judge-king of the dead.
At that tribunal Nan-sa's spirit was terrified at seeing many wicked
souls condemned and sent down for torture to the hells, in cauldrons
of molten metal, or frozen amongst the ice ; while she was pleased to
see tbe souls of several pious people sent to heaven.
But in her fear she threw herself before the great judge of the

NAN-SA. 563

Dead and with joined hands prayed tor him : " Have mercy upon me ! 0 !
holy mother Tara ! And help and bless me, ye host of fairy she-devils !
0 ! Judge of the Dead ! who separates the white virtuous from the
black sinful ones, hear me, 0 ! great king ! I longed to benefit the
animals, but could do Uttle during my short stay in the world. When
I learned that the birth must end in death, I cared not for my beauty ;
and when I saw that wealth collected by avarice was useless to oneself
I gave it away to the poor and blind. Have mercy upon me ! "
Then the judge of the Dead ordered her two guardian angels — the
good and the bad — to pour out their white and black deed- counters.
On this being done, it was found that the white virtuous deeds far ex
ceeded the black sinful ones, which latter were indeed only two in
number ; and the judge having consulted his magical mirror and found
this record to be correct, and knowing that Nan-sa was of intensely
religious disposition, and capable of doing much good if allowed to live
longer in the human world, he reprieved her and sent her back to life,
saying :—
" O ! Nah-sa, brilliant above a hundred thousand lights ! Listen ! Lah-se !
Listen to king Yama, the master of Death ! I separate the white deeds from
the black, and send the persons in whom the white virtue preponderates to
the heavens ; in this capacity I am named Arya Avalokitesvara ( 'p'ags-pa-
spyan-ras^zigs-^ban). But when I send the sinful persons to hell, I am named
Mrityupati Yama-raja ('ch'i-Jdag-s'in-rjehi-r'gyal-po) ! Lah-se ! I am the
inexorable fierce king who always punishes the wicked ! I never save an
oppressive king, no matter how powerful ; nor will I let any sinful Lama es
cape. No one can ever escape visiting this my bar of Justice. But you, 0
Nah-sa ! are not a sinful person : you are a good, fairy's incarnation, and when
a person sacrifices her body for a religious purpose, she obtains paradise, and
if she is profoundly pious,* she shall obtain the rank of Buddhaship, though
the former state is much to be preferred. So stay no longer here, but return
to the human world, and recover your old body! Lah-se! Be a 'death-
returned person,' 1 and benefit Lhe animal beings 1 "
Nan-sa, now overjoyed, bowed down before his Plutonic majesty,
and besought his blessing, and after receiving it, she departed
by the .white heavenly path, and then descending to this world, re
sumed her former body lying in its white blanket-shroud, and folding
her hands in the devotional attitude, she lay with her feet flexed, like.
a holy thunderbolt. And flowers rained down from heaven upon her,
and a rainbow shed its halo round her. And she prayed to the fairies
and she-devils : —
" I prostrate myself before the triad assembly of the Lamas, the tutelaries,
and the Dakkim— she-devils and fairies — to whom I pray for deliverance
from the circle of re-births. O ! eastern fairy of the Vajra class, white as
the conch-shell, sounding the golden drum (damaru) in your right hand, 't6-
ld-lo,' and ringing the silver bell in your left, ' si-li-H,' surrounded by
hundreds of mild and white-robed attendants, pray forgive all my short
comings ! O ! southern fairy of the Jewel race, golden-yellow, sounding,"
etc., etc.
Now the men who had come to remove the corpse, being terrified at

1 'das-log.
oo 2

564 MYSTIC AND SACRED PLAYS.

hearing the dead body speak, dared not approach. The more frightened
amongst them fled, while the braver ones prepared to defend themselves
by throwing stones, in the belief that the ghost of Nah-sa was agita
ting her dead body. Then Nan-sa cried out, saying " I am not a ghost,
but a ' death-returned person ' ;" and the men being astonished, drew
near and bowed down before her, and paid profound reverence to the
resuscitated one.
The good news of Nan-sa's return from the dead soon reached the
lord and the prince, who hurried to the spot, and throwing themselves
before her, implored her forgiveness, and conducted her back to their
home ; not, however, without protests from Nan-sa, who had decided
to become a nun. She only consented to resume domestic life on the
ardent entreaties of her son.
But soon her excessive piety again subjected her to the ill-treatment
of her husband as before, and forced her to flee to her parents' home,
where, however, she met with no better reception, but was beaten and
expelled. And now driven forth from home, a wanderer for religion's
sake, she seeks admission into a convent, where, throwing herself at the
Lama's feet, she prays him, saying, —
" Om! Salutation to our spiritual father, the Lama, and the host of Fairy-
mothers ! I have come in deep distress in order to devote myself to religion ; and I
appeal to you, good Lama, for help and permission to stay here (at^Ser-rag-gya-
lun), 0 Lama ! I beg you to catch me, insignificant fish as I am, on your hook of
mercy ; for otherwise the pious resolves of this poor girl will perish, and the
injury you thereby will inflict shall be my utter rum, and make me wretched like
a jackal haunting a cave. O ! Lama of the red Lotus-cap, if you fail to help me
now, then I am indeed undone ! I adore The Holy Religion with all my heart,
and I crave your blessing ! " and so saying she took off her rich robes and jewels,
and offered them to him, And the Lama, pitying her, blessed her, and gave
her the vow of a novice.
The news of Nan-sa's entry to the convent soon reached the ears of
the lord of Rinang, who waxed wroth and went to war against the
monastery. Arriving there with his men he cried unto the Lama,
saying : " Lah-se ! You fellow, why have you made a nun of Nan-sa ?
Unless you give full satisfaction, I will crush you and all your convent
like butter ! " And so saying he seized the Lama and pointed his
sw,ord to his heart.
Now Nan-sa, driven to despair on seeing that the life of her Lama was
thus threatened for her sake, she, in the dress of a novice, ascended
the roof of the convent, and in the sight of all, sailed away, Buddha
like, through the sky, vanishing into space like the rainbow.
Then the lord of Rinang with all his retinue, dismayed at the
sight of Nan-sa's miraculous flight, fell to the ground. And stung by
remorse at their sacrilege, they offered up all their arms and armour
to the Lama ; and promising never again to molest him, they returned
home gloomy and sad ; and Nan-sa was seen no more.
May glory come ! Tashi-s'o ! May virtue increase ! Ge-leg-'p'el ! !
And here all the people forming the audience joyfully shout :
" Mangalam ! ! ! All happiness !!! " And the play is over.

NAN-SA.

565

The people, old and young, now discuss amongst themselves the
theme of the play and its moral lessons. They are profoundly
impressed by the self-sacrifice of Naia-sa and the other pious per
sons, and by the vivid pictures drawn of the way in which evil
doers must inexorably pay the penalty of their misdeeds. Thus
even these crude Tibetan plays point, in their own clumsy way,
very much the same moral lessons as are taught by the Western
Stage.

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Some Actoks of the Play of Na&-sa.

566

XXI.

DOMESTIC AND POPULAR LAMAISM.
ilAMAISM is not merely a monastic brotherhood ; it is
a truly popular religion, deeply
pervading and dominating
the life of the people.
On it the Tibetan builds
his daily fears and hopes, and
it is not without some eleva
ting influence. The current
of Buddhism which runs
through its tangled paganism
has brought to the Tibetan
most of the little civilization
which he possesses, and has
raised him correspondingly
in the scale of humanity,.
lifting him above a life of
wild rapine and selfishness,
by setting before him higher
aims, by giving milder meanings to his mythology, by discoun
tenancing sacrifice, and by inculcating universal charity and
tenderness to all living things.
Unlike, however, the Buddhism of the Burmese, it is not an
educational factor, for the Lamas restrict their learning to them
selves, as indeed did the Brahmans, and most priestly orders of
old, and they contemptuously call the laity " the dark (ignorant)
people," 2 " the worldly ones," 3 or " the givers of alms." 4 And
certainly the last epithet is well deserved, for the Tibetans, while,

Lama receiving homage of Children.1

1 After Giorgi, op. cit.
3 'jig-rten-pa.

2 mi-nag-pa.
4 sbyin-bdag, " owners of alms," cf. Kopp., i., 487.

METEMPSYCHOSIS IN DAILY LIFE. 567
perhaps, the most priest-ridden people in the world, are amongst
the most pious and the most lavish in their religious gifts. Tbe
popular name for a Lama is " Father," as with Roman priests.
It is surprising, in view of the excessive amount of non-Bud
dhist elements in Lamaism, to find how deeply the everyday life
and notions of the laity are leavened by the Buddhist spirit.
The doctrine of metempsychosis and its Karma enters into tbe •
ordinary habits and speech of the people. Their proverbs, folk
lore,1 songs, and lay dramas, are full of it. Friendships also are
explained by them on this principle.
More than once have I been told by some worthy Tibetan that
it could not have been mere chance which had brought us to
gether, across so many thousand miles of land and sea ; but that
we must, in a former life, have been friends, who now have met
again in this life, through the force of Karma. Similarly as re
gards the lower animals. A Tibetan seeing my dog and pony
playing good-naturedly together, explained the situation by say
ing that in a former birth these two must have been mates.
Even practices which are clearly dishonest and sinful, are at
times justified on the same principle, or rather by its abuse.
Thus the' more sordid Tibetan reconciles cheating to his con
science, by naively convincing himself that the party whom he now
attempts to defraud, had previously swindled him in a former life,
and that justice demands retribution.
Congenital defects such as blindness, dumbness and lameness,
and accidents, are viewed as retributions which are due to the
individual having, in a previous life, abused or sinned with the
particular limb or organ presently affected. Thus a man is blind
because he sinned with his eye in a former life. Indeed this is a
common dogma of Buddha's own teaching, and forms the basis of
the Jdtakas or tales of the previous Births of Buddha
For a like reason, cattle and all other dumb animals are
humanely treated ; life is seldom wantonly taken. Indeed, the
taking of animal life is rather strictly prohibited in Tibet, except
in the case of the Yaks and sheep needed for food, for in such
a cold climate flesh forms an essential staple of diet, but the
butchers 2 being thus professional sinners, are the most despised
1 Cf. my art. on Cats in'Indictn Antiquary, Dec, 1892.
2 gDol-pa. Originally, says Jaeschke (D., p. 268), these were probably fishers.

568

DOMESTIC AND POPULAR LAMAISM.

of all classes in Tibet. Wild animals, and even small birds, are
seldom killed, nor fish, on account of the religious penalties at
tached to this crime, hence game is so extremely abundant in
the country. Yet human prisoners are, at times, most cruelly
tortured ; though this
probably is owing, in
some measure, to the
example set by the
Chinese, as well as
the necessity for some
violent punishment to
check the commission
of crime. Nearly every
offence, even to the
most heinous, the mur
dering of a Lama, may
be condoned by a fixed
scale of fine ; but fail
ing the payment of
the fine and the extra
blackmail to the offi
cials, the prisoner, if
not actually killed, is
tortured and mutila
ted, and then usually
set free, in order not
only to avoid the ex
pense of detainment in
jail, but also to serve
as a public warning to
others. Thus many of
the maimed beggars
who swarm about Lhasa are criminals who have had their eyes
put out or their bands cut off in this way.
The tolerant spirit of Buddhism has, however, stamped more or
less distinctly the national character, the mildness of which con
trasts strongly with the rough exterior and semi-barbarous state
of the people. Bogle's high testimony to this trait has already

Tibetan Laymen.

SOFTENING INFLUENCE OF BUDDHISM. 569
been referred to. Hue, writing of the lay regent of Lhasa, ' de
scribes him as a man " whose large features, mild and remarkably
pallid, breathed a truly royal majesty, while his dark eyes shaded
by long lashes were intelligent and gentle." And Rockhill and
others who have been brought into intimate contact with the
people have remarked an unexpected amount of mildness of tem
per ; and my own experience is similar.
The spirit of consideration for others expresses itself in many
graceful acts of genuine politeness. A stirrup-cup of wine2 is
presented to the departing visitor or traveller, bidding him God
speed, and adding, " May we be able to present you with another
as welcome on your return." The seller of any article, other than
eatables, always gives his blessing to the buyer, in terms such as
these : " May good come upon you ; may you live long ; may no
sickness happen; may you grow rich"3; to which the buyer replies
with " thanks." 4
The personal names of both boys and girls are largely borrowed
from mystical Buddhism, for instance " The Thunderbolt of Long-
Life" (Dorje-ts'e-rin), "Dolma" (the Indian goddess of Mercy,
Tara) ; and the influence of the religious habit is also seen in
several of the names of places.
The common oaths are mainly of a Buddhist character. The
oath so much in the mouth of the merchants, and used at times
by most of the laity as an asseveration in ordinary conversation, is
" (by) the precious Lord (Sakya Muni) ! " 5 or " (by) The Three Rarest
Ones ! " " Though others also are in use.7
i Named " Pe-chi " (the " She-te Shaffee " of Edgar ?). 2 C'an-kyel.
3 yag-po byan-pa s'og, ts'e-rih-pa-s'og, nad-med-pa s'og, p'ug-po yoh-wa s'og.
4 t'ug-rje-ch'e, literally = " great mercy," compare with French merci, used on simi
lar occasions. 5 Jo-wo Rin-po-ch'e. » dK'on-mch'og sum.
7 The other Oaths used in Tibet are : " May I die ere sunset " (fii-ma 'di-las ts'e-
t'un) ; "may my mother be separated" (a-ma-dah bral). In Tsang a common oath is
" May my life be separated " (srog-dah brai ; pron. hrok ta-te). The monks of De-pung
Serra, etc., swear by their own tutelary Tamdin, or Vajra-bhairava: "May Tam-
din devour me " (rta-mgrin-fe'es). And in the courts when the great oath is taken,
which is seldom, it is done by the person placing a holy scripture on his head, and
sitting on the reeking hide of an ox and eating a part of the ox's heart. The expense
of this ceremony is borne by the party who challenges the accused. In Sikhim the
common oaths are : " May I die " (s'i-ge) ; " May I go to hell " (na-rak-kan) ; " May I
carry all your ill-luck " (bgegs-chi k'ur-rgyu) ; " May I be deprived of succession "
(mi-rabs-ch'ad) ; " May the mountain-god Kangch'endsonga or the Darjiling Tma-devil
have first taste of my red blood " (rdo-rje glih-dgon-btsan sha-k'rag-dmar phuh kyi-
bs'es bchug).

570

DOMESTIC AND POPULAR LAMAISM.

Bat both Lamas and people are so steeped in pagan superstition
and idolatry that their un-Buddhist features and practices are
most conspicuous. As the Tibetans see nature in its ultimate
stronghold, in all its pitiless force and fury, terrorizing the brave
as well as the timid, their child-like character impels them to
worship the more proximate agents which seem to visibly wreck
their fields and flocks, and vex them as with disease and disaster.
Their inveterate crav
ing for material pro
tection against those ma
lignant gods and demons
has caused them to pin
their faith on charms and
amulets, which are to be
seen everywhere dangling
from the dress of every
man, 'woman, and child.
These charms, as we
have seen, are mostly
sentences of a Sanskritic
nature borrowed from
mystical Buddhism, and
supplemented by relics of
holy Lamas, by which
they muzzle and bind the
devils, asvin the illustra
tion here given.
But these appliances,
however good in theory,
are found in practice to
be deplorably deficient.
The priests must constantly be called in to appease the menacing
devils, whose ravenous appetite is only sharpened by the food
given to stay it.
A more cheerful and graceful side to their demon- worship is seen
in the practice of planting the tall prayer-flags, which picturesquely
flutter around every village, and the strings of flaglets which
flaunt from house-tops, bridges, passes, and other places believed
to be infested by malignant sprites.

Chaem to bind Disease-devils.
(Reduced $.)

AMULETS AND CHARMS.

571

The people live in an atmosphere of tbe marvellous. No story
is too absurd for them to credit, if only it be told by Lamas.
They are ever on the outlook for omens, and the every-day affairs
of life are governed, as we have seen, by a superstitious regard for
lucky and unlucky days. Though special divinations are sought
from professed astrologers, in the more serious events of life, in
birth, marriage, sickness, and death, and often in sowing, reaping,
building, etc., each layman determines for himself the auguries
for the more trivial matters of his ordinary business, for travelling,
buying and selling, mending, etc.
And implicit reliance is placed on all these auguries. When
I was forced to send a party of Sikhimite Tibetans on a long

Amulets.1
excursion upon a day which was unlucky for travelling, and in
consequence of which my men were unwilling to start, I at once
secured a revival of their spirits and their ready departure by
making the head-man draw, in orthodox fashion, a good augury
from the pack of divining-cards, from which, however, I had
previously, unknown to them, withdrawn all the unlucky ones.
Pilgrimages are most popular. Every opportunity is seized to
visit celebrated shrines, and to circumambulate the numerous holy
buildings and sacred spots in their neighbourhood.
Reduced §. See also photograph on next page, by Mr. Hoffmann.

572 DOMESTIC AND POPULAR LAMAISM.

Prayers ever hang upon the people's lips. The prayers are
chiefly directed to the devils, imploring them for freedom or
release from their cruel inflictions, or they are plain naive

A Tibetan Lady with Amulets.

requests for aid towards obtaining the good things of this life,
the loaves and the fishes. At all spare times, day and night,

PRAYER-WHEELS AND DEVIL-WORSHIP. 573

the people ply their prayer-wheels, and tell their beads, and
mutter the mystic six syllables — Om ma-ni pad-me Rum1-
"Om! the Jewel in the Lotus, Hum!" —
the sentence which gains them
their greaty goal, the
glorious heaven

Hand-Prayee- " Wheels "
(Reduced \. The one on the right has its case removed.)
of eternal bliss, the paradise of the fabulous Buddha of boundless
Light — Amitabha.
Still, with all their strivings and the costly services of their
priests, the Tibetans never attain peace of mind. They have fallen
under the double ban of menacing demons and despotic priests.
So it will be a happy day, indeed, for Tibet when its sturdy over-
credulous people are freed from the intolerable tyranny of the
Lamas, and delivered from the devils whose ferocity and exacting
worship weigh like a nightmare upon all.

Finis.

The House-Devil.

575

Appendix I.

ClIKONOLOGICAL TABLE.1 B.C.
Buddha's death 477-3702
Alexander the Great invaded India ... ... ... 325-327
Candragupta, king of Magadha ... ... ... ... 315
Asoka, emperor of India, adopts Buddhism ... ... 263-259
Buddhism introduced to Ceylon ... ... ... ... 241
Menander (Milinda) of Sagala ... ... ... ... 150
Scriptures (pitaka) first reduced to writing in Oeylon ... 82
Buddhism introduced to China ... ... ... ... 62
King Kanishka (Kanerkes), patron of Buddhism ... 78 circa
Council of Jalandhar ... ... ... ... ... 100 circa
Buddhism introduced to Korea ... ... ... 372
PaHian's pilgrimage in Magadha ... ... ... 404
Buddha-ghosha's commentary in Pali ... ... ... 420
Sung-yun's pilgrimage in India ... ... ... ... 518
Buddhism introd. to Japan ... ... ... ... 552
Hiuen Tsiang's pilgrimage in India, from ... ... 637
Buddhism introd. to Tibet under king Srong Tsan Gampo 638
Arrival of the Chinese princess Wen-cheng in Tibet . . . 6403
Building of the first Buddhist temple in Tibet, the
P'rul-snan at Lhasa ... ... ... ... ... 651
Birth of king K'ri-Srong Deu Tsan 728
Arrival of St. Padma-sambhava in Tibet 747

1 The dates of the Tibetan events are taken mainly from Csoma (Gram., p. 181 et seq.),
and supplemented to a slight extent by those of Sum-pa or Yses-dpal-'byor (trans, by
Sarat, J.A.S.B., 1889, 37, etc.), except where otherwise specified. I have reduced, by
one year, the dates of Sum-pa as given by Sarat, as the Lama who compiled his
paper included the current year in his calculations.
2 The usually accepted date is 477 b.c (Feegusson, Max Mullek in Sacred Books of
the East, x., xxxix.), though Rhys Davids adopts 412 (Budd., p. 213, and Nwmis-
mata Orientalia, 55) ; and Westeegaaed (Uber Buddha's Todesjahr, p. 74), Keen and
others place 'it about 370 b.c The Tibetans follow the popular Chinese accounts in
giving it an extravagant antiquity (see Csoma's Gram., p. 199 for details).
3 Bushell, loc. cit.

•576 APPENDIX I. A.D.
Building of the first Lamaist monastery, Sam-yas . . . 749
Birth of Lah-darma, the Julian of Lamaism ... ... 861
His persecution of Lamaism ... ... ... ... 899
His murder. . . ... . . ... ... ... ... 900
Kalacakra svstem introduced to India . . ... ... 950
St. Atisa, born 980
'Brom-ston, his disciple, born ... ... ... ... 1002
gSol-nag-t'an monastery founded ... ... ... 1015
'K'on dKon-mc'og-rgyal-po, the founder of Sarskya monas
tery, born ... ... ... ... ... ... 1033
St. Atisa arrived at mNa-rigs ... ... ... ... 1 038
St. Milaraspa born 1038
Atisadied 1053
Rva-sgren mon. founded by 'Brom-ston ... ... ... 1055
The Translator bLo-ldan-S'es-rab born ... ... ... 1057
ZC'e-stom Nan-pa's Nin-ma revelation (ICe-btsun) ... 1066
Saskya and gSang-phu mon. founded ... ... ... 1071
Lha-rje sgam-po-pa of Drag-po born ... ... ... 1077
Ras-c'un-pa born ... ... ... ... ¦ • ¦ ... 1082
Kun-gah-siiin Sa-skya Lama born ... ... ... 1090
Karma^dus-sum-mK'an-po born ... ... ... ... 1109
More Nin-ma revelations discovered ... ... ... 1117
Milaraspa died 1122
C'ag, translator, born ... ... ... ... ••• 1152
sNar-t'ang monastery founded ... ... ... ... 1152
'Bri-gun monastery founded ... ... ... ... 1177
sTag-luh- monastery founded ... ... ... • • ¦ 1 178
Sa-skya Pandita born ... ... ... ... ... 1180
Buddhism expelled from Magadha by the Muhamadans,
under BaMtyar Khil]l ... ... ... •¦¦ 1195
S'akya-sri, the Kashmiri Pandit, arrived in Tibet ... 1202
Karma Bakshi born ... ... ... ... ¦¦¦ 1202
Ter-ton Guru Ch'os-dban 1210
Kublai Khan born 12141
'Gro-mgon-'pags-pa born ... ... ... ... ¦•• 1233
He becomes master of Tibet ... ... ... ... 1251
Bu-ston, the chronologist, born ... ... ... ... 1288
Friar Odoric reaches ? Lhasa ... ... ... ... 1330
rTses-tah monastery founded ... ... ... ... 13t9
St. Tson-K'a-pa born ... 1355
T'an-ston rgyal-po (the great bridge-builder) born ... 1383
dGe-'dun-grub-pa born ... ... ... ... ... 1389
Ses-rab rin-ch'en (or sTag), the translator, born ... ... 1403
Tson-K'a-pa established the Lhasa prayer-feast (smon-lam),
and founded dGah-ldan monastery ... ... ... 1407
Panch'en bzan-po bkra-sis (latterly of Tashi-lhunpo) born 1408
1 According to Lamaist (Sum-pa's) data.

CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE.

577

De-pung (dBras-spun) monastery founded
Serra monastery founded ...
Tsoh-K'a-pa died ...
Nor monastery (of Sa-skya-pa sect) founded
Ch'ab-mdo-byams-gbn monastery founded
Z'a-lu legs-pa-rgyal-mts'an, succeeds to Ga-ldan chair
Ch'os-skyon-bzan-po, the translator, born
Tashi-lhunpo monastery founded by dGe-'dun-grub
The Lama of the Mongols (Hor-sTon or Nam-mK'ah-dpal)
died
bZah-po-bkra-sis becomes abbot of Tashi-lhunpo ...
dGe-'dun-grub died ...
dGe-'dun-rgya-mts'o born ...
bZan-po bkra-sis died, and succeeded by Lun-rig rgya-mts
rTa-nag tdub-bstan-rnam-rgyal monastery founded
Panch'en blo-bzan don-grub born
dGe-'dun-rgya-mts'o becomes Grand Lama of Tashi-lhunpo
The Dug-pa Lama PadmardKar-po born ...
dGe-'dun-rgya-mts'o died ...
bSod-nams rgya-mts'o born
Mongol (or " Moghul ") invasion of Northern Tibet
S'va-lu Lotsava died
Taranatha (Kun-snin) born
Grand Lama bSod-nam proceeds to Mongolia on invitation
of prince Althun Khan
Kum-bum monastery founded
Lama bSod-nam died
His successor (Yon-tan) born in Mongolia
Kum-bum subordinated to Tsang
Yon-tan-rgya-mts'o died ...
Nag-dbah-blo-bzah rgya-mts'o born
The Tsang army invades Serra and Depung monasteries,
" killing many thousand monks "
Sag-dban became priest-king of Tibet by aid of the
Mongol prince Gusri Khan ...
He built Potala palace near Lhasa
He visited Chinese emperor
He returned to Tibet
He retires to self-communion, leaving government with
the viceroy (sDe-srid), Sans-rgyas rgya-mts'o, said to
be his natural son
He died
His successor, Tsans-dbyans born ...
But proving dissolute, he is deposed and assassinated
Dalai Lama sKal-bzan born at Lithang
The Mongol armies of C'un-gar restore Gelug-pa Lama to
kingship

A.D.
14141417
141714271435 14361439
14451445147314731474 1476
1476 1503
15101510
1540
1541 1546 circa
1562
1573157515761586
158716101614
1615
1616 1640
1643 1650
1651

16751680 1681
17031706 1716
P P

578 APPENDIX II.

A.D.
Civil war, during which the Chinese troops destroy many
monasteries in restoring order ... ... ... 1722
Nepalese army sacks Tashi-lhunpo ... ... ... 1768
Mr. Bogle's friendship with Tashi Grand Lama 1778
Capt. Turner received by succeeding Tashi Grand Lama 1783
Mr. Manning reaches Lhasa and meets the Dalai Lama 1811
MM. Hue and Gabet enter Lhasa ... ... ... 1845
Messrs. Rockhill's, Bonvalot's, Prince Henry of Orleans',
and Bowers' traverses of eastern and northern Tibet 1887-92
Anglo-Tibetan hostilities on Sikhim frontier ... ... 1887
The Tibet Sikhim trade treaty concluded 1893

Appendix II.

Bibliography.
The following list comprises most of the books bearing upon
Lamaism, supplementary, in the main, to the earlier register
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Chinese Paintings in the British Museum. London, 1886.
Arnold (E.).— The Light of Asia; or, The Great Renunciation; being the Life and
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1883.
Atkinson (E. T.). — Notes on the History of Religion in the Himalaya of the North
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Aynsley (H. G. M. M.).— Visit to Ladakh. 8vo. London, 1879.
Bailey (H. V.). Dorje-Lirtg. 8vo. Calcutta, 1838.
Baeth (A.).— The Religions of India. Translated by J. Wood. 8vo. London, 1882.
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Beal(S.). — Catena of Buddhist Scriptures. From the Chinese. 8vo. London, 1878.
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1875
— Buddhist Literature in China. 8vo. London, 1882. .,
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1878.
— Buddhism. 12mo., pp. 263. London, 1884.
— Fo-sho-hing-tsan-King. A Life of Buddha., by Asvaghosha Bodhisattva.
From the Chinese. 8vo.
— Travels of Fa Hian, etc. 12mo. 1869.
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Appendix III.

Muhammadan Massacre of Lamaists.
An interesting glimpse into the religion of Northern Tibet
during the sixteenth century, and of the Mogbul holy war against
the Lamas of that period, is got from the Tarikh-i-Rashidi by
Mirza Haidar, Dughlat of Kashgar : a book recently discovered
by Mr. Ney Elias, CLE., to whom I am indebted for the following
extract, illustrative of Muhammadan fanaticism. The work dates
to about 1546 A.D., and it is to be hoped that Mr. Elias' translation
of it will soon be published.
The general, Mirza Haidar, writes : " On the day appointed, I
approached the fort (of Mutadar in Nubra), and the talons of Islam
seizing the hands of Infidelity, the enemy were thrown into dis
order and routed. Having deserted the fort, they fled in confusion
and dismay, while the Musalmans gave them chase as far as was
possible, so that not one of these bewildered people escaped.
Burkapa was slain, together with all his men, and their heads
formed a lofty minaret, so that the vapour from the brains of the
infidels of that country reached to the heavens. Thenceforth no
one dared offer resistance."

585

INDEX.

Abacus (of Asoka -pil
lars), 409.
Abbess, 233, 245, 275.
Abbot, 172.
Abhasvara (deva), 86.
Abhi-dharma, 159.
Ablutions (ceremonial),
214, 423, 445.
Abstinence, 134, 138, 445.
Abu, Mt.,95.
Acala, 131, 364.
Acanthus, 338.
Acarya, 538.
Act-force, 30, 100.
Adam, 226.
Adi-Buddha, 126, 1 30,
_348-
Adityas, 367.
Admission (to order),
173-
iEsculapius (Buddha),
, 353. 498. 5°9-
Afghan fanatics and
Indian Buddhism, 16.
Afghanistan, 8, 26, 197.
Agni, 367, 494, 496.
Agnostic views, 7, 122.
Ajanta caves, 108, 128.
A. It., Pandib, 322.
Akanishtha (deva), 8;,
_ 86. '
Akasagarbha, 358.
Akshobhya, 349, 350.
Alala, 356.
Alasadda, 9.
Alaya, or pantheistic
soul-basis, see Atman.
Alchemy, 165.
Allahabad, 377.
Almanack, 458.
Alms (giving), 135, 138.
Alms-bowl, 211, 212.

Alphabet (introduced
into Tibet), 21.
Altar, 294, 428 ; (offer-
ings),423, 425; (devils'),
299.
Altun Khan, 50 1.
Amban, 254.
Amd6, 43, 266.
Amitabha (Buddha), ix.,
12, 127, 335, 336, 338,
347. 348, 349. 35°;
(paradise of), 127, 217.
Amitayus, 348, 352, 444.
Amogha-pasa, 352.
Amogha-siddha, 349, 350,
352.
Amrita (ambrosia), 87.
Amsuvarman, 20.
Amulets, 571.
Anabhraka (deva), 86.
An-agami, 136.
Ananda, 8, 108.
Anatmaka, 1 11.
Ancestor-worship, 375.
Anger, 109.
Ani (title of nuns), 160,
170, 202.
Aniccam, in.
Animals (ransomed), 265 ;
killing of, 211, 213.
Animism, 19, 26, 34, 55,
409.
Anitya, m.
Antara-vasaka, 201.
Aparagodhana, see godh-
anya.
Apramanabha (deva), 86.
Apsaras, 86.
Arahattam, 105, 137, 376.
Archbishop, 187.
Architecture, 260.
Arhant, 105, 137, 376.
Arhatship, 137.

Armenian Christians (in
fluence of), 422.
Arrows in ceremonies,
445. 483, 553-
Artipa, 85.
Arupa-loka, 85, 86.
Aryabolo, 356.
Arya-deva, 8.
Aryapala, 356.
Asam (shrines), 307.
Asafiasatya (deva), 86.
Asahga, 14, 141.
Ascension, feast of, 504,
510 ; (of Buddha), 510;
(of St. Tsoh-K'a-pa),
510.
Asceticism, 6.
Ashta mahgalam, 392.
Ashta ratna, 393.
Asoka, 8 76; 442 ; (gits
of), 397 ; ipillars), 409 ;
(railing of), 11.
Asoka (tree), 338.
Assembly-hall, 260, 282.
Astrology, 450.
Asura (Titans), 81.
Asva-ghosha, 8, 10.
Atapa-deva, 86.
Atisa, 35, 54-
Atman (or soul), 76, in,
112. 121, 126, 141.
Attitudes (of fingers),
141, 337! (°f bodJ'>>
335.
Aureole, 337.
Auspicious (days), 455.
Avadana, 162.
Avalambana Sutra, 98.
Avalokita, 15, 39, 356;
(four-handed), 229, 357;
(eleven-headed), 1 5,357 ;
(thousand-armed), 357;
(female), see Tara.

586

INDEX.

Avalokitesvara, see Ava
lokita.
Avatahsaka, 69, 125.
Avatara-Lama, 227.
Avici (hell), 95.
Avidya, no, 119.
Avriha (deva), 86.

Bactria, 8, 108, 541.
Baidurya-kar-po (chro
nology), 20.
Baikal (lake), 43.
Bairotsana, 29.
Bakshi, 56, 502, see also
Bhikshu.
Balti, 266.
Bana, 156.
Banaras, 134.
Bandya, 171^
Baptism, 448, 510.
Bardo (interval between
death and re-birth),
113, 491, 562.
Barhut, stupa, 345.
Bas-reliefs, 239.
Bathing (ceremonial),
214, 423, 445, 510; (of
images), 424, 427.
Bats of good iuck, 4,
^395- „ .
Beads, see Kosanes.
Becoming (of). 121.
Beduriya (Buddha), 353.
Beings (classes of), 101.
Bel (tree), 394.
Bells (prayer), 298, 475.
Benares, 134.
Benediction (Cha-wa),
239, 245, 305, 322.
Benedictive attitude (of
images), 237.
Berkeley, 107, 121.
Besarh (Vaisali), 10.
Bhagavan, 344.
Bhagavati, 438.
Bhairava-vajra, 62, 131,
362.
Bhaisajyaraja, 353.
Bhana, 156.
Bharadvaja, 353.
Bharhut (stupa), 345.
Bhava, no, 117.
Bhavacakra, 109.
Bhavanam, 117.
Bhikshu, 170, 213.
Bhikshuni, 160, 170,
202.
Bhimmitra, 51.
Bhoga, 394.

Bhotan, 44, 226, 284,
(sect), 55, 68.
Bhrikuti, 20, 23, 359.
Bihar-gyal-poBinzuru Sama, 353.
Birth, no, 117.
Birth-stories, 101, 533.
Bishop, 187.
Blessing, 239, 245, 306,
(attitude of), 237, (be
fore food), 214.
Blind (curing of), 550.
Bod (= Tibet).
Bodhi (perfect Wisdom).
Bodhi-dharma, 8, 138.
Bodhi-druma, see Bodhi-
tree.
Bodhisat (Bodhisattva),
10, 137; (celestial), 348,
354-
Bodhisatship, 138 ; (sta
ges), 139' ,
Bodhi-tree, 6, 305, 343.
Bbd-pa (= Tibetan).
Body (three - fold of
Buddha), 127, 347,
(luciform), 127.
Bogle (Mr.), 236.
Bbn(religion), 19, 55,389;
(opposing Lamaism),'
29; (extent), 41 ;(devils),
27 ; (priests), 26, 34,
(sacrifices), 420.
Bone (trumpets), 300,
493; (ornaments), 483,
see Skull.
Bonze, 171, 422, and see
Bon.
Books (sacred), 60.
Bowl (alms), 21 1, 212.
Boy -pupil, 173.
Brahma (god), 85 ; (hea
vens of), 86.
Brahmanas, 6.
Brahmani geese, 200, 409.
Brahmanism, 6, 17.
Bram-ze = Brahman.
Bre-pung, see De-pung.
Bribsun, 23, 359.
Bri-kung, see Di-kung.
Brom Bakshi, 36.
Brom-ton, 36.
Brugpa, see Dug-pa.
Buddha, see SakyaMuni;
(coming), see Maitreya.
Buddhas, 123, 342; (celes
tial), 12, 342; (Prab-
yeka), 123.
Buddha Gaya, 36, 305 ;
temple, 1 1 ; (railing at),
11.

Buddha-palita, 139.
Buildings (religious) ,254.
Bum (book), 161.
Burial, 7, 305, 420.
Buriat (tribes), 41, 43,
282, 372.
Burma, 8 ; (gods), 365 ;
(Mahayana elementing
.123, 142, 476 ; (monks
as schoolmasters), 566 ;
(prayer-flags), 409, 414;
(sacred plays), 527, 541.
Burnt-offering, 432, 533.
Bu-ston, 20.
Butan, see BhoDan.
Butter (candles), 296,
bas-reliefs, 239.
Byam-pa, 355.

Caitya, 261.
Cakes, 219, 223, 297, 299,
429, 449.
Cakra, 390, 392.
Cakravartin, 389.
Calendar, 454.
Candles, 296.
Candragupta, 575.
Candralurti, 36, 139, 378.
Canon, 12, 54, 157;
(Nepalese), 159; (Sou
thern), 10.
Canopus (star), 510.
Canopy, 295,
Caps (of monks), 194; (of
nuns), 199.
Cardinals, 187.
Car-procession, 312.
Cathedrals, 287, 300.
Cats, 520.
Catur-maharajakayika, 84, 290.
Cauldron, 533.
Causal nexus, 105.
Causation, chain of, 105.
Cave (hermitages), 254.
Celebrations, 434.
Celibacy, 193.
Cemetery-dweller, 381.
Cenotaphs, 262.
Censer, 323.
Ceremonies, 212, 420.
Ceylonese Buddhism, 9,
123, 142, 476; (cere
monial union and
fetishes in), 446 ; (rice
images in), 329.
Chab-lug, 201.
Chadayatana, no, 115.
Chag-dor, 356.

INDEX.

587

Chag-na dorje, 356.
Chag-wa (hand-blessing),
239. '245. 305, 322.
Chag-z'i-pa = 4-handed.
Chain of Causation, 105,
119.
Chaitya, 261.
Chalice-cup, 225.
Champa (Buddha), see
Maitreya.
Cham-pahi Ch'b-na, 128.
Chana-dorje, 356.
Changachelling, see
Sang-ha-eh'oling.
Changes in Buddhism, 9.
Ch'ang-skya, 243, 252.
Chan-rassig, see Avalo
kita.
Charity, 138, 398, 493,
566 ; (by words), 133,
146.
Charms, 387, 571.
Chase of Scape-goat of
ill-luck, 512.
Chechuling, see Ts'e-
ch'og-ling.
Chemiling, see Tso-mo-
ling.
Chenresi, see Avalokita.
Chetang (mon.), 412,576.
Chiamd6, 278, 577.
China, 8, 20, 43, 247.
Chinha, 341.
Ch'i-fier, 188.
Chin-lab, 176, 434.
Chinsreg(burnt offering),
432, 498, 533.
Chi> (= Dharma), 132,
156.
Ch'oga, 434.
Ch'oi-de, 255.
Ch'oikyong, 363, 477.
Ch'o-je, 186, 477.
Ch'o-k'ang, see Jo-k'ang.
Ch'orten, 262.
Ch'os - kyoh (demons),
363, sorcerers, 477.
Choir-master, 18.8.
Chom-dan-das (Buddha),
344-
Ghongju Sewang, 512.
Christian (miracle-mon-
gering), 307 ; (relic-
worship), 318; (ritual),
422.
Christians, Nestorian,
influence of, 421.
Christinas-tree, 81.
Chronology, Tibetan, 20,
397 ; (table), 452, 575-

Chryse, 36.
Chuiamani, 263, 343,
Church, 169, 287.
Chutuktu, 232.
Cinha, 341.
Cintamani.Circumambulation, 287,
420.
Clairvoyance, 477.
Clapping hands, 486.
Clergy, see Order and
Hierarchy.
Clock (water-), 218.
Cloister, see Monastery. "
Clothes, 200, 511.
Clothes of images (nab-
ze), 424.
Colleges, 178.
Colossal images, 320.
Colours, 331, 337.
Commandments, 134.
Commentaries, 164.
Conception (festival of),
503-
Conch-shell (trumpet),
298.
Confession, 160.
Consciousness, no.
Contemplation, 138, 141.
Continuity (of becoming) ;
112.
Corea, 8.
Cosmology, 77.
Costumes, 200, 511.
Council (great), 9; (of
Rajagi'iha), 159 ; (Vais-
ali), 10 ; (Kanishka), 9.
Country-gods, 369.
Court-ceremonies(atLha- sa), 322;(atTashi-lh'un-
po), 321.
Cow-god, 404.
Cowls, 195.
Creed (the Buddhist),
105. 133-
Cross, 30, 389.
Crossing (oneself), 423.
Cuda-mani, 263, 343. ,
Cycle of Life, 105.
Czar, 167 ; (as the goddess
Tara), 359.

Daba (a monk), 178.
Dab-chad (magical fig
ure), 153.
Dab-Ilia, see War God.
Da-dar (arrow), 445, 483,
553-
Dagarbha, 262.

Dagger (necromantic),
445. 483-
Dagoba, 262.
Dag-po, 330.
Dah-dar (arrow), 445,
483. 553-
Dah-pbn, 553.
Dai Koko, 368.
Dakkini, 1 29, 340, 366, 562.
Dalai Lama, 39, 227, 305 ;
(list of), 233.
Da-lha, 88, 374.
Damaru, 48.
Dam-c'an, 371, 382.
Dana, 138.
Dance (devil), 34, 477 ;
(lion), 539 ; (sacred), 51 5.
Dante's Inferno, 93.
Dapung, 63, 269.
Dara Eke, see Tara.
Dar-e'og, 410.
Darjeeling, 258, 288, 370,
43°-
Darsana (ta-wa), 61.
Dartya, 99, 369.
Darwinian descent, 21.
Dasa bhumisvara, 139.
Dasa-sila, 134.
Daughters (of Mara), 6,
109.
Days, names and sym
bols for, 455.
De, see Dre, 494.
Death, 100 ; (god of), see
Yama ; (ceremonies),
488.
Debang, see De-pung.
Deb-raja, 242.
Decalogue, 134.
Deer (lord of), 134, 360;
(masks of), 531, 537.
Deer-park, 134.
Degrees, 185.
Deities, 324.
Delhi (Hastinapura), 5 52.
De-lok, 100.
Dem-ch'og, 163, 363.
Demerit, 101, 567.
Demo-jong or Den-jong
(Sikhim).
De-not sum, 1 59.
Depa-raja, 242.
De-pung (monastery), 63,
189, 228, 269.
Der-chok, see (Darc'og),
410.
Der-ge, 159, 202, 278.
Descent (from heaven),
504, 510.
Desid, 40, 240, 253.

588

INDEX.

Desire, 109, no, 116 (see
Mara).
De-srid, 40, 240, 253, 577.
Destiny, 30.
Deva (gods).
Deva (monk), 8.
Deva-chan, 127, 139.
Deva-loka, 87.
Devi (she-devil), 364.
Devils, 93, 99, 363, 369 ;
(dance), 34, 477 ; (dis
ease - causing), 405 ;
(exorcising), 369, 494.
De-wa-chan, 127, 139.
De-wa z'un, 254.
De-z'ih-s'eg-pa, 345, 353.
Dhamek (stupa), 134.
Dhamma-pada, 162.
Dhana, 138, 493.
Dhana Nanda, 393.
DharanI, 141.
Dharitri (mother-earth),
344.
Dharma, 133.
Dharma-cakra, 337.
Dharma-kaya, 127, 347.
Dharma-kirti, 30, 378.
Dharma-pada, 162.
Dharma-palas (devils),
3°3-
Dharma-raja (of Bhotan),
226, 233,242;(of Lhasa) ,
Dharmatrata, 377.
Dharma sarira, 320, 497.
Dharmasoka, 8, 76, 398.
Dhatu-garbha, 144.
Dhrita-rashtra, 84.
Dhyana, 136, 138.
Dhyani-Bodhisats, 130.
Dhyani Buddhas, 130,
336, 349.
Dialectic, 184.
Dialects (Buddha's ser
mons in), 159.
Diamond (souled), 352;
(throne), 305, 344.
Dice, 466, (leadea), 512.
Diet of Lamas, 225.
Dikung (monast.), 38,55,
69, 276.
Dina-cariyawa, 511.
Ding-pbn, 3.
Dipamkara, Buddha, 345,
511.'
Dipamkara (monk), 35,
see 'Atisa.
Dipa-nam-sel, 358.
Disciples, 376 (the Six
teen), 376,

Discipline, 187, 192.
Disease (remedies for),
401, 405.
Divination, 450 ; (by
cards), 465 ; (by beads),
465; (by dice, 466).
Divisions, 54.
Divyavadana, 108.
D6/159.Doctrine, 132.
Dograsdestroyingmons., 282.
Dogs (metempsychosed
men) 567 ; (bite charm),
406.
Dol-jang, 359.
Dol-kar, 359.
Dol-ma, 358.
Db-ma, 358.
D8-mang, 163.
Dom-bakshi, 36.
Domestic Lamaism, 566.
Dom-ton, 36
Dor-je (Vajra), 298, 341 ;
(ch'an), 352 ; (dan), 305 ;
(dan-z'i),344,353;(jig-
je),62;(kyil-dun),335; (legs), 371, 382; (16-
pbn), 293; (p'ag-mo),
233, 245,275;(sem-pa),
352; (tak), 55,73.277-
Dor-ma, 297.
Dragon (thunder), 395.
Drag-po, 330.
Drag-s e, 330.
Drama, 539, (Burmese),
541.
Dra-pa (monks), 178.
Drawings and paintings,
239-
Dress (monastic), 194,200.
Dril-bu (bell), 298, 341.
Dri-med kun-dan (Ja
taka play), 540.
Drink (tea), 215, (spiri
tuous), 225.
Dri-za, 84, 307.
Drugs (mystic words as),
401.
Drum (sacred), 48, 300.
Dsog-ch'en, 47, 72 ; (a
monk), 47.
Dub-ch'en, 378.
Duck (Brahmani), 200,
'409.
Dud, 03, 99, 363, 369.
Diid Dub-jed, 153.
Diid-tsi (ambrosia), 87.
Dug-pa (sect), 55, 66, 68,
242; (southern), 55.

Dii-k'ang (assembly hall),
260. 287.
Dukkha, in.
Duk-pa, see Dug-pa.
Dul-va, 159.
Durga, 129, 364.
Dur-k'rod (graveyard
ghouls), 537.
Dyaus-pitar, 356, 367.
Dying, 100, 448.

Earth (spirits), 344; (de
mons), 484.
Eating charms, 401.
Ecstatic state, 128.
Education, 173 ; (of laity),
566.
Eggs (on altar), 423.
Ego, 100, 112, 121, 124.
Eightfold (path), 133 ;
(division of relics), 306;
(division of gods), 366,
369-
Ekotibhava, 112.
Elder (monks),, 174.
Election of Grand Lamas,
246.
Elements (five)," 453; (of
body), 263.
Elephant (white), 390;
(episode), 337.
Eleven-headed Avalo
kita, 15, 357.
Emanation, 347.
Empedocles, 109.
Endowments, 194.
Energy (female), 129.
Entrance to order, 171.
Epidemic (remedies for),
405.
Established Church, 54.
Ether, 77, 264.
Ethics, 1 19, 132.
Eucharist of Lamaism,
444.
Europe (Lamaism in), 9,
282.
Everest (Mt.), 37 1. 430.
Examination(candidates' orders), 182; (physical),
173; (for degrees) 182;
(test books), 174, 183 ;
(of Grand Lama), 216.
Excrescence (on skull),
343-
Exercising death-devil,
494
Exoteric Buddhism,
128.

INDEX.

589

Expiring breath (exer
cise), 145.
Expulsion from Order,
192.
Eye (bestowing of), 550;
(thousand), 357.
Eye-shades, 306.
Eye-tooth of Buddha,
318.

FaHian, 551.
Faith (salvation by), 12,
146, 153, 499-
Familiars (spirits), 374.
Family cults, 372, 566..
Fan (palm-leaf ), 195.
Fan (tribe), 33.
Fasting, 501.
Fatalism, 30, 567.
Father (title of Jupiter),
356, 487 ; (title of La
mas), 566.
Features (of Buddha),
343 ; (of gods), 333 ; (of
demons), 334.
Feet (of Buddha), 335.
Festivals, 501 ; (monthly),
502 ; (annual), 50.
Fetishes, 238, 446.
Fig-tree (sacred), 343.
Filigree work, 572.
Fines, 192.
Fire (sacred), 296.
Fish (ransoming), 448.
Five (groups of), 347, 397.
Flags (luck or "prayer"),
409.
Flames (from head), 343;
(enveloping body), 337 ;
(in hell), 93; (thirst as),
97-
Flesh (sacrifice), 495, 529.
Flower-offerings ,297,425.
Flowers (conventional
forms of), 339.
Flux (life as a), 121.
Flying-horse, 390, 410.
Fo, see Buddha.
Food offerings, see Cakes,
Oblations
Footprints, 392.
Foretelling, 458.
Forms of prayer, 435.
Formula (of causal nex
us), 105; (spells for ros
ary), 150.
Fortune-telling, 458.
Foundation of buildings,
259.

Four paths, 133.
Four truths, 132.
Frog (three-legged), 456.
Full moon (day), 501.
Funeral (rites), 488.

Gah-dan or Gah-ldan
(monastery), 61, 189,
268.
Gah-rab dor-je, 73.
Gambling, 470
Games (of chance), 465.
Gandhara, 14, 517.
Gandharvas, 84, 367.
Gandhola (temple), 305.
Ganesa, 368.
Garbha, 260.
Garlands, 297, 425.
Garlic (forbidden to
monks), 225.
Garma-knia, 272, 477,
481.
Garuda, 81, 367, 387.
Gatha, 162.
Gati, 101.
Gautama, see Sakya,
Gaya, 305, 344.
Ge-dun (clergy), 169.
Gedun-dub, see Gedun-
grub.
Gedun-grub, 38, 63, 230,
233-
Gedun-gya-ts'6, 233,
Ge-k'o (officer), 188, 193.
Ge-loh (ordained Lama),
171, 213.
Geloh-ma, 160, 170, 202.
Gelong, see Geloh.
Gelug-pa (sect), 36, 38,
54. 59-
Gefien, 171.
Genii, 367; (local), 371.
Ge-s'e, 185.
Gets'ul, 171.
Ghosts, 498.
Gifts, 138, 398, 493. 566.
Giorgi, 2.
Glacier (torture), 95 ;
(gods of), 370.
Goblins, 369.
Godhanya, 80.
Gods, 86, 324.
Golden-fish,-393-
Gompa (monastery), 255.
287.
Gon-po (devil), 365.
Gorakhas, 53, 578.
Gorakhuth, 292.
Gosirsha, 394.

Gofcama, see Sakya.
Graces (before meat and
drink), 214.
Gradesof monkhood, 171.
Grain, consecrated, 323,
488.
Grand Lama, 37. 233,
303, 305 ; (list of Dalai),
233 ; (Tashi-lhunpo),
235 ; (Sakya), 241 ;
(tjrgya), 240; (Bhotan),
226, 242 ; (receptions),
321-
Greek art-influence, 13.
Gridhra-kuta, 161, 377.
Grol-ma, see Tara.
Grub-pa, 141, 152, 378.
Guard ans(supernatural),
369, 374. ,
Guhyapati, 61, 352.
Guilt-offering, 449.
Gujarat, 80.
Gupta characters, 22.
Gur-gbn, 70.
Guru Padma (or Rimbo-
ch'e), see Padma-sam
bhava.
Gusri-khan, 39.
Gya-jin, see Indra.
Gyal-ch'en, 84, 290, 538.
Gyal-gbn rimpo-ch'e, 235.
Gyal-po (king - devils),
369-
Gyalts'an (banner), 408.
Gyal-wa-rimpo-ch'e, 39,
228.
Gyamtsh6, 227, 233.
Gyantse (mon.), 278, 317
Gye-bo (Gyal-po), 369.
Gyud (Tantra), 129.

Hair (of Budda), 343 ;
(tonsure of candidates),
179. „
Halo, 318, 337.
Hanle (monastery), 283.
Hanuman, 19.
Hare, in moon, 102.
Hariti, 99.
Harsha-vardhana, 20.
Hartmann, 107, 121.
Hastinapur, 552".
Hastings (Warren.), mis
sion of, 236.
Hats, 194; (red), 68, 73,
195 ; (yellow), 61, 195 ;
(black), 61.
Haya-griva, 62, 164, 364,
529.

590

INDEX.

Heart (the sacred), 147.
Heavens, 84; (Brahma's),
86; (Indra's), 85, 87.
Hells, 90;(cold),95;(hot),
93'
Hemis (monastery), 282;
(play at), 521, 528.
Heraclitus, 121.
Hercules, 374.
Heredity, 100.
Hermits, 223.
Heruka, 51, 131, 496, 530.
He-vajra, 131, 363.
Hexagrams, 456. _ .
Hierarchical Buddhism,
227.
Hierarchy, 227; (female),
226.
Himavat, 19.
Himis (mon.), 282; (play
at), 521.
Hina-yana, 10, 123.
Hindu (mythology), 76.
History, nebulous, x.,
19-
Hiuen Tsiang, 15, 19, 26,
56, 108, 307, 330, 338,
501,. etc.
Hobligharj, 232.
Hodgson (Brian H), 12.
Hog ¦ (symbolizing stu
pidity), 109.
Holies (the three), 388,
39°-
Holy days, 501.
Holy plays, 515.
Holy-water, 298.
Homa, 432, 498, 533.
Homeric views, 367.
Honouring persons or
things, 287, 426.
Hor tribe (Turki).
Horn (exorciser's), 488.
Horoscopes, 459 ; (an
nual), 460 ; (special),
481 ; (death), 489.
Horse (car celestial), 32;
(dragon), 410; (flying),
390 ; (flags), 409.
Hoshang, 31, 378,534.
Hospitals, 269.
Houris, 86.
Houses (of Lamas), 260 ;
(god of), 372.
Howling devil-dancer,
477>
Hri, invocation to Avalo
kita, 147, 324, 402.
Hsuan-chuang, see Hiuen
Tsiang.

Hublighan, 227.
Hue, Pere, 2.
Hum, mystic ejaculation.
Human (bones), 300, 483,
493 ; (sacrifices), 51b,
518.
Hung, see Hum.
Hunterian spelling, xviii.
Hutuktu, 232.
Huxley on Karma, 100.
Hwa Shang, 31,378, 534.
Hymn-book score, 433.
Hymns (to Tara), 435;
(to Trinity), 439.
Hypnotism (self-), 141.

Ichneumon, 368, ypj.
Iddhi, 128, 141.
Iddhi-pada, 141.
Identity (personal), 112,
121. 1
Idolatry, 12, 13, 15, 324.
Ignorance, 105, no, 119.
Illusion, 7, 101, 107, 121.
Images, 13, 15, 291, 324;
(colossal) , 320 ; (insignia
of), 341; (self -created),
292, 304; (stone), 278,
339; (union with), 446.
Image-worship, origin of ,
13. 324-
Incantations, 141.
Incarnate deities, 40.
Incarnate Lamas, see Re
incarnation.
Incense 222, (butter),
222.
India (origin oi Buddh
ism in), 5 ; (changes),
9 ; (expulsion from),
16. .
Indian (gods), 76, 367;
(monks), 376; (shrines),
305; ( ? Vedic charms),
401.
Individuality, 112, 124.
Indra, 86, 356, 367; (as a
Yaksha), 369.
Induction-ceremony, 178.
Inferno, 90; (source of
Dante's), 94.
Initiation, 178, 185.
Inspiration (physical in
Yoga), 145.
Instruments, 298, 300.
Intercalation of days and
months, 454.
Investure, 178, 185.
Io (goddess), 373, 404.

Irdhi, 128, 141.
Iron-tower (in S. India),
15-
Ishta-devata, 152.
Islam, 16, 387, 583.
Isvara, 141.
Itinerancy, 211, 212.

Ja, see Tea.
Jacob's ladder, 510.
Jagannath (idol car), 313.
Jainism, 4, 339, 424;
(saints), 389, 393, 397.
Jai-yung, see Manjusri.
Jalandhara, 9.
Jalendra, 368.
Jambhala (god), 151, 368.
Jambu tree, 80.
Jambudvipa, 80.
Jambu-ling, see Jambu
dvipa.
Jam-pa, see Maitreya.
Jam-yang, 355.
Japan, 9, 27, 136, 145,
327. 345, 352, 353. ,393.
395; (God of Wealth),
308; (rosaries), 202.
Jaramarana, 1 10.
Jatakas (former births),
101; (as plays), 533.
Jati, no.
Jengiz Khan, yj.
Je rin-po-ch'e, see Tsoh-
K'a-pa.
Jetavana, 135.
Je-tsun dampa, see Tara
natha.
Jewel (the three), 33, 388,
390 ; (wish - granting),
544-
Jig-ten-ba ( = worldly).
Jina, 130, 267, 336, 349.
Jizo, 345.
Jiiana, 138.
Joll, 263.
Jo-nah, 55, 70.
Jong-ni, 49.
Jo-nn-po-ch'e, 345.
Jo-wo-K'ang (cathedral),
23, 281, 300.
Judgment of dead, 91,
113.
Jugglery, 476.
Junior monks, 177.
Jupiter, 86, 356, 367;
(planet), 451 ;(Pluvius),
269; (thunder -holt),
27; (heavens of).
Jyoli, 263.

INDEX.

591

Ka-che, 266.
Kadam-pa (sect), 36.
Kah-chan (Kab-chu) , 1 86.
Kah-dam-pa, 36, 54.
Kah-gyur (canon), 157.
Kah-gi-o, 129, 366, 429,
562.
Kah-lon, 254.
Kailasa( mount), 19, 78,80.
Kaiser, see Kesar.
Kalacakra, 15, 131, 163,
269.
Kala-devi, 129, 334, 364,
537-
Kalanatha, 151, 363, 365,
• 537-
Kalasiitra (hell), 94.
Kali, 14, 129, 131, 334.
364, 537- o
Kalimpong, 284.
Kalinga, 269, 544.
Kalmuk (Tartars), 9, 42.
Kalpa, 76, in.
Kalpa tree, 86.
K'am (eastern Tibet).
Kama, 84.
Kamala-sila, 31.
Kama-loka, 84.
K'am-ts'an, 189.
Kanaka-muni, 346, 351.
Kanchinjunga (moun
tain), 49, 370, 430
511.
Kan-dd, 366, 429, 562.
! Kang-gyur, 157.
Kang-s'ag,"22i,477. Kanishka (Kanerkes), 8,
9, 12, 108, 573.
Kanjur, 157.
K'an-po (an abbot), 172.
Kant, 107.
Kapala, 341, 353, 363.
Kapilavastu, 541.
Kargyu-pa (sect), 55, 63.
Karma (act-force), xviii. ,
30, 100, 106, 222, 567 ;
(Huxley on), 100.
Karma (sect), 45, 52, 55.
Karma-bakshi, 67.
Karma-kya (mon.), 272,
477 ; (oracle), 481.
Kafma-marga, 57.
Karmashar (mon.), 272,
477 ; (oracle), 481.
Kart'og-pa, 55. 73-
' Kar-tsjs (astrology), 450.
Karuna, 356, and see
Avalokita.
Ka'sarpani, 356.
Kashgar,'583.

Kashmir, 8, 11, 26, 163,
377-
K'as-tub-je, 59.
Kasyapa (Buddha), 346;
(monk), 8, 346, 350.
Katak, 269.
Kaundinya, 345.
Kavaca (amulet), 148,
401. 573- T
Ken-diiling (Kun-de-ling
monastery), 253, mon.
Kesar (King), 20, 167,
478.
Kevalatma, 76.
Kha-ba-c'an(Himalayas), 19.
Khakkara, 211,
Khalka (Tartars), 70.
Khalsa, 163.
Khandha, 114.
Khan-po (abbot), 172.
Khas-grub-je, 59.
Kha-s'or ch'orten, 315.
Khatmandu (K'o-bom),
315-
Khatvanga, 341.
Khecara, 366.
Khorlo, see Cakra.
Khoten, 44.
Khri Srong de-tsan, 24,
245.
Khroda, 332, 334.
Khriis-sol, 448, 502, 510.
Khublai Khan (king), 37,
227.
Kublaighan (incarna
tions), 233.
Khutuktu, 232.
Kilang (monastery), 384.
Kinchinjunga, 49, 370.
Kings (4 guardian), 84 ;
(5 great), 369, 477, 538-
Kinriara, 367, 552.
Kirghis, 43.
Kitchen (god), 373, 404;
(monastic). 191.
Knowledge (true), 133.
Kobo Daishi, 27 , ( w ay of ) .
Koko, Dai, 368.
Koko-Nor, 227.
Konch'og-gyalpo. Kon-ch'og-sum (the three
Gems, see Triratna).
Koot Hoomi, 129.
Kraku-cchanda, 346, 351.
Krashi-Lunpo, see Tashi-
lhunpo.
Krishna, 378.
Kro-bo, 332, 334.
K'rodha, 332, 334, 438.

Kshatriya, 390.
Kshitigarbha, 181, 345,
358-
Kshitipati, 358, 372.
Ku (see body and image).
Kublai Khan, 37, 227.
Kuchar Khanpo, 323.
Kuku Khotun, 43, 282.
Kuku Nor, 227.
Kumarila, Brahmanical
opponent of Buddhism.
Kumbhanda, 84, 369.
Kumbum, 158, 280, 577.
Kun-de-ling, 253.
Ku-fier, 188.
Kun-gah-wo, see Ananda.
Kun-tu-zah-po, 349.
Kurim, 449, 521.
Kuru, 80.
Kurun (or Urgya), 281.
Kushok, 232.
Kusi-nagara, 307.
Ku-s'ok, 232.
Kutila letters, 22, 149.
Kuvera, 368.
Kwan-non, 249, 356, 359,
435-
Kwan-she-yin, 356, 359.
Kwan-yin/249, 356, 359.
435'
Kyab-gbn, 244

Kye-lang (monast.)
Kyil-k'or, 319.

384.

La-brang (mon. (,258, 5 12.
Ladak, 43, 171, 265, 282,
(mystic play), 521.
Lag-na-Dorje, see Vajra
pani.
Lahu'l, 284.
Laity, 170, 566.
La-k'ang, 287.
Lalita (posture), 336.
Lalita-vistara, 162.
Lama (meaning of
word), 28 ; (the first),
29; (order), 170; (num
bers), 41 ; (Grand), 226.
Lama Yuru (monast. ),
283.
Lamaism, 17, .19, 30, 41 ;
(reformation), 36; (sects
of), 54.
Lamas (order of), 169.
Lamaseries, 255.
Lam-de, 57.
Lam-dbn (sgron), 57.
Lamps, 296, 298; (festival
of), 511.

592

INDEX.

Lam-rim (dogmatic by
Tsoh-K'a-pa), 57.
Laftca (letters) , 149.
Lah-darma, 34, 54 ; (as
sassin of), 520, 529.
Lanka, see Ceylon.
Lanterns (feast of), 511.
Lapcha (cairn), 283, 285.
Lapis lazuli, 81.
Lares, 215, 484.
Latsiin Ch'embo, 45, 55.
Law, see Dharma; (true),
126.
Lay-brothers, 170.
Laymen, 170, 566.
Leh, 282.
Lepchas, 285, 286, 379.
Letters (Tibetan), 22,
149.
Levitation of body, 128,
141.
Lha (gods), see Deva.
Lha-k'a (sorcerer), 482.
Lha-k'an, 287.
Lha-mayin, 81.
Lha-mo (she-devil), 334.
Lhasa (name), 23 ; (cathe
dral), 23, 300 ; (Potala),
229 ; (red hill), 229, see
Marpo-ri ; (vicar apos-
tolicus of), 2.
Lhato (cairn), 283, 285.
Lha-t'o t'o-ri, 19.
Lhatsun Ch'en-bo, 45,
48, 55 ; (introd. Lama
ism to Sikhim), 49-51.
Lh6-Dug-pa (sect), 68.
Libation to devils, 215,
225.
Library, 168.
Licchavi tribe, 19.
Life, 102, (elixir of), 81 ;
(eternal), 443 ; (ransom
ing), 265, 448.
Limbu (tribe), 484.
Ling (royal monastery),
253-
Linga (offering to devils),
423, 428, 483.
Ling-k'a, 423, 483, 532.
Lion (pillars), 409, 414 ;
(posture), 343; (throne),
336, 343 : (voiced), 151,
, .356, 379-
Litanies, 444.
Literature, 155.
Liturgy, 444.
Living,
Li-yul, 44.
Lob-nor, 393.

L&b-pon, 188, see Padma-
sambhava.
Lob-ta (school), 260.
Lob-zang tak-pa, see
Tsoh-K'apa.
Locana, 350.
Ld-Dug-pa (sect), 68.
Lokantarika, 96.
Lokesvara (princes), 333.
Lok-pal, 84.
Long (dragon), 410.
L6-pbn, 188.
L6-tsava, 187.
Lotus (symbol of perfec
tion, etc.), 338, 339, 388;
(birth from), 86, 381.
Love (brotherly), 136.
L6-zang, see Tsoh-K'apa.
Lu, see Naga.
Lu-'bum.
Luck (ill), (scapegoat of),
512.
Lucky days, 455, 457.
Lung-ta, 409.
Lung-tog Yam-Thso, 233.
L'un-se ( begging-bowl),
211, .212.
Lust, 109, 115, 119.

Madhyamika (schools),
11, 124.
Madros(Mal-gro),266,376.Magi, doctrine of, 394.
Magic-circles, see Man
dala, (-sentences), 142.
Magic (sympathetic), 401 ,
404, 446.
Ma-gom, 74.
Maguta (stupa), 315.
Maha-deva, 151, 363, 537.
Maha-jataka, 540.
Maha-kala, 151,221,363,
365.537-
Maha-Kasyapa, 8, 159,
160.
Maha - Maugdalyayana,
8, 98, 108, 376.
Maha-purusha, 129.
Maha-parinirvana svitra,
162.
Maha-rajas (of quarters),
84.
Maharani, 364.
Maha-raurava (hell), 95.
Maha-sanghika, 10, 123.
Maha-siddha, 378.
Maha-sravaka, 378.
Maha-sthavira, 378.
Mahatnia, 3.

Maha-utpanna, 72.
Maha-vagga, 123.
Maha-yana doctrine, 10.
124, 137-
Mahoragas, 367. '
Maitreya (Buddha)i 122,
320,355.
Maitrl (love), 136.
Makara, 391.
Makuta Stupa, 315.
Mallas, crested Stupa of,
317-
Mamaki, 350.
Mamo (she-devils), 370,
383-
Manasar6vara, 266, 376.
Manchu (dynasty (,49, 254.
Manchuria, 43.
rf-Mandala, 144, 163, 181,
217, 266, 296, 397, 444.
Mandarawa, 382.
Mandong, 261.
Manes, 96.
Mahgala (ashta), 392,
Mahgala-sutta, 135.
Mang-ja, 189.
Mang-yul, 260.
Mani (mystic prayer),
I48;(prayer-cylinders),149 ; (stone-walls, 261.
Mani-Kah-'bum, x., 19,
166. .
ManVju-ghosha, 355.
Maffju-srl (god of Wis
dom),' 12, 161,339, 355,
460; (incarnations), 35,
231.
Man-la (medical Bud
dhas), 353.
Man-mo (spirits), 371.
Manning (Mr.), 2.
Mantra (spells), 141, 149;
(for rosary), 150;
(vehicle), 128, 151.
Mantrayana, 15, 128, 143,
151.
Manu (date of), 92.
Manushi or human Bud
dhas, 350.
Mara (god of desire), 6,
88, 344. 375 5 (hfs
daughters), 109 ; (his
devQs), 6, 517.
Marici, 219, 361.
Mar-me-dsad, see Dipam
kara.
Mar -pa, 55, 64.
Marpo-ri (hill), 21.
Marriage (hy capture),
553 ; (horoscopes), 458.

y
INDEX.

593

Mars (planet), 455.
Marut (storm-gods), 332.
Masho (vill.), 512.
Masks (for actors), 536;
(mortuary), 496, 497.
Masquerades, 515.
Materialism, 76.
Mati-dhvaja, 38.
Matrika (yum), 129, 163,
362.
'Matter (views of), 77.
Maudgalyayana, 8, 98,
108, 376.
Maya (illusion), 7, 101,
107, 121.
Maya(Buddha's mother),
507.
May-pole, 410.
Mayurasana (peacock
throne), 336, 350.
Mayuri, 340.
Me-ba (geomantic
figures), 457.
Medical Buddha-gods,
353, 498, 509.
Medicine (sympathetic),
401, 404, 446.
Meditation (Dhyana),
136, 138, 335.
Meditative (attitude),
335-
Me-lha (fire-god), 367,
,496, 533-
Melong (mirror), 393.
Menander, 124, 357, 541.
Mendicant Lamas, 48.
Men-dong, 261.
Merchant monks, 224.
Mercury (planet), 199.
Mercy (god of), 356; (god
dess of), 359, 435.
Merit (action of), 101.
Meru (mount),78,398,4oa
Mesmerism, 129.
Metamorphosis, 100.
Metaphysics, 76, 159.
Metempsychosis, 100,226.
Mewa, 457.
. Middle-path, 11, 124.
Mig-mar (Mars), 455.
Mig-tse-ma, 190.
Mila-raspa (saint), 55, 64,
167.
Milinda, 124, 357, 476,
541.
Milinda pafiha, 124.
Milinda prasna, 124.
Mind, 114.
Mindolling, 55, 73, 173,
277- - .

Ming (dynasty), 38.
Miracles,247,249 ; (Chris
tian), 30.7.
Mirror (magical), 393,445,
482.
Misery, no, 132 ; (of
gods), 90.
Missals, 157.
Missionaries (Buddhist),
8, 376 ; (Roman, in
Lhasa), 2.
Mitre, 24, 197.
M6 (divination), 465.
Moha, 109, 113.
Monasteries, 255 ; (list
of), 266.
Mongol, patronage of
Lamaism, 37, 39.
Mongolia (Lamaism in
trod. to), 38, 43, 70;
(re-introd.), 501.
Mongolian (alphabet and
scriptures), 38, 158;
(Lama), 45.
Monkeys, origin from,
19 ; (symbol), 115.
Monkhood, 170.
Monlam (celebrations),
422.
Month (festivals of), 502.
Monuments (religious),
261.
Moral conduct, 133 ;
(rules), 134.
Morality, 132.
Moru monastery, 477.
Moulmein, 36.
Mountain-gods, 370.
Mriga-dava, 134.
Mucalinda (Naga) 345.
Mudra (attitudes), 141,
335.
Muhammadan (expulsion
of Buddhism), 16, 583.
Mummers, 5 1 5.
Mummery, 144, 224.
Muni (sage), 5, 311, 345-
Music, 432.
Musical instruments, 298,
300 ; (notation), 433.
Musician (heavenly), 83.
Mystery-play, 515.
Mystic (sentences), 141,
146,-148.
Mystical Buddhism, 128,
142.
Mysticism, I24, 128, 142.
Mythology, 76, 324 ;
(of Hindus), 77, 324,
3*. ¦ :

Na-ch'uh (oracle), 478,
.521.
Na-dag-pa, 55, 73.
JNa-dan 376.
Naga, n, 84, 104, 164,
156, 289, 368; (worship),
. 164, 267, 499, 508.
Naga-raja, 289.
Nagasena, 124, 377, 476.
Nag-pa (sorcerer), 209,
475. 479. 483- , ,
Nag-po Ch'en-po (Maha-
. kala), 365.
Nag- wan L6 - zah Gya-ts'o,
39, 47, 227, 233, 253,
¦ 327-
Nah-dag, 73.
JSfah-t'i-tsan-po, 19.
Nail-parings of Lama s
(as charms), 402.
Nain Singh, 266, 512.
Najarjuna, 8, 10, II, 15,
69, 125. 164, 378.
Nakula, 377.
Nalanda, 24, 64.
Nal-jor (= Yogacarya),
141.
Nama-rupa, no, 115.
Namchi (monastery), 259,
285.
Nam-c'u van-dan, 142.
Names of Buddha, 203,
353-
Names of monasteries,
257, 266.
Nam-go (masts), 487.
Namgyal (monast.), 253,
272.
Nam-t'o-sras, 84, 370.
Nan (devil), 372.
Nanda (naga), 308.
Nandas (the nine), 393.
Nah-sa (play of), 553.
Naraka (hell), 90.
Nari-K'or-sum, 265, 266.
Naro, 16.
Narthang (mon.), 156,
158, 159. 327-
Natha, 365.
Nats (of Burmese), 365.
Navakosa, 393-
Navaniddhi, 393-
Navang Lobsang, see
Nag-wah.
Nava-ratna, 393-
Nayablih, 81.
,Nayakas, 180. ¦
Ne-chung (oracle), 47»>
521. ;
QQ

594

INDEX.

Necromancers, 478.
Ne-den (chu-tug), 376.
Nen-na, 170.
Sfen-t'o, 170.
Neophyte, 178.
Ne.paJ, 8, 20, 44, 260, 284,
31,5, 382,470; (canon),
139- ' .
Nestonan influence in
China and Tibet, 421.
Netan c'u-drug, 376.
Newars, 328, 456, 470,
New-moon (day), 501.
New- Year (festival),
5J3-
Nibbana, see Nirvana.
Nidana, 105, 107, no.
Nihilism (sophistic), 125.
Nimbus, 337,
Sfih-ma-pa, 55, 68, 72.
Nirmana-kaya, 127, 347.
Nirvana, 10, 119, 124,
..163.'
Ni-t'i (book), 161.
Nomen Khan, 253.
Non-Ego, 124.
Norbu (gem), 389.
Nor:pa, 55, 70.
Northern school, 9.
Nostril (closing), 145.
Nothingness; 125.
; Novice, 178.
Novitiate (admission),
178..
Number of Lamas, 41-52.
Numerals, symbolic use
of, 367,
Nuns, 160, 170, 202, 274,
27.5, 286.
Nya-thi-tsanpo (king), 19.
Nying-ma-pa (sect), 55,
68, 72.
Nyi-thi, 161.

Oaths, 570..!
Oblations, 215, 225.
Oceultism, 128.
Ocean jewels, 88.
Ocean-Lama, 228.
Odantapura vihara, 28,
36.
'Od-pag-med, 349.
'Od-ser, 219, 361.
Offerings, 296, 423.
Officials, 187.
Og-min (heaven), 85,
497.
Olympus, 77, 78, 86.
Om, 142, 148, 160, 1-65.

Om mani padme hum,
139. I4'8.
O-pa-me, 349.
Oracles, 475 ; (of govern
ment), 478.
Order (of Lamas), 168..
Order, 168.
Ordination, 185.
Organs (sense), 115.
Original sin,' 115, 160,
222.
Orisons, 219.
Otantipara (vihara), 28,
36, 266.

Paccaya, 106.
Padma, 95.
Padma-juh-na, see Pad
ma-sambhava.
Padma-Kar-po, 68.
Padma-pani, see Avalo-
kica.
Padma-sambhava(saint) ,
(founded Lamaism), x,
24, .29, 55, 68, 73, 195,
292 ; (departure from
Tibet),32; (deification),
33.73,312,340,379.518,525.531.543. 55'; (dis
ciples)^!; (visit to Sik
him), 44 ; (to Bhotan),
68.
Padmasana (lotus-seat),
338.
P'ag-mo, see Dorje-p'ag-
mo.
Paintings, 331,
Palace-monastery, see
Ling.
Pal-dan, title of Atisa,
Lhamo, Yes'e, etc.
Pali (scriptures), 156, 159.
Palingenesis, 1 00, 1 21,227.
Pafica-baia. 131.
Pafica-rakshasa, 131.
Panca-sila, 134.
Pafica-tantra, 163.
Panch'en Lama, 235.
Panch'en Rim-po-ch'e,
235/
Pandita, 186.
Pandura, 351.
Pantheism, 122, 129.
Pantheon, 324.
Paradise (Buddha's), 127,
217 ; (Indra's), 86 ; (St.
Padma's), 32.
Paramita (virtues), 138,
54L

ParasU, 341.
Pari (Lama), 326.
Paribhogika, 420.
Pari -nirvana, 11, 120,
.122.
Paritta, 142, 446,
476. ¦
Parivrajika, 178, 185.
Parkha (signs),' 456/
Paro (monastery),^, 278,
284,293.
Parsva (monk), 8.
Patanjali, 128, 141.
Paternal Buddhas, 339.
Path (eight-fold), 133.
Paticca-samuppado, 105.
Patimokkha, 160.
Pato (mon.), 44, 278, 284,
^ 293.
Patriarchs (list of), 8.
Pattini (goddess), 325.
Peacock, 88; (feathers),-
298,445; (throne), 336,
349-
Pedong, 284.
Pehar (King-devil), 371,
479-
Peking, 43, 158,279,327;
(Lama),. 243.
Pelong, 29, 237.
Pemakoi, 279.
Pemiongchi, 50, 173, 258,
265, 285, 512;
Penance, 6 ; (by proxy).
^ 319.
Penates, 484.
Perfumes, 394.
Personality, 112, 121.
Peshawar, 14.
Pessimism, 122.
Phag-mo, see Dorje-
p'agmo.
PEa-pa, title of Avalo
kita, etc.
Philistinism (of Muham
madans), 16.
Phungi, 30.
Phur-bu, 51, 341, 488.
Phylacteries, 402, 531.
Pictures, 331.
Pig(symbolof stupidity),
109.
Pilgrims, 305, 278.
Pinaar, 109.
Pingala, 99.
Pipal-tree, 337.
Pirit (ceremony), 142,
446, 476-
Pitaka, 159,
Pittuk (mon.), 284,

INDEX,

595

Planets, 199, 454.
Plato, 10, 107, 109.
Plays, 515.
Plotinus, 141.
Pluto, 90, 367.
P6n-ba, see Bon.
P'ongi (Burmese monk
etymol), 30.
Pope .(Lamaist), 37 ; and
see Grand Lamas.
Popular Lamaism, 566.
.Postures, 145.
Potala palace, 21 , 39,
40, 229.
Pradakshina, 287, 420.
Prajna, 125, 161, 356.
Prajna-paramita, 11, 125,
160.
Prasanga-madhyamika, 139- .
Prasenajit, 19.
Pratimoksha, 160.
Pratitya Samutpada, 105.
Pratyeka (Buddhas), 123,
137- ,
Pravrajya, 178.
Prayag, 377.
Prayer, 12, 15, 141, 213,
t,435" , ,
Prayer-barrels, 149.
Prayer-cylinders, 149,
172, 218.
Prayer-flags, 408.
Prayer-formula, 141,213,
„435-Prayer-machines, 149,
172, 218.
Prayer-wheels, 149, 172,
218, 573-
'. Preaching attitude, 337.
Precentor, 188.
Precepts, 134.
Precious things, 389.
Preta, 96.
Priest, see Order and
Worship.
^Priestcraft, 18, 153, 217.
L Priest-king, 227.
Printing, 157, 219, 327.
Procession, 168.
Pronunciation (rules),
xvii.
Proverbs, 175.
Pu-kwa, 456.
Punakha (mon.), 44, 284.
Pundarika, 96.
Pangi„3o,
Punishments, 193.
P'unts'o-ling, 71, 274.
Punya, 30.

Pupil, 173.
Purang, 260.
P'ur-bu,5i,34i,483,488.Purgatory, 90.
Purusha, 129.
Quarters (Kings of), 84.
Quietists, 141.
Rab-jam-pa, 186.
Radeng (Lama), 235.
Radeng (mon. ), 56, 274.
Raga, 109.
Rag-bushes, 409.
Rahan, 376.
Rahat, see Arhant.
Rahu, 82, 269, 455.
Rahula, 82, 377.
Rain-bow (cordon), 103,
331-
Rain (compelling), 499 ;
(worship), 508.
Raivata, 345.
Raja-griha, 108.
Rakshasa, 32, 81, 369.
Ralung, 68.
Rammoch'e (monastery),
23. 272, 477, 5°8.
Ransoming (life), 265,
448.
Ratna (gem), 389.
Ratna-kuta Sutra, 99,
161.
Ratna-pani, 351.
Ratna-sambhava, 349,
35o.
Ravana, 32.
, Rays '(of light), 337, 343-
Re-birth, 101, 109! (of
Grand Lamas), 229.
Red-hats, 73 ; (sect), 68,
73-
Refectory, 189, 214.
Reformation (Lamaist),
36-
Refreshments in church,
214, 220.
Refuge formula, 440.
Refuges (three), 440.
Regenerated Lamas, 227.
Regent, 235, 240, 253.
Re-incarnation, 100, 121,
227.
Relics, 305, 318, 330 ; (of
Buddha), 7, 319. 42°;
(of Grand Lamas), 253.
Reting (Lama), 235.
Retreat (in rains), 223.
Revelations, 56, 165.

Rhinosceros, 397.
Rice-offerings, 295 ; (of
universe), 296 ; (images
in Ceylon), 329.
Rinang, 553.
Rin-ch'en-na-diin, 389.
Ri-rab (Mt.), 78, 398, 40a ;
Rites, 420.
Ri-wp-ch'e (mon.), 279.
Road to heaven, 492.
Robes, 200 ; (giving of),
511.
Rol-pa (Manjusri), 336.
Rol-pahi dorje, 243.
Roman Church (ana
logies), xi.
Rosaries,202 ;(spellsfor),
150.
Routine, 212.
Rudra (god), 209, 332.
Rugs, 294.
Rules (moral), 134, 138,
160 ; (thirty-six), 171,
179 ; (two hundred and
fifty-three), 171 ; (of
monasteries), 188.
Rupa (form), 84, 115.
Russia (Lamaism in),
9, 41, 282. .

Sabdag (local genii), 371,
484-
S'ab-duh (title), 179.
Sacrifice, 425 ; (flesh), 495,
527 ; (burnt), 432, 533 ;
(dogs), 529 ; (human),
516.
Saddharma - pundarika,
126, 138, 142, 162,
Sa-g6 masts, 484.
Saints, 376.
Saint-worship 33, 376.
Sakra, see Indra.
Sakrid-agama, 136.
Sakti (female energy),
129.
Sakya (monastery), 69,
274 ; (sect), 37, 55, 69.
Sakya (pandita), 37, 69,
227.
Sakya-muni, 5 ; (image),
343 ; (death), 7, 163,
308 ; (temptation), 6 ;
(the "Second"), 379.
Sakya-pa (sect), 37,55>69-
Sala (tree), 7, 185, 308.
Samadhi, 138, 141.
Saman (God in Ceylon),
325-

596

.INDEX.

Samanera, 136.
Samanta-bhadra, 14, 72,
131, 349, 358.
Sambhala, 283, 306.
Sambhara, 151, 163, 363.
Sambhoga-kaya, 127,347.
Sam-bhota, 21.
Samsara, 10, 109, 126.
Samvara, 151, 163, 363.
Samyak-Sambuddha (title of Sakya Muni).
Sam-yas (monast. foun
ding), 28, 108, 266,
„ 478, 513-
Sandal (rosary), 207.
Sangacheling (monast.),
50,258.
Sangha, 169.
Sahgharama, 261.
Sahghati, 200.
Sang-kar, 266, 278, 283.
Sah-gyas, see Buddha.
Sansara, 10, 109, 126.
Sahskara, 106, no.
Santa-rakshita, 28, 315.
Sapataratna, 390.
Saptaparna, 377.
Sarana, 337.
Sarahga-nath, 360.
Sariputra, 8, 376.
Sarira, 330, 420.
Sarnath, 134, 360.
Sarvastivada, 124.
Sas-kya (monast.), 69,
274 ';¦ (sect), 37, 55, 69.
Satscha, 330, 497.
Sattva, 112, 423.
Saturn, 455.
Sautranta, 1 62.
Scales (ordeal of ) , 113.
Schools (northern and
southern)* 9.
Schopenhauer, 107, 120.
Scorpion (charm), 405 ;
(exorcism), 488.
Scriptures, 155,
Sculpture, 239.
Scythian, 8, 108, 541.
Seal, 202; (Grand Lama^s),
242, 304.
Seas (seven), 78.
Sects, 54. -
Sedent^ (postures), 335.
Selenginsk, 282.
Self, 112.
Self -consciousness, 1 10.
Self -extinction, 138.
Self-sacrifice, 138.
Self -sprung (images), 328.
Seh-c'en rimpo-eh'e, ,243.

Seng-dong-ma (devil),
, 43o.,
Sermons (Buddha's), 135.
Serpent, see Naga ; (char
mer), 552.
Serra (mon.), 63, -189, 269.
Seven (jewels, etc.), 389,
•391-
Shab-dung (title), 179.
Shadow (of Buddha),
318. .
Shakya-thuba, 343.
Shamanism, 19, 26, 29,
, 55, 420.
Sha-mar,. 81.
Shambhala, 283, 306.
Sham-ch'o-duh, 307.
Shaving head, 179.
Sheep's shoulder-blades
(divining by), 465.
Sheldrake, 200.
Shen-rab (god), 30.
Sher-chin, see Prajna
paramita.
Shi-je-pa,. 74.
Shin-je, see Yama.
Shintoism, 27, 393.
Shrines, 305.
Siam, 8, 9.
Siberia, 43, 282.
Sibi (Jataka), 550.
Sickness (curing), 401.
Siddha, 152, 271.
Siddharta, 5.
Siddhi, 141, 152, 378.
Sikhim (intro. 'of Lama
ism to), 44, 51,52, 284;
(Lamas of), 45, 244;
(king), 341, 379.
Sikhin, 346.
Slla (moral rules), 134.
Siladitya, 138.
Silk (robes), 200.
Sin (word for), 175.
Sihhanada, 151, 267, 356.
S'inje, see Yama.
Sirios (dog-star), 510.
Sita (Tara), 359.
Siva, 14, 330.
Sixfold (states of life),
101.
Six-syllabled spell, 148.
Skandha, 1 14.
Skull-bowl, 299.
Skull-drum, 300.
Sky-demons, 487.
Sling, 341, 375, 483.
Snake-demigods, 368.
Soap, 214.
So-bbn, 188, 237.

f
Sod-nam, Gya-ts'o, 233.
Sol-pon, 188, 237.
Sooth-sayers, 451, 475.
Sorcery, 475,
Sorrow, 132.
Sosanika, 381.
Soul, in, 112, 121, 126,
14*.
Soup in church, 220.
Southern school, 9.
Space, 77; 264.
Sparsa, no.
Spells, 150.
Spinoza, 122.
Sraddha, 99. /
Srag-dhara, 81.
Sramana, 136.
Sramanera, 136.
Sravaka (hearer), 136.
SravastI, 135, 161.
Srong-tsan-gam-po, 19,
22, 551.
Srot-appanna, 136.
Staff (mendicants'), 211.
Stars (influence of ), 450.
Statues, 339.
Stature of mythical
Buddhas, 345.
Sthavira, 171 ; (sixteen),
376-
Storm (-god), 332.
Scupa, 262. .
Styx (Buddhist), 92.
Su-darsana, 88.
Sudhana Jataka, 551.
Suffering (origin of), 133.
Sukhavati, 127, 139.
Sumatikirti (Tsoh-k'a-
pa).
Sumedha, 346.
Sumeru, 78, 398, 400.
Sum-pa k'anpo, 20.
Sunday (Buddhist), 501.
Sung-Yun, 541,
Sun-worship, 1*3, 127,347.
Sunyata, 125.
Supernatural (powers),
141, 152,378.
Surmounting Buddhas
(on images), 338.
Sutra, 1.59, 162.
Sutranta, 123, 162.
Suvarnad vipa, 36,
Svastika (cross), 30, 389;
Svayambhunath (stupa),
3J5-
Swan maidens, 552.
Syllables (mystic), 142.
Symbols, 341, 387; (in.
hats), 197..

INDEX.

597

Tables (of Lamas), 294.
Tachog, see Flags, and
Hayagriva.
Ta-erh-ssu (mon.), 280.
Tag-mar c'hani, 516.
T'ag-p'u (caves), 257.
Tag-ten (monast.), 70.
tale Lama, 39, 227.
Talismans, 402, 531.
Taking (sect), 55,69.
Tamch'og, see Haya
griva.' )
Tamdin, see Hayagriva.
Tam-ze (=Brahman).
tangut,'266, 581.
Tiin-gya-ling, 253 ; (plan
of), 522.
Tangy ur (commentaries),
¦157,164.
Tahha, 1 16, 1 16.
Tanjur, 157.
Tan-ma (she-devils), 27,
371, 382, 529.
Tantalized souls, 96.
T'ah-t'oh-gyal-po, 385.
Tantra, 129, 152, 163.
Tantrism, 14.
T'ah'-yig (books), 165,
Taoism, 19.
Tara, 22, 23, 258, 360,
551 ; (worship of), 435.
Taranatha, 43, 55, 70,
240, 282, 327.
Tartars, 9.
Tashiding, 50, 53, 258,
285, 512.
Tashi-g6-man, 264.
Tashi Lama, 230.
Tashi-lhunpo, 63, 189,
260,270 535. '
lashi-rab-ka, 49.
Tashisudon (monast.), 44,
284. ' '
Tathagata, 122, 345, 353.
Tats'm (Rome), 422.
Tawa, 61. »
Tea service (general),
191, 215. -
Tea-drinking, 214.
Teaching attitude, 134.
Teeth (relics), 308.
Telopa (nionks), 64.
Temples, 287.
Temptation (Buddha's),
6, 344.
Ten (prohibitions), 134.
Teh-del (Nidana), 105.
Ttehgri, 372.
Teng-pa, 10.
J. eng-wa, 202.

Ten-gye-ling, 253 ; (plan
of), 522.
Tent (god), 70; (taber
nacle), 282.
Terma (revelations), 57,
58, 165.
Terminology (Buddhist),
165.
Ter-pa-ling, 239.
Teshu Lama, 230.
Text-books, 174.
Thang Chu (record), 20.
Thang-kar pass, I, 2.
Thah-yig ser-t'eh, 45.
Theg-pa (yana), 10.
Theistic Buddhism, 126.
Theogony, 122.
Theosophy, 128.
Thigh-bone trumpets, 48,
300.
Thin-le-Gya-ts'o, 233.
Thi-Srong-de-tsan, 24, 30,
24s.
Tho, 330.
Tho-ling (mon.), 283.
Thonmi-Sambhota,2l,22. Thor, 88.
Tho-wo, 330.
Three gems, 346, 388, 390,
443.
Three Holies, 346, 443,
Three Refuges, 440.
Thiig-je-ch'en-po, 356.
Thui-sol, 434, 448, 502,
510.
Thumi Sambhota, 21, 22.
Thunderbolt, 1 5, 25, 27, &c
Tibet (pre-Buddhist), 19.
Tiger-devils, 516.
T'ig-se, 266, 283.
Tilopa (monk), 64.
Timed Kun-dan (Jataka
play), 540.
Tinge (mon.), 274, 533.
Tisri, 240, 577.
Titans, 81.
T'o, 330.
T6-lung (monast.), 51.
Tonsure, 179.
Tope, 262.
Top-knot, 179.
Tor-ma cakes, 297.
Tortoise, 395.
Torture, 568.
T'o-t'on-nan-tsan, 19.
Trading monks, 224.
Transcendental wisdom,
160.
Transmigration, 100, 226.
Trayastrihsa, 86.

Tree (of heaven), 81, 86,
88, 96; (Christmas), 81.
Trigrams, 394.
Tri-kaya, 127, 347.
Tri-murti (of Lamaism),
_355-Trinity, 346, 347.
Tn-pitaka, 159.
Tri-ratna, 33, 388, 390.
Tri-sarana, 340.
Trishna, no, 116.
Trisula, 342.
Trividagni, 114.
Tri-vidya, in.
Trumpets, 298.
Truths, 132.
Tsa-cha, 330, 497.
Tsam-ch'o-duh, 307.
Tsa-mo-ling, 253.
Ts'e-gug,,447. Ts'e-mch'uling, 253.
Ts'e-pag-med, 348.
Ts'e-ring che-ha, 370.
Tsi-pa, 451.
Tsoh-K'a-pa, 38, 54, 59,
198, 223, 227, 268, 280,
292.
Tsug-tor (Ushnisha), 360.
T'uba ( = Sakya).
T'ug, 147.
T'ug-je ch'en-po, 356.
Tui-sol, 434, 448, 502,
510.
T'ul-ku, 232.
Tung:rampa, 186.
Tun-moh, 434.
Turquoises, 209, 239, 557.
Tushita (heaven), 77, 86,
128.
Tutelaries, 152, 361; (sec-
tarial), 58,62,65,69,72.

U, province, 265.
Udanas, 162.
Udanavarga, 162.
Udandapura, 28, 36, 266.
Uddesika, 420.
Udyana, 26, 197, 3°6,
380.
Umbrella, 392, 393.
Um-dse (officer), 188,
293-
Universe (Buddhist), 77 ;
(offering of), 296, 397;
see Mandala.
Upadana, no.
Upadhyaya, 31, 171, 172.
Upagupta, 8, 120, 442.
Upali, 159, 376.-

598

INDEX,

Upa-me, 349.
Upananda, 368.
Upasaka, 170.
Upasampada (full ord
ination), 185.
Upasika, 170.
Uposatha (fast days), 1 78.
Uranus, 367.
Urga, 43, 70, 240, 281.
Urgyan.-gya-ts'o (Lama),
xii,45.
Urgyan-pa (sect).
Utai-shan, 279.
Utpala, 95.
Uttara (title), 28.
Uttarakuru, 80, 377.
Uttara sahga, 201.

Vaglsvara, 414.
Vaibhashika, 123.
Vaipula, 161, 162.
Vairocana Buddba, 15,
127,349. ,
Vairocana (Lama), 29,
..435- Vaisali (council), 10, 123.
Vaisravana, 84, 368, 370.
Vaitarani, 92.
Vajra, 15, 25, 27, etc.
Vajra-bhairava, 62, 131,
362.
Vajracarya, 151, 179.
Vajracedika, 161.
Vajra-dakkihi, 366.
Vajra-dhara, 61, 130,
: 352.
Varra-dhatu, 144, 145.
Vajra-garbha, 144, 145.
Vajra:pani, 13, 86, 150,
356. 365-
Vajra-p urba, 70, 72,
363-
Vajrasana, 305.
'Vajra-sattva, 15, 352.
Vajra varahi, see Dorje-
p'agmo.
Vajra-yana, 15, 151.
Vajriputra(? Vasuputra),
377-
Vakula, 377.
Vandya (?Bande), 171.
Vanishing, 141, 564.
Varahi, 150, 163.
Varsha, 223.
Varuna, 367.
Vasubandhu, 13, 69, 128.
Vasu -mitra, 8.

Vasuputra, 57, 69.
' Veda (god), 371-; (scrip
tures), 6.
Vedana, no. '
Vedanta, 122.
Vedic charms, 401.
Vehicles, 10, 15.
Venuvana, 108, 161.
'¦ Vessantara (tale en
acted), 541.
Vestments, 194.
Via media, 11.
Vicar apostolicus of
! Lhasa, 2.
. Vidarbha, 11.
Videha, 80, 543.
Vihara (mon.), 255.
Vijfiana, no.
Vinaya, 60, 1 59.
Virgil, 100.
Virtues (practice of ), 138.
Virudhaka, 83, 84, 330.
Virupaksha, 84, 289.
Visions (four), 91.
Visva-bhu, 346.
Visva-karma, 313.
Visvantara, 1385 (play)
,r54°- _ .
Visva-pani, 350.
Vitaraga^ 392.
Volga, 182.
Votive offerings, 133.
Vulcan, 313, 367, 404.
Vulture's peak, 161.

War-god, 89, 374.
Water (festival), 509 ;
(holy), 298 ; (offerings),
427.
Way, the true, 133.
Weapons (magical), 483.
Week (days), 454.
Wehch'eng princess, 20,
23-
Wheel (symbol), 389 ;
(of the Law), 134, 337,
390 ; (of Life), 102.
Widow's mite, 319.
Will (unconscious), 113,
119.
Wine, 221, 225 ; (obla
tions), 225, 495.
Wisdom (deified), 12, 35,
161, 339. 355 ; (trans
cendental), n, 125, 160.
Wish-granting (cow),
87; (tree), 81,86, 88, 96.

Witch-women, 366, 369.
Witness (attitude), 336;
344-
Wizard-priests, 24, 378.
Works, 30, 100, 106, 222,
567.
Worlds, 84, 101.
Worship (objects), 324,!
387; (celebrations), 17,*
420 ; (feast days), 501.
Wu-tai shan, 279.
Xylographs, 157.

Yab-yum (conjugal dei
ties),- 129, 362.
Yak (god), 373 ; (mask),,
537- •
Yaksha, 81, 84, 369 ; (In
dra a,s a), 84, 86.
Yakshini, 369.
Yamaj 86, 90, 367.
Yama-mari, 364 ; (hea
vens), 86;
Yamantaka, 90, 362,
Yama rocks, 81.
Yam-dog-ts'o (lake), 233,,
275.
Yah-can-ma (= Saras-
vati)..
Yah-gug, 448.
Yantra, 144, 387.
Yarlung, 20.
Yellow-hat (sect), 61.
Ye-s'e-gon-po, 365.
Yidag, 96.
Yidamj 361.
Yoga, 13, 128, 141.
Yogacarya, 14, 128, 147.
Yogi, 13', 128, 141.
Yong-grub. Ybn-tan, 222. .
Yul-k'or-rung, 84.
Yum, 129, 163, 362.
Yun-druhg, 389.
Yunnan, 254."

Z'al-thang, 328,
Z'alu (Lama), 326, 333.
Zang-Kar, 266, 283, 278.
Zeus, 86, 356, 367.
Z'i-je-pa, 74.
Z'i'wa (mild deity), 333.
Z'ung (spells), . 141, 402,

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the chief cause of comparative neglect with which they are treated is to be
sought in the want of a good illustrated English treatise upon them. In the
work which is now before us, Dr Braithwaite aims at placing the British
mosses on the same vantage-ground as the more favoured classes of the vege
table kingdom ; and judging from the sample lately issued, he will succeed in
his endeavours." — Popular Science Review.
"TOM BOWLING."
Book of Knots (The). Illustrated by 172 Examples, showing the
manner of making every Knot, Tie, and Splice. By "Tom
Bowling." Third Edition. Crown 8vo, 2s. 6d.
Edited by JAMES BURROWS.
Byron Birthday Book. i6mo, cloth, gilt edges, 2s. 6d.
A handsome book.
B. CAR RING TON, M.D., F.R.S.
British Hepaticae. Containing Descriptions and Figures of the Native
Species of Jungermannia, Marchantia, and Anthoceros. With plates
coloured by hand. Imp. 8vo, Parts 1 to 4, all published per set, 15s.
S. WELLS WILLIAMS, LL.D., Professor of the Chinese Language
and Literature at Yale College.
China— The Middle Kingdom. A Survey of the Geography, Govern
ment, Literature, Social Life, Arts, and History of the Chinese Empire
and its Inhabitants. Revised Edition, with 74 Illustrations and a
New Map of the Empire. 2 vols. , demy 8vo, 42s.
" The work now before us is second to none in thoroughness, comprehensiveness,
and all the tokens of accuracy of which an 'outside barbarian ' can take cognisance.
—A. P. Peabodt.
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Great Reductions hi this Catalogue

SURGEON-MAJOR L. A. WADDELL, M.B.
The Buddhism of Tibet. With its Mystic Cults, Symbolism, and
Mythology, and in its relation to Indian Buddhism, with over 200
Illustrations. Demy 8vo, 600 pp., 31s. 6d.
Synopsis of Contents :— Introductory. Historical — Changes in Primi
tive Buddhism leading to Lamaism — Rise, Development, and Spread of
Lamaism — The Sects of Lamaism. Doctrinal — Metaphysical Sources of the
Doctrine — The Doctrine and its Morality — Scriptures and Literature. Mon
astic —The Order of Lamas — Daily Life and Routine — Hierarchy and Rein-
carnate Lamas. Buildings— Monasteries— Temples and Cathedral— Shrines
(and Belies and Pilgrims). Mythology and Gods— Pantheon and Images-
Sacred Symbols and Charms. Ritual and Sorcery — "Worship and Bitual —
Astrology and Divination — Sorcery and Necromancy. Festivals and Plays —
Festivals and Holidays— Mysic Plays and Masquerades and Sacred Plays.
Popular Lamaism— Domestic and Popular Lamaism. Appendices— Chrono
logical Table— Bibliography— Index.
"By far the most important mass of original materials contributed to this
recondite study."— The Times.
"Dr Waddell deals with the whole subject in a most exhaustive manner,
and gives a clear insight into the structure, prominent features, and cults of
the system ; and to disentangle the early history of Lamaism from the chaotic
growth of fable which has invested it, most of the chief internal movements
of Lamaism are now for the first time presented in an intelligible and syste
matic form. The work is a valuable addition to the long series that have
preceded it, and is enriched by numerous illustrations, mostlyfrom originals
brought from Lhasa, and from photographs by the author, while it is fully
indexed, and is provided with a chronological table and bibliography."—
Liverpool Courier.
" A book of exceptional interest." — Glasgow Herald.
"A learned and elaborate work, likely for some time to come to be a
source of reference to all who seek information about Lamaism. ... In
the appendix will be found a chronological table of Tibetan events, and a
bibliography of the best literature bearing on Lamaism. There is also an
excellent index, and the numerous illustrations are certainly one of the dis
tinctive features of the book." — Morning Post.
"Cannot fail to arouse the liveliest interest. The author of this excel
lently produced, handsomely illustrated volume of nearly six hundred pages
has evidently spared no pains in prosecuting his studies. . . . The book
is one of exceptional value, and will attract all those readers who take an
interest in the old religions of the far East." — Publishers' Circular.
" The author is one of few Europeans who have entered the territory of the Grand
Lama, and spent several years in studying the actualities of Lamaism as explained by
Lamas. A Lamaist temple with its listings was purchased, and the officiating priests
explained in full detail the symbolism ani the rites as they proceeded. Other temples
and monasteries were visited and Lamas employed for copying manuscripts, and
searching for texts bearing upon the author's researches. Enjoying special facilities
for penetrating the reserve of Tibetan ritual, and obtaining direct from Lhasa and
Tashi-lhunpo most of the objects and explanatory material needed, much information
has been obtained on Lamaist theory and practice which is altogether now."
" Tho internal developments and movemonts of Lamaism are now for the flrdt time
presented in an intelligible and systematic form. Details of the principal rites, mystic
and other deep-rooted demon worship and dark sorcery, the roligious Plays and
Festivals, are given fully."
With numerous illustrations from originals brought from Lhasa,
and from photographs by the author.

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M. C. COOKE, M.A., LL.D.
*„* For fuller notices of Dr Cooke's works see under Scientific, pp. 29, 30.
The British Fungi : A Plain and Easy Account of. With Coloured
Plates of 40 Species. Fifth Edition, Revised, crown 8vo, 6s.
Rust, Smut, Mildew, and Mould. An Introduction to the Study of
Microscoriic Fungi. Illustrated with 269 Coloured Figures by J. E.
Sowerby. Fifth Edition, Revised and Enlarged, with Appendix of
New Species. Crown 8vo, 6s.
Handbook of British Hepatics. Containing Descriptions and Figures
of the Indigenous Species of Marchantia, Jungermannia, Riccia, and
Anthoceros, illustrated. Crown 8vo, 6s.
Our Reptiles and Batrachians. A Plain and Easy Account of the
Lizards, Snakes, Newts, Toads, Frogs, and Tortoises indigenous to
Great Britain. New and Revised Edition. With Original Coloured
Pictures of every species, and numerous woodcuts, crown 8vo,
6s.
F. C. DANVERS.
Report to the Secretary of State for India in Council on the
Portuguese Records relating to the East Indies, contained in
the Archive da Torre de Tombo, and the Public Libraries at Lisbon
and Evora. Royal 8vo, sewed, 6s. net.
REV. A.J. D. D'ORSEY, B.D., K.C., P.O.C.
Portuguese Discoveries, Dependencies, and Missions in Asia and
¦ Africa, with Maps. Crown 8vo, 7s. 6d.
Contents.
Book I. Book III.— conHnved
Introductory. The Archbishop of Qoa.
The Portuguese in Europe and Asia. The Synod of Diamper.
Portugal and the Portuguese. The Triumph of Rome.
Portuguese Discoveries in the Fifteenth
Century. Book IV.
Portuguese Conquests of India in the Subsequent Missions in Southern India,
Sixteenth Century. with special reference to the Syrians.
The Portuguese Empire in the Sixteenth Eadiati0n of Mission of Goa.
Century. Tn0 Madura Mission.
Book II Portuguese Missions in the Carnatie.
The Portuguese Missions in Southern Syrian Christians in the Seventeenth
India Century.
Early History of the Church in India. Syrian Christians in the Eighteenth
First Meeting of the Portuguese with the Century.
Syrians. Book V.
T^Z°I?%lViTJ:^BSemBSimS' The Portuguese Missions, with special
TheRiseoftheJesmts referonce to Modern Missionary
The Jesuits in Portugal. .«^Xi„a,,,ik Tr,rli„
St Francis Xavier's Mission in India. e£? ^ S™?~£nt Mi'„inn in <?n„th
Subsequent Missions in the Sixteenth Th6T^f Protestant Miasl0n m South
0entury- English Missions to the Syrians 180G-1G.
Book III. English Missions and the Syrian
The Subjugation of the Syrian Church. Christians.
Roman Claim of Supremacy. The Disruption and its Results.
First Attempt, by the Franciscans. Present State of the Syrian Christians.
Second Attempt, by the Jesuits. The Revival of the Romish Missions in
The Straggle against Home. India. __

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C. L. EASTLAKE.
Notes on the Principal Pictures in the Royal Gallery at Venice.
Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d.
VERY REV. FREDERICK W. FARRAR, D.D., F.R.S.
{Archdeacon of Westminster).
Words of Truth and Wisdom, by Very Rev. Frederick W. Farrar,
D.D., F.R.S. Crown 8vo, gilt top, 5s.
Contents.
Christian Statesmanship. The Conquest over Temp- The Monks.
Legislative Duties. tation. The Early Franciscans.
The Use of Gifts and Oppor- Too Late. The Hermits.
tunities. The Souls of the Departed. The Missionaries.
The Brotherhood of Man. What Heaven is. The Martyrs.
Energy of Christian Service. No Discharge in the War Seneca.
Christianity and the Human against Sin. Seneca and St Paul.
Race. The Dead which die in the Gallic and St Paul.
Christianity and Individual. Lord. Roman Society in the days
The Victories of Christianity. The Resurrection of the of St Paul.
TheChristianRemedyagainst Dead. Sanskrit.
the Frailties of Life. The Blighted Life. Greek and Hebrew.
Prayer, the Antidote of Wisdom and Knowledge. Aryan Migrations.
Sorrow. The Voice of History. Words.
" In theological views he might be described as standing between the Evangelical
party and the Broad Church ; but his knowledge, coloured by a poetic temperament,
his superabundant fertility, and eloquent luxuriance of style, have gained for him a
unique position in the theological thought of the last twenty years." — Celebrities of the
Century.
GENERAL GORDON, C.B.
Events in the Taeping Rebellion, being Reprints of MSS. copied by
General Gordon, C.B., in his own handwriting; with Monograph,
Introduction, and Notes, by A. Egmont Hake, Author of " The Story
of Chinese Gordon." With Portrait and Map, demy 8vo, 18s.
"The publication of this volume completes what may be called the personal
narrative of General Gordon's eventful life told in his own words." — Manchester
Guardian. " There is no doubt that a wide circle of readers will like to read the Btory in the
vory words of the gallant leader of the ' Ever Victorious Army.' " — Daily Graphic.
A handy book of reference.
Companion to the Writing Desk ; or, How to Address, Begin, and
End Letters to Titled and Official Personages. Together with a
Table of Precedence, copious List of Abbreviations, Rules for Com
position and Punctuation, Instructions on Preparing for the Press, &c.
321T10, is. A useful manual which should be in every office.
BARON CUVIER.
The Animal Kingdom, with considerable Additions by W. B. Carpenter,
M.D., F.R.S., and J. O. Westwood, F.L.S. New Edition, Illustrated
with 500 Engravings on Wood and 36 Coloured Plates, imp. 8vo,
21s.

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M. GRIFFITH.
India's Princes, short Life Sketches of the Native Rulers of India
with 47 full-page Illustrations. Demy 4to, gilt top, 21s.
The contents are arranged in the following order:— The Punjaub— H H The
Maharaja of Cashmere, H.H. The Maharaja of Patiala, H.H. The Maharaja of Kanur.
thalla RAJPUTANA-The Maharaja of Ouidpur, The Maharaja of Joyporo, The Maha-
raja of Jodhpur The Maharaja of Uwar, The Maharaja of Bhurtpur. Central India
-H.H. The Maharaja Holkar of Indore, H.H. The Maharaja Seindia of Gwalior H H
The Begum of Bhopal. The Bombay Presidency— H.H. The Gaikwarof Baroda HH"
The Rao of Cuteh, H.H. The Raja of Kolhapur, H.H. The Nawab of Juarrghad H H
The Thakore Sahib of Bhavnagar, H.H. The Thakore Sahib of Dhangadra, H H The
Thakore Sahib of Morvi, H.H. The Thakore Sahib of Gondal. Southern India— H H
The Nizam of Hyderabad, H.H. The Maharaja of Mysore, H.H. The Maharaja' of
Travancore, &c. J
"A handsome volume, containing a series of photographic portraits and local views
with accompanying letterpress, giving biographical and political details, carofullv com.
piled and attractively presented."— Times.
GEORGE GRESSWELL.
The Diseases and Disorders of the Ox. Second Edition, demy 8vo,
7s. 6d.
"This is perhaps one of the best of the popular books on the subject which has
been published in recent years, and demonstrates in a most unmistakable manner
the great advance that has been made in Bovine and Ovine Pathology since the days
of Youatt. . . . To medical men who desire to know something of the disorders
of such an important animal— speaking hygienically— as the Ox, the work can be
recommended."— The. Lancet.
C. HAMILTON.
Hedaya or Guide, a Commentary on the Mussulman Laws.
Second Edition, with Preface and Index by S. G. Grady, 8vo, 35s.
The great Law-Book of India, and onoof the most important monuments of Mussul
man legislation in existence.
" A work of very high authority in all Moslem countries. It discusses most of the
subjects mentioned in the Koran and Sonna." — Mills Mohammedanism.
"A valuable work." — Allibone.
JOSEPH HA YDN ¦
Book of Dignities, containing lists of the Official Personages of the
British Empire, Civil, Diplomatic, Heraldic, Judicial, Ecclesiastical,
Municipal, Naval, and Military, from the Earliest Periods to the
Present Time, together^with the Sovereigns and Rulers of the World
from the Foundation of their respective States ; the Orders of
Knighthood of the United Kingdom and India, and numerous other
lists. Founded on Beatson's "Political Index " (1806). Remodelled
and brought down to 1851 by the late Joseph Haydn. Con
tinued to the Present Time, with numerous additional lists,
and an Index to the entire Work, by Horace Ockerby,
Solicitor of the Supreme Court. Demy 8vo, 25s.
" The most complete official directory in existence, containing about 1,300 different
lists."— Times.
" The value of such a book can hardly be overrated." — Saturday Review.
"A perfect monument of patient labour and research, and invaluable for many
purposes of reference."— Truth.
"This valuable work has cost its editor, Mr Horace Ockerby, a great deal of labour,
and does infinite credit to his research and industry." — World.
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Rev. H. R. HAWEIS, M.A., Author of "Music and Morals.*1
Sir Morell Mackenzie, Physician and Operator, a Memoir, compiled
and edited from Private Papers and Personal Reminiscences. New
Edition, with Portrait and copy of Autograph Letter from the Queen,
crown 8vo, 3s. 6d. Contents.
Family Tree. Private Practice. The Respite.
Surroundings. Leisure Hours. The Last Voyage.
Boyhood. The Emperor. Last Glimpses.
A Vocation. The German Doctors. The End.
The Throat Hospital. The Book.
" Mr Haweis writes not only fearlessly, but with remarkable freshness and vigour.
He is occasionally eloquent, and even pathetic. In all that he says we perceive a
transparent honesty and singleness of purpose."— Saturday Review.
" A deeply interesting book, and one which challenges in a most striking and fear-
leBS manner the stern verdict which Sir Morell's own profession so generally paaBed
upon bis conduct before and after the death of his illustrious patient the Emperor. . .
The volume is full of absolutely interesting details, many among them new."— Daily
Telegraph. HOWARD HENSMAN, Special Correspondent of 'the "Pioneer"
{Allahabad) and the " Daily News " {London).
The Afghan War, 1879-80. Being a complete Narrative of the Capture
of Cabul, the Siege oPSherpur, the Battle of Ahmed Khel, the March
to Candahar, and the defeat of Ayub Khan. With Maps, demy 8vo,
2 is.
" Sir Frederick Roberts says of the letters here published in a collected form that
'nothing could be more accurate or graphic' As to accuracy no one can be a more
competent judge than Sir Frederick, and his testimony Htamps the book before us as
constituting especially trustworthy material for history. Of. much that he relates Mr
Hensman was an eye-witness ; of the rest he was informed by eye-witnesses immedi
ately after the occurrence of the events recorded. There could, therefore, be little doubt
as to tbe facts mentioned. Credibility might be concurrent with incorrect deductions,
but we are assured by Sir Frederick Roberts that Mr Hensman's accuracy is complete
in all respects. Mr Hensman enjoyed singular advantages during the first part of the
war, for he was tbe only special correspondent who accompanied the force which
marched out of Ali Kheyf in September 1879. One of the most interesting portiona of
the book is that which describes the march of Sir Frederick Roberts from Cabul to.
Candahar. Tbe description of the Maiwand disaster is given with combined clearness,
simplicity, and power, and will be read with the utmost interest. Indeed, the book is
in every respect interesting and well written, and reflects the greatest credit on the
author." — Athenaeum.
SIR JOHN F. W. HERSCHEL, Bart., A'.H, &c, Member of
the Institute of France, &>c.
Popular Lectures on Scientific Subjects. New Edition, crown 8vo,
6s.
" We arc reminded of the rapid progress made by science within the last quarter of
a century by the publication of a new edition of Sir John Hcrschel's Popular Lectures
on Scientific Subjects. In 1861, spectrum analysis, as applied to the heavenly bodies,
was referred to as a possibility ; now it is not only an accomplished fact, but the
analysis of the gases contained in the sun has led to the discovery of one of them,
helium, upon the earth. Some of the lectures, such as that on light, are practically
popular treatises on the particular subject to which they refer, and can be read with
advantage even by advanced students."— The Westminster Review.

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REV. T. P. HUGHES.
Dictionary of Islam. Being a. Cyclopedia of the Doctrines, Rites,
Ceremonies, and Customs, together with the Technical and Theological
Terms of the Muhammadan Religion. With numerous Illustrations,
royal 8vo, £2. 2s.
" Such a work as this has long been needed, and it would be hard to And any one
better qualified to prepare it than Mr Hughes. His 'Notes on Mubammadanism,' of
which two editions have appeared, have proved decidedly useful to students of Islam,
especially in India, and his long familiarity with the tenets and customs of Moslems
baB placed him in the best possible position for deciding what is necessary and what
superfluous in a ' Dictionary of Islam.' His usual method is to begin an article with
the text in the Koran relating to the subject, then to add the traditions bearing upon ir,
and to conclude with the comments of the Mohammedan scholiasts and the criticisms
of Western scholars. Such a method, while involving an infinity of labour, produces
the best results in point of accuracy and comprehensiveness. The difficult task of
compiling a .dictionary of so vast a subject as Islam, with its many sects, its saints,
khafifs, ascetics, and dervishes, its festivals, ritual, and sacred places, the dress,
.manners, and customs of its professors, its commentators, technical terms, science of
tradition and interpretation, its superstitions, magic, and astrology, its theoretical
doctrines and actual practices, has been accomplished with singular success ; and the
dictionary will have its place among the standard works of reference in every library
that professes to take account of the religion which governs the lives of forty millions
of the Queen's subjects. The articles on 'Marriage,' 'Women,' 'Wives,' 'Slavery,'
'Tradition,' 'Sufi,' 'Muhammad,' 'Da'wah' or Incantation, 'Burial/and 'God,' are
especially admirable. Two articles deserve special notice. One is an elaborate account
of Arabic ' Writing' by Dr Steingass, which contains a vast quantity of useful matter,
and is well illustrated by woodcuts of the chief varieties of Arabic script. The other
article to which we refer with special emphaBis is Mr F. Pincott on ' Sikhism.' There
is something on nearly every page of the dictionary that will interest and instruct the
students of Eastern religion, manners, and customs." — Athencettm.
Dictionary of Muhammadan Theology.
Notes on Muhammadanism, by Rev. T. P. Hughes. Third Edition,
revised and enlarged. Fcap. 8vo, 6s.
" Altogether an admirable little book. It combines two excellent qualities, abun
dance of facts and lack of theories. . . . On every one of the numerous heads (over
fifty) into which the book is divided, Mr Hughes furnishes a large amount of very
valuable information, which it would be exceedingly difficult to collect from even a
large library of works on the subject. The book might well be called a ' Dictionary of
Muhammadan Theology,' for we know of no English work which combines a methodical
arrangement (and consequently facility of reference) with fulness of information in so
high a degree as the little volume before us." — The Academy.
" It contains multum in pai-vo, and is about the best outlines of the tenets of the
Muslim faith which we have seen. It has, moreover, the rare merit of being accurate ;
and, although it contains a few passages which we would gladly see expunged, it can
not fail to be useful to all Government employe's who have to deal with Muhammadans ;
whilst to missionaries it will be invaluable." — The Times of India.
" It is manifest throughout the work that we have before us the opinions of one
thoroughly conversant with the subject, and who is uttering no random notions. . . .
We strongly recommend 'Notes' on Muhammadanism.' Our clergy especially, even
though they are not missionaries, and have no intention of labouring amongst Muham-
madanB, or consorting with them, ought to have at least as much knowledge of the
system as can he most readily acquired, with a very little careful study, from this use
ful treatise." — The Record. f
SIR W. HUNTER.
Bengal MS. Records. A Selected List of Letters in the Board of
Revenue, Calcutta, 1782-1807, with an Historical Dissertation and
Analytical Index. 4 vols. , demy 8vo, 30s.
A Statistical Account of Bengal. 20 vols., demy 8vo, £6.
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J. HUNTER, late Hon. Sec. of the British Bee-keepers1 Association.
A Manual of Bee-keeping. Containing Practical Information for
Rational and Profitable Methods of Bee Management. Full Instruc
tions on Stimulative Feeding, Ligurianising and Queen-raising, with
descriptions of the American Comb Foundation, Sectional Supers, and
the best Hives and Apiarian Appliances on all Systems. Fourth
Edition, with Illustrations, crown 8vo, 3s. 6d.
" Wc are indebted to Mr J. Hunter, Honorary Secretary of. the British Bee-keepers'
Association. His Manual of Bee-keeping, just published, is full to the very brim of
choice and practical hints fully up to the most advanced stages of Apiarian Science,
and its perusal has afforded us so much pleasure that we have drawn somewhat largely
from it for the benefit of bur readers. "—Bee-keepers' Magazine {New York).
" It is profusely illustrated with engravings, which are almost always inserted for
their utility. . . . There is an old saying that ( easy writing is hard reading,' but we
will not say thus much of Mr Hunter's book, which, taken as a whole, is perhaps the
most generally useful of any now published in this country."— The Field.
MAJOR LEIGH HUNT, Madras Army, and ALEX. S. KENNY,
M.R. C.S.E., A.K.C., Senior Demonstrator of Anatomy at King's
College, London.
On Duty under a Tropical Sun. Being some Practical Suggestions
for the Maintenance of Health and Bodily Comfort, and the Treatment
of Simple Diseases ; with remarks on Clothing and Equipment.
Second Edition, crown 8vo, 4s.
"This little book is devoted to the description and treatment of many tropical
diseases and minor emergencies, supplemented by some useful hints on diet, clothing,
and equipment for travellers in tropical climates. The issue of a third edition proves
that the book has hitherto been successful. On the whole we can commend the hints
which have been given for the treatment of various diseases, but in some places much
has been left to the knowledge of the reader in the selection and application of a
remedy." — Scottish Geographical Magazine.
"Is written more especially for the rougher sex, and is only less important than
Tropical Trials ' because it has had many more predecessors. It is now in a third edition,
and contains practical suggestions for the maintenance of health and bodily comfort,
as well as the treatment of simple diseases, with useful remarks on clothing and equip
ment for the guidance of travellers abroad." — Daily Telegraph.
Tropical Trials. A Handbook for Women" in the Tropics. Crown 8vo,
7s. 6d.
" Is a valuable handbook for women in the East, and, we are glad to see, now in its
second edition. It does not treat theoretically of the maladies incidental to Europeans
in hot climates, or go deeply into those matters which properly belong to the experi
enced doctor, but it gives plain, wholesome advice on matters of health, which, were
it scrupulously followed, it is not too much to say would add fifty per cent, to the
enjoyment of our countrywomen abroad. She could scarcely have a better guide as
to what to do and what not to do than this excellent handbook, which deserves to be
included in every woman's foreign outfit." — Daily Telegraph.
JOHN H. INGRAM.
The Haunted Hames and Family Traditions of Great Britain.
Illustrated, down 8vo, 7s. 6d.
Epitomised in One Volume by R. O' BYRNE, F.R.G.S., &c."
James* Naval History. A Narrative of the Naval Battles, Single Ship
Actions, Notable Sieges, and Dashing Cutting-out Expeditions, fought
in the days of Howe, Hood, Duncan, St Vincent, Bridport, Nelson,
Camperdown, Exmouth, Duckworthj and Sir Sydney Smith. Crown
8vo, 5s.

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MRS GRACE /OHNSON, Silver Medallist Cookery, Exhibition.
Anglo-Indian and Oriental Cookery. Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d.
" Overflows with all sorts of delicious and economical recipes."— Pall Mall Budget.
"Housewives and professors of the gentle art of cookery who deplore the dearth
of dainty dishes will find a veritable gold mine in Mrs Johnson's book."— Pall Mall
Gazette. Appeals to us from a totally original standpoint. She has thoroughly and com
pletely investigated native and Anglo-Indian cuisines, and brought away the very best
specimens of their art. Her pillau and kedgree are perfect, in our opinion ; curries
are scientifically classed and explained, and some of the daintiest recipes we have ever
seen are given, but the puddings particularly struck our fancy. Puddings as a rule
are so nasty ! The pudding that is nourishing is hideously insipid, and of the smart
pudding it may truly be said' that its warp is dyspepsia, and its woof indigestion. Mrs
Johnson's puddings are both good to taste and pretty to look at, and the names of
some of her native dishes would brighten any menu.
H. G. ICEENE, C.I.E., B.C.S., M.R.A.S., <5rv.
History of India. From the Earliest Times to the Present Day. for
the use of Students and Colleges. 2 vols, with Maps. Crown 8vo,
1 6s.
" The main merit of Mr Keene's performance lies in the fact that ho has assimilated
all the authorities, and has been careful to bring his book down to date. He has been
careful in research, and has availed himself of the most recent materials. He is well
known as the author of other works on Indian history, and his capacity for his self-
imposed task will not be questioned. We must content ourselves with this brief testi
mony to the labour and skill bestowed by him upon a subject of vast interest and
importance. Excellent proportion is preserved in dealing with the various episodes,
and the style is clear and graphic. The volumes are supplied with many useful maps,
and the appendix include notes on Indian law and on recent books about India." —
Globe. " Mr Eeene has the admirable element of fairness in dealing with the succession of
great questions that pass over his pages, and he wisely devotes a full half of his work
to the present century. The appearance of Buch a book, and of every such book, upon
India is to be hailed at present. A fair-minded presentment of Indian history like .that
contained in Mr Keene's two volumes is at this moment peculiarly welcome." — Times.
An Oriental Biographical Dictionary. Founded on Materials collected
by the late Thomas William Beale. New Edition, revised and
enlarged, royal 8vo, 28s.
" A complete biographical dictionary for a country like India, which in its long
history has produced a profusion of great men, would be a vast undertaking. The
suggestion here made only indicates' the line on which the dictionary, at some future
time, could be almost indefinitely extended, and rendered still more valuable as a work
of reference. Great care has evidently been taken to secure the accuracy of all that
has been included in the work, and that is of far more importance than mere bulk.
The dictionary can be commended as trustworthy, and reflects much credit on Mr
Keene. Several interesting lists of rulers are given under the various founders of
dynasties. " — India.
The Fall of the Moghul Empire. From the Death of Aurungzeb to
the Overthrow of the Mahratta Power. A New Edition, with Correc
tions "and Additions, with Map, crown 8vo, 7s. 6d.
This work fills up a blank between the ending of Elphinstone's and the commence
ment of Thornton's Histories.
Fifty-Seven. Some Account of the Administration of Indian Districts
during the Revolt of the Bengal Army. Demy 8vo, 6s.
Any Bookseller at Home and Abroad.

1 6 Great Reductions in this Catalogue

DR TA LB OTT, and others.
Keble College Sermons. Second Series, 1877-1888, crown 8vo, 6s.
" To those who desire earnest, practical, and orthodox doctrine in the form of short
addresses, these sermons will be most acceptable ; and their lofty tone, their eloquent
wording, and the thorough manliness of their character, will commend them to a wide
circle of readers." — Morning Post.
" Dr Talbot has a second time thoughtfully placed on public record some of the
lessons which were taught during his Wardenship in Sermons preached in the Chapel
of Keble College, Oxford, 1877-1888. The sermons are fresh and vigorous in tone, and
evidently come from preachers who were thoroughly in touch with their youthful
audience, and who generally with much acuteness and skill grappled with the
spiritual and intellectual difficulties besetting nowadays the University career."—
Church 'Times.
G. H. KINAHAN
A Handy Book of Rock Names. Fcap. 8vo, 4s.
" This will prove, we do not doubt, a very useful little book to all practical geo
logists, and also to the reading student of rocks. When a difficulty is incurred as to
a species of deposit, it will soon vanish. Mr Kinahan's little book will soon make it
all clear. The work is divided into three parts. The first is a classified table of rocks,
the second part treats of the Ingenite rocks, and the third part deals with those rocks
which are styled Derivate. Dana's termination of yte has been most generally used
by the author, but he has also given' the ite terminations for those that like them.
The book will be purchased, for it must be had, by every geologist ; and as its size is
small, it will form a convenient pocket companion for the man who works over field
and quarry." — Popular Science Review.
REV. F. G. LEE, D.D. {Vicar of All Saints', Lambeth).
The Church under Queen Elizabeth. An Historical Sketch. By Rev.
F. G. Lee, D.D. (Vicar of All Saints', Lambeth). Second Edition.
Crown 8vo, 7s. 6d.
"There is the same picturesqueness of detail, the same vigorous denunciation, the
same graphic power, which made the earlier book pleasant reading even to many who
disagree heartily with its tone and object. . . Dr Lee's strength lies in very graphic
description." — Notes and Queries.
" This is, in many ways, a remarkably fine book. That it is powerfully written no
one acquainted with Dr Lee's vigorous style would for a moment dispute." — Morning
Post. " Presenting a painful picture of the degradation into which the Church had sunk
in Elizabeth's reign." — Daily Telegraph.
Sights and Shadows. Being Examples of the Supernatural. New
Edition. With a Preface addressed Lo the Critics. Crown 8vo, 6s. -
"This work will be especially interesting to students of the supernatural, and their
name is legion at the present moment. It deals with more than one branch of what is
commonly known as spiritualism. The introduction gives a brief resume" of various
forms of magic and divination which have obtained credence in all ageSj and later on
we find well-authenticated accounts of apparitions, supernatural warnings, hypnotic
experiments, and miracles of healing. Mr Lee evidently believes that ' there are more
things in heaven and earth than are dreamt of in our philosophy,' and few sane people
will disagree with him, though they may not be inclined to accept all his opinions and
assertions as they stand."— Lady.
"Here we have ghostly stories galore, which believers in supernatural visitations
will welcome as upholders of the faith that is in them. Dr Lee is a hard hitter and a
vigorous controversialist, with a righteous contempt for your Darwins and Stuart
Mills, and such like folk, and is not above suggesting that some of them have a decided
worship of the god Self. As for ' the pompous jargon and silly cynicism which so
many*public scribes again and again make use of to throw discredit upon any phase of
the supernatural,' I have nothing to say. They can take care of themselves. This
much I know, that 'Sights and Shadows' gives one an eerie feeling as midnight
approaches and the fire flickers on the hearth." — Gentlewoman.

For the Reduced Prices apply to

of Messrs W. H. Allen & Cols Publications. 17

COL. G. B. MALLESON
History of the French in India. From the Founding of Pondicherry
in 1674, to the Capture of that place in 1761. New and Revised
Edition, with Maps. Demy 8vo, 16s.
" Colonel Malleson has produced a volume alike attractive to the general reader and
valuable for its new matter to the special Btndent. It is not too much to say that now,
for the first time, we are furnished with a faithful narrative of that portion of European
enterprise in India which tarns upon the- contest waged by the East India Company
against French influence, and especially against Dupleix." — Edinburgh Review.
" It is pleasant to contrast the work now before us with the writer's first bold plunge
into historical composition, which splaBhed every one within his reach. He swims now
with a steady stroke, and there is no fear of his Binking. "With a keener insight into
human character, and a larger understanding of the sources of human action, he com
bines all the power of animated recital which invested his earlier narratives with
popularity." — Fortnightly Review.
" The author has had the advantage of consulting the French archives, and his
volume forms a useful supplement to Orme." — Athenaeum.
Final French Struggles in India and on the Indian Seas. New
Edition. Crown 8vo, 6s.
" How India escaped from the government of prefects and sub-prefects to fall under
that of commissioners and deputy-commissioners; why the Penal Code of Lord
Macaulay reigns supreme instead of a Code Napoleon; why we are not looking on
helplessly from Mahe. Karikal, and Pondicherry, while the French are rub'ng all over
Madras, and spending millions of francs in attempting to cultivate the slopes of the
Neilgherries, may be learnt from this modest volume. Colonel Malleson is always
painstaking, and generally accurate ; his style is transparent, and he never loses sight
of the purpose with which he commenced to write." — Saturday Review.
" A book deahng with such a period of our history in the East, besides being
interesting, contains many lessons. It is written in a style that will be popular with
general readers." — Athenosum.
" It strikes one as the best thing be has yet done. Searching, yet easy, hiB pen goes
with unflagging power through the military wonders of a hundred years, connecting
the accounts of battles by a sufficient historic thread." — Academy.
History of Afghanistan, from the Earliest Period to the Outbreak of the
War of 1878, with map, demy 8vo, 18s.
" The name of Colonel Malleson on the title-page of any historical work in relation
to India or the neighbouring StateB is a satisfactory guarantee both for the accuracy
of the facts and the brilliancy of the narrative. The author may be complimented upon
having written a History of Afghanistan which is likely to become a work of standard
authority. "—Scotsman.
The Battle-Fields of Germany, from the Outbreak of the Thirty Years3
War to the Battle of Blenheim, with maps and one plan, demy 8vo,
1 6s.
" Colonel Malleson has Bhown a grasp of his subject, and a power of vivifying the
confused passages of battle, in which it would be impossible to name any living writer
as his equal. In imbuing tbeBe almost forgotten battle-fleldB with fresh interest and
reality for the English reader, he is re-opening one of the most important chapters of
European History, which no previous English writer has made so interesting and
instructive as he has succeeded in doing in this volume." — Academy.
Ambushes and Surprises, being a Description of some of the most
famous instances of the Leading into Ambush and the Surprises of
Armies, from the time of Hannibal to the period of the Indian Mutiny,
with a portrait of General Lord Mark Ker, K.C.B., demy 8vo, 18s.
Any Bookseller at Home and Abroad*

1 8 Great Reductions in this Catalogue

JAMES IR VI N L UPTON, F. R. C.V.S., author of ' ' The External
Anatomy of the Horse," &C.
The Horse : as he Was, as he Is, and as he Ought to Be, with
Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d.
" Written with a good object in view, namely, to create an interest in the important
subject of horse-breeding, more especially that class known as general utility horses.
Tho book contains several illustrations, is well printed and handsomely bound, and we
hope will meet with tho attention it deserves." — Lire Stock Journal.
T. MILLER MA GUI RE, M.A., LL.D.
American War — Campaigns in Virginia, 1861-2, wiih Maps. Royal
Svo, paper covers, 3s. 6d.
MRS MANNING.
Ancient and Mediaeval India. Being the history, Religion, Laws,
Caste, Manners and Customs, Language, Literature, Poetry, Philo
sophy, Astronomy, Algebra, Medicine, Architecture, Manufactures,
Commerce, &c., of the Hindus, taken from their Writings. With
Illustrations. 2 vols., demy Svo, 30s.
IR VING MONTAGU {late Special War Correspondent " Illustrated
London News ").
Camp and Studio. Illustrated by the Author. New Edition. Crown
8vo, 6s.
"His animated pages and sketches have a more than ephemeral interest, and
present a moving picture of the romance and the misery of countries and populations
ravaged by great opposing armies, and many a picturesque episode of personal ex
periences ; he.is pleasant and amusing enough." — Daily News.
" Mr Irving Montagu's narrative of his experiences as war artist of the Illustrated
-London News during the Russo-Turkish war, though late in appearing, may be read
with interest. "War correspondents and artists usually enjoy a fair share of adventure ;
but Mr Montagu appears to have revelled in dangers which seem anything but desir
able when studied in cold blood. Mr Montagu has much that is interesting to tell
about the horrors of the siege of Kars and the prowess of the fair young Amazon who
commanded a troop of Bashi-Bazuks, and even seduced a Russian general to her side.
How he got to the front in spite of Russian prohibition, disguised as a camp follower,
how his portmanteau was shelled a few inches behind his back, what he risked and
what he saw in the memorable lines before Plevna, will be read with great interest.
The book is well illustrated by many vigorous sketches, some of which are exceedingly
humorous."— Athenaeum.
" A bright chatty record of wars, scenes, and adventures in various parts of the
world." — Echo.
Wanderings of a War Artist. Illustrated by the Author. New
Edition. Crown 8vo, 6s.
" Mr Montagu is to be congratulated on an eminently readable book, which, both
in style and matter, is above the average of productions in this kind." — The Morning
Post. " This is an enchanting book. Equally as writer and as artist, Mr Irving Montagu
is a delightful companion. This beautiful and exceptionally interesting volume does
not by any means exhaust the literary and artistic achievements of the well-known
' special ' of the Illustrated London News."~The Daily News.
" His own adventures are largely seasoned with stories of other people and anec
dotes he picks up. He went through the second siege of Paris under the Commune,
and some of the best reading in the book is the picture he gives of the state of poor,
beautiful Paris, seen by the eye of an observing, impartial man, who has no object in
either exaggerating or under-colouring the work of the Commune."— The Spectator.
" The adventures of Mr Montagu are narrated with humour, and are seldom dull
reading." — Glasgow Herald.

For the Reduced Prices apply to

of Messrs W. H. Allen <Sr» Co.'s Publications. 19

/. MORRIS, Attthor of " The War in Korea,'' &=c, thirteen years
resident in Tokio under the Japanese Board of Works.
Advance Japan. A Nation Thoroughly in Earnest. With over 100
Illustrations by R. Isayama, and of photographs lent by the Japanese
Legation. 8vo, 12s. 6d.
" Mr Morris evidently, knows the country well, and is a strong believer in its
future ; his book will be found a useful summary of recent history, abounding in good
character sketches, accompanied with photographs, of the leading men."— Times.
" Is really a remarkably' complete account of the land, the people, and the institu
tions of Japan, with chapters that deal with matters of such living interest as its
growing industries and armaments, and the origin, incidents, and probable outcome
of the war with China. The volume is illustrated by a Japanese artist of repute ; it
has a number of useful statistical appendices, and it is dedicated to His Majesty the
Mikado."— Scotsman.
" Mr Morris, who writes, of course, with thorough local knowledge, gives a very
complete and eminently readable account of the country, its government, people, and
resource. . . The work, which contains a large number of portraits and other illustra
tions, is decidedly ' on the nail,' and may be recommended not only as a book to read,
but as of value for reference." — Westminster Gazette.
"Puts before us a clear view of the point which has been reached. His work is
historical, social, and descriptive ; we see in it the Japanese of to-day as he really is.
Mr Morris has also something to say on the Japanese at home — how he eats, how he
dresses, and how he comports himself ; while wider issues are discussed in the chapters
treating of the administration of the islands, their ports, communications, trades, and
armaments. "—Globe.
" A well-proportioned sketch of the Japanese of to-day, so recent as to include the
results of the war. . . There is much else I should like to quote in this able and
interesting book. It has a good chapter on natural history, and an excellent chapter
on diet, dress, and manners ; it gives just enough of Japanese history to help the
ordinary reader who w'ants to learn his Japan on easy terms ; it has also most useful
and attractively conveyed information in its brief account of the principal cities of
Japan, communications and armament, language and literature, mines and minerals."
—Queen. " He summarises clearly, concisely, the existing knowledge on the Japanese Parlia
mentary system, territorial and administrative divisions, natural history, domestic
and national customs, dynastic changes, old feudal institutions, town populations,
industries, mineral and other natural resources, railways, armaments, the press, and
other subjects too many for enumeration. Even the chapter on language and litera
ture makes an appalling subject interesting. ... Mr Morris has brought his very use
ful account of Japan up-to-date. He gives a good summary of the recent war with
China, and then proceeds to make some well-considered suggestions on a matter of
supreme importance to Europe no less than to the two Empires of the Far East."

CHARLES MARVIN.
The Region of the Eternal Fire. An Account of a Journey to the
Caspian Region in 1883. New Edition. With Maps and Illustra
tions. Crown 8vo, handsomely bound, 6s.
"The leading authority of the English Press on the Central Asian Question is
Charles Marvin, a man of iron industry, who has wielded his comprehensive knowledge
of the region in such a manner as to render eminent service to his country. —Opinion
of Arminius Vambcry.
"Charles Marvin's services in respect of the Eusso-Afghan Question have been
invaluable. He has heard with his own ears the opinions expressed on the subject by
Russian generals and diplomatists, and, for the love of England has spent his own
money to warn England's people. "-Opinion of Colonel Malleson, The Eusso-Afghan
Question," p. 55.

Any Bookseller at Home and Abroad.

Great Reductions in this Catalogue

W. O'CONNOR MORRIS.
Great Commanders. of Modern Times, and the Campaign of 1815.
Turenne — Marlborough — Fredsrick the Great — Napoleon — Welling
ton — Moltke. With Illustrations and Plans. Royal 8vo, 21s.
" Mr Morris certainly brings to his task vast reading and exhaustive research." —
Athenceum. " We gladly welcome this handsome volume by Judge O'Connor Morris, which gives
evidence on every page of careful reading and correct judgment. . . . An admirable
book to place in the hands of any student who wishes to get some idea of the history
of the art of war." — Academy.
" To the students of war this book will prove of the utmost interest and the greatest
possible service'." — National Observer.
" Writes vividly and well." — Times.

CARDINAL NEWMAN.
Miscellanies from the Oxford Sermons of John Henry Newman,
D. D. Crown 8vo, gilt top, 5s.
"All the resources of a master of English style — except, perhaps one, description —
were at his command ; pure diction, clear arrangement, irony, dignity, a copious"
command of words, combined with a reserve in the use of them — all these qualities
went to make un the charm of Newman's style, the finest flower that the earlier system
of a purely classical education has produced." — Athenceum.
" The pieces presented to us here are carefully chosen, and answer the purpose of
the present volume. The selections which are contained in it happily avoid any of
these passages which have been the grounds of controversy. As a general rale we are
able to take in the teachings of this book without any arriere-pense'e, without any
feeling that we have here the germ of those theories which estrange their author from
us." — Athenceum. ,

COL. F. A. WHINYATES, late R.H. A., formerly commanding
the Battery.
Military Regiments— From Corunna to Sevastopol, the History of
"C" Battery, "A" Brigade, late "C" Troop, Royal Horse
Artillery, with succession of Officers from its formation to the present
time. With 3 Maps, demy 8vo, 14s.

EDWARD NEWMAN, F.Z.S.
British Butterflies. With many Illustrations. Super royal 8vo, 7s. 6d.
DEPUTY SURGEON-GENERAL C. T. PASKE, late of the Bengal
Army, and Edited by F. G. AFLALO.
Life and Travel in Lower Burmah, with Frontispiece. Crown 8vo, 6s.
" In dealing with life in Burmah we are given a pleasant insight into Eastern life ;
and to those interested in India and our other Eastern possessions, the opinions Mr
Paske offers and the suggestions he makes will be delightful reading. Mr Paske has
adopted a very light style of writing in ' Myamma,' which lends an additional charm
to the short historical-cum-geographical sketch, and both the writer and the editor
are to be commended for the production of a really attractive book." — Public Opinion.

For the Reduced Prices apply to

of Messrs W. H. Allen &> Co.'s Publications.

Translation of the famous Passion Play.
Passion Play at Oberammergau, The, with the whole Drama translated
into English, and the Songs of the Chorus in German and English ;
also a Map of the Town, Plan of the Theatre, &c. 4to, cloth, 3s. 6d. ;
paper, 2s. 6d.
" The author of ' Charles Lowder ' has done a real service in publishing a transla
tion of ' The Passion Play at Oberammergau,' with a description of the play and short
account of a visit there in 1880. To those who have already seen it, this little book
will recall vividly the experience of what must be to all a memorable day, while to
those who are going in 1890 it is simply invaluable." — Guardian.
MARY A. PRATTEN.
My Hundred Swiss Flowers, with a short account of Swiss Ferns.
With 60 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, plain plates, 12s. 6d. ; with plates
coloured by hand, 25s.
"The temptation to produce such books as this seems irresistible. The
author feels a want ; the want is undeniable. After more or less hesitation
he feels he can supply it. It is pleasantly written, and affords useful hints
as to localities." — Athenwmn. R. A. PROCTOR.
Watched by the Dead, a loving study of Dickens' half-told tale. Crown
8vo, cloth, is. 6d. ; boards, is.
" Mr Proctor here devotes much study and much ingenious conjecture to restoring
the plot of ' The Mystery of Edwin Droo'd.' It would not be fair were we to attempt
to give in a small compass the result of his labours. It must suffice to say that those
who have occupied themselves with this curious problem will be interested in the
solution here offered for their acceptance." — Spectator.
WILLIAM PROCTOR, Stud Groom.
The Management and Treatment of the Horse in the Stable,
Field, and on the Road. Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged,
Illustrated. Crown 8vo, 6s.
" There are few who are interested in horses will fail to profit by one portion or
another of this useful work."— Sportsman.
" We cannot do better than wish that Mr Proctor's book may find its way into the
hands of all those concerned in the management of the most useful quadruped wo
possess." — England. .
" There is a fund of sound common-sense views in this work which will be interest
ing to many owners." — Field. „
" Coming from a practical hand the work should recommend itself to the public. —
Sportsman.
WILLIAM RAEBURN ANDREW.
Raeburn (Sir Henry, R.A.), Life by his Great-Grandson, William
Raeburn Andrew, with an Appendix comprising a list of his works
exhibited in the Royal Academy, Edinburgh. 8vo, 10s. 6d.
" Mr Andrew's book, which on this occasion appeals to a wider public, makes no
pretence to do more than to bring together the biographical fragments concerning
Raeburn gathered out of various publications and to make them coherent with a little
cement of his own.' Possibly a fuller and more original biography of the greats °'
our portrait-painters, who was at the same time one of the greatest ornaments of the
Edinburgh Society of the beginning of the century, may yet see the light ., , and Im the
meantime we can be grateful to Mr Andrew for bringing toge^»d "ranging so
rich a store of topographical and personal details connected with his 11 "^trious
ancestor. In an appendix is a useful annotated catalogue of the 1876 exhibition of
Raeburn's works."— Scotsman. ___
Any Bookseller at Home and Abroad.

Great Reductions in this Catalogue

R. RIMMER, F.L.S.
The Land and Freshwater Shells of the British Isles. Illustrated
with 10 Photographs and 3 Lithographs, containing figures of all the
principal Species. Second Edition. Crown 8vo, 5s.
"This handsomely got up little volume supplies a long-felt want in a very ingenious
and trustworthy manner. The author is an enthusiastic conchologist, and writes
both attractively and well, and in a manner so simple and natural that we have no
fear that any ordinarily educated man will easily understand every phrase. But
the feature of this hook which strikes us most is that every species of British land and
freshwater shell has been photographed, and here we have all the photographs, natural
size in the alberbype process, so that the merest tyro will find no difficulty in identi
fying any shell he may find."— Science Gossip.

ALEXANDER ROGERS {Bombay Civil Service, Retired).
The Land Revenue of Bombay, ¦<*. History of its Administration, Rise,
and Progress, with 18 Maps. 2 vols., demy 8vo, 30s.
"Mr Rogers has produced a continuous and an authoritative record of the land
changes and of the fortunes of the cultivating classes for a full half-century, together
with valuable data regarding the condition and burdens of those classes at various
periods before the present system of settlement was introduced. Mr Rogers now
presents a comprehensive view of the land administration of Bombay as a whole, the
history of its rise and progress, and a clear statement of the results which it has
attained. It is a narrative of which all patriotic Englishmen may feel proud. The old
burdens of native rule have been lightened, the old injustices mitigated, the old fiscal
"cruelties and exactions abolished. Underlying the story of each district we see a per
ennial struggle going on between the increase of the population and the available
means of subsistence derived from the soil. That increase of the population is the
direct result of the peace of the country under British rule. But it tends to press
more and more severely on the possible limits of local cultivation, and it can only be
provided for by the extension of the modern appliances of production and distribu
tion. Mr Rogers very properly confines himself to his own subject. But there is
ample evidence that the extension of roads, railways, steam factories, and other
industrial enterprises, have played an important part in the solution of the problem,
and that during recent years such enterprises have been powerfully aided "by an
abundant currency." — The Times.

ROBERT SEWELL.
Analytical History of India, from the earliest times to the Abolition of
the East India Company in 1858. Post 8vo, Ss.
" Much careful labour has been expended on this volume."— Athenmim.
" The object of the author in compiling the following analytical sketch of Indian
history has been to supply a want felt by most students of the more voluminous
atandard works of Mill, Elphiristone, Thornton, and Marshman, for a condensed outline
in one small volume, which should serve at once to recall the memory and guide the
eye. At the same time he has attempted to render it interesting to the general reader
by preserving a medium between a bare analysis and a complete history ; so that,
without consulting the eminent authorities mentioned above, the mind may readily
grasp the principal outlines of the early condition of India, and the rise and progress
of the East India Company. For the more full comprehension of these facts the author
has provided, in addition to a table of contents and a chronological index, an index to .
the geographical position of the places to which reference is made in the text, bearing
the latitudes and longitude as given in Thornton's ( Gazetteer of India.' This will be
found not only to aid the student who is but partially acquainted with the map of
India, but also by means of occasional accents to guide him in the ordinary pro
nunciation of the names."— Preface.
For the Reduced Prices apply to

of Messrs W. H. Allen &> Co.'s Publications. 23

G. P. SANDERSON.
Thirteen Years among the Wild Beasts of India ; their Haunts and
Habits, from Personal Observation, with an account of the Modes of
Capturing and Taming Wild Elephants. With 21 full-page Illustra
tions, reproduced for this Edition direct from the original drawings,
and 3 Maps. Fifth Edition. Fcap. 4to, 12s.
" We find it difficult to hasten through this interesting book ; on almost every page
some incident or some happy descriptive passage tempts the reader to linger. The
author relates his exploits with ahility and with singular modesty. His adventures
with man-eaters will afford lively entertainment to* the reader, and indeed there is no
portion of the volume which he is likely to wish shorter. The illustrations add to the
attractions of the hook." — Pall Mall Gazette.
"This is the best and most practical book on the wild game of Southern and
Eastern India that we have read, and displays an extensive acquaintance with natural
history. To the traveller proposing to visit India, whether he be a sportsman, a
naturalist, or an antiquarian, the book will be invaluable : full of incident and sparkling
with anecdote." — Bailey's Magazine.
"This— the fifth edition of a work as charming to read as it is instructive — will be
welcomed equally by lovers of sport, and of natural history. Though he met with and
shot many other kinds of wild beasts, the bulk of the volume, well written, well illus
trated, and generally well got up, deals chiefly with the elephant, the tiger, the bison,
the leopard, and the bear. Mr Sanderson, with exceptional powers of observation,
cultivated friendly intercourse with the natives ; and he was consequently able to utilise
to the utmost the singularly favourable opportunities enjoyed by him as director of
elephant-capturing operations in Mysore and Chittagong. The result is a book which
to graphic details of sporting adventures far surpassing the common, adds a correct
natural history oE the animals chiefly dealt with, and particularly the elephant. From
this real king of beasts, Mr Sanderson carefully removes every exaggeration made both
for or against him, which had been repeated without any good foundation by one
writer after another ; he substitutes for fables a description of elephantine anatomy,
size, habits, and character which may be said to sum up all that we know for certain
about the animal, and nearly all that one can wish to know. We should have wished
to see this edition brought up to date. The book is more fascinating than a romance ;
and we have read it now the third time with as great a zest as when we revelled over
the perusal of the first edition." — Imperial and Asiatic Quarterly Review.
PROFESSOR SHELDON.
The Future of British Agriculture, how Farmers may best be bene
fited. Crown 8vo, 2S. 6d.
" Fortunately Prof. Sheldon has no mind to play the part of a prophet, but from
the plenitude of a long experience gives sage counsel bow to farm abreast of the time
and be ready for whatever may ensue. . . . This little book is well worth reading,
and it is pleasant to find that the Professor by no means despairs of the future of
agriculture in England." — Academy. .
"We welcome the book as a valuable contribution to our agricultural literature,
and as a useful guide to those branches in which the author is especially qualified to
instruct."— Nature. , ,
"In this beautifully printed and well-bound little book Professor Sheldon, in
his usual happy style, surveys the agricultural field, and indicates what he thinks
is the prospect in front of the British farmer. Like a watchman he stands upon his
tower— and when asked, What of the night 1 he disavows not that we are in the night,
but earnestly declares that the morning cometh apace. The professor is an optimist ;
he does not believe that the country is done, and still less does he favour the idea that,
taking a wide survey, the former days were better than these. On the contrary, he
urges that the way out of the wilderness is not by any by-path, but by going right
ahlad ; and, ere long, the man who holds the banner high will emerge triumphant.
— Scottish Farmer. J. SMITH, A.L.S.
Ferns: British and Foreign. Fourth Edition, revised and greatly
enlarged, with New Figures, &c. Crown 8vo, 7s- 6<L
Any Bookseller at Home and Abroad.

24 Great Reductions in this Catalogue

G. BARNETT SMITH, Author of "History of the English
Parliament. "
Leaders of Modern Industry. Biographical Sketches.
Contents : — The Stephensons, Charles Knight, Sir George Burns,
Sir Josiah Mason, The Wedgwoods, Thomas Brassey, The Fairbairns,
Sir William Siemens, The Rennies. Crown 8vo, 7s. 6d.
" ' Leaders of Modern Industry ' is a volume of interesting biographical sketches of
the pioneers of various phases of industry, comprising the Stephensons, Charles
Knight, Sir George Burns, Sir Josiah Mason, the Wedgwoods, Thomas Brassey, the
Fairbairns, Sir William Siemens, and the Rennies." — World.
Women of Renown. Nineteenth Century Studies.
Contents : — Frederika Bremer, Countess of Blessington, George Eliot,
Jenny Lind, Mary Somerville, George Sand, Mary Carpenter, Lady
Morgan, .Rachel, Lady Hester Stanhope. Crown 8vo, 7s. 6d.
Mr Barnett Smith continues his biographical activity. It is not many weeks since
a volume appeared from his pen on " Christian Workers of the Nineteenth Century " ;
now we have "Women of Renown: Nineteenth Century Studies." The later is the
larger and more elaborate work of the two, but in design and execution it is not
greatly dissimilar from the earlier volume. Desirous of snowing what the women of
eminence whom he has chosen for delineation really were— how they lived, moved,
and acted — the author has presented them wherever he could "as painted by them
selves or their contemporaries." Autobiographies and biographies are thus, as far as
available, laid under contribution. In the hands of so capable a compiler as Mr
Barnett Smith such materials have been skilfully utilised, and the result is a series of
brightly written sketches.
The Life and Enterprises of Ferdinand de Lesseps — The only full
and Complete English Account of. New Edition. Revised, and
brought up to the time of his death, with Portrait. Crown 8vo, 7s. 6d.
" A great part of M. de Lesseps' career already belongs to history, and is invested
with a lustre which nothing can obscure. Mr G-. Barnett Smith makes this clear in hiB
useful and painstaking compilation. . . . It is skilfully executed, and illustrates aptly
and not altogether inopportunely, both the poetry and the prose of M. de Lesseps'
extraordinary career." — The Times.
"A very comprehensive life of Ferdinand de Lesseps has been produced by G.
Barnett Smith, who has already proved his ability as a faithful and painstaking bio
grapher. The career of M. de Lesseps was one of great achievements and great
vicissitudes. This biographer lauds his achievements. The facts of the prosecution
in connection with the Panama Canal project are elaborately set forth in this volume,
to which all readers interested in the question should refer for information on a matter
which to people not resident in France must have appeared unusually complicated." —
Westminster Review.
ARTHUR PENRHYN STANLEY, D.D. {Dean of Westminster).
Scripture Portraits and other Miscellanies collected from his Published
Writings. By Arthur Penrhyn Stanley, D.D. Crown Svo, gilt top,
5s.
" In virtue of his literary genius, his solid acquirements, his manly sense, and his
sympathetic and generous piety, he ranks among the most eminent and estimable of
Christian teachers."— Chambers's Encyclopaedia.
" These essays range over a period of twenty years (1850-1870), and they furnish a
series of sinjjularly interesting illustrations of the great controversies which have
agitated that time. . . . Every one, indeed, of his essays has achieved in its day a
success which makes a recommendation unnecessary." — Allibonb.
For the Reduced Prices apply to

of Messrs W. H. Allen &> Co.'s Publications. 25

E. CE. SOMERVILLE and MARTIN ROSS, THE AUTHORS
OF "AN IRISH COUSIN."
Through Connemara in a Governess Cart. Illustrated by W. W.
Russell, from Sketches by Edith CE. Somerville. Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d.
" The quaint seriousness, the free and hearty fun, the sly humour of this narrative,
are charmingly bright and attractive."— World.
" A bright and breezy narrative of two ladies in Connemara who preferred inde
pendence and a mule to society and a mail car. Their simple story is divertingly
told."— Times.
"The delightful wilderness of mountain, peat bog, and heather, and all that they
said and did, are.graphically described in this chatty and extremely readable volume."
—Daily Telegraph.
" Sketches of Irish Life, the eccentricities of wandering Saxons, and descriptions of
local scenery, are worked up in a manner which makes the book a pleasant companion.
Mr Russell has in his illustration ably supported the writers." — Morning Post.
By the same Authors.
In the Vine Country— Bordeaux and its Neighbourhood, Illustrated.
Crown Svo, 3s. 6d.
' " The genuine fund of wit and humour which sparkles throughout will be enjoyed
by all."— Glasgow Herald.
" The authors have the knack of putting their readers in the situation in which
they themselves were, and so the book, light and smart as it is, is heartily enjoyable."
— Scotsman. " A bright, artless narrative of travel.11— Times.
"There is not a dull line in the volume from the first page to the last.'1 — Lady's
Pictorial. J. E. TAYLOR, F.L.S., F.G.S., &c.
For fuller notices of Dr Taylor's Works, see Scientific, pp. 33, 34.
Flowers : Their Origin, Shapes, Perfumes, and Colours. Illustrated with
32 Coloured Figures by Sowerby, and 161 Woodcuts. Second
Edition. Crown 8vo, 7s. 6d.
The Aquarium : Its Inhabitants, Structure, and Management. Second
Edition, with 238 Woodcuts. Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d.
Half-Hours at the Seaside. Illustrated with 250 Woodcuts. Fourth
Edition. Crown 8vo, 2S. 6d.
Half-Hours in the Green Lanes. Illustrated with 300 Woodcuts.
Fifth Edition. Crown Svo, 2s. 6d.
E. THORNTON.
A Gazetteer of the Territories under the Government of the Viceroy
of India. Last Edition. Revised and Edited by Sir Roper
Lethbridge, C.I.E., and A. N. Wollaston, CLE. Demy Svo,
1,070 pp., 28s.
PERCY M. THORNTON.
Harrow School and its Surroundings. With Maps and Plates.
Demy 8vo, 15s.
Any Bookseller at Home and Abroad.

26 Great Reductions in this Catalogue

W. M. TORRENS.
History of Cabinets. From the Union with Scotland to the Acquisition
of Canada and Bengal. 2 vols. Demy 8vo, 36s.
"It is almost impossible — and, alas! now useless as regards the writer — to praise
this book too highly. It is a clever, sincere, and painstaking contribution to the
making of modern history, and all students of constitutional and parliamentary history
will find much to interest and instruct them in these able volumes. In all the minor
matters of references, indexing, and printing every care has been taken. Indeed, all
is praiseworthy, and the pity is that the writer should have passed away without
receiving the thanks of students." — St James's Budget.
" ' A History of Cabinets' from the beginning of the Eighteenth Century down to
the death of George II., which the late Mr M'Cullagh Torrens regarded as 'the work
of his life,' was published yesterday. It consists of two volumes of considerable bulk,
showing at once that something more than the origin and progress of the Cabinet
system had occupied the attention of the author. In fact, a history of Cabinets is a
history of Governments, and a history of Governments is, in a great measure, a history
of England." — The Standard.
A.J. WALL.
Indian Snake Poisons. Their Nature and Effects. Crown 8vo, 6s.
Contents.
The Physiological Effects of the Poison of tbe Cobra (Naja Tripudians). — The Physio
logical Effects of the Poison of Russell's Viper (Daboia Russellii).— The Physiological
Effects produced by the Poison of the Bungarus Fasciatus and the Bungarus Coeruleus.
— The Relative Power and Properties of the Poisons ot Indian and other Venomous
Snakes. — The Nature of Snake Poisons. — Some practical considerations connected with
the subject of Snake-Poisoning, especially regarding prevention and treatment. — Tho
object that has been kept in view, has been to define as closely as possible, the con
ditions on which the mortality from Snake-bite depends, both as regards the physio
logical nature of the poisoning process, and the relations between the reptiles and their
victims, so as to indicate the way in which we should best proceed with the hope of
diminishing the fearful mortality that exists.
JOHN WATSON, F.L.S.
Ornithology in Relation to Agriculture and Horticulture, by various
writers, edited by John Watson, F. L. S. , &c. Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d.
List of Contributors. — Miss Eleanor A. Ormerod, late Consulting
Entomologist to the Royal Agricultural Society of England; O. V. Alpin,
F.L.S., Member of the British Ornithologists' Union; Charles Whitehead,
F.L.S., F.G.S., &c, author of "Fifty Years al Fruit Farming"; John
"Watson, F.L.S. , author of " A Handbook for Farmers and Small Holders " ;
the Rev. F. O. Morris, M.A., author of "A History of British Birds" ; G.
W. Murdoch, late editor of The Farmer; Riley Fortune, F.Z.S. ; T. H.
Nelson, Member of the British Ornithologists' Union ; T. Southwell, F.Z.S. ;
Rev. Theo. Wood, B.A., F.I.S. ; J. H. Gurney, jun., M.P. ; Harrison Weir,
F.R.H.S. ; W. H. Tuck.
"Will form a textbook of a reliable kind in guiding agriculturists at large
in their dealings with their feathered friends and foes alike." — Glasgow
Herald. "This is a valuable book, and should go far to fulfil its excellent purpose.
. . . It is a book that every agriculturist should possess." — Land and
Water. "It is well to know what birds do mischief and what birds are helpful.
This book is the very manual to clear up all such doubts." — Yorkshire Post.
"In these days of agricultural depression it behoves the farmer to study,
among other subjects, ornithology. That he and the gamekeeper often bring
down plagues upon the land when they fancy they are ridding it of a pest is
exceedingly well illustrated in this series of papers." — Scotsman.

For the Reduced Prices apply to

of Messrs W. H. Allen <5r* Co.'s Publications. 27

SAMUEL WILBERFORCE, D.D. {Bishop of Winchester).
Heroes of Hebrew History. Crown 8vo, gilt top, 5s.
"The tales which he relates are all good, and have a moral aim and purpose.1'
Athenceum. " It is written with a natural and captivating fervour." — London Quarterly Review.
" An interesting historical account." — London Lit. Gaz.
" Using his influence as a man of the world for the purpose of modifying those about
him for good, and making them serve as his instruments for tho furtherance of the
objects which he had at heart. He was the most delightful of companions, and the
wittiest talker of his time. Of his extraordinary versatility and extraordinary powers
of work, it is impossible to speak at length here, but both qualities are abundantly
illustrated in his life by Canon ABhwell." — CelebHties of the Century.
S. WELLS WILLIAMS, LL.D., Professor of the Chinese Language
and Literature at Yale College.
China— The Middle Kingdom. A Survey of the Geography, Govern
ment, Literature, Social Life, Arts, and History of the Chinese Empire
and its Inhabitants. Revised Edition, with 74 Illustrations and a New
Map of the Empire. 2 vols. Demy 8vo, 42s.
Dr S. Wells Williams' Middle Kingdom has long occupied the position of a classic.
It is not only the fullest and most authoritative account of the Chinese and their
country that exists, but it is also the most readable and entertaining. This issue is
practically a new work — the text of the old edition has been largely re-written and the
work has been expanded so as to include a vaBt amount of new material collected by
Dr Williams during the late years of his residence in China— as well as the most recent
information respecting all the departments of the Empire. Many new illustrations
have been added and the best of the old engravings have been retained. An important
feature of this edition is a large map of the Chinese Empire from the best modern
authorities, more complete and accurate than any map of the country hitherto
published. BARRY WILLIAMS, R.N. {Chief Inspector of Machinery).
Dedicated, by permission, to Admiral H.R.H. the Duke of Edinburgh.
The Steam Navy of England. Past, Present, and Future.
Contents: — Part, I. — Our Seamen; Part II. — Ships and Machinery;
Part III. — Naval Engineering; Part IV. — Miscellaneous, Summary,
with an Appendix on the Personnel of the Steam Branch of the Navy.
Third and enlarged Edition. Medium 8vo, 12s. 6d.
" It is a Beries of essays, clearly written and often highly suggestive, on the still
unsolved, or only partially and tentatively solved, problems connected with the man
ning and organisation, and propulsion of our modern war-ships, . . . being laudably
free from technicalities, and written in a not unattractive style, they will recommend
themselves to that small, but happily increasing, section of the general public which
concerns itself seriously and intelligently with naval affairs." — Times.
"Mr Harry Williams, a naval engineer of long experience and high rank, discusses
the future requirements of the fleet. He is naturally most at home when dealing with
points which specially affect his own branch of the service, but the whole book is well
worth study." — Manchester Guardian.
" Must be pronounced a technical book in the main, although its author expressly
Btatos that he wrote it ' not so much for professional as non-professional men.' Its
manifest object is to promote the efficiency of our steam navy in times to come, keeping
which aim steadfastly in view Mr Williams has brought great knowledge and ability to
bear upon the endeavour to forecast what provision it would bo well to make in order
to meet the full naval requirements of the British nation. His highly instructive work
is divided into four parts, under the respective titles of 'Our Seamen,' * Ships and
Machinery,' * Naval Engineering,' and ' Miscellaneous,' which again are carefully
summarised in some flfty pages of eminently readable matter. The three chapters of
miscellanea deal principally with the coal-endurance, engine-room complements, elec
tric lighting, and steam-steering machinery of Her Majesty's ships."— Daily Telegraph
Any Bookseller at Home and Abroad.

Great Reductions in this Catalogue

Professor H. H. WILSON, author of the " Standard History of India?'
Glossary of Judicial Terms, including words from the Arabic,
Persian, Hindustani, Sanskrit, Hindi, Bengali, Uriya, Maralhi,
Guzarathi, Telugu, Karnata, Tamil, Malayalam, and other languages.
4to, cloth, 30s.
Wynter's Subtle Brains and Lissom Fingers. Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d.
Contents.
The Buried Roman City in Britain. Early Warnings.
" Silvertown." Dining Rooms for the Working Classes.
Advertising. Railway and City Population.
Vivisection. A Day with the Coroner.
The New Hotel System. The English in Paris.
The Restoration of our Soil. The Times Newspaper in 1798.
Half- Hours at the Kensington Museum. The Under-Sea Railroad.
Mudie's Circulating Library. Oh, the Roast Beef of Old England.
Fraudulent Trade Marks. Physical Education.
Superstition ; Where does it End ? Advice by a Retired Physician.
The New Counterblast to Tobacco. The Clerk of the Weather.
Air Traction, Portsmouth Dockyard.
Illuminations, Village Hospitals.
Boat-Building by Machinery. Railways, the Great Civilisers.
The Effects of Railway Travelling upon On taking a House.
Health. Photographic Portraiture.
The Working-Men's Flowec*Show. Doctor's Stuff.
Messages under the Sea. Smallpox in London.
Town Telegraphs. Hospital Dress.
The Bread We Eat. Excursion Trains.
" Altogether l Subtle Brains and Lissom Fingers ' is about the pleasantest book of
Bhort collected papers of chit chat blending information with amusement, and not over
tasking the attention or the intelligence, that we have seen for a good while." — London
Reader.

LIE (IT. G. J. YOUNG HUSBAND, Queen's Own Corps of Guides.
Eighteen Hundred Miles in a Burmese Tat, through Burmah, Siam,
and the Eastern Shan States. - Illustrated. Crown 8vo, 5s.
" There is a good deal of jocular description in this book, which, as the reader will
easily see, has been introduced with an eye rather to amusement than to accuracy; but
after all the volume will have repaid the reader for the few hours which may be spent
in its perusal if it conveys to him, as it is calculated to do, a fair impression of the
difficulties which beBet the wayfarer in a strange land who, when in search of the
pleasures of travel, begins his journey where he should leave off, and ends it where he
should have started."— Athenaeum.
"Mr Younghusband's account of his adventures is written simply and without
exaggeration, but oh the whole we think we would rather read about the Shan country
than travel in it." — Literary World.

For the Reduced Prices apply to

of Messrs W. H. Allen & Co.'s Publications. 29

Scientific Morfes : inducing Botang, iRatnral
ibtstorg, &c.
E. BONAVIA, M.D., Brigade-Surgeon, Indian Medical Service.
The Cultivated Oranges and Lemons of India and Ceylon. Demy
8vo, with oblong Atlas Volume of Plates, 2 vols. 30s.
R. BRAITHWAITE, M.D., F.L.S., &c.
The Sphagnaceae, or Peat Mosses of Europe and North America.
Illustrated with 29 Plates, coloured by hand. Imp. 8vo, 25s.
" AU mycologists will be delighted to hail the appearance of this important work.
. . . Never before has our native moss-flora been so carefully figured and described,
and that by an acknowledged authority on the subject." — Science Gossip.
" Mosses, perhaps, receive about as little attention from botauists as any class of
plants, and considering how admirably mosses lend themselves to the collector's
purposes, this is very remarkable. Something may be clue to the minuteness of the
size of many of the species, and something perhaps to the difficulties inherent in the
systematic treatment of these plants ; but we fancy the chief cause of comparative
neglect with which they are treated is to be sought in the want of a good illustrated
English treatise upon them. In the work which is now before us, Dr Braithwaite aims
at placing tbe British mosses on the same vantage-ground as the more favoured classes
of the vegetable kingdom ; and judging from the sample lately issued, he will succeed
in his endeavours." — Popular Science Review.
B. CARRINGTON, M.D., F.R.S.
British Hepaticae. Containing Descriptions and Figures of the Native
Species of Jungermannia, Marchantia, and Anthoceios. Imp. 8vo,
sewed, Parts 1 to 4, plain plates, 2s. 6d. each ; coloured plates,
3s. 6d. each.
M. C. COOKE, M.A., LL.D.
The British Fungi : A Plain and Easy Account of. With Coloured
Plates of 40 Species. Fifth Edition, Revised. Crown 8vo, 6s.
" Mr Cooke writes for those whose education and means are limited, and with pre
eminent success. It is really a pleasure to read the manuals which he has published,
for they are up to the mark, and so complete as to leave hardly anything to be desired.
The new work on the fungi appears to be equally valuable with those which he has
already printed. It contains descriptions of the esculent fungi, the manner in which
they are prepared for the table, how to discriminate the nutritious from the poisonous
species, details of the principles of their scientific classification, and a tabular arrange.
ment of orders and genera. "
Handbook of British Hepatics. Containing Descriptions and Figures
of the Indigenous Species of Marchantia, Jungermannia, Riccia, and
Anthoceros, Illustrated. Crown 8vo, 6s.
" It is very creditable to Mr Cooke that the drawings in his book are all sketches
from nature mado by his own pencil. This shows work, and is more respectable than
the too common practice of copying engravings from the authorities in the particular
branch of science. This little book is valuable, because in some respects it is certainly
a good guide-book to a number of edible fungi unknown to the public."— Popular
Science Review.
"Probably no group in the British flora has received so little attention as the
Hepaticffl. Dr M. O. Cooke has now filled up the gap by producing a ' Handbook of
the British Hepaticae,' containing full descriptions of all the species, about two hundred
in number, known to inhabit the British Islands."— W ature.
M. C. Cooke's Books contimied.
Any Bookseller at Home and Abroad.

30 Great Reductions in this Catalogue
M. C. COOKE, M.A., LL.D.— continued.
Our Reptiles and Batrachians. A Plain and Easy Account of the
Lizards, Snakes, Newts, Toads, Frogs, and Tortoises indigenous to
Great Britain. New and Revised Edition. With original Coloured
Pictures of every Species, and numerous Woodcuts. Crown 8vo, 6s.
Contents.
Beptiles and Snake-stones. The Blind "Worm. The Common Frog.
The Common Lizard. The Common Snake. The Edible Frog.
The Sand Lizard. The Smooth Snake. The Common Toad.
The Green Lizard. The Viper, or Adder. Common Smooth Newt or
The Natterjack. Great Water Newt. Eft.
Palmate Newt. Gray's Banded Newt. The Hawk's-Bill Turtle.
The Leathery Turtle. Amphibia or Batrachians. Appendix.
" Mr Cooke has especially distinguished himself as a student of the fungi and the
fresh-water algffi, his works on these orders being the standard treatises in English.
He has also paid some attention to zoology and chemistry, his education in these as in
other sciences being obtained by persistent self-instruction." — Celebrities of the Century.
Rust, Smut, Mildew, and Mould. An Introduction to the Study of
Microscopic Fungi. Illustrated with 269 Coloured Figures by J.
E. Sowerby. Fifth Edition, Revised and Enlarged, with Appendix
of New Species. Crown 8vo, 6s.
Those of our readers who are the happy possessors of microscopes would welcomo
this book with delight, as opening the way to a definite study of a most interesting
branch of plant life. The minute fungi, here so faithfully depicted by Mr Sowerby,
and so carefully described by Dr Cooke, have not only beauty of form and colour, but
wonderful life-histories. Every hedge or lane or piece of waste ground, even in the
suburbs of large towns, will provide specimens, which may be easily preserved on the
plants which they attack or mounted as microscope slides.
Important to Botanists and Students of Natural History.
European Fungi (Hymenomycetum) — Synoptical Key to. Cooke
(M. C.) and Quelet (L., M.D., &c.)— Clavis Synoptica Hymenomy
cetum Europseorum. Fcap. 8vo, 7s. 6d. ; or, interleaved with ruled
paper, 8s. 6d.
" Without pretending to high scientific quality, the work throughout is well fitted to
instruct and to attract a class of readers who might shrink from grappling with a
scientific text-book. " — Saturday Review.
BARON CVVIER.
The Animal Kingdom. With considerable Additions by W. B.
Carpenter, M.D., F.R.S., and J. O. Westwood, F.L.S. New
Edition, Illustrated with 500 Engravings on Wood and 36 Coloured
Plates. Imp. 8vo, 21s.
J. HUNTER, late Hon. Sec. of the British Bee-keepers' Association.
A Manual of Bee-keeping. Containing Practical Information for
Rational and Profitable Methods of Bee Management. Full Instruc
tions on Stimulative Feeding, Ligurianising and Queen-raising, with
descriptions of the American Comb Foundation, Sectional Supers,
and the best Hives and Apiarian Appliances on all systems. Fourth
Edition. With Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d.
" We cordially recommend Mr Hunter's neat and compact Manual of Bee-keeping.
Mr Hunter writes clearly and well." — Science Gossip.
" We are indebted to Mr J. Hunter, Honorary Secretary of the British Bee-keepers'
Association. His Manual of Bee-keeping, just published, is full to the very brim of
choice and practical hints fully up to the most advanced stages of Apiarian Science,
and its perusal has afforded us so much pleasure that we have drawn somewhat largely
from it for the benefit of our readers."— Bee-keepers' Magazine (iVew York).
For the Reduced Prices apply to

of Messrs W. H Allen 6" Co.'s Publications. 31

G. H. KINAHAN.
A Handy Book of Rock Names. Fcap. 8vo, 4s.
" This will prove, we do not doubt, a very useful little book to all practical geologists,
and also to the reading student of rocks. When a difficulty is incurred as to a
species of deposit, it will soon vanish. Mr Kinahan's little book will soon make it all
clear. The work is divided into three parts. The first is a classified table of rocks, the
second part treats of the Jngenite rocks, and the third part deals with those rocks which
are styled Derivate. Dana's termination of yte has been most generally used by tho
author, but he has also given the ite terminations for those that like them. The book
will be purchased; for it must be had, by every geologist ; and as its size is small, it will
form a convenient pocket companion for the man who works over field and quarry." —
Popular Science Review. Professor E. LANKESTER.
The Uses of Animals in Relation to the Industry of Man. New
Edition. Illustrated. Crown 8vo, 4s.
Silk, Wool, Leather, Bone, Soap, Waste, Sponges, and Corals, Shell-fish, Insects,
Furs, Feathers, Horns and Hair, and Animal Perfumes, are the subjects of the twelve
lectures on " The Uses of Animals."
"In his chapter on ' Waste,' the lecturer gives startling insight into the manifold
uses of rubbish. . . Dr Lankester finds a use for everything ; and he delights in
analysing each fresh sample of rejected material, and stating how each of its com
ponent parts can be turned to the best account." — Athenceum.
Practical Physiology : A School Manual of Health. With numerous
Woodcuts. Sixth Edition. Fcap. 8vo, 2s. 6d.
Contents.
Constitution of the Human Body. Breathing, or the Function of Respira-
Nature of the Food supplied to the Human tion.
Body. The Structure and Functions of the
Digestion, and the Organs by which it is Skin.
performed. The Movements of the Human Body.
Nature of Blood and its Circulation by the The Brain and Nerves.
Heart. The Organs of the Senses.
" Writing for schoolboys, Dr Lankester has been careful to consult their tastes.
There are passages in this little work which will make it popular, and the instructor
will probably be hailed by a name which is new to people of his class, that of a
1 regular brick.' " — Atlienceum.
MRS LANKESTER.
Talks about Health : A Book for Boys and Girls. Being an Explana
tion of all the Processes by which Life is Sustained. Illustrated.
Small 8vo, is.
The Late EDWARD NEWMAN, F.Z.S.
British Butterflies. With many Illustrations. Super royal 8vo, 7s. 6d.
" The British butterflies have found a good friend in Mr Newman, who has given
us a history of their lives— from larva to imago, their habits and their whereabouts—
which is one of the most perfect things of the kind. And we are glad to read the
author's statement that his work has attained, while" in progress, a sale that is almost
unattainable in English scientific works. Firstly, the work consists of a series of
notices to the young who may be disposed to go butterfly -hunting. And in them we
find the author's great experience, and we commend this part of his work to our
readers. The next part deals with the subjects of anatomy, physiology, and embryo
logy of the insects ; and finally we come to the separate account of each species. This
latter is admirably given. First comes a capital engraving, life size, of the species,
and then follows in order the life, history, time of appearance and locality, occupying
from a page to a page and a half or two pages of a large quarto (or nearly so) volume.
All this is done well, as we might expect from the author ; it is clear, intelligible, and
devoid of much of the rubbish which abounds in books of this kind generally. We
must conclude by expressing the hope that all who are interested in insects will make
themselves aquainted with the volume."— Popular Science Review.
Any Bookseller at Home and Abroad.

3? Great Reductions in this Catalogue

MARY A. PRATTEN
My Hundred Swiss Flowers. With a Short Account of Swiss Ferns.
With 60 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, plain plates, 12s. 6d. ; coloured
plates, 25s.
"The temptation to produce such books as this seems irresistible. The author
feels a want ; the want is undeniable. After more or less hesitation he feels he can
supply it. It is pleasantly written, and affords useful hints as to localities."—
Athenceum.
S. L. PUMPHREY.
A Little Brown Pebble, with 10 full-page cuts. Fcap. 4to, 3s. 6d.
11 In the story of ' A Little Erown Pebble,' its writer endeavours to introduce geo
logical science into the nursery, showing what strange creatures lived in the ancient
seas, what monsters inhabited the primeval forests, and how our country alternated
between torrid heats and an arctic cold. The accuracy of the information is guaran
teed by competent authorities, and the illustrations are spirited. There is no reason
why the attempt should not succeed." — Academy, 21st December 1889.
R. RIM MER, F.L.S.
The Land and Freshwater Shells of the British Isles. Illus
trated with 10 Photographs and j Lithographs, containing figures of
all the principal Species. Second Edition. Crown 8vo, 5s.
" This handsomely got up little volume supplies a long-felt want in a very ingenious
and trustworthy manner. Tho author is an enthusiastic conchologist, and writes
both attractively and well, and in a manner so simple and natural that we have no
fear that any ordinarily educated man will easily understand every phrase. But the
feature of this book which strikes us most is that every specieB of British land and
freshwater shell has been photographed, and here we have all the photographs, natural
size in the albertype process, so that the merest tyro will find no difficulty in identi
fying any shell he may find.1'— Science Review.
J. SMITH, A.L.S.
Ferns : British and Foreign. Fourth Edition, revised and greatly en
larged, with many illustrations. Crown 8vo, 7s. 6d.
" Each genus is described, and the technical characters upon which it is founded
are shown in the accompanying illustrations, and the indispensable technical terms
are explained by examples. The meaning and derivations of the botanical names of
ferns are also given in sufficient detail and with sufficient accuracy to meet the wants
of amateurs, if not of scholars. But perhaps the most valuable part of the work is that
devoted to instruction in the cultivation of ferns, which occupies some seventy pages
of the book. A bibliography of the subject and an excellent index make up the
remainder of this useful volume, which we recommend to all persons desirous of know
ing something more about ferns than being able to recognise them by sight. "—Field.
*- " Mr Smith's work entitles him to admiration for his industry and for the manifest
care with which he has studied his subject ; and his present enlarged work will certainly
become and be a standard library book of reference for all pteridologists and orna
mental gardeners (whether professional or amateur) who devote attention to filiculture.
And there really is no family of plants which is more elegant than are ferns. Indi
genous British ferns alone afford a most interesting scope.of research and collection."
— Whitehall Review.
" This is a new and enlarged edition of one of the best extant works on British
and foreign ferns which has been called for by the introduction, during the interval
of ten years which has elapsed since the issue of the first edition, of a number of exotic
species which have been collected and arranged under their respective genera and
tribes as an appendix. There are thus introduced 234 entirely new species. The sixty
pages devoted to a treatise on the cultivation of ferns are invaluable to the fern-grower,
professional or amateur, describing the conditions under which terns grow in their
native country — knowledge which is essential to their really successful cultivation
in this."— Rural World.

For the Reduced Prices apply to

of Messrs IV H. Allen & Co .'s Publications.

/. E. TAYLOR, F.L.S., F.G.S.
Flowers: Their Origin, Shapes, Perfumes, and Colours, Illus
trated with 32 Coloured Figures by Sowerby, and 161 Woodcuts.
becond Edition. Crown 8vo, cloth gilt, 7s. 6d.
Contents
The Old and New Philosophy of Flowers-The Geological Antiquity of Flowers
and Insects-The Geographical Distribution of Flowers-The Structure of Flowering
Plants-Ke ations between Flowers and their Physical Surroundings-Relation?
between Flowers and the Wmd-The Colours of Flowers-The External Shapes of
Flowers-The Internal Shapes of Flowers-The Perfumes of Flowers-Social Flowers
—Birds and Flowers— The Natural Defences of Flowering Plants
"This is an altogether charming book, full of wisdom, cheerful, simple, attractive
and informed throughout with a high purpose. Its object is to place within reach of
the general public m an agreeable form the results of the most recent and compre
hensive botanical research. The author is so bold as to ask why flowers were made
and 19 not without means to answer the question reverently and truthfully He
connects them by the aids that science supplies with the history of creation and the
records of the rooks, and wrth the history of man, and the progress of the agricultural
and horticultural arts. He tells us how they are influenced by soil and climate how
changed and multiplied by insects and other agencies, how their seeds are blown
about the world, and how by innumerable divine appointments it at last comes about
that the life of a man is environed and beautified with flowers. The work is rich in
the results of travel, and it happily connects the vegetable products of the globe with
the conditions that favour them and the wants they satisfy. It is therefore a book
for all ages, and for botanists and gardeners, as well as for such as rather too gladly
confess they know nothing about plants. We should like to see it on every
family table m the whole length and breadth of the United Kingdom."— Gardeners'
Magazine. The Aquarium : Its Inhabitants, Structure, and Management.
Second Edition, with 238 Woodcuts. Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d.
'¦ Few men have done more to popularise the natural history science than the late
Dr Taylor. The work before us, while intended as a handbook to public aquaria is
responsible for many attempts, successful and otherwise, at the construction of the
domestic article. The book is replete with valuable information concerning persons
and things, while the directions for making and managing aquaria are very clear and
concise. The illustrations are numerous, suitable, and very good."— Schoolmaster
"The ichthyologist, be it known, is not such a fearful or horrific 'sort of wild
fowl ' as his name would seem to argue him. The prevalence of the breed, the extent
of its knowledge, the zeal of its enthusiasm, ar.d the number of the aquaria it has
built for itself in town or country, are all part and parcel of that ' march of science '
which took its impetus from Darwin and the ' Origin of Species.' Those who do not
already know that useful book, 'The Aquarium,' by Mr 0. E. Taylor, Ph.D., F.T,.S.,
4c, should procure this new edition (tho sixth). It forms a convenient handbook or
popular manual to our public aquaria. The aquarium, its inhabitants, its structure
and its management, are the author's especial care. And with the help of well-k,. a.
works and a wide experience he has managed to put together a most praiseworthy
book."— Science Siftings.
Half-Hours in the Green Lanes. Illustrated with 300 Woodcuts. Fifth
Edition. Crown Svo, 2s. 6d.
" A book which cannot fail to please the young, and from which many an older
reader may glean here and there facts of interest in the field of nature. Mr Taylor
has endeavoured to collect these facts which are to be recorded daily by an observant
country gentleman with a taste for natural history ; and he has attempted to put them
together in a clear and simp'e style, so that the young may not only acquire a love for
the investigation of nature, but may also put up (by reading this little book) an im
portant store of knowledge. We think the author has succeeded in his object. He
has made a very interesting little volume, not written above the heads of its readers
as many of those books are, and he has taken care to have most of his natural history
observations very accurately illustrated." — Popular Seience Review.
f. E. Taylor's Books contimted.
Any Bookseller at Home and Abroad.

34 Great Reductions in this Catalogue

J. E. TAYLOR, F.L.S., F.G.S.— continued.
Half-Hours at the Seaside. Illustrated with 250 Woodcuts. Fourth
Edition. Crown 8vo, 2s. 6d.
" The love of natural history has now become so prevalent, at least among purely
English readers, that we hardly meet a family at the seaside one of whose members
has not some little knowledge of the wonders of the deep. Now, of course, this love
of marine zoology is being vastly increased by the existence of the valuable aquaria
at the Crystal Palace and at Brighton. Still, however, notwithstanding the amount
of admirable works on the subject, more especially the excellent treatises of Gosse
and others, there was wanted a cheap form of book with good illustrations which
should give a clear account of the ordinary creatures one meets with on the sands
and in the rock pools. The want no longer exists, for the excellent little manual that
now lies before us embraces all that could be desired by those who are entirely ignorant
of the subject of seaside zoology, while its mode of arrangement and woodcuts, which
are carefully drawn, combine to render it both attractive and useful. "— Popular
Science Review.

IRifciug, IDeterinars, an& agriculture.
EDWARD L. ANDERSON.
How to Ride and School a Horse. With a System of Horse Gym
nastics. Fourth Edition. Revised and Corrected. Crown 8vo, 2s. 6d.
'* He is well worthy of a hearing-." — Bell's Life.
" Mr Anderson is, without- doubt, a thorough horseman." — The Field.
" It should be a good investment to all lovers of horses."— The Farmer.
.. "There is no reason why the careful reader should not be able, by the help of this
little book, to train as well as ride his horses.'' — Land and Water.
JAMES IRVINE L UPTON, F.R.C. F.S.
The Horse, as he Was, as he Is, and as he Ought to Be. Illustrated.
Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d.
" Written with a good object in view, namely, to create an interest in the im
portant subject of horse-breeding, more especially that class known as general utility
horses. The book contains several il lustrations, is well printed and handsomely
bound, and we hope will meet with the attention it deserves." — Live Stock Journal.
WILLIAM PROCTOR, Stud Groom.
The Management and Treatment of the Horse in the Stable, Field,
and on the Road. New and Revised Edition. Crown Svo, 6s.
"There are few who are interested in horses will fail to profit by one
portion or another of this useful work. Coming from a practical hand the
work should recommend itself to the public." — Sportsman.
" There is a fund of sound common-sense views in this work which will be
interesting to many owners." — Field.
GEORGE GRESSWELL.
The Diseases and Disorders of the Ox. Second Edition. Demy Svo,
7s. 6d.
u This is perhaps one of the beBt of the popular books on the subject which has been
published in recent years, and demonstrates in a most unmistakable manner the great
advance that has been made in Bovine and Ovine Pathology since the dayB of Yonatr,
. . . To medical men who desire to know something of tbe disorders of such an
important animal — speaking hygienically — as the Ox, the work can be recommended."'
— The Lancet.
" It is clear, concise, and practical, and would make a Tery convenient handbook of
reference.'* — Saturday Review.
For the Reduced Prices apply to

of Messrs W. H. Allen &¦ Co.'s Publications. 35

PROFESSOR SHELDON.
The Future of British Agriculture. How Farmers may best be
Benefited. Crown 8vo, 2s. 6d.
" Fortunately Prof. Sheldon has no mind to play the part of a prophet,
but from the plenitude of a long experience gives sage counsel how to farm
abreast of the time and be ready for whatever may ensue. . . . This little
book is well worth reading, and it is pleasant to find that the professor by
no means despairs of the future of agriculture in England. " — Academy.
"We welcome the book as a valuable contribution to our agricultural
literature, and as a useful guide to those branches in which the author
is especially qualified to instruct." — Nature.
"In this beautifully printed and well-bound little book of 158 pp.,
Professor Sheldon, in his usual happy style, surveys the agricultural field,
and indicates what he thinks is the prospect in front of the British farmer.
Like a watchman he stands upon his tower — and when asked, What of the
night ? he disavows not that we are in the night, but earnestly declares that
the morning cometh apace. The professor is an optimist ; he does not believe
that the country is done, and still less does he favour the idea that, taking a
wide survey, the former days were better than these. On the contrary, he
urges that the way out of the wilderness is not by any by-path, but by going
right ahead ; and, ere long, the man who holds the banner high will emerge
triumphant." — Scottish Farmer.JOHN WATSON, F.L.S.
Ornithology in Relation to Agriculture and Horticulture, by various
writers, edited by John Watson, F.L.S., &c. Crown 8vo. 3s. 6d.
List of Contkibutoks.— Miss Eleanor A. Ormerod, late Consulting
Entomologist to the Royal Agricultural Society of England ; O. V. Aplin,
F.L.S., Member of the British Ornithologists' Union; Charles Whitehead,
F.L.S., F.G.S., &c, author of "Fifty Years of Fruit Farming"; John
Watson, F.L.S., author of "A Handbook for Farmers and Small Holdeis";
the Rev. F. O. Morris, M.A., author of "A History of British Birds" ; G. W.
Murdoch, late editor of The Farmer; Riley Fortune, F.Z.S. ; T. H. Nelson,
Member of the British Ornithologists' Union; T. Southwell, F.Z.S. ; Rev!
Theo. Wood, B.A., F.I.S. ; J. H. Gurney, iun., M.P. ; Harrison Weir,
F.R.H.S. ; W. H. Tuck.
" Will form a textbook of a reliable kind in guiding agriculturists at large
in their dealings with their feathered friends and foes alike."— Glasgow
Herald. " This is a valuable book, and should go far to fulfil its excellent purpose.
, . . It is a book that every agriculturist should possess." — Land and
Water. "It is well to know what birds do mischief and what birds are helpful.
This book is the very manual to clear up all such doubts." — Yorkshire Post.
"In these days of agricultural depression it behoves the former to study,
among other subjects, ornithology. That he and the gamekeeper often bring
down plagues upon the land when they fancy they are ridding it of a pest is
exceedingly well illustrated in this series of papers. " — Scotsman.
Any Bookseller at Home and Abroad.

36 Great Reductions in this Catalogue
3nbia, Cbina, Japan, an& tbe East
SURGEON-MAJOR L. A. WADDELL, M.B., F.L.S., E.R.G.S.,
Member of the Royal Asiatic Society, Anthropological Institute, &c.
The Buddhism of Tibet, with its Mystic Cults, Symbolism, and Mytho
logy, and in its Relation to Indian Buddhism, with over 200 Illustra
tions. Demy 8vo, 31s. 6d.
Synopsis of Contents: — Introductory. Historical: Changes in Primitive Bud
dhism leading to Lamaism — Rise, Development, and Spread of Lamaism — The Sects of
Lamaism. Doctrinal : Metaphysical Sources of the Doctrine — The Doctrine and its
Morality — Scriptures and Literature. Monastic : The Order of Lamas — Daily Life and
Routine — Hierarchy and Reincarnate Lamas. Buildings: Monasteries — TempleB and
Cathedrals — Shrines (and Relics and Pilgrims). Mythology and Gods: Pantheon and
Images — Sacred Symbols and Charms. Ritual and Sorcery : Worship and Ritual—'
Astrology and Divination— Sorcery and Necromancy. Festivals and Plays : Festivals
and Holidays— Mystic Plays and Masquerades and Sacred Plays. Popular Lamaism:
Domestic and Popular Lamaism. Appendices: Chronological Table — Bibliography —
Index. " By far the most important mass of original materials contributed to this recondite
study." — The Times.
11 Dr Waddell deals with the whole subject in a most exhaustive manner, and gives
a clear insight into the structure, prominent features, and cults of the system ; and to
disentangle the early history of Lamaism from the chaotic growth of fable which has
invested it, most of the chief internal movements of Lamaism are now for the first
time presented in an intelligible and systematic form. The work is a valuable
addition to the long series that have preceded it, and is enriched by numerous illus
trations, mostly from originals brought from Lhasa, and from photographs by the
author, while it is fully indexed, and is provided with a chronological table and biblio
graphy." — Liverpool Courier.
" A book of exceptional interest." — Glasgow Herald.
"A learned and elaborate work, likely for some time to come to be a source of
reference for all who seek information about Lamaism, ... In the appendix will be
found a chronological table of Tibetan events, and a bibliography of the best literature
bearing on Lamaism. There is also an excellent index, and the numerous illustrations
are certainly one of the distinctive features of the book." — Morning Post.
" Cannot fail to arouse the liveliest interest. The author of this excellently pro
duced, handsomely illustrated volume of nearly six hundred pages has evidently
spared no pains in prosecuting his studies. . . . The book is one of exceptional value,
and will attract all those readers who take an interest in the old religions of the far
East." — Publishers' Circular.
SIR EDWIN ARNOLD, M.A., Author of (i The Light of Asia, ," &c.
The Book of Good Counsels. Fables from the Sanscrit of the
Hitopadesa. With Illustrations by Gordon Browne. Autograph and
Portrait. Crown Svo, antique, gilt top, 5s.
A few copies of the large paper Edition (limited to 100 copies),
bound in white vellum, 25s. each net.
" ' The Book of Good Counsels,' by Sir Edwin Arnold, comes almost as a new book,
so long has it been out of print. Now, in addition to being very tastefully and
prettily reissued, it contains numerous illustrations by Mr Gordon Browne. As some
few may remember, it is a book of Indian stories and poetical maxims from the
Sanskrit of the Hitopadesa. The book is almost a volume of fairy tales, and may pass
for that with the younger generation, but it is a little too heavily overlaid with philo
sophy to be dismissed wholly as such. In fact, like all that Sir Edwin Arnold has
brought before us, it is full of curious fancies, and that it is a charming little book to
look at is its least merit."— Daily Graphic.
For the Reduced Prices apply to

of Messrs IV. H. Allen c^ Co.'s Publications. 37

CAPTAIN JAMES ABBOTT.
Narrative of a Journey from Herat to Khiva, Moscow, and St
Petersburgh during the late Russian invasion at Khiva. With Map
and Portrait. 2 vols., demy 8vo, 24s.
The real interest of the work consists in it* store of spirited anecdote, its enter
taining sketches of individual and national character, its graphic pictures of Eastern
life and manners, its simply told tales of peril, privation, and suffering encountered and
endured with a soldier's courage. Over the whole narrative, the naivete" and frank
ness of the writer cast a charm that far more than covers its occasional eccentricities
of style and language. It has seldom fallen to our lot to read a more interesting
narrative of personal adventure. Rarely, indeed, do we find an author whose
constant presence, through almost the whole of two large volumes, is not only
tolerable, but welcome. Few readers will rise from a perusal of the narrative
without a strong feeling of personal sympathy and interest in the gallant Major ; even
though here and there unable to repress a smile at some burst of ecstasy, some abrupt
apostrophe, such as would never have been perpetrated by a practical writer, and a
man of the world. SIR E. C. BAYLEY.
The Local Muhammadan Dynasties, Gujarat. Forming a Sequel
to Sir H. M. Elliott's "History of the Muhammadan Empire
of India." Demy 8vo, 21s.
"The value of the work consists in the light which it serves to throw upon dis
puted dates and obscure transactions. As a work of reference it is doubtless useful.
Regarding the way in which its learned translator and editor has acquitted himself
of his task it is scarcely necessary to write ; a profound scholar and painstaking in
vestigator, his labours are unusually trustworthy, and the world of letters will doubt
less award him that meed of praise, which is rarely withheld from arduous and con
scientious toil, by assigning him, in death, a niche in the temple of fame, side by side
with his venerated master, Sir Henry Elliott." — Academy.
" This book may be considered the first of a series designed rather as a supplement
than complement to the 'History of India as Told by its own Historians.' Following
the Preface, a necessarily brief biographical notice — written in the kindly and appre
ciative spirit which ever characterises the style of the learned editor of Marco Polo,
whose initials are scarcely needed to confirm his identity — explains how on Professor
Dowson's death, Sir Edward Clive Bayley was induced to undertake an editorship for
which he was eminently qualified by personal character and acquaintance with the
originator of the project which constituted his raison d^tre. But the new editor did
not live to see the actual publication of his first volume. Scarcely had he completed
it for the press, when his career was brought to a close. A singular fatality seems to
have attended the several able men who have taken the leading part in preserving this
particular monument of genuine history. Henry Elliott, John Dowson, Edward Clive
Bayley, and more recently still (during th9 current year), Edward Thomas, the high-
clasa numismatist, all have passed away, with hands upon the plough in the very field
of Oriental research. Without asking to whose care the preparation of any future
volumes may be entrusted, let us be thankful,for the work, so far completed and — at
this time especially— for the instalment which has just appeared." — Athenceum.
SIR GEORGE BIRDWOOD, M.D.
Report on the Old Records of the India Office, with Maps and
.Illustrations. Royal 8vo, 12s. 6d.
<l Those who are familiar with Sir George Bird wood's literary method will appreciate
the interest and the wealth of historical illustration with which he invests these topics."
—Times, Feb. 26, 1891.
" Sir George Bird wood has performed a Herculean task in exploring, sorting, and
describing the masses of old India Office records, which Mr Danvers has now got into
a state of admirable arrangement, so that, with the help of Sir George's Index, they
may be readily and proltably consulted by students." — Scotsman.
Any Bookseller at Home and Abroad.

38 Great Reductions in this Catalogue

E. BONAVIA, AID., Brigade- Surgeon, Indian Medical Service.
The Cultivated Oranges and Lemons of India and Ceylon. Demy
Svo, with Atlas of Plates, 30s.
" The amount of labour and research that Dr Bonavia must have expended on these
volumes would be very difficult to estimate, and it is to be hoped that he will be repaid,
to some extent at least, by the recognition of his work by those who are interested in
promoting the internal industries of India." — Home News.
" There can be no question that the author of this work has devoted much time and
trouble to the study of the Citrus family in India. That the preparation of the book
has been a labour of love is evident throughout its pages."— The Englishman.

F. C. DANVERS, Registrar and Superintendent of Records,
India Office, London.
Report to the Secretary of State for India in Council on the Portu
guese Records relating to the East Indies, contained in the
Archivo da Torre de Tombo, and the Public Libraries at Lisbon and
Evora. Royal 8vo, sewed, 6s. net.
" The whole book is full of important and interesting materials for the student
alike of English and of Indian history." — Times.
" It is more than time that some attention was paid to the history of the Portuguese
in India by Englishmen, and Mr Danvers is doing good service to India by his investi
gation into the Portuguese records." — India.
1 ' "We are very grateful for it, especially with the gratitude which consists in a long
ing for more favours to come. The Secretary of State spends much money on worse
things than continuing the efforts of which the book under review is only the first
result." — Asiatic Quarterly Review.
The visits of inspection into the records preserved in Portugal bearing on the
history of European enterprise in Eastern seas, which were authorised by the Secretary
of State for India in 1891 and 1892, have resulted in the production of a most interest
ing report, which shows that a vast store of historical papers has been carefully pre
served in that country, which deserves more thorough investigation. Mr Danvers,
whose devotion to the duties of the Record Department is well known, hastened to
carry dut his instructions, and his report fully attests the earnestness with which he
pursued his task. ' The documents range in date from 1500 to the present date, and
contain clusters of documents numbering 12,465 and 5,274, and 1,783 in extent, besides
many other deeply interesting batches of smaller bulk. It seems that no copies exist
of most of these documents among our own records, a fact which invests them with
peculiar interest.
GEORGE DOBSON.
Russia's Railway Advance into Central Asia. Notes of a Journey
from St Petersburg to Samarkand, Illustrated. Crown 8vo, 7s. 6d.
" The letters themselves have been expanded and rewritten, and the work contains
seven additional chapters, which bring the account of the Transcaspian Provinces
down to the present time. Those of our readers who remember the original letters
will need no further commendation of our correspondent's accuracy of information
and graphic powers of description." — Times.
*' Offers a valuable contribution to our knowledge of this region. The author
journeyed from St Petersburg to Samarkand by the Russian trains and steamers.
He wonders, as so many have wondered before, why the break in tbe line of railway
communication which is made by the Caspian Sea is allowed to continue. His book is
eminently impartial, and he deals with the question of trade between India and Central
Asia in a chapter full of the highest interest, both for the statesman and the British
merchant." — Daily Telegraph.

For the Reduced Prices apply to

of Messrs W. H. Allen £~ Co.'s Publications. 39

REV. A.J. D. D'ORSEY, B.D., A'.C, P.O.C.
Portuguese Discoveries, Dependencies, and Missions in Asia and
Africa, with Maps. Crown Svo, 7s. 6d.
Contents.
Book I. Book III. — continued.
Th?*£r&e in Europe and Asia. ^ Archbishop of Goa.
Portugal and the Portuguese. £he Synod of Diamper.
Portuguese Discoveriel in the Fifteenth The Triumph of Rome.
Century. Book IV
Portuguese Conquests of India in the
Sixteenth Century. Subsequent Missions in Southern India,.
The Portuguese Empire in the Sixteenth with special reference to the Syrians.
Century. Radiation of Mission of Goa.
Book II ^e ^a<*ura Mission.
'"'J Portuguese MiBBions in the Camatie.
The Portuguese Missions in Southern Syrian Christians in the Seventeenth
India. . Century.
Early History of the Church in India. Syrian Christians in the Eighteenth
First Meeting of the Portuguese with the Century.
Syrians. Pnnlr V
Pioneers of the Portuguese Missions. .book v.
Tbe Rise of the Jesuits. The Portuguese Missions, with special
The Jesuits in Portugal. reference to Modern Missionary
St Francis Xavier's Mission in India. efforts in South India.
Subsequent Missions in the Sixteenth The First Protestant Mission in South
Century. India.
Book III English Missions to the Syrians 1806-16.
"" "' English Missions and the Syrian
The Subjugation of the Syrian Church. Christians.
Roman Claim of Supremacy. The Disruption and its Results.
First Attempt, by the Franciscans. Present State of the Syrian Christians.
Second Attempt, by the Jesuits. The Revival of the Romish Missions in
The Struggle against Rome. India.

GENERAL GORDON, C.B.
Events in the Taeping Rebellion. Being Reprints of MSS. copied
by General Gordon, C.B., in his own handwriting; with Monograph,
Introduction, and Notes. By A. Egmont Hake, author of "The
Story of Chinese Gordon." With Portrait and Map. Demy 8vo, 18s.
" A valuable and graphic contribution to our knowledge of affairs in China at the
most critical period of its history." — Leeds Mercury.
" Mr Hake has prefixed a vivid sketch of Gordon's career as a ' leader of men,'
which shows insight and grasp of character. The style is perhaps somewhat too
emphatic and ejaculatory — one seems to hear echoes of Hugo, and a strain of Mr
Walter Besant— but the spirit is excellent."— A then&um.
" Without wearying his readers by describing at length events which are as
familiar in our mouths as household words, he contents himself with giving a light
sketch of them, and fills in the picture with a personal narrative which to most people
will be entirely new." — Saturday Review.

F. V. GREENE, Military Attache1 to the U.S. Legation
at St Petersburg.
Sketches of Army Life in Russia. Crown 8vo, 9s.
Any Bookseller at Home and Abroad.

4°

Great Reductions in this Catalogue

M. GRIFFITH.
India's Princes. Short Life Sketches of the Native Rulers of India,
with 47 Portraits and Illustrations. Demy 4to, gilt top, 21s.
List of Portraits.

The Punjaub.
H.H. the Maharaja of Cashmere.
H.H. the Maharaja of Patiala.
H.H. the Maharaja of Kapurthalla.
Rajputana.
The Maharaja of Oudipur.
The Maharaja of Jeypore.
The Maharaja of Jodbpur.
The Maharaja of Ulware.
The Maharaja of Bhurtpur.
Central India.
H.H. the Maharaja Holkar of Indore.
JELH. the Maharaja Scindia of Gwalior.
H.H. the Begum of Bhopal.
" A handsome volume containing a series of photographic portraits and local
views with accompanying letterpress, giving biographical and political details,
carefully compiled and attractively presented."— Times.
C. HAMILTON.
Hedaya or Guide. A Commentary on the Mussulman Laws. Second
Edition. With Preface and Index by S. G. Grady. Svo, 35s.
"A work of very high authority in all Moslem countries. It discusses most of the
subjects mentioned in the Korau and Sonna." — Mill's Muhammadanism.
The great Law-Book of India, and one of the most important monuments of Mussul
man legislation in existence.
"A valuable work." — Allibqne.

The Bombay Presidency.
H.H. the Gaikwar of Baroda.
H.H. the Rao of Cutch.
H.H. the Raja Kolhapur.
H.H. the Nawab of Junagarh.
H.H. the Thakore Sahib of Bhavnagar.
H.H. the Thakore Sahib of Dhangadra.
H.H. tho Thakore Sahib of Morvi.
H.H. the Thakore Sahib of Gondal.
Southern India.
H.H. the Nizam of Hyderabad.
H.H. the Maharaja of Mysore.
H.H. the Maharaja of Travancore.

Synopsis of
Of Zakat,
Of Nikkah or Marriage.
Of Rizza or Fosterage.
Of Talak or Divorce.
Of Ittak or the Manumission of- Slaves.
Of Eiman or Vows.
Of Hoodood or Punishment.
Of Saraka or Larceny.
Of Al Seyir or the Institutes.
Of the Law respecting Lakects or Found
lings.
Of Looktas or Troves.
Of Ibbak or the Absconding of Slaves,
Of Mafkoods or MisBing Persons.
Of Shirkat or Partnership.
Of Wakf or Appropriations.
Of Sale.
Of Serf Sale.
Of KafalitorBail.
Of Hawalit or the Transfer of the Kazee.
Of the Duties of the Kazee.
Of Shahadit or Evidence.
Of Retractation of Evidence.
Of Ageney.
Of Dawee or Claim.
Of Ikrar or Acknowledge.
Of Soolh or Composition.
Of Mozaribat or Co-partnership in the
Profits of Stock and Labour.

Contents.
Of Widda or Deposits.
Of Areeat or Loans.
Of Hibba or Gifts.
Of Ijaro or Hire.
Of Mokatibes.
Of Willa.
Of Ikrah or Compulsion.
Of Hijr or Inhibition.
Of Mazoous or Licensed Slaves.
Of Ghazb or Usurpation.
Of Shaffa.
Of Kissmat or Partition.
Of Mozarea or Compacts of Cultivation,
OF Mosakat or Compacts of Gardening.
Of Zabbah or the Slaying of Animals for
Food.
Of Uzbeea or Sacrifice.
Of Kiraheeat or Abominations.
Of the-Cultivation of Waste Lands.
Of Prohibited Liquors.
Of Hunting.
Of Rahu or Pawns.
Of Janayat or Offences against the Person.
Of Deeayat or Fines.
Of Mawakil or the Levying of Fines.
Of Wasaya or Wills.
Of Hermaphrodites.

For the Reduced Prices apply to

of Messrs W. H. Allen e^ Co.'s Publications. 41

HOWARD HENSMAN, Special Correspondent of the "Pioneer"
{Allahabad) and the "Daily Netvs " (London).
The Afghan War, 1879-80. Being a complete Narrative of the Capture
of Cabul, the Siege of Sherpur-, the Battle of Ahmed Khel, the March
to Candahar, and the defeat of Ayub Khan. With Maps. Demy Svo,
21s.
" Mr Frederick Roberts says of the letters here published in a collected form that
'nothing could be more accurate or graphic.' As to accuracy no one can be a more
competent judge than Sir Frederick, and his testimony stamps the book before us as
constituting especially trustworthy material for history. Of much that he relates Mr
Hensman was an eye-witness; of the rest he was informed by eye-witnesses immedi
ately after the occurrence of the events recorded. We are assured by Sir Frederick
Roberts that Mr Hensman's accuracy is complete in all respects. Mr Hensman enjoyed
singular advantages during the first part of the war, for he was the only special corre
spondent who accompanied the force which marched out of Ali Kheyl in September
1879. One of the most interesting portions of the book is that which describes the
mnrch of Sir Frederick Roberts from Cabul to Candahar. Indeed, the book is in
every respect interesting and well written, and reflects the greatest credit on the
author" — Athenceum.
Sir H, HUNTER.
A Statistical Account of Bengal. 20 vols. Demy Svo, £6.
1. Twenty-four Parganas and Sundar- 7. Meldah, Rangpur, Dinajpur.
bans. S. Kajshahf and Bogra.
2. Nadiya and Jessor. 9. Murshidabad and Pabna.
3. Midnapur, Hugli, and Hourah. 10. Darjiling, Jalpaigurf, and Kutch
4. Bard wan. Birbhum, and Bankhura. Behar State.
5. Dacca, Bakarganj, Faridpur, and 11. Patna'and Saran.
Maimansinh. 12. Gay a and Shahabad.
C. Chittagoag Hill Tracts, Chittagong, 13. Tirhut and Champaran.
Noakhali, Tipperah, and Hill 14. Bhagalpur and Santal Parganas.
Tipperah State. 15. Monghyr and Purniah. _
Bengal MS. Records, a selected list of Letters in the Board of Revenue,
Calcutta, 17S2-1S07, with an Historical Dissertation and Analytical
Index. 4 vols. Demy 8vo, 30s.-
" This is one of the small class of original works that compel a reconsideration of
views which have been long accepted and which have passed into the current history
of the period to which they refer. Sir William Wilson Hunter's exhaustive examination
of the actual state of the various landed classes of Bengal during the last century
renders impossible tbe further acceptance of these hitherto almost indisputable dicta
¦of Indian history. The chief materials for that examination have been the contem
porary MS. records preserved in the Board of Revenue, Calcutta, of which Sir William
Hunter gives a list of 14,136 letters dealing with the period from 1782 to 1807. Nothing
could be more impartial than the spirit in which he deals with the great questions
involved. He makes the actual facts, as recorded by these letters, written at the
time, speak for themselves. But those who desire to learn how that system grew out
of the pre-existing land rights and land usages of the province will find a clear and
authoritative explanation. If these four volumes stood alone they would place their
author in the first rank of scientific historians ; that is, of the extremely limited
class of historians who write from original MSS. and records. But they do not stand
alone. They are the natural continuation of the author's researches, nearly a genera
tion ago, among the District Archives of Bengal, which produced his 'Annals of
Rural Bengal ' in 1868 and his ' Orissa' in 1872. They are also the first-fruits of that
comprehensive history of India on which he has been engaged for the last twenty years,
for which he has collected in each province of India an accumulation of tested local
materials such as has never before been brought together in the hands, and by the
labours, of any worker in the same stupendous field, and which, when completed, will
be the fitting crown of his lifelong services to India. These volumes are indeed an
important instalment towards the projected magnum opus; and in this connection
it is of good augury to observe that they maintain their author's reputation for that
fulness and minuteness of knowledge, that graso of principles and philosophic insight,
and that fertility and charm of literary expression which give Sir William Hunter his
unique place among the writers of his day on India." — The Times.
Any Bookseller at Home and Abroad.

42 Great Reductions in this Catalogue

REV. T. P. HUGHES.
A Dictionary of Islam, being a Cyclopedia of the Doctrines, Rites,
Ceremonies, and Customs, together with the Technical and Theological
Terms of the Muhammadan Religion. With numerous Illustrations.
Royal 8vo, £2. 2s.
" Such a work as this has long been needed, and it would be hard to find
any one better qualified to prepare it than Mr Hughes. His ' Notes on
Muhammadanism,' of which two editions have appeared, have proved de
cidedly useful to students of Islam, especially in India, and his long familiarity
with the tenets and customs of Moslems has placed him in the best possible
position for deciding what is necessary and what superfluous in a ' Dictionary
of Islam.' His usual method is to begin an article with the text in the
Koran relating to the subject, then to add the traditions bearing upon it, and
to conclude with the comments of the Mohammedan scholiasts and the
criticisms of Western scholars. Such a method, while involving an infinity of
labour, produces the best results in point of accuracy and comprehensiveness.
The difficult task of compiling a dictionary of so vast a subject as Islam, with
its many sects, its saints, khalifs, ascetics, and dervishes, its festivals, ritnal,
and sacred places, the dress, manners, and customs of its professors, its com
mentators, technical terms, science of tradition and interpretation, its super
stitions, magic, and astrology, its theoretical doctrines and actual practices,
has been accomplished with singular success; and the dictionary will have its
place among the standard works of reference in every library that professes
to take account of the religion which governs the lives of forty millions of
the Queen's subjects. The articles on 'Marriage,' 'Women,' 'Wives,'
'Slavery,' 'Tradition,' 'Sufi,' 'Muhammad,' 'Da'wah' or Incantation,
'Burial,' and 'God,' are especially admirable. Two articles deserve special
notice. One is an elaborate account of Arabic ' Writing ' by Dr Steingass,-
which contains a vast quantity of useful matter, and is weli illustrated by
woodcuts of the chief varieties of Arabic script. The other article to which
we refer with special emphasis is Mr F. Pincott on 'Sikhism.' There is some
thing on nearl every page of the dictionary that will interest and instruct
the students of Eastern religion, manners, and customs." — Athenceum.
Dictionary of Muhammadan Theology.
Notes on Muhammadanism. By Rev. T. P. Hughes. Third Edition,
revised and enlarged. Fcap. 8vo, 6s.
' ' Altogether an admirable little book. It combines two excellent quali
ties, abundance of facts and lack of theories. . . . On every one of the
numerous heads (over fifty) into which the book is divided, Mr Hughes
furnishes a large amount of. very valuable information, which it would be
exceedingly difficult to collect from even a large library of works on the
subject. The book might well be called a ' Dictionary of Muhammadan
Theology,' for we know of no English work which combines a methodical
arrangement (and consequently facility of reference) with fulness of informa
tion in so high a degree as the little volume before us. " — The Academy.
" It contains multum in parvo, and is about the best outline of the
tenets of the Muslim faith which we have seen. It has, moreover, the rare
merit of being accurate ; and, although it contains a few passages which we
would gladly see expunged, it cannot fail to be useful to all Government
employes who have to deal with Muhammadans ; whilst to missionaries it
will be invaluable. " — The Times of India.
" The main object of the work is to reveal the real and practical character
of the Islam faith, and in this the author has evidently been successful. " —
The Standard. For the Reduced Prices apply to

of Messrs IV. H. Allen 6° Go's Publications. 43

MRS GRACE JOHNSON, Silver Medallist, Cookery Exhibition.
Anglo-Indian and Oriental Cookery. Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d.
H G. KEENE, CLE., B.C.S., M.R.A.S., &c.
History of India. From the Earliest Times to the Present Day. For
the use of Students and Colleges. 2 vols. Crown 8vo, with Maps,
1 6s.
" The main merit of Mr Keene's performance lies in the fact that he has assimilated
all the authorities, and has been careful to bring his book down to date. He has been
careful in research, and baB availed himself of the most recent materials. He is well
known as the author of other works on Indian history, and his capacity for his self-
impOBed taBk will not be questioned. We must content ourselves with this brief testi
mony to the labour and skill bestowed by him upon a subject of vast interest and
importance. Excellent proportion is preserved in dealing with the various episodes,
and the style is clear and graphic. The volumes are supplied with many useful maps,.
and the appendix include notes on Indian law and on recent books about India." —
Globe. "Mr Keene has the admirable element of fairness in dealing with the succession of
great questions that pass over his pages, and he wisely devotes a full half of his work
to the present century. The appearance of such a book, and of every such book, upon
India is to be hailed at present. A fair-minded presentment of Indian history like that
contained in Mr Keene's two volumes is at this moment peculiarly welcome." — Times.
" In this admirably clear and comprehensive account of the rise and consolidation
of our great Indian Empire, Mr Keene has endeavoured to give, without prolixity, ' a
statement of the relevant facts at present available, both in regard to the origin of the
more important Indian races and in regard to their progress before they came under
the unifying processes of modern administration.' To this undertaking is, of course,
added the completion of the story of the 'unprecedented series of events1 which have
led to the amalgamation of the various Indian tribes or nationalities under one rule.
In theory, at least, there is finality in history. Mr Keene traces the ancient Indian
races from their earliest known ancestors and the effect of the Aryan settlement. He
marks the rise of Buddhism and the great Muslim Conquest, the end of the Pathans,.
and the advent of the Empire of the Mughals. In rapid succession he reviews the
Hindu revival, the initial establishment of English influence, and the destruction of
French power. The author records the policy ,of Cornwallis, the wars of Wellesley,
and the Administration of Minto— the most important features in Indian history before
the establishment of British supremacy. It is a brilliant record of British prowess and
ability of governing inferior races that Mr Keene has to place before his readers. "We
have won and held India by the sword, and the policy of the men we send out year by
year to assist in its administration is largely based od that principle. The history of
the land, of our occupation, and our sojourning, so ably set forth in these pages, iB
inseparable from that one essential fact^"— Morning Post.
An Oriental Biographical Dictionary. Founded on materials collected
by the late Thomas William Beale. New Edition, revised and en
larged. Royal 8vo, 28s.
"A complete biographical dictionary for a country like India, which in its long
history has produced a profusion of great men, would be a vast undertaking. The
suggestion here made only indicates the line on which the d;ctionary, at some future
time, could be almost indefinitely extended, and rendered still more valuable as a work
of reference. Great care has evidently been taken to secure the accuracy of all that
has been included in the work, and that is of far more importance than mere bulk.
The dictionary can be commended as trustworthy, and reflects much credit on Mr
Keene. Several interesting lists of rulers are -given under the various founders of
dynasties."— India.
The Fall of the Moghul Empire. From the Death of Aurunpzeb to
the Overthrow of the Mahratta Power. A New Edition, with Correc
tions and Additions. With Map. Crown 8vo, 7s. 6d.
This work fills up a blank between the ending of Elphinstone's and the commence
ment of Thornton's Histories.
Fifty-Seven. Some Account of the Administration of Indian Districts
during the Revolt of the Bengal Army. Demy 8vo, 6s.
Any Bookseller at Home and Abroad.

44 Great Reductions in this Catalogue

G. B. MALLESON.
History of the French in India. From the Founding of Pondicherry
in 1674, to the Capture of that place in 1761. New and Revised"
Edition, with Maps. Demy 8vo, 16s.
" Colonel Malleson has produced a volume alike attractive to the general reader and
valuable for its new matter to the special student. It is not too much to say that now,
for the first time, we are furnished with a faithful narrative of that portion of European
enterprise in India which turns upon the contest waged by the East India Company
against French influence, and especially against Dupleix." — Edinburgh Review.
" It is pleasant to con'rast thework nowbefore us with the writer's first bold plunge
into historical composition, which splashed every one within his reach. He swims now
with a steady stroke, and there is no fear of his Binking. With a keener inBight into
human character, and a larger understanding of the sources of human action, he com
bines all the power of animated recital which invested his earlier narratives with
popularity." — Fortnightly Review.
"The author has had the advantage of consulting French Archives, and his volume
forma a useful supplement to Orme." — Athenaeum.
Final French Struggles in India and on the Indian Seas. New
Edition. Crown 8vo, 6s.
"How India escaped from the government of prefects and sub-prefects to
fall under that of Commissioners and Deputy-Commissioners ; why the Penal
Code of Lord Macaulay reigns supreme instead of a Code Napoleon ; why we
are not looking on helplessly from Mahe, Karikal, and Pondicherry, while the
French are ruling all over Madras, and spending millions of francs in attempt
ing to cultivate the slopes of the Neilgherries, may be learnt from this modest
volume. Colonel Malleson is always painstaking, and generally accurate ; his
style is transparent, and he never loses sight of the purpose with which he
commenced to write. " — Saturday Review.
"A book dealing with such a period of our histor3r in the East, besides
being interesting, contains many lessons. It is written in a style that will be
popular with general readers." — Athenceum.
History of Afghanistan, from the Earliest Period to the Outbreak of the
War of 1878. With map. Demy 8vo, 18s.
' ' The name of Colonel Malleson on the title- page of any historical work in
Telation to India or the neighbouring States, is a satisfactory guarantee both
for the accuracy of the facts and the brilliancy of the narrative. The author
may be complimented upon having written a History of Afghanistan which
is likely to become a work of standard authority." — Scotsman.
The Battlefields of Germany, from the Outbreak of the Thirty Years'
War to the Battle of Blenheim. With Maps and 1 Plan. Demy 8vo,
1 6s.
"Colonel Malleson has shown a grasp of his subject, and a power of
vivifying the confused passages of battle, in which it would be impossible to
name any living writer as. his equal. In imbuing these almost forgotten
battlefields with fresh interest and reality for the English reader, he is re
opening one of the most important chapters of European history, which no
previous English writer has made so interesting and instructive as he has
succeeded in doing in this volume." — Academy.
Ambushes and Surprises, being a Description of some of the most famous
instances of the Leading into Ambush and the Surprises of Armies,
from the time of Hannibal to the period of the Indian Mutiny. With a
portrait of General Lord Mark Ker, K.C.B. Demy 8vo, 18s.
For the Reduced Prices apply to

of Messrs W. H. Allen 6° Co.'s Publications. 45

MRS MANNING.
Ancient and Mediaeval India. Being the History, Religion, Laws,
Caste, Manners and Customs, Language, Literature, Poetry, Philo
sophy, Astronomy, Algebra, Medicine, Architecture, Manufactures,
Commerce, &c, of the Hindus, taken from their Writings. With
Illustrations. 2 vols. Demy 8vo, 30s.
/. MORRIS, Author of " The War in Korea,'' <5rY., thirteen years
resident in Tokio -under the Japanese Board of Works.
Advance Japan. A Nation Thoroughly in Earnest. With over 100
Illustrations by R. Isayama, and of Photographs lent by the. Japanese
Legation. ,8vo, 12s. 6d.
" Is really a remarkably complete account of the land, the people, and the institu
tions of Japan, with chapters that deal with matters of such living interest as its
growing industries and armaments, and the origin, incidents, and probable outcome
of the war with China. The volume is illustrated by a Japanese artist of repute; it
has a number of useful statistical appendices, and it is dedicated to His Majesty the
Mikado. " — Scotsman.
DEPUTY SURGEON-GENERAL C. T. PASKE, late of the Bengal
Army, and Edited by F. G. AFLALO.
Life and Travel in Lower Burmah, with frontispiece. Crown 8vo, 6s.
"In dealing with life in Burmah we are given a pleasant insight into
Eastern life ; and to those interested in . India and our other Eastern
possessions, the opinions Mr Paske offers and the suggestions he makes will
be delightful reading. Mr Paske has adopted a very light style of writing in
'JMyamma,' which lends an additional charm to the short historical-cum-
geographical sketch, and both the writer and the editor are to be commended
for the production of a really attractive book." — Public Opinion.
ALEXANDER ROGERS, Bombay Civil Service Retired.
The Land Revenue of Bombay. A History of its Administration,
Rise, and Progress. 2 vols, with 18 Maps. Demy 8vo, 30s.
"These two volumes are full of valuable information not only oq the Land Revenue,
but on the general condition and state of cultivation in all parts of the Bombay Pre
sidency. Each collectorate is described separately, and an excellent map of each is
given, showing the divisional headquarters, market-towns, trade centres, places of
pilgrimage, travellers, bungalows, municipalities, hospitals, schools, post ofiices,
telegraphs, railways, &c." — Mirror of British Museum.
" Mr Rogers has produced a continuous and an authoritative record of the land
changes and of the fortunes of the cultivating classes for a full half-century, together
with valuable data regarding the condition and burdens of those classes at various
periods before the present system of settlement was introduced. Mr Rogers now
presents a comprehensive view of the land administration of Bombay as a whole, the
history of its rise and progress, and a clear statement of the results which it has
attained. It is a narrative of which all patriotic Englishmen may feel proud. The old
burdens of native rule have been lightened, the old injustices mitigated, the old fiscal
cruelties and exactions abolished. Underlying the story of each district we see a per
ennial struggle going on between the increase of the population and the available
means of subsistence derived from the soil. That increase of the population is the
direct result of the peace of the country under British rule. But it tends to press
more and more severely on the possible limits of local cultivation, and it can only be
provided for by the extension of the modern appliances of production and distribu
tion. Mr Rogers very properly confines himself to his own subject. But there is
ample evidence that the extension of roads, railways, steam factories, and other
industrial enterprises, have played an important part in the solution of |the problem,
and that during recent years such enterprises have been powerfully aided by an
abundant currency."— The Times.
Any Bookseller at Home and Abroad.

46 Great Reductions in this Catalogue

G. P. SANDERSON, Officer in Charge of the Government
Elephant Keddaks.
Thirteen Years among- the Wild Beasts of India ; their Haunts
^ and Habits, from Personal Observation. With an account of the
-^ Modes of Capturing and Taming Wild Elephants. With 21 full-page
Illustrations, Reproduced for this Edition direct from the original
drawings, and 3 Maps. Fifth Edition. Fcap. 4to, 12s.
" We find it difficult to hasten through this interesting book; on almost every page
some incident or some happy descriptive passage tempts the reader to linger. The
author relates his exploits with ahility and with singular modesty. His adventures
with man-eaters will afford lively entertainment to the reader, and indeed there is no
portion of the volume which he is likely to wish shorter. The illustrations add to the
attractions of tbe bjok." — Pall Mall Gazette.
"This is the best and" most practical book on the wild game of Southern and
Eastern India that we have read, and displays an extensive acquaintance with natural
history. To the traveller proposing to visit India, whether he be a sportsman, a
naturalist, or au antiquarian, the book will be invaluable: full of incident and sparkling
with anecdote."— Bailey's Magazine.
ROBERT SEWELL, Madras Civil Service.
Analytical History of India. From the Earliest Times to the Aboli
tion of the East India Company in 1S5S. Post 8vo, 8s.
"Much labour has been expended on this work."— Athenceum.
EDWARD THORNTON.
A Gazetteer of the Territories under the Government of the Vice
roy of India. New Edition, Edited and Revised by Sir Roper
Lethbridge, C. I. E. , late Press Commissioner in India, and Arthur N.
Wollaston, H. M. Indian (Home) Civil Service, Translator of the
" Anwar-i-Suhaili." In one volume, Svo, 1,000 pages, 28s.
Hunter's "Imperial Gazetteer" has been prepared, which is not only much
more ample than its predecessor, hut is further to be greatly enlarged in the New
Edition now in course of production. In these circumstances it has been thought
incumbent, when issuing a New Edition of Thornton's " Gazetteer *' corrected up to
date, to modify in some measure the plan of the work by omitting much of the
detail and giving only such leading facts and figures as will suffice for ordinary pur
poses of reference, a plan which has the additional advantage of reducing the work to
one moderate-sized volume.
It is obviou3 that the value of the New Edition must depend in a large measure
upon the care and judgment which have been exercised in the preparation of the
letterpress. The task was, in the first instance, undertaken by Mr Roper Lethbridge,
whose literary attainments and acquaintance with India seemed to qualify him to a
marked degree for an undertaking demanding considerable knowledge and experience.
But in order further to render the work as complete and perfect as possible, the
publishers deemed it prudent to subject the pages to the scrutiny of a second Editor,
in the person of Mr Arthur Wollaston, whose lengthened service in the Indian Branch
of the Civil Service of this country, coupled with his wide acquaintance with Oriental
History, gives to his criticism an unusual degree of weight and importance. The
joint names which appear on the title-page will, it is hoped, serve as a guarantee to
the public that the l ¦ Gazetteer " is in the main accurate and trustworthy, free alike
from sins of omission and commission. It will ba found to contain the names of many
hundreds of places not included in any former edition, while the areas and popula
tions have been revised by the data given in the Census Report of 1881.
*** The chief objects in view in compiling this Gazetteer are: —
1st. To fix the relative position of the various cities, towns, and villages with as
much precision as possible, and to exhibit with the greatest practicable brevity all
that is known respecting them ; and
2ndly. To note the various countries, provinces, or territorial divisions, and to
describe the physical characteristics of each, together with their statistical, social,
and political circumstances.

For the Reduced Prices apply to

of Messrs W. H. Allen &> Co.'s Publications. 47

DR C. EDWARD SAC HA U.
Athar-Ul-Bakiya of Albiriini : The Chronology of Ancient Nations,
an English Version of the Arabic Text Translated and Edited with
Notes and Index. Imp. 8vo (480 pp. ), 42s.
A book of extraordinary erudition compiled in a.d. 1000.
A.J. WALL.
Indian Snake Poisons : Their Nature and Effects. Crown 8vo, 6s.
Contents. "
The Physiological Effects of the Poison of the Cobra (Naja Tripudians).— Tbe Physio
logical Effects of the Poison of Russell's Viper (Daboia Bussellii). — The Physiological
Effects produced by the Poison of the Bungarus Fasciatus and the Bungarus Coeruleus.
— Tbe Relative Power and Properties of the Poisons of Indian and other Venomous
SnakeB.— Tbe Nature of Snake Poisons. — Some practical considerations connected with
tbe subject of Snake-Poisoning, especially regarding Prevention and Treatment. — The
object that has been kept in view, has been to define as closely as possible tbe condi
tions on which the mortality from Snake-bite depends, both as regards tbe physio
logical nature of the poisoning process, and the relations between the reptiles and their
victims, so as to indicate the way in which we should best proceed with the hope of
diminishing the fearful mortality that exists.
.S. WELLS WILLIAMS, LL.D., Professor of the Chinese
Language and Literature at Yale College.
China— The Middle Kingdom. A Survey of the Geography, Govern
ment, Literature, Social Life, Arts, and History of the Chinese
Empire and its Inhabitants. Revised Edition, with 74 Illustrations
and a New Map of the Empire. 2 vols. Demy 8vo, 42s.
" Williams' ' Middle Kingdom ' remains unrivalled as the most full and accurate
account of China — its inhabitants, its arts, its science, its religion, its philosophy —
that has ever been given to the public. Its minuteness and thoroughness are beyond
all praise. " — North American Review.
"The standard work on the subject." — Globe.
PROFESSOR H. H. WILSON.
Glossary of Judicial and Revenue Terms, including words from
the Arabic, Teluga, Karnata, Tamil, Persian, Hindustani, Sanskrit,
Hindi, Bengali, Marathi, Guzarathi, Malayalam, and other languages.
4to, 30s.
" It was the distinguishing characteristic of our late director that he con
sidered nothing unworthy of his labours that was calculated to be useful, and
was never influenced in his undertakings by the mere desire of acquiring
distinction or increasing his fame. Many of his works exhibit powers of
illustration and close reasoning, which will place their author in a high
position among the literary men of the age. But it is as a man of deep
research and as a Sanskrit scholar and Orientalist, as the successor of Sir ~Wm.
Jones and H. T. Colebrooko, the worthy wearer of their mantles and inheritor
of the pre-eminence they enjoyed in this particular department of literature,
that his name will especially live among the eminent men of learning of his
age and country." — H. T. Peinsep.
"A work every page of which teems with information that no other
scholar ever has or could have placed before the public. . . . The work
must ever hold a foremost place not only in the history of India but in that of
the human race." — Edinburgh Review.
LIEUT. G. J. YOUNGHUSBAND, Queen's Own Corps of Guides.
Eighteen Hundred Miles in a Burmese Tat, through Burmah, Siam,
and the Eastern Shan States. Illustrated. Crown 8vo, 5s.

Any Bookseller at Home and Abroad.

YALE UNIVERSITY

a 39002 0031

65751b