YALE UNIVERSITY
LIBRARY

RAPHAEL

RAPHAEL

1bi6 Xife, Morfcs, anb Gimes

EUGENE MUNTZ

ILLUSTRATED WITH ONE HUNDRED AND EIGHT ENGRAVINGS

TRANSLATED BY

WALTER ARMSTRONG, BA. Oxon.

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oitbon: CHAPMAN AND HALL, Ld.
1896

Richard Clay & Sons, Limited,
London & Bunoay.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

PAGE
View of Urbino ... ... . ... ... ... ... ... 1
Raphael's Birthplace ... ... ... ... ... ... 3
Raphael and his Mother ... ... ... ... ... ... 6
The Massacre of the Innocents. (From the Drawing in the Venice
Academy.) ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 10
Portrait of Raphael. (Drawing in the University Galleries, Oxford.) ... 12
Portrait of Perugino, by himself ... ... ... ... ... 20
Portrait of a Girl. (Drawing in the Academy of Fine Arts, Venice.) ... 23
Portrait of a Girl. (Ditto.)... ... ... ... ... .... 24
Portrait of a Girl. (Ditto.)... ... ... ... ... ... 26
Portrait of Virgil. (Ditto.)... ... ... ... ... ... 27
Study for the Coronation of the Virgin. (Drawing in the Wicar Museum.) 33
Study for one of the Angels in the Coronation of the Virgin. (Drawing in
the Wicar Museum.) ... ... ... ... ... ... 34
Study for the Presentation in the Temple. (Drawing in Oxford University.) 37
Siena at the Time of the Renaissance ... ... ... ... 41
The Group of the Three Graces. (Cathedral Library, Siena.) ..* ... 44
Two of the Three Graces. (Drawing by Raphael. In the Venetian
Academy.) ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 45
The Vision of a Knight. (National Gallery, London.) ... ... ... 47

... 57
... 58
... 65
... 66
)  67

Study for the St. George in the Louvre Collection. (Uffizi Museum.) ... 52
Sketch of a Tight. (Academy of Fine Arts, Venice.)
Study for the Portrait of Maddalena Doni. (Louvre.)
Study for a Madonna. (Oxford University.) ...
The Mother and Child. (Drawing in the Louvre.)
Children at Play. (On the reverse side of drawing on p
Study for a Virgin. (Malcolm Collection.)
The Virgin of the Grand Duke. (Pitti Gallery.) ... ... ... 69
Study .for a Madonna. (Oxford University.) ... ... ... ' ... 70
The Little Orleans Madonna. (In the Dw d'Aumale's Collection.) ... 71
Study for the Madonna in the Meadow. (Albertina Collection, Vienna.) ... 72
The Madonna del Cardellino. (Uffizi Gallery.) ... ... ... 73
Study for the Madonna del Cardellino. (Albertina Collection) ... ... 74
Study for the Madonna del Cardellino. -(Oxford University.) ... ... 75
Study for the Belle Jardiniere. (Louvre.) ... ... ... ... 76

VI LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE
Study for the Madonna in the Bridgewater Gallery. (From the Drawing in
the Louvre.) ... ... ... ... •¦• ¦¦¦ ••• '"
The Holy Family of the Casa Canigiani. (In the Gallery at Munich.) ... 79
Study for the Holy Family of the Casa Canigiani. (In the Due d'Aumak's
Collection.) ... ... ... ... ••• ¦•• ••• 80
Sketch for a Holy Family. (Wicar Museum.) ... ... ¦¦• 81
The Madonna del Baldacchino. (Pitti Gallery.) ... ... ¦¦• 82
Study for the Esterhazy Madonna. (Uffizi.) ... ... ... ... 83
Study for the Portrait of a Young Girl. (Wicar Museum.) ... ... 85
The Holy Family of the Convent of St. Anthony at Perugia. (South
Kensington Museum.) ... ... ... ... ... ... 87
The Ansidei Madonna. (National Gallery.) ... ... ... ... 91
Portrait of Raphael. (Uffizi.) ... ... ... ... ... 92
Portrait of a Woman. (Uffizi.) .... ... ... ... ... 93
Study for the St. George at St. Petersburg. (Uffizi.) ... ... ... 96
Study for the Entombment. (Mr. Malcolm's Collection.) ... ... 98
The Entombment. (Borghese Gallery, Rome.) ... ... ... 99
View of the Vatican in the beginning of the Sixteenth Century. (After an
old Engraving.) ... ... ... ... ... ... 103
Portrait of Julius II. (Uffizi.) ... ... ... ... ... 104
Study for the Portrait of Bramante. (Louvre.) ... ... ... 113
First Study for the Dispute of the Sacrament. (Windsor Castle Collection.) 119
Study for the Dispute of the Sacrament. (Stcedel Museum, Frankfort-on-
the-Main.) ... ... ... ' ... ... ... ... 122
Study for the Calliope in the Parnassus ... ... ... ... 123
Study for the Dante in the Parnassus. (Albertina Collection.) ... ... 124
Prudence, Force, and Moderation ... ... ... ... ... 125
Study for a Scene from the Apocalypse. (Louvre.) ... ... ... 128
Study for the Papal Group in the Heliodorus. (Louvre.) ... ... 129
Study for the Madonna della Casa Alba ... ... ... ... 131
Study for the Madonna della Casa Alba ... ... ... ... 132
The Aldobrandini, or Garvagh, Madonna. (National Gallery.) ... ... 133
Study for the Virgin with the Fish. (Uffizi.)... ... ... ... 135
Lucretia. (Facsimile of the Engraving by Marc-Antonio.) ... ... 137
The Massacre of the Innocents. (Facsimile of the Engraving by Marc-
Antonio.) ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 138
Portrait of Leo X. (Pitti Palace.) ... ... ... ... ... 141
Study for a Group in the Battle of Ostia. (Albertina Collection.) ... 151
Study for one of the Figures in the Incendio del Borgo. (Uffizi.) ... 152
Adam and Eve ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 157
The Deluge ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 158
Abraham and the Three Angels ... ... ... ... ... 159
Jacob and Rachel ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 1(30
Joseph's Dream ... ... ... ... ... ... ... \qx
The Burning Bush ... ... ... ... ... .._ ig2
The Finding of Moses ... ... ... ... ... ... 153
Raphael's Pupils. (From a Stucco Relief in the Loggia.) ... ... 164
The Bath-room of Cardinal Bibbiena ... ... ... ... ... 1(35
Pilasters in the Loggie ... ... ... ... ... ... 167
Pilasters in the Loggie ... ... ... ... ... ... igg

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS vii

The Eternal Father blessing the World. (Louvre.)
Study for the Figure of Christ in the Calling of St. Peter
Arms of Leo X. (From the borders of the Tapestries.) ...
The Gonfalonier Ridolfi addressing the Florentines. (From the borders of
the Tapestries.)
Cardinal Giovanni de' Medici at the Battle of Ravenna. (From the border
of the Tapestries.)
Entry of Cardinal Giovanni de' Medici into Florence. (From the borders
of the Tapestries.)
Study for the Coronation of the Virgin. (Oxford University Gallery.)
Design for a Bronze Dish. (Dresden Gallery.)
Design for a Perfume Vase. (Facsimile of Marc-Antonio's Engraving.)
Study for the Phrygian Sibyl. (University Galleries, Oxford.) ...
The Sibyls in S. Maria della Pace ...
The Dome of the Chigi Chapel
The Planet Jupiter
Study for one of the Angels in the Chigi Chapel. (University Galleries.
Oxford.)
Love and. the Birds
Jupiter and Love. (Louvre.)
The Madonna della Sedia. (Pitti Palace.)
Holy Family of Francis I. (Louvre.)
Study for the Holy Family of Francis I. (Uffizi.)
Study for the Holy Family of Francis I. (Uffizi.)
The Vision of Ezekiel. (Pitti Palace.)
Study for "Horsemen in the Spasimo di Sicilia. (Albertina Collection.)
St. Cecilia. ' (Gallery of Bologna.)
St. Cecilia. (Facsimile of the Engraving by Marc- Antonio.)
Portrait of Joanna of Aragon. (Louvre.)
Portrait of Baldassare Castiglione. (Louvre) ...
The Piazza dell' Aquila. (Facsimile of an old Engraving.)
Pandolfini Palace at Florence
Statue of Jonah. (Church of Santa Maria del Popolo, Rome.) ...
The Judgment of Paris. (Facsimile of an Engraving by Marc-Antonio) .
Venus at the Bath. (Facsimile of an Engraving by Marc- Antonio.)
The Palace of Raphael and Bramante. (Facsimile of an old Engraving.) .

PAGE 1G9
174 175 176177177 178
179
181 183 184
185186187 188189
190 192
193
194195 196 198199
202
203 209
210
211 216217 225

VIEW OF UfiEINO.

CHAPTER I
The little duchy of Urbino, which had the honour of giving birth
at a few years' interval to the greatest of modern architects and the
greatest of modern painters, Bramante and Raphael, is situated in the
centre of the Apennines, at the point where Tuscany and Umbria
meet. Few Italian provinces have more varied scenery, for there
fertile and smiling hills suddenly start up into abrupt mountains;
and while in one place the horizon is shut in by fantastic peaks,
in another the eye can penetrate to the vast panorama of the
Adriatic. In the second half of the fifteenth century, the duchy of Urbino
was governed by the valiant and enlightened dynasty, of the
Montefeltros. Duke Frederick, who died in 1482, a year before the
birth of Raphael, had fascinated all Italy by his exploits and
splendour. He was a commander of the highest order, the worthy
pupil of Piccinino, and the almost invariably successful adversary of
Sigismund Malatesta, the " enemy of God and man." The Montefeltros
were not ashamed to be mercenaries, or condottieri, and the title of
Gonfalonier of the Church, conferred in later years upon the son of
B

2 RAPHAEL
Duke Frederick by Pope Julius II., was only a complimentary one.
But no one could have carried out his engagements with more
chivalrous fidelity and dignity than Frederick, whose court was
frequented by young Italian noblemen who wished to become familiar
with all that belongs to a soldier's calling, and to fit themselves for
the duties of statesmanship.
Frederick of Urbino's chief claim, however, to the regard of his
contemporaries and of posterity was the protection which he extended
to literature and art. His was the golden age of the Renaissance, and
the sincerity of his enthusiasm and the great sacrifices which he made
for it have won for Duke Frederick of Montefeltro a place beside its
two noblest champions, Pope Nicholas V. and King Alfonso V. of
Naples. M. Rio, in his work on Christian Art, puts the Urbinate
prince even above the Medicis, for it is difficult to believe that
the encouragement given to new ideas by those financiers, who were
so eager to place their country under the yoke of despotism, could
have been exempt from selfish calculations, while the Duke of Urbino
had no need for devices to secure the affections of his subjects,
whose cry of "God preserve our good Duke " came from the bottom
of their hearts.
Vespasiano de' Bisticci, the biographer of Frederick, relates several
facts which prove the fondness of the duke for literature, science and
art. He spent thirty thousand gold ducats upon the formation of a
library ; but it is worthy of note that he shared the prejudices of
many of his contemporaries with regard to printed works, which were
just beginning to circulate in Italy, and nothing would have induced
him to admit one of them into it.
Frederick's son, Guidobaldo, born in 1472, carried on the traditions
of his father. Brought up by the learned Martinengo, he displayed
from his earliest days a fondness for study, and both literature and art
found in him a hearty patron. His courage and good sense endeared
him to his subjects, while his wife, Elisabetta Gonzaga, daughter
of the Marchese di Mantua, helped, by her beauty and grace, to
consolidate his hold upon their affections. The inhabitants of
Urbino showed how attached they were to him when they rose,
in 1503, against the tyranny of Caesar Borgia and brought Guido
baldo back.
The patient researches of a scholar of Urbino, Father Louis
Pungileoni, have procured for us a very complete acquaintance with
the family history of Baphael. His family belonged to a large village
called Colbordolo, some few miles from the capital, and a person
named Santi is known to have lived there in the fourteenth century

PERUZZOLO

One of his descendants, the great-grandfather of Raphael, Pietro or
Peruzzolo, was a merchant at Colbordolo a century later, and after the

EAPHAEI/S BIBTHPLACE.

pillage of his house and lands by Sigismund Malatesta, in 1446, the
fear of a second attack induced him to go and live in Urbino in
1450. He died there seven years later, and his son carried on
his business, also opening a shop for the sale of grocery, hardware, and

4 RAPHAEL
so forth. His trade seems to have prospered, for he had saved
enough by 1463 to buy for 200 ducats, a house, or rather two houses
situated close together, in one of those steep streets of which there are
so many at Urbino, the Contrada del Monte.1 This modest dwelling
was destined to , become famous, for it was here that Raphael
was born ; and in the seventeenth century, an architect of Urbino,
Muzio Oddi, having purchased one of the houses, put up a tablet
with the following Latin inscription, in which the humble aspect of
the house is compared with the imperishable memories connected
with it : NVNQVAM MORITVRVS
EXIGVIS HISCE IN ^EDIBVS
EXIMIVS ILLE PIGTOR
RAPHAEL
NATVS EST
OCT. ID. APR. AN.
MCDXXCIII
VENERARE IGITVR HOSPES
NOMEN ET GENIVM LOCI
NE MIRERE
LVDIT IN HVMANIS DIVINA POTENTIA REBVS.
ET SjEPE IN PARVIS CLAVDERE MAGNA SOLET.
The birthplace of Raphael now belongs to the Academy of Urbino,
which purchased it, in 1873, with the money resulting from a subscrip
tion started by the late Count Pompeo Gherardi, to which Mr. Morris
Moore contributed 200 guineas.2
In a letter addressed to Duke Guidobaldo, Giovanni Santi, the
son of Santi and the father of Raphael, dwells in some detail upon
the difficulties of his early life, beginning with the destruction of his
home by Sigismund Malatesta, and going on to speak of the hard
work he had to earn a livelihood. He ultimately selected the noblest
of careers, that of an artist, and he becomes enthusiastic when he
speaks of the marvellous and very famous art of painting (la miraMle,
la clarissima arte de pictura). Notwithstanding the anxieties arising
from the maintenance of his family, he did not regret his decision
though he often found very heavy a burden which, to use his own
words, would have appalled Atlas himself.
1 The street is now called Contrada di Raffaello.
2 The total cost was 8001 Ingres, who had the utmost veneration for all that
related to his favourite master, made a drawing of Raphael's house which was
published in the Gazette des Beaux-Arts, 1861, vol. ii. p. 45.

GIOVANNI SANTI 5
At what date Giovanni Santi began to work on his own account
is uncertain, but we know that by the year 1469 he had his studio
at Urbino, and in that year he was entrusted with the duty of
receiving as a guest Piero della Francesca, one of the most famous
representatives of the Florentine School, who had been summoned
by the Brotherhood of the Corpus Domini to execute an altarpiece.
Thinking that he would be more comfortable in the house of a fellow
artist than at an inn, they asked Santi to lodge him, and though the
latter's pride must have suffered at finding a stranger selected to
paint in the city in preference to himself, he received the Florentine
with a good grace, and afterwards praised his talents in his Rhymed
Chronicle of Urbino.
Giovanni Santi was, in all likelihood, past his first youth when
he married Magia Ciarla, the daughter of a well-to-do tradesman of
Urbino, who brought him a dowry of 150 florins, which is equivalent
to 150Z. or 200^. of our money.
From this marriage was born on March 28, 1483, the boy who
was destined to shed such lustre on the name of Santi. Two other
children, a boy and a girl, died in infancy.
The first picture which Giovanni Santi painted after the birth of
his son was an altarpiece for the Church of Gradara, and in this work,
which was completed on April 10, 1484, when Raphael was only a
year old, the face of Jesus, who is represented as sitting on his
mother's knee, is very beautiful. His face, figure and attitude, all
remind us of the "putti" which are to be found in so many of
Raphael's compositions, and which are the most perfect expression
of infancy. Another painting, a fresco still preserved in the house
of the Santis, represents a young woman sitting in front of a desk
and holding on her knees a child asleep with his head resting on
his left arm (see p. 6). Much injured as this picture is, it still
retains traces of its primitive beauty, and the marked individuality
of the features, coupled with the absence of a halo, justifies the belief
that this is a picture not of the Virgin and Child but of the painter's
wife and son.1
In 1485 Giovanni Santi lost, at a few weeks' interval, his father
and one of his sons, probably older than Raphael ; and the archives of
Urbino give us some idea as to the pecuniary position of the family
at this period. The father of Giovanni left his two daughters a
hundred ducats each, to his son Bartolommeo, who was a priest,
seventy ducats, and the remainder of his fortune, including his house,
1 This opinion is held by the most competent judges, such, for instance, as
Messrs. Crowe and Cavalcaselle.

6 RAPHAEL
to Giovanni himself. His widow, Elisabetta, continued to live with
her son Giovanni, who also found room for his sister Santa when
she lost her husband, who was a tailor by trade. Santa had a little
money of her own, and as Giovanni earned a certain amount, their
position was relatively prosperous. But fresh trouble was in store
for him, as his mother died on October 3, 1491, her death being
followed only four days later by that of his beloved wife, while on

RAPHAEL AND HIS MOTHER.

the 25th of the same month his infant daughter also died. Raphael
at that time was only eight years old.
Giovanni found a solitary life unendurable, and a few months
later, on May 25, 1492, he contracted a new marriage, his second
wife, Bernardina Parte, daughter of a goldsmith at Urbino, bringing
him a dowry of 200 florins. From the disputes which afterwards
occurred between Bernardina and her husband's family it is to be
inferred that she was not of so gentle a disposition as Magia, and
that she was scarcely a mother to Raphael. The union, however
was not of long duration, for Giovanni died two years after his second
marriage, on August 1, 1494, In his will, dictated two days before

FAMILY EVENTS 7
his death, he appointed his brother Bartolommeo guardian of Raphael
and of the child of which his wife was expecting to be delivered,
providing that she should have the use of the, house as long as she
remained a widow. The total amount of his property was 860
florins. Some documents recently discovered by the Marchese Campori, of
Modena, throw fresh light upon the history of Raphael's father during
the last years of his life, showing that he was in communication with
the princely family,1 and that the Duchess Elisabetta had employed
him to paint her portrait and that of some one attached to the court
of the Gonzagas, probably Bishop Louis of Mantua. His death
prevented him from completing these two works, and the letter by
which the Duchess announced the sad news to her sister-in-law, the
Marchesa di Mantua (August 19, 1494), proves that he was no
stranger to her, for she writes, "Giovanni de' Santi, painter, suc
cumbed about three weeks ago; he died in full possession of his
senses, and at peace with all men. May God have mercy on his
soul!" A letter written seven weeks later (October 13, 1494) gives
further details. This letter is written by the Duchess to her brother,
the Marchese di Mantua, and she says : " In reply to the despatch
which Your Excellency sent me, I write to inform you that when
Giovanni Santi was with you he was too ill to complete the portrait,
and the same reason prevented him from going on with mine. If
Your Excellency will send me a plate like the others, I will have
my portrait painted upon it by a skilful artist whom I am expecting
here, and send it to you as soon as it is finished. ... I have ordered
the companion of the said Giovanni to make search for it diligently,
but he tells me that he can find nothing."
When, ten years later, the sister-in-law of Duchess Elisabetta,
Jeanne di Montefeltro, spoke in a letter of introduction which she
gave Raphael for the Gonfalonier Pietro Soderini, of Florence, of
1 If the conjecture of the Inventaire des antographes et des documents historiques
composant la collection de M. Benjamin Fillon, series ix. et x. (Paris, 1879, p.
125) is correct, Giovanni Santi must have been attached in 1483 to the household
of Duke Guidobaldo. As a matter of fact, the physician of - the duke, Antonio
Braccaleone, in a letter from Urbino, dated May 10, 1483, speaks of a portrait
painted by the duke's painter, "who is a disciple of the Muses," and we know
that Giovanni cultivated poetry as well as painting, for he is the author of some
Chronicles in Rhyme. It was probably to him, therefore, that Braccaleone
alluded. We may mention by the way, that the father of Raphael had already
drawn a portrait of Duke Frederick, and this portrait, which is in silverpoint
heightened with white, is in the Christ-Church Collection at Oxford. (Robinson,
A critical account of the drawings by Michael Angela and Raphael in the University
Galleries, Oxford. Oxford, 1870, p. 314.)

RAPHAEL

her regard for his father, it was not a mere formality, but the
expression of her real sentiments. This, as will be seen hereafter,
explains much that was hitherto obscure in Raphael's history.
The town of Urbino and the neighbouring cities, as well as
several public galleries, notably the Lateran at Rome, the Brera at
Milan, the National Gallery, London, and the Berlin Gallery, still
contain pictures by Giovanni Santi. Most of them are Annunciations,
Madonnas, Holy Families, or likenesses of apostles or saints. There
are a few portraits, too, but the originals are not as a rule known.
Santi's art moved in a rather narrow groove, but the spirit of his
work and the qualities which he displayed are worthy of respect.
He showed, too, that he was familiar with the methods of Paolo
Uccello, who was painting at Urbino in 1468; of Piero della
Francesca, Andrea Mantegna, Melozzo da Forli, and Perugino. The
influence of the two latter is to be traced in nearly all his pictures.
His works are full of body and well balanced ; what they are mainly
deficient in is warmth of tone. There is grace, and in some cases
no little energy, in his faces, and his conceptions have an air of
sincerity, while here and there may be discerned a touch which
reminds one of his son — a part of a head or an attitude which the
latter may have unconsciously reproduced years afterwards.
This sketch of the character and talents of Giovanni Santi would
be incomplete if we did not say something about the poet as well
as the painter. The Rhymed Chronicle, which is now in the Vatican
Library, has been published in part by Passavant, and provides us
with evidence as to his erudition and eclecticism.
At the time of his father's death, Raphael was not twelve years
old. There is a certain affinity between the works of father and son.
The Annunciation in the Brera Museum, that at Cagli, the St. Jerome
in the Lateran Museum, to mention only well-known works of
Giovanni Santi, are remarkable for a purity and harmony of line
which dimly foreshadow the immortal painter of the Vatican. It is
probable, moreover, that Raphael received lessons from his father,
as at that time painters went through an apprenticeship of fifteen
years. Mantegna was only seventeen years old when he painted the
Virgin in the Church of St. Sophia at Padua ; Michael Angelo, who
was born in 1475, and entered the studio of Ghirlandajo in 1488,
sculptured, when scarcely fifteen, the face of the faun which struck
the attention of Lorenzo the Magnificent. Fra Bartolommeo, born
a year or two earlier, was taken into Cosimo Rosselli's studio in
1484, and was only fifteen when he set up on his own account.
Perugino, too, entered on his apprenticeship, at the age of nine and

EDUCATION 9
Andrea del Sarto was but seven when he was apprenticed to a
goldsmith. Allowing three or four years for the regular apprentice
ship, and as much for the journeyman stage, by sixteen a young man
might thus have completed his studies. Supposing Raphael to have
been no exception to this rule, he may very well have begun to draw
and have received lessons from his father before the latter 's death.
But it is impossible to accept Vasari's statement that the son assisted
the father in the execution of his later works, for he was only eleven
years old when his father died, and rapid as the development of his
talent may have been, that would have been simply miraculous.
It is probable that the remarkable drawing in the Academy at
Venice, the Massacre of the Innocents, was executed by Raphael under
his father's superintendence. Amid much that is childlike in its
inexperience, we can detect a force of inspiration and purity of taste
which shows how great was Raphael's promise from his earliest years,
and how much he had benefited by his father's teaching.
What we have said as to the tastes of Giovanni Santi renders it
certain that his son received, in addition to careful artistic teaching,
a sound literary ^education. The Italian artists of the fifteenth
century were, as a rule, less ignorant than is generally supposed, and
it would be difficult to name one who could not read or write.
Bramante himself, whose education had been much neglected, and
who was called "illiterate" by his contemporaries, wrote excellent
sonnets, and this will show the extent of knowledge possessed by
those who were able to complete their studies. In looking over the
collection of autographs of the Italian artists of the Middle Ages and
the Renaissance published by Messrs. Milanesi and Pini, we see that
the writing is in some instances clumsy, and the spelling incorrect ;
but there is a vast difference between awkwardness and complete
ignorance. Compared with that of his contemporaries Raphael's
writing is remarkable for its elegance and correctness. We can see
that he was accustomed to the pen. He also learnt the rudiments of
Latin. It will be objected, perhaps, that in after years he got his
friend Fabio Calvo of Ravenna to translate Vitruvius for him ; but
there is a great difference between having a general knowledge of a
language and being well up in the technical terms which abound in
the Treatise on Architecture.
By his father's death, Raphael not only lost an instructor and
guide, but was compelled to listen to continual disputes about money.
Dom Bartolommeo, his uncle and guardian, and his step-mother, to
whom had been born a daughter called Elisabetta, so frequently
quarrelled about money that the law had to intervene, and without

10 RAPHAEL
laying the whole blame upon the widow of Giovanni Santi, it is to
be noted that Raphael, when once he had left them, did not keep up
any very intimate communication with her or her daughter, and
never alludes to them in his letters. Fortunately he was much liked
by his mother's family, and his uncle Simone Ciarla showed him
kindness, for which he never failed to express his gratitude. When
in his letters he speaks of his uncle as being as dear as a father
("carissimo in loco di padre") it Avas more than one of those formal

THE MASSACRE OF THE INNOCENTS.
(From the Drawing in the Venice Academy.)
expressions, such as were used at that time, and his aunt Santa, his
father's sister, who continued to reside in the house after his father's
death, also took much interest in his welfare. Raphael in after years
gave one of his dearest friends, the Florentine Taddeo Taddei, who
proposed to pay a visit to Urbino, a letter of recommendation to her,
and it is pleasant to find that the great painter never forgot his
humble relatives.

EDUCATION 1 1
If the money quarrels which followed his father's death left a
painful impression upon his early youth, he was at all events exempt
from privation. It is true that his inheritance was not large enough
to admit of his studying art as a mere amateur, and that he had to
fight his way to independence and wealth. But it was something to
be able to pursue his studies without being compelled to think of the
morrow, as was the case with his future teacher, Perugino, who,
according to Vasari, was so poor that for many months he had no bed
but a wooden chest.
It was believed until quite recently that Raphael entered the
studio of Perugino in 1495, but this date is incorrect, for Perugino,
between 1493 and 1499, resided chiefly at Florence, and not at
Perugia. Though he may have come to the latter town now and
again, he did not stay long, and only took up his residence there
towards the end of 1499, when he began the frescoes of the famous
Sala di Camhio. On the other hand, we know that Raphael was
recorded in the registers of Urbino, as being present in his native
town on June 5, 1499, and that in the following year the registrar
wrote the word " absent " against his name. His admission into the
studio of Perugino must, therefore, have been four or five years later
than was generally supposed, that is to say, when he was about
sixteen years old. But if upon this point preconceived views are
erroneous, there is ample confirmation of what has previously been
said with regard to his dibut at Perugia, in which town he received
his first lessons and acquired the methods of the Umbrian School.
How the interval between the death of Giovanni Santi and
Raphael's departure for Perugia was passed we do not know, but
perhaps — though it is only a guess — he received lessons from Timoteo
Viti, who returned to Urbino in 1495, after having studied for some
time at Bologna in the studio of Francia, and this is the more likely
as they were very intimate friends.
When Raphael rose to greatness he did not forget the friend of
his youth, but sent for him to Rome to assist in the painting of the
Sibyls in the Pace. After Viti's return to Urbino, he was more than
once asked by Raphael to pay him a second visit, as we learn from
Vasari, who saw the letters which Raphael wrote to him. It may be
added that Viti, who imitated Raphael's style very well, owned a fine
collection of drawings given him by the latter, and the finest Raphaels
in the Crozat collection were derived from the accumulations which
were kept intact until 1714 by Viti's descendants.
It has recently been argued by the senators Morelli and Min-
ghetti, among others, that many pictures and drawings in which little

12 RAPHAEL
trace of Peruginesque influence is to be found, were executed by

- -  _ : ¦ ' '..T:

PORTRAIT OV RAPHAEL.
(Drawing in the University Galleries, Oxford.)
Raphael under the guidance of Viti, and before he had entered
Perugino's studio. Among these may be named the Two Archers, at

PERUGIA 13

Lille (which is a copy after Signorelli); the Vision of a Knight, in the
National Gallery ; the Angels at the Tomb of Christ, at Oxford ; and
a small Madonna in the same collection (Braun, No. 10). But this
theory has been victoriously combated by Springer, who shows that
it is the Timoteo of 1504 that is reflected in the Vision of a Knight.

CHAPTER II

If in some respects Raphael's new residence was less desirable than
Urbino, he was much better off as regards the beauty of the surround
ing scenery and the varied nature of the impressions to be derived
from it. Here, too, he was able to inhale the bracing mountain air
and to gaze upon sites full of poetic beauty. Situated in the heart of
Umbria and overlooking the plain, Perugia, the ancient Augusta
Perusia, forms as it were the centre of an immense amphitheatre. A
good road winds up to the summit of the eminence upon which the
town is built, and the view, at an elevation of 1600 feet above the
level of the sea, is a very fine one. There are few grander panoramas
in all Italy, than that which is to be seen at a short distance from the
plantation of thick evergreen-oaks on the Piazza di San-Pietro outside
the walls. The view extends without a break on three sides, beino-
only limited in the direction of the town. In the distance is to be
seen a sea of undulating mountains, rising one above the other until
they form a vast rampart upon the horizon. When the sun lights up
these gigantic masses, the eye can detect the smallest undulations of
ground and almost count the infrequent spots of verdure upon the
rocky soil. But towards evening the landscape is veiled by those
delicate mists which lend so much charm to Perugino's pictures —
especially to the frescoes of the Cambio — and to the earlier produc
tions of Raphael. At the feet of the spectator extend hills, covered
with fig-trees, olive-trees, and vines climbing around the stems of
the elms, and white and dusty roads are to be seen winding amidst
dark-green and iron-grey foliage.
Looking towards Perugia, the view, though different, is not less
picturesque. Houses, palaces, and churches, rise one above the other
upon the incline, the highest standing against a background of
mountains. In the fifteenth century, as now, the traffic was almost entirely
confined to the square in front of the municipal palace, the Corso.
The principal buildings are all crowded into a very small compass.

14 RAPHAEL
First there is the Cambio, the hall of the ancient corporation of
money-changers, made famous by the frescoes of Perugino. By the
side of this edifice, modest in its proportions, rises the Signorial
Palace, with its battlements, its long rows of gothic windows divided
in half by mullions of red granite and surmounted by white marble
copings. In spite of its irregular facade, few Italian buildings are
more imposing in appearance ; and among the notable features of the
interior is the grand staircase with its two lions in white marble at
the foot, emblematic guardians of the public liberties, and at the
head its griffin and she-wolf in bronze to perpetuate the memory of
the victory won by Perugia over her ancient rival Siena. Recollec
tions of victory in the field are also evoked by the Loggia of the
merchants, which was built in 1423 by one of Perugia's bravest sons,
the famous condottiere, Braccio Fortebraccio. Then there is the
beautiful fountain carved in 1277 by Giovanni Pisano, while at the
cathedral, which forms the western boundary of the square, may still
be seen the balcony from which St. Bernardino of Siena harangued
the vast crowds which flocked in from all parts of Umbria, and who,
finding the interior of the building too small, stood outside, as in the
time of the Crusades, to listen to the popular preacher. These
memories were still fresh when Raphael came to live at Perugia, and
they must have taken root in his mind.
Considering the rough manners of the aristocracy and the attach
ment of the middle classes to the customs and beliefs of another ao-e,
the intellectual resources of Perugia must have appeared to the
young painter very inferior to those of Urbino, where poetry, science
and art were held in such high esteem. It would be a mistake, how
ever, to regard the old Umbrian city as being altogether outside the
sphere of the ideas which were then stirring the whole of Italy. Its
university had a well-deserved reputation, and in the fifteenth century
included amongst its professors one Pope, Sixtus IV, and two others,
Pius III. and Julius II., among its students.
From an artistic point of view the difference between Urbino and
Perugia was equally great, for while the former was ruled by high-
minded princes who exercised an irresistible influence over the whole
population, the latter was inhabited by turbulent and bloodthirsty
nobles, and by a middle-class population at once laborious and austere.
The Montefeltros, moreover, were very tolerant in their views on art
having employed in turn painters of such different schools as Paolo
Uccello, Piero della Francesca, Justus of Ghent, Giovanni Santi Luca
Signorelh and Timoteo Viti, while at Perugia there was something
like a close body of painters all belonging to one school. In spite o°f

THE UMBRIAN SCHOOL 15
his long residence at Florence and Rome, Pietro Perugino was
deeply attached to the Umbrian school, into which, however, he
introduced several fresh elements. The sciences of colouring and per
spective were by him carried to a higher pitch of perfection than they
had ever been before.
There was something very exclusive and absorbing about Umbrian
art, for excursions into the secular world, and above all, into the
ancient classics, were forbidden to its adepts by religious scruples, as
well as by want of knowledge. Examples of portraiture and purely
historical compositions seem also to have been excluded from it.
On the other hand, a painter could be certain that his work would,
if executed in good faith, be favourably received in a society so pro
foundly attached to its religious creed. He knew that the least
valuable of his Madonnas, and of his pictures representing Christ on
the Cross, would touch many a heart, and that the poorest villages
and monasteries would find money for one of these saintly symbols.
Humble peasants found it an ample reward for a long life of labour
and privation, to present their village church with some picture
which would stimulate piety, and a striking instance of this is afforded
by the following anecdote : — In 1507, a humble shoemaker of Perugia
gave Perugino the order to paint a picture of the Madonna standing
between St. Francis and St. Jerome, and the forty-seven ducats which
the painter asked were paid without hesitation. The wars and dis
turbances which marked the close of the fifteenth century, so far from
arresting the progress of art, favoured its development by exciting
the religious feeling of the people. Again and again Perugino came
from Florence to execute some new masterpiece for his native city.
It is to this exuberance of patriotism and piety that we owe what
is perhaps the most celebrated of Perugino's works. The Cambio
frescoes occupy in his career the place the Vatican Stanze do in that
of Raphael. The corporation of money-changers at Perugia (If arte
del Cambio) had long been anxious to decorate their council-room
with exceptional splendour. In 1496 they entrusted the decoration
of the roof and the upper part of the wall to Peiugino, who promised
to finish the work by the year 1500. By the end of 1499 it was all
but completed, and it was at this time, probably, that Raphael entered
the studio of Perugino.
Pietro Vannucci, surnamed Perugino, though he was born at
Citta della Pieve, was then at the zenith of his fame and talent. He
had a host of pupils and followers, while princes and free cities
rivalled each other in their efforts to secure him. The Duke of
Milan, the Venetian Republic, and the authorities of Orvieto, simul-

16 RAPHAEL
taneously tried in vain to obtain a monopoly of his services. When
some ten years before Giovanni Santi in his Rhymed Chronicles spoke
so warmly of the Umbrian painter he was only anticipating the popu
lar verdict of a later day, and if he had lived there can be no doubt
that he would have selected Perugino as the master for his son, who
must often have thought of his lines :
Due giovin par d'etate e par d'onori,
Leonardo da Vinci e'l Perusino.
Pier della Pieve ch'e un divin pittore.
The conditions of apprenticeship at the time when Raphael
entered the studio of Perugino are well known to us. Parents of
apprentices incurred heavy obligations. Thus when the father of
Sodoma, in 1490, apprenticed his son, then ten years old, to a painter
of no great celebrity, he had to pay a sum of fifty ducats for the term
of seven years. The latter, for his part, undertook to lodge, board,
and instruct his pupil ; and, what is characteristic of the times, to find
him clothes. The conditions of the journeymen painters were of
course much more favourable for beginners, and when Raphael's
compatriot, Timoteo Viti, placed himself under the famous Bologna
painter and goldsmith, Francesco Francia, it was agreed that he
should work the first year for nothing, that during the second he
should receive sixteen florins a quarter, and that afterwards he should
work by the piece, with the power of leaving if he pleased. We
know, too, that Francia had two separate studios, one for the °-0ld-
smith apprentices and the other for the painters. This is how he
writes of the departure of Timoteo Viti : " 1495, 4th April. Depart
ure of my dear Timoteo. May God pour upon him all manner of
good things."
Timoteo Viti was about twenty years of age when he entered
Francia's studio, and Raphael about seventeen when he was taken in
hand by Perugino ; both knew the rudiments of art, and what they
wanted from their teachers was rather advice and direction than
elementary instruction. Bearing in mind their age, they must have
been companions (garzoni) rather than pupils (discepoli). |
Perugino's house is still in existence, and is an object of interest,
to travellers. It is in the Via Deliziosa, No. 18— near the church of
San Antonio. Although it has been much altered, one can still form
a fair idea of its original plan. The main building is at the foot of
a sunny courtyard, flanked on each side by old houses. A low flight
of stone steps leads to the entrance-door, above which is placed a head
in marble. Inside the door is a sort of hall, the arcades of which

PERUGINO 17
formerly opened on to the courtyard, and even now when the space
between the columns has been walled up, one can distinguish the
columns themselves. Leading off from the hall are several small
rooms, all vaulted and decorated with sculptured medallions,
representing foliage and lions' heads from the spring of the arch.
The principal room, now divided into two, was probably used as a
studio, and next to it are several smaller rooms now converted into
bedrooms. The first storey is arranged in the same way as the ground
floor, and here too the open arcades looking on the courtyard have
been walled up. The back windows look out upon a narrow lane.
Small as it is, the house has something original and striking about it,
and one can well fancy one's self in the residence of an artist of the
fifteenth century.
Perugino and his wife were in comfortable circumstances, for the
latter's father had given his daughter a dowry of 500 gold ducats,
while Perugino owned houses and land at Florence, Perugia, and Citta
della Pieve. He had neither the culture nor the vast intelligence of
Bramante, Leonardo da Vinci, or Michael Angelo. His letters show
that he knew little of orthography, and a report which he prepared at
Florence in 1492, after making a valuation, is a tissue of blunders ;
even from an artistic point of view his abilities did not take a wide
sweep. He was a painter and nothing more, whereas most of his
contemporaries were more or less proficient as goldsmiths, architects,
and sculptors. He had, however, travelled a great deal and been in
the society of the most remarkable men of the day, so that he was
a pleasant companion for young men such as those he had around him.
Vasari states that Raphael from the first became a favourite with
his master, while the pupil on his part displayed an almost filial
affection for Perugino.
The artists' colony at Perugia consisted at that time of some
fifteen painters, more or less rivals or imitators of Perugino, of several
goldsmiths and architects, and of a few sculptors and carvers. Their
number was small compared with the total of the population, at that
time not far short of 40,000. Some of them did work of a very
unpretentious kind. Their predecessors, however, had formed them
selves into corporations, one of which, the corporation of painters,
dated from 1366, and another, the goldsmiths' company, from 1296.
The miniature painters' corporation was also of great antiquity.
Among the most eminent painters must he mentioned
Fiorenzo di Lorenzo and Pinturicchio, both founders of a school.
Then came Andrea Luigi, or di Assisi, sumamed " L'Ingegno," an
artist famous in his time ; Berto di Giovanni, who was entrusted in
c

18 RAPHAEL
1516 with the execution of the decorations intended for the " Corona
tion of the Virgin," which Raphael was to paint for the nuns of
Monteluce; Bartolommeo Caporali and his son, Giovanni Battista,
the translator of Vitruvius; Eusebio di San Georgio, whose St.
Sebastian was long believed to be the work of Raphael ; Mariano di ser
Eusterio ; Ludovico Angeli ; Assalone di Ottaviano ; Lattanzio di
Giovanni ; and Giannicola Manni, the painter of the frescoes in the
chapel next to the " Sala del Cambio." 1
When Raphael came to Perugia Perugino's wife, the beautiful
Clara Fancelli, daughter of the Marchese di Mantua's famous archi
tect, was still alive. Her portrait may, in the opinion of competent
judges, be seen in the splendid Madonna of Pavia, one of the
gems of the National Gallery. About this time Raphael probably
also met the goldsmith Cesarino di Francesco Rossetti, of Perugia,
for whom he afterwards made, while at Rome, drawings for some
dishes intended for Agostino Chigi. In a letter written to Domenico
Alfani in 1508, the painter speaks of him in very friendly terms.
To the painters, whom we know to have been at Perugia while
Raphael was studying there, that is to say, between 1499 and 1502,
must be added the pupils attracted to the place by the fame of
Perugino and those whose acquaintance Raphael afterwards made
either at Perugia or in its suburbs ; such, for instance, as Giovanni di
Pietro, surnamed Lo Spagna, whose works betoken the influence
which Perugino and his fellow pupil had exercised, and who after
wards came to Rome and swelled the phalanx of Raphael's assistants;
Girolamo Genga da Urbino, who was also with Raphael at Rome, and
Domenico di Paris Alfani.
Raphael became especially intimate with Pinturicchio, whose
presence at Perugia during the year 1501 is attested by authentic
documents. He afterwards followed him to Siena. Pinturicchio,
though inferior to Perugino as regards colour and expression, had
more imaginative power, and his influence contributed in no small
degree to open to Raphael wider horizons than those unfolded to
him by Perugino. But if Raphael was indebted to him for good
advice, he repaid the debt with interest, as we shall see.
Domenico Alfani, of Perugia, had a still warmer admiration for
the young artist. After Raphael's departure, Domenico acted as
correspondent for him and represented his interests in Umbria,
deeming himself amply rewarded when he received a sketch or
drawing in return.
i We have made out this list by means of the valuable documents of which an
analysis is given in the Lettere pittoriche Perugim; by Mariotti.

THE CAMBIO FRESCOES 19
The most competent judges, notably Messrs. Crowe and Cavalcaselle,
admit that Raphael took part in the execution of the Cambio frescoes.
The council-room of the Cambio is not above forty feet long by
twenty wide, and it opens directly upon the street, so that there is
no loss of time in entering or leaving — an important consideration
for the business men who had the Cambio built. The decoration is
simple and elegant, and - its principal feature is the harmonious
contrast between the paintings of the upper part and the brown
inlaid wood- work of the lower part of the walls. This latter is one
of the best bits of Renaissance work, and the painter could not
possibly have had a better framework for bringing out his colour.
The subjects of the frescoes are as follows : on the roof, per
sonifications of the sun, moon, and planets; on the left side, the
most illustrious representatives of Justice, Prudence, Moderation, and
Courage ; on the right, God the Father, the Prophets, and the
Sibyls; on the lower end, the Nativity and the Transfiguration;
while near the entrance was to be depicted the Cato, father of
lawgivers. Francesco Maturanzio, professor of rhetoric at the University of
Perugia, selected the types. As types of Temperance he gave to
the artist, P. Scipio, Pericles, and Cincinnatus ; of Courage, L. Licinius,
Leonidas, and Horatius Codes ; of Justice, Camillus, Pittacus, and
Trajan ; and of Prudence, Fabius Maximus and Numa Pompilius.
The pictures are at once strong and delicate in colour, characteristic
in design and ill-arranged ; instead of forming an animated and living
whole, the various personages are simply placed side by side, standing
badly and not knowing what to do with their hands.
There is little to be said about the two pictures placed at the
lower end of the room, the Nativity and the Transfiguration. Perugino
had often treated the Nativity, and the only difference he made
at the Cambio was to substitute two shepherds for the two angels
placed between the Virgin and St. Joseph, and to add three seraphim.
When once Perugino had lighted upon what he deemed satisfactory
types and arrangements he adhered to them, and repeated them over
and over again, like most of the artists of the Middle Ages. Messrs.
Crowe and Cavalcaselle show us how, whenever he had to treat one
of the traditional subjects, he selected from his portfolio some of the
studies made for previous compositions and copied them without
scruple. His fellow citizens in Umbria did not grumble, but the
people of Florence were more exacting, as he found to his cost ; for
when in the Assumption, painted for the church of Santa-Maria dei
Servi, he repeated in almost exactly the same form the picture of

20

RAPHAEL

the Ascension, now in the Lyons Museum, there was a general
outburst of indignation, and he lost all favour.
Practices of this kind, amounting to a lack of intellectual probity,
might have been expected to exert an evil influence upon his pupils,
but Raphael was in no wise affected by them, and his whole life
was one of laborious effort. He
never repeated himself, and of all
his countless Madonnas, no two are
exactly alike. Three times he
represented the Temptation of
Adam and Eve, and each time he
devised a new composition. No
wonder, therefore, that Raphael
should have died in the prime of
his manhood, worn out by work,
while Perugino lived on to old age.
All that remains to be said/
about the Cambio is to notice the
striking portrait of the artist
which completes the decoration.
Perugino was at that time fifty-
four years of age, in the full flush
of health and strength, and his
countenance is expressive at once of reflection and self-satisfaction.
The portrait represents rather the active, well-to-do, and practical-
minded burgher than the artist, whose qualities, however, are dwelt
upon in very eulogistic terms in the inscription at the foot of the
portrait, due no doubt, like the rest, to Maturanzio.
PETRVS PERVSINVS EGREGIVS
PICTOR.
PERDITA SI FVERAT PINGENDI : HIC RETTVLIT ARTEM
SI NVSQVAM INVENTA EST HACTENVS IPSE DEDIT
ANNO SALVT.
MD.
In giving himself the place of honour upon the most prominent
part of the walls, between the heroes of Greece and Rome, Peruo-ino
was not obeying the traditions of humility associated with the
Umbrian school, but at Perugia, just then, he was a great man.

PORTRAIT OF PERUGINO, BY HIMSELF.

STUDIES OF RAPHAEL 21

CHAPTER III

CRITICISM long exercised itself in trying to distinguish between
the hand of the master and that of the pupil in the works issued
from Perugino's studio between 1499 and 1502. The most practised
connoisseurs feel doubts before certain pictures, but it is difficult to
confound drawings by the master with those by the pupil. The
former are infinitely more archaic, and far more careless. It would
take too long to review all those drawings at Oxford, at Venice, at
Lille, in which Raphael has gone to his master for inspiration and
method. I will select two of the most striking examples. Among
the drawings at Venice there is one which seems to be at once a
study for Apollo in the Apollo and Marsyas, and for one of the kings
in the Adoration of the Magi (see chapter ix.). In this figure no one
can fail to notice the malformation of the right leg, which is curved
and bent in a very ungraceful way. Now, this is taken literally from
an angel by Perugino in one of the Uffizi drawings. Again, in the
picture itself of Apollo and Marsyas, the curious head of Marsyas is
taken from one of Perugino's favourite types. A whole series of
almost exactly similar heads is preserved in the Albertina and Uffizi
collections.1 When Raphael left Perugino, in 1502, he had learnt all that the
Umbrian had to teach. Neither oil nor fresco painting had any
secrets for him. In later years his brush acquired more freedom
and power, but it lost some of the fine qualities of its earlier days.
His colour became less warm and luminous, and it lost that fine
amber tone which it had at first. But if Perugino was of benefit to
Raphael as a master for colour and technical methods generally, his
influence was injurious in draughtsmanship, design, and imagination.
No painter ever had fewer ideas than he. His genius was essentially
contemplative, and to that perhaps we owe some of the grace,
tenderness, and love for nature of his pupil.
The fame of Pinturicchio has long been overshadowed by that of
his more famous fellow-countryman. But if Perugino was the
greater painter, Bernardino di Betto, to give him his right name,
had the more active imagination, the more inquiring mind. It has
now been established, mainly through the discoveries of the
1 By insisting on Raphael's authorship of the Apollo and Marsyas, M. Miintz
and other French writers bring an element of disorder into the early development
of the master which seems quite gratuitous. In the picture itself there is much
to affirm and nothing to contradict the authorship of Perugino, which is confirmed
by such studies for it as have been identified. — W. A.

22 RAPHAEL
Commendatore Morelli, that Raphael studied Pinturicchio almost
as much as he did Perugino. According to some admirers of
Pinturicchio, the Virgin between Saints Jerome and Francis, at Berlin,
and the Coronation of the Virgin, in the Vatican, are only cartoons
of Pinturicchio translated into paint by the younger master. We
shall show presently on what slight foundations these assertions rest.
For vigour of design it was no use to follow Perugino or Pinturic
chio. Raphael, therefore, set himself to assimilate some at least of
the characteristic fire of Luca Signorelli. Thanks to the researches
of Vischer, Schmarsow, and Kahl, we can now point to a whole series
of drawings by Raphael in which creations of Luca's are reproduced,
But all these borrowings were no more than accidents in the artistic
development of Raphael, whose master par excellence was Pietro
Perugino. Hitherto I have only referred incidentally to the famous collection
at Venice, The Raphael Sketch Book. Of late, it has become a subject
of ardent controversy, especially in Germany, where the members of
the smaller of the two parties into which it has divided Raphaelists
endeavour to make up for their scanty numbers by warmth of
language. Three points are beyond dispute : (1) that the drawings
at Venice date from the end of the fifteenth or the beginning of the
sixteenth century ; (2) that they formed at first a sort of album, or
portable sketch-book ; x (3) that they are for the most part by one
and the same hand. It is upon the question as to whose this hand
was that furious disputes have raged. MM. Crowe and Cavalcaselle,
de Liphart, Bode, Lippmann, Bayersdorfer, Schmarsow, de Pulszky,
and the whole body of French critics, persist in affirming the paternity
of Raphael ; Morelli assigns most of the drawings to Pinturicchio, and
he is followed by Wickhoff and Marco Minghetti, while they are
ascribed by Kahl to Girolamo Genga, of Urbino. A few connoisseurs,
with Springer among them, believe them to be the collective work of
some Umbrian studio.
All that we know of the Sketch Book is that it was bought about
eighty years ago by the Milanese painter, Giuseppe Bossi, who gave
about sixteen pounds for the collection and christened it with
Raphael's name. At Bossi's death it was purchased for the Venice
Academy. It must be remembered, however, that the drawings at
Oxford, Lille, in the Louvre, and at Vienna, are no better authenti-
1 This is not true of all the drawings commonly included under the title „.
Tlie Venetian Sketch Book. Of these a certain number are on paper of a differeni
colour, a different size, and a different water-mark from the rest. Amon" thea
are the only two drawings in the whole collection which are universally acknow
ledged to be by Raphael. — W. A.

THE VENICE SKETCH BOOK

23

cated. Why should we not recognize in this Sketch Book, the Libro
famoso de cento disegni di mano tutti di Raffaello che comprh Gricido in
Roma, which formed part of the property left by Guido at his death
in 1642, and was afterwards, in all probability, in the collection of
Carlo Maratta (died 1713), who possessed a Libro di alcuni avanzi de
studj giovanili di Raffaello, che approvano le sue prime fatiche con un
esatissima imitazione a maggior finimento terminato ?
When Bossi acquired it the Sketch Book contained fifty-three leaves

PORTRAIT OF A GIRL.
(Drawing in the Academy of Fine Arts, Venice.)
with 106 drawings, numbered from two to fifty-five (including one
numbered forty-eight, which was discovered afterwards, at Paris).
The leaves are now exhibited separately (on hinged frames, so that
both sides can be examined and the paper looked through, and it is
easy in nearly every case to verify the old numeration. The work of
rehabilitation has been skilfully and conscientiously performed by
Kahl, who bases his erroneous conclusions on premisses that are
perfectly sound. By general consent, the sheets contain many slight

24

RAPHAEL

sketches which are not by Raphael, and as much may be allowed of
the syllables d. unz. B. L. paro (Kahl, No. 50) which appear on one
and do not seem to be in his writing. As for the letter G, however,
in which Kahl sees the initial of Girolamo Genga, it is precisely
similar, as Wickhoff has shown, to the initial of the word Genova in
that study for the Departure of JEneas Sylvius, which we shall
presently 'show to be from the hand of Sanzio.

*_..

PORTRAIT OF A GIRL.
(Drawing in the Academy of Fine Arts, Venice.)
In glancing through the Sketch Book one is struck by the fact that
it contains, side by side with studies from the living model, views of
Urbino and its neighbourhood, copies from the portraits of philo
sophers in the library of that city, copies from Mantegna, Perugino,
Pinturicchio, and Signorelli, copies from the antique fragment of the
Three Graces at Siena, and finally from drawings by Pollajuolo and
Leonardo da Vinci.
This would be strange if one supposed the author to be any one
else than Raphael. Take, for instance, Pinturicchio. Morelli has
shown, with much sagacity, that a certain number of the Venetian
drawings repeat motives from the compositions of that master, but

THE VENICE SKETCH BOOK 25
instead of deducing thence that their author copied Pinturicchio, he
concludes that the latter himself did most of the drawings. But
Pinturicchio did not go to Urbino, did not study Mantegna, did not
imitate Leonardo, cared nothing for the antique. The evidence of
the philosophers' portraits and the views of Urbino is so strong that
Kahl has suggested an Urbinate as their author, namely, Girolamo
Genga (1476 — 1551). This conjecture, however, has, so far as I
know, made no converts.
If we admit the authorship of Raphael, we find most of our
difficulties at an end. It is natural that a boy brought up at Urbino
should have studied the scenes of his native district, and copied the
portraits in the ducal library ; that proceeding afterwards to Citta di
Castello, he should have laid Perugino, Pinturicchio, and Signorelli
under contribution ; and that he should also have gone for inspiration
to Leonardo da Vinci. Even the copy from Mantegna's print fits
into the facts of Raphael's life, for its general arrangement reappears
in his famous picture in the Palazzo Borghese. And is not the
drawing after the Three Graces the ancestor of the little gem in Lord
Dudley's collection ? x
The first general conclusion we come to, then, is that the Venice
Sketch Book fits ill into what we know of all those for whom it has
been claimed, with the exception of Raphael, while it accords perfectly
with the course taken by his early development. The objections
drawn from the style of the drawings have at first sight more force.
It is undeniable that in some the handling is easy and commonplace,
in others, harsh and rude, while a very great number are without
accent and distinction. In answer to this, three things must be
remembered. In the first place, these studies are carried out with
the pen on a poor paper which was sure to give a result very different
from what may be won with silver point on a prepared surface;
secondly, they may have been done when Raphael was only twelve
years of age, and it would be hard to say how immature the work,
even of genius, might not be at that age ; thirdly, there is at least as
much difference between the very early works of Raphael and such
pictures as the Coronation of the Virgin, or the Sposalizio, as between
the drawings at Venice and some of those at Oxford or Lille.
Besides the Three Graces and the Entombment, the Sketch Book
contains other motives used by Raphael in his later years. The
Massacre of the Innocents, perhaps the earliest drawing of them all,
contains the germ of the famous plate engraved some ten years later
by Marc Antonio after a second composition by Sanzio. The Woman
1 Now in the possession of the Due d'Aumale. — W. A.

26

RAPHAEL

Kneeling (Kahl, No. 8) recalls the Magdalen in the Dudley Crucifixion.
The Children Dancing and Children Playing with a Pig are the fore
runners of the Children Quarrelling in the Louvre, the Children
Playing at Oxford, and the Dance of Cupids, engraved by Marc
Antonio. The landscape described by Kahl under the number 105
may be fairly called a pendant to one at Oxford (Robinson, No. 17).
And mark the likeness between the Head of a Young Girl (page 23)
and the Lute Player at Oxford — might they not be brother and
sister ?
Head of an Old Man, seen in profile (Kahl, No. 89). Reproduced
as it stands in : 1, The Adm-ation of the Magi, a drawing in the
Stockholm Museum ; and, 2, in The Adoration of the Magi in the
Vatican.

PORTRAIT OF A GIRL.
(Drawing in the Academy of Fine Arts, Venice.)
A Man's Head, Leonardesque in character (do.). Repeated in a
drawing at Oxford.
Head of a Young Man, with his eyes turned upwards (Kahl, No.
59). Repeated in a drawing at Oxford (Robinson. No. 10), in a
drawing in the Malcolm collection, and finally in the Coronation of
the Virgin, at the Vatican (figure of St. John on the right).
Angel Throwing Flowers, used in the Holy Family of Francis L,
and in the Marriage of Cupid and Psyche.
Study of Draperies (Kahl, No. 26), used in the Duke of Devon
shire's drawing of JEneas Sylvius before Engenius IV., which will
presently be shown to be authentic.

THE VENICE SKETCH BOOK

27

Landscape (Kahl, No. 103), used in reverse, in the Terrannova
Madonna, Berlin.1

^ . VER.G- AlAKONi • IA ANT\A U0

PORTRAIT OF VIRGIL.

(Drawing in the Academy of Fine Arts, Venice.)
View of Fossombrona (Kahl, No. 36), reproduced almost literally
in a drawing at Oxford (Robinson, No. 17).
1 Crowe and Cavalcaselle, Raphael, vol. i. p. 231.

28 RAPHAEL
Young Man Standing, Nude (Kahl, No. 23) ; a study for one of
the kings in the Adoration of the Magi, in the Vatican, perhaps also
for the Apollo and Marsyas.
Study of Three Nude Figures (Kahl, No. 17) ; one of these, accord-
mo- to Crowe and Cavalcaselle, is the first idea for the shepherd
crowning Apollo, in the Apollo and Marsyas of the Stanza della
Segnatura. Head of a Man Crying Out (Kahl, No. 22). Passavant long ago
pointed out the relationship between this drawing and the study for
a Gorgon preserved at Oxford (Robinson, No. 71). This served in its
turn for the head of Medusa on Minerva's shield in the School of
Athens. In order to explain this coincidence Mr. Kahl takes refuge
in the notion that the sketch at Venice was made from the Vatican
fresco. Two Men seen from Behind (Kahl, No. 3). By combining these
two figures Raphael has created the personage who stands on the left
in the Wicar drawing already quoted, and in the Vatican Presentation
in the Temple. From the older man he has taken the type and the
pose ; from the younger the arrangement of the lower limbs and the
drapery. It would be easy to multiply these comparisons, and to
point for instance to the Woman Suckling a Child (Kahl, No. 46),
which is identical with the drawing at Oxford numbered 22 in
Robinson ; to the Player on the Bagpipes (Kahl, No. 29), which is
repeated in Robinson, No. 2 ; to the Kneeling Virgin (Kahl, No. 8),
which corresponds to a figure in the Adoration of the Shepherds, at
Oxford (Robinson, No. 7).
Our belief in the authenticity of the Venice Sketch Book rests,
then, on three general arguments : 1, On its congruity with what we
know of the early studies and works of Raphael ; 2, An analogy of
style and handling ; 3, On the numerous points of contact between
the motives it figures and those afterwards made use of by the
master. Such as it is, too, the collection bears witness to the variety
of Raphael's tastes, to his inquiring spirit, and to his fidelity of
interpretation. The young painter attacks subjects of the most
various kinds. Heads, hands, torsos, draperies, ornaments, land
scapes, copies of pictures and original designs, all appear in these
pages. The destination of the work explains its variety. It was
evidently a book in which Raphael collected materials for future use.
More than once, when hurried or fatigued, he sketched in the fewest
of lines the object he wished to fix in his memory. As a rule, how
ever, his drawings were carried much farther. Again, it must not be

ARTIST AND PATRON IN UMBRIA 29
forgotten that an interval of perhaps ten years separated the earliest
from the latest. During that time Raphael advanced with the steps
of a giant.

CHAPTER IV

When Perugino returned to Tuscany, Raphael was nineteen years
of age, and old enough to begin work on his own account. His
master, who was at that time overwhelmed with orders, doubtless
recommended him strongly to his own friends and patrons in Umbria,
and it was owing to their spirit of generous piety that he was able
to execute some of his most admired pictures.
Notwithstanding his lofty intelligence and distinguished manners
we must imagine Raphael leading all this time the modest and
boitrgeois life of his master and comrades. Until the beginning of
the sixteenth century the most celebrated artists were always classed
in the same category as artisans, or, to speak more accurately, there
was no distinction between the two. It needed all the force of the
genius of Bramante, Leonardo da Vinci, Michael Angelo, and
Raphael, and the tenacious will of Julius II. and Leo X., to over
come deep-rooted prejudices and to raise this class of men to the
same rank as that occupied by other representatives of thought.
The mercenary ways of Perugino were not calculated to force on a
revolution of this kind. It would have been different if he had been
in the habit of using the noble language in which he addressed the
Marchesa di Mantua, when he wrote to her that honour was of more
account than money, but his noble patrons were accustomed to
receive appeals of another kind, and it is not surprising that they
should have treated with disdain men whose characters were not so
lofty as their talents. They were wont to treat them in a most
cavalier way, making them wait years for payment, and compelling
them to sue in the most abject terms for an advance upon the sum
due for a picture or a statue, while they heaped their liberalities upon
men of letters. Many poet laureates and philologists received hun
dreds of ducats for the dedication of books, and this because they
knew how to make themselves respected, or feared.
Before speaking of the orders which Raphael received from art
patrons in Umbria, and the agreements which he made with them, it
may be well to consider, the relations between artists and buyers
at that time. Some of the usages seem strange and humiliating to

30 RAPHAEL
us now, while others, since obsolete, were calculated to protect the
dignity of the artist.
The price of the work was generally fixed in advance, and the
artist undertook to supply all the materials with the exception of the
gold and the ultramarine, which two colours, so much used in the
pictures of the early Renaissance, were nearly always provided by the
person who ordered the picture. This arrangement often gave rise to
disputes, as when Sixtus IV. complained that the painters of the
Sistine Chapel had not used enough of these colours, and when the
committee for the decoration of the dome of Orvieto complained that
Pinturicchio was using too much of them, and thus brought on a
quarrel which led to the work being suspended. Another peculiarity
is that payment was often made in kind. Perugino frequently
received wheat on account of his Cambio frescoes, and Pinturicchio
was obliged to consent to buy from Cardinal Piccolomini's steward
the corn, oil, and wine which he wanted during his decoration of
Siena Cathedral. The contracts sometimes contained a stipulation
that a supplementary sum should be paid, at pleasure, by the person
who had given the order in the event of his being satisfied. Thui
Giovanni Tornabuoni promised to give Domenico Ghirlandajo 200
ducats over and above the 1200 which were to be paid for painting
the choir of Santa-Maria Novella, if he were pleased with the work
Ghirlandajo did the work so well, that Tornabuoni was obliged to
acknowledge his success, but he did not pay him the extra sum,
Yet, — so strange a medley of meanness and generosity were the habits
of that day, — Tornabuoni hearing some years afterwards that
Ghirlandajo was ill, sent him a hundred ducats as a present.
In some cases, the most celebrated artists worked by the month,
or even by the day, and when they lost a few hours the time was
deducted from their wages. Leonardo da Vinci and Michael Angelo,
for instance, received a fixed wage of fifteen ducats a month while
they were working at the cartoons of the Battle of Anghiari and the
War of Pisa. In many cases the artists were lodged and boarded,
and they then received a lower wage. The fare with which they
were provided was agreed upon in writing, and from some of the
bills of fare which are still in existence, we see that the masters of
the fifteenth century liked to live well. Thus in 1430, the tapestry
worker, Jean Hosemant of Tournai, who was employed at Avignon
by the Pope, had for his daily allowance three measures of wine, six
loaves of bread, a dish of meat, fish, eggs, and vegetables. Though
Fra Angelico at Orvieto was only allowed bread and wine, and three
ducats a month, to buy other things, he was being paid a salary of

KEMUJNERATION OF PAINTERS 31
sixteen florins a month, which is equivalent to 4002. per annum at
the present value of money.
There was another mode of payment which has gone out of
fashion, obvious as are the advantages which it offers, when the con
tracting parties, being unable to say beforehand what the exact value
of a work would be, agreed to leave it to experts to decide after its
completion what it was worth. This enabled the artist to work with
perfect freedom, assured as he was that a fair valuation would be put
upon his labours, and Raphael was one of those who had a great
liking for this system. In a letter to his uncle Simone, in 1508, he
mentions not having fixed any price for one of his pictures, preferring
that it should be valued when finished. After he had completed the
Sibyls for the Church of the Pace, he requested that the work might
be valued ; and the expert selected was Michael Angelo, who fulfilled
the same functions at the request of Cardinal Giuliano de' Medici and
Sebastiano del Piombo, after the latter had painted the Resurrection
of Lazarus. Raphael began, of course, with pictures of small dimensions, and
subjects which did not require a very high degree of knowledge. His
earliest efforts were a series of Madonnas, drawn at half-length ; in
most of them the Virgin, who is drawn full face, is standing looking
down on her child. What is noteworthy in these works is the
sincerity of the efforts made by the young artist to strike out a line
for himself. The influence of his master, like that of his father,
declined from year to year, one may almost say from month to month,
until at last he had created a style of his own.
Raphael, during all this early period, was, however, compelled to
take into account the demands of the Umbrian public. For a
Madonna or a Holy Family to awaken feelings of sympathy in the
minds of this primitive people it was necessary that neither the cos
tume, the attributes, nor even the attitudes of the figures depicted
should differ from the types to which they had grown accustomed.
Thus, in one of the pictures in the Berlin Museum, the Virgin
between St. Jerome and St. Francis, the Virgin's head is covered with
a mantle, as in the Byzantine compositions. Moreover, under the
. blue mantle is a white veil hiding part of the forehead, an arrange-
, ment which is seen in the mosaics and frescoes of the first ages
', of Christianity. The golden star placed upon the left shoulder
' of the Virgin is also borrowed from the traditions of the primitive
Church. Raphael soon had more important work entrusted to him; for
J shortly after the departure of his master, a lady belonging to one of

2 RAPHAEL
the most powerful families of Perugia, Maddalena degli Oddi,
instructed him to paint for the Church of St. Francis the Coronation
of the Virgin. As the Oddis were banished after the fall of Csesar
Borgia, in August 1503, this work, vast in its dimensions, must have
been executed in the early part of that year.
Many drawings in the collections at Pesth, Venice, Lille, and
Oxford, show with what care Raphael prepared his work, and an
interesting account of this is given by M. Gruyer in Les Vierges de
Raphael. He says : " The Lille Museum contains the drawing for
the principal group of the Coronation of the Virgin. At that time
the women of Umbria were not often seen in public, and though they
might have sat for a celebrated painter like Perugino, Raphael did
not venture to ask this favour, and was obliged to take his comrades
for models of the Virgin. He selected two of them, and placing
them opposite each other made the silver-point drawing now in the
Wicar collection. These two youths, with their beardless counten
ances, and attired in the tight-fitting hose which shows off their
well-shaped bodies, entered into the spirit of the work, and their
attitudes are not only natural but full of religious fervour. The one j
meant for the Virgin bends before the other, not so much perhaps as
in the picture itself, and is seen rather too much in full face, but the
arms are in the right position, and the hands devoutly joined
together, while the legs, when they are covered with drapery, will i
retain the position which they have here, and so will the feet, only
in the picture they will be bare. Nor will there be any change in
the position of the figure which is to represent Jesus."
This profound respect for Nature is, as cannot too often lie
repeated, one of the distinctive traits of Raphael's genius. It is the
bond which unites him to the primitive and quattrocentist artists,
whereas in so many other respects he obeys no law but that of his
own taste. He puts all his heart into the copying of a leaf or flower,
and no artist was ever more enthusiastic about the beauties of creation
For the Coronation of St. Nicholas of Tolentino and for the Coronatim
of the Virgin he first drew his figures from Nature, with their close-
fitting garments, caps, and cropped hair. It was only after he had
done this that he arranged the draperies, and gave the required
expression to the faces — in short, composed the picture. We find
him, too, making studies from a skeleton for the figure of the Virgin
in the Entombment. In a red-chalk drawing in the Lille Museum
(No. 740), he made use of a man model to prepare the Virgin oftb
Casa Alba; and in another red-chalk drawing (Louvre Museum,
Drawing No. 314), a man in his shirt-sleeves and not at all idealized]

CORONATION OF THE VIRGIN

33

is the model for the beautiful figure of Christ entrusting Hisfiock to
St. Peter. To go back to the Coronation of the Virgin : the picture is com
posed of two distinct parts. The one contains the Apostles assembled
around the tomb of the Virgin, just as in pictures of the Assumption;
the other, Christ seated on the clouds, amid a glory of angels, placing
a crown upon His mother's head. Several of the Apostles are look
ing upwards, and see Christ and His mother above them. This
action suffices to connect the two scenes and give complete unity to
the whole.

STUDY FOR THE CORONATION OF THE VIRGIN.
(Drawing in the "Wicar Museum.)
The moment selected by Raphael is that at which the Apostles
have reached the tomb of the Virgin. Several of them are astonished
to find that it is empty, and look into the sarcophagus in which lilies
and roses have taken the place of the body. While some, among
them St. Paul, are overcome with astonishment, others are looking
heavenwards for an explanation of the mystery, and their eyes beam
with delight at the joyful spectacle which meets their gaze.
It was not, assuredly, an easy task for a follower of the Umbrian
School to render with the necessary force and precision the impres
sion produced by this spectacle upon these men of such varying
origin and age, to portray twelve times upon twelve different physi-

34

RAPHAEL

_s, and without repeating himself, a feeling almost identical.
Such a problem called for an effort of dramatic power greater than
could have been expected from a young man of twenty. But it

STUDT FOR ONE OF THE ANGELS IN THE CORONATION OF THE VIRGIN.
(Drawing in the Wicar Collection.)
would be ungracious to insist upon these defects when one r
upon the transcendent beauties of the composition ; and several

CORONATION OF THE VIRGIN 35
the figures, notably those of Christ and His mother, are of a
marvellously pure type.
There was a vast difference between this Coronation and one
which Perugino painted about the same time. In the work of
the pupil we are struck by the vigour of conception and the
exuberance of life and poetry— in that of the master, the apostles,
divided into two groups, merely express by their gestures their
admiration for the spectacle they have before them. It must have
been grievous to be wanting both in science and inspiration; still
worse to be eclipsed by a youth of twenty after having been the
favourite painter of the Borgias.
Underneath the Coronation of the Virgin there was formerly a
" predella," upon which were traced, in much smaller dimensions,
scenes in the lives of the Virgin and of Christ, which supplemented
the principal picture. This predella, though separated from the
main part of the work, is in the Vatican. Raphael's predella
represents in three compartments divided by red arabesques on a
black ground, the Annunciation, the Adoration of the Magi, and the
Presentation in the Temple}
The scene in which Mary receives from the heavenly messenger
the assurance of her future greatness takes place beneath a lofty and
elegant portico, supported by Corinthian columns. To the right, the
Virgin is seated, with a book on her knee, slightly bending the head ;
tjy the left is an Angel, who is rapidly advancing towards her with
/extreme joy depicted on his face ; and in the background, soaring in
the air, is God the Father, confirming the promise borne by His
messenger. For a picture of the Umbrian school as full of life and move
ment, of grace and of strength as Raphael's Adoration of the Magi, we
must go back to one of the same subject painted in 1423 for Palla
vStro^zi by Gentile da Fabriano, which, as soon as it appeared, excited
the warmest admiration among the artists of Florence. These two
pictures, painted at an interval of eighty years, have the same fire
and exuberant life in the male figures, and the same exquisite grace
in the figure of the Virgin.
In Raphael's picture, near a ruined hovel, the Virgin is seated with
her Son upon her knees, to whom one of the kings is offering rich
presents. Here, it must be admitted, Gentile has the better of his
young rival. In his picture, the senior of the Magi, prostrate before
1 The cartoon of the Annunciation is on view in the Lonvre, Salle des Boites,
No. 1606 ; that of the Adoration of the Magi, in the Stockholm Museum ; and that
of the Presentation in the Temple at Oxford (Robinson, p. 122).

36 RAPHAEL
the Infant Jesus, humbly kisses His feet, while the Child gravely lays
His hand upon the worshipper's head. This scene, which is made
more brilliant by the richness of the costumes, has a solemnity which
is wanting in Raphael's work, and is, as it were, a final echo of the
pomp of the Middle Ages. Behind the principal group, Raphael, by
one of those bold inspirations for which he is remarkable, has placed
three Shepherds, who, by the simplicity of their costume and the
modesty of their offering (a lamb), contrast with the splendour of the
three kings.
For the third and last division, the Presentation in the Temple,
Raphael selected, as for the Annunciation, an architectural frame
work, at once simple and imposing. In the centre of the composition
stands the aged Simeon, who is the only personage with a halo, and
he takes the new born Child from Mary with a gesture full of grace
and modesty. But the Child is afraid of the stranger, and turns
towards His mother, stretching out His little arms as if to implore
her help. This is one of those touches of nature which testify to
Raphael's originality in observation. St. Joseph completes this
group, the arrangement of which is perfect. At the two extremities
of the picture are the men to the left and the women to the right,
one of the women carrying the traditional turtle-doves as a gift.
The costumes are those of the fifteenth century, red, black, or green
shoes, felt head-dresses of fantastic shapes, and long mantles.
Perugia was not the only town in Umbria to which Raphael was
indebted, for he received cordial hospitality from Citta di Castello,
where Luca Signorelli and Pinturicchio had already been employed|
The Vitelli, then the leading family in the city, were allies of the,
Dukes of Urbino,and in December 1502, Raphael's legitimate sovereign,
Duke Guidobaldo, took refuge with them from Caesar Borgia. His
flight was so precipitate that he only took a single day to reach Citt$
di Castello from Urbino. This fact, which Raphael's biographers do
not seem to have noticed, explains to some extent how it was that he
soon felt himself at home. It is probable that he did not come till
after the visit of Duke Guidobaldo, or even until after the town,
which had been captured by Csesar Borgia, regained its liberty on
the death of Alexander VI. (August 18, 1503).
Raphael executed four paintings at Citta di Castello — viz., the
Banner representing on one side the Trinity and on the other the
Creation of Eve; the Coronation of St. Nicholas of Tolentino ; Christ
on the Cross ; and the Sposalizio. It is still in existence but in a
state of ruin, and has been removed from the Church of the Trinity,
for which it was painted, to the town gallery of Citta di Castello.

WORK AT CITTA DI CASTELLO

37

He did not deem it beneath his dignity to accept this order, knowing
that the most illustrious painters were glad to paint banners which
held the place of honour in processions, and were generally as well-
paid as oil-paintings. The Umbrian school had the monopoly of

STUDY FOR THE PRESENTATION IN THE TEMPLE.
(Drawing in Oxford University.)
them, and Perugino had set his pupil the example by painting fourteen
small standards for the Panicale Church. On one side of the banner
Raphael represented God the Father seated on a cloud of glory and
holding a crucifix in both hands, while above Him hovers the Holy

38 RAPHAEL
Ghost. At the bottom are St. Sebastian and St. Roch on their knees
and with their eyes lifted towards God. Upon the reverse God is
depicted advancing toward Adam, who is asleep, while above are the
figures of two Angels. Passavant adds that the paintings are on
slightly prepared canvas, and that they have a blue border ornamented
with gilt tracery and palms ; the letter R traced upon the hem of
the garment worn by God stands for the signature, and the whole
work, though conceived in the style of Perugino, has more breadth
and grace, especially in regard to the landscape.
The Coronation of St. Nicholas of Tolentino, executed for the
church of St. Augustine, remained at Citta di Castello until 1789,
when it was sold for £200 to Pope Pius VI. The picture was on
panel, and difficult to move on account of its size ; and as it was
injured in the upper part, the Pope had it sawn in two, so as to make
a complete picture of the lower part, while the figures in the higher
formed distinct pictures. These fragments were to be seen in the
Vatican until after the entry of the French into Rome in 1798, when
they were sold by auction with Raphael's tapestries and many other
objects which have since disappeared.
Thanks to the descriptions of Lanzi and Pungileoni, and to two
drawings preserved at Oxford and Lille, it is possible to furnish a
tolerably clear description of the picture. According to Lanzi,
Raphael represented St. Nicholas as being crowned by the Virgin
and St. Augustine, who was half hidden in a cloud. Beneath St,
Augustine's feet is the prostrate figure of the demon, and to the right
and left are two Angels holding inscriptions in honour of the saint.
In the upper division is the majestic figure of the Almighty sur
rounded by a glory of angels. A sort of temple, with pilasters charged
with ornaments after the manner of Mantegna, forms a framework for
the composition, and the draperies are of the period. It will be
remarked that in this drawing Raphael, instead of representing the
devil in his conventional hideousness, has given him the appearance
of a negro.
Christ on the Cross, which from the Gavari Chapel in the Dominican
church has found its way, after many vicissitudes, into Lord Dudley's
gallery in London, is among the most important of Raphael's youthful
productions. The subject, it must be admitted, was scarcely adapted
to his genius, and one can understand his taking refuge in ready-
made ideas. In proportion as he displays inspiration and spirit when
he has to represent grace and beauty, so does he give evidence of
indecision in the portrayal of passion or grief — at all events during
his early period.

THE SPOSALIZIO 39
This brings us to the fourth, and doubtless the last, of the pictures
painted at Citta di Castello, viz. the Sposalizio or Marriage of the
Virgin, which was painted in 1504 for the Church of St. Francis.
Removed from there in 1798, it is now in the Brera Museum at
Milan. . It is natural, when one examines this picture, to be reminded of
that on the same subject painted by Perugino, for there seems, at
first sight, to be a striking resemblance between the two ; but it is
incorrect to speak of Raphael's work as a repetition or a copy.
Raphael no more copied Perugino's picture than the latter reproduced
those of his predecessors. In all pictures of this subject the general
arrangement is almost identical.
There are as many beauties in the pupil's picture as there are
defects in that of the master. In Raphael's there is a world of
candour and modesty in the expression of the Virgin, the very way
in which she gives her hand to the high-priest shows by itself that
the work is that of a born painter, of a subtle observer, of a true poet.
He was born to paint Madonnas and Angels. There was always a
profound opposition between his genius and that of his rival, Michael
Angelo, whose figures of women — when by chance he painted any —
had always something masculine about them.
The background of the Sposalizio deserves special mention, for
though apparently imitated from Perugino, it is original in the best
sense. Only a man of genius like Raphael could thus dare to follow
in the footsteps of his master, confident of overcoming the obstacles
that to him had proved insurmountable. In Raphael's picture, a
polygon temple, which would have done credit to any architect, takes
the place of Perugino's hybrid edifice, and the whole background is
full of light and air.
The young artist was proud of his work, and instead of merely
signing his initials in a corner, as he had hitherto done, the words
Raphael Urbinas, MDIIIL appear in full on the facade of the Temple.

CHAPTER V

The period between the years 1504 and 1508 is undoubtedly the
most eventful one in Raphael's life. We find him at Perugia, Citta
di Castello, Siena, Urbino, Florence, perhaps at Bologna, and then
again at Perugia and Urbino ; but the dates of these journeys cannot

40 RAPHAEL
be fixed with certainty. While at Urbino he shares in all the cere
monies of a brilliant and enlightened court. He tries his hand at
sacred and profane history, at portraits, easel-pictures, and fresco.
He is influenced by Masaccio, Signorelli, Leonardo da Vinci and Fra
Bartolommeo; and then he suddenly goes back to the Perugino
manner, so that we are puzzled to follow the apparent contradictions
of his ever growing genius.
The date of Raphael's sojourn at Siena is uncertain, for Pinturic
chio, who invited him to come and advise him in the painting of the
frescoes which Cardinal Francesco Piccolomini had ordered for the
Library, was several years at this work, off and on. He began and
finished the decoration of the ceiling in 1503, but he does not appear
to have commenced the side-walls before 1504; and it was in the
course of the same year that he painted a Nativity in the Church of
San Francesco for the altar of Filippo Sergardi (the first owner of
the Belle Jardiniere), for which Raphael is said to have executed a
predella. It is not, therefore, rash to conjecture that Raphael came
to Siena in 1504, just as his friend was about to resume work in the
Library. Cardinal Piccolomini, afterwards Pius HI., had requested Pinturic
chio to reproduce in the town of Siena, so dear to the greatest of the
Piccolomini family, the achievements of him who, after gaining
celebrity in the world of letters and diplomacy under the name of
iEneas Sylvius, became Pius II. Siena teemed with recollections of
the illustrious pontiff who had raised so many splendid monument
in the town itself, at Pienza, and other neighbouring places. The;
only fault which an impartial historian could find with him — that he
showed too much favour to his family and his native place, to the'
detriment of the Church and of Rome — was an additional merit in
the eyes of the people of Siena. There was no one more popular in
this ancient Republic.
The life of Pius II. afforded ample scope for the graphic powers
of Bernardino Pinturicchio. Born at Siena in 1405 of poor but nohle
parents, vEneas Sylvius became secretary of the Council of Basle,
where he attracted notice by his attacks upon the leoitimate Pope,
then he became secretary to the Emperor Frederick III., poet laureate,
amanuensis, and ambassador. During his long stay in Germany be
set himself to study a country then very little known to his com
patriots, and his letters and works of geography and history still give
us the most correct and vivid picture of the German Empire in the
fifteenth century. Quitting Germany and becoming reconciled to the
Church, he rapidly reached the highest honours, being proclaimed

THE SIENA LIBRARY

41

Pope in 1458, after having been Bishop of Siena, and then Cardinal.
His reign was brief but brilliant ; for we find him at one and the
same time engaged in restoring the authority of the Church, in organ
izing a crusade against the Turks, in writing, under the title of
Commentaries, a history of his own time, and perpetuating his memory
by the erection of vast buildings. The Congress of Mantua, the
foundation of the city of Pienza, the transfer to Rome, amid signs
of indescribable enthusiasm, of the relics of St. Andrew, his departure
as Pope for a new Crusade — he only got as far as Ancona, where he
died of grief at seeing the breakdown of the enterprise upon which

SIENA AT THE TIME OF THE RENAISSANCE.

he had concentrated his efforts for a quarter of a century — were all
episodes calculated to stimulate the imagination of an artist.
The subjects selected for the frescoes on the walls of the Library
were ten in all : — (1) Departure of JEneas Sylvius for the Council of
Basle ; (2) JEneas Sylvius in the presence of King James of Scotland ;
(3) JEneas Sylvius proclaimed Poet Laxtreate at Frankfort ; (4) Apneas
Sylvius taking the Oath of Fidelity to the Emperor before Pope Eugene
IV.; (5) Apneas Sylvius affiancing the Emperor Frederick III. to
Eleanor of Portugal; (6) Apneas Sylvius made Cardinal; (7) Apneas
Sylvius elected Pope; (8) Pius II. at the Congress of Mantua; (9)

42 RAPHAEL
Canonization of Catherine of Siena; (10) Death of Pius II. at
Ancona. Commenced in 1504, this grand series was not completed until
1506. The best judges are of opinion that Raphael had nothing to
do with the actual execution of the frescoes in the Library, and that
his share in the work was confined to giving Pinturicchio sketches of
which the latter made use. Some critics have even, of late years,
attempted to cast doubt on the theory that Raphael helped Pinturic
chio in any way. But a series of designs of unquestionable authenticity
corroborate the words of Vasari, to whom we owe our knowledge con
cerning the help given to Pinturicchio by Raphael. A comparison
between the drawings and frescoes dispels all doubts, and shows the
crushing superiority of the younger man.
Look, for instance, at the Departure of Apneas Sylvius for the Council
of Basle. In a drawing at the Uffizi the landscape is largely and
confidently treated ; in the fresco it has the look of a Chinese
picture. In the drawing, the horsemen sit firmly on their steeds,
their action easy and noble, while the horses themselves are full of
fire and vitality ; in the fresco they are almost childish. The
Umbrian master has not in the least understood the spirit of his
young assistant's work, and in making use of it has introduced
passages which are mere nonsense, such as the greyhound held in
a leash by one of the horsemen, which stands motionless while the
rest of the cortege moves onwards. The whole drawing, in fact, glows
with the imagination of Raphael, while the picture shows all that was
mannered and poor in the art of Pinturicchio. MM. Grimm and
Schmarsow are confident that the inscription on the drawing is in the
handwriting of Raphael.
According to a well-authenticated tradition, Pinturicchio has
painted a portrait of himself and of Raphael in the Canonization of
St. Catherine of Siena, each of them carrying a taper, and Pinturicchio
looking at Raphael with an air of tender affection.
It was during his stay at Siena that Raphael seems for the first
time to have found himself in the presence of a masterpiece of antique
statuary. Struck by the beauty of The Three Graces, which Cardinal
Piccolomini had transferred from Rome to the Siena Library,1 he made
a copy of it, which is still preserved in the Academy of Fine Arts at
Venice, and as might be expected is full of faults due to the artist's
1 In, *857> PoPe Pius IX-> Wltn an excess of religious scruples, had this work
removed from the cathedral itself, on the ground that it was of pagan character, to
the Academy of Pine Arts. It is now placed in the small museum which has been
iormed m the chapter-house of the cathedral.

THE THREE GRACES 43
inexperience. His efforts at Siena to vie with the original were fruit
less, for he failed to reproduce the rounded and harmonious shapes of
the marble. In Raphael's drawing there is a meagreness and poverty
about the head and neck of the figure to the left, as may be seen by
comparing the two engravings on pages 44 and 45.
The study of the antique was almost forced upon Raphael, and if
he began it rather late in life, the fault doubtless lay with his early
education ; for Perugino was not a partisan of the Renaissance like
Brunelleschi, Donatello, and Mantegna, and never thought that a
struggle was in progress between the Middle Ages and antiquity in
which the latter would come out victorious. His pupil, therefore,
while admiring the works of sculpture, and the Roman edifices at
Urbino and Perugia, did not think of making them his models ; and
subject as he was to Umbrian influences, it was not until later that
he felt the necessity of improving his style by studying the antique.
It is somewhat singular that it should have been at Siena, the last
bulwark of the Byzantine school, that Raphael's eyes were opened to
the crushing superiority of antique art, for he might well have learnt
a different lesson from this ancient city, which was and is so full of
recollections of the Middle Ages. Where one would have expected
to find a recrudescence of mysticism, his imagination became the prey
of pagan antiquity.
Siena shared the attachment of Perugia for the ideas of the Middle
Ages, but this, amid many differences, was the only point of contact.
There is this peculiarity about Italian cities, that having nearly all of
them been capitals and the centre of some great intellectual move
ment, they have not become subject to the monotonous uniformity
which pervades the rest of Europe. And if there are distinct differ
ences of local character in our day, how much more marked must
they have been at the time of the Renaissance, when political contests
intensified literary and artistic rivalries, and when cruel wars were
continually widening the gulf which separated neighbouring cities.
Thus, though Siena and Perugia were only a few leagues apart, each
had a civilization and an art of its own. The inhabitants of Siena
were a refined and intelligent race, to whom artistic production was a
vital function, while the duller Umbrians needed the excitement of
religious sentiment to appreciate art at all. It may be said that
every street and every house testifies to the distinguished genius of
the Sienese, and there was a time when this small Republic supplied
architects, painters, sculptors, and goldsmiths, not only to the neigh
bouring provinces, but to Rome, Naples, and even Avignon.
During the whole of the fourteenth century and the first half

44

RAPHAEL

of the fifteenth, Florence alone could compare with Siena for the
intensity of its artistic life. In the latter city were born and worked
Duccio, Simone Martini, Ambrogio Lorenzetti, Taddeo Bartoli, Sano

THE GROUP OF THE THREE GRACES.
(Cathedral Library at Siena.)
di Pietro, and many other famous painters : Lorenzo Maitani, the
architect of the Cathedral of Orvieto; Antonio Federighi and
Francesco di Giorgio Martini represented architecture, Giacomo della

P'r^^Ppssrfl^W??;

K -"J-

i
wsm

_iUl I u -

two of the three graoes.— Drawing by Raphael.
(In the Venetian Academy.)

^^';;,;i:l:N'.l.;il;'i!'j:^«^>

46 RAPHAEL
Quercia and le Vecchietta, sculpture, to mention only a few of the.
best known. Foreign artists — for the people of Siena took no narrow
and exclusive view of patriotism — deemed it a high honour to be
associated with their work ; and so it was that Niccolo Pisano sculp
tured the Cathedral pulpit, that Giovanni Pisano designed the facade
of the Cathedral, that Ghiberti modelled the statues of the Baptistery,
and that Bernardino Rossellino built the magnificent Palazzo Piccolo
mini. At a more recent epoch Michael Angelo himself carved statues
of Apostles or Saints for the chapel of this palace.
If Raphael had commenced his career at Siena instead of at Perugia
the whole future of painting might have been changed. But at the
time of his accepting the invitation of Pinturicchio his early impres
sions and tendencies had been much modified. Though he had not,
finally broken with the past, he saw a wider horizon before him, and
the majestic pictures of the Virgin on a gold ground by Duccio di
Buoninsegna, and the grand allegory of Ambrogio Lorenzetti made
but little impression upon him. In his eyes the group of The Three
Graces eclipsed all these remains of an extinct civilization, and-
prevented him from doing justice to the work of Niccolo Pisano,
whose only fault was to be too far in advance of his age.
The influence of the Greek marble was rivalled only by that
which a young stranger — whose escapades and prodigious talent were
beginning to be the talk of the town — exercised over Raphael. This
was Antonio Bazzi, nicknamed Sodoma, a pupil of Leonardo da
Vinci's, and a few years the senior of Raphael ; he had been invited
to Siena in 1500 by the Spanocchi, a wealthy family of bankers, and
his Descent from the Cross, now in the Academy of Fine Arts, his
frescoes in the refectory of Santa- Anna in Creta, near Pienza, and
those at Monte Oliveto, soon made him celebrated. His colouring*
had' even more suavity than that of Perugino, while his easy and!
voluptuous style of composition, with its elegance and distinctidT
seems to have dazzled Raphael and given him a glimpse of the won
ders done with palette and brushes by Leonardo himself. He little
thought that within a few years' time he would meet Sodoma in another
arena, and take a signal revenge upon his seducer by painting out his
work at the Pope's order and substituting his own in its stead.
There was another painter of whom Raphael must have heard a
good deal at this period, and whom he often met afterwards, though
they were never very intimate ; this was Baldassare Peruzzi, who,
born at Siena of parents who belonged to Volterra, worked on the
lines of both Sodoma and Pinturicchio. He was already popular in
his native town, when he determined, about 1503, to try his fortune

THE VISION OF A KNIGHT

47

at Rome. There he got into favour with the wealthy banker of
Siena, Agostino Chigi, afterwards one of the best patrons of Raphael
and Sodoma. Another Sienese artist, the wood-carver, Giovanni
Barile, eventually formed part of the circle gathered around Raphael
at Rome, and it was he who, from the designs of Raphael, carved and
executed in tarsia-work, the doors of the Vatican Stanze.

RAPHAEL .F1NXLT
the vision of A knight. (National Gallery, London.)
It was about this time, in all probability, that the charming little
picture called the Vision of a Knight, and now in the National Gallery,
was painted.1 For the first time we see Raphael painting a lay
1 The National Gallery has been so fortunate as to be able to supplement the
picture with the original sketch, a pen-drawing, pricked for pouncing. The Vision
of a Knight was bought in 1847, and cost only a thousand guineas.

48 RAPHAEL
subject, and treating it with a grace and elevation worthy of the most
eminent masters. It has been argued with some show of reason, that
in painting this picture he had in his mind the fable of Hercules
placed between Virtue and Pleasure, for the influence of antique
recollections was at that period too strong for escape. But there is
something more than this in his picture, for by a stroke of genius he
put mythology aside, and sought his inspiration in the times which
Boiardo and Pulci had brought to life again. Exhausted by fatigue,
a Knight is sleeping beneath a laurel tree. Like a true warrior, he
has not taken off his armour, and has made a pillow of his shield.
During his sleep, two women appear to him, both marvellously
beautiful. One, grave, though her features are instinct with sweet
ness, holds out to him a sword and a book, as if to incite him to
warlike deeds and study. Her yellow tunic and flowing robe of
purple give additional nobility to her carriage. The other, her rival,
has a more coquettish garb. The red hue of her tunic brings into
relief the brilliancy of her blue dress shot with rosy tints ; she wears
round her throat a coral necklace, and a white veil floats at the back
of her head, while she holds in her hand a flower, the emblem of
games, pleasures, and worldly amusements. This is Voluptuousness,
such, at least, as it appeared to the ingenuous imagination of Raphael,
the antithesis of austerity rather than of purity, and representing,
may we not say, the genius of Antiquity in contradistinction to that
of Christianity.

CHAPTER VI

Raphael, during his long stay at Umbria, had not forgotten his
native town, and as soon as he had fulfilled his engagements at
Perugia and Citta di Castello resolved to go and see his uncle Simone
and the Montefeltro family, of whom his father had been rather the
friend than the subject. This journey was undertaken in 1504. The
little Duchy had during his absence been subjected to severe trials.
The ambition of Alexander VI. and of his son had convulsed Italy.
Guidobaldo, driven from his principality, had returned in triumph,
but he was once more compelled to meet the attack of an adversary
as cruel and truculent as he was audacious. This was in November
1502. The enthusiasm of the people had risen to fever height, and
the ladies of Urbino came before their prince and cast at his feet
rings, necklaces and bracelets, pearls and diamonds, beggino- him to

THE COURT OF GUIDOBALDO 49
accept their offerings for the salvation of the country. But what
chance could a few thousand citizens have against a fierce soldiery
led by a man in whom seemed incarnate the spirit of evil ? The
young Duke soon saw that resistance would be hopeless, and preferred
to sacrifice himself rather than bring fresh misfortunes upon his
country. Before going a second time into exile, he razed all the
fortifications of his duchy to the ground. " For," as he said, " what
is the use of these ramparts ? If I keep my duchy, I have no need
of fortifications to hold my subjects in obedience ; if, on the contrary,
they fall into the hands of the enemy, they will enable him to hold
his conquest all the longer." The people of Urbino comprehended
the patriotism of this decision, and set to work with such a will that
towers, redoubts, and buttresses were soon level with the ground.
Having secreted his treasures, Guidobaldo set out for Citta di Castello,
accompanied by a crowd of two thousand people.
At Urbino, Caesar Borgia, who was as wily as he was ambitious,
adopted new tactics. While he spread terror throughout the Ro-
magna, he assumed a moderate attitude in the duchy ; but his yoke
was none the less burdensome to the faithful subjects of the Monte
feltros, and it was a grievous trial to the magistrates of Urbino to be
compelled to do homage to one so universally detested.
The death of Alexander VI. (August 18, 1503) brought the rule
of the Borgias to an end. No sooner was it known than the inhabit
ants of the duchy rose in a body, and the return of Guidobaldo was
one long series of triumphs.
Since Guidobaldo's accession, the intellectual tendencies of the
Court of Urbino had undergone a great change. His capital had
always been the refuge of the Muses, but the enthusiasm which dis
tinguished the early Renaissance was followed by a period of more
tranquil and refined pursuits.
It was in the interval between the years 1504 and 1508 that the
society assembled at the ducal place of Urbino was most numerous
and select. Among those who shone there in 1506, when Raphael
returned for the second time to his native town, were Giuliano de'
Medicis, son of Lorenzo the Magnificent, and brother of Leo X. ; the
two brothers Fregoso of Genoa ; the poet Pietro Bembo, Caesar
Gonzaga and Count Louis of Canossa ; Bernardino Divizio da Bib-
biena ; Bernardino Accolti, surnamed Unico Aretino, a famous singer ;
the Roman sculptor Giovanni Cristoforo ; and Raphael's friend, the
warrior, diplomatist and poet, from whom we have derived all these
particulars — Baldassare Castiglione, the author of the " Cortegiano."
Most of these men were destined to attain the highest rank as
E

50 RAPHAEL
commanders, diplomatists, or prelates. One of them, Giuliano de'
Medicis, was for a short time at the head of the Florentine Govern
ment, and afterwards his brother made him Captain-general of the
Church. Fra Giocondo dedicated to him in 1513 the second edition
of his Vitruvius; Leonardo da Vinci was his travelling companion when
he went to Rome in 1513 ; Raphael painted his portrait, and Michael
Angelo carved his tomb. Ottaviano Fregoso became Duke of Genoa,
while his brother Frederick, Bibbiena and Pietro Bembo, received the
Purple. Louis of Canossa, in turn Papal Nuncio to Louis XII. and
Francis I., Bishop of Bayeux, and ambassador of Francis I. to the
republic of Venice, afterwards ordered from Raphael the celebrated
picture in the Madrid Museum, The Pearl.
It is probable that for his father's sake the ducal family of Urbino
accorded a friendly reception to Raphael, who returned to his native
place, if not celebrated, at all events much appreciated by those who
had watched his progress. The letter of introduction given to Raphael
by Guidobaldo's sister, the Duchess Giovanna della Rovere, to
Soderini, the Gonfalonier of Florence, is one proof of this, while
another is to be found in the title of " familiar " (officer of the court)
given him by her son, the future Duke Francesco Maria of Urbino.1
Then there is the evidence of the architect Serlio, who says that the
Duchess Elisabetta was, next to Julius II. and Leo X., the warmest
patron of Raphael : " If the virtuous Duchess Isabella (sic for Elisa
betta) of Urbino had not brought Raphael into notice while young, if
Julius II. and Leo X. had not afterwards rewarded him so splendidly,
he could not have raised painting to such a height, nor have left
behind him so many masterpieces of painting and architecture."
Notwithstanding their sympathy for the fine arts, Guidobaldo and
his courtiers gave but little direct encouragement to artists, and it
would be difficult to name a single artist of mark attached to his
house, with the exception of Timoteo Viti and Giovanni Cristoforo
Romano the sculptor. Raphael, therefore, did not find in his native
town the teaching and encouragement which he found in Siena and
Florence ; nevertheless he received instruction of another and most
valuable kind, for he became associated with the intellectual refine
ment of the most brilliant Court in Europe, his ideas acquired an
elevation and distinction which they would never have gained in
Umbria. He soon made himself familiar with the highest questions
i In a letter to his uncle, Simone Ciarla, in 1503, Raphael expresses an
earnest wish to be recommended to the young prince as his ancient servitor and
" familiar " :— " A quello me ricomandate infinite volte come suo anticho servitore
e familiare."

THE LOUVRE ST. GEORGE 51
of philosophy and morality, while at the same time he grew to like
classic literature, and possessed himself of the knowledge known as
" the humanities." Finally — and this was an advantage of no mean
kind — he became a perfect courtier.
As to painting, the Court of Urbino supplied Raphael with several
motives of composition as varied as they were picturesque. He
depicted Apollo on Parnassus presiding over the Dances of the Muses ;
The Combat of Love and Chastity ; and combined allegory and con
temporary history, by representing the Duchess surrounded by
musicians, poets, and warriors, and crowned by Love.
But the hearts of the people of Urbino, after the cruel trials which
they had just undergone, were stirred by deeper feelings just then,
and Raphael did not fail to portray their patriotism. There can be
no doubt that in his pictures of St. Michael and of St. George, painted
for Guidobaldo, he meant to symbolize the defeat of Caesar and the
triumph of the Montefeltri. These free and bold allegories suited
his genius.Raphael had not hitherto dealt with such stirring scenes. For
the first time the painter of Madonnas becomes the composer of
battle-pieces. But he chooses the Christian rather than the pagan
warrior, and his soldiers are saints, — the archangel Michael and St.
George, the Cappadocian prince who suffered martyrdom under
Diocletian, after having, like another Perseus, rescued a princess from
the jaws of a dragon.
I know nothing more life-like than this St. George. Mounted upon
a magnificent white horse, covered with bright armour, the saint has
charged the dragon and struck him full in the chest. But the shaft
of the lance has broken, the pieces are scattered on the ground, and
the monster, howling with agony and rage, rushes after his assailant,
whose horse is galloping off. Like the skilled horseman that he is, St.
George pulls the horse up short, and, brandishing his sword, makes
ready to deal a final blow.
The picture of St. Michael is of a different order, for while St.
George is represented in the act of combat, the archangel's triumph
is unchallenged. He has no need of the proud charger which would
alone have immortalized the first picture, and might have dispensed
with the shield which protects his left- arm, for he has only to bring
down his sword to terminate the unequal combat. In order to
accentuate the supernatural character of the scene Raphael has
represented it as being enacted in the middle of hell. A hideous
owl, horrible dragons, figures of the damned devoured by serpents or
bowed down beneath the weight of leaden capes, form the cortige of

52

RAPHAEL

Satan, and a sinister light is cast upon the background by a town in
flames. Passavant has shown that these fantastic figures are taken

STUDY FOR THE ST. GEORGE IN THE LOUVRE COLLECTION.
(Uffizi Museum.)
from Dante's description of the punishments inflicted upon hypocrites
and thieves.1 1 See Inferno, cantos xxiii. xxiv.

RAPHAEL AT FLORENCE 53

CHAPTER VII
There is every reason for believing that Raphael only left Urbino
to take up his permanent residence in Florence. His establishment
there dates, to all appearance, from 1504, though he may possibly
have paid flying visits to it before. The distance between Perugia
and Florence is not great, and the desire to see a city of which he
had heard so much, renders such visits the more probable. This
would explain the Florentine influence which is apparent in many of
the pictures of his Umbrian period ; notably in the predella of the
Coronation of the Virgin in the Vatican.
However this may be, it is certain that in October of 1504
Raphael arrived in the art-capital of Italy. He had asked his pro
tectress, the Duchess Giovanna della Rovere, to give him a letter of
introduction to the Gonfalonier Pietro Soderini, and it was under her
auspices that he came before the leader of the Florentine Republic.
The letter was couched in the most eulogistic terms. The Duchess
says : " The bearer of this present is the painter Raphael of Urbino.
The talent which he possesses has decided him to come to Florence
for some time, so as to perfect himself in his art. His father was
dear to me for his many excellent qualities, and I have not less
affection for his son, who is a modest and agreeable young man, and
one who will, I hope, make all possible progress. This is why I
specially recommend him to your lordship, begging you to second
him by all the means in your power. I shall look upon the services
which you may render him as done to myself, and be under the
greatest possible obligation to you."
Florence, when Raphael visited it for the first time, was not very
different from what it is to-day, and most of the great buildings which
are still the glory of the city which our ancestors called Fiorenze (the
city of flowers) were already in existence. In all directions were to
be seen straight streets, forming a striking contrast with the tortuous
streets of the mountainous towns from which Raphael had last come ;
lofty and spacious houses built with the fine grey stone on which the
ages leave no mark ; and palaces, the rugged masonry of which re
minds one of what is called cyclopean architecture. Slender mullions,
open arcades supported by delicately carved columns, and doors
crowned with some bas-relief in terra-cotta, or some piece of sculpture
by Donatello, Desiderio or Mino, proved that an era of pleasure was
about to succeed one of conflict, Nevertheless the general aspect of

54 RAPHAEL
the city was stern and proud, and this impression was heightened by
the absence of any gardens within the ramparts.
When Raphael arrived in Florence the expulsion of the Medici,
the entry of Charles VIIL, the triumph and then the burning of
Savonarola, the war against Pisa, the campaigns of Louis XII., and
the incessant plots of the Medici's partisans, had so exhausted the
finances and unsettled men's minds as to compromise the future of
the Renaissance. One of these events must have had a specially
great influence upon Raphael, for all Florence was ^still full of
recollections of Savonarola. An ardent champion of religion and a
bold reformer of ecclesiastical abuses — burnt as a heretic by the order
of Alexander VI., and worshipped as a saint and a prophet by the
masses — Girolamo Savonarola left a deep impress upon a society
which was, as a rule, inclined to frivolity. They might kill the man,
but his ideas lived on, and they must often have been in the mind
of Raphael, who was still under the influence of Umbrian mysticism.
The figure of the reformer was before him when he painted the
Dispute of the Sacrament, and he did not hesitate to place in the very
Vatican itself, and among the Fathers of the Church, the Dominican
monk who had been burnt a few years before by order of the Papal
Commissioners. Raphael at once began to look for the models which he had been
unable to find at Perugia and Urbino, and two drawings, one in the
Uffizi Museum and the other in the Academy of Venice, show us his
studies for the Apollo and Marsyas which he painted soon afterwards.
M. A. Gruyer points out that they exhibit an instinct for, rather than
a knowledge of, antiquity. The same may be said of The Three Graces,
also painted in Florence.
More than a century had elapsed since Pagan antiquity had,
thanks to the efforts of Brunelleschi, Donatello and Ghiberti, re
gained its ancient power. Architects, painters and sculptors laboured
unceasingly to find the lost rules which had guided their glorious
predecessors at Athens and Rome. Greek and Roman art, known
only by its marbles, bronzes, medals, and stone-carvings, did not
however supply painters with any obvious models, and it took them
a long time to master principles expressed in a language so different
from their own. The Mantuan school was the first to triumph over
these difficulties and to embody in pictures and frescoes the lessons
taught by the plastic arts of the ancients. At Florence the struggle
lasted much longer. It is true that there was no lack of subjects
borrowed from the mythology or history of Greece or Rome, and
there was even much imitation of ancient ornaments, — volutes,

EARLY CLASSIC INFLUENCE 55
trophies, and medallions,— but the types, dresses, and composition
remained essentially modern. The works of D. Ghirlandajo, Botticelli
and Filippino Lippi, prove this beyond all doubt. Their imitation
of antiquity was confined to details, and even when they depicted
some scene from Roman history, or some Olympian divinity, their
inexperience is manifest. Botticelli's Birth of Venus is, as Hen-
Springer has pointed out, a striking proof of this. There is nothing
of the antique about the lanky and spare figure, insecurely seated
upon a shell, and looking as if she did not know what to do with her
hands. Leonardo da Vinci, the greatest of all the Florentine painters of
the Renaissance, was the one who was most free from the trammels
of ancient tradition. With his exquisite taste he felt that the works
of the Roman sculptors should be used for inspiration rather than
imitation. To him it would have seemed slavish to have copied
them, and his common sense revolted at the idea of transferrino- to
the domain of painting effects appertaining to so different an art.
We have every reason for believing that Raphael, who was at that
time in sympathy with the Florentine school, took the same view,
and was not at all inclined to introduce into his compositions figures
taken bodily from a bas-relief or an antique statue, as he afterwards
did in Rome.
Great as was the respect for the antique at Florence in the early
part of the sixteenth century, the influence of a more recent and
scarcely less fruitful epoch was not less potent. Giotto, the most
illustrious master of the Middle Ages, had returned to nature and
had founded what we now call the Florentine School. Raphael
doubtless did not fail to gaze in frequent and deserved admiration
upon those frescoes in Santa Croce which are so full of grace and
pathos, but it was from Brunelleschi and Donatello that he learned
most. The disciple and rival of these masters, Masaccio, who carried
out in painting the principles which they had introduced into archi
tecture and sculpture, exercised a still greater influence over Raphael.
No artist, during the fifteenth century, had so dexterously avoided
the archaisms of the Giotteschi on the one hand, and the excesses
of the new naturalistic school on the other.
When Raphael went to copy the frescoes of Masaccio, the modest
chapel in the Carmine Church had long been a place of pilgrimage
for Florentine artists. Years afterwards, when he had become the
founder of the Roman School, he determined to pay a sincere tribute
of admiration to his great predecessor. In his St. Paul preaching at
Athens, he- repeated, to almost the smallest detail, the attitude of St.

56 RAPHAEL
Paul addressing St. Peter in Prison, and in his Adam and Eve driven
from Paradise the imitation is equally downright.
Among the other Florentine painters whose works Raphael ad
mired was Domenico Ghirlandajo, whose marvellous frescoes at Santa
Maria Novella fascinated him. He was particularly influenced by
the Coronation of the Virgin in the apse of the church. The figures
of the apostles and patriarchs were used by him as models together
with those in Fra Bartolommeo's Last Judgment, for his fresco at San
Severo. A great struggle was going on at this time between Leonardo
da Vinci and Michael Angelo, which riveted the attention of all
Florence. The whole future of art was at stake ; for it was doubtful
whether the ultimate triumph would be won by the representative
of beauty or of force. Raphael, young as he was, did not hesitate,
and from the first took his place among the followers of Leonardo da
Vinci. Six years later when at Rome he felt the ascendency of
Michael Angelo, and even endeavoured to fight him with his own
weapons. Thus he borrowed in turn from the rival artists, but his
imitation of Michael Angelo did him much harm, for he sacrificed
several of his own best qualities without succeeding in gaining those
of his rival.
Vasari has made a mistake in saying that Raphael was attracted
to Florence by the wish to see the cartoons executed by Leonardo da
Vinci and Michael Angelo for the Council Chamber in the Palazzo
Vecchio, for the exhibition of these cartoons did not take place till
1506, more than a year after his arrival in the city. The story of
the famous struggle is well known. Leonardo was commissioned, in
1503, to decorate one side of the room; and shortly afterwards the
Gonfalonier Pietro Soderini instructed Michael Angelo to paint the
opposite side. Leonardo selected for the subject of his cartoon the
battle of Anghiari, won by the Florentines in 1440 over the Milanese
General Piccinino ; Michael Angelo an episode in the war with Pisa,
the battle of Cascina, which took place in 1364. When the two
cartoons were exhibited in 1506 in the Papal Chamber, near Santa
Maria Novella, they excited immense enthusiasm. Good judges
hesitated to decide between the rivals, but the masses were in favour
of Michael Angelo. From this period the Papal Chamber became,
as the Brancacci Chapel had previously been, the school of the artistic
youth of Florence. Vasari mentions among its frequenters : Aristotele
da San-Gallo, Ridolfo Ghirlandajo, F. Granacci, Baccio Bandinelli,
Morto da Feltro, Andrea del Sarto, Francia, Bigio, Jacopo SansovinL.,
II Rosso Lorenzetti, Jacopo da Pontormo, and Perino del Vaal \

INFLUENCE OF LEONARDO

57

Benvenuto Cellini also worked there, as we know by his own evidence,
and Raphael went there for inspiration more than once.
Vasari speaks very strongly of the influence which Leonardo had
upon Raphael, " who," he says, " struck by surprise at the view
of Leonardo da Vinci's pictures, the figures in which are so full
of grace and life, applied himself to the study of his works in
preference to those of any other artist with whom he was familiar.
Gradually and with much difficulty he abandoned the Peruginesque

SKETCH OF A FIGHT.
(Academy of Fine Arts, Venice.)
manner, and imitated, as much as possible, that of Leonardo ; but, in
spite of his efforts and application, he could never surpass him in
certain respects. The beautiful drawing in the Louvre is an imitation
of the Mona Lisa, having the same grave and easy attitude, the same
full and simple modelling, and the same expression of voluptuous
tenderness. The only thing wanting is the ineffable smile which has
for centuries been at once the charm and despair of the admirers of
the mysterious Gioconda.
The influence of Leonardo is apparent in maLy other works which

58

RAPHAEL

belong to this period. First there is the portrait of Maddalena Doni.
He was happier in the Terramwva Madonna, now in the Berlin

STUDY FOR THE PORTRAIT OF MADDALENA DONI.
(Louvre.)
Museum, and still more so in the Madonna of the Meadow, in the
Belvedere, and the Holy Family and Lamb, in the Madrid Museum,

FRA BARTOLOMMEO 59
reproducing with some success the melancholy grace and the
"morbidezza" of his model, and also gaining some fresh insight into
Leonardo's mode of colouring;.
The painter who, next to Leonardo, occupied the highest place in
Raphael's esteem was one whose style seemed to be most opposed to
his own. For what, it might be thought, could there be in common
between the brilliant and witty Raphael, the painter who took grace
and beauty for his subjects, and Fra Bartolommeo, who was dead to
the world, and weighed down by the recollection of a never to be
forgotten catastrophe ? Left an orphan when very young, a pupil of
Cosimo Rosselli, and naturally inclined to mysticism, Bartolommeo, or
Baccio, della Porta enthusiastically embraced the doctrines of
Savonarola. He was prominent among those who, during the
carnival of 1497, fed the famous bonfire lighted for the destruction of
the vain gewgaws denounced by him— of the masks, fancy dresses,
musical instruments, and even the books and manuscripts, statues and
pictures which perpetuated too many recollections of pagan antiquity.
The objects consigned to the flames were so valuable that a Venetian
merchant offered 22,000 gold ducats for them, but Fra Bartolommeo^
was quite ready to sacrifice his studies after nature, and so, too, were
Lorenzo di Credi and many other artists. Signor Villari says that an
octagonal pyramid more than 700 feet in circumference by 180 feet
high, was erected upon the Piazza, and upon the fifteen steps
of it were laid the articles which had been collected during the
carnival. At a given signal, four men set fire to the corners of
the pyramid, and as the smoke and flames rose heavenwards the
trumpets sounded, the palace bells rang out a peal, and the crowd
shouted with joy as if the enemy of the human race had been
annihilated. In after years, when the admiration of the Florentines for
Savonarola had turned into hatred, Fra Bartolommeo felt his zeal for
the doctrines then discredited revive, and he took up arms for
the defence of the monastery of St. Mark, and fought valiantly by the
side of the monks. But the efforts of the small band were unavailing,
Savonarola was made prisoner, and handed over to his implacable
enemies ; in this supreme hour of agony, Fra Bartolommeo made
a vow that, if he escaped alive, he would enter the Dominican order,
and fulfilled it after having painted, in 1499, a fresco which would of
itself have sufficed to immortalize his name.
A picture in the Academy of Fine Arts at Florence, the Apparition
of the Virgin to St. Bernard, painted in 1507, gives the best idea of
the character of the lessons which Fra Bartolommeo gave to

60 RAPHAEL
Raphael. There is an immensity of movement and spirit in this
picture, and yet we feel that the artist has left nothing to chance, but
has with consummate skill availed himself of all the known resources
of his art.
Though of a different kind, the influence which Raphael exercised
over the monk was none the less beneficial. Fra Bartolommeo, whose
whole mind was concentrated on the general effect of his pic
tures, gave no time to the study of nature, and was one of the first
to substitute lay figures for living models. ¦ Companionship with
Raphael led him to nature herself, and his figures acquired a more
marked stamp of truth, and a more intense expression. The
Madonnas now in the cell occupied by Savonarola at St. Mark, show
how powerful Raphael's influence was ; one of them, representing the
Virgin clasping her child to her heart, vividly reminds us of the
Madonna della Casa Tempi. The composition is almost identical.
The intimacy between Raphael and Fra Bartolommeo was never
broken off, and in 1514 the latter visited the former at Rome, coming
away with an increased admiration for the genius which he had
been one of the first to discover. Like Raphael, he died young,
being only forty-two years of age when he expired on the 3rd of
August, 1517.
Thanks to Perugino's recommendation, Raphael was at once made
welcome in Florence. It was in the studio of a celebrated Florentine
architect, Baccio d'Agnolo, that he made his most useful acquaintances,
for Baccio, like many of his contemporaries, cultivated at the same
time architecture, wood carving, and inlaying. At one moment he
was superintending the construction of vast palaces, and at another
putting together, with the patience of a Hindoo or a Chinaman, tiny
pieces of wood intended for the decoration of some cathedral.
There was quite an assembly of talent in Baccio's studio. The echo
of " bellissimi discorsi " and " dispute d'importanza " reached Vasari,
who mentions Raphael as one of the most distinguished of the group,
which was composed of Andrea Sansovino, Le Cronaca, Antonio and
Giuliano da San-Gallo, II Granacio, and many other Florentine and
foreign artists. Raphael was remarkable for his extreme urbanity and
for the tact with which he expressed his views without giving offence.
Sometimes, too, there was to be seen there a sallow young man,
sombre and taciturn, who scarcely ever opened his lips except to make
some sarcastic remark. He was listened to with respect, for though
only thirty years of age his name was famous throughout Italy. This
was Michael Angelo, and it may have been in Baccio's studio
that occurred a scene which was much talked of in Florence. There

FRIENDS AT FLORENCE 01
was nothing the sculptor disliked more than the naive style of
Perugino, and he was also very much opposed to his mercenary ways.
He accordingly refused him permission to see some of his pictures
which he did not like showing to any one. Perugino made some
severe remark, whereupon Michael Angelo, losing his temper, called
him an "old woman." Such an insult was not worth notice, but
Perugino would not sit down under it. He decided to appeal to the
tribunals, but lost his case, and his reputation declined very much in
consequence. Many as were his friendships, Raphael, during his four years'
residence at Florence, was compelled to work for amateurs of the second
order, and even for foreigners. The religious communities and civil
corporations reserved their orders for native masters, so he had to rely
upon the connoisseurs who, by taste or for motives of economy,
preferred his easel pictures to the vast compositions of other painters.
The Dei were the only family who ordered him to execute an altar-
piece — the Virgin of the Baldacchino. This chance determined in
some measure the character of his works, and an incident of this kind
is sometimes sufficient to change the course of a whole school. The
sojourn of Raphael at Florence might very properly be called the
Madonna period. All the large works which he painted between
1504 and 1508 were, with the exception of the Madonna del
Baldacchino, ordered not by Tuscany but by Umbria, as it was for his
native place that he executed or commenced the altarpiece in the
monastery of St. Antony, the San-Severo fresco, the Ansidei Madonna,
the Coronation of the Virgin for the Monte-Luce convent, and the
Entombment. Among the Florentine patricians who helped Raphael to make
himself known, Taddeo Taddei deserves the first place. He was an
enlightened patron of letters and art, and a great friend of the poet
Bembo. Taddei took so great a liking to the young artist that
he offered him board and lodging, and Raphael readily accepted the
offer, but gave his host in return two pictures, one of which, the
Madonna in the Meadoiv, now in the Imperial Gallery at Vienna,
ranks among his most beautiful works. In 1508 he wrote as follows
to his uncle, Simone Ciarla, informing him that his patron was
contemplating a journey to Urbino : — " In the event of Taddeo
Taddei, about whom I have often spoken to you, coming to Urbino,
pray ask my uncle the priest and my aunt Santa to render him all
possible honour. I will ask of you also to do all that you can to
oblige him, for I owe him the deepest gratitude."
Taddeo Taddei at that time resided at No. 15 of the Via

62 RAPHAEL
San-Gallo. The house in which he entertained the painter is very
unpretending, and would not be noticed by the passers-by but for the
inscription : RAFFAELLO DA URBINO
FU OSPITE DI TADDEO DI FRANCESCO TADDEI
IN QUESTA CASA
NEL MDV.
Foreign connoisseurs helped to keep the Florentine studios busy,
for Spaniards, French, and Germans were constantly ordering easel
pictures. Raphael gained by the favour in which the works of the
Florentine school were held, and in the letter to his uncle Simone in
1508 says that one of his patrons has given him orders amounting to
300 ducats for Florence and France. This he considers a great stroke
of luck. As will have been gathered, Raphael's Florentine period
was more beneficial in the instruction which he gained and in the
technical progress which it enabled him to make, than financially.
The young artist rapidly reached maturity and produced masterpieces,
without either the government or the wealthy protectors who, after
the expulsion of the Medicis, had taken art under their patronage,
recognizing his existence. There is not a good word about him to be
found in the writings of the Tuscan authors, who shower upon third-
rate painters the epithets of Zeuxis and Apelles. Albertini, in his
valuable Memoriale di molte statue et pitture sono nella inclyta cipta di
Florentia, printed in 1510, does not so much as mention his name.
Nevertheless Raphael never forgot what he owed to Florence.

CHAPTER VIII

The Madonnas which the young artist painted in Florence form
an entirely distinct group in his work; for while they are exempt
from the mysticism of his Umbrian pictures, they do not display the
triumphant beauty of his devotional pictures, when he had become
what we may call the official painter of the Catholic Church. In
these early works he endeavoured to combine beauty with truth.
Maternal tenderness and the joys of childhood are expressed with a
freshness and eloquence which almost obliterate their dogmatic side.
Indeed, with two or three exceptions, the works which he painted at
this time were not altar-pieces, but easel-pictures for private oratorios,
or perhaps for the inner rooms of wealthy connoisseurs. Among all

RAPHAEL AT FLORENCE 63
these Madonnas there is scarcely one .which has a shade of melancholy
or the presentiment of future unhappiness. It seems as if there were
no place in the heart of this young mother, as she caresses her child,
save for affection, hope, and bright thoughts. This impression is
heightened, too, by the almost complete absence of accessories, for it
is only here and there that we see the small red cross of St. John the
Baptist, or the streamer with the Agnus Dei. The halo is not always
introduced. Having neither the scruples of his Umbrian patrons nor the
exigencies of the Pontifical court to humour, Raphael here gave free
course to his inspirations. Such a chance does not occur twice in a
lifetime, and during this short period the master, breaking off with
theological tradition, shook himself free of all restraint, recognizing
no principle but art for art.
This was the close of that strong and rigorous discipline, worked
out by so many generations of artists and theologians, when, as
M. Taine has so justly remarked,1 form or shape alone did not suffice
to interest people, and there must be a symbol indicating some august
mystery, like the cathedral, which, with its nave and transept, repre
sented the cross on which Christ died ; or, like the rose windows
with their petals, which represented the eternal rose, each leaf of
which is a saved soul, while the dimensions of every part of the
building corresponded to certain sacred numbers. The smallest details
were then settled by rule, and had a meaning even for the most
uneducated, so that art became the auxiliary of religion and the
Bible of the unlettered. The artist lost, perhaps, in independence,
but he was more than repaid by the current of sympathy which was
created between him and the masses. Even with Giotto and his
pupils, the types, the attitude, the attributes, and the position of the
figures, is in strict accordance with the rules of pictorial theology.
The painter who omitted the halo on Christ crucified would have
been looked upon as a heretic.
The Florentine naturalists of the fifteenth century were the first to
disregard these traditions; and the resistance of Fra Angelico and
the Umbrian school was of no avail against the bold innovators, who
armed themselves with the two-edged weapon of classic antiquity
and nature. The usual saints and apostles were replaced by figures
from the life ; the halo, which in the picture of the early painters had
been incised in the ground, became a mere thread of gold and in
some of Raphael's pictures is not visible at all. Even the symbols of
the Evangelists disappear in that composition which recalls more
1 Taine, Philosophic de I'Art, p. 127.

64 RAPHAEL
vividly than any other the traditions of the Middle Ages — The Dis
pute of the Sacrament ; and angels holding the sacred books in their
hands take the place of the eagle, the lion, and the ox.
Raphael, as a sincere and a respectful disciple of nature, could not
bring himself to sacrifice life and truth to symbolism. His genius—
the robust and wholesome genius of the Renaissance — had no sym
pathy with abstractions, and chose subjects worthy of being painted
for their own sake. His figures were in conformity with their
character and age — his children are real children — there is never
anything theatrical about them. This is the secret of the charm
which his Florentine Madonnas have exercised for three centuries.
It is not easy to fix the exact dates of the Madonnas painted by
Raphael during his Florentine period, from 1504 to 1508. Vasari
merely mentions the Madonna del Cardellino, the Madonna Canigiani,
now at Munich, two small Madonnas given to Duke Guidobaldo of
Urbino, and the Madonna, del Baldacchino.
There is a general agreement that two pen-drawings, one in the
Oxford collection and the other in the Louvre, both of which are
reproduced here, were among Raphael's earliest Florentine efforts.
The Oxford drawing shows traces of the Umbrian manner. Mary,
who is drawn full face, her head surrounded by a halo, has the timid
and thoughtful attitude of Perugino's Virgins. There is more free
dom about the Louvre drawing, and it is more in Raphael's true
manner. The Virgin is drawn three-quarters face. She is reading,
while her son, seated on her knee, follows her reading and clasps his
hands with childlike fervour. The attitude, dress, and expression
mark a real progress.
The Madonna del Gran Duca,1 painted at Florence, showed that
he had acquired complete command over himself. The modelling
became firm and precise to a degree unknown to painters of the
Umbrian school, and the colouring much clearer and more brilliant.
The cast of face, too, was very different from that which was most
popular in and about Perugia; we see no more of the prominent
cheek-bones, the very small mouth, and pointed chin. The contours
are more oval, the figure more erect, and the Madonnas of this period
have more regular features and a more marked personality. There is
an exuberance of life and an ease about the attitude of the child
which contrasts with the earlier productions of Raphael. The Virgin's
1 So called because the Duke of Tuscany, Ferdinand III. (died in 1824), who
had bought it in 1799 for the modest sum of 571 crowns and three lire, was so
fond of it that he took it about with him wherever he went, even into exile. The
Virgin of the Grand Duke has been in the Gallery of the Pitti Palace since 1859.

LORD COWPER S MADONNA

65

dress, while not departing from Umbrian simplicity, is more elegant,
and though stle wears a veil, it is so light that it does not hide her
beautiful hair and forehead. There is more care, too, in the choice of
colours. Raphael ttjade several improvements in this picture while it was
being painted! ; in the drawing now in the Uffizi Museum, which
represents his ifirst conception, the Virgin's expression is much more

STUDY FOR A MADONNA.
(Oxford University.)
melancholy ; her head is almost entirely covered with her mantle, and
her right hand drops listlessly by her side. In proportion as the
picture itself is instinct with grace and tenderness, the drawing is
frigid and lifeless.
In Lord Cowper's small Madonna, painted in 1505, and now at
Panshanger, the extreme simplicity of the composition is striking.
In spite of its beauties, however, it has faults which it would be dis
ingenuous to pass over. The heads of the Mother and of the Child
F

66

RAPHAEL

are too large, and form an unpleasing contrast to the Jeg  r^ht
many of Raphael's early pictures are as strong as in anLoks jn
The beautiful Tempi Madonna in the Pinacothf
marks another step forward.
The Little Madonna of the Orleans Family, whi

«M

ire, coiii
His ger
(had no_

'many

THE MOTHER AND CHILD.
(Drawing in the Louvre.)

vicissitudes, has become the property of the Due d'Aumale, is a striking
contrast to the Tempi Madonna; while one is all life and activity,
the chief characteristics of the other are pensiveness and repose.
The larger Madonna at Lord Cowper's, also known as the

MADONNA DI CASA COLONNA 67
•dress, while nf
iliccolini Madonna (signed R. V., MDVIIL), represents the Mother
nd Child alone.
. The Madonna di Casa Colonnd, which is full of beauty, brings to a
Iflose the series of pictures in which Raphael painted the Mother and
}hild alone ; the addition of a third ¦ person, the infant St. John,

CHILDREN AT FLAY.
(On the reverse side of drawing on p. 66.)

compelled him to make fresh combinations. In the Terranuova
Madonna (1505) of the Berlin Museum, there is evidence of this
having at first embarrassed him, and as the presence of a third person
displaced the centre of gravity in the composition, he endeavoured to
re-establish it by introducing a third child doubtless meant for St.

68

Raphael

John the Evangelist. In this picture the Virgin is seated in the
middle holding upon her knee her son, who takes from the hands of

STUDY FOR A VIRGIN.
(Malcolm Collection.)

St. John the Baptist the streamer bearing the Agnus Dei, while the
other two children are at the sides. This is not a happy conception,

THE VIRGIN OF THE GRAND DUKE.
(Pitti GaUery.)

70

RAPHAEL

for Raphael here introduces into the composition an actor, who, from
a chronological point of view, has no business in it. The presence
even of the infant St. John frequently detracted from the interest of
his pictures, as the painter was obliged to represent the Virgin as
dividing her attention between him and her own son.

STUDY FOR A MADONNA.
(Oxford University.)
The Madonna in the Meadow (Belvedere Gallery, Vienna,) was
conceived under the influence of Leonardo, but the arrangement is
wholly Raphael's ; here for the first time we find him putting into
application the pyramidal grouping which he had so long been study
ing with his friend, Fra Bartolommeo.
The Madonna del Cardellino is arranged in much the same
manner as the preceding picture. The Virgin, seated on a moss-
covered rock, with her child in front of her, is holding a book from

THE LITTLE ORLEANS MADONNA 71
which she looks up as the infant St. John, trembling with excitement,
comes with a beautiful goldfinch which he has iust caught. With

THE LITTLE OELEANS MADONNA.
(In the Due d'Aumale's Collection.)

her right hand she presses St. John, whom she regards with eyes full
of tenderness, towards her son, whose grave expression is m striking

72

RAPHAEL

contrast with the cheerfulness of the Virgin and of St. John. He
turns slowly round, and without lifting his foot, which is on that of
his mother (Raphael reproduces this motive in the Belle Jardiniire),
puts out his hand to stroke the bird.
Four drawings preserved at Oxford (Robinson, Nos. 47, 48, 49), and
at Vienna, and another in the Wicar Collection, show us the phases
through which the composition passed before reaching its pictorial

STUDY FOR THE MADONNA IN THE MEADOW.
(Albertina Collection.)
stage. In a first study, the Virgin, in a sitting position, is intent
upon a book she has in her right hand, while her left is carelessly
rested upon the body of her child, who is trying to reach the book, as
if to divert her attention. In a second the artist takes a step forward,
as there are three figures in the composition. But the main idea of
the scene is different again, for the Virgin is reading and the divine
Infant and St. John listening attentively. In this study, as in the

THE MADONNA DEL CARDELLINO.
(Uffizi Gallery.)

74

RAPHAEL

picture itself, the Infant Jesus has his right foot upon that of His
mother. In the interval Raphael made up his mind to work into this
scene a motive which he had treated before ; that of St. John pre
senting to his companion the bird he had just caught. Each of the
succeeding designs marks a further advance.
The Madonna del Cardellino was painted for Lorenzo Nasi, to
whom Raphael gave it as a wedding present. Vasari says that Nasi

STUDY FOR THE MADONNA DEL CARDELLINO.
(Albertina Collection, Vienna.)
set great store by this picture, both on account of his friendship with
Raphael, and of its great intrinsic beauty. Unfortunately it was all
but destroyed in an earthquake which, on November 12, 1547, ruined
Nasi's palace. The picture was broken into fragments, and would
have been lost if the owner had not had the pieces picked up and put
together with such care that one can scarcely trace any signs of the
accident. It is now in the Tribune of the Uffizi.
Perhaps the most perfect, and certainly the most famous, of the
Madonnas painted at Florence is the Belle Jardiniere of the Louvre,

STUDY FOR THE MADONNA DEL CARDELLINO.

(Oxford University.)

STUDY FOR THE BELLE JARDINIERE.

THE HOLY FAMILIES 77
in which Raphael has given free expression to his love for the beau
ties of nature. He has painted the tufts of grass, the plants and
flowers of the foreground (strawberry plants, spurge, crane's bill,
plantain) with a freshness and precision which the Van Eycks could
scarcely have excelled, but, like a true Italian, he does not damage
the ensemble for the details.
The composition of the Holy Family with the Lamb, in the Madrid
Museum, differs widely from the preceding pictures, though it gives
evidence of no less consummate skill. In this, Raphael endeavoured
to group his figures in the shape of a pyramid, while in the Madrid
picture he arranges his figures in the shape of a right-angled triangle.
The characters are represented in diminishing proportions from right
to left. First of all comes St. Joseph, standing upright and leaning
on a staff; lower down the Virgin in a half-kneeling posture, and
then the divine Infant astride a lamb, with his arms clasped round
the animal's neck. The background of the composition is a beautiful
landscape. The Holy Family with the Palm Tree (Bridgewater Gallery) is
also a work apart from the series which we have been consider
ing, and shows that Raphael did not intend to confine himself to a
single mode of composition. While this work has all the Florentine
charm, it has the gravity which marks the Madonnas of the Roman
period. The Holy Family of the Casa Canigiani, now in the Pinacoteca at
Munich, shows how easily he could bring two fresh actors on to the well-
known scene without departing from the lines of his earlier Madonnas.
The only difference is that the composition is much wider at its base.
The two mothers, in a half-kneeling posture, the one old and wrinkled,
the other resplendent with youth and grace, are each holding their
child by the hand, and the son of Mary is tendering to his young
comrade the banner with the words Ecce Agnus Dei. But St. John
regards him with more surprise than fervour, and seems afraid to go
up to him.
A pen-drawing belonging to the Due d'Aumale, shows us through
what phases the composition passed before being finally painted.
The two mothers are represented' nude ; but while Raphael took a
female model for his drawing of the Virgin, it was a man who posed
for the figure of St. Elizabeth.
We have good ground for adding to Raphael's Holy Families the
sketch which he made about 1508 for his friend Domenico Alfani of
Perugia, and sent with the following letter : " Domenico, do not fail
to send me Ricciardo's lines with regard to the tempest which he

STUDY FOR THE MADONNA IN THE BRIDGWATER GALLERY.

THE HOLY FAMILY OF THE CASA CANIGIANI.
(In the Gallery at Munich.)

STUDY FOR THE HOLY FAMILY OF THE CASA CANIGIANI.
(In the Due d'Aumale's Collection.)

SKETCH FOE A HOLY FAMILY.
- (Wicar Museum.)

THE MADONNA DEL BALDACCHINO.
(Pitti Gallery.)

STUDY FOE THE ESTEEHAZY MADONNA.
(Uffizi.)

84 RAPHAEL
encountered during his voyage ; 1 remind Cesarino also of the sermon
(la Predica) which he promised to let me have, and remember me
kindly to him. I beg you also to remind Madonna Atalanta to send
me the money. Try and get gold ; and ask Cesarino to jog her
memory as well. If I can be of any service to you, let me know."
This sketch, now in the Wicar Collection, so pleased Domenico that
he copied it exactly in a picture which has been placed in the Gallery
in the town-hall of Perugia.
The qualities which are to be found in these works were fully
developed in the Madonna del Baldacchino, in which the artist, no
longer restricted to the dimensions of an easel-picture, was able to
give free scope to his wealth of imagination, skill in grouping and
mastery of decorative effects. In this picture Raphael represents the
Queen of Heaven surrounded by angels and receiving the homage of
apostles, saints, and doctors. In the hollow of a niche formed by two
pillars and surmounted by a panelled cupola, rises the throne upon
which the Virgin is seated with her Child. Two angels, hovering in
the air, hold back the curtains of the Baldacchino which hang above
the throne. The Child is looking with an air at once playful and
affectionate towards St. Peter, who, standing in the foreground of the
picture, is carrying on a grave discussion with a Carthusian monk,
doubtless meant for St. Bernard. There is an indescribable vitality,
ease, and grace about the Child's attitude.
To complete this list we must name the Madonna with the Two
Children, in the Esterhazy Gallery at Pesth, but there are grave
doubts about its authenticity.

CHAPTER IX

While Raphael was endeavouring to find a new ideal for the
Virgin and the Infant Jesus, he began to make experiments in the
most difficult branch of his art, viz. portrait-painting. We have seen
that he reproduced both with pencil and pen, and with a precision
which would not be disowned by modern realists, the models which
he required as types for his religious compositions, merely modifying
his sketches when be proceeded to paint the picture for which they
were prepared. But he could not do this in portrait-painting.
1 Herr Grimm has proved (Das Leben Raphaels von Urbino, Berlin, 1872, p. 373)
that Raphael alludes in this passage to Ricciardetto, Orlando's brother, a personage
in Pulci's Morgante Maggiore.

PORTRAIT PAINTING

85

Having before him a certain model, he was unable to sacrifice or
alter the smallest detail, a likeness being the primary condition with
which he had to comply, and yet his artistic instinct told him that
the most accurate copy was not deserving of the title of portrait,

STUDY FOR THE PORTRAIT OF A YOUNG GIRL.
(Wicar Museum.)

unless it succeeded in interesting us in the subject of it, and creating
a real individuality.
Raphael's first visit to Florence does not seem to have been a

86 RAPHAEL
prolonged one, for in 1505 he was at Perugia, where he spent
the best part of the year. Two important works date from this
period, the Holy Family of the Convent of St. Anthony (begun in
1504), and the fresco of San Severo. On December 29, 1505, he
received the commission for a Coronation of the Virgin for the nuns
of Monteluce, near Perugia, and perhaps those for the Ansidei
Madonna and the Entombment, though he did not paint them until
two years afterwards. The contract for the convent of Monteluce
shows that Raphael even then had the reputation of being the
"greatest painter in the district," as those very words were used.
The nuns paid him thirty gold ducats on account of the retable,
which was not, however, finished until after his death by his pupils
Giulio Romano and Francesco Penni.
The nuns requested Raphael to paint the Virgin, the Infant
Jesus, and St. John the Baptist with St. Paul and St. Cecilia on one
side, and St. Peter and St. Catharine of Alexandria on the other. God
the Father and two angels are represented in the lunette, and into
the predella were introduced Christ on the Mount of Olives, the
Spasimo, Christ after Death, St. Francis of Assisi, and St. Antony of
Padua. The two last are in the Dulwich gallery.
The two upper divisions of the altar-piece, after having formed
part of the royal collection at Naples, became the property of the
Duke di Ripalda, and are now in the South Kensington Museum, -
where they were deposited by the ex-king of Naples, to whom they
were left by the Duke di Ripalda.
We will examine the three principal fragments; for though
Raphael looked upon them as mere accessories of a larger com
position, each of them has for us the importance of a true historical
picture. He had already painted Christ on the Mount of Olives for
Duke Guidobaldo, and if he recurred to the same subject we may be
sure that it was against his will. If he could have had his own way
he would have banished from the domain of art the spectacle, and
even the idea, of pain. He represented, with sincerity and convic
tion, Christ kneeling by a rock praying fervently, three of His
disciples near Him overtaken by sleep, and an angel flying down
from heaven with the cup of agony. This picture now belongs to
Lady Burdett Coutts.
The Spasimo, or Christ carrying the Cross, was also not a subject
in harmony with Raphael's predilections, but having undertaken'
the task, he set himself to perform it with zeal. His composition is
in the form of a frieze. At the head of the procession come two
horsemen, one of whom is represented as a Turk with a turban and a

THE HOLY FAMILY OF THE CONVENT OF ST. ANTHONY AT PERUGIA.
(South Kensington Museum.)

88 RAPHAEL
flowing tunic reaching to the ankles. Then comes Our Lord, sur
rounded by executioners and soldiers armed with swords and halberds.
One of them drags Him by the rope fastened round His body, and
another strikes Him. The Divine Martyr, bruised and exhausted,
wears a touching look of resignation, while Simon the Cyrenean, in
the dress of the Renaissance, tries to relieve Him by carrying the
cross. To the left are, the Virgin — who falls fainting into the arms of
her companions — and St. John, in an attitude of agonized grief.
This group is borrowed from the Deposition of Filippino Lippi and
Perugino (Academy of Fine Arts, Florence).
In the last of these fragments, the Dead Christ, or Pieta (in Mrs.
Dawson's collection, London), the motive is excessively simple.
Christ's body is resting against His mother's knees ; while one of the
disciples helps her to hold her precious burden, two other disciples
express their grief with eloquent gestures, and Mary Magdalene
throws herself on the ground and kisses with passionate respect the
bleeding feet of her Lord.
The Camalduli of Perugia having asked Raphael to decorate one
of the walls of the sacristy of San Severo, he gladly acceded to their
request, being anxious to try his hand at fresco-painting. The sub
ject selected was the gathering of the saints of their order around
the Trinity. A modern inscription, placed upon the facade of the
monastery, relates how the master and the pupil, the one scarcely
arrived at first maturity, the other bowed beneath the weight of
years, both worked at the fresco of San Severo :
QVID RAPHAEL PVBER LONGAEVVS QVIDQVE VALERET
PETRVS, OPVS MVRO DVCTVM TESTATVR EODEM.
Other inscriptions, at the foot of the wall, which is covered with
Raphael's composition above and with that of Perugino below, give
the date of the execution of these two works : 1505 for the one, and
1521 for the other.1
1 This is the text of the inscriptions, the spelling of which has been incorrectly
rendered by Passavant : — RAFAEL DE URBINO
D. OCTAVIANO STEPHANI VOLATERANO, PRIORE
SANCTAM TRINITATEM, ANGELOS ASTANTES, SANCTOSQ.
PINXIT A. D. M. D. V.
PETRUS DE CASTRO PLEBIS PERUSINDS
TEMPORE D. SILVESTRI STEPHANI VOLATERANI
A DEXTRIS ET A SINISTRIS DIV. CHRISTIPHERAE
SANCTOS SANCTASQ. PINXIT A. D. M. D. XXI.

THE ANSIDEl MADONNA 89
The fresco of San Severo has unfortunately suffered from damp,
and it has been injured by clumsy efforts at restoration. No words
are strong enough to brand the conduct of the Vandals who, in the
middle of the nineteenth century, dared to lay their hands upon such
a masterpiece and to re-paint figures of Raphael's creation.
He had not time to decorate the lower part of the wall, but this
was of less importance because his composition, in its present form, is
complete. The Camalduli, however, were anxious that the work
should be finished, and after his death asked (in 1521) Perugino to
carry on the decoration of this part of the chapel. The aged artist
must have sunk very low to have accepted such a proposal, but he at
once painted six saints of the most lamentable description beneath
the admirable work of his immortal pupil.
Next to this, in order of date, is generally placed the Ansidei
Madonna, ordered by the Ansidei family for the chapel of St. Nicholas
of Bari, in the church of San Fiorenza at Perugia, and now in the
National Gallery, having been bought in 1885 for £70,000, from the
Duke of Marlborough. It was long thought that this picture was
dated MDV. ; but a more careful examination showed that it was
dated two years later. The composition, correct, though not very
original, is that of the pictures known under the generic name of
" Santi Conversazioni," the only difference being that the characters,
generally very numerous in compositions of this kind, are here limited
to four. In the centre is the Virgin, on a lofty throne, holding on
her lap the Divine Infant, whom she is teaching to read ; to the right,
St. Nicholas of Bari, in his episcopal robes, reading ; to the left, St.
John the Baptist. The throne of the Virgin is surmounted by a
canopy, and the background of the picture is a landscape, with a
fortified town, while the whole composition is inclosed in the bay of
an arcade. The predella of the Ansidei Madonna, which has for some time
been separated from the picture, contains scenes from the life of St.
John the Baptist, one of which, St. John Preaching, is now in
England. In 1506, Raphael was again at Urbino. He probably did not
start before the month of March, for the plague was raging at Urbino
until about that time, and Guidobaldo, who had passed the winter at
Rome, did not return to his capital until the end of February. We
know, moreover, that when Baldassare Castiglione went to England
on the 10th of July he took with him as a present for Henry VII.
the picture of St. George, which the Duke of Urbino had ordered
from Raphael.

90 RAPHAEL
Vasari, who only speaks of one visit to Urbino, says that Raphael
painted for Guidobaldo a Christ in the Garden of Gethsemane, and
two Madonnas of small dimensions but singularly beautiful, in his
second manner. Raphael seems also to have painted the portrait of
the Duchess Elisabetta, for we know that Castiglione possessed a
likeness from his friend's hand of " una bellissima et principalissima
signora," and that he wrote on the back of it two sonnets composed
in honour of the lady in question.
He painted his own portrait during this visit, and left it as a
souvenir with his friends. Passavant asserts that the picture now
in the Uffizi Gallery is the one painted at Urbino. The artist is
represented three-quarters face, with a black cap, from under which
his thick chestnut hair falls almost to his shoulders, while a tight-
fitting black doublet, only the upper part of which is visible, brings
out the lines of his long and flexible neck. The complexion is rather
sallow, the eyes brown, the nose pointed and straight, the chin round,
while the forehead betokens nobility rather than strength of character,
and the whole countenance is somewhat elongated. There is little
regular beauty ; but the expression is tender and full of distinction ;
while the mouth is at once serious and pleasant, the expression of
the eyes is as clear as it is deep. Though Raphael was then three-
and-twenty, his face was still very youthful, being free from all sign
of beard or moustache, and it was not till three or four years later
that he began to have a little down on his upper lip.
The Uffizi portrait has been much damaged by clumsy attempts
at restoration, but there are, fortunately, two old copies preserved,
one in the Borghese Gallery in Rome, the other in the Albani palace
at Urbino, which show that no essential detail has been altered.
The similarity of handling and a certain likeness in the features
justify us in placing next to Raphael's portrait of himself that of a
woman in the Tribune of the Uffizi Gallery, who was possibly a
member of his family. There is a poetry and a distinction about it
worthy of Leonardo himself. Nothing can be more admirable than
the expression of melancholy which characterizes this woman. The
execution of this picture is marvellous, and we see in it the work
of a colourist of a very high order.
Urbino seems to have developed in Raphael his most poetic ideas.
In 1506 as in 1504 the gentle and retiring painter of the Madonna
suddenly appears as a man of war, and there is as much spirit and
fire in his St. George with a Lance, in the hermitage at St. Petersburg,
as there is in his St. George with a Sword, in the Louvre, as may be
seen from the facsimile, which we give, of a study for the picture.

LA MADONNA ANSIDEI.

PORTRAIT OF RAPHAEL,
(Uffizi Museum.)

PORTRAIT OF A WOMAN.
(Uffizi Museum.)

94 RAPHAEL
This work was produced by Raphael for Duke Guidobaldo, who,
struck by the beauty of the St. Michael and the St. George with a
Sword, commissioned him to paint another St. George for Henry VII.
of England, who had just made him a Knight of the Garter. The
word " Honi," on the garter which the saint wears over his armour,
is very clear proof of the destination of the picture, which was taken
to England by Castiglione when he went over to receive the insignia
of the order. It must therefore have been finished by the 16th of
July, on which day Castiglione started on his journey. After having
been for some time in the royal collections of England, it has now
found its way to the Hermitage at St. Petersburg.
In the interval between the painting of the Louvre St. George and
this picture Raphael had studied Donatello's wonderful little bas-
relief at Or' San Michele. So perfect a model could not fail to make
an impression upon him, and he copied it almost to the letter. There
are, however, one or two slight variations which show that Raphael
was no servile imitator.
The beautiful little picture of the Three Graces seems also to have
been painted at Urbino ; and the impression produced upon Raphael
by the group at Siena was so deep that, not satisfied with fixing it in
his memory by a hasty sketch, he determined to see whether he
could not rival the work of the Greek sculptor. While following it
in the arrangement of the figures, he gave them attitudes and
proportions which seemed to him more appropriate to painting.
Raphael has painted three Italian girls of the^ sixteenth century, and
not antique goddesses.
In all probability, Raphael availed himself of his stay at Urbino
to make an excursion to Bologna, whither he was attracted by the
wish to make the acquaintance of Francesco Francia, whose celebrity
as a goldsmith and painter had long been universal. Francia,
moreover, had been master to one of his dearest friends, Timoteo
Viti, and a close intimacy soon sprang up between them, though
Francia, then fifty-five years of age, was so much Raphael's senior.
Proofs of this intimacy exist in the letter which Raphael wrote to
him in 1508 to thank him for having painted his portrait. Raphael
also entrusted Francia with the task of putting in its place and
retouching, if necessary, his picture of St. Cecilia. Perhaps, too, it
was by Francia that Marc Antonio was introduced to Raphael, about
1510. In the second half of 1506, or in the beginning of 1507 at the
latest, Raphael returned to Florence, and painted three very different
works, Apollo and Marsyas, St. Catherine of Alexandria, and the

THE ENTOMBMENT 95
Entombment. It would be impossible to imagine a more refined
harmonious, or divine figure than that of the young god in the
Apollo and Marsyas. Standing erect, his fair hair flowing in the
wind, with one hand resting upon his flank and the other raised
level with his head, he is looking disdainfully at his rival, who is
sitting before him and playing the flute. The St. Catherine of
Alexandria, in the National Gallery, is the first, in date, of those
charming figures, which form a class apart in the works of Raphael.
It paves the way for the Three Virtues in the Entombment, the St.
Margaret, St. Cecilia of Bologna, and so many others. The original
cartoon, scarcely less beautiful than the painting itself, is in the
Louvre. The Entombment in the Borghese Gallery dates from the stay of
Raphael at Perugia ; it was intended for the church of San Francesco
at Perugia, and was ordered by Atalanta Baglioni. A few years before,
her son, Griffone, taking advantage of some marriage festivities, had
massacred a whole family belonging to a hostile faction. Atalanta
and Griffone's wife fled from Perugia in horror, but hearing that he,
in turn, had been attacked by the friends of the victims, hurried
back and found him dying. All the other persons present withdrew.
Atalanta threw herself upon him and begged him to forgive his
assassins. This he did, and she then gave him her blessing, and soon
after he breathed his last. In commissioning Raphael to paint the
Entombment, Atalanta wished to find consolation in contemplating
the grief of another unhappy mother.
Raphael took extraordinary pains in elaborating this composition,
as is shown by many studies preserved in the Louvre, the Uffizi, the
Albertina collection, the British Museum, the University of Oxford,
and the collections of Messrs. Malcolm, Birchall, and Gay. He
hesitated for some time in his choice of the subject, and Sir J. C.
Robinson has clearly shown that he at first intended to paint a
Deposition. A famous picture by Perugino, the Deposition, now in the Pitti
Palace, must have forced itself on the attention of Raphael when he
began the] first series of his studies. This beautiful work was
deserving^of his admiration. The grouping, though not exempt from
a certain" timidity, is lifelike and full of movement; the attitudes,
gestures, and expression are of a beauty which has never been
surpassed. A drawing at Oxford (Robinson, No. 37) shows that Raphael
had the composition of his late master before him when he commenced
the picture ordered by Atalanta Baglioni. The body of Christ rests

96

RAPHAEL

on the knees of His mother and Mary Magdalene ; to the left three
women are supporting or consoling the grief-stricken Virgin, and to

STUDY FOR THE ST. GEORGE AT ST. PETERSBURG.
(Uffizi Museum.)
the right are Joseph of Arimathea, St. John, and two other disciples.
A second drawing in the same collection (Robinson, No. 38) contains

THE ENTOMBMENT 97
studies after nature for the body of Christ and four disciples, all nude.
Lastly, the beautiful Louvre drawing, reproduced here, contains so
perfect a study for the central group, that it seems as if all the artist
had to do was to transfer his composition to the panel.
But a sudden change came over Raphael, and he gave up the
idea of the Deposition and determined to represent the Entombment.
This time it was the leader of the Mantuan school, Mantegna, whom
he took as his guide. He had copied, from the Book of Stiodies at
Venice, a print by the Paduan engraver, representing the same
subject, and he determined to take it as the basis of his new
composition. In the studies for the Deposition, Christ is lying upon His
mother's knees, while His disciples and friends give unrestrained
vent to their grief. In the Entombment, the composition is more
complex and diversified. The first unmistakable sign of Michael
Angelo's influence over Raphael is to be seen in these preparatory
drawings for the Borghese Entombment. Up to this moment, we are
pretty sure that he never dissected, that he knew the structure of
the human body only from the drawings of Pollajuolo, Leonardo and
Fra Bartolommeo.
In another Oxford drawing (Robinson, No. 43) he is following
out the same problem. Again in a drawing, formerly part of
the Malcolm collection, he carries his new studies so far as to copy
a skeleton placed in the attitude which he intends to assign to the
Virgin. Stronger proof of the influence of Michael Angelo could
hardly be given. But the figure of Christ is clearly inspired to some
extent by that sculptured by Buonarroti for St. Peter's.
A passage from Vasari, which is very important in its bearing on
the history of Raphael's development, apparently refers to these
efforts. He says —
"It was only after long efforts that Raphael succeeded in
appreciating the beauty of undraped figures and in triumphing over
the difficulties of foreshortening. He finally did so by studying the
cartoons drawn by Michael Angelo for the Council-Room at Florence.
Until he wished to change and improve his style he never made any
thorough study of the nude, having hitherto only drawn after nature
in the manner of Perugino, his master, and with the addition of that
graceful expression which seems in his case to be a natural gift. He
accordingly set himself to compare the muscular structure of bodies
which had been flayed with that of living subjects, and to study the
effects of its mechanism upon the various parts or upon the human
body as a whole. He also studied the articulations of the bones, the
H

:*WKSl

STUDY FOR THE ENTOMBMENT.
(Mr. Malcolm's Collection.)

THE ENTOMBMENT

99

junctions of the tendons, and the whole network of the veins, thus
gradually building up the knowledge necessary to a painter." The
influence of Michael Angelo was not confined to anatomy. In a
drawing, now at the Albertina, for the Charity in the predella of the
Entombment, Raphael has even contrived to remind us of the ruder
and more downright qualities of his rival.

THE ENTOMBMENT.
(Borghese Gallery, Rome.)

The Entombment was completed in 1507. In it three distinct
influences can be traced : that of Mantegna, from whom Raphael
borrowed the framework of the composition ; that of Michael Angelo ;
and that of Perugino, whose Deposition served as a model for the

i 00 RAPHAEL
group of the Virgin and her companions. The last-named picture
had already been made use of by Raphael in his Christ carrying the
Cross, in St. Antony at Perugia.
It must be admitted that, in spite of beauties of the highest order,
the Entombment is less captivating than many of Raphael's other com
positions. This was only natural, for the production of it had been too
laborious. Moreover it cannot too often be repeated that such a subject
was too much opposed to the liking of the artist to be treated with
complete success. This he probably felt himself, and did not attempt
a similar subject for some time. In fact, he only made three other
attempts : once in the beautiful drawing in the Louvre, which
represents the Virgin standing over the body of her Son; in the
Christ carrying the Cross, or Spasimo di Sicilia ; and in the Descent
from the Cross. The predella of the Entombment is conceived in a
very different spirit.
A document, recently discovered by Signor A. Alippi, of Urbino,
proves that Raphael paid another visit to his native town in 1507, for
on the 11th of October in that year an agreement was drawn up, by
which " Raphael, painter, son of Giovanni Santi," agreed to pay to
the heirs of Serafino Cervasi of Montefalcone a sum of 100 ducats, of
forty Bolognese pieces each, for a house purchased from them. The
agreement refers to a collusive receipt previously given to Raphael,
and declares it to be null and void.
The hundred ducats were intended to be applied in payment of a
fine which the Cervasi family had been condemned to pay by the
ducal chamber at Urbino. The artist promises to pay forthwith the
sum of twelve and a half ducats into the hands of Francesco Buffo,
representative of Duke Guidobaldo, thirty-seven and a half ducats
whenever called upon to do so, and the remainder at Christmas, 1507.
This document proves that the relations of Raphael with his native
town, family, and the ducal court were closer than has hitherto been
supposed. We now know that he visited Urbino in 1504, 1506, and
1507 ; and these frequent visits are explained by the ease with
which he could get there from Perugia. It was not more than two
days' journey with a good horse, and Raphael was much at Perugia in
1507, as he was busy with the Entombment. This was the last time
he visited his home, but he was kept well informed of all that took
place in Urbino.
When the Entombment was finished, Raphael reverted at once to
his favourite subject, the Madonna. One of his letters proves that
Madonnas were specially sought after by foreigners. In this letter
we see him cheerful and full of confidence. Raphael's letters are so

LETTER TO SIMONE CIARLA 101
scarce that no excuse is needed for giving one which he wrote to his
uncle Simone, on April 21, 1508 :
" Dear as a Father —
" I have received your letter informing me of the death of our
illustrious lord, the Duke ; may God have mercy upon his soul ; I
could not, in truth, read your letter without shedding tears. But
' transeat.' We cannot alter it, and must submit with resignation to
God's will. I wrote the other day to my uncle the priest, begging
him to send me the small picture which served as a lid to the
Madonna della Prefettessa. He has, however, not done so, and I shall be
pleased if you will remind him of it, that I may content the lady.
You are aware that one may have to ask a service from her or hers.
" I beg of you also, my very dear uncle, to tell the priest and
(aunt) Santa that if the Florentine, Taddeo Taddei, of whom we have
often talked, comes to Urbino, they are to entertain him with the best
they can afford. You, too, out of regard for me, will show him all
possible attention, for I am under greater obligations to him than to
any one else.
" I have not put a price upon the picture, and shall avoid doing so
if possible, for it will be better for me to leave the valuation to them.
That is why I did not write to you on the subject. According to
what the owner of the picture tells me, he will give me orders to the
extent of 300 gold ducats, either for here or for France. After the
fetes are over, I shall perhaps be able to let you know the price of the
picture, of which I have already prepared the cartoon, and after
Easter we will see about painting it.
" I should much like, if possible, to get a letter of introduction
from the Prefect for the Gonfalonier of Florence. I wrote a few
days back to uncle and to Giacomo da Roma, begging them to
procure it for me. It would be very useful to me on account of a
certain studio which his Excellency can dispose of as he pleases. I
beg of you to send me this letter if possible. I think that if the
Prefect is asked for it on my behalf he will not refuse. Recommend
me most especially to him as his former servitor and familiar. No
other news for the moment. Remember me to Master . . . (left in
blank), and to Ridolfo and all the others, xxi. April, mdviii.
" Your Raphael, Painter at Florence."
As Raphael is setting out for Rome, and as a new world is opening
before him, let us review this early period. In 1508 he was only
twenty-five years of age, and he had already filled with his works

102 RAPHAEL
Umbria, Tuscany, the duchy of Urbino, and Bologna. About sixty
pictures (Passavant describes fifty-five oil-paintings), an immense
fresco, and numberless drawings testify to his inexhaustible powers of
production. Wherever he went he displayed the greatest modesty in
regard to existing schools, and an unparalleled faculty of imitation,
ending always by becoming the rival of his former masters. Perugino
and his pupils, Pinturicchio, Timoteo Viti, and Francia recognized his
genius, and Fra Bartolommeo was proud to be able to give him a few
hints. The municipalities, monasteries, and connoisseurs of Perugia,
Citta di Castello and Florence, encouraged him, and the Duke of
Urbino was glad to be his patron.

CHAPTER X

In the month of April 1508, Raphael was still in Florence, but by
September of that year at the latest he had settled in Rome, and
appears to have been at once employed by the Pope. The work
reserved for him by Pope Julius II. was brilliant enough, for while
Bramante was entrusted with the rebuilding of St. Peter's and
Michael Angelo with the Papal Mausoleum and the ceiling of the
Sistine Chapel, Raphael had the decoration of the apostolic palace.
Twice the capital of the world, the cradle of two civilizations
which have in turn subdued humanity, Rome, sadly as she had been
mutilated, was then the most beautiful of cities. Antiquity and the
Middle Ages shone with equal splendour there, while the Renaissance,
shedding light and life all around it, was building up a new world by
the side of the old.
When Raphael settled in the Eternal City, Rome was not only
capital of the Arts, she was the arbiter of Europe. Military glory was
superadded, as of old, to the spiritual government of the world. Italy
trembled before Julius II., and Spain, France, England, and Germany
either sought his friendship or felt the weight of his displeasure. He
who had sent for the young painter of Urbino and had put him in the
way of achieving so much, was the most energetic of sovereigns, the
most ardent of adversaries, and the most spirited of commanders— a
Soldier in the guise of a Pope.
He had little taste for literature. "Why represent me with a
book in my hand? " he said to Michael Angelo. " I am no scholar;
give me a sword."

JULIUS II 103
While sparing of his encouragement to letters, he was lavish in
his patronage of artists. He loved art almost too ardently, and the
grandest conceptions pleased him best. When Michael Angelo pointed
out that the construction of his mausoleum would cost 100,000 ducats,
he said, with a shrug of the shoulders, " You may spend twice as much."
He divined the ability of Raphael at once and summarily dismissed
the painters employed at the Vatican— Signorelli, Perugino, Pintu
ricchio, and others, whom he had assembled a few months before, so
as to leave the field free for the new-comer; but while he loaded

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(After an old engraving.)
architects, painters, and sculptors with benefits and commissions, he
did little to encourage goldsmiths, embroiderers, and jewellers.
It is easy to understand that these secondary arts, to which his
predecessors had shown such great favour, failed to win the attention
of a Pope who was busy with the reconstruction of St. Peter's. This
gigantic enterprise was enough to intimidate even Julius; but he
foresaw that in the event of success he would eclipse all the Popes of
the Renaissance. Though he created the beautiful courtyard of the
Belvedere, opened the Via Giulia, restored and enlarged the basilica
of the Santi Apostoli, and that of San Pietro in Vincoli, and so many

104 RAPHAEL
other edifices to which his name is attached, and though he commis-

PORTRAIT OF JULIUS II.
(Uffizi.)

sioned Michael Angelo to paint the Sistine Chapel and to carve his
Moses, and Raphael to decorate the Camera della Segnatura, he would

JULIUS II 105
only have ranked with some of the many great patrons of art durino-
the Renaissance had it not been for the restoration of St. Peter's.
It is admitted that, previous to the reconstruction of St. Peter's,
the ideas of Julius II. underwent several modifications. Beino-
anxious to utilize the immense foundations laid by Nicholas V., he at
first thought of building his mausoleum there, and requested Bra-
mante and Giuliano da San-Gallo to study the question. The project
gradually assumed larger dimensions, and the final result was the
adoption of a plan differing from that of Nicholas V., but not less
grandiose, viz. the rebuilding of the whole basilica in the Renais
sance style. On January 6, 1506, Julius II. wrote to inform the
King of England of his resolve, and ask for his assistance ; and on
the 8th of April following the first stone was laid with befittino-
pomp. All Europe was moved at the announcement, and while some
regretted the demolition of so many relics of the past, the majority
approved the step. Subscriptions poured in; a single Franciscan
monk brought 27,000 ducats; yet even this enterprise, which was
intended to tighten the bonds which connected Rome with Christians
all over the world and to mark the supreme triumph of the Papacy,
detached millions of believers from the Church. For it need hardly
be said that the direct and immediate cause of the Reformation
was the method chosen to pay for the reconstruction of the great
basilica. The Sacred College, which was then composed of thirty members
— the total was raised to forty-eight under Leo X. — included several
cardinals celebrated for their luxury and love of art. The Dean of
the College, Domenico Raffaelo Riario, who had worn the purple
since the reign of Sixtus IV., displayed a truly regal pomp, but the
patronage he accorded to Perugino, Peruzzi, and Bramante, and his
commission to Raphael for the Loretto Madonna, contributed more to
his glory than this, and he immortalized his name by building the
great Palace of the Chancellery.
The Venetian Cardinal, Domenico Grimani, formed a museum and
a library of 8000 volumes in the Palace of St. Mark, which was built
by his compatriot Paul II., and eventually bequeathed them to
Venice. He loved ancient manuscripts and Flemish pictures ; he
had a Raphael, too, for he had managed to procure the cartoon (now
lost) of one of the Sistine tapestries, the Conversion of St. Pattl, the
only one which ever returned to Italy.
The Curia, properly so called, contributed even more than the
College of Cardinals to make the pontifical court the most witty and
refined in the world. The " Curials " numbered among others Leon-

106 RAPHAEL
ardo d'Arezzo, Poggio, and his colleague Antonio Loschi, Platina, and
Hans Burckhard, of Strasburg, the punctilious master of the cere
monies under Alexander VI., who in his famous Diarium, notices
with equal care small matters of etiquette and his master's crimes.
A little later, at about the time of Raphael's arrival, Bibbiena, Bembo,
Inghirami, Goritz, and Baldassare Turini, who were all destined to
become his intimate friends, formed part of the Curia. The two
first-named he had known previously at Urbino.
Bembo was one of the most refined writers of the Renaissance,
expressing himself with equal ease in Italian and Latin. He was
also a connoisseur of exquisite taste, and his interest in art was
genuine as well as cultivated. He was equally fond of the antique
and of the works of the Renaissance, while his admiration for the
sculpture of Greece and of Rome did not prevent him from being an
enthusiastic believer in the genius of Raphael. His letters prove how
intimate he was with him. He it was who after Raphael's premature
death, expressed the grief of all Italy in the epitaph in which the
famous phrase "Ille hic est Raphael" occurs.
Bernardino Dovizio, or Bibbiena, as he is more generally called,
after his native place, was as clever as Bembo, though circumstances
did not admit of his satisfying his fondness for the fine arts to the
same extent. Born in 1470, Bibbiena was at an early age fortunate
enough to attract the attention of Lorenzo the Magnificent, and to be.
employed as his secretary. In 1494, the downfall of the house of
Medici sent him into exile with the sons of Lorenzo, and he took
refuge, like Giuliano de' Medici, at Urbino, when he composed his
comedy of the Calandra (the Lark), which passes for the oldest piece
in prose on the Italian stage. His suppleness and dexterity soon
attracted the notice of Julius II., and thus gave him the opportunity
of rendering great service to several artists, among others to Michael
Angelo, for whom he once obtained a payment on account of 2000
gold ducats.
Bibbiena does not seem to have amassed much treasure, though
he was endowed by the King of Spain with several benefices and a
bishopric worth 7000 ducats a year. It is very possible, therefore,
that Raphael never received more than thanks for painting his bath
room, or for the portrait of Joanna of Aragon which the Cardinal had
ordered for the French king. But if he did not give much material
assistance to Raphael, he determined to attach him to himself by ties
of blood, and a marriage was arranged, but rather against Raphael's
inclination, with his niece Maria, whose premature death alone
prevented it from taking place. The following letter from Bembo

PRELATES, NOBLES, SCHOLARS 107
shows how much influence Raphael had over Bibbiena, for in writino-
to ask the latter to let him have his Venus in marble, Bembo adds,
" If my request seems too bold, Raphael, to whom you are so attached,
has promised to offer you my apologies. It is at his suggestion that
I make the proposal, and I hope you will not pay him the bad compli
ment of refusing."
Lodovico of Canossa, another of the Urbino group, had been
resident at Rome since the reign of Guidobaldo ; and Julius II.
appointed him, in 1511, Bishop of Tricarico, in which capacity he was
present at the Lateran Council. Although the tastes of Lodovico were
rather for rare books and manuscripts, he did not neglect the fine arts,
and we have to thank him for one of Raphael's masterpieces, the
Holy Family known as the "Pearl," which, after having been for a
long time in the Canossa Palace at Verona, is now in the Gallery at
Madrid. Tommaso Inghirami owed his fortune, like Bibbiena, to Lorenzo
the Magnificent. Born at Volterra in 1470, he was taken into
the palace of Lorenzo when only two years old, after the sack of
his native town. Having received an excellent education, Lorenzo
sent him to Rome, where he was kindly received by Alexander VI.,
and in course of time his tact and erudition raised him to a consider
able eminence.
Sigismondo de' Conti, of Foligno, private secretary of Julius II.,
is also entitled to rank among the representatives of science at Rome,
though he was not a scholar in the strict sense of the term. His
merits had been celebrated at the close of the previous century by
Raphael's father in the dedication of his poem, and by a singular co
incidence it was for him that Raphael painted one of his greatest
pictures, the Madonna di Foligno, originally intended for the church
of the Ara-Cceli.
The President of the Chancellery, Baldassare Turini, of Pescia, in
Tuscany, born in 1481 and died in 1543, does not seem to have
sought literary fame, like most of his colleagues, but he was a great
friend of art, and especially of Raphael.
Turini had become friendly with Raphael in 1508, as is proved by
the letter which the latter wrote to Francia, and we continually find
him rendering service to the painter or urging him to hurry on with
some of his work. So much confidence did Raphael put in him that
he appointed him his executor, and Turini justified this choice by his
anxiety to honour the memory of the departed artist. It was he who
purchased from Raphael's heirs the Madonna del Baldacchino, and
placed it in the church of his native town (Pescia).

108 RAPHAEL
In the reign of Pope Julius II. Goritz of Luxemburg, a foreigner
who had become a Roman in feeling and habit, was the principal
champion of good humour and joviality, and once a year, on the
festival of St. Anne, his patron-saint, he gave a grand banquet to
all the men of letters of Rome. The Coryciana, a pamphlet published
in 1524, has preserved the memory of these high festivals, and has
done as much to make him famous as the beautiful marble group with
which Andrea Sansovino decorated his chapel at St. Augustine's, or
the fresco of the Prophet Isaiah, which Raphael painted for him on
one of the pillars of the same church.
At the head of the lay scholars came Count Baldassare Castiglione.
He was a native of the marches of Mantua, and was five years the
senior of Raphael. His family, connected with the Gonzagas, gave
him a brilliant education, and sent him while still very young to the
court of Lodovico il Moro, where he perfected himself in the know
ledge of classic antiquity.
Castiglione was not only one of the greatest poets of his age, but
he was a good judge in matters of art. His influence upon Raphael,
whose genius he was one of the first to discover, was very great ; and
there can be no doubt that he often pointed out to him subjects which
it would be worth his while to treat. His advice was no less valuable
during the actual execution of the pictures, and there is every reason
to believe that he, more than any one else, encouraged Raphael in
the study of the antique. He also assisted him in preparing his report
to the Pope on the restoration of ancient Rome, proclaiming in enthu
siastic terms the greatness of pagan civilization. Castiglione was, like
Bembo, a connoisseur, and he was always on the look-out for any rarity.
He also felt great admiration for modern art. On intimate terms with
Raphael and his two favourite pupils, Giulio Romano and Gian-
Francesco Penni, frequenting in turn the salons and studios, he was
able to render many services to his friends, suggesting some mytho
logical or allegorical composition, or introducing them to powerful
protectors, or obtaining from Cardinal Giuliano de' Medici, after
wards Clement VII., the payment of some old debt. Raphael twice
painted his portrait, and gave him the sketch for two medallions
which he wished to have made. After Raphael's death Castiglione
did all he could to save from oblivion the portrait of Federigo
of Mantua, the statuette of a child, and the picture belonging to
the goldsmith Antonio da San Marino.
Ariosto, the most illustrious of the Italian poets, also visited Rome
during the reign of Julius II., and made the acquaintance of Raphael.
His sovereign, Duke Alfonso of Ferrara, twice sent him as ambassador

ARIOSTO 109
to the Pope (the first time in December 1509), but he was ill-received.
Upon one occasion the pontiff got into such a passion with the duke
and his envoy that he threatened to throw the latter into the water.
While engaged in these diplomatic negotiations Ariosto sought the
society of his literary brethren and of artists. A letter, now unfortu
nately lost, tells us that Raphael, while painting the Dispute of the
Sacrament, asked Ariosto's advice as to the personages who should be
brought into the composition.1 The beautiful epitaph in Latin, in
which the poet deplores Raphael's early death, is also a proof of their
friendship. Ariosto returned to Rome soon after the accession of Leo
X., and was very graciously received by the new Pope, who raised him
from his knees and kissed him on both cheeks. That, however, was
all that came of their interview, and the poet left Rome with the
expressed intention of never returning, giving vent to his discontent
in a prologue as caustic as it was witty.
To these eminent men who honoured Raphael with their friend
ship, must be added the vilest of all the writers of the time, one whose
name has became a synonym for extortion and moral and intellectual
depravity — Pietro Aretino. Born at Arezzo in 1492, Pietro came to
Rome while still a youth in search of fortune. He first entered the
service of Agostino Chigi, where he became acquainted with Raphael,
and he has even asserted that it was on his recommendation that the
great banker employed the latter to decorate his villa. Dismissed for
theft by Chigi, he found a refuge at the Vatican, and remained there
until Julius II. had him expelled ; but he was more fortunate with
Leo X., who showed him much undeserved kindness. It was at this
period, no doubt, that he became more intimate with Raphael, and his
share in the famous prints designed by Giulio Romano, and engraved
by Marc Antonio, the superb portrait of him by the latter, and his
correspondence with Giovanni da Udine, show that Aretino succeeded
in gaining the good graces of Raphael's friends. When we come
to speak of the relations between Raphael and Michael Angelo,
we shall find Aretino's evidence as to their rivalry of the greatest
value. Francesco Maria's mother, the duchess Joanna della Rovere, the
" Prefettessa " as she was called, appears to have taken up her residence
permanently at Rome towards the end of her life, and she died there
in 1514. She had already done her best to assist Raphael in 1504,
and she certainly did what she could for him with her brother-in-law,
Julius II.
The researches of Campori in the archives of Mantua have proved
1 Passavant, Raphael, vol. i. p. 503.

110 RAPHAEL
that Raphael also knew the Marchesa Isabella di Mantua and worked
for her, as his father had done fifteen years before. Her eldest son,
Federigo, being detained as a hostage at Rome from 1510 to 1513, she
paid him several visits, and it was doubtless at her request that
Raphael commenced the portrait of this youth, whose beauty and
promising character made him very popular, and led Raphael to
include him in his School of Athens. This portrait was never finished,
nor yet was a portrait which she commissioned him to paint of
herself. It is very possible that the acquaintance of Raphael with Duke
Alfonso of Ferrara, the husband of Lucrezia Borgia, also dates from
the reign of Julius II., for this prince was at Rome in 1512, and again
in 1513, though we have no authentic evidence of their being in
contact with one another before 1517.
The Roman aristocracy does not seem to have followed the
example of the great foreign nobles, for, faithful to the traditions
of the Middle Ages, not a single representative of illustrious families,
such as the Savelli, Orsini, Gaetani and the Capraniche, gave
Raphael any employment ; Cardinal Colonna alone gave him an order
for a St. John the Baptist, a replica of which is now in the Louvre.
Agostino Chigi, who had acquired by his wealth and splendour
the same surname as Lorenzo de' Medici, was born at Siena about
1465. He came to Rome while young, and when scarcely twenty
entered into partnership with his fellow-townsman Stefano Ghinucci.
From this time forth he resided in Rome ; but never forgot his native
city, and always put the words " of Siena " after his family name.
Farmer of the alum mines belonging to the Holy See, corn-merchant,
banker, and money-lender,1 he rapidly realized a fortune which made
him the wealthiest man in Italy. Questioned one day by Leo X. as
to the amount of his fortune, he replied that he could form no idea,
owing to the multiplicity of transactions in which he was engaged,
and that all he could say was that he had a hundred trading estab
lishments in Europe and the East, that his fleet numbered a hundred
vessels, and that he gave employment to 20,000 persons. The income
of this great financier, who lent money to Charles VIIL, to Csesar
Borgia, to the Republic of Venice, and even to the economical Julius,
was estimated at more than 70,000 florins.
The wealth which Chigi accumulated in commerce he spent like
a king. No such pomp had been seen since the days of Cardinal
Pietro Riario, the too famous nephew of Sixtus IV. Agostino Chigi
1 Chigi had in pledge the cameos and tapestries of Lorenzo the Magnificent,
and the tiara of Pope Paul II .

BINDO ALTOVITI 111
endeavoured to outshine his contemporaries in every kind of outward
display. His splendid villa near San Giovanni Fiorentino failing to
satisfy him, he had a palace built near the Porta Settimiana. To
excite Chigi's emulation, Julius II. when he went to inspect its
progress remarked, that he doubted whether the building would
be equal to that which the Riarios were then erecting. This made
Chigi so jealous that he vowed that his stables should be more
sumptuous than the Palace of the Riarios; and he kept his word.
His gardens rapidly became famous, and splendid works of art were
brought together, while illustrious painters covered with frescoes the
walls even of the galleries which were open to the air. Raphael,
Sebastian of Venice, Peruzzi, Sodoma, Giulio Romano, Francesca
Penni, Giovanni da Udine, Giovanni Barile, and Lorenzetto, among
others, were employed. Raphael was employed by Chigi in 1510, but
it was not until the pontificate of Leo X. that he painted for him the
Galatea, the Sibyls, the Planets, the History of Psyche, and other
works. Another banker, who was quite young when Raphael came to
Rome, Bindo Altoviti, born on the 26th of September 1491, was also
famous for his wealth and liberality. A Roman by birth, but of a
Florentine family and related on his mother's side to Pope Innocent
III., Bindo from the first devoted his fortune to the encouragement
of art. Raphael, Michael Angelo, Jacopo Sansovino, Benedetto da
Rovezzano, Vasari, and Benvenuto Cellini, were of his friends and
familiars. Like most of his contemporaries he was equally fond of
ancient and modern art, and Cellini tells us in his Memoirs that
Bindo's cabinet was " Molto riccamente ornato di anticaglie e altre
belle cose." Raphael became very intimate with this young man,
whose portrait he has left us, and painted for him the Madonna dell'
Impannata, now in the Pitti Palace.
The most influential of the artists, whom Julius II. placed at the
head of his vast undertakings, was a compatriot, and perhaps a relative,
of Raphael, Bramante of Urbino. After having enriched Lombardy
with so many works of art, Bramante came to Rome, where he made
himself famous by his Chancellery, and was then selected by Alexander
VI. to assist as sub-director of the works for the erection of fountains
on the Piazzas of the Trastavere and St. Peter. Julius II. employed
him both as architect and as military engineer, first giving him the
tremendous task of the rebuilding of St. Peter's. Most artists would
have been well-nigh overwhelmed, but Bramante found time to con
duct all the other enterprises of Julius II. After having finished the
Belvedere Court of the Vatican, he began that of the Loggie, and

112 RAPHAEL
then built a Palace in the Via Giulia. In course of time he
was invested with the supervision of all the building works of the
Vatican. Bramante had long lived in poverty without losing heart, and
this was why his pupil Caesariano called him the " patiente figlio di
paupertate." If Caesariano is to be believed, Julius II. was obliged to
have recourse to threats in order to induce him to accept benefices
and the lucrative appointment of " piombatore," or " frate del piombo "
— that is, a member of the corporation whose duty it was to seal the
papal bulls. When he had become rich, Bramante gave free expres
sion to his liberality, and his house became the rendezvous of the most
eminent artists, whom he gathered round his table.
Bramante was not only a very kind friend to Raphael, but served
also as a guide and even as a teacher to him. Not only did he initiate
him into the principles of architecture, but when he was executing
the School of Athens he sketched for him the beautiful portico which
encircles the whole. He also, according to Lomazzo, gave him some
ingenious models of the human figure, and of the horse, and on his
death-bed designated him to the Pope as his fit successor as architect
to St. Peter's.
Bramante was surrounded by a whole host of architects, surveyors,
and sculptors. Some were men of great merit, and one of them,
Giuliano Leno, who was charged with administrative functions, was
a fine judge of art. He was something more than an ordinary assist
ant to Bramante, and clerk of the works at St. Peter's under Raphael.
There was another architect who, while holding the post of measurer
(mensurator) of the works, was famous throughout Europe as a
sculptor and architect : this was Andrea Sansovino, whose favourite
pupil, Jacopo Sansovino, also excelled in both arts.
Vasari dwells in some detail on the services which Antonio da San-
Gallo the younger rendered to Bramante, furnishing the drawings
which the aged architect's trembling hand could only sketch in the
rough, and superintending the execution of his orders. He took upon
himself some years afterwards to criticize very severely the course
which Raphael adopted in the building of the basilica ; but this does
not seem to have affected their friendship, and when Raphael found
the work too heavy for him to carry out unaided, the Pope gave him
Antonio as a colleague.
Giuliano da San-Gallo, the most important of the artists who
belonged to the Michael Angelo party, and founder of the illustrious
dynasty of San-Gallo, was employed by Pope Paul II. as surveyor of
the works at the palace of St. Mark and the tribune of St. Peter.

BRAMANTE

113

Though Sixtus IV. did not show him much favour, his nephew Julius
II. protected him while still cardinal ; he accompanied his patron to
France, and designed a palace for Charles VIIL
Bramante had supplanted Giuliano as architect of St. Peter's, and
Giuliano felt this so much that, after having been for so many years in
the Pope's service, he did little more work for him. The accession of

STUDY FOR THE PORTRAIT OF BRAMANTE.
(In the Louvre.)
Leo X. brought him into favour again, for his family had long been
allied with that of the Medici. He was appointed to assist Raphael
as architect of St. Peter's, but was too old to profit by this and died
soon afterwards.
Among the foreign artists who had preceded Raphael in Rome,
Baldassare Peruzzi, an architect and painter like himself, occupied

114 RAPHAEL
one of the foremost places. Born in 1481, he was very young when
he left Siena, after having been under Sodoma and Pinturicchio, for
Rome, where he arrived about 1503. The frescoes in the church of
St. Onofrio, and the mosaics in the underground chapel of Santa
Croce in Gerusalemma, soon brought bim into repute. He was com
missioned by Julius II. to paint in an aviary of the palace the months
of the year and their corresponding duties, and afterwards to decorate
the Chamber of Heliodorus. He was almost immediately superseded
by Raphael, who did not however touch his decorations in the central
part of the ceiling, and his compatriot, Agostino Chigi, at once took
him into his service. The construction and decoration of the villa
since called the Villa Farnesina, again brought Baldassare in contact
with Raphael, who painted his Galatea in a room of which Peruzzi
painted the ceiling. At Santa-Maria della Pace, too, Peruzzi did the
paintings in the Ponzetti Chapel, not far from where Raphael had
painted the Sibyls. Fortunately for Raphael, Peruzzi was of a gentle,
retiring disposition, so that they never had a disagreement.
At the commencement of Julius II.'s reign there were few good
painters, for Antonazzo, the chief of the native school, was old, and
died soon afterwards, while Pietro d'Amalio, Pietro Turini of Siena,
and Michael of Imola were only intrusted with work of secondary
importance, but the decoration of the pontifical palace in 1507 and
1508 attracted to Rome Sodoma, Perugino, Pinturicchio, Signorelli,
Bramantino Suardi, Lorenzo Lotto, Lo Spagna, Jan Ruysch the
Fleming, Andrea Veneto, &c. So brilliant a gathering of artists
had not been seen there since the reign of Sixtus IV. All, however,
eventually made way for Raphael, " the prince of painters." Perugino
may have been gratified to find his pupil in this illustrious company,
but he must have been deeply mortified when he had to retire in his
favour, and when the Pope instructed the young genius to paint out
his master's compositions.

CHAPTER XI

Raphael was in Rome on September 5, 1508, for a letter of that
date addressed to Francia shows that he was in communication with
several prelates, Cardinal Riario among others, and at the head of
a studio with numerous pupils or apprentices. This letter ran as
follows : —

letter to francia 115
"DearMessire Francesco,
" I have this instant received your portrait, which has
been handed over to me by Bazotto in perfect safety and quite un
injured. Very many thanks : it is so well done and so lifelike that I
seem to see you and to hear you speaking. I hope you will be
indulgent with me, and forgive me for being so long in sending you
mine, but my incessant and important engagements have prevented
me as yet from painting it myself as we agreed. You would not have
been pleased, perhaps, if I had sent you one painted by one of my
pupils and touched up by me : or, should I not rather say, this would
have been the proper course, for I should' thus have confessed my
inability to equal your work. I pray of you to be indulgent towards
me, for you, too, know what it is to be deprived of one's liberty and
to be dependent on others.
" In the meanwhile, I send you by this same messenger, who will
be going back in six days, another drawing, viz. an Adoration of the
Shepherds, which, as you will see, differs very much from the picture
I painted, and of which you were kind enough to speak in such
favourable terms. You always praise my work, and I blush at the
thought of it, just as I do at sending you this trifle. You will simply
accept it as a proof of my devotion and affection ; and if you will send
me in return your History of Judith, I will give it a place among the
most precious objects in my possession.
" The Datarius is awaiting his small Madonna with as much
impatience as Cardinal Riario is expecting his large one, and this you
will learn from Bazotto. I, too, shall contemplate the pictures with
the sympathy and satisfaction which I derive from all your works, for
I know none more beautiful, more saintly, or better executed. In the
meanwhile be of good cheer, do not fail in your customary prudence,
and rest assured that I feel your sorrows as if they were my own.
Love me as I love you — with all my heart.
" Always and altogether at your service,
" Your Raphael Sanzio." j
" Rome, September 5, 1508."
Everything combines to suggest that it was from this moment
that Raphael worked for Julius II. According to Vasari he was
summoned to Rome by Bramante's desire, and this deserves credence,
for Bramante was a compatriot, if not a relative of Raphael. The
1 The original of this letter has been lost. The text of it was published for the
first time by Malvasia in his Felsina pittrice. (Its authenticity is now seriously
doubted— W. A.)

116 RAPHAEL
recommendations of the Court of Urbino and of Duke Francesco-
Maria della Rovere, the Pope's nephew, may too have helped him,
for charming as his works were, he would scarcely have triumphed
over so many rivals, without the support of the chief architect of St.
Peter's, and of the Pope's nearest relatives, having as yet done
nothing in the shape of monumental painting.
Julius II., struck with admiration for Raphael's first works, showed
no mercy for the labours of his predecessors, and ordered him to
obliterate them. Raphael, to his credit be it spoken, courageously
fought for them and succeeded in saving some of the compositions of
Perugino, Peruzzi, and Sodoma. The ceilings of the room containing
the Incendio del Borgo, of the Heliodorus room, and of the Segnatura
room, still contain a certain number of figures and decorations by
these artists. The frescoes which were destroyed he took copies of,
and this was how he came to reproduce the portraits with which
Piero della Francesca had decorated the walls of one room.
It would be interesting to know how Raphael was paid, and
whether Julius II. gave him more than he had given his rivals.
According to all probability, he received for painting the Camera
della Segnatura the same sum as for the decoration of the Incendio del
Borgo room, i. e. 1200 ducats. Julius II. was generous but not lavish,
and was often short of money. A comparison of the price paid to
Michael Angelo for painting the ceiling of the Sistine, and that which he
was promised by the Republic of Florence for the Battle of Anghiara,
shows that the Pope did not throw his money away. In each case he
received 3000 gold ducats, but, as Michael Angelo himself said, when
he had completed the Florentine cartoon, he considered that his work
was half finished, whereas the decoration of the Sistine Chapel cost
him four years' constant labour, from 1508 to 1512.
However, the actual payment in money conveys a very incomplete
idea of the position of the artists who worked for the Pope, as many
of them were inducted into livings which much increased, or in some
cases even stood in the stead of, pecuniary remuneration. In the
time of Nicholas V., his favourite architect, L. B. Alberti, received a
large revenue from prebends, and many others occupied very lucrative
posts, such as mace-bearer, or sergeant-at-arms to the Pope, or, like
Bramante, held the still more coveted appointment of " piombatore."
Leo X. made Giulio Romano Prefect of the Tiber, an appointment
which he made over to some one else on payment of an annual sum
of ninety ducats ; Michael Angelo was granted the tolls of the Po,
while Leonardo da Vinci obtained the privilege of drawing water from
the canal of St. Christopher at Milan. The artists attached to the

THE STANZA DELLA SEGNATURA 117
pontifical court occasionally received presents in kind — a mantle, a
doublet, or some cloth for a tunic.
Raphael doubtless received favours of this kind, but it is very
certain that but for his prodigious activity, which enabled him to
carry on the decoration of the Vatican, to superintend the building of
St. Peter's, and to work for private individuals at the same time, he
would have been a long time in making anything like a fortune.
Before considering the magnificent series of the Stanze, it is
necessary to explain the disposition of the chambers which Raphael
was commissioned to decorate. The four known as the " Stanze "
vary both in dimensions and shape. While the immense chamber of
Constantine is only lighted on one side, the chamber of the " Segna
tura " and the chamber of Heliodorus have windows on two sides. In
the fourth, the chamber of the Incendio del Borgo, or of Charlemagne,
the windows do not correspond ; for while one of them is in the centre
of the wall which faces the Belvedere, the other is at one end of the
opposite wall. It seems as if the architect had purposely accumulated
every possible difficulty for a painter, both as regards bad light and
irregularity of line, in every chamber except that of Constantine.
Raphael began his work in the room which, being the one where
the Pope generally signed the documents submitted to him by his
ministers, was called the Stanza della Segnatura.
He apportioned his composition as follows. Upon the two large
walls were the Dispute of the Sacrament and the School of Athens, in
the space above the window looking on to the Belvedere courtyard,
the Parnassus, and beneath, Alexander depositing Homer's MS. on the
Tomb of Achilles, and Augustus preventing the friends of Virgil from
Burning the ASneid, while in the recess on the other side were the
three Virtues representative of Justice: Force, Moderation, and
Prudence. The ceiling was covered with allegorical figures inclosed
in medallions. In each of the four corner compartments, Raphael
represented a scene in harmony with the corresponding painting :
next to the Parnassus, Apollo and Marsyas ; next to the Dispute of
the Sacrament, Original Sin ; next to Jttrisprndence, the Judgment of
Solomon ; and next to the School of Athens, Astronomy.
Nothing could have been more ably conceived than this plan ; it
was worked out to its smallest details before it was begun to be put
into execution, and no necessity arose for the slightest alteration.
Passavant attributes this conception entirely to Raphael ; we believe,
on the contrary, that the men of letters who were Raphael's intimates
had a very great influence upon the composition of this plan, which
is the ablest and the most profound any artist ever produced. The

118 RAPHAEL
artists of the Renaissance were in the habit of receiving from theirl
patrons an exact indication of the subjects which they were to paint.
Michael Angelo was one of the rare exceptions to this rule, and
Varchi, in his funeral oration, dwelt emphatically upon the fact that
he painted entirely from his own invention the vast series of frescoes
in the Sistine Chapel. To Raphael, doubtless, was given much
latitude ; but there is every reason to believe that the main lines of
the composition were laid down by some scholar attached to the papal
court, and that Raphael consulted him while engaged in his work.
The idea of the paintings in the Camera della Segnatura seems to
have been borrowed from Petrarch, who in his Trionfo dell' Amore
arrays around the chariot of Cupid the poets who sing of love —
Orpheus and Dante, Pindar, Sappho, Tibullus, Propertius, &c. ; while
in his Trionfo della Fama he celebrates, in addition to the warriors, the
philosophers and poets, such as Plato, Aristotle, Pythagoras, Socrates,
Homer, Virgil, Zeno, and Diogenes, Heraclitus, Democritus, and
Zoroaster. Petrarch's poem, however, only supplied Raphael with a
part of the elements which he brought into play. The study of
Dante and of Marsilio Ficino, the famous commentator on Plato, gave
him several other motives, and Inghirami, Bembo, Castiglione, &c,
supplied him with many ideas.
Not being in any way tied by tradition, Raphael was able to give
free scope to his imagination, and create the works which have made
him immortal. His first care was to put history on one side and
fiction on the other. The figures personifying Religion, Science, Juris
prudence, and Poetry occupy the medallions on the ceiling, while Force,
Prudence, and Temperance are on the wall facing the Parnassus. First
we will take the Dispute of the Sacrament, or Theology, which was the
first in point of date.
There can be no doubt that Raphael intended from the first to
represent the triumph of the Church, and the glory and the happiness
of the elect. His only doubt was as to the number and selection of
the personages to be introduced, and how to group them. The fact of
his having made at least thirty preliminary studies shows how much
uncertainty he felt, even if we had not his letter to Ariosto asking for
advice. Two drawings, one at Windsor, the other at Oxford, represent the
left side of the fresco, as Raphael first conceived it. They are
executed in sepia heightened in white. The patriarchs, prophets,
apostles, and saints are in two rows, whereas in the fresco they form
but one, and the Christ, instead of being between the Virgin and
St. John the Baptist, is isolated. The composition is in a very

THE DISPUTE

119

rudimentary condition; indeed, in the Windsor sketch one can
scarcely distinguish the groups or attitudes. A drawing in the
Stsedel Museum at Frankfort shows that the central group has
assumed more consistency, and the attitude of the two personages
who are seated, each of whom has a book in his hands, is almost

-:"!mmy^',

FIRST STUDY FOR THE DISPUTE OF THE SACRAMENT.
(Windsor Castle Collection.)
Ihe same as that of St. Gregory and St. Jerome in the fresco itself.
Raphael has also kept in the fresco the figures of the worshippers
kneeling before the throne, whose shape is still vague. The other
figures are not like those in the Dispute as it was finally painted, and
are all undraped. An excellent drawing in the Louvre shows us

120 RAPHAEL
another and more advanced study for the composition; here St.
Gregory is seated on the throne, and three persons are kneeling by his
side. A still further advance is marked in the beautiful drawing
belonging to the Due d'Aumale, which contains thirty figures. The
centre or nucleus of the composition is not given, nor is there any
trace of Raphael's consummate grouping. In a drawing in the
Albertina (Braun, No. 173), which, like most of those still extant,
relates to the left part of the composition, the artist has reached the
aim he had in view, and is all but ready to begin the cartoon.
The Dispute of the Sacrament occupies one of the large side walls,
and is composed upon the lines of a re-entering semicircle. Raphael
has divided his figures into four grand zones. At the top, God the
Father raises one hand in the act of benediction, while with the other
He holds up the globe ; there is a diamond-shaped halo about His
head, and choruses of angels and cherubim form His escort and sing
His praises.
Lower down, and relieved upon a disc resplendent with gold, is
seated Christ. As in the fresco of San-Severo, the upper part of His
body is nude, while a large mantle covers His knees, and, as at
San-Severo, He shows His bleeding hands in sign of the mystery of
the Redemption. To His left St. John the Baptist points to Him
whose coming he had announced, and to His right the Virgin, bending
in profound veneration, covers her head with her mantle, as in the
severe pictures of the Byzantine school.
Underneath these figures are seated twelve patriarchs, prophets,
apostles, confessors, representatives of the old and new faiths.
Amidst the clouds are to be seen myriads of angels. Some of
them are scarcely distinguishable from the light vapours which float
around them, while others, standing out more distinctly, animate and
light up the background. Raphael had in his mind the beautiful
lines in which Dante tells of the spirits with faces of fire, bodies
whiter than the snow, and wings of gold, which are ever ascending and
descending like swarms of bees, shedding from their wings the peace
and devotion which they have brought from the bosom of God. Four
other angels carrying the Gospels serve together with the dove to
connect the upper part of the composition with that which is below.
The animation which distinguishes this part is in striking contrast
with the calm of that above. Old men and youths, official personages
and adherents of the faith, are discussing with animation or listening
with reverence, teaching with authority or seeking enlightenment, some
of them in science, others in the text of the Scriptures. An altar,
upon which the Host stands out radiant from the background, forms

THE SCHOOL OF ATHENS 121
the centre, and around it are seated the four great doctors of the
Church— St. Gregory the Great, St. Jerome, St. Ambrose, and St
Augustine. Among the persons who figure in this " Santa conversa
zione," are Fra Angelico, Duns Scotus, St. Thomas Aquinas, Pope
Anacletus, St. Bonaventura in a cardinal's dress, Pope Innocent III.,
and beside him Dante and Savonarola.
The history of the School of Athens is somewhat obscure, for we
have only a few sketches for it and a few studies of heads, hands
and draperies. We find Raphael still faithful to his principle of
making his sketches from a living model, and if possible from the
nude. In his portrait of Bramante, now in the Louvre, which formed
the prototype of the Archimedes in the fresco, he reproduced the
bony hands and knotty fingers which were so soon afterwards
paralyzed. A drawing in the Albertina collection shows us a model
leaning upon a staff in a somewhat forced attitude, and this was
developed into the beautiful figure of Anaxagoras. Though Raphael
was on the point of executing his fresco, there is no trace in the
cartoon of the architectural background, nor of Heraclitus in the
foreground, nor of the portraits of Raphael himself and Perugino.
These were added after the cartoon was finished.
The scene is represented as taking place beneath a vast portico
the arcades of which are panelled, and pierced with niches in which
stand the statues of Apollo and of the well-armed Pallas Athene.
There can be no doubt but that Raphael endeavoured in the
School of Athens to represent the development of Greek philosophy
from Pythagoras and Democritus, that is to say from the sixth
century before our era, to Archimedes, who died in the year 212 B.C.
He has introduced his own portrait into this fresco. It is to the
extreme right, and is strikingly like that in the Uffizi, with the same
olive complexion and long neck, but the youth has grown into a man.
The third fresco in the same room, the Parnassus, is marked by
different qualities; in it Raphael shook off all anxiety as to symmetry
of decorative effect. Seated under the shade of a laurel-grove is
Apollo surrounded by the Muses and the poets of antiquity. Behind
are Dante, Ariosto, and Petrarch.
On the wall which faces that on which the Parnassus is painted,
Raphael represented the three handmaids of Justice : Prudence,
Force, and Moderation ; and these figures are connected by winged
genii. To the two lower compartments on each side of the window
vere accorded two purely historical subjects, relating to the codifi
cation of the Civil and the Canon Law; The Emperor Justinian
promulgating the Pandects and Pope Gregory IX. promulgating the

STUDY FOR THE CALLIOPE

123

Decretals. In this last-named composition Raphael derived most of
his ideas from the famous fresco of Melozzo da Forli, Sixtus IV.
appointing Platina to the post of Librarian, formerly in the Vatican
Library. Raphael's contains an innovation ; in his former pictures

STUDY FOR THE CALLIOPE IN THE PARNASSUS.
he had rarely painted a portrait from life, but he here represented
Gregory IX. under the features of Julius II., in company with
Cardinal Giovanni de' Medici, the future Leo X. ; Alessandro Farnese,
the future Paul III, and another prelate of that day, Antonio del

124

RAPHAEL

Monte. In this he was following the example of the Florentine
painters of the fifteenth century, and notably of Masaccio.
Raphael's only previous experience in fresco-painting was in the
chapel of San-Severo at Perugia several years before. In the Vatican
paintings we can follow his progress step by step. In the Dispute of
the Sacrament there are signs of
inexperience, but in the School of
Athens there is already that cer
tainty of hand which has made
him the first fresco-painter of
all time. M. Raymond Baize, an
artist well acquainted with his
work, makes some observations
on this point which are worth
careful consideration.
" Raphael," he tells us, " began
by drawing from the life — in red
chalk, by preference — the figures
which he intended to introduce
into his compositions. These he
transferred by squaring either to
canvas or cardboard. The card- j
board being then laid over a sheet
of paper, was pricked with a
needle along the lines of the
composition. The outline thus
obtained was in its turn pounced
with charcoal on to the wall or
the panel, as the case might be.
As soon as the drawing was clear,
light touches of the brush fixed
it, made it more precise, or cor
rected it. These final and more
important touches were gener
ally applied by Raphael himself,
and he sometimes availed him
self of the opportunity to modify his original composition.
" In regard to the painting of the frescoes themselves, the mason
spread the mortar early in the morning, according to instructions
given by Raphael the previous evening. He of course began at the
top, so that the mortar might drip without the drops of water falling
on to the parts already dry. The next thing was to transfer the

STUDY FOR THE DANTE IN THE PARNASSUS.
(Albertina Collection.)

RAPIDITY OF FRESCO

125

pounced drawings on to the fresh mortar, which was done by means
of an iron pin. This done, Raphael began to paint, commencing with
the high lights. The colours were placed in small pots, like those
which may be seen in one of the Loggia frescoes and in the picture
at the academy of St. Luke. Raphael made his arrangements so as
to paint at one sitting all those parts of a figure or group which were
to bo of the same ' value ; ' if he had interrupted the work it would
have been very difficult to avoid a break in the tones.
" It is impossible to say how much time Raphael devoted to the
execution of his drawings and cartoons, but so far as regards the
mural pictures themselves, the bevelled edges of each day's work—

PRUDENCE, FORCE, AND MODERATION.

an arrangement which was necessary in order that the mortar of one
day should adhere to that of the next — enable one to follow the
progress of the work step by step. I have calculated that, in the
Incendio del Borgo, the large group to the left, composed of four
figures all more than life-size, was painted in a week. In the School
of Athens each figure took less than a day. The architectural parts
were executed with prodigious rapidity, and as Raphael generally
had a very large surface prepared by the mason, the mortar was
often still too wet when he began to paint, the consequence being
that there are deep cracks in various parts of the portico. The after-
touches, it is true, must have necessitated an addition of work, and
this is specially noticeable in the Parnassus, where the sky is fresco,
while the laurels which overshadow the Muses are in tempera, the

126 RAPHAEL
consequence of which is that the colour comes off on the finger at
the slightest touch. But about 1516 Raphael had become so pro
ficient in fresco-work that he rarely had occasion to go over the
ground a second time.
" In his Galatea, the lines of demarcation between the different
parts of the fresco are very distinct, and an examination of them
proves that the whole composition took from twelve to fifteen days."
This wonderful facility explains how Raphael managed to execute
from twelve to fifteen pictures or frescoes in a year, and in 1518 as
many as twenty, or, perhaps, twenty-two.
While Raphael's mind was occupied by the frescoes of the Camera
della Segnatura, feelings of a different kind were stirring his heart.
For the first time in his life he knew what it was to love, and
endeavoured to express his feelings in verse. Three of the sonnets
composed at this epoch are still in existence ; they are written upon
the backs of drawings for the Dispute of the Sacrament. Raphael
was probably trying his hand at verse for the first time, for the style
is laboured, and the idea often confused. It is evident, too, that he
was continually troubled by the rhyme, for we find on a corner
of one sheet, near a line ending with " polo," a number of words like
" solo, volo, dolo," noted down, while after a line ending with " luce "
the words " conduce, riduce, aduce," appear. We append a translation
of the famous one in the British Museum.1
The key to the allusion contained in this sonnet is lost to us, but
the meaning of the next presents less difficulty. " Love, thou hast
bound me with the light of two eyes, which torment me ; with a face
like snow and roses, with sweet words and pretty manners. So great
is my ardour that no river or sea could extinguish my fire. But I
do not complain, for my ardour makes me happy,- and the more I
burn, the more I wish to do so. How sweet was the chain, how
light the yoke of her white arms around my neck ! When these
bonds were loosed, I felt a mortal grief. I will say no more ; a great
joy kills, and though my thoughts turn to thee, I keep silence."
In the third sonnet Raphael swears to himself not to betray the
secret of his happiness : ¦' Just as Paul, descended from the skies, was
i " Very tender is the recollection of my attack, but how grievous it was to
separate ! I was like mariners who have lost their star, if, indeed, I was not in
a worse plight. Oh, my tongue, take speech, that I may tell the black treason
of which love has made me the victim. Nevertheless, I thank him, and praise
him. It was evening ; one sun had set but another arose in its place ; it was an
hour which favoured acts rather than words. But I was oppressed by the fire
which consumed me ; the more my manhood desired to make itself heard, the
more silent I became." — (See also L, Pagan, Raffaello Sanzio and his Sonnet,.
1884.-W.A.) { th

THE STANZA D ELIODORO 127
unable to reveal the secrets of God, so my heart has covered my
thoughts with an amorous veil. So I say nothing of all I have seen,
of all I have done, because of the joy which I hide in my heart. My
hair shall change its colour rather than my duty shall be forgotten
in thoughts which might be blamed," &c.
We do not know to whom these passionate words were addressed ;
Passavant conjectures that Raphael had already become acquainted
with the Fornarina, and that the woman in these sonnets and in the
Barberini portrait are one, but he adduces no real argument to
support his view.

CHAPTER XII

The Camera della Segnatura, having been completed in 1511, after
three years' labour, Julius II., still full of enthusiasm, commissioned
Raphael to decorate the room adjoining, now known as the Stanza
d'Eliodoro. In the Camera della Segnatura is symbolized the power
of intellect. Science, Art, and Poetry are glorified together with
Theology and Jurisprudence ; in the Stanza d'Eliodoro Art has abdi
cated her independence, and seeks only to remind us that we are in
the palace of a sovereign pontiff named Julius II. It was Julius II.
who determined that modern politics should be introduced into these
representations from sacred history, and the Expulsion of Heliodorus
from the Temple symbolized in his eyes the expulsion of the French
from Italy. At this time the strife between Louis XII. and the
Pope had reached such a pitch of exasperation that, not content with
shedding streams of blood, the two sovereigns called Art to the
assistance of their mutual hate, and in 1512 Louis XII. had a medal
struck with this inscription, "Perdam Babylonis nomen." Julius
retorted with another medal on the reverse of which he appeared
on horseback, whip in hand, chasing the barbarians from Italy, and
treading underfoot the arms of France.
A drawing in the Louvre, of which we give a facsimile below,
shows us where Raphael and his patron hesitated in their choice of
subjects for the Stanza d'Eliodoro. It was at first intended to
represent, in one of the two great lunettes above the windows, a
scene from the Apocalypse, God giving to the seven angels the
trumpets which were to produce such frightful calamities. On the
right St. John, represented as an old man, is seated writing ; in the
apex we see God floating over the altar giving the trumpets to his

128

RAPHAEL

messengers, whilst near Him is an eighth angel holding a brazen
censer, at the touch of which the earth is to open and blaze with-
lightnings. On the left, the Pope is kneeling at his Prie-Dieu in
almost the same attitude as in the Mass of Bolsena. Julius is here
represented with a clean-shaven face, which suggests that the sketch,
was made at a somewhat early period, as in the Gregory IX. pro
mulgating the Decretals the Pope already wears a beard. The Stanza
d'Eliodm-o had been decorated about the time of Nicholas V., by
Piero della Francesca. Raphael, being unable to save the works
of his predecessor, had them copied by his pupils. Later decora-

STUDY FOR A SCENE FROM THE APOCALYPSE.
(Louvre.)
tions, painted probably by Peruzzi, still exist in company with the
works of Sanzio. In this chamber Raphael was assisted for the first
time by Giulio Romano, a youth then twenty years of age.
The fresco which gives its name to the hall, the Expulsion of
Heliodorus from the Temple, is not less celebrated than the great
works in the Camera della Segnatura.
In the second fresco in the Stanza d'Eliodoro, the Mass of Bolsena,
the whole scene is admirable, and combines all the beauties of com
position with those of eloquent expression, and to these are joined
a warmth of colouring not before seen in Raphael's work. The

STUDY FOR PAPAL GEOUP IN THE HELIODORUS.

130 RAPHAEL
influence of the Venetian Sebastiano Luciani did much to turn
Raphael's thoughts towards qualities in art which, unhappily, his
desire to rival the great works of Michael Angelo soon caused him
to forget. The two last frescoes of the Stanza d'Eliodoro, the March of Attila,
and the Deliverance of St. Peter, were finished during the reign of
Leo X., but one of them, at least, is connected with the history of
Julius II.
There can be no doubt that both the March of Attila and the
Expulsion of Heliodorus from the Temple are allusions to the victories
gained by the Papacy. The true Attila, says Roscoe, is the French
king, Louis XII. The choice of the subject was a happy one. It
recalls one of the most brilliant successes of the Papacy after it had
become the sovereign power in Rome, and that a success due solely
to moral force. What could be more happy than the choice of a
victory gained by papal eloquence in the presence of two opposed
civilizations, that of ancient Rome, which was at its last gasp, and
that of the invaders who were approaching their triumph ?
The sack of Rome in 1527 was the barbarians' revenge for the
insults heaped on them by Julius II.
A fine drawing in the Louvre shows us the composition as it first
occurred to Raphael. In it the Pope and his escort, instead of facing
Attila as principal actors, are represented as spectators.
A drawing at Oxford (Robinson, p. 225—227), which appears to
be only a copy from a sketch by Raphael now lost, shows through
what numerous phases the Attila passed before the fresco was com
plete. The Huns are there represented dressed like Turks of the
sixteenth century. Attila is haranguing the Pope, while in the
drawing in the Louvre and in the final composition itself, he is repre
sented as terrified at the sight of the apostle hovering in the air.
Lastly, the Pope (carried in an armchair instead of on horseback)
bears a strong resemblance to Julius II., by whom the picture seems
to have been ordered, although it remained unfinished at the time of
his death; Raphael afterwards substituted for his portrait that of
Leo X.
The Deliverance of St. Peter from Prison, like the Heliodorus and
the Attila, contains an allusion to the successes of the reigning Pope,
but the allusion is no longer obscure. It was Leo X., not Julius II.,
who gave this subject to his artist. The Cardinal Giovanni de'
Medici having been taken prisoner in a journey from Ravenna,
shortly afterwards succeeded in escaping under the most extraordinary
circumstances, a year to the very day before his elevation to the

THE CHAMBER OF HELIODORUS

131

Pontificate. It was this deliverance that Leo X. wished to symbolize
under that of St. Peter. y
As regards the other two frescoes, some connoisseurs are of opinion
(and their opinion continually makes converts) that they must be
assigned to Giulio Romano. The caryatides in grisaille-vreatly
restored in 1702-3 by Maratta-complete the decoration of the

STUDY FOR THE MADONNA DELLA CASA ALBA.

Chamber of Heliodorus. In these single figures Raphael has forcibly
symbolized the power of the papal states.
The painters of the Renaissance did not despise the most humble
works of decoration. Raphael readily consented to paint above the
fireplace of a room, said to be that of Innocent VIIL, the arms of
Julius II. supported by two nude children. One of these figures still
exists ; it was bequeathed by the painter Wicar to the Academy of

132

RAPHAEL

St. Luke at Rome. Julius II. also confided to Raphael the decor
ation of the corridor connecting the Vatican with the Belvedere-; of
the seventeen bays which form this corridor, Raphael had decorated
one, before the death of Julius, for 200 ducats. For four others done
in the time of Leo X. he only received 150 ducats each. A consider-

STUDY FOR THE MADONNA DELLA CASA ALEA.
able portion of this building fell down in the reign of Clement VII.,
and it is probable that the pictures in question perished on that
occasion. The decoration of the " Stanze " would have been sufficient to
engross the whole life of a less able and prolific artist than Raphael,

THE ALDOBRANDINI, OR GARVAGH, MADONNA.
(National Gallery, London.)

134 RAPHAEL
but the frescoes in the pontifical palace form only a small portion of
the work he produced between the years 1508 and 1513. During
this period several altar-pieces were completed, such as the Madonnas
di Foligno, di Loreito and del Pesce, and the Holy Family of Naples;
as well as easel-pictures like the Madonna della Casa Alba, the Alio- :,
brandini or Garvagh Madonna, the Louvre Virgin with the Diadem; \
a fresco ordered by Goritz for the church of St. Augustine; the
Isaiah ; the portraits of Julius II. and Bindo Altoviti ; the beautiful
drawings for Lucretia and the Massacre of the Innocents, etc., etc.
Raphael was also busy at this period with works of architecture.
The Madonna della Casa Alba, now in the Hermitage at St.
Petersburg, recalls, both in composition and style, the Madonnas of
the Florentine period. Seated on the ground, Mary holds a book
in one hand, while with the other she draws St. John towards her
Son. The former is kneeling, and brandishing his little cross with
childlike joy.
We reproduce two drawings in the Wicar collection, by means
of which we may study the method of the artist. His first model for
the general grouping was a man, whom we shall find transformed in
the second drawing into a perfect Madonna, and in another step the
final composition is completed.
The Madonna of the Aldobrandini Family, in the National Gallery,
displays a severity which strongly contrasts with the grace of the
Madonna della Casa Alba. ,;
For beauty of conception, freedom of handling, and harmonious|
colour, the Madonna di Foligno, painted about 1511, is greatly '
superior to the works we have already studied ; and among all
Raphael's Madonnas that of San Sisto alone ranks above it. Seated
in the clouds in a golden glory, her Son standing by her side, Mary ;
looks down on the donor, Sigismondo de' Conti, who is kneeling belows
clothed in the superb scarlet mantle of the Pope's private chamber
lains. Innumerable Angels surround the Queen of Heaven. The ?
Child smiles at the devout old man who worships Him. Upon the
earth, which is illumined by a rainbow and covered with vegetation,
St. John the Baptist and St. Francis are offering homage, while St.
Jerome presents the donor to the holy Mother.
The Madonna di Foligno was painted by order of Sigismondo de'
Conti (died February 23, 1512), and appears to have been commis
sioned in fulfilment of a vow. The bomb which is bursting in mid-air
is an allusion to the dangers incurred by Conti during the siege of
Foligno, his native town. From the high altar of the church of the
Ara-Coeli, where it was first placed, this picture was taken to Foligno,

THE MADONNA DEL PESCE

135

thence to Paris by Napoleon, whence, after Waterloo, it returned to
Italy and was placed in the Vatican, where it still remains.

STUDY FOR THE VIRGIN WITH THE FISH.
(Uffizi.)
The Madonna del Pesce is at once the most grave and the most
touching of Raphael's Madonnas.
The signification of the Madonna del Pesce has been often discussed.

136 RAPHAEL
The most satisfactory explanation has been given perhaps by Passa
vant. It appears that diseases of the eye are and were very prevalent
at Naples, and a chapel was erected where persons so afflicted were
wont to go to pray. As Raphael's Madonna was painted for this
chapel, it was natural that the artist should introduce into it Tobit
with the fish which cured his father's blindness. As to St. Jerome,
he probably was introduced as having translated the First Book of
Tobit and being chiefly instrumental in its being added to the Bible.
The Madonna remained in the church of San Domenico at Naples
until 1638, when the Duke of Medina, Viceroy of the King of Spain,
had it taken to his palace in spite of the resistance of the monks.
In 1656 it became the property of Philip IV. of Spain.
The only fresco painted by Raphael for a private patron in the
time of Julius II. was the Prophet Isaiah in the church of St.
Augustine, ordered by Jean Goritz of Luxemburg. Of this Vasari tells
a curious tale : " Bramante, who had the keys of the Sistine Chapel,
took Raphael there secretly to study the work of Michael Angelo.
After this visit Raphael repainted his picture of Isaiah, although it
was already completed. It shows how greatly his style was ennobled
by the sight of Michael Angelo's productions. When Buonarroti
returned and saw the Isaiah he guessed what had happened, that
Bramante had betrayed his trust in order to add to Raphael's
glory." The number of portraits painted by Raphael in Rome was small,
and we are told that he reserved his powers as a portrait painter for
the popes and his own intimate friends. It would be difficult to
name one single portrait of a stranger beyond those of the Violinista
and of The Young Man in the Louvre. Julius II., the Duke Guido
baldo, Federigo Gonzaga, Leo X., Giuliano and Lorenzo de' Medici
and Joanna of Aragon, were all either patrons or their intimate
friends ; Bindo Altoviti, Inghirami, Bibbiena, Beazzano, Navagero,
Tebaldeo, Castiglione and the Fornarina, formed his own entourage.
All that others could obtain from him was their introduction as minor
personages in frescoes, where sometimes they appeared in very
insignificant characters.
It is supposed that the Pitti Julius II. is one of the first portraits
done by Raphael in Rome. Every one knows this picture, yet who
knows where to find the original? Many examples lay claim to the
honour ; yet even if we put aside all but the two preserved in the
Tribune of the Uffizi and in the Pitti Palace, the problem is still far
from being solved. Twenty years ago the one in the Pitti was
generally believed to be the original. Now, however, most connois-

PORTRAIT OF BINDO ALTOVITI

137

seurs pronounce in favour of the picture in the Tribune, and believe
the first-named to be a Venetian copy.
His portrait of Bindo Altoviti is very different. In place of a man

J.UCRETIA.
(Facsimile of the Engraving by Marc- Antonio.)
worn and bent with age, we see a youth full of health and vigour
with long fair hair reaching to his shoulders, frank blue eyes and a
laughino- mouth, revealing one of those expansive natures which
Raphael loved. The portrait of Bindo Altoviti remained until 1808

THE BARBERINI FORNARINA 139
in the palace of his descendants at Florence ; it was then bought by
Prince Louis of Bavaria, who placed it in the museum at Munich.
There seems very little reason to doubt that Raphael was the
author of the famous portrait in the Barberini Gallery known as the
"Fornarina." In support of this opinion we may quote a letter,
dated 1595, in which mention is made of a portrait by Raphael in
the possession of the Countess Santa-Fiora at Rome, representing a
nude female figure, half length. A second letter, dated 1597, speaks
of the same portrait as a " Venus." And finally in 1618, Fabio Chigi,
the future Pope Alexander VII., formulates the theory that the
woman of the portrait was Raphael's mistress. The comparatively
recent date of this last hypothesis has caused its rejection by many
modern critics, but we think that an argument in its support, which
has hardly received the consideration it deserves, is supplied by the
existence in the Villa Lante, on the Janiculum, of an old fresco, repre
senting the Barberini portrait together with a portrait of Raphael,
and significantly coupling the two with portraits of Titian and his
mistress. . It is also from the reign of Julius II. that the first engravings of
Marc-Antonio date. The Lucretia is justly considered a masterpiece.
Everything shows that Marc-Antonio took infinite trouble with the
work, and did his best to gain Raphael's approval.
The Massacre of the Innocents, the studies for which are now in
the Albertina Gallery, was treated about the same time as the
Judgment of Solomon, that is about 1510. In it Raphael returned to
a subject he had been attracted by in extreme youth. This attach
ment to ideas once held is a distinctive trait of his character.
The winter of 1513 was -a sad one for Raphael. On February
20 died the greatest of his benefactors and the greatest of the
Popes, Julius II., who had been the first to give him a task worthy
of his powers ; he who, hard and stern towards others, had treated
the young painter with almost fatherly affection. Raphael had been
about four years and a half in the service of the Soldier-Pope. The
mere recapitulation of the works executed in this short period fills us
with admiration and amazement.

140 RAPHAEL

CHAPTER XIII

When Cardinal Giovanni was raised to the Papal throne, the
name of Medici had for almost a century been celebrated throughout
Europe in connection with literature and art. Cosmo, the " Father
of his country," understood that if a simple citizen wished to make
himself worthy to govern so illustrious a town he must place himself
at the head of the intellectual movement which was then making
Florence the Athens of Italy. During thirty years his influence was
almost that of a king. He gave his treasures to found an academy,
to build palaces, to fill them with frescoes, and to found a museum of
antiquities that had no equal. His name is indissolubly connected
with those of Brunelleschi, Donatello, Michelozzo, Filippo Lippi,
Niccolo Niccoli, Traversari, and Ficino; in short, with all the great
Florentine leaders of the Renaissance. Not content with energetic
ally helping the onward progress of art, he also placed at the disposal
of the artists the most perfect existing models of classic antiquity.
His collection, which was under the superintendence of Donatello, in
time contained an unequalled store of marbles, bronzes, gems, and
medals. Rome was Rome no longer, and Florence took her place.
His son Pietro followed in his footsteps ; but both he and his father
were only forerunners of the most brilliant of their family, the
Magnificent Lorenzo, father of Leo X.
Born and educated in such an atmosphere, a disciple of Politian,
Mirandola, and Ficino, intimate with all the illustrious men of
science, art, and letters of Florence, it was but natural that Giovanni,
the favourite son of Lorenzo, should have been from boyhood initiated
into all intellectual delights. After Giovanni, then scarcely fifteen,
had obtained the Cardinal's purple, Lorenzo, who, if we may believe
his contemporaries, had paid 200,000 golden ducats for this honour,
wrote him an admirable letter in which he recommended him among
other things to prefer- a true antique to the richest ornaments, jewels,
or embroidery. " Silks and jewels," he says, " seldom become a prelate
such as you now are. Interest yourself rather in fine books and
curious pieces of antiquity." But fortune soon turned her back on the
Medici. Their expulsion from Florence, the pillage of their treasures,
the dispersion of their collections, were blows to crush the strongest.
Cardinal Giovanni never despaired. Remaining in Rome, he con
tinued to be the ardent patron of arts and letters. The restoration
of the church of the Navicella, from which Giovanni took his title as

POETEAIT OF LEO X.
(Pitti Palace.)

142 RAPHAEL
Cardinal, placed him among the first of the Roman art-patrons; it
has been said that Raphael directed this work. It is not surprising
that on mounting the Papal throne Giovanni was crippled with debt.
Happily the treasures left by Julius II. permitted him to indulge to
the full his inherited love for magnificence. His election created,
both in Rome and throughout Italy, indescribable enthusiasm.
People were tired of the stern and warlike temperament of Julius
II., and his successor had long been known for his gentleness and
liberality. The prodigality of Leo X. had for pendant an intellectual
epicureanism such as Italy never before had seen. Every depart
ment of science and art, every branch of literature, obtained a share
of the Pope's patronage, without, however, causing him to neglect the
interests of the Church, or still more those of Medici.
He was the incarnation of the Renaissance, not in its purest, but
in its most brilliant form. Great as the power of Nicholas V. and of
Sixtus IV. had been, those Popes had never grouped round them so
many illustrious men. From the very commencement of Leo's reign
the pontifical court became the centre of a political and artistic
movement. On one side were sages and writers — such as Ariosto,
Bembo, Bibbiena, Sadoleto, Inghirami, Castiglione, Beroaldus, Beaz-
zano, Tebaldeo, Navagero, Colocci, Acciajuoli, Aleandro, Andrea
Fulvio, Raphael Maffei da Volterra, Paolo Giovio, Giovanni Lascaris,
Aretino, and many others. On the other, men such as Bramante,
Michael Angelo, and Raphael, surrounded by a phalanx of pupils who
themselves soon became masters ; then Baldassare Peruzzi, the two
Sansovinos, Giuliano and Antonio da San-Gallo, Fra Bartolommeo,
Sodoma, Signorelli, Sebastiano, Fra Giocondo, Marcillat, Giovanni
Barile, Caradosso, and many others. It was more like an assembly
of gods than of simple mortals. The great Leonardo himself mixed
in the brilliant crowd, surrounded by his pupils, Beltraffio, Melzi, Salai,
Lorenzo, and Fanfaia.
Each Pope's reign is inaugurated by coronation fetes and a
procession. The procession of Leo X. is the most magnificent
recorded in history. Raphael, no doubt, personally assisted.
Never before had Rome seen such a gorgeous display.
The coronation and procession were but the prelude to other fetes.
The most unique, perhaps, of all those organized by Leo X. was one
in which Baraballo da Gaeta, the least scrupulous poet of the time,
was the hero. This grotesque personage thought himself a second
Petrarch, and his ambition was to be crowned on the Capitol. The
Pope accepted the idea gleefully, and the fete day of the saints

LEO S MAGNIFICENCE 143
Cosma and Damian was chosen for the ceremony. It was decided
that Baraballo should be dressed as a triumphant Roman general,
and mounted on an elephant which had been presented to the Pope
by the King of Portugal. In vain did the poet's family, who were of
distinguished rank in Gaeta, implore him to abandon his ridiculous
project. Baraballo only thought they were jealous, and reproached
them. The day arrived, and clad in a gold-embroidered purple robe,
he passed through the streets on his elephant amidst the shouts of
the people and the sound of trumpets and tambourines. At the
bridge of Saint Angelo, the elephant refused to lend itself any longer
to the public diversion, and Baraballo was forced to dismount. Leo
wished Raphael to perpetuate the remembrance of it, and Giovanni
Barile carried out the young painter's design in a mosaic which still
exists over the door of the Camera della Segnatura. The old poet is
seated on a throne supported by an elephant, and bearing the
inscription: POETA BARRABAL.
Baraballo disappeared after this, but the elephant continued to
play a conspicuous part at the papal court. It died in 1516, and
Leo, to assuage the grief of the people, had it painted by Raphael in
colossal dimensions, on a high tower at the entrance to the Vatican.
Below the portrait was the following inscription : —
JO. BAPTISTA BRACONIVS AQVILANVS A CVBICVLO
ET ELEPHANTIS CVRyE PRiEFECTVS
POSVIT
MDXVI. 8 JVNII
LEONIS X. PONT. ANNO QVARTO
RAPHAEL VRBINAS QVOD NATURA ABSTVLERAT
ARTE RESTITVIT.
Some may think the acceptance of such a commission lowering to
the dignity both of Raphael and his art. But the Pope's chamberlain,
Giovanni Battista dell' Aquila, looked after the elephant, so it was not
astonishing that the Pope's painter took its portrait.
The Vatican, and sometimes the castle of St. Angelo, were the
scenes of other fetes. Leo X. loved comedy, and did not disdain to
take part in the Calandra of Bibbiena and the Suppositi of Ariosto.
Painting played a principal part in these representations. Raphael
undertook the scenery of the Suppositi. Had not Mantegna in 1501
painted the cartoons of the Triumph of Ccesar and the Triumph of
Petrarch in the theatre of Mantua ? In 1513, when the Pamulus of
Plautus was given in honour of Giuliano de' Medici, did not Baldas
sare Peruzzi paint the scenery for the theatre on the Capitol, and a

144

RAPHAEL

little later scenes for the Calandra ? The intervals between the fites
and the theatrical representations were filled up by splendid banquets.
The Pope spent 8000 ducats a month on his table. Yet all his
biographers describe it as having been of the simplest character, as
he o-ave to his guests neither expensive wines nor delicate viands.
The banquets given to the Pope by Agostino Chigi displayed a pomp
worthy of the Roman Empire itself. The feast given by him in 1518
to Leo X., fourteen cardinals, and numerous ambassadors, deserves
special mention. It took place in the famous stable just completed
by Raphael, before the rightful four-footed owners had taken posses
sion. The walls were hung with superb tapestries of golden tissue,
which concealed the racks and mangers. On the floor was laid a
gorgeous silk carpet made in Flanders. The repast cost 2000 golden
ducats, and Leo X., amazed at all this magnificence, said to his host :
"Agostino, your banquet has made me afraid of you." "Do not
alter your feelings, Holy Father," replied the banker, " this place is
more humble than you think," and, raising the hangings, showed his
Holiness that the dining-hall was only a stable. Leo laughed good-
humouredly at this, and promised to come again. Upon the same
occasion Chigi gave a better proof of his savoir-faire. Eleven
massive silver plates of great weight having disappeared, doubtless
stolen by some of the Pope's retinue, Chigi ordered the fact to be
kept secret, to avoid annoyance to his guests. As soon as the feast
was over a hundred horses took their places in the hall.
In a second banquet given to the Pope a few months later, Chigi
showed that he possessed wit as well as love of magnificence. The
feast was held in his pavilion upon the bank of the Tiber, and each
splendid dish, when emptied, was cast by the servitors into the water,
which was as much as to say that Chigi was so rich in silver plate
that he could afford new dishes for each course. The wonder of the
guests was great. They did not know that their cunning host had
spread nets below the surface of the yellow water, and that, after the
feast, his servants would go a-fishing for silver. At a third banquet
the Pope himself, twelve cardinals, and a crowd of prelates, were
served upon silver dishes, each of which bore the arms of him before
whom it was placed.
Before these excesses, worthy of ancient Rome, moralists veiled
their faces and gave vent to sinister predictions. Strangers more
especially heaped reproaches on the Roman court. One of the most
noble and sympathetic among them, Ulrich von Hutten, who visited
Rome in 1516, was so indignant at the frivolity and luxury which he
saw on every side that he wrote a long series of sarcastic epigrams,

GIULIANO DE? MEDICI 145
and published in the same year his famous Epistolce obscurorum
virorum, that thunderbolt which presaged the storms of the Reforma
tion. No amusement, indeed, seemed too profane to the Papal court.
The more severe historians go so far as to accuse Leo X. and those
who surrounded him of paganism.
A few figures will be of use in showing the share which artists
obtained in the liberality of the Pope. He devoted for a time an
annual sum of sixty thousand gold ducats — nearly three million of
francs, about £120,000 — towards the rebuilding of St. Peter's. The
completion of the Loggie, the building of the churches of San
Giovanni Fiorentino and San Lorenzo at Florence, of the Villa
Magliana, and of that at Loretto, and many other great works, also
involved enormous sacrifices. Then came the purchase of rich stuffs,
valuable furniture, and jewels. Tapestries alone absorbed at least
50,000 ducats : 16,000 for the scenes from the Acts of the Apostles ;
20,000 for those from the Life of Christ — not including the cartoons,
&c. ; while immense sums were spent upon mere curiosities — 1000
ducats for a clock and some musical instruments bought of Conrad
Trompa of Nuremberg; 1500 ducats for a narwhal's horn. The
decoration of the Vatican was the least expensive of his undertakings,
as Raphael received but 1200 ducats for each room. Musicians were
equally well treated. The famous improvisatore Bernardo Accolti,
surnamed Unico Aretino, whom we have already encountered at the
court of Guidobaldo, received such good pay from the Pope that he
purchased for himself the title of Duke of Nepi. A Jewish lute-
player, Giammaria, obtained the title of Count and a castle. The
singer, Gabriel Merino, acquired still greater distinction, as Leo
named him Archbishop of Bari. In face of all this, we can hardly
treat as a fable Vasari's assertion that Raphael hoped and wished to
be made a cardinal.
First among the personages distinguished by birth or talent was
the younger brother of Leo X., Giuliano de' Medici, whose lofty
mind and noble character made him a truly great man. His last act
was worthy of his noble life. Two days before his death he summoned
the Pope, his brother, to his side, and implored him to renounce his
designs against Urbino, reminding him of all the kindness their family
had received from that of Duke Guidobaldo. The Pope simply
replied, " Giuliano, think of how to get well ; it is not the time to
speak of such matters," and notwithstanding the entreaties of his
dying brother, he refused to make any promises.
Both painting and sculpture have immortalized Giuliano's fea
tures. A short time before his death Raphael, with whom he had been

146 RAPHAEL
on intimate terms ever since his stay in Urbino,1 painted his por
trait. A copy of the picture, unfortunately much damaged, was found
a few years ago in the possession of the Grand Duchess Marie of
Russia. Very different was Lorenzo, the nephew of both Leo and Giuliano
and the worthy father of Catherine de' Medici. The Venetian am
bassador to the Holy See describes him as another Caesar Borgia, but
without the energy and audacity which have given to the son of
Alexander VI. a kind of epic grandeur. It was he who, for his own
profit, induced his uncle to undertake the odious expedition against
Urbino ; a crime which disgraced his reign, exhausted his finances,
and plunged Italy into new troubles before she had recovered from
the turmoils of Julius II. Lorenzo did not live to enjoy the fruits of
his plots. He died in 1519, at the age of twenty-five. Lorenzo de'
Medici was the original of Michael Angelo's Pensieroso. Raphael
sketched his portrait for a medal which was struck in his honour; and
painted the Holy Family of Francis I. and the St. Michael for him.
The Pope's cousin, Cardinal Giulio de' Medici, the future Clement
VII., also exercised great influence over Leo. The commission for the
Transfiguration and the building of the Villa Madama ensure him
the gratitude of posterity. He, alone of all the Medici, kept a just
balance between the two rivals who at this time were disputing the
crown of art: for without ceasing to admire Raphael he had the
courage to appreciate Michael Angelo. It was under his auspices
that the artistic tournament was held between Raphael on the one
hand, and the friend and champion of Buonarroti, Sebastiano of
Venice, on the other. Among the many relations and friends of Leo
X. we must also mention Franceschetto Cibo, his brother-in-law, and
his son Innocenzio, whom he made a cardinal ; another nephew, Lo
dovico Rossi, whom Raphael, in his celebrated portrait in the Pitti,
has painted standing at the Pope's elbow. All these were remarkable
for their love of display.
Among the friends and patrons of our painter we must not forget
Cardinal Lorenzo Pucci. It was he who ordered the St. Cecilia ; and
Raphael painted his portrait.
Giannozzo Pandolfini, bishop of Troja, was another of Raphael's
friends and patrons. His portrait was introduced into the Coronation
of Charlemagne, and for him Raphael designed the famous palace in
1 When Giuliano became Due de Nemours, and was occupied with his house
hold, he did not forget Raphael. The name of the Umbrian artist stands among
those of his friends, in a list made in 1515, and signed by Giuliano (State Archives
of Florence, Strozzi No. 10, fol. 179).

LEOS COURT 147
the Via San-Gallo at Florence. For Giovanni Battista Branconio
dell' Aquila, Raphael built the beautiful Palazzo del Borgo and
painted the Visitation, now in the Museo of Madrid. Branconio was
one of Raphael's executors. One of the Pope's doctors must also be
included among the friends of the painter, who built a palace for
him which may still be seen in the neighbourhood of the Vatican.
Among the numerous poets and scholars who formed part of the
same circle were the Venetian Andrea Navagero, Beazzano, who was
a confidential agent to the Vatican, Antonio Tebaldeo, whose portrait
Raphael painted, and Giacomo Sannazaro, the author of a famous
poem, De partu Virginis. A letter of Bembo's gives us a glimpse of
the happy company making an excursion to Tivoli. " To-morrow,"
writes the apostolic secretary, " after twenty-seven years, I shall again
see Tivoli, with Navagero, Beazzano, Castiglione, and Raphael; we
want to see everything, ancient and modern, and are going there for
the amusement of Andrea (Navagero), who returns to Venice to
morrow after the sacrament."
It was Leo X. who brought to Rome Marco Fabio Calvo, who
exercised much influence over Raphael. Born at Ravenna, in the
first half of the fifteenth century, Calvo, one of the noble family of the
Guiccioli, devoted himself early in life to the study of Latin and
Greek. Leo X. created him first a prior and afterwards archpriest of
San Piero in Trento, besides giving him other honours and a pension,
which enabled him to devote his whole time to study. He cared
nothing for money ; lived entirely upon vegetables, and shared with
his friends and relations the annual sum granted him by the Pope.
Notwithstanding his age and infirmities he studied with all the
vigour of youth. Raphael, who at this time amused himself by an
imaginary restoration of ancient Rome, and wished to obtain the help of
Calvo's antiquarian knowledge, took him to live with him, and tended
him with a son's devotion; while Calvo repaid the obligation by
translating Vitruvius for him. In 1525 he published his translation
of Hippocrates. Made prisoner during the sack of Rome in 1627, he
was despoiled of all he possessed, and being unable to pay the enor
mous ransom demanded of him, his tormentors dragged him with
them wherever they went, until at last he died of hunger and fatigue
in a hospital near Rome.
A gathering of artists, such as had never before been known,
added to the Mat of Leo's court. Bramante, Fra Giocondo, and
Giuliano da San-Gallo were now old, but the Pope still held them in
high favour. A new generation was springing up, composed chiefly
of Bramante's scholars, amongst them Antonio da San-Gallo, Gio-

148 RAPHAEL
vanni Francesco da San-Gallo, Aristotele da San-Gallo, Baldassare
Peruzzi, and the numerous architects who were employed in the
rebuilding of St. Peter's.
Painting was also well represented, for, besides Raphael, we hear
of Leonardo da Vinci, who executed, at the end of 1513 or the com
mencement of 1514, two pictures for Baldassare Turini ; of Fra Bar
tolommeo, who in the spring of 1514 painted the Saint Peter and
Saint Paul, which are still in the Quirinal ; of Sodoma, who presented
to the Pope a picture of the Death of Lucretia, and received a knight
hood in return. About the same time Luca Signorelli again tried his
fortune in Rome. Timoteo Viti, Raphael's friend and fellow-country
man, also arrived during the early part of Leo's reign, and assisted in
the Sibyls of the Pace ; Girolamo Genga, an Urbinese, also worked
among the assistants of Raphael. As for the great chief of the School
of Ferrara, Benvenuto Tisio, better known as Garofalo, he only seems
to have paid a flying visit between 1510 and 1512.
But the chief place among all these painters must be assigned to
Sebastiano Luciani, the Venetian, who had already begun to give
indications of that spirit of envy which poisoned his whole existence.
As to Raphael's pupils, they now began to develop into a legion. The
most promising among them were Marc Antonio, Giulio Romano, and
Giovanni da Udine.
Sculpture was represented by the great Michael Angelo, Raphael's
illustrious rival, to whom Leo X., who never gave much encourage
ment to sculpture, as it was too severe for his taste, confided the com
pletion of San Lorenzo at Florence, the patron church of the Medici.
The decorative arts obtained many recruits under Leo X. Giovanni
Barile succeeded Giovanni of Verona, and was employed under
Raphael in carving doors and other ornamental details in the
Vatican Stanze. Amongst the gold and silver smiths Antonio da
San-Marino was, according to Benvenuto Cellini, the first of his time ;
Caradosso alone could compete with him. Antonio, who is interesting
to us on account of his close connection with Raphael, combined the
trade of goldsmith with the dignity of ambassador, as he represented
his native country, the Republic of San-Marino, in its not very
onerous negotiations with the Holy See. In 1509 we hear of him
as one of the founders of the brotherhood of St. Aloysius, and in
1513 for the magnificence of his decorations at the inauguration of
Leo X. He exhibited in front of his shop a fine antique statue of
Venus, upon the pedestal of which he had written in letters of gold
the following Latin verse, which seems to allude to Chigi's famous
motto — Olim hdbuit Cypris sua tempora : —

PAINTING IN THE VATICAN 149
" Mars fuit, est Pallas : Cypria semper ero." 1
(Mars was, Pallas. is ; I, Cypria, shall for ever be.)
Antonio soon became acquainted with Raphael, who presented
him with a picture— the subject of it is unfortunately not stated—
which Castiglione tried afterwards to procure.2 In his will Chigi
desires his two friends to superintend the finishing of his chapel in
Santa Maria del Popolo. So great was Raphael's affection for
Antonio, that he bequeathed to him a great portion of the lands that
he had purchased near the church of Saint Blasius.

CHAPTER XIV

Raphael feared for a moment that the death of Julius II. would
bring to the papal throne some one less favourably disposed towards
art. We find traces of this in his reply to the tutor of the youthful
Frederick of Mantua, on February 19, 1513, the day after the death
of Julius II. " Messire Raphael of Urbino," writes the tutor to his
master, " has returned me the vestments of Messire Federigo that he
had taken for his portrait ; he prays your highness to forgive him, as
at present it is impossible for him to rouse his spirits to continue the
work." The accession of Leo X. reassured him. His election resulted
in the elevation of most of Raphael's friends to the highest dignities.
Giuliano de' Medici was a Roman patrician, and later Captain-General
of the Church; Bibbiena, a cardinal; Bembo, Apostolic Secretary.
As to the Duke of Urbino, Castiglione, Inghirami, Chigi, and others,
they were as ready to help him, at least for several years, as they were
in the time of Julius II. Even had he not possessed so many powerful
and devoted friends Raphael would soon have won the favour of the
new Pope. He had not only become the most celebrated painter, but
the most finished courtier of his day. Left to himself whilst still a
boy, the young Urbinese had felt the necessity of developing those
diplomatic qualities with which nature had so richly endowed him,
and easily acquired the power to charm by gentleness and courtesy.
Connected during his life at Perugia with ecclesiastics and people who
were above the struggles of life, his manners had been formed before
his first return to Urbino. In Florence he learnt all the intrigues of
1 Cancellieri, Storia, p. 74.
2 Lettere pittoriche, ed. Ticozzi, t. v. pp. 239, 240, 242.

150 RAPHAEL
the artistic world ; at Rome, under the teaching of Bramante, he got
an insight into those of the papal court. Four years passed in the
service of such a despot as Julius II. taught him to yield when it was
necessary, to turn the flank of obstacles, and generally to make the
best of his social qualities. It cost him little to be conciliatory and
pleasing. Unselfishness and amiability were natural to him ; never
theless, he knew on occasion how to make himself feared without
having recourse to other arms than mother wit.
His repartees were both lively and keen, and reduced more than
one great noble to silence. One day two cardinals came to his studio
and amused themselves by finding fault with his pictures of St. Peter
and St. Paul, saying that the faces of these two apostles were too red.
" Do not be surprised, your Eminences, at that," replied Raphael, " I
painted them so deliberately ; may we not think that they can blush
in heaven when they see their Church governed by such men as
you ? " His reply to Michael Angelo, who said to him sarcastically,
" You go about with a suite like a general," was " And you alone, like
the hangman."
The qualities which were most required for success with a pope
like Leo X. were complaisance and expedition. Leo heaped work of
all kinds upon Raphael. One day he had to improvise the scenery
for a theatre, the next to paint the portrait of an elephant, or was
asked to sketch out a design for a building, or a medal. What would
Michael Angelo have said to such a demand ? The death of Bra
mante, which took place soon after the accession of the new Pope, was
a great misfortune for Raphael. It deprived him not only of a true
friend, but an adviser full of tact and experience ; and compelled him
alone to undertake the crushing burden of the erection of St. Peter's.
Nor was this all. Raphael succeeded Bramante as General Superin
tendent of the Fine Arts also. He had at one and the same time to
wield the brush and the compass, to arrange fetes and to superintend
excavations. Full of youthful confidence and facility, Raphael
accepted the multitudinous tasks imposed upon him.
His feelings at this time are seen in the beautiful letter written to
his uncle Simone.
" To my very dear uncle Simone, son of Battista di Ciarla
of Urbino, at Urbino.
" Thou who art dear to me as a Father,
" I have received your letter ; it was doubly welcome, as it
showed me that you were not angry with me, although you had

STUDY FOR A GROUP IN THE BATTLE OF OSTIA.
(Albertina Collection.)

STUDY FOE ONE OF THE

LETTER TO SIMONE CIARLA 153
reason to be so ; but you must not forget how difficult it is to write
when one has nothing to say. To-day I have many things to tell you.
As for a wife, I must tell you that I am daily thankful that I did not
take the one you destined for me, or indeed any other. In this
instance I have been wiser than you, who wished to make me change
my state ; and I am sure that you must now see that I am better as I
am. I have capital in Rome worth 3000 ducats, and an assured
income of fifty more. His Holiness allows me a salary of 300 ducats
for superintending the rebuilding of St. Peter's, which will not fail me
as long as I live, and I am certain to make more by it in time. Be
sides this, they give me whatever I ask for my works. I have com
menced the decoration of a large hall for his Holiness, for which I am
to get 1200 golden crowns. Thus, you must see, my dear uncle, that
I do honour to my family as well as to my country. But still I keep
you in fond remembrance, and when I hear your name it sounds to
me like that of a father. Do not complain of my not writing. It is
more difficult for me to do so than for you, who, though having pen
always in hand, allow six months to pass between your letters.
Nevertheless, you are not going to make me angry with you, as you,
unjust one, were with me. Having prematurely left the subject of
marriage, I must return to it for a moment to tell you that (the
cardinal of) St. Maria in Portico wishes me to marry a relation of his,
which I have promised to do on getting your consent and that of my
reverend uncle. Having so promised, I must not break my word.
The affair will soon be settled now, either one way or the other. If it
ends in marriage, you must forgive me ; if not, I shall be at your
orders. You must know that if Francesca Buffa can make a good
match, so can L There is in Rome a young lady with a dower of
3000 gold ducats (and 100 ducats here are worth more than 200 in
Urbino), of good birth, and with an excellent reputation, who is ready
to marry me.
"As to my living in Rome, I can no longer help myself, on
account of the building of St. Peter's, where I have succeeded to
Bramante. But is there any better place than Rome ? Could any
undertaking be more noble than the building of St. Peter's, the first
church of the world ? It will be the largest building ever seen, and
will cost more than a million in gold. The Pope has resolved to give
towards it 60,000 ducats a year, and thinks of nothing else. He has
given me as a colleague a very learned monk, who is more than eighty
years old, and whose reputation is great. Knowing that he has not
long to live, his Holiness expressly gave me him as a colleague that
he might teach me the secrets of architecture and make me perfect in

1 54 RAPHAEL
the art ; his name is Fra Giocondo. The Pope sends for us daily, and
enters into long discussions about the work.
" I beg you to go to the Duke and Duchess, and to tell them all
that I have told you, for I know they will feel pleasure in hearing
that one of their subjects has distinguished himself. Recommend me
to their Highnesses, as I recommend myself to you without ceasing.
Greet all my relations and friends from me, especially Ridolfo, who
regards me with so much affection. " Your Raphael, " Painter at Rome.
"July 1st, 1514."
So numerous were the works undertaken by Raphael during the
reign of Leo X. (from 1513 to 1520), that it is impossible to follow
them step by step. We shall consider them, therefore, according to
subject and not in their chronological order.
The completion of the pictures in the Stanze was doubtless the
first work assigned to Raphael by his new patron. The second Stanza,
that of Heliodorus, was finished in the year 1514. About the middle
of the same year Raphael received the commission for the frescoes of
the third room, which is known as the Stanza dell' Incendio del Borgo.
A little later, in 1515, he sent to Albert Durer the famous study for
one of the groups in the Battle of Ostia — one of the four frescoes in
the hall in question.
It was not until the year 1517 that Raphael found time to
complete this great work, though he painted but a very small portion
of it with his own hand. The date, 1517, is given in an inscription
in the hall itself; it is also known by a letter from the Ferrarese
charge' d'affaires, dated the 6th of June of that year, in which he
states that in two days Raphael will have finished the paintings of
the Stanze for the Pope.
A letter from Bembo to Bibbiena, written July 19, 1517, shows
with what favour these new frescoes were received by the pontifical
court. "The Stanze painted by Raphael are quite beautiful, not
only on account of the skill shown in the execution, but also on
account of the great number of clergy whose portraits he has
introduced." The admiration which they aroused was not, however,
unanimous. Speaking of the frescoes recently completed at the
Villa Chigi, the saddler Leonardo writes to Michael Angelo that they
excel those of the last hall of the Vatican— that of the Incendio del
Borgo. "Peggio che l'ultima stanza di palazzo assai." (Letter of
January 1, 1518.)

THE STANZA DELL' INCENDIO 155
The Incendio del Borgo is the only fresco in the third Stanza that
can be considered Raphael's work. In the Battle of Ostia, the
Coronation of Charlemagne, and the Oath of Leo III., the assistance
of pupils is but too evident. Overwhelmed with work, Raphael had
only time to compose the Cartoons, leaving to his scholars the labours
of tracing and painting them. Hence the want of life in the heads,
the coldness of the colouring, and the want of delicacy in the details.
Sometimes he was obliged to allow others to help in the execution
of the Cartoons. The time had passed when he could wait for the
execution of a subj ect till his ideas were ripened by meditation.
Both Pope and artist had presentiments of early death, and each
was animated by a strong desire — the Pope longed to multiply proofs
of his magnificence — the painter proofs of his genius. Rarely has
there been seen, in the whole history of art, such a fever of production.
In the first of the frescoes in the Torre Borgia, the Incendio del
Borgo, Raphael exalts an episode of the Liber Pontificalis to the
height of an epic poem. The representation of a miracle accomplished
six or seven hundred years before by Pope Leo IV. — who, by making
the sign of the cross, stopped the flames which threatened to destroy
the Borgo — was not a subject likely to inspire an artist of the
Renaissance. But with Raphael it is not the Borgo which is burning,
but Troy. The admirable group on the left, composed of iEneas
Anchises, Creusa, and Ascanius, forbids any doubt upon the point.
Stupor, resignation, despair, devotion, heroism, are here personified
once for all. In this celebrated work Raphael has renounced that
unity and rhythm which had formerly ruled his compositions. Here,
in place of a large and excited crowd, there are but a few groups,
sometimes even solitary figures, all without very intimate cohesion.
Every one is thinking of himself, and not of his neighbour. The
scattered interest lessens the effect of the work.
In the pictures of the third room, Raphael's part was confined to
the Cartoons, and it is not certain that even these were done by his
own hand. The genuineness of many of the figures is disputed, and
critics are quite unable to agree as to the part that may be attributed
to the master himself. Innumerable restorations, the earliest dating
from the reign of Clement XII., further diminish our interest in the
Battle of Ostia, the Coronation of Charlemagne, and the Oath of
Leo III.
The Battle of Ostia was, however, prepared with much care. The
superb drawing in red chalk, now in the Albertina collection — the
drawing which Raphael sent to Diirer in 1515— is enough to prove
this. The great German painter treasured it carefully, and wrote on

156 RAPHAEL
it the famous inscription : " 1515. Raphael of Urbino, who has been
held in high esteem by the Pope, drew these naked figures, and sent
them to Albrecht Diirer, of Nuremberg, to show him his hand." In
the Battle of Ostia, as in the other works in the same room, the true
hero is Leo X., and not Leo IV. He it is who, sitting on the bank
with his cardinals, Giulio de' Medici and Bibbiena, bestows on the
soldiers the benedictions of Heaven, and accepts the submission of
the vanquished, who are prostrate before him.
The Coronation of Charlemagne is but an echo of the interview
between Leo X. and Francis I. at Bologna, in 1515. The Pope,
who is placing the crown on the head of the great ruler of the Franks,
is not Leo III. but Leo X., and Francis I. is acting the part of
Charlemagne. The intrusion of contemporary politics into the domain of historical
painting is still more visible in the last of the frescoes of the Torre
Borgia — the Oath of Leo III. It is now generally agreed that this
was painted by a scholar working under the direction of Raphael.
We shall not describe the frescoes in the last Stanza, which is
now known as the Hall of Constantine, as not one of them is by
Raphael. At the death of the master in April 1520, the work in
the last of the Stanze was not begun. The Pope had not even
definitely fixed upon the subjects to be illustrated.

CHAPTER XV

Leo X., in his anxiety to complete the decoration of the Vatican,
wished Raphael, before finishing the paintings in the Stanze, to
begin those of the Loggie, so that both works could be carried on
simultaneously. The Loggie are the galleries which run round the
court of San Damaso, and form on the south the facade of the old
palace of the Vatican. Commenced by Bramante in the reign of
Julius II., the Loggie were finished after the death of their first
architect by Raphael himself. The first storey of the Loggie com
municates with the Borgia apartments ; the second, with the Stanze.
Until the beginning of the present century these splendid galleries
were open to the air. An inclosure of glass now protects them from
the occasional inclemency of the Roman climate, from which they
have suffered much. Nothing certain is known as to the decoration
of the Loggia called Raphael's. We are in ignorance of the date

THE LOGGIA OF RAPHAEL

157

when the work was begun, and do not know what part Raphael took
in it. Vasari, indeed, was informed by contemporaries of Raphael
that he composed the designs for the stucco work and the paintings
of this Loggia.
Herr Springer affirms that Raphael had nothing to do with most
of these compositions, more especially with those of the three last
arcades. These works are as remarkable for carelessness and indiffer-

ADAM AND EVE.

ence as the early ones are for grace and freshness. To suppose them
the work of Raphael would be almost an outrage to his memory. It
is more than likely, that, preoccupied by the works of St. Peter's, he
left to his scholars a task that was beyond their powers.
The arcade that was intrusted to Raphael for decoration consists
of thirteen bays, the ceiling forming as many little domes. Each bay
contains four frescoes, making fifty-two in all, representing scenes

158

RAPHAEL

taken from the Old and New Testaments. The pilasters, door-frames,
and embrasures of the windows, are ornamented with flowers, fruit,
grotesque animals, &c. ; some of these are painted in fresco, others
modelled in stucco. The subjects are varied. A pavement of
enamelled tiles, put down by Luca della Robbia the younger (born
1475, died 1550), completes this work, one of the finest and most

THE DELUGE.

varied of the Renaissance. These frescoes are often happily called
Raphael's Bible. The idea of presenting the chief events of the Old
Testament in a pictorial form was not a new one. Under the
touching name of Biblia Panpcrnm, the Middle Ages have given us
innumerable paintings and miniatures of scenes taken from the Old
Testament and the Evangelists.
Following the practice of early artists, like Ghiberti and Benozzo

THE LOGGIA OF RAPHAEL

159

Gozzoli, and Pinturicchio, Raphael rendered each subject in the
smallest possible number of figures. His compositions may thus
have been narrowed in scope, but they gained in depth. As proving
what we say, we may instance the Joseph interpreting Pharaoh's
Dream. A more harmonious composition, or one more full of grandeur,
does not exist; and yet it contains no more than six, or°at most
seven, figures. His Creation is inspired by that of Michael Angelo ;

ABRAHAM AND THE THREE ANGELS.

his Adam and Eve driven from Paradise by that of Masaccio. But
here his borrowing begins and ends. He chooses from the histories
in Genesis and Exodus those events which appeal to his own
sympathies, and neglects such things as the Sacrifice of Abel, the
Drunkenness of Noah, the Toioer of Babel, the Sacrifice of Isaac, and
other subjects popular in the fifteenth century. Space prevents us
from studying separately each of the fifty-two compositions which
form Raphael's Bible ; but we give our readers a list of the subjects,
enumerating them in the same order as that adopted by Raphael.

160

RAPHAEL

FIRST BAT.
God dividing Light from Darkness. — God dividing the Land from
the Sea. — The Creation of the Sun and the Moon. — The Creation of the
Animals. SECOND BAY.
The Creation of Eve.— The Fall. — The Exile from Eden.— The
Labours of our First Parents.

JACOB AND RACHEL

THIRD BAY.
The Building of the Ark— The Deluge.— The Coming Forth from
the Ark. — Noah's Sacrifice. FOURTH BAY.
Abraham and Melchizedek.—The Covenant of God ivith Abraham.
— The Three Angels' Visit to Abraham.— The Flight of Lot.
FIFTH BAY.
God appearing to Isaac— Isaac embracing Rebekah.— Isaac blessing
Jacob. — Esau claiming the Blessing.

RAPHAEL'S BIBLE

161

SIXTH BAY.
Jacob's Ladder.— Jacob and Rachel— Jacob asking for Rachel's
Hand. — Jacob's Flight from Laban.
SEVENTH BAY.
Joseph telling his Dream to his Brothers.— Joseph sold by his
Brethren.— Joseph and Potiphar's Wife,— Joseph before Pharaoh.

^^gffiSU^gg

Joseph's dream.

EIGHTH BAY.

The Finding of Moses. — The Burning Bush. — The Passage of the
Red Sea. — Moses striking the Rock.

NINTH BAY.

Moses receiving the Tables of the Law. — The Golden Calf. — The
Pillar of Cloud. — Moses showing the Tables of the Law to the People.
M

1.62

RAPHAEL

TENTH BAY.
The Passage of the Jordan.— The Fall of Jericho.— Joshua's Victory
over the Amorites. — The Division of the Prmnised Land.
ELEVENTH BAY.
David anointed King of Israel— David and Goliath.— Triumph of
David. — David and Bathsheba.

THE BURNING BUSH.

TWELFTH BAY.
The Consecration of Solomon. — The Judgment of Solomon. — The
Queen of Sheba. — The Building of the Temple.
THIRTEENTH BAY.
The Adoration of the Shepherds. — The Adoration of the Magi. —
The Baptism of Christ. — The Last Supper.
Twelve small frescoes in gilt camaieu on the socles of the windows
complete Raphael's Bible. These latter, now almost entirely destroyed,

THE ORNAMENTATION OF THE LOGGIE

163

were executed by Perino del Vaga. Eleven of them are taken from
subjects in ancient history (God Blessing the Sabbath, the Offerings of
Cain and Abel, the Rainbow, &c). The subject of the twelfth is the
Resurrection of Christ.
The ornamentation of the Loggie is justly looked upon as
a triumph of decorative art. It affords a good example of the
system of decoration inaugurated by Raphael about this time in his
Cartoons. He made the border independent of the picture, and

THE FINDING OF MOSES.

expressive of nothing but the individual fancy of the artist. In the
borders of his great series of tapestries, the Acts of the Apostles, he
has made use of a great variety of subjects — the History of Leo X.,
the Seasons, Hours, and Fates. So, in the Loggie, the Bible pictures
are surrounded by grotesque figures, architectural views, mythological
scenes, &c. A description of all the ornaments of these galleries
would be enough to dismay the most enthusiastic worker. Volpato
and Ottaviani,.who undertook during the last century to make them
known by engravings, stopped long before they had completed their
work.

164

RAPHAEL

Antiquity supplied most of the subjects, but they did not neglect
contemporary civilization. There is a peasant watching for birds ; a
collection of musical instruments; and another composition shows
us the pupils of Raphael working upon these very galleries. It is a
stucco relief. On the left we see a mason armed with a trowel about
to cover the wall with plaster. Next come two artists, — -the one
painting, the other apparently tracing a design on to the wall ; while
two of their companions bring them pots of colour and cartoons.
On the extreme right a young man is "pricking" a drawing.
According to Vasari, Giovanni da Udine was charged with the
execution of the arabesques and stucco reliefs, but it is evident from
the great taste shown in much of the ornamentation, that Raphael
himself took a practical interest in the work.

RAPHAEL S PUPILS.
(From a stucco relief in the Loggia. )

The decorations of the Vatican contain two more series of frescoes
for which Raphael furnished designs, even if he did not take part in
their actual execution. The hall of the Pope's pages still contains
the figures of Christ and of His Apostles with which it was adorned
under the direction of the master. But these frescoes, in green
camaieu, were so greatly repainted, towards the end of the sixteenth
century, by Taddeo Zucchero, that it is no longer possible to recognize
the hand or even the conception of their author. Happily, the burin
of Marc Antonio has preserved the original designs. His engravings
show that the Apostles of Raphael would have been worthy com
panions to those of Diirer.
The other set of frescoes was commissioned, not by the Pope, but
by Cardinal Bibbiena. They were intended for the embellishment
of a bath-room on the third storey of the palace, close to the Loggie.

THE BATH-ROOM OF CARDINAL BIBBIENA.

166 RAPHAEL
In connection with these works, a letter from Bembo to Bibbiena on
April 19, 1516, is of interest.
" Thus far had I written, when Raphael himself entered. He
seems to have guessed that I was speaking to you of him, and he
begged me to add that he wished you to tell him any other subjects
which you might desire to have painted in your bath-room. Send
him full details of them as soon as you can, because those subjects
already chosen will be commenced upon the walls this week." *
The subject which Bibbiena chose was the History of Venus and
Cupid. The artist painted, therefore, in seven large compositions,
the Birth of Venus — Venus and Cupid borne by Dolphins — Venus
wounded complaining to Cupid — Jupiter and Antiope — Venus drawing
a Thorn from her Foot — Venus and Adonis — Vulcan and Minerva?
Of all the works of Raphael, the decorations of this bath-chamber
show, perhaps, most of the true spirit of the antique. It still exists ;
but since the middle of the present century it has been closed to
visitors, and withdrawn from the study and legitimate curiosity of
artists and amateurs. This exclusion is comprehensible enough;
according to information which we believe to be worthy of credit, the
ceiling has been whitewashed over and the frescoes of the walls
hidden behind battens. We are reduced to study the composition in
those old copies in St. Petersburg.
The decoration of the Vatican and the direction of the works at
St. Peter's were enough to absorb the attention of the most indefatig
able of artists, but Leo X., whose demands grew as fast as Raphael
supplied them, ordered him also to superintend the decoration of his
favourite villa, the Magliana, near Rome. This edifice, which plays
such an important part in the biography of Leo X., dates from the
time of Innocent VIIL (1484-1492); but Julius II. enlarged it so
greatly that we may almost regard it as his creation.
The frescoes in the chapel, which have been so often attributed
to Raphael, were executed between 1513 and 1520; they are the
Martyrdom of St. Cecilia — also called the Martyrdom of St. Felicita —
and the Eternal Father blessing the World. The former was destroyed
in 1830 by the barbarian Vitelli. Not wishing to mix with his
servants during the celebration of the mass, he constructed a private
gallery for himself, and cut an approach to it through the middle of
1 Passavant, Raphael, t. i. p. 236.
'l This last composition is so imperfect that, according to Passavant (t. ii. p. 231),
it can only be attributed to one of the most indifferent of Raphael's pupils.

PILASTERS IN THE LOGGIE.

11113 1 flip

PILASTERS IN THE LOGGIE.

THE MAGLIANA

169

the St. Cecilia. Fortunately, we are able to enjoy the design by
Raphael, in the engraving of Marc Antonio.
Better fortune has attended the second of these frescoes. After
many vicissitudes it found, in 1873, a final resting-place in the

THE ETERNAL FATHER BLESSING THE "WORLD.
(Louvre.)
Louvre.1 ^ No one has ever doubted that the design for this fresco
was the work of Raphael, but that his own hand ever touched it few
are ready to admit.

CHAPTER XVI
The detractors of Leo X. reproach him with having, by ordering
Raphael to make cartoons for tapestry, brought down painting to the
level of an industry ; the Pope, however, only followed the custom of
the fifteenth century, while Raphael, by accepting work of subordinate
rank, followed the example of his most illustrious predecessors.
Cosima Tura, the founder of the early school of Ferrara, Andrea
Mantegna, and the great Leonardo himself, had all composed cartoons
destined to be carried out in silk and wool. The marvellous tapestries
of Flanders had at this time gained universal admiration. For a long
1 It was purchased at public auction, on April 28, 1873, for 207,500 francs.

170 RAPHAEL
time the Flemish workshops had much difficulty in executing the
orders of the Italians.
The manufacture which was a source of such wealth to Flanders
was afterwards introduced into Italy, workmen being brought from
Arras, Bruges, and Brussels. Even in Rome itself, one of Leo's
predecessors, Nicolas V. of glorious memory, had founded a manu
factory, from which had issued the History of the Creation. At the
accession of Leo X. the papal wardrobes were choked with these
precious tissues ; nevertheless he was determined to have more, and
resolved to have the cartoons designed in Italy, and the tapestries
woven in Flanders. The first series of these tapestries was to
represent scenes from the Acts of the Apostles, and to be hung in the
Sistine Chapel.
At the time when Leo X. conceived the project of completing the
decorations of the Sistine Chapel, it already contained the following
paintings : on the vaulted ceiling Michael Angelo had represented
the Days of Creation, the Fcdl of Man, the Sacrifice of Abel, the
Deluge, the Drunkenness of Noah, the Punishment of Human, the
Brazen Serpent, David and Goliath, Judith and Holofernes. The side
walls were decorated, in the time of Sixtus IV., by Luca Signorelli,
Sandro Botticelli, Cosimo Roselli, Perugino, Domenico Ghirlandajo,
and others, with scenes from the Life of Moses on one side and the
Life of Christ on the other. At the east end were Moses in the
Bulrushes, the Nativity, and the Assumption of the Virgin. These
three disappeared to make way for the Last Judgment of Michael
Angelo. The Acts of the Apostles, destined to fill the empty spaces beneath
the lateral pictures, symbolized indirectly the institution of the
Papacy. In adorning the walls of the Sistine with the splendid series
of hangings which began with the Miraculous Draught of Fishes and
the Charge to Peter, Leo X. wished to show that his own power
descended to him from the Founder of Christianity, and that from
the very beginning the fate of Christendom and that of the Roman
Church were indissolubly connected with each other.
The date of the commencement of the Cartoons by Raphael is
uncertain. All that we know is that according to two receipted
accounts, the one dated June 15, 1515, the other December 20,
1516, they were far advanced, if not completed, in those years. We
may assign the commencement of the work to the year 1514, the
second of the reign of Leo X. The Pope seems to have based his
intentions as to remuneration upon the sums paid for the decoration
of the Stanze. For the Stanza dell' Incendio he had paid 1200 ducats ;

THE CARTOONS 171
for the Cartoons, a work of rather less labour, he gave 1000. As they
were ten in number, the artist was paid at the rate of 100 ducats a
piece. Vasari asserts that Raphael painted these works with his own
hand; but in his life of Gian-Francesco Penni, he accredits the
scholar with having worked upon the scenes from the Acts of the
Apostles and upon those from the Life of Christ ; he adds that Penni
was especially intrusted with the decorative parts, such as the
arabesque borders. We may also recognize in them the hand of
Giovanni da Udine.
It was long thought that the tapestries of these Acts of the
Apostles were woven at Arras, but that is an error. The manufacture
of the finer class of hangings ceased almost entirely in that city after
its capture by Louis XL in 1477, and Brussels succeeded to the
heritage of its rival, but the name of Arras long remained attached,
not only in Italy, but also in England and Spain, to all kinds of
woven tapestries.
The weaving of the Acts of the Apostles seems to have been
completed in three or four years. In December 1519, the Miraculous
Draught of Fishes, the Calling of St. Peter, the Martyrdom of St. Stephen,
the Conversion of St. Paul, the Healing of the Lame Man, Elymas
struck with Blindness, and the Sacrifice at Lystra adorned the walls
of the chapel. The eighth piece was still unfinished. As to the
other two they seem to have been still in Flanders. The whole series
was hung up in 1520. These tapestries cost 15,000 ducats, or 1500
for each piece. This included the price of the gold thread, which
was, no doubt, the heaviest item. When they were exhibited in the
chapel for the first time on December 26, 1519, the fete day of St.
Stephen, they created an extraordinary furore. " The whole chapel,"
writes Paris di Grassis, in his Diarium, "was struck dumb by the
sight of these hangings ; by universal consent there is nothing more
beautiful in the world ; they are each worth 2000 ducats." Vasari,
thirty years afterwards, expressed in terms no less enthusiastic the
admiration which the great series had aroused in him.
These Acts of the Apostles have passed through many strange
vicissitudes. At the death of Leo X. they were pawned for a sum
of 5000 ducats. In the sack of Rome in 1527 they underwent still
greater indignities ; the soldiers of Frondsberg and of the Constable
de Bourbon laid sacrilegious hands upon them, and the Punishment
of Elymas still shows the results of their brutality ; they cut it into
small pieces in order to sell it more easily. Two of the hangings
strayed as far as Constantinople, whence they were restored to the

172 RAPHAEL
Vatican through the good offices of the Constable de Montmorenci
in 1554. At this time the Constable caused the lower part of the
left-hand border of the Paul Preaching at Athens to be re-woven.
The inscription traced on this border, the shield of the Montmorenci,
and the genii supporting it, were added by his direction.
For two centuries and a half the Acts of the Apostles adorned the
Sistine Chapel. No marks of admiration were denied to them. Louis
XIV. had them copied in oil, and those copies, after being used for
the series of tapestries now preserved in the Garde-meuble National,
were taken to the Cathedral of Meaux, where they still hang. Year
after year, down to 1797, the " Arazzi " were exhibited to the public
in the Piazza of St. Peter's on the fete of the Corpus Christi.
The French Revolution brought new misfortunes on them.
Authentic documents, however, which I myself have discovered
within the last few years, prove beyond dispute that these splendid
works were never either stolen or sold to the Jews of the Ghetto.
Put up to auction with the rest of the papal effects after the entry
of the French army into Rome in the early months of 1798, both
sets of tapestries were bought for 1250 piastres a-piece by a clique
of French brokers. These men took them to Genoa, whence they
were dispatched to Paris by order of Commissary Faypoult. The
only one left behind was the Descent into Hell, which was either
separated from the rest at Genoa, or kept back from the sale in
Rome. The whole series was deposited in the Louvre, and the
Government seems to have intended to incorporate it with the per
manent national collections. This intention, however, was frustrated
by the state of the public finances — as we are told in one of Chaptal's
letters — and the tapestries were given up to their owners' represent
atives, MM. Coen and Nouvel. From the time of their restoration
to their temporary owners until 1808, we lose all trace of them.
Whether they were bought from some Genoese merchants by Pius
VII., as Platner asserts, or remained in the hands of the brokers
until 1808, we do not know. It is certain, however, that in the year
named they were restored to their former situation in the Vatican
Chapel, never again, let us hope, to quit it.
The original Cartoons fared no better. In possession of the hang
ings themselves, with their gold and silver bravery, Leo X. probably
forgot the existence of the designs from which they had been pre
pared. These remained in the factory at Brussels, and served as
models for other sets. The borders were employed to grace designs
which had nothing whatever to do with the Acts of the Apostles.
Those which contain the Fates and the Hours were exactly reproduced

THE TAPESTRIES 173
in the History of Henry II, now in the Uffizi. Only one of the
cartoons, so far as we know, returned to Italy, viz. that of the Con
version of St. Paul. The Anonimo of Morelli saw it in 1521 in the
collection of Cardinal Grimani at Venice, where it still remained in
1528. Two others, the Martyrdom of St. Stephen and St. Paul in
Prison, disappeared and left no trace. A century later Rubens
discovered the seven remaining cartoons at Brussels, and advised
Charles I. to purchase them. That prince became the possessor, for
no' inconsiderable sum, of these gigantic sketches by the Prince of
Painters, and caused them to be copied in tapestry at the Royal
Factory at M'ortlake. When the collections of the unhappy king-
were dispersed, Cromwell succeeded in retaining these priceless waifs
in England by the modest expenditure of three hundred pounds. In
the reign of William III. the Cartoons, which had until then remained
in the fragmentary condition to which they had been reduced for
facility in copying, were carefully pieced together and affixed to
canvas. Sir Christopher Wren built a gallery for them at Hampton
Court, where they remained until their removal to the South
Kensington Museum a few years ago. In spite of all the mutilation
and other damage which they have had to undergo, they still retain
much of their early beauty, and form one of the proudest possessions
of the English capital.
The Acts of the Apostles comprise the following subjects : the
Miraculous Draught of Fishes, The Calling of St. Peter, the Martyrdom
of St. Stephen, the Healing of the Lame Man, the Death of Ananias,
the Conversion of St. Paul, Elymas struck with Blindness, Paul and
Barnabas at Lystra, St. Peter in Prison, and St. Paul Preaching at
Athens. The first two, the Miraculous Draught of Fishes and The Calling
of St. Peter, are distinguished by perfect simplicity. In the first,
St. Peter and another disciple are adoring Christ, whilst their com
panions are drawing up the net. In the other, Christ is giving the
keys to the Prince of the Apostles in presence of his fellow disciples.
In the Healing of the Lame Man, the decorative element, which
had been banished from the first two frescoes, re-appears; gorgeous
architecture, the twisted columns of the Vatican basilica, said to have
been brought from the temple at Jerusalem, varied costumes, crowds
of worshippers, make up a brilliant whole.
As a dramatic creation, the Death of Ananias is worthy of the
Expulsion of Heliodorus. The Apostles, grouped upon a dais in the
centre, have inquired into the conduct of Ananias. St. Peter, the
instrument of Divine vengeance, extends his hand towards the guilty

174

RAPHAEL

man, who falls as if struck by lightning, and rolls in convulsive agony.
Another apostle points to heaven, and seems to proclaim the justice
of the punishment.

V:^;'^;.

^.^Jih.e;:^^..T,n

kill

STUDY FOR THE FIGURE OF CHRIST IN THE CALLING OF PETER.
We may pass rapidly over the Martyrdom of St. Stephen and the
Conversion of St. Paul; they are not up to the level of the rest, and

THE TAPESTRIES

175

we may conclude that Raphael's pupils had a large share in their
production. The Punishment of Elymas is another pathetic episode. We
cannot praise this composition better than by comparing it with the
words of St. Luke himself, whose description has, in every particular,
been vividly rendered by the painter.
Paul and Barnabas at Lystra, like the Punishment of Elymas,
shows us Christianity bursting through the bonds of pagan
civilization. In the Sacrifice of Lystra, Raphael has restored the architectural
splendour of Greek civilization, its exquisite statues and pompous
religious rites, as well as its passionate worship of the beautiful.

fe \3WW&M^ 2

m

mm

ARMS OF LEO X.
(From the borders of the Tapestries.)
The Paul in Prison, also called the Earthquake, is, like the St.
Stephen and the Conversion of St. Paul, one of those compositions
which, being confided in great part to pupils, were foredoomed to
comparative failure.
The simplicity of the idea has not hindered Raphael, in the Paul
Preaching at Athens, from giving us a picture as full of life and truth
as the Sacrifice, though with less action. This famous work does not
contain a line which fails to add to our comprehension of St. Luke's
words. The borders of these Acts of the Apostles do not fall short of the
arabesques in the Loggie themselves. We have no hesitation in
attributing the design of many of them, such as the Fates, to Raphael
himself. In others, his pupils, Giovanni da Udine and Francesco
Penni, stimulated by the example of their master, have surpassed

176

RAPHAEL

themselves. Raphael was one of the first artists to give surroundings
worthy of themselves to cartoons for decorative purposes. For the
inevitable garland of fruit and flowers, so long affected by the
Flemings, he substituted borders, upon which he lavished all the
wealth of his imagination.
The Coronation of the Virgin, which is generally regarded as a
sequel to the Acts of the Apostles, was looked upon as lost until M.
Paliard had the good fortune to discover it in the Vatican. Raphael
made a sketch for it, which is now preserved in the gallery at Oxford
(facsimile on page 178). Death interrupted him before he began the
cartoon for this, and it was beyond doubt left to his scholars. The
death of the Pope, which took place eighteen months later, occasioned

m. fg. .'imwrr-^^ ;;^iPiW!*

THE GONFALONIER RIDOLFI ADDRESSING THE FLORENTINES.
(From the borders of the Tapestries.)
a fresh interruption ; and the cartoon remained unused until the
Cardinal de la Marck, wishing to pay court to Paul III., gave the
order for the tapestry.
The Coronation of the Virgin contains thirteen figures. At the
top is God the Father surrounded by four cherubim ; in the centre, a
dove, symbol of the Holy Spirit ; lower still, the Virgin and Christ
between two angels; lowest of all, two more angels with St. John
and St. Jerome. The borders show flowers, fruits, birds, and sirens
upon a gold ground. They were evidently from Flemish designs.
The success of the Acts of the Apostles decided Leo to order from
Raphael cartoons for another set of tapestries, representing scenes
from the Life and Death of our Lord. Authentic documents exist
which show that Leo X. intended this second series, known as the
Arazd della Scuola Nuova, for the hall where the papal consistories
were held. They were twelve in number, and were paid for by the

SCENES FROM THE LIFE OF CHRIST

177

Pope himself. The subjects were-the Nativity, the Adoration of the
Magi the Massacre of the Innocents (three pieces), the Descent into
Hell, the Resurrection, « Noli me Tangere," the Supper at Emmaus, the
Ascension, the Descent of the Holy Ghost.

CARDINAL GIOVANNI DE' MEDICI AT THE BATTLE OF RAVENNA,
(From the borders of the Tapestries.)
^ Raphael began the preparatory sketches for these Scenes from the
Life of Christ in the very last years of his life. Numerous studies,
widely dispersed, show the part which he took in their preparation,

ENTRY OF CARDINAL GIOVANNI DE' MEDICI INTO FLORENCE.
(From the borders of the Tapestries.)
but he died before he could bring the work near completion, perhaps
even before he had time to execute a single cartoon. The work thus
interrupted was continued by his pupils, but for some of the scenes
N

178

RAPHAEL

he had not left the slightest sketch, and his successors were obliged
to supply much from their own imagination.
Yet another set of tapestries is generally attributed to Raphael,
that, we mean, which goes by the name of the Giuoehi di putti, or

STUDY FOR THE CORONATION OF THE VIRGIN.
(Oxford University Gallery.)

Loves Playing. Vasari however attributes this series, which was com
missioned by Leo X., to Giovanni da Udine.
Raphael's talent as a designer was not confined to tapestries.
Goldsmith's work, wood-carving, marquetry, mosaics, were all indebted

DESIGN FOR A BRONZE DISH

179

to him in turn. He even painted scenes for the theatre with his own
hand. The designs for the plates which he made for Agostino Chigi were
carried out in bronze by Cesarino Rossetti, a goldsmith of Perugia.
One of these designs is preserved in the University Gallery at Oxford ;

DESIGN FOR A BRONZE DISH.
(Dresden Gallery.)

another, which we reproduce, is in the Dresden Gallery. On a careful
examination of the latter, which represents the gambols of marine
deities with curious fancy and freedom, and is, at the same time, a
wonder of balanced composition, I have been brought to the conclu
sion that, after having sketched it in red chalk, traces of which are

(

180 RAPHAEL
still here and there apparent, Raphael made one of his scholars go over
it with the pen, last of all retouching it himself. Pentimenti are notably
visible in the heads. These are in a darker ink than that originally
used. This explains a certain cold emptiness in some parts of the
design. At about the same date, Raphael furnished Fra Giovanni with the
designs for the woodwork in the Camera della Segnatura, and a few
years later, in the time of Leo X., he did a similar service for Giovanni
Barile, of Siena. Much of Barile's work is still in place. Next came
the execution of the mosaics in the Chigi Chapel.
The engraving by Marc-Antonio which we reproduce shows us a
perfume box in the form of a vase, which, if we may judge from the
fleurs-de-lys and salamanders upon it, must have been designed for
Francis I. It was meant, in all probability, to be of very small dimen
sions, yet the design has been so carefully thought out and prepared,
that it would serve for the execution of a work of monumental size.

CHAPTER XVII
Next to the Pope, Raphael's greatest admirer was Agostino Chigi,
and the commissions he gave Sanzio are so numerous and important
that they merit special study. Chigi's principal undertaking, the
building of his villa in the Trastevere, was commenced shortly after
Raphael's arrival in Rome, but the completion of the work occupied
several years, and it was not until 1511-1512 that the villa was
thrown open to the admiring Romans. Its decoration was a marvel ;
Agostino's descendant, Fabio Chigi (Alexander VII.), mentions, among
other things, a bed ornamented with gold, silver, ivory, and precious
stones, and Cugnoni estimates the cost of covering the furniture of
the magnificent apartment in which it was placed, at no less than
1592 ducats. Costly tapestries alternated with vases and silver
fountains. The harness of the hundred horses which filled the
famous Stalle Chigiane was of gold and silver, and their housings of
silk. Chigi loved everything that could help to embellish his exist
ence or augment his reputation ; poets, musicians, architects, painters,
sculptors, found in him an ardent protector, and so far as con
temporary art was concerned, he quickly learnt to distinguish the
really eminent masters from the crowd of mediocrities which besieged
his palace. He took up the cause of Raphael against that of Michael

DESIGN FOR A PERFUME VASE.
(Facsimile of Marc- Antonio's Engraving.

182 RAPHAEL
Angelo, never giving a commission of any kind, after the commence
ment of hostilities, either to the great Florentine or to his proUgi,
Sebastiano Luciani, better known as Sebastiano del Piombo.
Agostino Chigi exercised great influence over the development of
art in Rome. His name is indissolubly connected with that of
Raphael. The disciples of the master too, Giulio Romano, il Fattore,
Giovanni da Udine, Lorenzetto, were reckoned among his friends.
Raphael's connection with Chigi began soon after the painter's
arrival in Rome. In 1510 he made the designs for two dishes which
the goldsmith, Cesarino di Francesco of Perugia, was employed to
cast in bronze. But the first important work he carried through was
the Galatea, which was painted in fresco in one of the saloons of the
banker's new villa. Its approximate date is furnished by the cele
brated letter which the painter addressed to Baldassare Castiglione
shortly after his nomination to the post of architect-in-chief to St.
Peter's, or about the middle of the year 1514. Raphael thanks his
friend for the praises which he lavished upon his work. " As for the
Galatea" he writes, " I should look upon myself as a great master if it
contained half the qualities which your lordship has discovered in it.
But your words are dictated by the affection which you bear to me.
I would add that, in order to paint a beautiful woman, one must see
many of them, and must have such a judge as your lordship by one to
help to choose the most perfect. But seeing how rare both good
judges and fair women are, I myself turn to an ideal which I am able
to create in my imagination. Whether or no that ideal have any
value from an artistic point of view, is what I do not yet know,
although I am forced to use it." The terms of this letter show that
the work in question must have been produced not very long before
it was written. It may have been executed in the last months of
1513 or the first of 1514.
Chigi was so enamoured of the Renaissance as to desire that
souvenirs of classical antiquity should be associated even with works
intended to bear witness of his devotion. At Santa Maria della
Pace he had the Sibyls painted in company with the Prophets; and
the former alone were from the actual hand of Raphael, the execution
of the Prophets being entrusted to Timoteo Viti. At Santa Maria
del Popolo an opportunity was made, in representing the Planets,
to celebrate the chief deities of Olympus.
The Sibyls were probably painted in 1514. Raphael, who had
just completed the Chamber of Heliodorus, profited by his leisure and
by the presence of his friend Timoteo Viti to perform the task. An
author of the seventeenth century, Cinelli, recounts an anecdote a

THE SIBYLS

183

propos of these Sibyls and Prophets, which is too much to the honour
of the painter, of his patron, and of his greatest rival, to be passed

v

^Mj'-K ^Mi

STUDY FOR THE PHRYGIAN SIBYL.
(University Galleries, Oxford.)

over. Raphael had received 500 ducats on account during the Pro
gress of the work, and when he claimed the balance which he

184

RAPHAEL

considered to be due from the cashier of Chigi, the latter expressed
astonishment at the demand, and, upon the suggestion of Raphael
that he should choose an expert to arbitrate between them, named
Michael Angelo, the acknowledged rival of him whose remuneration
was in question. The Florentine betook himself to the Pace in
company with the cashier, and decided that each head alone was
worth 100 ducats. As soon as Chigi heard this decision he ordered
400 ducats to be paid immediately to Raphael, in addition to the 500
already received. " Be courteous to him," he said to the cashier, " so
that he may be satisfied. I should be ruined if he made me pay for
the draperies."

THE SIBYLS IN S. MARIA DELLA PACE.

Vasari considered the Sibyls Raphael's masterpiece. " These are,"
he said, "the most beautiful figures ever painted by the master."
In nobility and grace the three youngest are on a level with the
muses of the Parnassus, while the aged Tiburtina has a majesty
which is almost terrible. In creating her, Raphael came nearer to
the Sibyls of his great rival than in any of the others. But he did
not copy them; both types and attitudes were characteristic of no
man but himself.
Chigi was the only one among all the friends and patrons of
Raphael who could boast of having profited by his genius in all three
of the allied arts, architecture, painting, and sculpture. Raphael
drew the plans of the chapel in which Chigi was afterwards buried in
Santa Maria del Popolo, and directed the carrying out of the works.

THE DOME OF THE CHIGI CHAPEL 185
This was done, perhaps, as early as the reign of Julius II. Next he
made the cartoons for the mosaics in the dome, and, finally, he
modelled the statue of Jonas, which his pupil Lorenzetto executed in
marble.

THE DOME OF THE CHIGI CHAPEL.

Raphael, influenced by the epic grandeur of Buonarroti's paint
ings in the Sistine, seems to have wished to give to the chapel in
Santa Maria del Popolo a scheme of decoration which might also
awake sublime thoughts in the minds of those who beheld it. If we
may judge from the pictures executed after his death, according, pro-

186

RAPHAEL

bably, to the scheme elaborated by himself and Chigi, he chose the
figure of God the Father to fill the apex of the dome ; for its lower

THE PLANET JUPITER.

segments, the Creation of the Planets, below which were to come great
events of Genesis up to the Fall of Man ; finally, upon the lower
walls, the Birth, Death, and Resurrection of Christ, that is to say, the

THE CHIGI CHAPEL

187

fulfilment of the Old Testament prophecies. God the Father and the
eight pictures of the Creation of the Planets were alone carried to
completion.

STUDY FOR ONE OF THE ANGELS IN THE CHIGI CHAPEL.
(University Galleries, Oxford.)
Raphael's compositions were rendered in mosaic by Luigi, or
Aloisio, di Pace, whom Chigi had brought from Venice, the great
centre of that particular industry.
In the year 1500 Beroaldus the younger published a translation

188 RAPHAEL

of the Metamorphoses of Apuleius, in which he called the attention
of scholars to the beautiful myth contained in the work of the Latin
author, and there is no doubt whatever that from his translation

LOVE AND THE BIRDS.

Raphael obtained materials for the vast painted poem with which
he adorned the loggia of Chigi's villa. Only one of the ten frescoes
for which he chose subjects reveals the hand of Raphael himself.

CHAPTER XVIII

The number of religious pictures executed in Raphael's studio
after the accession of Leo X. was so large, that it would be difficult to
make a complete catalogue of them in the space at our disposal. We
need only state that if the mind of the master is recognized in the
beauty of their composition, the execution betrays but too often the
hand of a pupil. Among such pictures are the Madonna dell'
Impannata, painted for Bindo Altoviti, now in the Pitti Palace ; the
Madonna della Tenda, in the Munich Gallery; the Holy Family
under the Oak, at Madrid ; the Madonna with the Rose, in the same
collection ; the Madonna of the Candelabra, in the Munro collection
in London ; and the small Holy Family in the Louvre, also known
as the Virgin with the Cradle.
The subjects painted by Raphael during this new period show a
profound change. Either of his own free will, or at the instance
of his patrons, the artist almost entirely abandoned the simplicity of

JUPITER AND LOVE.
(Louvre.)

190 RAPHAEL

composition, which was at first so dear to him. The two traditional
figures of the Mother and Son no longer sufficed. He was contented
with them, indeed, in the Madonna of the Bridgewater Gallery and
in the Madonna of the Candelabra, but he added the infant St. John

THE MADONNA DELLA SEDIA.
(Pitti Palace.)

in many others. Even this addition at last failed to satisfy him, and
henceforward he depicted the Virgin in the midst of the Holy
Family, or as a Virgin Glorified. While in Rome, Raphael painted
not less than a dozen Holy Families, nearly all of monumental
dimensions.

HOLY FAMILIES 19|
The supernatural element— almost entirely excluded from the
compositions of the Florentine period— reasserts itself in the religious
painting of the years 1513—1520. After 1513 the scene of his
most important compositions is laid in the celestial regions peopled
by the blessed. The Ezekiel, the Madonna di San Sisto, the St
Michael, the St. Cecilia, the St. Margaret, the Five Saints,' and the
Transfiguration are all visions.
The Holy Family in the Madrid Museum, which by its beauty
has well deserved its title of the Pearl, recalls the most graceful
of the Florentine idylls; but the Roman influence reasserts itself
fully in the faces of St. Anne and the Virgin. In spite of the
affection • they display towards each other and for the Child, they
are possessed by a gravity and an exaltation which would in vain be
sought in the compositions of a previous period.
When Raphael was working on this picture, he seems to have
allowed himself no rest in his attempts to emulate the achievements
of the Flemish painters. We have already noticed him, in the
¦Deliverance of St. Peter, attempting to portray the most complicated
effects of light. There is a similar attempt in the Madonna dell'
^/mpannata of the Pitti Palace, and in the Pearl he produced a
splendid effect of dawn, which enraptured Vasari, and proves that
Raphael, who placed his reputation as a technical painter above
everything, would not allow any secret or any refinement of the
colourist to escape him.
In the picture at the Louvre, known as the Holy Family of
Francis I, Mary is again represented rather as a mother than as Queen
of Heaven. Thus the sentiments which guided Raphael in the prime
of his youth, during the fruitful period between 1504 and 1508,
appear again, but in a more elevated form, in this Holy Family, the
last, apparently, which he painted (the date is 1518).
Raphael was now at the zenith of his glory. He had founded a
powerful school; students from eve^ country accepted his advice
as that of an oracle; sovereigns contended for the slightest pro
ductions of his brush. Yet we find him as careful in his designs as
ever. His studies for the Holy Family of Francis I. are a proof of
this. The process, indeed, has changed : at first the artist's timid
and tentative sketches, were done in silver-point; then came the
period of those exact and vigorous drawings in pen-and-ink, of which
the studies for La Belle Jardiniere, the Entombment, and so many
other inimitable works, are happily still preserved. After his arrival
in Rome he found this method too slow, and made use of red chalk,
which allowed him to give importance to his leading lines at the

192 RAPHAEL
expense of detail. Thenceforward he preferred this material for
studies of single figures, reserving colour-washes for those of groups.
Sometimes, as in the fine portrait of Timoteo Viti, he had recourse
¦to Italian chalk.

HOLY FAMILY OF FRANCIS I.
(Louvre.)

The Madonna di San Sisto, the gem of the Dresden Gallery, has
been long called the latest of Raphael's Madonnas. But recent
criticism has done much to cast doubt upon its reputed date.
It was painted for the convent of San Sisto at Piacenza; was

THE TRANSFIGURATION AND RESURRECTION

193

acquired by the Elector Augustus III. of Saxony, in 1753, for 60,000
thalers (about £9000), and has ever since been the chief ornament
of the Dresden Gallery.
The Transfiguration and the Resurrection should complete this'
series of religious triumphs, but we must first describe a drawing

STUDY FOR THE HOLY FAMILY OF FRANCIS I.
(Uffizi.)
and a picture which, though illustrating the life of Christ, are con
ceived in a far different spirit. We refer to the Pieta in the Louvre,
and the Spasimo di'Sicilia. .
Christ bearing His Cross, or Spasimo di Siciha, is a fit companion
for the Entombment; the spirit in which it is conceived is the same
But the Spasimo is much the more pathetic of the two. ine

194

RAPHAEL

artist has chosen the moment when Christ is sinking beneath His
burden, and the Virgin, overcome with grief, helplessly stretches out
her arms to her Son. The expression of these two faces is admirable.
The Spasimo owes as much of its celebrity to the vicissitudes
through which it has passed as to its artistic merit. Vasari relates

STUDY OF THE HOLY FAMILY OF FRANCIS I.
(Uffizi.)

these with much picturesqueness ; " Raphael," he says, " executed
for the monastery of Santa-Maria-della-Spasimo at Palermo, a Christ
bearing the Cross which is reputed a masterpiece. When completed
it experienced the greatest dangers before arriving at its destination.

gS^gfe^^^gaae^a^-^^- .*~M^'*^**a&*

THE VISION OF EZEKIEL.
(Pitti Palace.)

STUDY FOR HORSEMEN IN THE SPASIMO DI SICILIA.
(Albertina Collection.)

THE SPASIMO DI SICILIA 197
It is related that the ship which should have carried it to Palermo
encountered a terrible tempest and broke up after striking on a
rock: everything perished, men and cargo alike: nothing but this
picture escaped. Carried by the billows into the Gulf of Genoa, the
case containing it was found and brought to land ; then, this divine
work was discovered intact, free from the slightest stain or blemish.
It seemed as if winds and waves had determined to respect its
beauty. The noise of this event spread far and wide, and the monks,
hearing of it, endeavoured to gain possession of their picture, which
was restored to them through the intervention of the Pope, when
they liberally remunerated the salvors. Again placed on board ship,
and carried to Sicily, the picture was set up at Palermo, where it
became more famous than the mountain of Vulcan."
In the seventeenth century, Philip IV. had the Spasimo secretly
taken down in order to carry it to Madrid. He ensured the silence
of the monks by granting them a revenue of 1000 scudi. Ever since
then the picture has formed a part of the royal collections of Spain,
only leaving that country in the time of Napoleon to figure for a
time at the Louvre, in company with many other chefs-d'ceuvre.
The simplicity of the Louvre Pieta contrasts strongly with the
complex mise-en-scene of the Spasimo. With two figures only — the
Virgin standing by her dead Son and weeping bitter tears — Raphael
has composed the most touching of dramas.
After the glorification of the Virgin comes that of the Saints.
The St. Cecilia is the most celebrated of these paintings. It contains
two parts, the one celestial, the other terrestrial. In the sky, six
angels, resting upon the clouds, are discoursing divine music. On
the earth four saints stand round St. Cecilia, and listen with rapture.
Cecilia herself, with eyes uplifted, appears to be in an ecstasy ; she
has dropped the violin, the triangle, the cymbals ; even the organ is
slipping from her hands. St. Paul forgets all else in the enjoyment
of the divine melody ; with downcast eyes, and his chin resting on
his right hand, the left placed negligently on his sword, the fiery
apostle of the Gentiles is lost in profound reverie.
The origin and destination of the St. Cecilia explain this outburst
of mysticism. In October of the year 1513 a noble lady of Bologna,
by name Elena Duglioli dall' Olio, imagined that she heard super
natural voices enjoining her to dedicate a chapel to St. Cecilia in the
church of San Giovanni del Monte. She confided this to Antonio
Pucci of Florence, one of her relatives, who offered to fit up the
chapel at his own expense, and begged his uncle Lorenzo Pucci, the
new cardinal, to order from Raphael a picture for the altar.

ST. CECILIA.
(Gallery of Bologna.)

ST. CECILIA.
 ¦¦".-" ¦ Marc-Antonio.)

200 RAPHAEL
Although commissioned towards the end of 1513, the St. Cecilia
was only finished in 1516. For. its completion, Raphael called in the
aid of his pupil Giovanni da Udine, who painted the musical instru
ments scattered on the ground. The engraver, Boucher-Desnoyers,
has put on record certain notable peculiarities in the technical
execution of the work. " I examined the back of the St. Cecilia while
the picture was being transferred to canvas, and I saw that the out
lines had been traced with a certainty and celerity not to be gained
without the help of a preliminary cartoon. The drawing was done
with a full brush of umber, as in the case of the Foligno Madonna."
The master, who had never ceased to maintain the most cordial
relations with Francia, naturally thought of him when the time came
for sending the painting to Bologna and installing it in the chapel.
He wrote begging him to retouch the picture if he found any defect
in it, or if it had suffered in the transit, and asked him to superintend
the construction of the frame. Vasari says that Francia felt such
acute pain and profound discouragement at the sight of Sanzio's
chef-d'oeuvre, that it caused his death. One can understand that the
old painter was much struck by the picture, and that it made him
feel the inferiority of his own art ; yet it is impossible to believe that
his death was brought about in this way, as he was sixty-seven when
he died on January 5, 1517.
To complete our list of the principal works of this period, we have
now only to review the portraits. Precision, natural simplicity of
attitude, vitality, and subtlety of psychological analysis, are all found
in them in the highest degree, nor can we place before him any but the
greatest masters of portraiture. Long study, combined with a quick
eye, enabled him to detect in each subject, through all apparent
contradictions, the characteristic expression by which he could raise
the individual to the level of a type. " Raphael," wrote Bembo to
Bibbiena, " has painted a portrait of our Tebaldeo, which is so natural
that it seems more like him than he is himself."
Raphael painted from twelve to fifteen portraits during the reign
of Leo X. The Pope, his brother Giuliano, and his nephew Lorenzo,
Inghirami, Bibbiena, Castiglione, Tebaldeo, Beazzano, Navagero,
Timoteo Viti, The Young Man of the Loum-e, the Violinist, and lastly,
Joanna of Aragon, all Sat to him. Several of these portraits have
been lost.
Baldassare Castiglione sat twice to Raphael. The first of the
portraits, executed about 1516, and now in the Louvre, is too well
known to need description. The second seems to be the picture in
the Torionia Gallery at Rome.

PORTRAITS 201
To.this same period belongs the fine portrait of a cardinal, now in
the Madrid Museum. Until recently this was supposed to be a
portrait of Bibbiena, and the Pitti picture a copy from it. Messrs.
Crowe and Cavalcaselle were the first to point out that the portraits
represent two totally different persons, the similarity of pose having
given rise to the mistake.
The portrait of Timoteo Viti, in the British Museum, is a study,
but it is almost as attractive as a finished picture. Its attribution to
Raphael is by no means universally accepted.
The portrait of Joanna of Aragon was a commission from Bibbiena,
who intended it for Francis I., at whose court he had fulfilled an
important mission. Raphael being unable to go to Naples, where the
princess then was, sent one of his " garzoni," doubtless Giulio Romano,
to make a study for the portrait itself. The picture went to Paris in
1518. The Violinist at the Sciarra-Colonna Palace is dated 1518.
In beauty of colour it rivals the most brilliant productions of the
Venetian School.
To these unquestionably authentic works must be added, accord
ing to Passavant, Miindler, Springer, Morelli, and Sidney Colvin, a
portrait in the Pitti Palace, known under the name of the Donna
Velata or the Veiled Woman. The features of this girl, who is
believed to be Raphael's famous mistress, bear a certain resemblance
to the Madonna di San Sisto.
In the last work of his life, Raphael takes us back to the history
of Christ. The origin of the Transfiguration is well known. Wishing
to give the town of Narbonne, of which Francis I. had made him
bishop, a token of his piety and munificence, Cardinal Giuliano de'
Medici ordered in 1517 two altar-pieces for the cathedral of that
ancient Gallic city. One he intrusted to Raphael, the other to
Sebastiano del Piombo. The picture ordered from Sebastiano was to
represent the Raising of Lazarus. Raphael had in the first instance
chosen as the subject of his altar-piece the Resurrection of Christ; it
was an afterthought to substitute the Transfiguration.
Raphael's Transfiguration resembles none of those which preceded
it, yet the artist availed himself of the most natural and legitimate
means possible in giving a true life to the subject. He simply
re-read the text of St. Matthew's Gospel, where he describes the
miracle on Mount Tabor, and shows us a father leading to Jesus the
son whom the disciples had been unable to heal.
It is clear that in supposing the child to have been seized with a
fit during the actual moment of the Transfiguration, Raphael was
only interpreting literally the text of St. Matthew. He has, however,

202

RAPHAEL

been reproached with representing two different subjects in the same
painting, and consequently with having violated the unities. Nothing

PORTRAIT OF JOANNA OF ARAGON.
(Louvre.)

could be more baseless than such a charge. The gesture of the
apostle, who stands upright on the left side of the picture, would in

PORTRAIT OF BALDASSARE CASTIGLIONE.
(Louvre. )

204 RAPHAEL
itself suffice to establish the necessary unity of action ; he points with
his finger to the mountain, over which float the figures of Jesus,
Moses, and Ellas", and he fells the relatives of the possessed whence
help for him must come.
The contrast which is so remarkable between the composition of
these two scenes, is also found in their technical execution. In the
upper division Raphael has realized an effect of light and shade
worthy of Correggio; never was his brush more bold or more
harmonious. In the lower, on the contrary, grouping and colouring
are harsh and violent.
Raphael died before the Transfiguration had left his studio. Vasari
relates how his last masterpiece was placed beside his bed, and how
those present wept at the sight of his corpse beside a work so full of
life. According to Passavant, Giulio Romano must have put the
finishing touches to it, which would account for the harshness of the
lower portion. The learned German grounds his opinion on a letter
of Castiglione, who, in 1522, begged of Cardinal de' Medici the
payment to his friend of a certain sum still due on the price of the
picture. It is known that Giulio Romano and Francesco Penni had
been charged by Raphael with the completion of such works as he
might leave unfinished. As Giulio was the only recipient of the sum
claimed by Castiglione, it is probable that he completed the painting.
We learn by the same letter that the Transfiguration cost 655 ducats.
The death of Raphael decided Cardinal de' Medici to send only
Sebastiano's Resurrection of Lazarus to Narbonne, and to keep the
Transfiguration in Rome. After causing Penni to make a copy of it,
he presented Raphael's masterpiece to the Church of San-Pietro in
Montorio, where it remained till the French Revolution. After
visiting Paris in the train of Napoleon, it was restored to the Holy
See in 1815, and since that time has been the pride of the Vatican
Pinacoteca.

CHAPTER XIX

Although the painter in Raphael eclipses the architect, we must
not forget that he was a great builder. He may be allowed a place
among the masters of that art-science, not only on account of the
greatness of the works which were confided to him, — the continuation
of St. Peter's, the completion of the Loggie, the construction of the
Villa Madama and of so many other edifices, — but because of the

RAPHAEL AS ARCHITECT 205
remarkable taste which he displayed in all these undertakings. It is
true that his architectural talents were developed much later than his
skill 'as 'a. painter, but in the latter years of bis' life he never hesitated
to make painting give way to his new studies.
We have already had occasion to mention the beauty of the
building placed in the background of the Sposalizio. This building,
it must be owned, was inspired by that of Perugino, but Raphael
transfigured the original whilst appearing only to copy.
In the Presentation the action takes place under a portico, the
arrangement of which bears the greatest resemblance to that of
Perugino's k Sposalizio now at Caen. We remark, especially, similar
Ionic columns. Raphael contented himself with adding two arcades,
and thus increasing the depth of his building. In the Annunciation,
forming a portion of the same predella, the artist shows us a court
surrounded by a loggia of composite columns supporting arches. The
perspective is irreproachable.
The examination to which, we have submitted these three com
positions proves that, from 1504, Raphael knew how to draw and
compose plans of edifices, and how to represent them either in section
or elevation, in the style of the Umbrian-Florentine school. But
years elapsed before he was able to use his knowledge and really
execute an architectural work. We may date the nobly-designed
monuments of architecture which fill the background of the fine
drawing of Apneas Sylvius at the feet of Eugenius IV., a little later.
During his stay in Florence Raphael seems to have abandoned
for the time his architectural studies. The Ripalda Madonna, the
Ansidei Madonna, and the Madonna del Baldacchino are the only ones
in which architectonic motives appear.
In Rome under the auspices of Bramante, Raphael was not long in
mastering the practical part of architecture, and in all probability one
of his first efforts is to be seen in the small church of St. Aloysius
"degli Orefici." The guild of goldsmiths had been reconstituted in
1509 by Julius II., and it was in that year the erection of the church
dedicated to their patron was begun. The dome, however, was still
unfinished in 1526.
Bramante died on March 11, 1514, but before his death he
had time to designate his successor to the Pope, and that successor
Was no other than Raphael : " as thou not only excellest in the art
of painting, as all men agree, but hast also been nominated by
Bramante on his death-bed as being skilful in the science of archi
tecture, and fit to continue the erection of that temple to the Prince

206 RAPHAEL
of the Apostles which he began." These are the words employed by
Leo X. in the Brief in which he appoints Raphael architect-in-chief of
St. Peter's. Bramante's recommendation, however, was not judged
altogether sufficient. Raphael, provisionally appointed on April 1,
1514, with a salary of 300 golden ducats, was only confirmed in his
position on the 1st of August following, after having submitted for
approval a model designed by himself and executed in wood by
Giovanni Barile.
To make himself worthy of this great trust, the artist gave himself
up to the study of Vitruvius. He tells us so himself in his celebrated
letter to Castiglione. " His Holiness," he writes, " has, by thus
honouring me, laid a great burden upon me — I mean in appointing
me to direct the works at St. Peter's. I hope I shall not fail,
especially as my model pleases His Holiness, and has obtained the
sanction of many competent judges ; but I aim higher. I wish to
discover the principles of the beautiful forms of the antique. Perhaps
my flight will be like that of Icarus. Vitruvius gives me much
enlightenment, but not enough."
At this time, probably, Raphael had the Roman author's Treatise
on Architecture translated, for his personal use, from Latin into Italian,
by Fabio Calvo of Ravenna. This translation, as we know, still exists
in the Royal Library at Munich. It contains this curious note :
" End of the book of Vitruvius the Architect, translated from Latin
into the vulgar tongue by Marcus Fabius Calvus da Ravenna at Rome,
in the house and at the instigation of Raphael, son of Giovanni Santi
da Urbino." *
Some years later, one of the secretaries of Leo X., Celio Calcagnini,
speaks of Raphael in a way which proves how much the painter-
architect had profited by reading Vitruvius : " Raphael is perhaps the
first of all painters, in theory as well as in practice, and is, besides, an
architect of such rare talent, that he invents and executes things that
the most gifted men believe impossible. I only except Vitruvius,
whose principles he not only teaches, but sometimes defends and
sometimes attacks with unanswerable arguments, and at the same
time with so much gentleness, that there is no bitterness in his
criticisms." The impression produced by these studies was so strong, that
Raphael, after having applied the precepts of the Roman author to
modern constructions, used them to attempt the ideal restoration of
ancient Rome. We shall have occasion to study this gigantic project
in detail : indeed in the latter years of Raphael's life, it, with
1 Passavant, Raphael, t. i. p. 199.

RAPHAEL AS ARCHITECT 207
practical architecture, took up more of his attention than painting
itself. But let us return to St. Peter's. Leo X. determined to give a
new impetus to the work, and associated two of the veterans of
architecture with Raphael, with similar salaries, viz. Giuliano da
San-Gallo and Fra Giocondo, the first seventy years of age, the second
between eighty and ninety. In the letter to his uncle Simone
(July 1, 1514) Raphael says, "The Pope has given me as assistant a
very learned monk, at least eighty years old : as he has not long
to live, I must gather as quickly as I can from this man of great
reputation and learning any secrets in architecture he may have
to impart, and thus arrive at perfection. His name is Fra
Giocondo." Giuliano Leno continued, as in Bramante's time, to superintend
the administrative portion of the works ; whilst as under-architects,
clerks of the works, &c, we find the names of Antonio da San-Gallo,
Gian-Francesco da San-Gallo, Rainiero Pisano, Niccolo da Bibbiena,
Giovanni Barile, Baldassare da Carrara, Desiderio di Fantellis, Andrea
da Milano, &c.
Raphael's two colleagues soon died. Fra Giocondo in July
1515 ; Giuliano da San-Gallo on October 20 in the following year.
Raphael requested the Pope to nominate a successor, and towards the
end of the year 1516 he appointed Antonio da San-Gallo the younger,
with a smaller salary, however, as he only received twelve ducats and
a half a month. Raphael had accepted with a light heart the position
of successor to Bramante. All through the years 1514-1515 there
was no interruption in his work, no sign of relaxation. In the
letter addressed to his uncle Simone on July 1, 1514, he gives full
expression to his enthusiasm : " What undertaking," he writes,
"' could be nobler than that of St. Peter's, the greatest temple in the
world ! It is the grandest building ever seen ; it will cost more than
a million ducats in gold. . . . The Pope sends for us every day and
discusses the designs for some time."
The ardour with which Raphael discharged his new duties did not
diminish as the years went by. A letter from the envoy of the Duke
of Ferrara (December 17, 1519) shows him but a few months before
his death occupied with the smallest details of the work : " The
commission relative to Raphael da Urbino still remains to be done;
but I will carry it through, and will again attempt to conquer him by
gentleness, for men who are intellectually superior are always inclined
to certain susceptibilities. Raphael suffers greatly from the effects of
discouragement (melancholia) since he took up this architectural

208 RAPHAEL
business after Bramante's death. He is always discussing the
practice of the art with Giuliano Leno. I found him this morning
having just prepared two pillars that the Pope has ordered, to
strengthen the first pier in the ' Via dei Svizzeri,' which has been
threatening to give way. On asking to see him he begged me to
wait until he had spoken to some of the chief masters, and said that
he would then receive me if I would come and see him. I will try
all ways of managing him, and will tell him what happened to me at
his house the other day, and if he persists in putting me off with fair
words, I wjll tell him what your Excellency writes, and will then
communicate the result to you."
The progress of St. Peter's was unfortunately not in proportion to
the great efforts made by the young architect-in-chief. He was
obliged, first of all, as we see, to give it adequate strength — an
ungrateful task, which took several years to accomplish. Then came
want of funds; indeed, when Raphael died, the works had hardly
made visible progress since the death of Bramante. Bramante, we
now know without a doubt, had adopted for St. Peter's the form of
the Greek cross. Under Leo X., probably at the instance of the
priesthood, the Latin cross was adopted. A coin struck in the reign
of this Pope shows us on one side the temple as Bramante designed
it ; on the other, the new design, i. e. that of the Latin cross.
To make St. Peter's into a Latin cross Raphael had recourse to a
measure adopted later by Maderno. He added several bays to the
nave. But whilst the architect of the seventeenth century contented
himself with three new arches, Raphael proposed to have four : this
would have been quite destructive of the splendid edifice imagined
by Bramante, and as Antonio da San-Gallo resisted the idea with
considerable violence, it was happily not adopted. In fact, the part
borne by Raphael in the rebuilding of St. Peter's consists only of a
few unimportant changes.
The completion of the Loggie and the continuation of St. Peter's
were the principal works confided by the Pope to Raphael. That
part of the Apostolic Palace in which the Loggie are situated had been
begun by Bramante under Julius II. We find a suggestion of the
Loggie with the same number of arcades as now exist in a plan of
the Vatican designed in 1503 or 1504 by Raphael's predecessor.
Raphael apparently only added the third storey, solely supported by
columns. Bramante's plan having only been intended for two storeys,
the master had not thought it necessary to inclose the arcades of the
ground-floor. The addition of a third storey must necessarily, there
fore, have had the effect of overloading the foundations and endanger-

RAPHAEL AS ARCHITECT

209

ing the stability of the edifice, as the event proved. The walls
cracked seriously the very night Raphael died, and for a while it was
feared the whole edifice would give way. Antonio da San-Gallo
averted the danger by filling up the arches of the ground floor,
leaving only the small windows, which exist to this day. Thanks to
this explanation, we are at last enabled to understand the passage in
which Vasari tells us that Raphael, to please certain persons, left
'' holes in the foundations of the Loggie." Leo X. was so pleased

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(Facsimile of an old Engraving.)
with Raphael's work that he gave him the directorship ot all the
architectural and artistic departments of the Vatican.
Cardinal Giuliano de' Medici also appointed Raphael his architect.
He asked him to make designs for the villa which he proposed to
build on Monte Mario, at the gates of Rome. The works seem to
have been be°-un during Raphael's lifetime, but he was not allowed
to behold the accomplishment of this undertaking.

CHIGI STABLES

211

Among the edifices which Raphael erected for private patrons
during the reign of Leo X., we must call attention to the Chioi
Stables, " Stalle Chigiane." This building, which in its magnificence
rivalled many a palace, was begun in 1514. Another friend of
.Raphael's, Giovanni Battista Branconio dell' Aquila, drew upon his

STATUE OF JONAH.
(Church of Santa Maria del Popolo, Rome.)

genius as an architect for the erection of a palace in the Borgo-Nuovo ;
it was destroyed in the seventeenth century, at the same time as the
palace which Raphael had purchased
The Coltrolini-Caffarelli-Stoppani-Vidom Palace is still standing,
and so is the house built by Raphael for Leo X.'s doctor, Jacopo da

212 RAPHAEL
Brescia. Florence also possesses a palace by Raphael, the finest he
ever conceived, and, we may add, one of the finest of the whole
Renaissance period. We allude to that which the Bishop of Troja,
Giannozzo Pandolfino, an intimate friend of the artist, caused him to
build in the Via San-Gallo.
Towards the end of his life, carried away by a positive fever for
work, and perhaps jealous of the accumulating laurels of Michael
Angelo, Raphael tried his hand at sculpture. The excitement in the
camp of Michael Angelo was great when they learnt this. The
saddler, Leonardo di Compagnano, immediately let the master, who
was then at Carrara, know. "Raphael," he writes, under date of
November 16, 1516, "has made a model in clay of a child for
Piero d'Ancona, and the latter has almost finished putting it into
marble. They say it is a very good work. Be warned ! " Some
time passes before we again hear of this statue. Raphael had been
dead more than three years when Castiglione, in a letter addressed to
Andrea Piperario, one of his compatriots settled in Rome, charges
him to ask Giulio Romano whether Raphael's marble statue of the
child still exists, and at what price it could be bought. We do not
know that the bargain was ever concluded. It is certain, however,
that the following year, when Giulio Romano left for Mantua, he
deposited with his brother in Rome, for safe keeping, the statue of a
child in clay — probably the sketch-model of Raphael's statue.
Vasari speaks of two other pieces of sculpture to which he appends
Raphael's name, but as in the case of the Jonah, the master only
furnished a sketch, or perhaps a small model. A small terra-cotta in
the South Kensington Museum is supposed to have been the model
of the Jonah.

CHAPTER XX
Before his journey to Rome in 1508, Raphael had made no study
of the masterpieces of ancient art. At Rome he became a passionate
admirer of the heroes of paganism, and from thenceforward classic
antiquity had no more ardent champion. At Rome, too, he was able
for the first time to study ancient painting. In the sixteenth century
many monuments still preserved their primitive decoration, and
they, together with the fragments of fresco that excavations were
continually revealing, gave opportunities which do not now exist for
the study of antique work in colour. No one thought of collecting

RAPHAEL AND THE ANTIQUE 213
and preserving those precious specimens, but artists eagerly studied
them. Among the works of Raphael there are many which cannot
be explained by the influence of ancient sculpture alone. He must
certainly have borrowed more liberally from his predecessors, the
painters of old Rome, than has been hitherto imagined.
In 1509, vestiges of frescoes were still to be seen in the baths and
gardens of Sallust and Titus ; in the ruins on the Quirinal, and in
those close to San Pietro in Vincoli. Inghirami's villa on the
Palatine contained several ancient walls entirely covered with
frescoes. Albertini also mentions a tomb in the Via Salaria orna
mented with figures of Ceres and Bacchus, as well as vases and vine-
leaves. Raphael himself, in his reports to Leo X., speaks of the
paintings in the Baths of Diocletian, which he compares to the con
temporary works in those of Trajan and Titus. We know how he
made use of the charming decorations discovered at this time in the
latter, and Tivoli also furnished him with designs. The study of
ancient mosaics, of which Rome and the country around, notably
Palestrina, possessed such considerable remains, completed Raphael's
knowledge of ancient painting.
At this time Rome contained two museums, that of the Vatican,
the Antiquarium, as it was called, and that of the Capitol. The first
could boast, as yet, but a few monuments, but they were all master
pieces: the Apollo Belvedere, the Laocoon, the Torso, the Ariadne
(then known under the name of Cleopatra), the statue of the Empress
Sallustia Barba Orbana, represented as Venus, the Commodus, the
Tiberius. Under Leo X., the Nile, as well as two statues of Antinous
(who supplied a type of Raphael's Jonah), were added to these
marvels of art.
The Museum of the Capitol, founded in the reign of Sixtus IV.,
was larger. It contained the bronze Wolf, the bronze Hercules, the
Boy with the thorn in his foot, the Lion devouring a horse, the busts
of the Emperors, the Sarcophagus of Julia, the two basalt sphinxes
(one of which appears in the fresco of the Farnesina, Psyche before the
Assembly of the Gods), many fragments of colossal bronze and marble
statues, &c, &c. But who could describe the riches of the private
collections ? They formed by themselves the largest museum then
existing. There was not a prelate or diplomatist, a noble or a banker,
who did not seek with ardour every memento which recalled the
ancient splendours of Rome — statues, reliefs, gems, medals, and
inscriptions. In the first rank was the museum collected at the
Palace of St. Mark by the Venetian Cardinal, Domenico Grimani.
The influence of the antique over Raphael is to be traced in three

214 RAPHAEL
distinct ways: by changes in his style, by his direct imitation of
ancient models— paintings, bas-reliefs and statues— and by the choice
of subjects borrowed from Greek and Roman mythology and history.
The modifications that study of the antique made in his style are
so numerous that, to describe them properly, we ought to notice, one
by one, nearly every figure executed by the master. He made use of
the admirable models contained in the Roman collections to give
style to his draperies and greater purity to his types ; to make his
manner of treatment larger and nobler. They enabled him to discover
that scientific basis of beauty which had previously escaped all but
his intuition. In place of impressions more or less vague and
personal we see him depending upon principles. Thus was the
Roman school founded. Although Raphael had won admiration at
Perugia, Urbino, and Florence, it was at Rome that he succeeded in
founding a school.
It did not take him long to pass from general imitation to frank
borrowing. Vasari has pointed out the influence that ancient art
exercised over the frescoes in the Camera della Segnatura. In his
description of the Parnassus, he tells us how Raphael had recourse,
for the portraits of the poets represented on the famous mount, to
statues, medals and ancient pictures. In painting the heads in the
School of Athens we know that he copied one ancient portrait,
probably the cameo that Castiglione was fortunate enough to become
possessed of ten years later.
He imitated ancient models, much more frequently than has
been hitherto believed. The head of the Homer in the Parnassus
recalls that of the Laocoon. Calliope, in the same fresco, is taken
from the Cleopatra (now called Ariadne). Raphael's borrowing is still
more evident in the drawing preserved at the Albertina of Vienna ;
in the lower portion of the two figures the arrangement of drapery is
identical. (See page 123.) The Apollo of the School of Athens was
certainly inspired by the celebrated intaglio of Lorenzo il Magnifico,
Apollo and Marsyas. There are in the Cartoons, too, numerous
imitations of well-known originals. In the Sacrifice at Lystra the
priest who raises his axe, and the victim itself, have both been copied
from an antique bas-relief, which is now to be seen in the Uffizi.
The Loggie and the Farnesina are the two works of Raphael in
which this looking back at the antique is most conspicuous. The
discovery of the paintings in the Baths of Titus placed within the
reach of himself and of his pupils an inexhaustible mine of pictorial
motives. We have seen how thoroughly those mines were explored.
Free borrowing also took place from the Roman collections of statues

RAPHAEL AND THE ANTIQUE 215
and bas-reliefs, from the Ephesian Diana, the Sacrifice of a Bull,
the Apollo and Marsyas. Scores of these imitations are to be found
in the illustrations to the Bible. In the Deluge, the man who hangs
on by the neck of his horse is copied from a relief on the column of
Antoninus. By force of study, Raphael familiarized himself not only with the
styles and technical methods of his Greek and Roman predecessors,
but also with their beliefs and fundamental ideas, and after 1508,
antiquity furnished the subjects of his most brilliant compositions :
for instance, the School of Athens, the Parnassus, Apollo and Marsyas,
Alexander depositing the Works of Homer in the Tomb of Achilles,
Augustus Saving the AUneidfrom the Flames, the Triumph of Galatea,
the Planets, the Sibyls, the History of Psyche, the History of Venus
and Cupid in Bibbiena's bathroom, the Fates, the Seasons, the Hours
woven in the borders of the tapestries.
Many of these subjects, no doubt, were imposed upon the painter
by his patrons, but many were chosen by his own free will. Among
the latter must be included the numerous compositions interpreted
by the burin of Marc-Antonio Raimondi. We have already had
occasion to mention the superb engraving of Lucretia. It was
followed by the Judgment of Paris, the Quos Ego, the Pestilence, the
Venus at the Bath, &c. We may add to the list the beautiful drawing
in the Louvre of the Calumny of Apelles, and the fine Rape of Helen
in the Oxford University Collection, the Marriage of Alexander and
Roxana, and Children playing with Apples, in the Louvre.
In 1515, Raphael was enabled to intervene for the preservation
of historic monuments in a most efficacious manner. A papal brief,
bearing date August 27, 1515, gave him power, doubtless at his
own request, to forbid the destruction of any ancient marbles bearing
inscriptions. "Considering," writes the Pope to him, "that the
stone-cutters destroy for building purposes many inscribed antique
stones and marbles which it is important to preserve as aids to the
development of letters, and to the preservation in its full elegance of
the Latin tongue, we forbid all marble-cutters in Rome, to cut or
chisel, without express permission, any stone whatever bearing an
inscription, under pain of fines for those who disobey our orders."
The first part of the same brief authorizes Raphael to requisition
all the materials obtained by excavation in Rome and its neighbour
hood, for the building of St. Peter's, to which he had been appointed
architect-in-chief but a year before. The painter, however, soon
became alive to the danger that might result from encouraging these
excavations too freely. The Popes have been reproached with being

the judgment of PARIS. (Facsimile of an Engraving by Marc-Antonio.)

VENUS AT THE BATH.

(Facsimile of an Engraving by Marc- Antonio.

218 RAPHAEL
the cause of the ruin of many interesting monuments by permitting
the pozzolana to be obtained from their foundations.
On the other hand, Raphael profited by the facilities which this
afforded him to procure antiques for his friends. A letter from the
Ferrarese charge' d'affaires, published by Campori (March 30, 1517),
shows the artist trying to satisfy the desires of Duke Alphonso d'Este.
" As for the medals, heads, and figures," writes the minister, " Raphael
tells me he is attending to the instructions of your Excellency. He
has begged me to leave it all to him, assuring me that he has the
most trustworthy agents. He also gives me to understand that your
Excellency has lately manifested a desire to become the owner of the
bed of Polycrates (Polycletus ?). There is one at Florence, indeed,
but it is not for sale. Raphael says that there is one here which is
still finer, although it is not the bed of Polycrates," &c, &c.
The painter-archaeologist dispatched draughtsmen into all parts
of Italy, and even into Greece, to make records of antique monu
ments. An engraving of the stylobate of the Theodosian column at
Constantinople bears an inscription stating that the original drawing
was sent to Raffaello da Urbino. A careful examination of the
design for the Battle of Constantine has enabled M. Reiset to discover
another equally interesting fact : " Several of the horses' heads in
profile, which appear on the left of the picture, are copied from the
frieze of Phidias. The resemblance is so great that it cannot have
been fortuitous. It does not occur in the fresco itself, which was
painted after Raphael's death by Giulio Romano, or in any work with
which we are acquainted, either by master or scholars."
In 1518 or 1519 Raphael undertook to condense the results of
his studies in a report which he delivered to the Pope, and of which
we possess two different editions, the one published in 1733 by the
Volpi in their edition of Castiglione's works, the other given in
Passavant's Raphael. By this we see that he proposed to collect the
measurement of every existing Roman building which had come
down from antiquity, and by means of these measurements to attempt
an ideal reconstruction of the great capital of the Caesars.
The report commences with an enthusiastic panegyric upon the
antique. Raphael speaks in bitterly indignant terms of the ravages
committed by the Goths, the Vandals, and other enemies of the
Latin race. But he does not place all the blame upon them. With
an admirable courage he reminds the Pope of the excesses committed
by his own predecessors. "The very men," he writes, "who should
have been the special defenders of the sad remains of ancient Rome,
have been the most urgent in robbing and destroying her. How

REPORT ON ANCIENT REMAINS 219
many pontiffs, oh Holy Father, endowed with the same dignity as
yourself, but possessing neither your knowledge, your merit, nor your
largeness of heart, have permitted the destruction of ancient temples,
of statues, of triumphal arches, and other glorious monuments of the
founders of our country ! How many among them have allowed the
foundations of antique buildings to be laid bare for the sake of the
pozzolana, and have thus brought destruction upon them ! How
many antique figures and other carvings have been turned into lime !
I am but saying what is true, when I declare that this modern Rome,
with all its grandeur and beauty, with its churches, palaces, and other
monuments, is built with the lime made from our antique marbles ! "
Raphael did not take up his project for the restoration of ancient
Rome single-handed. We have already spoken of Andrea Fulvio.
Besides him there was the aged Fabio Calvo of Ravenna, he who
translated Vitruvius for the painter. Calvo was certainly associated
with Raphael in his researches into the topography of ancient Rome.
The letter of M. A. Michiel (April 11, 1520), already quoted,
contains some details of great interest on the subject of Raphael's
project : " Raphael's death has caused universal sorrow, especially
among scientific men, for whom he was preparing a book. As
Ptolemy made a map of the world, so has Raphael drawn the an
cient edifices of Rome, with their shapes, proportions, and ornament
ations, all represented with such clearness, that we can fancy that we
see it as it was. He had already done the first region before his
death. His aim was not only to give the plans of the buildings and
to fix their former situations — he had personally and with extraordin
ary labour gathered the information which enabled him to do this —
but also to restore, on paper, their faqades and ornamentation, and
with the help of Vitruvius to formulate the rules which had governed
their erection, and generally to give descriptions as minute as ancient
records and existing remains would allow."

CHAPTER XXI

Raphael's last years, though fertile in artistic production, were
destitute of striking events or important changes. In 1515 he made
a journey to Florence, where he took part in the fetes on the entrance
of Leo X., and the competition for the building of the facade of San
Lorenzo. ' He then returned to Rome, which he was destined never

220 RAPHAEL
again to leave. The situation that he occupied at the pontifical
court, and the favour of the Pope, were both likely to keep him in the
Eternal City. During the reign of Leo X. his life was an uninter
rupted series of triumphs ; the artist became a " grand seigneur," and
added the title of jiapal chamberlain to his other honours.
Unhappily for him the requirements of the Pope, to say nothing of
the demands of all civilized Europe, left him no leisure to enjoy his
honours in peace. From the beginning of 1515 he was besieged. He
was obliged to make cartoons for frescoes, tapestries, mosaics, scenes
for theatres, to paint easel-pictures and altar-pieces ; to direct the
works of St. Peter's, of the Loggie, and of several private palaces ; to
guard the antiquities of Rome, and to supply designs to silversmiths,
sculptors, and engravers, without at the same time neglecting his
duties as a man of the world and a courtier. Most men would have
succumbed under such a burden. For several years the young artist
was able to fulfil all commissions ; then he suddenly broke down in
the zenith of his productive power.
After the accession of Leo X. Raphael's reputation increased so fast
that princes contended for the slightest sketch from his pencil. Leo
X. set the example of loading him with too much work. Raphael
was obliged to satisfy all his caprices, even to the point of painting
life-size the elephant sent to him by the King of Portugal. He even
had to prostitute his brush to political intrigue. Francis I. com
missioned him to paint the St. Margaret, now in the Salmi carre" of the
Louvre ; the Italian sovereigns were equally solicitous to possess works
from his hand. Among the most pressing was Alphonso d'Este,
husband of Lucrezia Borgia, whose entreaties at last degenerated into
persecution. Raphael seems to have been presented to the Duke in 1513, by
Ariosto. In 1517 the painter was buying antiques for him, while
preparing for his acceptance a picture representing the triumph of
Bacchus in India. He had already sent him a sketch of the com
position when he learned that an artist of the Duke's court, Pellegrino
da Udine, was treating the same subject. He proposed another, for
which he received fifty ducats on account. The same year he presented
the Duke with the cartoon of the History of Leo III. From the
beginning of 1518 Alphonso begins to press the artist, who tries to
gain time. "Raffaello da Urbino," writes the Ferrarese envoy
(March 1, 1518), "still seeks excuse. He will not have finished your
Excellency's picture until Easter. He cannot keep at it owing to the
portraits and designs which the Pope and his Highness the Duke
(Lorenzo de' Medici) give him to do. A Saint Michael, life-size, has

RAPHAEL OVERWORKED 221
been ordered by his Holiness, as a present to his Most Christian
Majesty, and that picture absorbs nearly all his attention. It must be
finished as soon as possible. Nevertheless I am most pressing in my
entreaties to him." Raphael presents him with the cartoon of his
Saint Michael as a sop to his impatience, thus giving proof of the
delicacy and generosity of his character. The envoy writes (Novem
ber 20,1518): "I thanked him for his cartoon and assured him
that your Excellency had been delighted to receive it. I then offered
him the twenty-five crowns that your Excellency charged me to give
him. With great delicacy he objected to take them, declaring that
he had sent the cartoon out of devotion and respect for your person.
He is full of courtesy, and assured me several times that he was more
disposed to satisfy your Excellency than to please the whole court
here. He took the money at last, with many thanks to your
Excellency." The Duke, encouraged by these gifts, demanded and obtained the
cartoon for Joanna of Aragon as well. But he did not forget his
picture, and continued to torment the artist, who appeased him for a
time with excuses and promises. For three years he was successfully
put off, but at last his patience gave way. " Go to Raphael," he
writes to his ambassador on September 10, 1519, " and tell him that
three years have passed since he gave his promise, and that this is not
the way in which those of my rank should be treated. If he does not
carry out his engagement, we will teach him that it is not advisable
to deceive us. You can add, as coming from yourself, that it would
be well not to change the affection we bear him into ill-will. If he
keeps his promise he can count on us ; if not he may be sure that one
day he will regret his failure."
We must go back to the quarrel between Julius II. and Michael
Angelo to find a sovereign prince thus honouring an artist by losing his
temper with him. Raphael succeeded, however, in appeasing the
Duke's choler, and the latter made a strange use of the claim the
delay had given him. On the 20th of March, 1520, his envoy tells him
that he has had a long discussion with Raphael as to how his High-
ness's chimneys are to be prevented from smoking ! and that he will
send him plans for necessary alterations immediately ! Sixteen days
later the painter was dead.
The sequel to the story of the Duke's relations with Raphael does
not redound much to the honour of Alphonso d'Este. Not having
received the picture he had commissioned, he demanded the fifty
crowns back that he had paid on account, and did not desist until he
had obtained them from the artist's heirs, who did not spare him the

222 RAPHAEL
expression of their contempt for conduct so unworthy. The Marchesa
Isabella di Mantua was more courteous than her brother Alphonso,
but no less persistent.
If Raphael was unable to fulfil the desires of powerful rulers, how
could mere prelates expect to be attended to ? He told the Cardinal
Gregorio Cortese, who asked him to paint one of the walls of the
refectory of San Polidoro, at Modena, that it was impossible fo/ him to
leave Rome without very exceptional payment. The cardinal found
that the undertaking would cost him at least a thousand ducats. He
therefore went to another artist, who was content with three hundred.
"If I cannot get Apelles," he said to console himself, "I shall be
content with Parrhasius."
The nuns of Monteluce, for whom Raphael had begun a Corona
tion of the Virgin in 1505, returned also to the charge about this
time. By a contract, dated June 21, 1516, of which the original is
exhibited among the MSS. in the Louvre, Raphael agrees to let them
have the picture in a year. He was to receive 120 ducats for the
picture itself, exclusive of the predella, frame, &c, which were en
trusted to the painter Berto di Giovanni, of Perugia. The nuns
proposed to pay him a part of the money as soon as the work should
be commenced, a further sum when it should be half-finished, and the
remainder on its delivery to them. But Raphael replied that he had
determined to take no more payments on account, and that, with the
exception of twenty ducats which he had received as retainer, he
would look for his payment only when the work should be finished.
All these promises were doubtless sincere at the time they were
made. But enterprises more urgent claimed his attention, and the
Coronation of the Virgin remained unfinished until 1525, when it was
completed from his designs by Giulio Romano and II Fattore.
Both this Coronation and that of 1503 are now in the Gallery of the
Vatican. Raphael was grateful for the admiration of powerful sovereigns
and lovers of art, but much more touched by the crowds of pupils who
flocked to his studio from all parts of Italy, and even from foreign
lands. Never since the time of Squarcione had any master founded
a larger or more brilliant school. When the painter walked in the
streets of Rome he was surrounded by an escort of fifty young men.1
1 The studio was organized on such a large scale, that when Raphael was in
want of more colours he sent a pupil to Venice expressly to buy them. (Document
published in the Gazette des Beaux-Arts, 1863, t. i. p. 356.) Other pupils were
commissioned to make drawings of antique monuments in central and southern
Italy, and even in Greece. Others, notably Vincidore, accompanied the Cartoons
to Brussels and superintended the weaving of them.

THE FORNARINA 223
Vasari's story to this effect is corroborated by Lomazzo, who has
handed down to us Michael Angelo's famous " You go about sur
rounded like a general." Official documents also confirm the story.
We had some trouble to discover the names of more than eight or
ten painters in all Rome upon Raphael's first arrival in that city. In
1535, fifteen years after the death of Raphael, the corporation of St.
Luke consisted of no fewer than a hundred and eighty. To notice
Raphael's scholars would be to write the history of Italian art in the
seventeenth century. The School of Raphael was his family.
We must now speak of a subject which we have hitherto avoided,
but which cannot be passed over in silence — his relations with the
Fornarina. Nearly all that we know about her is contained in a few
lines of Vasari. " Marc-Antonio executed a certain number of engrav
ings for Raphael, which he handed over to Baviera, one of the
master's scholars. This man had charge of a woman whom Raphael
loved to death, of whom the master painted a very beautiful portrait,
which appeared no less than alive ; this portrait is now in Florence,
in the possession of Matteo Botti." Again : " Raphael painted the
portrait of Beatrix d'Este^ and of other women, among them his own
mistress." " Raphael, like a good Christian, sent away his mistress
before making his will, but gave her enough to keep her in comfort."
Finally, Vasari tells us that Chigi besought the painter's mistress to
install herself in his villa, that her presence might induce Raphael to
push on to completion the pictures upon which he was engaged in that
famous building.
In the second half of the sixteenth century the possessor of a copy
of Vasari wrote upon the margin of one of the pages in which the
" mistress " of Raphael is mentioned, that her name was Margarita.
As for the name Fornarina (bakeress), it was never heard of till the
eighteenth century. We have already noticed the portrait of the
so-called Fornarina at the Palazzo -Barberini, and the copy exe
cuted in fresco by Giulio Romano on one of the ceilings of the Villa
Lante. We know that Baviera was an artist. In a contract executed in
November 1515, in the name of his master, "Baverius Charocii de
Parma," he describes himself as " Pictor." Baviera makes use of the
same title at the foot of a letter dated April 27, 1518. (Towards
the end of the reign of Leo X., one " Baviera, Pictor da Bologna,"
lived in the Campo Marzo, in the parish of St. Trifonio.)
Our study of Raphael's home-life would not be complete did we
fail to cast a glance upon the palazzo, in the Borgo Nuovo, in which
he lived for so many years and died.

224 RAPHAEL
In the valuable letter published by Morelli, Marc-Antonio Michiel
di ser Vettor says that Raphael bought the palazzo from Bramante,
paying for it the sum of 3000 golden ducats. Michiel adds that the
painter left it at his death to Cardinal Bibbiena. The former of
these assertions has been confirmed by the researches of M. de
Geymiiller, We now know for certain that the palazzo was not the
work of Raphael, as Passavant believed, but of Bramante. It is said
that Raphael soon began to find himself straitened for means in his
new residence. Both his position at the papal court and the interests
of his art imposed upon him heavy expenses. As soon as he had
acquired that position he was surrounded by numerous assistants and
pupils, for all of whom, according to the custom of that age, he was
obliged to find board, if not lodging also. Vasari says that Giulio
Romano, Penni, and Fabio Calvo, of Ravenna, lived in the master's
house. It is therefore not improbable that the joint author of II
Buonarroti is right when he tells us that as early as 1515 Raphael
found himself obliged to buy, for 200 golden ducats, a house in the
Via Sistina, Borgo, belonging to the architect Perino de' Gennari da
Caravaggio. A little later the painter was again obliged to extend
his accommodation, and hired several houses belonging to the brothers
Porcari in the Via Alessandrina.
Raphael had it in contemplation, a short time before his death,
to build himself a real palace. He had fixed upon a site in the Via
Giulia, near the church of San Giovanni Fiorentino, and not far
from the Vatican, though on the opposite bank of the Tiber. We
may here give the words of the notary who drew up the agreement :
" March 24th, 1520. The canons of St. Peter's confirm the assign
ment to Raphael of Urbino, painter, of the rights granted to Leonardo
Bartolini, over a plot of ground belonging to the said chapter. This
plot is situated near the church of St. Blasius ' della Pagnotta,' in the
district of the Bridge. It is bounded by streets on all sides, and
measures 217J canne, Roman measure. This assignment is one of a
perpetual lease, on the sole condition that the said Raphael there
build himself a house for his own in-dwelling. In case the building
was not erected within five years, the whole site was to revert to the
chapter. The annual rent was fixed at eighty ducats, ten carlini,
payable on the festa of SS. Peter and Paul." We may guess that
the project in question was of considerable importance, since the
ground-rent alone was eighty ducats. At the period in question the
Via Giulia was considered the best quarter in Rome, and was the
favourite district of great patricians, prelates, and rich painters.
The date of this agreement is March 24, 1520 ; on the 6th of the

IKaub yrfa'aat ;x Lapifft*- C aerify Konj/r', eya/ht

A nrwig fifrrrg i^wW
THE PALACE OF RAPHAEL AND BRAMANTE.
(Facsimile of an old Engraving.)

226 RAPHAEL
following month the painter expired. We may thus see how far
any thought of death was from his mind.
The story of Raphael's last moments is still very obscure. The
account given by Vasari — friend of the friends and pupils of the
master though he was, and warm, sympathetic, and eloquent as is his
history of Raphael's life — is now universally discredited. It is certain
that if his death was hastened by excess, it was by excess of work.
The most vigorous organization could hardly fail to succumb under
his prodigious efforts — efforts, too, which were renewed day after day.
In the portrait by Marc-Antonio, we see Raphael enveloped in his
mantle and shivering with cold, his palette and paint-cups beside
him ; perhaps he was then feeling the first approach of the illness
which was to prove so rapidly fatal. That illness was short indeed.
On March 20 he promised the envoy of the Duke of Ferrara the
drawings for his smoky chimneys; on April 6 he was dead, and
the envoy wrote to his master : '' Raphael da Urbino, e morto di una
febre continua e acuta, che gia octo giorni l'assalto."
From the very beginning of the attack anxiety was great at the
papal court. The Pope, as Marc-Antonio tells us, sent more than six
times to ask how he fared and to convey consolations.
Rapid though the course of his illness was, Raphael found strength
to put his affairs in order. His will furnishes us with additional
evidence of the spirit of justice and benevolence which guided his
slightest acts. None of his friends were forgotten, and to each he
left that which would be most in accordance with his individual
preference or necessities.
His fortune, which amounted to 16,000 ducats, or about £32,000
at the present value of money, was thus divided: his sketches,
pictures, all that constituted his artistic property, became the heritage
of his two favourite pupils, Giulio Romano and Gian-Francesco Penni,
burdened only with the injunction that they should complete his
unfinished works. Each of his servants received 300 golden ducats.
The land purchased but a few days before was divided between his
cousin Antonio Battiferro of Urbino, who received 100 canne, and
his friend the goldsmith, Antonio da San-Marino, who received 117 J
canne. A sum of 1000 crowns was devoted to the purchase of a
house, with which the Pantheon chapel founded by the painter was
endowed. Raphael forgot neither his own family nor the young
girl he had so passionately loved. Finally, he chose for his
executors his friends Baldassare Turini and Giovan-Battista dell'
Aquila. Raphael died on Good Friday, on the anniversary of his birth.

DEATH OF RAPHAEL 227
between nine and ten in the evening. He was but thirty-seven years
of age. The grief of Rome, and of all Italy, was. great. Leo X., according
to Vasari, wept bitter tears. The men of those superstitious days
struck by the coincidence of his sudden death with the appearance
of ominous cracks in the Loggie, thought the latter a portent from
heaven : " For the last few days," writes Michiel, " the papal palace
has threatened to fall, and His Holiness has been driven to install
himself in Cardinal Cibo's apartments. Men say that the accident
is not caused by the weight of the galleries, but that it is a celestial
presage of the death of him who painted their decorations." The
same notion reappears in a letter from the Mantuan Minister, and
in the sonnet of Tebaldeo.
The letter of the Mantuan envoy to Isabella Gonzaga gives us
touching evidence of the regrets excited by Raphael's untimely death :
" To the most Illustrious and Excellent Lady, the Duchess of
Mantua, etc., etc.
" Although in these holy days one thinks of nothing but con
fession and the other exercises of piety, I cannot refrain from
presenting my respects to your Excellency. I have, however, no
news to give you but that of the death of Raphael of Urbino, who
ceased to live last night, that is, the night of Good Fridaj', leaving
behind the immense and unanimous regret of the whole court caused
by the ruin of all the hopes founded upon him ; which, had they been
realized, would have been the glory of our century. Every one says
that the greatest things might have been hoped from him, judging
both from the works which he had already finished, and from the still
greater enterprises which he had commenced. The heavens them
selves announced his death by one of the signs which attended the
death of Christ, when the rocks opened, Lapides scissi sunt. The
Pope's palace is so cracked that it threatens to fall. His Holiness,
frightened at this, has deserted his own apartments and betaken
himself to the palace constructed by Innocent VIIL Here they talk
of nothing except the death of this good man, which has terminated,
at the end of his thirty-third year, his first existence. His second
life — his fame— will be subject neither to time nor death; it will
endure for ever, thanks to his own works and to the pens of the
learned men who will write his praises. There will be no lack of
materials. . . . The said Raphael was honourably buried in the
Rotunda, where a monument is to be raised to him, at a cost of a

228 RAPHAEL
thousand ducats. He left a sum for the endowment of the chapel in
which his tomb is placed ; besides which he has given three hundred
ducats to each of his servants. We heard yesterday from Florence
that Michael Angelo is ill.
"Kome, April 7, 1520.
" From the ever faithful servant of your most illustrious and most
excellent Ladyship, "PANDOLFO DE' PlCI DE LA MlRANDOLO."
The body of the painter was shown to the public in his studio,
by the side of his unfinished Transfiguration. All the artists of
Rome followed him to the grave. The greatest poets of Italy
hastened to interpret the public grief. Bembo, Ariosto, Tebaldeo,
and Castiglione, all sang of the lost painter, archaeologist, and friend.1
Raphael wished to be buried in that Pantheon which he had so
greatly admired. A simple slab of marble, let into the wall, marks
the place where the greatest of painters was laid. The eloquent and
famous epitaph by Bembo runs as follows —
D . o . M .
RAPHAELI . SANCTIO . IOANN . F . VRBINATI
PICTORI . EMINENTISS . VETERVMQ . ^MVLO
CVIVS . SPIRANTES . PROPE . IMAGINES . SI
CONTEMPLERE . NATVRiE . ATQVE . ARTIS . FCEDVS
FACILE . INSPEXERIS
IVLII II . ET LEONIS X . PONT . MAXX . PICTVR^
ET . ARCHITECT . OPER1BVS . GLORIAM . AVXIT
VIX . ANNOS . XXXVII . INTEGER . INTEGROS
QVO . DIE . NATVS . EST . EO . ESSE . DESIIT
VIII . ID . APRILIS . MDXX
ILLE HIC EST RAPHAEL TIMVIT QVO SOSPITE VINCI
RERVM MAGNA PARENS ET MORIENTE MORI.
1 A letter addressed by Castiglione to his mother on July 20, 1520, shows us
how great was the grief he felt : "lam in good health," he writes, " but I can
hardly believe that I am in Eome now that my poor Raphael (il mio poveretto
Rafaello) is gone. May God receive his blessed soul ! " (Lettere, ed. Serassi. t. i.
p. 74.) k

INDEX

Abel, The Sacrifice of, 159, 171
Abraham and the Three Angels, 159
Aeciajuolo, 142
Accolti, Bernardino, surnamed " Unico
Aretino," 49, 142, 145
Adam and Eve driven from Paradise, 56,
159
 Temptation of, 20
 151
JEneas Sylvius before Eugenius IV., 26
Agnolo, Baccio d', 60
Albani Palace, Urbino, 90
Alberti, L, B., 116
Aleandro, 142
Alexander depositing the MS. of Homer on
the Tomb of Achilles, 117, 215
Alfani, Domenico, 18, 77
Alippi, Signor A., 100
Altoviti, Bindo, 111, 134, 136, 137, 188
Amalio, Pietro di, 114
Ambrogio, 44
Ananias, The Death of, 173
Ancona, 41
 Piero di, 212
Angeli, Lodovico, 18
Angelico, Fra, 30, 60, 121
Angelo, Michael Buonarroti, 8, 17, 29, 30,
31, 39, 46, 50, 56, 60, 61, 97, 98, 102,
104, 106, 109, 111, 116, 118, 136, 142,
146, 148, 150, 154, 159, 170, 182, 183,
184, 212, 221, 223, 228
Anghiara, Battle of, 30, 116
Annunciation, The, 35, 36, 205
Antonazzo, 114
Antonio, Marc (Raimondi),25, 26, 94, 139,
148, 164, 169, 180, 181, 199, 215, 216,
217, 223, 226
Apelles, Calumny of, 215
Apostles, Acts of the, 145, 163, 170, 171,
173, 175, 176
Apostoli, Basilica of the Santi, 103
Apples, Children Playing with, 215
Apuleius, Metamorphoses of, 188
Aquila, Giovanni Battista Branconio dell ,
143, 146, 211, 226

Aragon, Joanna of, 106, 136, 201, 221
Arazzi della Scuola Nuova, 172, 176, 177
Archers, The Two, 12
Aretino, Pietro, 109
¦  • Unico (Bernardo Accolti), 49, 142,
145
Arezzo, Leonardo di, 106
Ariosto, 108, 109, 121, 142, 220, 228
Arras, 170, 171
Ascension, The, 177
Astronomy, 117
Athens, St. Paul Preaching at, 56, 172, 173,
175
 School of, 28, 110, 112, 117, 121,
124, 125, 215
Attila, The March of, 130
Augustus, Elector of Saxony, 193
Augustus rescuing the ^Eneid, 117, 215
Aumale, Due d', 25, 71, 77, 120
Avignon, 30, 43
Baglioni, Atalanta, 95
Bagpipes, The Player on, 28
Baize, M. Raymond, 124
Bandinelli, Baccio, 56
Barberini Palace, 127, 139, 223
Barile, Giovanni, 47, 111, 142, 143, 148,
180, 206
Bartoli, Taddeo, 44
Bartolini, Leonardo, 224
Bartolommeo, Fra (Baccio della Porta), 8,
40, 56, 59, 60, 70, 97, 102, 142, 148
Bath, Venus at the, 215
Battiferro, Antonio, 226
Bavaria, Prince Louis of, 139
Baviera, 223
Bayersdbrfer, 22
Bazotto, 115
Bazzi, Antonio. See Sodoma.
Beazzano. 136, 142, 147, 210
Beltraffio, 142
Bembo, Pietro, 49, 50, 61, 106, 107, 118,
142, 147, 149, 154, 166, 200, 228
Beroaldus, 147, 187
Betto, Bernardino di'. See Pinturicchio.

230

INDEX

Bibbiena, Bernardino Dovizio da, Car
dinal, 49, 50, 106, 107, 136, 142, 143,
149, 154, 156, 164, 166, 200, 201, 215,
224
 Bath-room of, 164—166
Bible, Raphael's, 157 — 163
Bigio, Francia, 56
Bistucci, Vespasiano de', 2
Bologna, 11, 39, 94, 95, 102, 156, 200
Bolsena, Mass of, 128
Borgia, Caesar, 2, 32, 36, 49
 Lucrezia, 110, 220
Borgo, Incendio del, 116, 117, 125, 154,
155
 ¦ Palazzo del, 147, 211, 223
Bossi, Giuseppe, 22, 23
Botti, Matteo, 223
Botticello, 55, 170
Bourbon, Constable de, 171
Braccaleone, Antonio, 7
Bramante, 1, 17, 29, 105, 111, 112, 115,
116, 121, 136, 142, 147, 150, 153, 156,
205, 206, 207, 208, 224
Braun, 36, 37, 120
Brescia, Jacopo di, 212
Bruges, 170
Brunelleschi, 43, 54, 55, 140
Brussels, 170, 171, 172, 173, 222
Buonaparte, Napoleon, 135, 197, 204
Buoninsegna, Duccio di, 46
Burkhard, Hans, 106
Caen, 205
Csesariano, 112
Cagli, 8
Calcagnini, Celio, 206
Calvi, Marco Fabio, 9, 147, 206, 219, 224
Cambio, Sala di, frescoes in, 11. 13, 15, 18,
20, 30
Campori, Marchese di, 7, 109, 218
Cancellieri, 149
Canossa, Lodovico di', 49, 50, 107
 Palace, 107
Caporali, Bartolommeo, 18
 Giovanni Battista, 18
Capraniche Family, 110
Caradosso, 142, 148
Caravaggio, Perino de' Gennari da, 224
Cartoons, The, 163, 170, 171, 172, 173
214, 222
Castello, Citta di, 25, 36, 37, 38, 39, 48, 49,
 Banner for, 36
Castiglione, Count Baldassare, 49, 89 90
94, 108, 118, 136, 142, 147, 149, W
200, 203, 204, 206, 212, 214, 218, 228
Cellini, Benvenuto, 57, 100, 111, 148
Charlemagne, Coronation of, 146, 155 156
Charles I., King, 173
 VIIL, King, 54, 110, 113
Chigi, Agostino, 18, 47, 109, 110, 111, 114
144, 148, 149, 154, 179, 180, 184, 187
188, 223 '
 Chapel, 180

Chigi, Fabio (Alex. VII.), 139, 180
Chigiane, Stalle, 180, 211
Children, dancing, 26
 playing, 26
 quarrelling, 26
Christ, Angels at the Tomb of , 13
¦  Dead, 88
 on the Mount of Olives, 86
 Resurrection of, 201
 Life of, 145, 171, 177
Ciarla, Battista di, 150
— — — 1VT 'A ff 1 3 O f\
 Simone, 'l0, 31, 50, 61, 62, 101
150, 207
Cibo, Cardinal, 227
 Francesco, 146
 Innocenzio, 146
Cinelli, 182
Coen, M., 172
Colbordolo, 2
Collection, The Albertina, Vienna, 21, 62,
95, 99, 120, 121, 139, 150, 151, 155,
196, 213, 214
 Crozat, 11
 Dawson, 88
 England, Royal, 94, 118, 119
 ¦ Hampton Court, 173
 Lord Dudley's, 38
 Malcoim, 68, 97, 98
 Munro, 188
 Oxford,. Christ-Church, 7
 Spain, Royal, 197
 "Wicar, Lille, 13, 21, 22, 25, 28, 32,
33, 38, 72, 84, 85, 134
 ¦ "Windsor Castle, 119, 138
Colocci, 142
Colonna, Cardinal, 110
Coltrolini - Caffarelli - Stoppani - Vidoni
Palace, 211
Colvin, Mr. Sidney, 201
Compagnano, Leonardo di, 212
Constantine, Battle of, 218
Constantinople, 171
Conti, Sigismondo de', 107, 134
Correggio, 204
Cortese, Cardinal, 222
Coutts, Lady Burdett, 86
Cradle, Virgin with, 188
Creation, The {fresco), 159
 History of the (tapestries), 170
Credi, Lorenzo di, 59
Cromwell, 173
Cronaca, 60
Cross, Christ hearing the, or Spasimo di
Sicilia, 86, 100, 193, 194, 197
 Christ on the, 36, 38
Crowe and Cavalcaselle, MM., 5, 19, 22
27, 28, 201 ....
Crucifixion, The, 26
Cugnoni, Sig., 180
Cupid, History of Venus and, 215
 and Psyche, 26
Dante, 118, 120, 121

INDEX

231

Dei, Family of the, 61
Deluge, The, 158
Deposition, The, 88, 95, 97
Desiderio, 53
Desnoyers, Boucher, 200
Devonshire, Duke of, 26
Diadem, Virgin with the, 134
Donatello, 43, 53, 55, 94, 140
Demi, Maddalena, 58
Draperies, Study of, 26
Dream, Pharaoh's, 154
Duccio, 44
Diirer, Albrecht, 154, 155, 156, 164
Elymas struck with Blindness, 171, 173, 175
Emmaus, Supper at, 111
England, King of, 105
Entombment, The, 25, 32, 86, 95, 97, 99,
100, 191, 193
Este, Duke Alfonso d', 218, 220, 221
 Beatrice d', 223
Eusterio, Mariano di ser, 18
Ezekiel, The, 191, 195
Fabriano, Gentile da, 35
Fagan, L., Mr., 126
Fancelli, Clara, 18
Fanfaia, 142
Farnese, Alex., 123, 139, 180
Fates, The, 175, 215
Father, The Eternal, 166
Fattore, II, 182, 222
Faypoult, Commissary, 172
Federighi, Antonio, 44
Feltro, Morto da, 56
Ferd. III., Grand Duke of Tuscany, 64
Ferrara, 148, 169
 Duke of, 108, 110, 207, 226
Ficino, Marsilio, 118, 140
Fillon, M. Benj., 7
Fiora, Countess Santa-, 139
Fishes, The Miraculous Draught of, 171,
173
Flanders, The Tapestries, 169
Florence, 17, 39, 50, 53, 54, 61, 64, 74, 86,
94, 102, 139, 149, 197, 214, 219
 Academy of Fine Arts, 59
Flowers, Angel throwing, 26
Force, 117, 118, 121
Forli, Melozzo da, 8, 123
Fornarina, The, 127, 136, 139, 223
Fortebraccio, Braccio, 14
Fossombrosa, View of, 27
Franceses Piero della, 5, 8, 14, 116, 128
Francesco, Caesarino di, 182
Francia, Francesco, 11, 16, 94, 102, 107,
114, 115, 200
Francis I., 50, 156, ISO, 201, 220
 Holy Family of, 21, 146
Fregoso, Frederick, 49, 50
 Ottaviano, 49, 50
Fulvio, Andrea, 142, 219
Gaeta, Baraballo da, 142, 143

Gaetani, 110
Galatea, The Triumph of, 111, 126, 182,
Gallery, Barberini, 127, 139, 223
 Belvedere (Vienna), 58, 70, 103
 Berlin, 8, 22, 27, 31, 58, 67
 Borghese, 25, 90, 95, 99
 Brera, 8, 39
 Bridgewater, 77
 Dresden, 179, 192, 193
 Dulwieh, 86
 Hermitage, St. Petersburg, 134, 166
 Imperial, Vienna, 22, 61
 Lateran, 8
 ¦ Louvre, 22, 26, 57, 64, 72, 76, 80,
95, 97, 100, 110, 119, 121, 127, 130,
134, 169, 189, 191, 197, 200, 215, 220,
222
 Lyons, 20
 Madrid, 50, 58, 77, 107, 147, 188,
191, 197, 201
 Munich, 64, 66, 77, 139, 188
 National, London, 8, 13, 18, 47, 89,
95, 134
 Oxford, Univ., 7, 13, 21, 22, 26, 28,
32, 35, 38, 64, 72, 75, 95, 97, 118, 176,
178, 179, 215
 Pitti Palace, 64, 95, 111, 136, 146,
188, 190, 191, 201
 Stockholm, 20, 35
 Torlonia, 200
 Uffizi, 21, 42, 52, 54, 65, 73, 90, 95,
121, 136, 152, 173
 ¦ Vatican, 22, 35, 135, 204, 222
 • Venice, Academy of St. Luke, 125,
132, 223
 Vienna, Imperial, 22, 61
Gallo, Antonio da San-, 60, 112, 142, 147
200, 209
 Aristotele da San-, 56, 147
 Giovanni Francesco da San-, 147
 Giulano da San-, 60, 105, 112, 113,
142, 147, 207
 Palace of the Via San-, 146
Garofalo, 148
Genga, Girolamo, 18, 22, 24, 25, 148
Genoa, 172, 177
Georgio, Eusebio di San-, 18
Geymiiller, M. de, 224
Ghent, Justus of, 14
Gherardi, Count Pompeo, 4
Ghiberti, 54, 158
Ghinucci Stefano, 110
Ghirlandajo, Domenico, 8, 30, 55, 56
170
 Ridolfo, 56
Giocondo, Fra, 50, 142, 147, 154, 207
Giotto, 55, 63
Giovanni, Berto di, 17, 222
 Fra, 180
 Lattauzio di, 18
Giovio, Paolo, 142
Girl, Head of a Young, 26
Gonzaga, Caesar, 49

232

INDEX

Gonzaga, Elisabetta or Isabella, Duchess
of Mantua, 2, 227
 Federigo, 136
Gorgon, Study for, 28
Goritz, Jean, 106, 108, 134, 136
Gozzolo, Benozzo, 159
Graces, The Three, 24, 25, 42, 46, 54, 94
Gradara, Church of, 95
Granaccio, II, 56, 60
Grassis, Paris de, 171
Gregory IX. Promulgating the Decretals,
121, 128
Grimani, Domenico, 105, 213
Grimm, Herr, 42, 84
Gruyer, M., 54
Guiccioli Family, 147
Guido, 23
Guidobaldo. See Duke of Urbino.
Head of a Young Man, 26
Helen, Rape of, 215
Heliodorus, The Expulsion of, 127, 128,
130, 173
Hell, Descent into, 172, 177
Henry II, Tlie History of, 173
 VII., 89, 94
Holy Family of the Convent of St. Anthony,
86
 of Francis I., 191
 with Lamb, 58, 77
 Louvre, 188
 Naples, 134
 ¦ under the Oak, 188
 " The Pearl," 50, 107, 191
 with the Palm Tree, 77
Holy Ghost, Descent of, 177
Hosemant, Jean, 30
Hours, The, 215
Hiitten, Ulrich von der, 144
Imola, Michael da, 114
India, Bacchus in, 220
Inghirami, Tommaso, 106, 107, 118, 136,
142, 149, 200, 213
Ingres, 4
Innocents, Massacre of the, 9, 10, 25, 134,
139, 177
Isaiah, The, 134, 136
Jardiniere, La Belle, 40, 72, 74, 76, 191
Jonah, The, 212, 213
Joseph's Dream, 161
Jurisprudence, 117, 118
Justice, 117
Justinian, The Emperor Promulgating the
Pandects, 121
Kahl, Hen', 22—28
Kneeling, The Woman, 26
Knight, Vision of a, 13, 26
Lame Man, Healing of the, 171, 173
Lante, Villa, 139, 223
Lanzi, 38

Lascaris, Giovanni, 142
Lazarus, Raising of, 31, 201, 204
Leno, Giuliano, 112, 208
Leo III., Oath of, 155, 156
Leonardo, The Saddler, 154
Liphart, M. de, 22
Lippi, Filippo, 140
 Filippino, 55
Lippmann, Herr, 22
Lomazzo, 112, 223
Lorenzetti, Ambrogio, 44, 46
Lorenzetto, Ambrogio, 111, 182, 185
Lorenzo, 142
¦  ¦ Fiorenzo di, 17
¦  San, 219
 the Magnificent. See Medici.
Loschi, Antonio, 106
Louis XL, 171
 XII., 50, 54, 127, 130
Love, The Combat of, 51
 ¦ Jupiter and, 189
Luciani, Seb. See Sebastiano del Piombo.
Lucretia, The, 134, 139, 215
Luigi, or di' Assisi, 17
Lute Player, The, 26
Luxemburg, Goritz von. See Goritz.
Lystra, The Sacrifice at, 171, 173, 175, 211
Madama, Villa, 204
Maderno, 208
Madonna, The Aldobrandini, or Garvagh,
134
 Ansidei, 61, 86, 89, 205
 del Baldacchino, 61, 64, 84, 107, 205
 Bridgewater Gallery, 190
 della Candelabra, 188
 della Casa Canigiani, 64, 77
 del Cardellino, 64, 74, 75, 76
 ¦ della Casa Alba, 32, 134
 ¦ della Casa Colonna, 67
 Esterhazy, 83, 84
 di Foligno, 107, 134, 200
 del Gran Duca, 64
 dell Impannata, 111, 188, 191
 di Loreto, 105, 134
 del Prato, 58, 61, 70
 Niccolini, or Lord Cowper's larger,
 The Little Orleans, 66, 71
 Panshanger, The Little, 65
 di Pavia, 18
 del Pesce, 134, 135, 136
 • della Prefettessa, 101
 di Ripalda, 205
 ¦ della Rosa, 188
 ¦ della Sedia, 190
 di San Sisto, 134, 191, 192, 201
 della Casa Tempi, 60, 66
 della Tenda, 188
 The Terranuova, 27, 58, 67
Magi, Adoration of the, 21, 26, 28, 35, 177
Magliana, Villa, 166
Maitani, Lorenzo, 44
Malatesta, Sigismund, 3

INDEX

233

Malcolm, Birchall and Gay, MM., 95
Malvasia, 115
Man, Portrait of the Young, in the Louvre,
136, 200
Man, The Fall of, 170
Manni, Giannicola, 18
Mantegna, Andrea, 8, 24, 25, 38, 43, 97,
99, 143, 169
Mantua, 108, 109, 212
 Bishop Louis of, 7
 Marchesa di, 7, 9, 29, 110, 222
 Marchese di, 2, 7, 8, 108, 110, 149
Maratta, Carlo, 23, 131
Marcillat, 142
Marck, Cardinal de la, 176
Marino, Ant. da San-, 108, 148, 149, 226
Mario, Villa on Monte, 209
Mariotti, 18
Mark, Palace of St., 105
Marlborough, Duke of, 89
Marsyas, Apollo and, 21, 28, 29, 54, 94,
95, 117, 214, 215
Martinengo, 2
Martini, Francesco di Giorgio, 44
 Simone, 44
Masaccio, 40, 55, 124, 159
Maturanzio, Francesco, 19, 20
Mausoleum, The Papal, 102
Meaux, Cathedral of, 172
Medici, Catherine de', 146
 Cardinal Giovanni de', 123, 140,142
 ¦ Cardinal Giuliano de', 31, 130, 146,
156, 201, 204, 209
 ¦ Cosmo de', 140
 Giulano de', 50, 108, 136, 143, 145,
149, 200
 Lorenzo de', 106, 200
 Lorenzo de', the Magnificent, 8, 49,
106, 107, 140, 146, 214, 220
 Pietro de', 140
Medina, Duca di, 136
Melzi, 142
Merino, Gabriel, 145
Michelozzo, 140
Michiel, M.-A., 219, 224, 227
Milan, Duke of, 15
Milanesi, MM. and Pini, 9
Minghetti, Marco, 22
«  Senator, 11
Mino, 53
Mirandola, 140
Mirandolo, Pandolfo de' Pici de la, 228
Moderation, 117, 121
Mona Lisa, 57
Monfe, Antonio del, 124
— h S. Giov. del, 195
Monltefalcone, 100
Montefeltro, Giovanna di, 7
- — Family, 14, 48, 49, 51
Monteluce, 18, 61, 86, 222
Pontmorenci, Constable de, 172
"lontorio, San-Pietro in, 204
loore, Mr. Morris, i
torelli, The Senator, 11

Morelli, Commendatore, 22, 24, 201, 224
Moro, Lodovico il, 108
Mortlake, Royal Factory at, 173
Miindler, Herr, 201
Munich, Royal Library, 206
Miintz, Herr, 21
Museum, British, 95, 126, 201
 Staedel, Frankfort - on - the - Main,
119, 122
 South Kensington, 86, 173, 212
Naples, 43, 201
 Alphonso V. King of, 2
Narbonne, 201
Nasi, Lorenzo, 74
Nativity, The, 111
Navagero, Andrea, 136, 142, 147, 200
Navicella, Church of the, 140
Nemours, Due de, 146
Niccoli, Niccold, 140
Nouvel, M., 172
Novella, S. Maria, 30
Oddi, Maddalena degli, 32
 Muzio, 4
Olio, Elena Duglioli dall', 197
Oliveto, Monte, 46
Original Sin, 117
Orsini Family, 110
Orvieto, 15, 30, 44
Ostia, The Battle of, 154, 155, 156
Ottaviano, Assalone di, 18, 163
Pace, Luigior Aloisio di, 187
 S. Maria de la, Sibyls of, 182
Palermo, 194, 197
Paliard, M., 176
Pandolfini, Granozzo, 146
 Palace, 210, 212
Panicale Church, 37
Paris, 135
 Tlie Judgment of, 215
Parnassus, Apollo on, 51, 117, 118, 121,
125, 184, 214, 215
Parte, Bernardina, 6
Passavant, M., 8, 28, 38, 52, 88,109, 117,
127, 166, 201, 204, 206, 218, 224
Penni, Gian Francesco, 86, 108, 111, 171,
175, 204, 224, 226
Perugia, 11, 13, 14, 15, 17, 18, 19, 20, 32,
36, 39, 46, 48, 53, 54, 77, 84, 86, 88,
95, 100, 102, 124, 149, 179, 182, 214,
222
Perugino, Pietro, 8, 11, 12, 13, 15, 16, 17,
18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 24, 25, 29, 30, 32,
35, 39, 40, 43, 46, 60, 61, 64, 88, 89,
95, 97, 99, 102, 103, 105, 114, 116, 121,
170, 205
Peruzzi, Baldassare, 46, 105, 111, 113, 114,
116, 128, 142, 143, 148
Pescia, 107
Pesth, 32
Pestilence, 215
Petrarch, 118, 121

234

INDEX

Philip IV. of Spain, 136, 197
Piacenza, 192
Piccolomini, Cardinal, 30, 40, 42
Pienza, 40, 41, 46
Pieta, The Louvre, 193, 197
Pietro, Giovanni di (Lo Spagno), 18
 Sano di, 44
Pieve, Citta della, 15, 17
Pini, MM. Milanesi and, 9
Pinturicchio (Bernardino di Betto), 17, 18,
21, 22, 24, 25, 36, 40, 42, 46, 102, 103,
114, 159
Piombo, Sebastiano del, 31, 201, 204
Piperario, Antonio, 212
Pisa, 54
 War of, 30
Pisano, Giovanni, 14, 46
¦  ¦ Niccolo, 46
Planets, Creation of the, 11, 182, 186, 187,
215
Platina, 106
Platner, 172
Poetry, 118
Poggio, 105
Politian, 140
Pollajuola, Ant., 24, 95
Pontormo, Jacouo da, 56
Pope Alexander" VI., 30, 48, 49, 54, 106,
107, 111, 139, 146, 180
 Alexander VII., 139, 180
 Anacletus, 121
¦  ¦ Clement VII., 108, 132
 Clement XII., 155
 Eugenius IV., 24, 26, 205
 Gregory IX., 121, 123, 128
 Innocent III., 121
 ¦ Innocent VIIL, 131, 166, 227
 Julius II., 2, 14, 29, 50, 102, 103,
105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112,
113, 114, 115, 116, 123, 127, 130, 131,
132, 134, 136, 139, 142, 146, 149, 150,
156, 166, 185, 205, 208, 221
 Leo III., 155, 156
 Leo X., 29, 49, 50, 105, 109, 110,
111, 113, 116, 123, 130, 131, 132, 136,
140, 142, 143, 144, 145, 147, 148, 149,
150, 154, 156, 163, 166, 169, 170, 171,
172, 176, 178, 180, 188, 200, 206, 207,
209, 211, 213, 219, 220, 227
 Nicholas V., 2, 105, 116, 128, 142,
176
 Paul II., 105, 110, 112
 Paul III., 123, 176
 Pius II., 40
 Pius III., 14
 Pius VI., 38
— Pius VII., 172
 Pius IX., 42
— Sixtus IV., 14, 30, 110, 113, 114,
123, 170, 213
Porta, Baccio della. See Fra Bartolommeo.
Prudence, 1 17, 118, 121
Psyche, History of, 111, 213, 214
Pucci, Ant., 197

Pucci, Cardinal Lorenzo, 146, 197
Pulszky, 22
Pungileoni, Father, 2, 38
Putti, Giuoehi di, 178
Quercia, Giacomo della, 44
Quos Ego, The, 215
Raimondi. See Antonio, Marc.
Ravenna, 130, 147, 206, 219, 224
Reiset, M., 218
Religion, 118
Resurrection, The, 177, 193
Riario, Domenico Raffaelo, 105
 Cardinal Pietro, 110, 114, 115
Rio, M., 2
Ripalda, Duca di, 86
Robbia, Luca della (the younger), 158
Robinson, Sir J. C, 7, 26, 27, 28, 35, 72,
95, 96, 97
Roma, Giacomo da, 101
Romano, Giovanni Cristoforo, 50
¦  ¦ Giulio, 86, 108, 109, 111, 116, 128,
131, 148, 182, 201, 204, 212, 218, 222,
223 224 226
Rome' 18, 40, 41, 43, 47, 50, 54, 101, 102,
110, 114, 116, 130, 136, 139, 153, 160,
172, 214, 219, 222, 223, 227
Roscoe, "W., 130
Roselli, Cosimo, 8, 59, 170
Rosellino, Bernardino, 46
Rosetti, Cesarino, 18, 179
Rossi, Lodovico, 56, 146
Rovere, Duke Francesco-Maria della, 116
 Duchess Giov., 50, 53, 109
Rovezzano, Benedetto da, 111
Roxana, Marriage of Alexander and, 215
Rubens, 173
Russia, Grand Duchess Marie of, 146
Ruysch, Jan, 114
Sacrament, Dispute of the, 54, 64, 109,
117, 118, 119, 120, 124, 126
Sadoleto, 140
Salai, 142
St. Anthony, Altarpiece for, 61
St. Bernardino of Siena, 14
St. Catherine of Alexandria, 94, 95
St. Cecilia, 94, 95, 146, 166, 169, 191, 197,
200
St. Felicita, Martyrdom of, 166
St. George, 51
 with a Lance, 90
 with a Sword, 90, 94
St. John the Baptist, 110
St. Margaret, 95, 191, 220
St. Maria Novella, Frescoes for, 56
St. Michael, 51, 94, 146, 191, 220, 221
St. Nicholas of Tolentino, 32, 36, 38
St. Paid and St. Peter, 150
St. Paul, Conversion of, 105, 171, 173, 174,
175
 in Prison, 56, 150, 173
St. Peter, Christ calling, 171, 173

INDEX

235

St. Peter, Christ entrusting His flock to, 33
 Deliverance of, 130, 131,' 191
 m Prison, 56, 150, 173, 175
St. Sebastian, 18
St. Stephen, Martyrdom of, 171, 173, 174,
175
St. Thomas Aquinas, 121
Saints, The Five, 191
Sannazaro, Giacomo, 147
Sansovino, Andrea, 60, 108, 112, 142
 Jacopo, 56, 111, 112, 142
Santi, Bartolommeo, 5, 6, 9
 Elisabetta, 6, 9
 Giovanni, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 14,
100, 206
 Giovanni, Rhymed Chronicle of, 5,
7, 8, 16
 Pietro or Peruzzo, 3
 Santa, 6, 10, 61, 101
Sarto, And. del, 9, 56
Savelli Family, 110
Savonarola, 54, 59, 60, 121
Sciarra-Colonna Palace, 201
Science, 118
Scotus, Duns, 121
Sculpture, 46
Seasons, The, 215
Segnatura, Camera della, Woodwork for,
186
Sergardo, Filippo, 40
Serlio, 50
Severo, San, Frescoes of, 56, 61, 88, 89,
120, 124
Shepherds, The Adoration of the, 28, 115
Sibyls, The, 11, 31, 'ill, 114, 148, 182,
183, 215
Siena, 14, 18, 30, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44,
46, 50, 94, 110, 114, 180
Signorelli, Luca di, 13, 14, 22, 25, 36, 40,
103, 114, 142, 148, 170
Silvius, JJneas. See Pope Eugenius IV.
Sistine Chapel, 30, 104, 105, 106, 118,
170, 172
Sketch-Book, The Venice. See Venice.
Soderini, The Gonfalonier Pietro di, 7, 50,
56
Sodoma, 16, 46, 111, 114, 116, 142, 148
Solomon, The Judgment of, 117, 139
Spagna, Lo, 114
Spasimo di Sicilia, Lo. See Cross, Christ
bearing the.
Spanoechi, 46
Sposalizio, The, 25, 30, 39, 205
Springer, Herr, 22, 157, 201
Squarcione, 222
Strozzi, Palla, 35, 146
Study for Three Nude Figures, 28
Suardi, Bramantino, 114
Taddei, Taddeo, 10, 61, 101
Taine, M., 63
Tangere, Noli me, 177
Tebaldeo, Ant., 136, 142, 147, 200, 227,
228

Temperance, 118
Temple, The Presentation in the, 28, 35,
36, 37, 118, 205
Theology, 118
Tisio, Benvenuto. See Garofalo.
Titian, 139
Tivoli, 147
Tolentino, Coronation of St. Nicholas of,
32, 36, 38
. Tornabuoni, 30
\firansfiguration, The, 146, 191, 193, 201,
204, 228
Traversal-!, 140
Trompa, Conrad, 145
Turini, Baldassare, 106, 107, 148, 226
 Pietro, 114
Two Men seen from behind, 28
Uccello, Paolo, 8, 14
Udine, Giov. da, 109, 111, 148, 164, 171,
175, 178, 182, 200
 Pellegrino da, 220
Umbria, 14, 36, 102
Urbino, 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11, 13, 14,
24, 25, 36, 39, 40, 43, 48, 49, 51, 52,
54, 89, 90, 94, 100, 102, 107, 111, 116,
145, 149, 153, 214
 Duchess Elisabetta or Isabella of,
50, 51, 90
 Duke Francesco Maria of, 50, 109
 Duke Frederick, 1, 2, 7, 8
 Duke Guidobaldo, 2, 4, 7, 36, 48,
49, 50 64, 86, 89, 94, 100, 101, 102,
107, 136, 145, 146
Vaga, Perino del, 56, 163
Vanucci, Pietro. See Perugino.
Varchi, 118
Vasari, 9, 11, 17, 42, 56, 57, 60, 74, 97,
111, 112, 115, 136, 145, 157, 164, 171,
178, 184, 191, 200, 204, 209, 212, 214,
223 224 226 227
Vatican, 8,'28, 38, 54, 109, 123, 172, 224
Vecchia, The Palazzo, Cartoons in, 56
Vecchietta, 46
Velata, La Donna, 201
Veneto, And., 114
Venice, Academy of Fine Arts, 21, 23, 27,
32, 42, 54
 Academy of St. Luke, 125, 132
 The Raphael Sketch-book, 22, 24, 25,
28, 29, 97
 Sebastiano of, 111, 146
Venus and Cupid, History of, 166
Verona, 107
 Giov. da, 148
Vettor, Marc- Antonio Michiel di Ser. See
Michiel.
Villari, Signor, 59
Vinci, Leonardo da, 4, 17, 24, 25, 29, 30,
46, 50, 55, 56, 57, 59, 70, 90, 97, 116,
142, 148, 169
Vineoli, S. Pietro in, 103
Violinista, The, 136, 200, 201

236

INDEX

Virgin, The, Apparition of, to St. Bernard,
59
 between SS. Jerome and Francis, 22,
31
 Coronation of, 10, 22, 25, 32, 33,
34, 35, 53, 61, 86, 176, 222
 Kneeling, 28
Vischer, Herr, 22
Visitation, Tlie, 147
Vitelli, 36, 166
Viti, Timoteo, 11, 12, 13, 14, 16, 50, 94,
102, 148, 182, 192, 200, 201
Volpati, 163

Volterra, 46, 107
 Raphael Maffei da, 142
Wicar, The Painter, 131
"Wickhof, Herr, 20, 24
•William III., 173
Woman Suckling a Child, 28
Wren, Sir C, 173
Young Man Standing, 28
Zucchero, Taddeo, 164

THE END.

Richard Clay d: Sov.it, Limited, London & Bungay.

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