'•: .:•]•, 39002004672045 YALE UNIVERSITY LIBRARY ¦-%'<* si/ A.J£.Mi&7'M PROFESSIONAL AND INDUSTRIAL HISTORY OF SUFFOLK COUNTY MASSACHUSETTS IN TH R E £ VO L UME S VOLUME III IFUustrateO THE BOSTON HISTORY COMPANY 1894 CONTENTS. Page. CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF BOSTON _..... 9 C. W. Ernst. MEDICAL PROFESSION OF SUFFOLK COUNTY 174 Edward Jacob Forster, M. D. STREET RAILWAY SYSTEM OF BOSTON ....286 Prentiss Cummings. WHOLESALE SHOE TRADE OF SUFFOLK COUNTY.. 303 Frank W. Norcross. THE HIDE AND LEATHER TRADE OF SUFFOLK COUNTY.. 368 Frank W. Norcross. INDUSTRIAL HISTORY OF SUFFOLK COUNTY.... , ..392 BOSTON'S RELATION TO THE TEXTILE INDUSTRY _ 491 THE MASSACHUSETTS CHARITABLE MECHANIC ASSOCIATION.... 521 BIOGRAPHIES _ 543 ILLUSTRATIONS. Facing Page Alden, George A. 286 Batci-ielder, Edward E. . . . 90 Batcheller, Tyler 62 Brackett, William D. - 604 Bray, Mellen 596 Breed, Francis W 412 Chapin, Nahum ..476 Converse, Elisha S 20 Converse, James W 574 Cunniff, Michael M. 494 Curtis, George . 458 Curtis, Noah1 542 Curtis, Noah3 546 Dancel, Christian , 526 Dennison, Aaron L 234 Dennison, Eliphalet W 248 Dow, Stephen 34 Emery, Francis F 272 Evans, Robert D 300 Fennessy, Edward H. 440 Fennessy, Frank E ...630 Field, John 584 Flagg, George H. P. 148 Fogg, John S 48 Gay, George W., M. D 360 Goodyear, Charles... 120 Hood, George H 314 Facing Page Hunter, S. V. R .....384 Jones, V. K 398 Kelly, Thomas 328 Lewis, Orlando E 658 Lincoln, Joseph B 550 Litchfield, George A . 506 McKay, Gordon 104 McLauthlin, George T 258 Mansfield, George A 76 Matthews, Nathan ... 220 Metcalf, Albert 644 Moody, William H 370 Munyan, Jonathan 134 Nickerson, Albekt W 206 Norris, Howes 618 Pope, Arthur W 426 Prouty, Charles N 192 Rawson, Warren W.' 668 Smith, Aaron F 626 Spofford, John C 664 Squire, John P. 350 Thompson, Abijah Frontispiece Walworth, James J.__ 340 Warnock, Adam 666 White, William H ...560 Winch, John F._ .162 Winch, Joseph R 178 BIOGRAPHIES. Alden, George A. 615 Batchei.der, Edward E 549 Batcheller, Tyler. _. 572 Brackett, William D 604 Bray, Mellen 1 .. .596 Breed, Francis W 623 Chapin, Nahum 668 Converse, Elisha S. .554 Converse, James W 574 Cunniff, Michael M 660 Curtis, George 669 Curtis, Noah1 543 Curtis, Noah2.. 545 Dancel, Christian 595 Dennison, Aaron L. __ 642 Dennison, Eliphalet W. _•_ 635 Dow, Stephen. __ _ 581 Emery, Francis F 606 Evans, Robert D. _ 654 Fennessy, Edward H 630 Fennessy, Frank E 630 Field, John 584 Flagg, George H. P 601 Fogg, John S 577 Gay, George W., M. D 672 Goodyear, Charles 590 Hood, George H 650 Page Hunter, S. V. R 592 Jones, V. K 628 Kelly, Thomas 670 Lewis, Orlando E 658 Lincoln, Joseph B 550 Litchfield, George A 664 McKay, Gordon 586 McLauthlin. George T. 646 Mansfield, George A 548 Matthews, Nathan 673 Metcalf, Albert 644 Moody, William H 653 Munyan, Jonathan ... 593 Nickerson, Albert W 673 Norris, Howes 618 Pope, Arthur W ...621 Prouty, Charles N 557 Rawson, Warren W 667 Smith, Aaron F 626 Spofford, John C ...661 Squire, John P 656 Thompson, Abijah 568 Walworth, James J .632 Warnock, Adam 666 White, William H 560 Winch, John F ..563 Winch, Joseph R. 563 CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY of Boston, Massachusetts. AN ESSAY C. W. ERNST, A. M., SECRETARY OF THE MAYOR'S OFFICE, 1889-go. COLONIAL PERIOD, 1630 TO 1692. Two things helped to make Boston a great city : Geographical posi tion, and the character of the founders. Without certain natural ad vantages the founders of Boston would have failed; for even a Puritan, cannot militate effectually against nature. Yet the geographical posi tion and the topography of Boston are not without disadvantages. For the city proper, nature provided a peninsula wholly insufficient to meet the wants of a great community. A large part of modern Boston, that is, the peninsula, known to the Fathers as "the neck," stands on ground that was wrested from salt water. But the harbor is magnifi cent, and was provided by nature. The advantage of the harbor is its proximity to the fisheries, — an advantage generally underrated by mod ern opinion. But without the fisheries, Boston and Massachusetts could not have lived. The fisheries led directly to commerce ; for in agriculture Massachusetts could not rival the colonies further south. This made Boston from the very beginning a commercial city and the chief port of New England. In the days of the Colony and Province. Bos ton was the chief port on this continent, the most easily reached and the most generally frequented by English shipping. This supremacy was lost, when the empire west of the Hudson river became the 2 10 BOSTON. granary of the United States and Europe. For it is easier and cheaper to send grain from the fresh-water lakes to New York than to Boston. Nature provided a way to New York ; it barred the way to Boston. And the gain on the voyage to European markets was more than offset by the greater cost of carrying freight from the great wheat farms to Boston. Even steel rails, steam, and the Hoosac tunnel have not de stroyed this advantage, as compared with the easier and shorter road to New York. Nor is the port of Boston favorably placed for easy commerce with the South, which produces cotton, or even with Penn sylvania, which supplies our coal. These comparative disadvantages put Boston to a sharp test, and helped to develop its character. Boston was obliged to work hard, and to mix its toil with farsighted intelligence. The character of Boston is best shown in its institutions, and not the least, perhaps, in the general organization and management of the community. Whoever wishes to understand and appreciate Massachusetts, should read her laws, and ascertain what they effected. Our public laws, after all, are the quint essence of our public life no less than of our joint ambition and public morals. They are the outcome of what the community for the time being wants. To the historian they are the backbone of all researches. The sources for a constitutional history of Boston, therefore, are the town orders and the town records, interpreted by the acts of the town officers, on the one hand, and by the Massachusetts statutes and records, on the other. The first period of Boston, in the history of its constitu tion the most important, begins with the settlement under the patent, in 1630, and ends with the granting of the Province Charter, in 1691-92. The chief sources are the second and seventh Report of the Boston Record Commissioners (ed. of 1881); the Colonial Laws of Massachu setts, edited, after the editions of 1660 and 1672, by W. H. Whitmore (1889 and 1887); and the Records of the Governor and Company of r Massachusetts Bay (1853-4, 5 vols, in six parts.) The Patent of 1629. The men and women who founded Boston and Massachusetts came here to improve their condition. But they came as English subjects, not prepared to lose any advantage that relation might afford. The chief attraction in New England were the fisheries, famous along the At lantic coast of all Europe, and the certainty that the land hunger of the English race could be appeased in the new world. The land laws of CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY. 11 England, and its controversies in church and state, made the new world attractive. But the immediate precedent for the New-England enterprise was the- success that had attended the charter of the East- India company. Perhaps it is not unjust to affirm that the charter of 1600, granted by Queen Elizabeth, has made Queen Victoria the Em press of India, with almost three hundred million inhabitants. Greater triumphs might have been achieved, by the successors of Queen Eliza beth, in New England and America. The beginning was auspicious. On the last day in 1600 "The Governor and Company of Merchants of London trading in the East Indies" was incorporated; on March 4, 1628-9, a better charter was given to "The Governor and Company of the Mattachusetts Bay in Newe England." The East-India merchants were given a monopoly of trade; the Massachusetts Company received a monopoly of trade together with a monopoly of land to be held "in free and common Socage," that is, absolutely, the crown reserving only one-fifth of the gold and silver that might be mined in Massachu setts. It was an interesting fiction that led the crown to give the present United States to enterprising Englishmen, and the latter to treat the patents of James and Charles as a valid title in the land that became New England and America. Yet so strong is the attachment of Amer- cans to the forms of law that the present boundary of Essex county, Massachusetts, to the north was established in the patent of 1629, when Charles I. gave to the Governor and Company of Massachusetts Bay ' ' all those landes and hereditaments whatsoever, which lye and be within the space of three English myles to the northward of the saide river called Monomack, alias Merrymack." The same patent established the Great and General Court which still controls the public affairs of Bos ton and Massachusetts, although the authors of the patent thought only of a commercial company, with headquarters in England. The patent intended to constitute the Governor and Company of Massachusetts**. " one body corporate and politique," that is, a corporation that could sue and be sued, "like any other corporation." The corporation was— to have very large rights, except those of sovereignty or semi-sover eignty. The corporation was to have a Governor and Deputy Gover nor, to be elected annually; and a board of Assistants or directors consisting of eighteen persons, who were to hold monthly meetings ; while the corporation at large, meeting four times a year, was to con sist of freemen formally admitted as such. In the patent a meeting of 12 BOSTON. the freemen, the Assistants, and the Governor combined, was called the Great and General Court. Under the patent of 1629 the Governor and Company of Massachu setts were to be exempt from taxes for seven years, as far as New England was concerned, and in the same respect to enjoy free trade for twenty-one years. The- emigrants were to remain English subjects, and might admit "any other strangers that will become our [the King's] loving subjects. " The Governor and Company were given leave ' ' from tyme to tyme to make, ordeine, and establishe all manner of wholesome and reasonable orders, lawes, statutes, and ordinances, directions and instructions, not contrarie to the lawes of this our' realme of England, as well for setling of the formes and ceremonies of government and magistracy fitt and necessary for the said plantation and the inhabit ants there;" but all this was to be done "according to the course of other corporations in this our realme of England," showing that the patent expected the Governor and Company, who were made a close corporation, to remain in England. In reality the Governor and Com pany, together with the patent, were taken to New England ; and the commercial corporation acted from the outset as a semi-sovereign com monwealth, or rather as a quasi-autonomous aristocracy. The Governor was the head; the Assistants were his senators; the citizens were the freemen, and all freemen were citizens, with the active and passive right of suffrage, with all that implied. The belief, commonly enter tained (Washburn, Judicial History of Massachusetts, 15), that "the government of the company, as established by the charter, was a pure democracy," is not well founded. The early church and the early Commonwealth of Massachusetts were an aristocracy, which prescribed mechanics' wages, did not allow servants to trade, and discriminated against " the poorer sort of the inhabitants." The Colony. The king had intended to create another commercial corporation ; from the outset it was a municipal corporation, nominally attached to the crown, in fact separated from king and parliament by the Atlantic j« ocean and a deeper gulf. In time this municipal corporation became Fa sovereign commonwealth. Land hunger, or love of wealth, scattered the early immigrants over a wide area, and thus led to the founding of numerous neighborhoods, called towns. The accidental right of towns to distribute all land within their boundaries, increased their number CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY. 13 rapidly. As soon as a town was named or otherwise recognized byT the General Court, it was deemed to be incorporated, and even a table of precedency among towns was adopted and retained (3 Mass. Records,^ 2). Boston ranked fourth in this hierarchy, Salem, Charlestown, and Dorchester having precedence. The ruling minds had brought from England certain notions of the realm being subdivided into shires or counties, which consisted of several towns each, beside boroughs or cities. These notions received a new application and development in Massachusetts, where the town obtained some of the rights of the English shire, notably that of direct representation in the General Court Yet our Massachusetts counties began with a copy of the Eng-— ' lish lord lieutenant (2 Mass. Records, 42). The Massachusetts, town became important at the expense of the count}', and in Rhode Island it became the rival of the State itself. Outside of New England the county is the political unit ; in New England the town is the chief ele ment to make good citizens and good states. Easily the chief town in New England is Boston, whose. rank has never "been disputed. Yet the great importance of the New-England town is an accident. A French governor and company of Massachusetts might have begun with the laying out of counties ; Governor Winthrop and his company wanted land, but on it they wanted actual settlers with a church and a con stable. The church and the constable became the attributes of the New-England town; the county was an afterthought, occasioned 'by the arrangement of judicatories. When Massachusetts established its first counties, in 1643, there were thirty towns, and these were grouped in four "sheires," namely, Essex, Middlesex, old Norfolk, and Suffolk. The theocratic element in early New England is easily overrated and misjudged. In those theological days it was easy for the patent of King Charles to profess that the. conversion of the Indians to the Chrisr tian religion was the principal cr.d of the plantation in New England. The king himself could have added with perfect truth that the chief end of the patent and all it implied or occasioned was the glory of God. But let no one imagine that such utterances meant any disregard of secular interests. Strict Calvinism and sound business go very well together. Sound business and ecclesiastical rivalries do not. For this reason it was sound business and legitimate, not Jo say necessary, that the founders of Massachusetts, who were also the founders of Boston, insisted upon uniformity in church matters. Had they begun each town with two or three churches, or with none at all, the great experi- 14 BOSTON. ment they made would have failed. They came here to improve their con dition, that is to say, to flourish as they could not in England. They knew what they wanted, and they were right in excluding dissent, until the safety of Massachusetts was well assured. It was better for the dis senter to be exiled than for the infant town and colony to fail, in order that men with a windmill in their heads might be let loose upon a community that had harder work to do than to concoct schemes of reform or discuss rival theologies. The early settlers were strong; but one system of theology was all they could bear. And it was all the infant town and country could bear. The glory of the Fathers is not their development of theology or theoretical jurisprudence, but the fact that they succeeded in building a great city, a multitude of happy towns, and a great commonwealth in the wilderness which offered few attractions beyond good water, a wholesome climate, free land, and ready access to abundant fisheries. This glory will not diminish upon a comparison of the natural advan tages that favor other cities and States in this nation. It is an open question whether the relative sterility of the agricultural lands of Mas sachusetts was a help or a hindrance in the founding of the State. It compelled hard work, and thus tended to produce a hardy race. It led men to seek wealth by commerce, and thus prevented them from leading the narrower life of prosperous farmers. The very struggle for existence bound the founders more closely together ; for partners in business quarrel more easily in days of success than in times of struggle and adversity. The early settler wanted prosperity for himself; but he knew that individual prosperity cannot endure in a loose and ill- governed community. Hence the double endeavor of the founders to build their own fortunes together with the orderly government of the settlement at large. These practical interests were paramount, and left no time for theories. Theories may have suffered ; the founders of Massachusetts were not, perhaps, very systematic; but their experi ment succeeded, and that under circumstances which would have dis heartened almost any other set of men. This is their honor ; this honor is among the many inheritances of modern Boston and Massachusetts, that they have prospered in everything that makes life attractive, where a race less sturdy, less ambitious, and less gifted would have failed. To be sure, the Fathers brought with them the very flower of English civilisation, which had just passed through the Elizabethan CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY. 15 age; they had the English Bible, which gave to New England the purity of its speech. But what was uppermost in the minds of the New-England Puritan was dissent from king and prelate, deep distrust of liquors, or cigars," and that refreshments for a member of the city government should not ex ceed a dollar a day, if paid by the city (Acts of 1884, ch. 320, sec. 13). The selectmen imposed fines long before the law gave them authority to do so (1. c, 2), and notified " all that have businesses for the towns men's meeting to bring them in to Mr. Leveritt, Mr. Willyam Ting, or to Jacob Elyott, before the town's meetings " (1. c, 46). A surprise of the selectmen by demagogues was thus prevented. As early as 1651 the Selectmen issued an order ' ' that if any Chimney be on fyer, so as to flame out of the top thereof, the Partie in whose possession the Chimney is shall pay to the Tresurer of the Towne, for the Towne use, tenn shillings " (2 Bost. Rec Comm., 106). This ordinance was re tained in the code of 1702, the first digest of the Town bylaws in print, and is an interesting illustration of the legislative power exercised by the selectmen. This power was not expressly conferred by the town, but was implied. It was exercised repeatedly (1. c, 98, 104, 116, 145- 7), and a large part of the first town code, printed in 1702, consisted of bylaws made by the selectmen. The General Court never favored such power, but hard necessity compelled the General Court of 1847 to restore to " the mayor and aldermen of any city in this commonwealth " the exercise of a certain legislative power which the Boston selectmen under the colony had exercised very freely. The Regulation of the aldermen requiring a driver to remain with his team (Rev. Regul. of 1892, ch. 6, sec 14) has the force of a city ordinance. This power was conferred by the Act of April 23, 1847. But it was exercised by the selectmen on June 4, 1658, and was accepted as good law by the Court of Sessions in 1701. In a word, the colonial selectmen exercised nearly all functions that a town meeting could exercise; but they acted so prudently as never to lose the support of the town. The town meet ing as a great political engine, not only in municipal affairs, was the product of the provincial period. There was no room for the town demagogue under the colony, for the reason that the town had en tire confidence in its selectmen and their power to regulate all pruden tials. CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY. 31 In 1659 the town ordered "that there shall be a moderator chosen annually, to regulate publick towne meetings," the. first moderator so chosen being William Davis (1. c. , 152), who served as selectman for fifteen years, being elected as early as 1647, and for the last time in 1675. The dignity of being permanent moderator of the town meeting fell to Thomas Savage, deputy, speaker, assistant, commissioner for Boston, captain, major, and commander in chief of all the forces against the Indian enemy. The office of moderator was of Massachusetts' origin, and is first mentioned in the Body of Liberties, 71 : " The Gov ernor shall have a casting voice whensoever an Equi vote shall fall out in the Court of Assistants, or general assembly, So shall the presedent or moderator have in all Civil Courts or Assemblies " (Col. Laws, 1660, ed. Whitmore, 49). The law of Massachusetts still prescribes, that "At every town-meeting, except for the election of national, state, district, and county officers, a moderator shall be first chosen " (Public Statutes, 1882, ch. 27, sec. 58), and great power is vested in him. The early law of Massachusetts made his duty equal to his power (Col. Laws, 1660, ed. Whitmore, 45, 49, 143, 198. St. 1893, ch. 417, sec. 263-5). The term moderator was borrowed from the English university debates ; thence it passed to the ecclesiastical meetings of the English dissenters, and to New England. Colonial Boston. In Colony days Boston was bounded in the north as Suffolk County is now; Lynn was the boundary to the north, Charlestown to the north west, but until 1649 Charlestown included Maiden with the present municipalities of Everett and Somerville. In the south Boston reached down to Plymouth colony, and still shares, its jurisdiction over Hull and a part of Hingham with Plymouth county (Publ. Stat., 1882, ch. 22, sec 12). But Dorchester and Roxbury were independent towns, like Boston ; and Roxbury was not merged in Boston until 1868, Dor chester until 1870, Charlestown until 1874 (Boston Municipal Register, 1890, p. 6). Until 1804 South Boston was a part of Dorchester. In Colony times, Cambridge included Newton, Needham was a part of Dedham, Milton was a part of Dorchester, but Braintr'ee and Quiney were originally owned in part by Boston, which reached in the south west to Weymouth (1 Mass. Records, 217, 291). This ceased in 1640. Brookline, on the other hand, was a part of Boston until 1705, Chelsea, which included Revere and Winthrop, until 1739. Boston clearly 32 BOSTON began with metropolitan proportions, but began to lose in 1640, and to regain in 1804. Boston used to choose constables and surveyors of highways for both Muddy River (Brookline) and Rumney Marsh (Chelsea) ; and continued to do so after President Dudley and his Coun cil had made Muddy River nominally independent of Boston (7 Bost. Rec Comm., 190, 200). The President and Council ordered in 1686 f" that henceforth the said hamlet of Muddie River be free from towne rates to the town of Boston;" but the latter voted at the annual town meeting in 1689-90 "that Muddy river inhabitants are not discharged from Boston, to be a hamlet by themselves, but stand related to Bos ton as they were before the year 1686." After 1640, then, colonial Boston included the peninsula up to the Roxbury line ; also East Bos ton, Breed's Island, the islands in the harbor proper, Chelsea, Revere, Winthrop, and Brookline. The Boston commissioners, a municipal court established in 1651, were given jurisdiction over the larger Boston in 1674 (Col. Laws, 1672, ed. Whitmore, 21, 217). The principal business in early Boston was to get possession of land. The earliest records, if any, of the distribution are not extant. The Town Records begin with September 1, 1634, and abound in allusions to the distribution of greater Boston, the peninsula being mostly occu pied or allotted by that time. In the year following ' ' it was by general consent agreed upon for the laying out of great allotments unto the then inhabitants " (2 Boston Rec Comm., 22, 6). Under this authority, either implied or assumed, the, selectmen entered on the Town Records allotments made at Muddy River (Brookline), Rumney Marsh (Chel- [sea), and Pullen Point (Winthrop), and amounting to about five thou sand acres. At Brookline, Thomas Leverett and Thomas Oliver re ceived 115 acres each, William Colburn 160; they were selectmen. John Cotton, the minister, received 250 acres ; the poorer sort, as they were called, at the rate of four or five acres per head (1. c, 6), the table of distribution thus giving a clear account of the size of families, except that the leading men received land in keeping with their social position. The Book of Possessions, being part 2 of the Boston Record Commissioners' second volume, undertakes to show how the peninsula was divided among the early settlers. These accounts, reduced to a map by Mr. George Lamb, are the delight and despair of the antiquary. They show how soon the Boston Puritan .found his boundaries too nar row. Breed's Island was annexed to Boston in 1634, or three years be fore East Boston. As soon as it became Boston property, the felling CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY. 33 of trees in the island was forbidden, and the island distributed among " the inhabitants and freemen of this town, according to the number of names in every family" (1. c, 2). Truly, the early comers were a great land company. In Boston the work of the land company was nominally done by allotters ; the real allotters were the selectmen. The allotters or selectmen used great skill in the distribution of es tates; but for this the new office would have been abolished. But it grew Steadily, and still enjoys many prescriptive rights, though men of the law tell us that a town or city has no powers, save those con ferred by the General Court. Yet the Boston selectmen, who had divided a principality, were told by the town meeting of 1641 that "there shall be no more lands granted unto any inhabitants that shall hereafter be admitted into the town, unless it be at a general town's meeting" (2 Bost. Rec. Comm., 65). But inhabitants were admitted by the selectmen, and the freemen of 1641-2 continued to distribute land ' ' amongst the present inhabitants, " great latitude being allowed in the distribution (1. c, 67). The final order for distributing what land remained, was given by the town on March 4, 1641-2 (1. c, 67). In the most critical trials the new institution of selectmen was found equal to all demands. Less competent men distributing the vast estate" of a great town and future .city, might have come to blows; a less orderly community than the Puritans of Boston might have resorted to crime. The early history of Boston is not the least honorable, and, perhaps, the most instructive. The town established itself before the General Court gave a general charter; indeed, this general charter, greatly to be honored, simply gave the approval of law to what the people had worked out for themselves with extraordinary skill and foresight. In 1651 the owners of land on the peninsula were allowed) to buy and sell it at pleasure, and the year following the General Court passed the order that all sales of real property must be effected by written deeds, provided the deeds were duly acknowledged and re corded (3 Mass. Rec, 280). But the town of Boston ordered that "nc inhabitant shall let any house, housing or land to any Forriner without the consent of the selectmen" (2 Bost. Rec. Comm,, 103). An order like this may look timid ; it was needed, and it strengthened the attach ment of the founders to their new- home. 34 BOSTON. Streets and Ways. How did they appoint this home? The founders attempted to draw a line between public highways and the town ways. After Boston had distributed its lands, both in the town proper and in the country, the General Court declared ' ' that the selected towne's men have power to lay out particular and private ways concerning their towne onely " (2 Mass. Rec, 4), the result being that the town ways in Boston were as badly planned and built as the public highways from town to town. The selectmen would have alienated the town, and imperilled their very existence, 'had they systematically ordered streets and caused them to be properly built. First the settlers received the land they wanted ; then the town decided that ' ' every one shall have a sufficient. way unto his allotment of ground, wherever it be, and that the inhab itants of the towne shall- have libeftie to appoint men for the setting of them out, as need shall require, and the same course to be taken for all comon high ways, both for the. towne and countrie " (2 Bost. Rec. Comm., 7). Surveyors of highways, on the other hand, were author ized by the General Court as early as 1635-6 (1 Mass. Rec, 172), but were not appointed in Boston until later. In 1637 special surveyors were chosen ' ' for the high wayes towards Roxbury and . to the Milne" (2 Bost. Rec. Comm., 16), though the office is mentioned earlier (1. c, 10); -general surveyors were apparently first chosen in 1638 (1. c., 35). Throughout the days of the Colony surveyors and selectmen were kept apart, the result being confusion, not only as to highways and town ways, their laying out and construction, but also as to the very title in these thoroughfares. This confusion continues to the present time, when the city has a board of survey as well as a board of street commissioners, beside private owners of , land, to lay out streets and highways. This confusion was complete by 1640, or as early as the town had distributed all the land within its reach. On the peninsula an interesting attempt was made to set houses back, from the street lines, and to have a " pale " in front of every house (1. c, 12, 105); the attempt failed, though a pale of Colony days still remains in front of the Old South meeting-house (7 Bost. Rec. Comm. , 60), being the last pale mentioned in the Town Records. At present the term street includes the sidewalks on either side of the street (Boston City Ordinances, 1892, p. 4); in early days the street was " between pale and pale, " as now in Commonwealth avenue. The mm Constitutional his'tOry. il uncertainty of the title in streets and highways led to extraordinary license. The General Court authorized the demolition of houses built " in any towne liberties [streets], preiuditiall to the townes, without leave from the townes" (1 Mass. Rec, 168); and the selectmen, en couraged by such authority, ordered a fine of ten pounds for every encroachment upon the street line, a fine they could not properly inflict, least of all without special authority from a general town meeting. In 1641-2 the selectmen ordered ' ' for the preserving of all high wayes in this Towne, that none shall dig any sand or clay in any of them, under the penalty of 5s. per load" (2 Bost. Rec. Comm., 67). The condition of these ways may be imagined ; in the highways the freeman or inhabitant was required to do very little, in the town-ways nothing at all. For fear of expecting too much of public spirit or private duty, the General Court resolved in 1639 that "it is not intended that any person shall be charged with the repairing of the high wayes in his owne land " (1 Mass. Rec. , 280). In the case of gates and rails en croaching upon the highway, county courts or the court of assistants might appoint a committee (2 Mass. Rec, 192). No wonder the Gen eral Court appointed, in 1667, a committee " to bring in -an effectual! order for keeping in good repayre all streets and highways " (4 Mass. Rec, part II, 350). The principal highways in early Boston were those leading to Rox bury and Charlestown, communication with Cambridge being neglected until later days. In the beginning; it seems, no allowance for travel to or from Roxbury was made. In 1636 surveyors were appointed to make a "sufficient foote way," apparently along the neck to Roxbury. They seem to have failed, for within a year "Thomas Grubbe and Jonathan Negoose are Chosen Surveyors for the high wayes towards Roxbury (2 Bost. Rec. Comm., 10, 16), and in 1650 Peter Oliver was to "have £15 per annum, for 7 years, to maintaine the High wayes from Jacob Eliots Barne [near the present corner of Washington and Boylston streets] to the fardest gate bye Roxsbery Towns end, to be sof- ficient for Carte and horse, to the satisfaction of the Countrye " (1. c. , 99. See, also, 7 Bost. Rec. Comm., 22). In 1635 Thomas Marshall was chosen to maintain a ferry from " Miln Point" to Charlestown. The town was in 1642-3 called upon to lay out a convenient way to the ferry as well as to the windmill on Copps hill (1. c, 72), but the committee simply reserved a highway through that part of the town, to be laid out in the future, but to be thirty-three feet wide, and as straight as the 36 BOSTON. lay of the land might permit (1. c, 73). When the water mill was built, it was connected with Copps hill by a highway " a rod in breadth " (1. c.,'95). Other streets had to be built through this part of the town, but only the "highway" was thirty -three feet wide, while the town ways were a rod in width, the ground for them being taken from private owners who were entitled to pay (1. c, 100). One of these ways, given by Thomas Marshall, was relinquished by the selectmen in 1652, to save expense. In other words, in 1650 the town of Boston had begun to buy land for streets, and from necessity bought as little as would suffice for immediate wants. It has pursued that policy ever since. When Boston opened the way to Roxbury it had previously closed, no road led through Roxbury to Muddy River, which was a part of Boston. Only the General Court could solve this difficulty, and ap pointed in 1645 a committee that laid out the highway, and assessed the cost in part on Boston (2 Mass. Rec, 115). The committee was continued in 1658 (4 Mass. Rec, part I, 327). The owners of the land through which the highway passed, were awarded "meete satisfac tion." Boston, then, had to pay dearly for its own ways, and for -neces sary travel through another town. If any of the streets were paved, it was done at private expense; but it is more likely that colonial Bos-. ton had no paved streets (Bost. Rec. Comm., 53, 59, 66, 85, 99, 108, 116, 127). Rather than go to the cost of paving, every cart horse in town was required to give one day's work to street repairs, under the direction of the surveyors of highways. ' / * The earliest houses in Boston were made.of mud walls and thatched roofs (2 Bost. Rec. Comm. , 40). But frame buildings were put up as soon as the wood could be prepared. At^first the logs were sawed in Boston, and the market place, the site of the old State house, was once used as a " sawe pitte." Timber not being abundant, brick making- soon began, and after some heavy losses by fire, the General Court re quired that all buildings in Boston should be of brick or stone, and covered with slate or tiles (5 Mass. Rec, 240, 426); but the law was not permanently enforced, notwithstanding a severe penalty attached (7 Bost. Rec. Comm., 174). To fight fire and for other purposes, a number of conduits, or cisterns, were built, one near the town dock, another near the town house (2 Bost. Rec Comm., 138, 158). These conduits, copied from English models, proved insufficient, as an at tempt was made to feed them from springs which frequently failed. The first fire engine was imported from London in 1678, and was to be CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY. 37 served by paid men (7 Bost. Rec. Comm. , 125). So the selectmen, always sustained by the town meeting, contrived to maintain order, to check irregularities, and to pilot the town successfully through many perplexing difficulties. This was achieved by moral force and remarkable judgment. In many cases the selectmen did not even act as a board, but as vested with individual authority. By a singular force of tradition this exercise of individual power on the part of mem bers of a board survives in the practice of the aldermen, who are the successors and heirs of the selectmen. Even the law reflects this anomaly, a paper signed by a majority of selectmen or aldermen being generally received as representing the respective boards. Technically and in strictness, the board of aldermen can act only as a board (Public Stat, of 1882, ch. 28, se. 2; Acts of 1882, ch. 164). The Town and Trade. The jurisdiction of the town over the business affairs of the freemen and inhabitants was necessarily more limited than over the streets and highways, but not inconsiderable. In 1648 the General Court incor^l porated the shoemakers of Boston, also the coopers of Boston and/ Charlestown, giving them a monopoly of their trades, and virtually the) character of guilds. This arrangement appears to have failed under the greater individual liberty exercised in a community where nearly everybody was a freeman, who helped directly in electing and defeat ing governors, and was himself, at least in theory, a part of the Gen eral Court. But the .system of apprentices was formally adopted by the town. In 1660 a town meeting ordered that "no person shall henceforth open a shop in this 'town, nor occupy any manufacture or science, till he has completed 21 years of age, nor except he hath served seven years apprenticeship, by testimony under the hands of sufficient witnesses ; and that all indentures made between any master and servant shall be brought in and enrolled in the Towne's Records within one month after the contract made, on penalty of ten shillings to be paid by the master at the time of the apprentices being made free" (2 Bost. Rec, 156). Under this order the selectmen of 1667-8 told John Farnum that he could not set up his son in the cooper trade, unless he had served the apprenticeship of seven years, ' ' on penalty of 10 shillings per month" (7 Bost. Rec Comm., 39), In this case the complaint was made by the coopers, but the authority relied on was 38 BOSTON. the town order, and the selectmen acted, claiming at the same time the doubtful right of inflicting a cumulative penalty. In other words, the town was treated as the only corporation, and the selectmen were supposed to be its executive officers. But the principle of free-trade, as then understood — every man to practise the trade he thought best — asserted itself beyond all legislative regulations before the colony ended. Boston began as an aristocracy ; but the democratic principle triumphed over all obstacles; and the aristocracy yielded, except in social matters. Before the founders left England, they considered the importance of iron works in the new world (1 Mass. Rec, 28, 30). Here the town of Boston led in the enterprise. In 1643 the town gave to John Winthrop, jun. , and his associates, ' ' three thousand acres of the common land at Braintry, for the encouragement of an iron worke, to be set up about Monotocot river" (2 Bost. Rec. Comm., 77). The General Court fol lowed with a generous act of incorporation (2 Mass. Rec, 61, 125), and the enterprise had the benefit of Thomas Foley's advice and capital, Foley being one of the great English iron masters of his time. Gov ernor Winslow, of Plymouth, was likewise interested in this undertak ing, which has never died out, the Boston selectmen having chosen the best ground in all Massachusetts. They contributed also to the first ship built in Boston, the "Trial," which was built in 1641, and made her first voyage to the Azores, the second to Spain. The builder was Nehemiah Bourne, and the selectmen contributed the value of sixty acres that had been alienated by Brother Wright, of Braintree, who ' -Was-fined £3 10s. , to be paid to Bourne. The selectmen had no right to/lay so heavy a fine.; they probably relied on the fact that they were tae guardians of the town lands, and that they were bound to put these lands to the best uses. The town did not object, and the proceeding stood (2 Bost. Rec. Comm., 58, 59). In 1645 the General Court opened all harbors of Massachusetts to " all ships from any of the ports of our .. native country or elsewhere, coming peaceably" (3 Mass. Rec, 12). The law remained until 1661, when it was repealed, possibly under the influence of the English navigation law passed in 1651, the influence of which is still felt f- In 1667 all sea-going vessels not owned in Massachusetts were re quired to pay tonnage dues whenever they entered a Massachusetts port, and a year later a customs tariff on imports and exports was adopted, to take effect on March 1, 1668-9. Boston and Massachusetts CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY. 39 had learned that commerce was apt to be so profitable as to bear tax ing. By a certain inconsistency the navigation act then gathered the tax on commerce largely of home merchants. The navigation act known as 12 Carol., ch. 2, was formally adopted by Massachusetts in 1677 (5 Mass. Rec, 155), and in 1681-2 a naval office was established at Boston. James Russell was the first naval officer, and his commis- . sion was dated March 17, 1681-2 (5 Mass. Rec, 337-8). Within a year the General Court ordered that " the port of Boston, to which Charles town is annexed, and the port of Salem . . are and shall be lawful ports in this colony, where all ships and other vessels shall lade or un lade any of the plantations enumerated goods, or other goods from foreign parts, and nowhere else, on penalty of the confiscation of such ship or vessel, with her goods, tackle, etc. , as shall lade or unlade else where " (5 Mass. Rec, 383). Russell's successor was Samuel Nowell. - Arrivals in the port of Boston reported at Castle Island, the fortifi cations of which were originally intended to protect Boston from foreign enemies. Indeed Boston had chiefly paid for the "castle." If the navigation acts, the naval officer, and the custom-house of later days, injured Boston and her merchants, the town remained silent In truth, the laws were not strictly enforced, and commerce did not suffer. Boston commerce appeared to depend on the wants of the people, and the enterprise that supplied these wants. As early as 1633-4 Boston was made a market town. The market - was held where the old State House stands, and Thursday was market day, when the people from the country could sell their goods to the people at Boston without difficulty, and take in return what merchan dise was for sale. In 1648 Boston received authority to hold two fairs,. a year, in June and October (2 Mass. Rec, 257), which led at the next town meeting to the election of two " clarkes of the market." A fair was simply a market of two or three days ; but a market was in those times the only chance of every comer to enjoy free trade in the full sense of the term. Clerks or superintendents of the market have been elected ever since, and the Market Department of the Boston city gov ernment may justly boast of being the first of all such departments here established. It dates back to March 12, 1649. By a quaint anomaly. the market department has become a source of great revenue to the city, when the characteristic of the old markets was that they should be entirely free., This freedom from expense, even rent, was expressly. guaranteed when the first town house was built in Boston, and the 40 BOSTON. lower part of it reserved for market purposes: " The place underneath [the town house, which stood on pillars] shall be free for all inhabitants in this jurisdiction, to make use of as a market for ever, without pay ment of any. toll or tribute whatever" (4 Mass. Rec, part i, 327). It deserves notice,, also, that the first department established in our town government should, have slipped away fromthe selectmen, as far as the administrative work of this department is concerned. The power so lost they have never regained ; neither have their successors, the alder men. Very likely the selectmen of 1649 were not aware that the elec tion of clerks of the market by the town meeting was the first marked step toward reducing the management of all town prudentials by selectmen. In time they were to lose more. Finances, Temperance, Schools. In the matter of finance, the town bore heavy burdens from the be ginning, and always proceeded with good judgment. Since 1885 the financial officers of the city are the appointees of the mayor, and not re sponsible to anybody but him. Even the auditing of accounts is con trolled by the executive head of the city. The selectmen of colonial Boston were too prudent to ask for such power. They assessed all taxes, but in making valuations of property for assessment purposes, they had the assistance or supervision of a special commissioner elected in town meeting. This arrangement began in 1646, and lasted to the end of the colonial period (3 Mass. Rec, 87, 116). The taxes, or rates, were always collected by constables. But the selectmen generally chose the town treasurer, the town appointing committees for the ex amination and auditing of accounts. The report of this committee in 1685 (7 Bost. Rec. Comm., 175) is a good illustration. The town tax usually exceeded the " country rate," as it was called, though the latter was high. The country rate, or State tax, paid by Boston, amounted in the five years from 1675 to 1679 to ,£10,776 5s. 2d. Of this total, .£10,353 5s. %d. went to John Hull, the treasurer of Massachusetts, who gave Thomas Brattle, the treasurer of Boston, a full discharge (7 Bost. Rec. Comm., 153). The amount was occasioned mainly by King Philip's war. The ordinary town expenses, at the end of the colonial period, were about 400 pounds a year, mostly fixed charges for schools, for the poor, for highways, and for rents and repairs. To obtain this sum, about 600 pounds was the sum committed to the constables for col lection. An interesting account of the town budget, from Edward Wil- CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY 41 lis, town treasurer, is preserved in the Town Records of 1686 (7 Bost Rec. Comm., 187). The number of polls, in 1687, was returned at 1,447, but included all males of the age of sixteen and above (1. c, 194). This fixes the population for that year at more than 5,000, a small number of whom lived in Muddy River or Rumney Marsh." Then, as now, the tax laws were made by the General Court, and the town officers were required to collect both the State tax and the town money. The colonial selectmen discharged this duty with ability and integrity. The liquor laws of the time were not radically unlike those of the present time. The town simply recommended persons that might be trusted to sell intoxicating drink, and supervised the proper adminis-- tration of the law ; but did not issue licenses, and did not receive ibe- revenue connected with the liquor business. This revenue consisted in_ import duties, license fees, and excise, and went to the colony. In 1681-2, when Boston had three churches and three schools, it was al lowed six wine taverns or wholesalers, ten innholders, and eight retail ers, who sold liquor to be drunk in the homes of the people. Intem perance was greater than now. On the whole, the people had very little to do with the regulation of this traffic, local option being a mod ern growth, and opinion increasingly sensitive. The selectmen of col onial Boston were the overseers of the poor. They needed an alms house, but did not succeed in getting it, while their expenses for the poor were very considerable. Most of the bequests made to. early Bos ton were for the poor of the town, and in most cases it was necessary to pay out the principal ; so urgent were the necessities of the select men. The school system of Boston, now its most democratic institution, had its beginning in the establishment of the Latin school and Harvard College. But the people at large never intended to go, to college or study Latin. To supply the wants of the plain people, who are ¦ the town, a school with Latin in it, and looking to the ministry, did not answer. On December 18, 1682, a public meeting of the inhabitants" appointed a committee, including the selectmen, to " consider of and provide one or more free schools for the teaching of children to write and cipher, within this town " (7 Bost. Rec Comm., 158). The com mittee voted that two such schools should be established ; that the town should allow £%5 for each ; and that parents might improve the teach ers' lot by paying tuition. Ou November 24, 1684, the selectmen en* 6 42 BOSTON. gaged John Cole to keep a free school for instruction in reading and writing, his pay to consist in £10 in money, and £%Q in country pay. When the colony ended, Boston had the Latin school, and two schools for reading and writing English. The care for these schools did not fall altogether upon the selectmen, though they had to supply the larger part of the money. The care of the schools gradually drifted away from the' selectmen, and in modern days became an independent branch of our municipal government. The selectmen and their suc cessors never managed the schools. Indeed, the free school is the work of the people, and the people have generally preferred to control the free school more directly than by a general town or city govern ment. Results. The colony government, under the patent of 1629, ended in May, 1686. The Province government, under the charter of 1691, began in May, 1692. The interregnum was brief. President Dudley and his council served less than a year, and Sir Edmund Andros was swept away, together with Edward Randolph, in the revolution of April 20, 1689, when the colony resumed its former methods of "doing business, and so continued until the arrival of Sir William Phips and the begin ning of the Province government. In the sixty-two years of its history under the colony, the town of Boston had become the most influential town in New England and America. Since 1680-81 it was the only town that had three deputies in the General Court (5 Mass. Rec, 305), The colony had enjoyed complete self-government, and enabled the towns of Massachusetts to enjoy the same privilege in all prudential affairs of a municipality. No town made better uses of this opportunity than Boston. It laid the foundations of a municipal government which has rarely failed the community in its reasonable expectations, and on historic occasions pointed the way to the highest duty and honor. Nearly everything that makes the government of Boston attractive or instructive, has its root in the high endeavors and hopeful ambition of fthe colonial period. As late as 1685 the town instructed its officers not to collect a fine of ,£100 lawfully ordered by the county authorities. It had previously defied a king ; it was to defy another. Boston has never defied Massachusetts. Yet it was Boston that prevented the coun ties of Massachusetts from being a power between the town and the ^commonwealth. It was Boston that insisted upon direct dealings be- Constitutional history. a tween the commonwealth and the towns that gave the commonwealth its character and strength. It was Boston that gave the town and town government a superior dignity that has been admired by many great minds, and rarely criticised by any mind. Colonial Boston began as an aristocracy ; it ended as a pure democracy. This interesting transition entitles the people of colonial Boston to enduring honor ; for the change was made almost imperceptibly. The more the whole community was fit for municipal self-government, the more it had. Special praise, however, is due to the early leaders. They never sought to defend the ¦ aristocratic institutions in church and state they had brought with them from England; but helped bravely and wisely to elevate the entire community to a reasonable understanding of what was best calculated to build a good town and a free commonwealth. A commonwealth like Massachusetts, and a community like Boston, are not a natural growth, nor the result of evolution and happy environment, but the work of reasoning and highly ethical generations, who know what is best, and always make for moral and political freedom, whatever the sacrifice. After two centuries of political experience it is easy to point out where the Colony failed : It did not separate the powers of govern- - ment. With equal justice the founders may be charged with not hav ing been logical. But it is a mistake to estimate the seventeenth century by the nineteenth ; the true business of the historian is to show how the present resulted from the past. We should not forget that the seventeenth century was emphatically a theological age, when dogmatic theology ruled supreme. Our time is emphatically untheo- logical, and not kind to dogmatic theology. Whether this is really a gain, may be open to doubt; it is not doubtful, perhaps, that a scien tific or science-making age is not the best qualified to judge a time when religion reigned supreme and the ideal interests of mankind had a theological cast, as if the highest hopes could not be separated from the eternities. We of the present are not given to theology ; but the ideal ism of Massachusetts and its capital began with the theological founders. Whatever our opinion of dogmatic theology, it is an ideal pursuit ; and it is the special honor of Boston and Massachusetts that, in the midst of practical labors, they have always evinced a marked interest in the ideal concerns of mankind. Scholarship has never lan guished in Boston ; here is the cradle of our national literature ; fine art has made Boston a home ; Boston artisans have ever tried for the best. 44 BOSTON. This whole continent owes a debt to Puritan Boston. But the eminence of Boston in practical government and the ideal life began in 1630. In the days of the Puritan colony it was supreme. Liverpool and Glasgow have no such story to tell ; neither have Hamburg and Marseilles. In the seventeenth century they were strangers to ideal pursuits ; Boston was not. The colony passed easily and very early from a government by free men to representative institutions, or government by the representa- ' fives of freemen. The town of Boston was anxious to take a like step, but was prevented by the sister towns as represented in the General Court. A preference of town government to incorporated cities is still the dominating creed of Massachusetts, although a city is nothing but a town with representative institutions. The same sentiment attributes to towns certain prescriptive powers or rights, which are denied to the city, as though a city had only enumerated rights, ex pressly conferred, while towns are sometimes thought to have all municipal powers not expressly denied. The early selectmen proceeded on this latter theory, and it is due to them that our aldermen's powers cannot be enumerated. Meanwhile it is odd, and illustrates the con servative force of tradition, that public opinion in 1893, as in 1650, looks upon representative government in the State as safe and neces sary, in municipal matters as apt to be fraught with mischief and a loss of popular rights. In truth, the founders of Boston reasoned deeper and better on town government than this century does on city govern ment. It is safe to add that the early selectmen of Boston vindicated their rights more effectually than did the city officers of two centuries later. So well did the early selectmen manage as not to invite the in terference of the General Court, or even of the town meeting; a later age goes to the State House when it wishes to govern Boston. Nor should it be forgotten that municipal self-government must vindicate itself. ¦" Had the constitution of Boston from 1630 to 1692 been ill ad ministered, the General Court would have been glad to offer relief; but no relief was needed ; Boston took better care of itself than did the —commonwealth. For this we are indebted to the early selectmen ; they taught a lesson for all time. Yet who can deny that the constitutional law of colonial Boston and Massachusetts was ill-defined? The colonists constantly spoke of the magistrates, who were the "assistants," or board of directors, sur rounding the Governor. They were intended by the patent to be ex- CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY. 45 ecutive officers ; they turned out to be a branch of the General Court, and judges from whom litigants could appeal to the General Court. The weakness of the system lay in the jealousy with which the execu tive power was scattered, while the assistants wielded great power in legislation and as the chief judiciary of the country. This waste of ex ecutive power, accidentally enhanced by the establishment of a council (1 Mass. Rec, 361), still affects the Commonwealth; in colonial times it led the selectmen of towns to assume much executive power, an ap peal lying, not to a superior executive who could have acted, but to magistrates or the General Court who would deliberate. The county officers never had much executive authority,, and the Governor less. Hence the executive power of towns had to be exercised by special of ficers or committees ; as a matter of fact, the selectmen soon became a standing committee of the town for all executive purposes and for the prudentials. In short, while the executive officers of the common wealth were intentionally deprived of power, the selectmen became general executive officers in town affairs, partly from necessity, but mainly from choice. They were the best executive product of the time. This outcome is certainly remarkable ; for the patent intended the Gov ernor to be an executive of real power, assisted but not limited by the assistants. He became a respectable figure head ;¦ the assistants be came judges and the higher branch of the General Court, while the town, relieved of court business, and too- busy for making many by laws, evolved the selectman, whose duties were almost altogether ex ecutive or administrative. But being men of energy, the selectmen of the colonial age exercised many powers never conferred upon them by the town, much less by the General Court. PROVINCIAL PERIOD, 1692 TO 1776. The Province Charter was signed October 7, 1691 ; but the govern ment under the new charter did not begin until May 14, 1692, and the first act of the General Court in the Province period was not passed un til June 14, 1692. It is proper, therefore, to treat the colonial period as ending in 1692, and to consider the Andros interregnum, from 1686 to 1689, a mere episode, the effect of which upon the town government of Boston was very slight. Indeed, the town government was so well established, and Andros as well as Randolph so little appreciated its importance, that they scarcely made an impression upon the organiza tion of the town which led in their overthrow. The Province period 46 BOSTON. ended in 1776. If a day may be named, it should be July 4, although the Revolution began much earlier, and was complete in Massachusetts as early as 1774. Great Britain, on the other hand, did not formally recognize the independence of Massachusetts and the United States un til November 30, 1782, and the definitive treaty recognizing the United States was not signed until September 3, 1783. July 4, 1776, was acknowledged beforehand by the Boston town meeting as Independence Day, for it resolved on May 23, 1776, that " If the Honorable Conti nental Congress should, for the Safety of the Colonies, declare them In dependent of the Kingdom of Great Britain, they, the Inhabitants, will solemnly engage with their Lives and Fortunes to support them in the Measure " (18 Bost, Rec. Comm., 235), It is the honor of Boston, as a municipality, to have taken a leading part in defending American in dependence against both Andros and Gage. The freedom of a state is indicated by the self-government it enjoys, and political maturity, is indicated by municipal self-government. The Massachusetts Colony governed itself, and expected each town to do the same. The Province indicated a marked decline from the freedom of the colonial period. The Colony chose its own governor ; under the Province charter the crown appointed the governor, the lieutenant-gov ernor, and the secretary. The Colony made its own laws, and the only recognized test of these laws was that they must not conflict with the patent of 1629. The Province was required to submit its laws to the privy council in England for review, and they were subject to nullifica tion on the part of the privy council within three years after receipt. The charter, then, did not encourage freedom, and did not contemplate municipal self-government, except that the subjects of the Province were supposed to have the liberty and immunity of natural born Eng lishmen. The towns were incidentally recognized by the charter, but the writers of the charter probably did not know a Massachusetts town. When the crown learnt from Boston the meaning of town and town meeting, Governor Gage was instructed not to let any town meetino-s be called without his knowledge and consent; to which the Boston selectmen replied with grim humor that they had no need of calling a town meeting, for "we had two now alive by adjournment " (23 Bost. Rec Comm., 225). For the validity of this proceeding they relied on the law of the Province, which had the approval of the privy council. CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY. 47 Area and Population. The Province inherited Bostom a flourishing town of about six thousand inhabitants, and including the present towns of Brookline, Revere and Winthrop, as well as the city of Chelsea. Suffolk county included Boston, Roxbury, Dorchester, Milton, Braintree, Weymouth, Hingham, Hull, Dedham, Medfield, Wrentham, Mendon, and Oxford. Before long, Woodstock was added, being settled by emigrants from Roxbury, and originally called New Roxbury. It passed to Connecti cut about 1749, though the Province never gave up its claim. In 1705 Brookline was set off from Boston, and in 1739 Chelsea became inde pendent of Boston. The town of Boston had" sold, also, its lands in Braintree. From 1739 to 1804, then, when South Boston was added, Boston was small in area. In 1742 it boasted of 16,382 inhabitants ; in 1771 it was supposed to have 1,800 dwelling-houses; but on July 4, 1776, it had less than 3,000 residents, many being absent on account of the war and the smallpox then raging in Boston. A few months later, 907 men from Boston were reported to be in the service of the country against Great Britain. Meanwhile Suffolk county had been greatly reduced, notably by the establishment of Worcester county, in 1731, when Mendon, Woodstock, Oxford, Sutton, and Uxbridge were set off. For in 1730 the county of Suffolk comprised the following towns : Bos ton, Roxbury, Dorchester, Hingham, Braintree, Dedham, Medfield, Medway, Weymouth, Milton, Hull, Wrentham, Mendon, Woodstock, Brookline, Needham, Sutton, Oxford, Bellingham, Walpole, Stoughton, and Uxbridge. On July 4, 1776, Suffolk county comprised: Boston, Roxbury, Dorchester, Milton, Braintree, Weymouth, Hingham, Ded ham, Medfield, Wrentham, Brookline, Needham, Stoughton, Stough- tonham District, Medway, Bellingham, Hull, Walpole, Chelsea, and Cohasset. But the power of the county was small ; its chief importance lay in the administration of justice, which was wisely kept from town control and from all town officers. The people were comparatively homogeneous, the chief distinction being between rich "-and poor, and between old families and later ar rivals. As late as 1770 the town complained that the crown in dealing with Boston proscribed "patricians and plebeians" (18 Bost. Rec. Comm., 31). At the beginning of the Province period, the right in the Common was reserved to the old settlers (11 Bost. Rec. Comm., 20, 89) ; but as the time went on, this claim was effaced. The people en- 48 BOSTON. joyed liberty of conscience ; but this liberty did not extend to ' ' Papists, " nor to Jews, Accordingly there was no Catholic church in provincial Boston ; but a French Protestant church appears to have existed at the beginning of the seventeenth century. Toward the end of the provin cial period a German Lutheran church appears to have struggled for life (18 Bost. Rec. Comm., 159). In 1771 a dancing school was licensed, but the teaching of French was viewed with distrust. Entertainments were given at Faneuil Hall, which was completed in 1742, and occa sionally at " Concert Hall." The town grew fast, but suffered a set back after 1720, then recovered, to undergo a gradual decline in the last twenty-five years of the provincial period. The currency was generally in wretched condition. In 1774 ,£100 sterling equalled £133 "lawful," and .£1,000 "old tenor." A dollar was rated at is. Qd. sterling, or 6s. lawful. Yet the provincial period began with a splendid growth ; it paved the streets and sidewalks ; it built sewers to drain houses ; it named the streets and lanes ; it straightened and widened many of them ; it built Boston light, long wharf, and the town dock ; it printed the town bylaws; it established wards; it adopted the social titles still in use; and at the end of the period it introduced street lamps It found Boston a plain community, to leave it a complex town to the next age. The Town and the Province. It was fortunate for the cause of town government that the crown, in granting the Province charter, placed the supervision of towns entirely "In the power of the Province. To be sure, the crown could veto Prov ince laws, but it never touched those relating to towns. The town of Boston, moreover, had a sort of partnership with the Province. The General Court met in the Boston town hall ; Boston was the metropolis of Massachusetts ; the leading men of the Province were many of them Bostonians, and not infrequently town officers. The modern feeling between city and country did not exist, and all towns as such had the -same interest regarding the Province or the General Court The latter was not ill disposed toward Boston, though it passed many special laws affecting Boston only. The idea that a town could not exercise any rights, save such as were granted by the General Court, was not then born. On the contrary, the towns acted freely, save where the General Court had raised a distinct barrier. Many of the rights exercised, both by towns and town officers, were prescriptive, the object being, not to CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY. 49 develop a system of jurisprudence, but to satisfy the wants and require ments of the body politic Compared with the Colony period, the rights of the Province, and indirectly of all towns in the Province, were greatly curtailed under the charter of 1691. In practice, the Province suffered more than did its towns, the latter having no dealings with the privy council, and very few with the officers appointed by the crown. The Province was friendly, if not always prudent, in dealing with town government. If the latter was wise, it did not owe its wis dom to crown or Province, but to the. common sense of the people dealing directly with their own affairs. The charter of 1691 confirmed the title of all towns in their lands (1 Prov. Laws, 9). This barred the General Court from disposing of town lands, and gave the towns a certain power independently of th©-' Province. In order to settle the difficulties involved in the distribution of town lands, — difficulties likely to increase with the growth of the Province and the corresponding increase in the price of lands, — ther General Court found it convenient to refer the problem, to the law courts. The act was passed in 1694 (1 Province Laws, 182), and inci dentally made the town a corporation in law as well as in fact. In Colony days the Massachusetts town had neither sued nor been sued. In 1692 the General Court had passed a general act (1. c, 64) confirm ing the towns in their boundaries, and authorizing them to continue their town business ; but this general town charter continued the Col ony law (Col. Laws, 1672, ed. Whitm., 149) that "no cottage or dwell ing-place in any town shall be admitted to the privilege of commonage [for] wood[s], timber and herbage, or any other the privileges whjch lie in common in any town, or peculiar, other than such as were erected or privileged by the grant of such town, or peculiar, before the yeai 1661, or that have been since, or shall hereafter be, granted by the consent of any town, or peculiar" (1 Prov. Laws, 65). From the first arrivals of Englishmen in Massachusetts, they thought themselves the owners of the land, and all later arrivals were looked upon as intruders who must acquire and establish their rights. Fortunately this principle was never applied to towns in their corporate capacity. A happy star had stood over their birth ; it did not set when a less generous age came with the Province. " The difference between the Colony and the Province in town mat ters is best illustrated by the general town acts passed in 1636 (1 Mass. Rec, 172) and 1692 (1 Prov. Laws, 64). The Colony told the 7 50 BOSTON. towns to do as they pleased in town matters, provided the laws and orders of the General Court were not violated. The freemen of each town might distribute town lands and all other town privileges by majority vote. The Province act undertook to regulate the distribution or allotment of undivided land either " according to the interests," or "by the major part of such proprietors" (1. c, 65). This did not work, and the matter was referred to the law courts (1. c, 182). The act for towns contained stringent provisions against idle persons and intruders ; provided for the care of the poor ; and offered relief in case constables or selectmen refused to do their duty; but the most im portant provision authorized towns, or their selectmen, to make all necessary rules, orders and bylaws relating to the prudential affairs of the town, provided these orders and bylaws were not to be binding, unless approved by the Court of Sessions, which consisted of justices of the peace appointed by the governor, with the advice and consent of the council. The Court of General Sessions of the Peace was not or- V ganized until the act of 1699 was passed (1. c, 367). It consisted of the justices of the peace for the county, or so many of them as should r be limited in their commissions, and had both civil and criminal juris diction. In addition this court had charge of the county prudentials. It continued throughout the Province period, survived under the State constitution, and finally occasioned the incorporation of Boston as a city, one of the main purposes of which was to get rid of the court of sessions that had become a drag on all town affairs. The Colony, too, had encouraged law courts to engage in administrative work. Boston and the Court of Sessions. . Before the court of sessions began to delay the affairs of Boston, the General Court repealed the fatal clause of 1692 under which the sessions had the absolute veto power on town orders and bylaws, and the power of enforcing these was given to the selectmen, defendants having the right of appeal to the justices in quarter sessions. Unfor tunately this excellent provision was hidden in an act dealing with militia and other matters, and was thrown out by the privy council (1 Prov. Laws, 217, 263). No town suffered more in consequence than Boston. In 1701 the town undertook to codify its bylaws, and passed a code of nearly forty titles, on May 12. On August 5 it was announced that the court of sessions had vetoed all but twelve. The town tried Constitutional history. si again on September 22, and was more fortunate, the attempt at town independence having been abandoned (compare 8 Bost. Rec. Comm., 9-21, with the "Several Rules, Orders, and By-Laws, approved by his majesties justices," and printed in 1702). Undoubtedly the meddling of the sessions with town affairs was specially distasteful to the selectmen ; but they offered very little opposition, and the town meeting none at all. The power of the sessions was accordingly in creased, and that of selectmen correspondingly diminished. In 1713 the power of laying out town ways, previously exercised only by the selectmen or their agents, was vested in the sessions, to be exercised whenever the selectmen were charged with delay or something worse. One would have expected that, in case any selectmen were slow in laying out a town way really needed, the parties aggrieved might appeal to the town meeting. But in the Province period the court of sessions was superior to the town meeting, and, unlike the town meet ing, could enforce its orders by fine and imprisonment. Fortunately^ Americans have never resisted the courts of law. Law courts have been forestalled, but not resisted. Throughout the Province period liquor licenses were issued by the court of sessions, the selectmen having only the veto power. The court of sessions ordered prisons to be built and maintained at pleasure ; the same court ordered all county taxes, and assessed them on each town; in general, the court heard appeals from selectmen, town meet ings and towns, and any member of the court could punish the breach of a town law. In addition, the court of sessions heard and determined " all matters relating to the conservation of the peace, and punishment of offenders " (1 Prov. Laws, 367). The essence of police power, therefore, rested practically with the court of sessions, or its members, the result being peculiarly unhappy, as the justices could not directly set up and manage a suitable police force. The effects are still felt. The duty of preserving the peace in Boston was at first vested in the constable. As constables were chosen by the town, which preferred prominent men for unsalaried offices, it was difficult to find suitable persons to discharge the unpopular and ungentlemanly duties of the constable. For night service, watchmen were employed, unless the militia happened to keep what was called a "military watch" (Col. Laws, 1660, ed. Whitm., 178-9; 1 Prov. Laws, 129). The night police was first a "constable's watch " (Col. Laws, 1660, ed. Whitm., 198-9); but in 1699 the justices and selectmen together were authorized to em- 52 BOSTON. ploy a night police force other than the constables' watch, which had proved inadequate for Boston (1 Prov. Laws, 382, s. fin. ). ' The town voted the cost, but the assessment was vested in the court of sessions, which acted unsatisfactorily to the town (11 Bost. Rec Comm., 108, 224, 234). Relief came in the act of 1 761 (4 Prov. Laws, 462), which enabled the selectmen of Boston to employ a night police of their own. The act remained in force to the end of the Province period, and was invoked in 1774 to protect Boston from "sundry regiments of his majesty's troops " (18 Bost. Rec Comm., 194-5). Seventy-two watch men were to protect Boston from the troops of King George and all other harm, at least in the night time. In law every justice of the peace was free to punish a breach of town laws, by issuing a warrant of distress, and the court of sessions had -ample power, provided the offenders were duly presented. But the constables by day, and the watch by night, were unequal to the work expected of them. The moiety system was tried, the informer receiv ing half the fine ordered by a justice; but the system failed. In 1701 "the town passed an interesting order authorizing the selectmen "yearly to nominate and appoint one or more meet persons in the several divisions of the town, to inspect and prosecute the breach of all or any of the penal orders which are or shall hereafter be made by this town, - and allowed of by the sessions of the peace, and to allow and assign | such persons salaries and rewards, as unto the said selectmen shall be Judged meet and convenient '-' (8 Bost. Rec. Comm., 15); but the order was apparently vetoed by the court of sessions, though occasionally carried out (11 Bost. Rec. Comm., 61, 63, 66, 67, 86). Of course, occa sional prosecutions were justly unpopular, and could not take the place of a systematic police force, which came much later. In Colony times, the selectmen frequently made town orders or bylaws, with penalties attached, and as frequently enforced them, the fine going into the town treasury. The selectmen of the Province period were not able to exer cise such power, and the town suffered accordingly. It is an open question, perhaps, whether the police of a town like provincial Boston should and could bring all violations of town and Province law to justice; it is less doubtful that every town is the best enforcement of its own orders, and that the self-government of towns calls for an efficient town police, which may be supplemented, but cannot be re placed, by a general police force. The more the towns take care of themselves, the better for all. It took Boston more than two centuries CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY. 53 to produce anything like a systematic police force. The fault, if any, did not lie with Boston alone. Attempts at Relief. It was inevitable that the dependence of the town on county officers should lead to delay and dissatisfaction. • It was natural that the select men should be the first to propose relief. In 1708 they told the town' meeting that ' ' the orders and bylaws of this town . . . have not answered the ends for which they were made, and the principal cause thereof is a general defect or neglect in the execution, without which the best laws will signify little. And one great reason why they are- no better executed is the want of a proper head, or town officer or officers, empowered for that purpose, the law having put the execution of town orders into the hands of the justices only, who are not town but county officers " (8 Bost. Rec. Comm., 55). The selectmen added that the justices could not be expected to make town affairs their special business, and that it was inconsistent to let a town make its own rules and regulations, but deprive it of the power to enforce them. For relief they proposed a charter of incorporation, to be drafted by a large committee. The same committee was requested to propose "some way for lessening the charges of this town " (1. c. , 56). The committee presented the draft of a charter, for which they received th' thanks of the town, which then proceeded to reject the whole schem (1. c, 59). Evidently the selectmen felt their dependence on the court' of sessions more keenly than did the people of the town. At that time Boston was growing very fast; prosperity reigned; the town was] undergoing the happy transformation from a plain village to a complex community, in which there was ample opportunity for men of am bition; and the average "inhabitant" was not aware that the shoe pinched. He prospered; he did not care that the selectmen felt em barrassed ; perhaps he did not care much for the breach of town laws, save where .he suffered personal inconvenience; and he was by no means ready to part with power, for the purpose of increasing the power of town or city officers. It is not in the nature of democracy to part with power, such as could be exercised in town meeting, and to increase the delegated power of elective officers. So the attempt of 1708-9 to make Boston a city, failed on the spot. Leading men favored the change ; the town meeting did not. Hi BOSTON. The demagogue had not troubled the Colony ; he appeared in the Province. The democracy of the Colony followed the leaders, who were men of great ability and political integrity ; the democracy of the Province began to do its own leading, and to distrust all leaders not in full sympathy with the aims and opinions of the rising democracy. The Colonial age was simple and pure ; the Provincial age was more complex and comparatively corrupt. In 1744 Boston suffered severely. The Province had indulged in the fatal experiment of issuing too much paper money, and underwent the usual effect ; the number of rateable polls in Boston (males at least sixteen years of age) declined from 3,395 in 1738 to about 2,600 in 1746; trade was slack (14 Bost Rec. Comm., 13, 100, 303); the tax laid upon Boston in 1744 was £30,000 old tenor. At such a time it might have been popular to propose an increase in the power of the town, especially by making Boston a county. Instead of that Thomas Hutchinson, himself a selectman, proposed that the General Court should confer greater power, not upon the town of Boston, but upon its selectmen and himself (1. c. , 27). The matter was referred to the selectmen, who included Thomas Hutchin son and Samuel Adams. A majority of them proposed "that the selectmen for the time being, or the major part of them, be constituted a court of record, and vested with powers sufficient to try and deter mine all offenses against the bylaws of the town, their courts to be held the last Monday of every month " (1. c, 49). Adams did not sign the report, and the town declined to accept Hutchinson's report. It would have been a miracle if the town had voted to make the monthly meet ing of the selectmen a police court, for trying, every breach of a town order. It would have been strange if the town meeting had abdicated a part of its power to encourage the ambition of Thomas Hutchinson, who was full of schemes and plans for himself, while Adams schemed and planned and plotted for his town and country. The Hutchinson plan was impolitic and ill-timed. It failed accordingly (1. c. 27, 31, 47, . 49).""In 1762 a number of inhabitants desired the town to "take such methods as shall be judged necessary for the incorporation of it " (19 Bost. Rec Comm., 182). A clause to that effect was accordingly in serted in the warrant for the annual town meeting. The next clause in the same warrant called for a committee to reduce town expenses. A young democracy favors economy; a more advanced democracy favors liberal appropriations. The town meeting of 1762 refused the CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY. 55 committee (1. c , 72), and the question whether the town wished to be incorporated was "passed in the negative, almost unanimously" (1. c, 67). The truth is, the town was not prosperous, and it would have been hard to convince that as a city it could do better. When , political struggles with the mother country were added to the economic struggles at home, and when the town of Boston was almost deserted — its population fell from near 20,000 in 1738, to less than 3,000 in ' 1776 — there was no occasion to think of being incorporated a city, leasf of all when the historic town meetings of the Revolution were justly applauded by the United States. At a time when the independence of the country was in issue, there was no disposition to consider the inde pendence of municipalities. Indeed, the autonomy and self-government of a town has room o.nly in an autonomous and self-governing nation. As long as the Province of Massachusetts was not entirely autonomous and self-governing — for a Province with governors not of its own choosing is not independent — how could its towns be little republics? They might wish for independence; they would not find it in a depend ent Province. The Colony of Massachusetts was free ; the Province of Massachusetts was not. Domicile and Suffrage. Both domicile and suffrage were municipal throughout the Province period, and, with the exception that anybody could become a free holder by purchase, domicile and suffrage could not be acquired with out the consent of the town or its selectmen. In practise it was the selectmen who admitted inhabitants and approved voters. Under the^ general town charter of 1692, strangers obtained the right of domicile in any town of the Province by living there for three months without protest on the part of the town. The protest, to be effectual, must De served on the stranger, and a record left with the court of sessions (1 Prov. Laws, 67). It was the selectmen who had to act in the premises, and in case they failed to give due warning to strangers, the latter be came legal residents, with a right to town relief when needed. The^ cost of poor relief was among the heaviest burdens borne by Boston throughout the Province period. In 1700-1 masters of immigrant vessels were required to give a full list of such passengers, " and their circumstances," and the selectmen were authorized to require a bond for the support of any immigrants, should they prove unable to support themselves, or to return them to 56 BOSTON. the vessel in which they came. Domicile was not acquired, save by a freehold, by birth in the town where domicile was claimed, by serving an apprenticeship, or by twelve months' residence without warning (1. c, 451). While the act of 1700-1 made the master of immigrant vessels responsible for the poor and the helpless he brought, the law of 1722 (2 Prov. Laws, 244) made him responsible for all passengers he brought. In theory, then, the selectmen of Boston were well prepared to keep out all undesirable inhabitants ; in practice they failed. When strangers thought they could improve their condition by going to Bos ton, to Boston they went ; when fortune or hope beckoned elsewhere, Boston could not hold them. The Province pursued a clear course. As early as 1705 it required four pounds for every negro brought into the Province (1 Province Laws, 578), and in 1708-9 the same rule was ap plied to Indians (1. c", 634), while during some years a premium of forty shillings was paid for every white man-servant, between the age of eight and twenty-five years, brought from ' ' the kingdom of Great Britain." In 1718, when the bills of credit issued by the Province were depreciated, the council recommended that the importation of white servants be again encouraged (1. c, 580), and the General Court prohibited the abduction of servants and apprentices under a fine of fifty pounds- (2 Prov. Laws, 119). The Boston selectmen were mainly troubled by adventurous persons from other provinces trying to gain a residence in Boston. The list of such individuals warned out of town included persons calling themselves worsted combers, dyers, clock- makers, gardeners, and even coachmakers, at a time when the streets of Boston had barely been named; and later on dancing masters, teachers of French, professors of singing, and " comic-satirick " lec turers. From about 1738 to 1776 the problem in Boston was not how to prevent men from acquiring domicile or a vote, but how to stay the v steady decline of the population. In Boston it was a proud and strong, but dwindling, population that fought the historic fight for American independence. The greater, therefore, its honor. Revolutionary Boston consisted of native Bostonians. None but freeholders could be members of the General Court, and a freeholder was simply a proprietor of land (1 Prov. Laws, 11, 452). Boston sent four members to the General Court of the Province, and was usually well represented in the Council, which was chosen by the - General Court. The freemen of old had disappeared with the patent of 1629, and were succeeded by freeholders ; but to entitle these to a CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY. 57 vote for members of the General Court, their freehold must be worth forty shillings a year. Other inhabitants were entitled to vote for members of the General Court when they had property to the value of at least fifty pounds sterling (1. c, 11, 315, 363). In town matters th^_ law was more liberal. The general act of 1692 conferred the town suffrage upon all freeholders and upon any inhabitant who was "rate able at twenty pounds estate" (1, c, 65). In 1700-1 an inhabitant was defined as a person formally admitted to the town by the selectmen or in town meeting ; but freeholders, persons born in the town, and those having served an apprenticeship in the town, were excepted from the necessity of a formal admission (1. c, 452). The poll tax, which was- high, did not qualify for voting, and was assessed on all males who had completed their sixteenth year. Temporary acts passed in 1735 and 1738-9 (2 Prov. Laws, 761, 980), also in 1742-3' (3 Prov. Laws, 47), and from time to time renewed, further defined the general town act of 1692, which controlled throughout the Province period, and worked well, although it established a certain inequality not desirable in a democracy. It gave a marked preference to freeholders ; this prefer ence was intentional, and was recognized in the important act of 1700-1 (1 Prov. Laws, 452, s. fin.), though the General Court held in 1720 that freeholders were not qualified to vote in town meeting, unless rateable at twenty pounds estate, and this interpretation prevailed (1 Prov. Laws, 107; 2 Prov. Laws, 761; 3 Prov. Laws, 47; 5 Prov. Laws, 1121). Persons not freeholders depended for their vote to some extent upon the selectmen, who never abused the power they wielded. The- difference in the voting qualifications for town and Province elections made it necessary to hold them separately, the popular town meeting being managed by moderators, while the meetings for Province elec tions were conducted by selectmen and attended by few persons. Ap parently the highest number of votes cast for Boston representatives in the General Court of the Province was 723 (18 Bost. Rec. Comm., 78); in town meeting the number of voters present was apt to be much higher, especially at the annual meeting in March. The election of representatives for the General Court was usually held in May. — The first little code of town laws, issued try Boston in 1702, contained. the important provision that town meetings should be conducted by a moderator, and that "no matter of any weight or moment shall be voted at any town meeting, without the same hath been specially ex- prest in 'the warrant" (8 Bost. Rec. Comm., 17, 21). In 1715 the 58 BOSTON. Province made a general law to the same effect (2 Prov. Laws, 30). This law, which prevented the town meeting from becoming a mob, required the selectmen, who called the town meetings, to insert in the warrant or call whatever ten freeholders might require under their hands, and added that " no matter or thing whatsoever shall be voted or determined, but what is inserted in the warrant for calling said C meeting." The result was that the town meeting of the Province period was controlled by freeholders. This is no longer the case ; but the Massachusetts laws of 1893 governing the town meeting (chapter 417, sec. 259-265) is almost to a letter a repetition of the Province law passed in 1715 ; this, in turn, repeats the Boston town orders of 1701 ; and these were evolved or wrought out by the experience of Boston under the Colony. It is this conservatism, this respect for precedent, this clinging to" past experience, that best protects us from interesting experiments in government. However society may change, whatever leaps in the dark may be taken by persons and property, the body politic is deeply conservative, and rarely parts with a solid gain made in our history as an organized political community. And the history of its government is the greatest glory as well as the noblest inherit ance of America. This inheritance is not fully appreciated, unless one first studies and masters the history of a government like Boston or some ancient town in New England. Town Power. The power vested in towns was not defined by the Province, and is not now defined. When towns came to be incorporated as cities, juris prudence adopted the theory that cities could not exercise a right not conferred by the General Court, it being assumed that the city was " created " by the General Court, and that the creature had nothing beyond what was given by its creator. The theory reacted upon the power supposed to be in towns. But practice did not comply with the theory, and it is not rash to assume that in such cases the theory is im perfect, an ounce of fact being worth more than a pound of theory. The first act passed by the General Court under the Province under took to continue " all the focal laws " of the Colony, and ordained that they should "remain and continue in full force in the respective places for which they were made and used " (l.Prov. Laws, 27); and a later act adds that they " shall so continue, until the general assembly shall take further order" (1. c, 99). But both these acts were disallowed CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY. 59 by the privy council, which wanted to get rid of the Colony, and let the Province start fresh. None the less, and despite the remark in the- general town act that selectmen were chosen ' ' for the ordering and managing the prudential affairs of such town," and .other town officers " for the executing of other matters and things in the laws appointed by them to be done and performed" (1. c, 65), this same act recognized town usage, and simply limited town acts by the requirement that they be "not repugnant to the general laws of the Province" (1. c, 66). _ In fact, neither the General Court nor the science of jurisprudence could foresee what a town ought to do in a given case, and the town of Boston found no legal or other difficulty in doing what it thought prudent. Its selectmen enjoyed a similar latitude; for no wisdom could tell exactly what was covered by the prudential affairs which the selectmen were chosen to manage. \ Vh In 1750 the General Court placed an excise duty of a shilling roTT" every pound of tea sold in the Province (3 Prov. Laws, 496), where upon the town of Boston objected. When the General Court dismissed" the objection, the town meeting voted to " make application at home, in order to prevent said acts being confirmed by his majesty." Chris^- topher Kilby was chosen as the town agent to get the General Court overruled by the privy council, and he was successful (14 Bost. Rec - Comm., 183-4, 241). If the town was the creature of the General Court, the creature was strong enough, it seems, to thwart the will of its immediate creator. No wonder it took courage to resist also the creator of the General Court. Before this battle, the town adopted in 1773 with unanimity a report submitted by Samuel Adams, and vindi cating the right of the town meeting to consider as town affairs what ever touched the town, and to act accordingly. The report quoted the Province- acts, and appealed at the same time to "the great and per petual law of self-preservation, to which every natural person or corporate body hath an inherent right to recur." To Governor Hutch inson's statement that the town of Boston had no authority to discuss the salaries paid to judges in Massachusetts by order of the crown, the report replied that ' ' no law forbids the inhabitants of towns in their! corporate capacities to determine such points as were then determined,!!! and added the general rule for town conduct that ' ' where the law- makes no special provision for the common safety, the people have a right to consult their own preservation." The town had asked that the General Court be called together to consider the judges' salaries, but 60 BOSTON. the Governor refused to act. The report disposes of the case by this reasoning, which fairly took the wind out of Governor Hutchinson's sail : ' ' The town had determined upon no point but only that of petitioning the gov.ernor ; and will his excellency or any one else affirm that the inhabitants of this or any other town have not a right, in their corporate capacity, to petition for a session of the general assembly, merely because the law of this Province, that authorizes towns to assemble, does not expressly make that the business of a town meet ing ? " (18 Bost. Rec. Comm., 120-125.) No better vindication of the town meeting and its powers is on record, and Samuel Adams is justly considered the typical American of the typical town meeting. His report, moreover, was directed against Governor Hutchinson, the first scholar who made the constitutional history of Massachusetts his special study. But even if Hutchinson had quoted good law, the facts were plainly against him ; and while it is conceivable that the law may be bent to the facts, it is not conceiv able that the great facts of history can be bent to human statutes. The town of Boston had done many things not expressly authorized by the General Court, and not a few of these are living today. Massachusetts did not authorize towns to choose overseers of the poor until Novem ber 16, 1692 (1 Prov. Laws, 65, 67); at the annual town meeting of March 9, 1690-1, Boston chose four persons to be " ouer Seers of the poore of this towne for the yeare ensuinge, " and on March 14, 1691-2, again elected four " Ouerseers of the poore by papor votes" (7 Bost. Rec. Comm. , 206, 210). Indeed, the Province law merely recognized what the Boston town meeting had done, and the act of the town could .-not be undone by the General Court. In 1772 the Province incor- f porated the Boston overseers of the poor (5 Prov. Laws, 177), whose history dates back to the very Colony which the crown lawyers in Lon- -^ don, together with their friends in Massachusetts, attempted by a fic tion of the law to blot out of existence (see the interesting " observa tions " printed in 1 Province Laws, 109-110). The Colony pursued the true course, and even now it is the Colony, rather than the Province, that teaches us the lesson of local self-government, a part of which Massachusetts has yet to learn. A treasure lost for a long time is not necessarily lost for all time. Town Officers. The Province town inherited from the Colony nearly all the town offices named up to 1776. The town constable was the earliest of all Constitutional history. ei town officers, and among the few adopted directly from England. The tithingman, introduced in 1677, and originally appointed to look after ten families, his neighbors, was a sub-constable who looked after sab bath breakers (Col. Laws, 1672, ed. Whitm., 249). He was not thrifty; neither was his successor, the warden of 1761 (4 Prov. Laws, 417). The Massachusetts town immediately produced the selectmen, whose name means the men specially chosen or selected to manage the prudentials of the town. In 1641 the Boston selectmen chose a treas urer and recorder, and in 1650 the office was divided; but the recorder was not called town clerk until J&9J1 (7 Bost. Rec. Comm., 213), the Province law of 1692 having provided for the annual choice, in town meeting, of a "town clerk, who shall be sworn truly to enter and= record all town votes, orders, grants and divisions of land made by such town, and orders made by the selectmen" (1 Prov. Laws, 65). The market department of the city of Boston dates back to 1649. J±. sealer of weights and measures was chosen in 1650. Overseers of the poor were appointed before the Province charter was signed (7 Bost. Rec. Comm., 206). The finance and school depart ments of Provincial Boston were inherited from the Colony age, which made a good beginning with a fire department; but the police and health departments of Colonial Boston were blind attempts. In the matter of laying out and repairing highways, as well as town ways, the fatal confusion of the Colony age was continued under the Province, and is still an inheritance. On the whole, then, the Colony was the creative age of the Boston government; the Province was not. Colonial Boston did not swear its selectmen ; neither did Provincial Boston. Up to 1776 the selectmen of Boston had never acted as a board, always as a committee. Indeed, Provincial Boston barely pre served and bequeathed the great achievements of Colonial Boston. Like the Colony, the Province drew a line more nominal than real between highways and town ways. Highways were to be laid out under the authority of the court of sessions, town ways by the select men ; but the surveyors of highways were to repair all ways and bridges within their respective towns (1 Prov. Laws, 136). In 1727-8 it was provided that the act of the selectmen in laying out town ways, to be binding upon the town, must be formally approved by the town meet ing (2 Prov. Laws, 453). The expense of constructing and maintaining all sorts of ways must be borne by the town, but the town could make almost any bargain with the persons nearest in interest. In theory the 62 BOSTON. surveyors employed " all persons from sixteen years old and upward," until all the ways were in proper condition. In practice the whole work in streets, including construction, repairs, and drains, drifted into the care of the selectmen, and the town meeting usually chose them surveyors of highways. They made pathetic efforts to charge paving and repairs to abutters ; but the law permitted the payment of highway repairs from the town tax, and gradually it became the rule of the town to meet all street expenses from the general tax levy. Sewers and drains, thanks to the act of 1709 (1 Prov. Laws, 643). were built and maintained at the expense of the immediate beneficiaries, the selectmen supervising the work, and assessing the cost. Notwithstand ing this law, the town had a system of drains almost as soon as it had sidewalks, and paved streets, and a system of wards that was occasioned by the great care the town of Boston bestowed upon its poor (11 Bost. Rec Comm., 240). The selectmen exercised in substance all the powers of a board of public works, beside being a board of health, a board of police, fire commissioners, and school committee. Early in Province days the Boston selectmen were relieved of the care for the town finances and for the poor ; all other town affairs fell upon the selectmen. Yet Boston never developed faster, and never advanced more rapidly, than from 1700 to 1720, when it enjoyed the benefits of a cheap and abundant currency. The first department to be separated from all others, in Provincial Boston, was the finance department. Under the Colony, valuations for tax purposes were made by the selectmen and a commissioner specially chosen by the town for that purpose (Col. Laws, 1672, ed. Whitm., 23, 1 Prov. L., 29). The selectmen usually decided what the town rate should be ; to this they added the county and Colony rates, and the collections were made by the constables. The amounts were then expended by the selectmen, through the town treasurer, and ap parently all went well. In 1687 the town was reported to have 1,447 rateable polls (males above sixteen years of age), and rateable estates to the value of £21,898 15s. On October 27, 1690, the Boston select men called for a town tax of £412 is. 2d. ; on June 11, 1691, they called for a town tax of £435 7s., both rates being .payable in "countrie pay," with an allowance of one-third to such as paid money (7 Bost. Rec. Comm., 194, 204, 208). The Province tax was very much larger, and, to facilitate its assessment, the General Court ordered each town to choose assessors. A Boston assessor must be a freeholder and CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY. 63 " reputed worth " at least £300. On July 16, 1694, then, the town of- Boston chose its first assessors (1 Prov. Laws, 166; 7 Bost. Rec. Comm., 219). The appointment of tax collectors, in the place of constables, had been previously authorized (1 Prov. Laws, 93, 409), but the town meeting was not unwilling to let the selectmen do the assessing and the collecting (8 Bost. Rec. Comm., 33, 35, 64, 116, 140, etc.). The selectmen, on the other hand, voted as early- as 1702 to record abate ments, as well as drafts on the town treasurer, "in the several books for that use" (11 Bost. Rec. Comm., 27). These financial records of Boston under the Province are lost. It happens, therefore, that the finances of Colonial Boston are better known than those of the Province period. Of the latter we know very little, beyond the general appropriations made in town meeting, the nominal tax levy, and occasionally a balance sheet of the town treas urer. But all these figures should be used with extreme caution. Valuations were irregular ; a tax assessed was never collected in full ; and the currency was fluctuating. ' If the Province had been faultless in other respects, it should be condemned for the "bills of credit" it issued. This mischief began with the Province. When the old-tenor bills had been sufficiently multiplied to defeat the object for which they were issued, the Province ordered anew kind, eighty shillings of which " shall be in value equal to " a troy pound of standard silver, which was 37-40 fine (2 Prov. Laws, 818). This lawful money, then, as they called it, rated twenty shillings at three ounces of standard silver, while the royal mint rated a troypound of silver at 62 shillings. There was no objection to calling a pound of silver eighty shillings in Massachu setts, while in England it was called sixty-two shillings; there was great objection to depreciating whatever currency the Province saw fit to adopt. When the Province introduced its lawful money, so called, in 1737, it offered to accept old-tenor bills at one-third of their face value (1. c, 867). The new-tenor bills underwent the same fate as their predecessors, and when the Province became a State, its finances were in utter confusion. So were those of Boston, where a committee reported a debt of "near eighteen thousand pounds" just after Mas sachusetts had ceased to be a Province (18 Bost. Rec. Comm., 258-9). The town tax ordered in 1772 was £6,500; in 1773, £7,000; in 1774, £8,000 (1. c, 86, 135, 180); only a small part could be collected, and-; in 1775 no town tax appears to have been ordered. Boston received from the Province, in matters of finance, the good institution of asses- 64 BOSTON. sors and collectors, and a currency as bad as was ever inflicted upon a reputable community. Governor Belcher told the crown in 1737 that " his majesty's instruction always intended there should be issued from time to time bills of credit sufficient for the annual support and service of the government " (2 Prov. Laws, 845). The charge was substantial ly true, but cannot excuse the Province, however culpable the crown may have been. The Province persisted in trusting the crown ; the crown persisted in proving that it should not be trusted. The crown succeeded ; with some reluctance the Province accepted the situation. Health, Schools, Fire Department, Police, Lighting. As the city charter of 1822 vested all health and quarantine matters in the city council, it was not strange that the Province made the selectmen a board of health (1 Prov. Laws, 469). The Colony had done the same, whereupon the selectmen of 1678 ordered that all per sons that had the smallpox should not air their clothes and bedding "except it be in the dead time of the night" (7 Bost Rec. Comm., 119). The selectmen of the Province period were expected to deal with " the plague, smallpox, pestilential or malignant fever, or other contagious sickness, the infection whereof may probably be communi cated to others" (1 Prov. Laws, 469). As the selectmen could not enforce their will, least of all when an appeal was taken to the famous court of sessions, any two justices of the peace were authorized to issue a warrant enforcing the regulations of the selectmen in this business. It was held later (1. c, 487) that the two justices, acting upon the ad vice and direction of the selectmen, could order the forcible removal of smallpox patients. Rainsford island became the quarantine hospital, and woe to the vessel that had smallpox on board. In 1772 a schooner arrived,- with a boy on board who had had the smallpox, but had recovered and been well for ten days. The boy, the captain, the crew, the passengers, and the vessel were smoked with ' ' rossom and brim stone," also " washed and cleansed, " whereupon the officer at Rains- ford thought they might be dismissed. The selectmen replied : ' ' Our orders are that you continue to use the proper means for cleansing the schooner, and everything on board, as well as the people. With respect to the captain and the two passengers, you must take particular care as to their washing and cleansing. Those of them who have any hair must wash the same well with vinegar. Their clothes, especially the suits they are to come up with, must be aired, washed, and smoked as CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY. 65 carefully as possible. And when this is done, report to us again." After much more smoking, washing and cleansing, the keeper was allowed to let the schooner go, "first taking care that you are paid for your trouble" (2 Bost. Rec. Comm., 135-8). Not, perhaps, to strengthen the power of the selectmen as a board of health, but to fight the smallpox, the most dreaded of all epidemics in Province times,' the General Court repeatedly supplemented its "Act providing in case of sickness," passed in 1701-2. In 1739 persons ar riving in Boston from any place ' ' where the smallpox or other malig nant infectious distemper is prevailing," — the act referred to places " in the neighboring provinces " only, — were required to report to the selectmen, and the selectmen had full power to warn such persons out of the Province (2 Prov. Laws, 987). The fine of neglectful travellers was £20. In 1742-3 families with a case of " pestulous eruptions'' were required to inform the selectmen, and to display a red flag, under a penalty of £50 in either case, £25 to go to the informer (3 Prov. Laws, 35). Inoculation was prohibited by the act of 1764, unless thirty fam ilies suffered from the smallpox, and the selectmen permitted inocula tion (4 Prov. Laws, 668). As the laws of the General Court did not stop the dreaded malady, another act was passed in 1764, fining country people £100 for going to Boston and being inoculated there (1. c.\ 729). On July 4, 1776, the court of sessions was authorized to permit the establishment of inoculating hospitals, and to punish private inocula tion with whipping (5 Prov. Laws, 552). At that time the people of Boston were frantic ; their town was nearly empty, it was without a reasonable supply of food, trade had ceased, the epidemic was com monly thought to have been occasioned by the British soldiers, and the selectmen had neither money nor skill to meet the case. From April 3, 1775, to March 29, 1776, no town meeting was held in Boston; the selectmen's meetings were interrupted for more than a year. When they were resumed, the absence of British soldiers was duly noticed; also ' ' the present opportunity of transacting the affairs and business of the town in a free town meeting " (18 Bost. Rec. Comm., 227) ; nobody believed for a moment that the town or the Province had lost any wisdom supposed to dwell with kings ; nobody imagined that, in case the Massachusetts health laws were bad, better laws could be framed upon a hint from the mother country. Even a crown that in theory never does wrong, cannot convey those ideas of which it is not pre viously possessed. The Province did not know that epidemics are more 66 BOSTON. than a town affair; perhaps a later age will learn that they are more than a State matter. Towns were justly required to take care of their prudentials; to make their selectmen a board health, and the only guardians of the public health, quarantine included, was to impose imperial duties upon a municipal corporation. As well might a town be required to regulate the coinage, or to provide original standards of weights and measures. The distribution of power in public-health matters is not much better in 1893 than it was in 1776 or 1692. In the matter of schools, the Province inherited the admirable law and practice of the Colony, which was fortunate in providing for Har vard college and for secondary education, before reading and writing schools were established. For it seems that primary schools depend more on the higher schools than the latter depend on the lower schools. For this reason it was a happy law that required for all grammar-school masters the approval of at least two ministers. A grammar-school prepared directly for college, and ministers represented liberal learning better than any other profession. Free trade in teaching being pro hibited, Provincial Boston was saved from the self-appointed professors that profess more than they make good. In 1768 the law authorized the establishment of school districts within towns, such districts or precincts being allowed to order a higher tax for school purposes than the town at large was disposed to levy. This interesting law was the beginning of a policy under which the schools and their management have become a separate establishment, and rather independent of the general town or city government. The management of the schools rested with the selectmen ; but as early as 1710 the practice of choosing eminent men for the inspection of schools was formally adopted by the town (8 Bost. Rec. Comm., 65). In 1724-5 the selectmen began the custom of annual school visits, to which eminent men were invited, the affair ending usually with a dinner (13 Bost. Rec. Comm., 134, 153, 242, 254). This custom continued long after the establishment of the school committee and until Boston had become a city. The Prov ince law did not greatly affect the Boston schools (Prov. Laws, I, 63, 470, 681; II, 100; IV, 988); they were founded in the affection and liberality of the people, who never wavered in this attachment. The fire department of Provincial Boston continued under the man agement and control of the selectmen; but in 1721 the management of fires was placed in the hands of ten firewards, who were appointed by the selectmen and the justices of the peace (1 Prov. Laws, 677). In constitutional history. 67 1745 the town was allowed to appoint its firewards (3 Prov. Laws, 214), and as they gave satisfaction, their number was gradually increased to sixteen (4 Prov. Laws, 661). The fire engines were manned by volun teers, and the engine " first brought to work upon any building on fire " received a premium; but the engine men and their captains were appointed by the selectmen. The fire service was always popular, and the frequent recipient of favors. In 1772 John Hancock gave the town " a new and finely-constructed engine (imported) for the extinguishing of fires; " it was apparently the tenth; it was named in honor of the donor, who was requested to name the captain of the company ; and in case of fire the Hancock engine was instructed to give "the preference of its service" to the Hancock estate (18 Bost. Rec. Comm., 86, 88; 23 Bost. Rec Comm., 162). To prevent fires, the Province continued the Colony law of 1683 that no building should be put up in Boston, " ex cept of stone or brick, and covered with sl'ate or tile " (5 Mass. Rec, 426; 1 Prov. Laws, 42). Wooden buildings required the consent of the selectmen, the justices of the peace, and the governor and council (1 Prov. Laws, 42, 404). In 1760 a similar law was passed, but the same law excused all previous offenders, provided they would cover their buildings within ten years with slate or tiles (4 Prov. Laws, 380). By a certain irony the building, fire, and street-widening laws of Bos ton under the Province are commingled ; and had it not been for its many great fires, both under the Colony and the Province, the amounts the city of Boston has expended for street widenings, great as they are and will be, might have been double or treble. The fault lies with the founders, who distributed the territory of Boston, and then tried to give each lot owner some kind of access to his property, always at the expense of others who were entitled to damage. The wonder is, not that the streets of the peninsula are irregular and narrow, but that the officers of the town and city have contrived, against disadvantages not experienced in any other civilized community, to make the streets we have. The great fires of Boston have helped, and the selectmen of Provincial Boston took full advantage of every fire that ravaged the town. These fires, it appears, were not prevented by building laws of Spartan rigor, nor by maintaining a fire-engine company for every five hundred or one thousand inhabitants. The best laws, and the best government service, cannot prevail against private indifference. A free community must delegate many rights ; it cannot delegate respon sibility, and be safe. 68 BOSTON. The Province authorized Boston, in 1761, to establish a town police (4 Prov. Laws, 462). The theory had been that the town constable was the town policeman, that the constable might have officers to help him, and that where the constables proved insufficient the Colony or the Province must act, and that they would act by the militia. The theory broke down, because neither the Colony nor the Province was prepared or disposed to maintain a standing militia. After the theory had failed, the town of Boston was permitted to make what police arrangements it could. The chief difficulty was the cost. Well might the Province shrink from the cost of a police force for all Massachu setts; but even a rich town that raised by lotteries the money required for paving the way to Roxbury, or for rebuilding Faneuil Hall, would have great difficulty in maintaining a standing police force such as it needed. In truth, the police of Provincial Boston was wretched. The first militia act of the Province, passed in 1693, provided for military watches, that is, for such night duty of the militia as the chief military officers of the town might order; and all males from sixteen to sixty years of age were liable to serve (1 Prov. Laws, 128). Of course, no body was anxious to serve as night watchman, and pay his own ex penses. In 1699, therefore, all towns were authorized to employ a night watch, with or without pay; but in case the watch was paid, the cost was assessed upon the ratepayers by the court of sessions (1. c , 381), although the law admitted the watch to be for the benefit and safety of the town, and the justices were not town officers. The act provided for a watch by night, and for a ward by day, including Sun days ; and to that extent marks the end of the constables' watch to gether with the constables' character as general peace officers. The stately German marshal, and the French constable of higher rank, became in Massachusetts a beadle. And before the Province gave the authority, the town of Boston employed ten watchmen, to protect the inhabitants better by night than the constables did by day (7 Bost. Rec Comm., 231). To distinguish the new watch from the constables' watch and the bellmen (so called because they carried a bell to alarm the town in case of danger), the term "select watch " was used, the men being specially chosen or selected. In two years the new watch cost £265 per annum, and the amount was raised by special assessment (1. c, 232, 241, 243). In 1712, when Boston assumed the character of a provincial metrop olis, its watchmen were given the powers of a modern police officer (1 CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY. 69 Prov. Laws, 699). On the whole, the arrangement worked well; it remained for a century and a half. When the British soldier came, to overawe revolutionary Boston, not only was the number of watchmen in creased, but they received a new and efficient ally. In the annual town meeting of March 10, 1772, the town was asked to consider "the expediency of fixing lamps in proper parts of the town, for the better accommodation of the inhabitants." As usual in such cases, the mat ter was referred to a committee. The committee recommended that three hundred lamps be put up, that the first cost be met by private subscription, and that the new department be maintained from the general tax levy. The lamps were bought by John Boylston in Lon don, their cost was about five shillings sterling each, and within a year three hundred and ten street lamps were put up in all parts of Boston. Meanwhile the General Court had passed a good act giving the pro ceeding the approval of law, and expressing the reasonable belief that the street lamps would help to prevent ' ' fires, burglaries, robberies, thefts, and other lesser breaches of the peace" (5 Prov. Laws, 302; 18 Bost Rec Comm., 72, 115, 128, 135, 162-5). The intentions of the Province were that Boston should enter the Commonwealth properly lighted, and with all the appointments of a capital city. It had found the town unpaved, unlighted, and unguarded; it left Boston well paved, well lighted, and well protected. The town might have answered that it owed the Province very little, that it was in debt, that its streets were deserted, that a smallpox epidemic was more ruinous than a foreign army, and that the court of sessions had not been abolished. On one point Boston and Massachusetts were of one mind — that almost anything might be suffered to secure a free Commonwealth and a free town meeting. As soon as these were established — greatly surpass ing the liberties of the ancient Colony — the miseries and shortcomings of the Provincial period were mercifully forgotten. Boston saw its darkest days in 1776: but the Boston of 1776 looked forward, and moved bravely onward. The main sources for the constitutional and government history of Boston under the Province, from 1692 to 1776, are the "Acts and Re solves of the Province of the Massachusetts Bay," admirably edited, especially by A. C. Goodell, jr., and published by the Commonwealth of Massachusetts, 6 vols. , Boston : 1869-92 ; and volumes 7, 8, 12, 14, 16, 18, also, 11, 13, 15, 17, 19, 20, and 23 of the Boston Record Com missioners, published by the city of Boston. 70 BOSTON. COMMONWEALTH PERIOD OF THE TOWN, 1776 TO 1822. The sources for the government history of Boston from 1776 to 1822 are not easy of access. The State laws, especially for the earlier part of the period, were not well printed, and are rarely found in a com plete set. The Secretary of State has begun to reprint them from 1780 to 1806. For many purposes the edition of the General Laws, from 1780 to 1822, edited by Metcalf, will suffice (Boston, 1823, 2 vols., 8vo. ). The special laws for the same period have been published in five volumes, and exceed the general laws in local interest. The town- meeting records for the period exceed in bulk the entire period from 1634, when they began, to 1776, being the larger part of the ten volumes in the custody of the Boston City Clerk. The records of the town meetings are printed up to 1778. Of the twenty-three volumes containing the minutes of the selectmen, from 1701 to 1822, the publi cation ends in vol. 15, with April 19, 1775. The records of the school committee, the assessors, and of a miscellaneous nature, are all in manuscript. Those in the possession of the Overseers of the Poor are important, as they cover a constitutional conflict between the town or city and the board. The records of the court of sessions are in the office of the clerk for the Supreme Court of Suffolk county. The town printed much, and most of this is lost. But the editions of the By-Laws issued in 1786, 1801, and 1818, are useful, as each undertook to give all the bylaws and the important acts of the General Court relating to Boston. The edition of 1818 is specially helpful. For the period from 1776 to 1780, when the Massachusetts Constitution was adopted, the fifth volume of the Province Laws, edited by A. C. Goodell, Jr., is a storehouse that supplies everything, as far as the General Court is concerned. Of private writers on the government of Boston from 1776 to 1822, Josiah Quincy's "Municipal History" is interesting, in that it rests largely upon direct knowledge. He had been the orator of Boston on July 4, 1798. From 1823 to 1828 he was mayor. Suffolk County. In 1733 the Boston Town Meeting presented elaborate reasons why Suffolk county should not be reduced, and why Dedham in particular should not be set off (12 Boston Rec. Comm., 50). When the Province -became a State, Suffolk county comprised twenty towns: Boston, Rox bury, Dorchester, Milton, Braintree, Weymouth, Hingham, Dedham, CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY. 71 Medfield, Wrentham, Brookline, Needham, Stoughton, Stoughtonham, Medway, Bellingham, Hull, Walpole, Chelsea, and Cohasset. The county was more than a district for the administration, of justice: it^ had large executive powers over each town, as Boston knew to its / sorrow. The bill of rights had laid down the principle that ' ' in the government of this Commonwealth . the judicial [department] shall never exercise the legislative and executive powers, or either of them: to the end it maybe a government of laws, and not of men." This principle, best vindicated by John Adams, was violated in Boston throughout the period under discussion, the county judges having the veto power over all town bylaws, the power to grant liquor licenses, the assessment of county taxes, the appointment of certain local officers, the permitting of Sunday funerals, the right to discontinue highways, and the locating of distilleries, potteries, and slaughterhouses. The county, to which their jurisdiction extended, was large, and Boston in particular kept the court of sessions busy. Boston had always wished to be a separate county, and in 1793 Norfolk county was established, taking every Suffolk town, except Boston and Chelsea (1 Gen. Laws,_ 423). It was found proper to restore Hingham and Hull to Suffolk (1. c, 426); but in 1803 they were set off to Plymouth county (2 Gen. Laws, 80). Suffolk county, then, was reduced to its smallest size, which remained until 1804, when South Boston was added. The next addition to Suffolk, of Roxbury, was not made until 1868. When Norfolk county was established in 1793, it had more inhabitants than Suffolk. In 1790 Suffolk County had a population of 44,875, of whom" 18,320 were in Boston. Of the total 23,878 were set off to Norfolk"' county, and 20,997 remained in Suffolk, including Hingham and Hull. In 1820 Suffolk county had a population of 43,890, against 36,471 in , Norfolk county. The population of Boston, in 1820, was 43,298. It is not clear whether the authors of the Massachusetts Constitution and the General Court considered the justices of the peace and the court of sessions executive or judicial officers (Constit. , part ii, ch. iii, art. 3 ; amendm. 8). It is certain that they did both judicial and administrat ive work, and natural that neither was well done. The Constitution of 1780, which is still in force, provided that judicial officers should serve during good behavior, but excepted justices of the peace, on the ground that they might fail to discharge the important duties of their office "with ability or fidelity " (Const, of Mass., Ill, 1 and 3). Ac cordingly they were appointed for seven years. Their authority, in 72 BOSTON. the period under discussion, was great In 1784 the General Court authorized them to determine civil causes up to twenty dollars, and expressly took such cases away from the Court of Common Pleas, save in appeal (1 Gen. Laws, 123). In 1808 the act was renewed (2 Gen. Laws, 184). Their criminal jurisdiction was even more extensive, as all offenders were supposed to be brought first before a justice of the peace (1 Gen. Laws, 133). Fines for the violation of town and other laws were imposed by justices of the peace, who accounted for these fines annually to the town, county, or State treasury concerned. The j ustices were paid by the fees they collected. In addition, they exer cised executive power, as a sort of check upon the selectmen. Most of the justices of the peace were laymen, and their judicial work was not good. Accordingly all civil jurisdiction was taken away from them in ' 1822, in the act that formed part of the city charter (2 Gen. Laws, 585). The justices of the peace together formed the court of sessions, which had original jurisdiction in criminal matters. But the act of July 3, 1782, which continued the Province court of sessions (1 Prov. Laws, 367), omitted the quorum clause that required certain justices, or any one of them, to make the proceedings in the sessions complete. An appeal lay from the court of sessions to the Supreme Court (1 Gen. Laws, 68). The act of June 19, 1807, required the court of sessions for Suffolk county, at that time one of the smaller counties, to consist of a chief justice and four associates (2 Gen. Laws, 171). This ruled the justices of the peace out of the court they could not dignify, and the members of the court were relieved of the- duty, previously exer cised, of assisting in the administrative work of laying out or discon tinuing highways. None the less, the court of sessions was abolished in 1809, and its power transferred to the Court of Common Pleas, which thus became a court with administrative duties attached to it, (2 Gen. Laws, 208); but in 1811 the court of sessions was revived, and continued until Boston became a city (1. c, 295, 587). Its adminis trative power was then transferred to the mayor and aldermen, at that time one board. The criminal jurisdiction was transferred to the police court, of three judges, who sat also as a justices' court, and as such inherited the entire civil jurisdiction previously vested in justices of the peace. It was the commingling of purely administrative work with judicial duties that impaired the usefulness of the ancient court of sessions. In town matters the court of sessions or the county justices, all paid by fees, could check many things the town or its selectmen CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY 73 were ready to do ; and a judiciary living on fees was not likely to win confidence. A court without the confidence of the community is a failure where failure is most unfortunate. To give relief, especially in prosecuting the violations of town laws, the General Court established, in 1800, the Municipal Court of Boston (2 Gen. Laws, 26). It consisted of a salaried judge, who had the same criminal jurisdiction as the court of sessions, and was to take special ' ' cognizance of all crimes and offenses against the by-laws of the town."- In addition, the town was authorized to choose annually a town attorney, who was to prosecute in behalf of the town, and was allowed a salary. In 1813 the original jurisdiction of this Municipal Court was extended to all crimes in Suffolk county ; meantime the town attorney had become a county attorney (1. c, 328, 172). The field of the court of sessions was thus encroached upon in every direction, until in 1822 the anomaly of having a sort of lay court for judicial and ex ecutive work was got rid of, to the profit of the law courts and the administrative interests of the town. The higher courts, being the Court of Common Pleas and the Supreme Court, had law judges only, and worked well. The Court of Common Pleas heard civil cases in volving more than forty shillings (1 Gen. Laws, 67) ; and in 1814 the Boston Court of Common Pleas was authorized to try minor cases with out a jury (2 Gen. Laws, 352). This was called the Town Court, which became a separate court in 1818 (1. c, 444), held by a special justice of the peace. The town judge for civil actions, together with the Boston Court of Common Pleas, which had added to its duties the hearing of certain criminal matters, was swept away by the act of February 14, 1821, establishing a Court of Common Pleas for the Commonwealth (1. c, 551). This court was to become, in 1859, the Superior Court. The main reason why Boston became a city is not so much the fact that the town had become too large for a government by town meet ing, selectmen, and other town officers, although this reason was strong, as the very serious fact that the town suffered because the county authorities, especially the justices, failed to do well what town business was by law entrusted to them, and because the administration of justice was bad, especially where the violation of town laws was in volved. On December 10, 1821, a report commonly attributed to Lemuel Shaw, who was Chief Justice of the State from 1830 to 1860, urged the town to become a city for the double purpose of improving the administration of justice and the prudentials, In support of the 10 74 BOSTON. former this language was used : ' ' The present mode of administering justice in its first stages is attended with many growing abuses ; and though they have already attained to a very considerable extent, they must, unless prevented by an entire change in the system, produce eventually the most mischievous and immoral consequences." The report demanded two acts of the General Court, the town joined, and it is chapter 109 in connection with chapter 110 of the acts of 1821 — both were signed on February 23, 1822— that made Boston a city, with some approach to autonomy, and without a court of sessions. The General Court reserved the right to annul bylaws made by the town ; but that was relief from the approval previously vested in the court of sessions. The town meeting was reluctant to ask for its own extinc tion ; the question whether the court of sessions should be abolished, received the support of 4,557 votes, with but 257 opposed (Quiney, Munic History, 33). The people of Boston were not convinced that town government was a failure; they were convinced that the com mingling of town business with the administration of justice was a mistake the consequences of which were as unfortunate as they were notorious. Had it not been for the hope of establishing justice in town matters where a court alone could establish justice, and where the justices of the peace, jointly and severally, had failed to establish so much as reasonable justice, the town would not have voted, on January 7, 1822, that the " Town of Boston " should be changed to the " City of Boston." The proposals of 1784, 1792, 1804, and 1815, while favor ing the adoption of a city charter, had failed to ask for reform where it was most urgently needed. This reform came in 1822, when Boston was made a city,- in order that the judiciary should not exercise legis lative and executive powers, or either of them. The city of Boston would have fared better still had the thirtieth article in the Declaration of Rights been applied in its full meaning and in all its consequences to the instrument known as our first city charter. But the charter was a great step forward, in that it limited and defined executive and judicial powers for the city of Boston and its government. Area and Population of Boston. In Colony and Province days it was customary to speak of Boston "within the neck," meaning the peninsula on which the capital of Mas sachusetts is situate. This peninsula consisted of several parts. The old north end was separated from the centre of the town by a navigable Constitutional history. 75 creek or canal, since changed to Blackstone street, which was not built until after Boston became a city. Originally this canaiwas about six hundred feet long, the present Haymarket square and the junction of North and Blackstone streets being covered by the tide. The easiest road to Charlestown ferry was through Sudbury street, which is also the earliest street in Boston with a definite name attached to it (7 Bost. Rec Comm. ,3). The streets through the old north end to the Charles town ferry were built later, and at great expense. The strip of land that connected the peninsula proper with Roxbury and the main land, was about twq hundred feet wide at the present junction of Washington and Dover streets. But the territory of Boston extended beyond, the bound aries toward Roxbury being two creeks that emptied respectively into ¦the Back Bay and the South Bay (11 Bost. Rec. Comm., 80). Kendall and Arnold streets were in Boston, but the south end (south of Dover street) was not generally settled until after Boston had become a city. Boston west of Sudbury street, at that time called New Boston, was not generally occupied until the latter part • of the Province period. Boston had become a narrow town as early as 1740, for East Boston failed to attract population until quick and sure communication by steam was established. The necessity of more room was felt as soon as Boston recovered from the ravages of the Revolution. By 1790 it had 18,038 inhabitants, not counting the islands. In 1800 this population was 24,655 ; in 1810, 32,896. In 1820 the population of Boston proper, not counting East Boston, South Boston, and the islands, was about 42,000. For the accommodation of such a population the old peninsula proved insufficient. Charlestown offered some opportunity for relief; but communication with Charlestown was not easy, it was an inde pendent municipality, and the system of separating the business and residence sections of a community had not forced itself upon atten tion. Some relief was had by the great bridges built in the period under consideration. The first of these was the Charles-River bridge, from the foot of Prince street to Charlestown, opened to travel on June 17, 1786. On November 23, 1793, the great bridge from the foot of Cam bridge street in Boston, to Cambridge, was opened to travel. Until these great works were achieved, the only bridge over the lower part of Charles river was the "Great Bridge," from the foot of North Har vard street, in Brighton, to Cambridge (4 Mass. Rec, part I, 470; 1 Prov. Laws, 158, 383). It was first built in Colony days, apparently in 76 BOSTON. 1662, and as late as 1833 the towns of West Cambridge (Arlington) and Lexington petitioned the General Court that they might be relieved of contributing toward the support of this interesting structure, which for more than a hundred and thirty years was the only highway connecting Boston with Cambridge, except by the Charlestown route. From Bos ton the bridge was reached via Roxbury and Brookline. The bridges of 1786 and 1793 made travel easier, but did not relieve the growing population of Boston, For this purpose South Boston, known as Dor chester Neck, was transferred, in 1804, from Dorchester to Boston. South Boston now covers 1300 acres ; in 1804 it covered less than half that area. But a bridge to South Boston (now Dover street bridge, originally the Boston South bridge) was opened to travel on August 6, 1805 (3 Spec. Laws, 368, 371), and a second bridge was immediately proposed. Before this was built, it was found best to encroach upon the South Bay by filling the area south of Beach, and east of Washington street (1. c. 375). This district is called the South Cove. The land so won from the sea re tarded the settlement of South Boston, which had about two hundred in habitants when annexed to Boston, and less than two thousand in 1820, though it had the second Catholic church in Boston. An addition of greater importance than the South Cove, for the immediate relief of the population, was the filling of the ancient Mill Pond, at the north end. This pond was made in 1643-46, by constructing a causeway or mill-dam along the present Causeway street, from Leverett to Prince street. The pond was roughly triangular, the base, along the causeway, being about two thousand feet, and the distance from the causeway to the point where a canal connected the mill pond with Boston harbor about fourteen hundred feet. The present Haymarket square was part of the mill pond. This territory was filled in 1807-22, and is still indicated by the names of North Margin and South Margin streets (2 Bost. Rec. Comm., 74; By-Laws of 1818, p. 204). As early as 1693 there were three mills where the sluice connected the mill pond, or mill cove, with Charles river, and two mills where the pond was joined by the canal to Boston harbor (map in Boston city doc. 119 of 1879). The filling was taken from Beacon hill ; the streets of the Mill-pond district were laid out by Charles Bulfinch, who was the leading man in town improve ments for the period under consideration (Quiney, Mun. Hist., 26). From 1791 to 1817 he served with but one interruption as selectman, and most of the time as superintendent of police. The arrangements for filling the old mill pond were as admirable as was the skill that first de- %8P*' CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY. 77 vised the pond, with its double supply of water and power from the north and the south. The similar enterprise of using the Back Bay was planned on the like principle, and finally led to like results, — a large addition to the area of Boston by encroachments upon tidewater. The milldam from the junction of Charles and Beacon streets to Brook line was first proposed in the town meeting of June 11, 1813. On Oc tober 20, 1813, the town meeting accepted the committee report recom mending a large grant of flats on condition that the grantees build the dam named, with proper sluice ways for mill purposes, and a second dam, of similar character, to South Boston, as well as a canal from the South Bay to the Back Bay, the canal to be near the present Dover street, and to supply mill power (By-Laws of 1818, p. 219). An act in this sense was passed by the General Court (5 Sp. Laws, 17, 136, 331). The South-Boston dam and the canal across Washington street were not built; the milldam to Brookline (Beacon street) was opened to travel on July 2, 1821. When the filling of the north cove was complete, the filling of the Back Bay began ; about that time Boston adopted a city charter. The palm for enterprise appears to belong to Henry Simons and the grant of 1643. Right of Settlement and of Voting. The town code of 1786, p. 108, continued the bylaw prohibiting strangers from making Boston their home, except under a permit from the selectmen ; persons acquiring a freehold, and apprentices, had per mission to settle in Boston. The code reprinted the law of 1700-1 (1 Prov. Laws, 451), under which nobody could 'vote in town meeting without the consent of the selectmen or the town ; but natives, free holders, and apprentices were excepted. Immigration was carefully restricted, and strangers could not be entertained in Boston, even by their relatives, for more than twenty days, unless the facts were re ported to the selectmen in writing. The pertinent law of 1736-7 (2 Prov. Laws, 835) was reprinted in the town code of 1786, p. 113. The Constitution of 1780 (ch. I, sec. II, art. 2) undertook to define an "in habitant, " but left the right of admitting inhabitants as before, that is, to the towns and the selectmen. Technically, then, nobody had the right of domicile in Boston, except natives of the town, freeholders, apprentices, and persons admitted by vote of the selectmen or the town. This admission must be formal and explicit, and without this formality the right of domicile or "inhabitancy" could not be acquired 78 BOSTON. (4 Prov. Laws, 912). The Constitution recognized only the fact of actual residence. In 1789 a law defined "the settlement of a citizen in any particular town " (1 Gen. Laws, 366). The term citizen was new, not being found in the Constitution of 1780, save incidentally and in the sense of resident. The Constitution called citizens "subjects'." At first the term " citizen" was used as an equivalant for inhabitant, or legal inhabitant. Before long the national government took charge of this subject, and citizenship was conferred, not by selectmen, nor by the Commonwealth, but by the United States. The State regulated the rights of domicile and suffrage, also the right of settlement, with its implied right to poor-relief. The laws of citizenship and settlement were substantially one in Boston until Congress passed its first naturalisation act, in 1795. Up to that time citizenship, or "inhabitancy," was the prerequisite to voting as well as to poor-relief. For a short time Massachusetts naturalised, but could not grant inhabitancy. When citizenship be came a national affair, there was nothing in the premises left to the town, except to prevent the settlement of persons likely to need relief. But a settlement could be, and can be, acquired without citizenship. The old law of settlement, which had been inherited from the Colony, and had added greatly to th'e power of the town, thus passed away, leaving behind it the mean duty of protecting the town from paupers, while, the inestimable right of citizenship was conferred by the United States. Boston had become part of a sovereign nation, and the nation decided who should be admitted to the enjoyment and exercise of national power. The Colony had freemen, that is, members of the company; the Province had freeholders, or owners of land, which con ferred the rights of a British subject; the United States conferred citizenship, which was the first step to the highest rights the people of the United States as a body politic could confer. Surely, a new era had begun ; the great Revolution yielded great results ; the town of Boston had become part of a national partnership. It was to learn this in other directions, and to reap additional benefits. No religious test was prescribed by the patent of 1629. The Colony was true to this silence, except that in 1654 it required the members of the General Court to be " orthodox Protestants " (Col. Laws, 1660, ed. Whitmore, 145), and that violent laws against Quakers were enacted. The responsibility. for these violations of the patent (1 Mass. Rec, 16) rests wholly with the Colony (see the laws of 1660, ed. Whitm., 154-6). CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY. 79 In part the action of the Colony may be explained by the fact that self- preservation was the paramount duty of the Colony, and that it was more important to save Massachusetts than to engage in untried ex periments of toleration. The Province charter provided that "there shall be a liberty of conscience allowed in the worship of God to all Christians, except Papists " (1 Prov. Laws, 14). In 1700 all Roman Catholic priests were specially prohibited from living in the Province (1. c, 424), and the law remained in force until the Constitution of 1780 (part II, ch. VI, art. 6). The Colony did not and could not prevent the Society of Friends from establishing itself in Boston. The first Catholic church in Boston was not built until after the beginning of this century, though Catholics began to arrive after the Constitution of Massachusetts had replaced the Province charter. The declaration of rights (art. 2) established freedom of conscience and freedom of wor ship, though the next article authorized town taxes for the support of "public Protestant teachers of piety,, religion, and morality." This authority was taken away by the eleventh amendment, J.n 1833. The oath that no foreign person hath, or ought to have, any authority in any matter, ecclesiastical or spiritual, within this Commonwealth, had been replaced, in 1821, by the simple oath of allegiance. Nor were the members.of the General Court required, after the amendments of 1821, to declare the truth of the Christian religion. The era from 1776 to 1822, then, saw something like emancipation from the political test of creed, as far as Massachusetts was concerned. The United States did not tolerate a test of its officers' religion, and made the free exercise of religion the supreme law of the land. The difference between town and state suffrage was continued, town suffrage being the more liberal of the two. The Province had never defined the qualification of voters as to age and sex. The Constitution of 1780 expressed the practice of the Province period, limiting the right of voting in State matters to males at least twenty-one years of age. The property qualification was either a freehold yielding three pounds a year, or any estate worth sixty pounds. This was virtually an adop tion of the Province charter requirements, the Massachusetts pound consisting, ever since 1652 (3 Mass. Records, 261-262), of three ounces of silver 37-40 fine. It was customary to treat two pounds sterling as equal to three pounds of this Massachusetts money of account. As a curiosity it is worth stating that the Massachusetts Constitution recog nized silver money only (part II, ch. VI, art. 3), while the Province 80 BOSTON. law was bimetallic in ordering the new-tenor bills of credit. In addi tion to the sex, age, and property qualifications, which controlled to 1821, the voter must be a legal "inhabitant" or formally admitted to the town in which he claimed the right of suffrage. This inheritance from the Colony, which was a close corporation, was done away with in 1821, when the third Amendment of the State Constitution required all voters to be male citizens, residing in Massachusetts, who had paid a tax. In town matters the General Court gave the suffrage, in 1782, to ' ' every person who is an inhabitant within any town in this Com monwealth, who shall pay to one single tax, besides the poll or polls, a sum equal to two-thirds of a single poll tax " (1 Gen. Laws, 62). The general town act of 1786 retained this provision, but replaced the term " every person " by the phrase "the freeholders and other inhabitants of each town in this government" (1. c, 250). The act of June 18, 1811, required town voters to be male citizens, at least twenty-one years of age, of at least one year's residence in the town, and to have been taxed (2 Gen. Laws, 279). The city charter (sec 8), finally, adopted for municipal purposes the same requirements of voters as the amend ment of 1821 required in State elections. At last, then, the difference between town voters and voters for State affairs was to disappear, but not while Boston remained a town. While Boston was a town, the selectmen decided who should vote, though in town meeting the moderator had control. In deciding who was a voter, the selectmen had the assistance of the assessors, who were required by the law of March 7, 1801, to make regular lists of voters (2 Gen. Laws, 44, 72). This list was perfected by the selectmen, but had reference to State elections only. In 1813 the assessors were required to make also a list of "all such inhabitants as may be qualified by law to vote in the choice of town officers" (1. c, 341). The same law introduced the system of checking at all elections. The city charter required the board of mayor and aldermen to make the voting lists (sec 24). The active and passive right of suffrage in town matters was substantially one since the general town act of 1786 (1 Gen. Laws, 250); in State matters more was required of voters, and still more of persons voted for. The town, therefore, was more democratic than" the State. It had been so ever since Colony times, and traces of this are still found. Among State officers the law recognizes rank ; in town matters rank never counted for much. The idea of manhood suffrage, however, was unknown to the age under discussion. On the other hand, the town CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY. 81 of Boston under the Commonwealth began with complicated restric tions of suffrage, and ended in 1822 with simple and obvious require ments upon the citizen voter. The progress made was altogether in the direction of simplicity and equality. No wonder the people were attached to their own town meeting, where they had rights unknown in State matters. The town was the nearest approach to a democratic republic known to the men of Boston in 1822. Police Department. For the better order of the town, Boston introduced street lamps just before the end of the Province ; in part also to help the night watch men who had to look after the British soldiers. When the soldiers left Boston, and the people returned to their own- — they came in thousands — a day patrol was found necessary to maintain reasonable order. Some years later the first "inspectors of the police" were appointed, and the interesting ordinance authorizing a permanent patrol still stands in the town code of 1786, p. 66. The police department, then, began in 1786; but the old night watch was retained as a separate service until 1854. The force appointed in 1786 consisted of four " in spectors of the police," the term police having reference to the good order of the town, not to the men appointed for that purpose. The term was new, it had not gone into the dictionaries, and at best a stu dent would write of " well-policed states," meaning well-ordered states (18 Bost. Rec Comm., 133). Howell used a similar expression in 1642, but the word was as foreign to the people of Boston in 1786 as the terms bi-cameral or physiological psychology are today. The "in spectors of the police " were ordinary patrolmen, subject to the select men, by whom they were appointed. A patrolman was required to report to his superiors once a week. Of course, the arrangement failed. Patrolmen who received their instructions from any one of the nine selectmen were obliged to consult their own judgment, and free to con sult their own convenience. Promptness and responsibility in admin istration are not compatible with committee rule. A committee means the absence of individual responsibility in administration. In addition it means delay, lack of discipline, and want of executive force. Experience led to a change. The selectmen were authorized to ' ' elect one suitable person to superintend the police [good order] of this town " (By-Laws of 1801, p. 33). The selectmen chose their own H 82 BOSTON. chairman, Charles Bulfinch, a good man, who served from 1799 to 1817, when he was succeeded by Jeremiah Freeman. In 1820 Caleb Hay- ward was appointed. The "superintendent" was required to patrol the streets in person. In case the work was too much for him, the selectmen were authorized ' ' to appoint, from time to time, such and so many assistants to the superintendent as the business of the office may be found from experience to require " (By-Laws of 1801, p. 33). This arrangement remained until Boston became a city, and the city charter vested "the administration of police " in the mayor and alder men. The term still meant, in the language of the old ordinance, the administration of ' ' the by-laws of the town, and the laws of the Com monwealth, which especially relate to the good order and government of this town," the purpose being that these laws and by-laws might be "carried into effect with energy and promptness" (1. c. , p. 33). It took a long time to produce the modern term " police " and the estab lishment so designated. The Colony began with a constable; a con stables' watch was added ; the next step was the watch and ward as recognized by the law of 1699; in 1761 Boston was graciously permitted to hire and pay its own watchmen, the General Court claiming the right to regulate some things the General Court did not pay for; in 1786 . Boston began to employ a regular day police; and in 1799 the police department was complete, if not perfect. Even the term, " superin tendent of police," was revived in 1878, after it had done duty from 1799 to 1823. The Boston police department, then, is not of provincial origin. It was the first executive department to rise in Boston after Massachusetts had become a State. The Public Schools. . The province did not prove a great benefactor to schools. The most illustrious name in the history of the Boston town schools, belongs to the Colony age. The same age boasted of three schools supported by town taxes (7 Bost. Rec Comm., 187); the visitors of 1772 reported that they found the five schools of the town to have 941 pupils, of whom 199 were in the grammar or Latin schools, and 742 in the three writing schools, which ranked with our later grammar schools. Girls and young boys were not admitted. The girls were all taught in private schools ; the rudiments of reading and writing were supposed to have been picked up by the boys before they entered the town schools. Yet there was no free trade in private schools. The system of town schools Constitutional hi Story. 83 began from the top. Under the Commonwealth it was that the town of Boston admitted girls to its public schools, that primary instruction was first supplied at the public expense, and that the English high school was established for such children as wanted a practical education without preparing for college. George B. Emerson was the first mas ter of the " English classical. school," as it was called. Independence brought a certain largeness of speech that has never been wholly effaced. But the school system was made democratic. At the same time it slipped away, though gradually, from the selectmen and their successors. Today the public schools of Boston have a government of their own ; the City government simply supplies the money. The gov ernment of the schools is vested in the School Committee. The first School Committee, as the term is now understood, was chosen October 20, 1789. This School Committee is a Boston invention. Up to 1789 the select men had the management of the schools. In 1789 the management passed to the School Committee consisting of the nine selectmen and twelve persons chosen by the town. The School Committee was the accidental outcome of the annual committee that used to visit the . schools once a )Tear, and then dined with the selectmen at Concert or Faneuil Hall. This visiting committee was recognized by the Massa chusetts school act of June 25, 1789: " No person shall be allowed to be a master or mistress of such [primary] school, or to keep the same, unless he or she shall obtain a certificate from the selectmen of such town or district where the same may be kept, or the committee ap pointed by such town, district or plantation, to visit their schools, as well as from a learned minister settled therein, if such there be, that he or she is a person of sober life and conversation, and well qualified to keep such school " (1 Gen. Laws, 370). Much more was required of the teachers in the high schools, then called grammar schools; and all teachers were wisely required to be citizens of this or some other of the United States. Possibly the town was not unaware of this act when it appointed a committee of .twelve, one from each ward, to propose a better government of the schools. The committee reported that there Ought to be seven schools, that girls ought to be admitted to the higher schools, and that the town schools should be managed by a School Com mittee, the latter to consist of the nine selectmen and one person from each ward. The report was adopted and carried into effect. At that time Boston had 18,000 inhabitants. No provision was made for pri- 84 BOSTON. mary schools, although the State iaw tolerated them, provided they were kept at private cost, and superintended by the town authorities. Pri mary schools were known as dames' schools, being kept by women. There were some charity schools of this kind, and the principle of free primary schools was greatly promoted by the Sunday schools, success fully introduced in Boston in 1816. In 1817 the town schools had 2,365 pupils, of whom but 836 were girls. Yet the town had nearly 40,000 inhabitants. Beside these pub lic schools there were one hundred and sixty-two private schools, with 4,132 children in attendance, most of them girls. The number of tru ants was reported at 526. As the School Committee failed to act prop erly, the friends of primary town schools appealed to the town meet ing, and Mr. James Savage hurled this indictment at the conservatives: ' ' All children have an equal right to the [free] schools, we know, on the following conditions, and no other, viz., 1st, The child must be seven years old; 2d, He must be able to read in the Bible sufficiently well to keep his place in a class ; 3d, He cannot be admitted after the age of fourteen, however well he can read, or however deficient he may be in writing or arithmetic." The town meeting, it is needless to say, decided in favor of establishing primary schools at the expense of the town; the School Committee, or grammar board, was ordered to ap point a committee of thirty-six, three from each ward, to carry the plan into effect; and $5,000 was allowed for expenses. The town of Boston and its schools were enriched by this memorable vote on June 11, 181S. Twenty-five primary schools attended by about a thousand pupils were immediately established ; when Boston became a city, it had the Latin School, the English classical, the Eliot, the Adams, the Franklin, the Mayhew, the Hawes, the Smith, the Boylston, and thirty-five primary schools. In 1855, when the Primary School Committee held its last meeting, and its work passed into the hands of the School Committee, there were one hundred and ninety-seven primary schools, with some twelve thousand pupils. From 1818 to 1855, then, Boston had two school committees, one for the grammar and high schools, and another, appointed by the grammar board, for the primary schools. This com mittee consisted finally of one hundred and ninety- nine members. Its "Annals" have been saved from oblivion by Joseph M. Wightman, Mayor of Boston in 1860 and 1861. The men of 1818, especially James Savage and Elisha Ticknor, gave Boston not only its free primary schools, but an establishment which, in connection with the higher CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY. 85 grades, was destined to become a government in a government, to per petuate government by committee, and to retain public respect, while the interest entrusted to them has become a popular passion of no mean significance. Board of Health. It may be possible to reduce police matters to municipal regulation, though not without danger to the State and nation. Epidemics, quar antine, and the public health are not altogether municipal. The questions of public health that troubled Boston in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries were essentially non-municipal, the smallpox being a frequent and cruel visitor. Yet the selectmen were the town board of health from 1630 to 1799, the Province merely offering advice in the form of penal laws. The first quarantine act passed by the Province, in 1699, had been thrown out by the privy council, as an ob struction to commerce (1 Prov. Laws, 376). The State inherited from the Province the bad habit of leaving the management of epidemics and quarantine matters with the selectmen. In 1793 the General Court passed a law to prevent the spreading of smallpox, but left the admin istration to the selectmen (1 Gen. Laws, 420). In 1810 vaccination was provided for ; but while every town was required to have vaccination officers, vaccination itself was left to the discretion of the towns (2 Gen. Laws, 253). In 1797 a general health and quarantine act was passed by the General Court, but left matters with the selectmen, un less towns saw fit to appoint a health committee (1 Gen. Laws, 539). A supplementary act, of 1800, did not change this (2 Gen. Laws, 9). Nor is it surprising that the health laws of the eighteenth century were confined to a struggle against contagious diseases. But by 1800 Boston had become a crowded and congested town. Nearly 25,000 people were living on the old peninsula of about one square mile. The water supply was not good, the sanitary arrangements were bad. To appreciate the sanitary condition of Boston at about 1800, it should be borne in mind that the town ended just south of the present Kendall, Arnold, and Thorndike streets; that nearly 25,000 persons were living on less than a square mile of uneven' territory, with im perfect drainage, and surrounded by flats ; that the streets were ill- paved and ill-swept; and that the houses were low, thus calling for more ground to spread on. Add the commerce of Boston, involving the arrival of nearly 2,000 vessels a year from all parts of the world, 86 BOSTON. and the fact that but one corporation had tried to add to the natural, but insufficient, water supply. The selectmen and their police force were unable to cope with the nuisances that endangered the public health. On February 13, 1799, therefore, the General Court passed its first law for suppressing nuisances in the town of Boston, by a board of health to be chosen by the people. On June 20, 1799, this act was re placed by another, which has made a permanent impression (2 Special Laws, 307). It provided for the election of the twelve members con stituting the Board of Health, by ward meetings, to be presided over by a ward clerk (sec 1, 21). This eliminated the selectmen from the very beginning; they could not even call the ward meetings (sec. 21). In 1813 the board of health, together with the selectmen and the over seers of the poor, were entrusted with the duty of appointing the town treasurer and collectors (4 Spec. Laws, 502), — good evidence that the board had the public confidence. The board of health was the third of the new administrative departments established since 1776, and occa sioned the new institution of ward clerks and ward elections. Its powers were very great. The board of health appointed the scavengers, who were police in spectors with great powers for ordering other persons to keep the streets clean (8 Bost. Rec. Comm., 97; 14 Bost. Rec Comm., 325; By- Laws of 1786, 123-126). The board was required to deal with all nuisances, and was given power to invade any premises for that pur pose. Its Rules and Regulations, when published, had the force of town bylaws, the penalty attached being five dollars. The board had some power in the matter of tainted provisions, and undertook to do what the ancient market department ought to have attended to (see the reg ulations of the board, By-Laws of 1801, 36-39). Finally, the board had full quarantine powers, and was allowed a physician of approved ability. For the payment of all necessary expenses the board of health was "authorized to draw upon the town treasurer." The town com mittee of accounts, however, might inspect the accounts of the board. In 1803 the power of the board of health was enlarged; it could estab lish a quarantine on land, by preventing all unnecessary communication with infected places (3 Sp. Laws, 211). In 1816 a new act continued and enlarged the powers conferred in 1799 (5 Spec Laws, 137). This act is an honor to the time. The board of health was to examine into ' ' all causes of sickness, nuisances, and sources of filth that may be injurious to the health of the inhabitants of the town of Boston." The CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY. 87 board had power to seize any unwholesome meat, fish, bread, vegetable, or liquor ; its rules were to cover all clothing and other articles that could convey or create any sickness, whether such clothing and other articles were brought into or conveyed from the town of Boston, the penalty in this case being up to a hundred dollars ; the board had full authority over all burying grounds and funerals; it was allowed a town physician and a port physician (see its excellent regulations in the By-Laws of 1818, 72-96). The city charter transferred all these powers from the board of health to the city council. In 1799 the powers of the board of health were taken away from the selectmen, who were executive officers, to be transferred, in 1822, to a compound legislative body. The evil effect was felt for fifty years. Overseers of the Poor. Beside the police, the school committee, and the board of health, no new department was created by or for the town of Boston under the Commonwealth. Moreover, the board of health was unwisely abolished when Boston had become a city ; the police department was created in theory only, or mainly, the expense being an obstacle in the way of maintaining an efficient police ; but the school committee was to last, and 'to assume ever increasing importance, which is now (in 1893) greater than ever. On the other hand, the power of the venerable overseers of the poor began to crumble in the last days of the town. The overseers, whose mission was charitable, had kindly permitted themselves to look after the vicious poor, and in that way to become the instruments of reformatory, correctional, and penal work. Under the law of 1788 the overseers could discharge from the house of cor rection; under the law of 1798 the insane poor, properly under the charge of the overseers, were sent to the house of correction; the law of 1794 gave them special duties as to houses of ill fame; finally, the law of 1735, to which the Boston overseers appealed, when. Josiah Quiney attacked them, had made them the managers of the workhouse for "the idle and poor" (1 Gen. Laws, 324, 557; 2 Prov. Laws, 757). As the town of Boston had no separate house of correction, workhouse, and almshouse, and as the overseers had charge of the almshouse, and the workhouse, and some authority in the house of correction, the poor, the idle, and the vagabonds all drifted under the care of the overseers, the latter consenting. Their colony, first in Beacon street, then in Leverett street, contained the respectable poor, with the vagabonds, 88 BOSTON. the sick, the orphans, the insane, and the outcasts. Even the jail was there. This colony was kept together in 36 rooms; there it was fed by the overseers, who tried in vain to keep their company duly employed, the result being that the expenses of the town for the nominal relief of the poor were enormous. In 1776, for instance, the town was informed that its treasury had been drawn upon by the overseers for £3,458 112, while the selectmen had drawn £4,421 17 7% (18 Bost. Rec Comm., 257). It was not uncommon for the annual drafts of the overseers to exceed those of the selectmen (1. c, 87, 135). Mr. Quiney perceived that this was misplaced generosity, and induced the town to buy the estate at South Boston now occupied by the house of correction. The estate covered some sixty acres; there the house of industry was erected, the inmates to be employed on the farm. One of the last votes of the town approved the proceeding, and the overseers of the poor were requested to deliver to the house of industry such able-bodied poor as could be put to work. The overseers resisted. When Mr. Quiney became mayor, he fought this fight to the end, and the over seers were beaten. Under the town the overseers had charge of all indoor and outdoor relief, of the insane and the workhouse ; Mr. Quiney left them nothing but outdoor relief, all else being transferred to what is now (since April 21, 1890) called the department of public institu tions. The theory advanced by Mr. Quiney was correct, but it was not carried into effect. His opposition to the overseers of the poor simply resulted in making two administrative departments where one would suffice. It would have been wise to separate charity, correction, and punishment ; this separation was not made ; it has not been com pleted in 1893. Mr. Quincy's Municipal History states his view with spirit (pp. 34-40, 88-96, 138-147). The overseers defended their course in a spirited address "To their constituents," published in 1823 ; but they lost their control of indoor relief. The laws of Febru ary 3, 1823 (house of industry), of June 12, 1824 (house of correction), and of March 4, 1826 (house of reformation for juvenile offenders), made this loss complete. Financial and Minor Changes. Under the laws of 1786 (1 Gen. Laws, 217, 251) the town meeting chose annually nine assessors. As they were not able to cope with the work of determining the value of taxable property for a town of more CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY. 89 than 25,000 inhabitants, the General Court, in 1802, authorized each of the twelve wards to choose annually two assistant assessors, who elected the three principal assessors (3 Spec. Laws, 5). This arrangement answered the purpose, and incidentally strengthened the practice of ward elections, in the place of overcrowded town elections at Faneuil Hall. The assistant assessors and the board of health were chosen on the same day, the ward meetings for that purpose being held on the first Wednesday in April. The financial year, like the tax year, began on the first day of May. This date was found the most convenient. In 1822 a change was attempted, but proved inconvenient (Quiney, Mun. Hist. , 46) ; a second change was made by the ordinance of March 21, 1891. But the tax year continues to begin on May 1, as in the days when Boston was a town. The act creating assistant assessors ¦ provided that the town treasurer, chosen in town meeting, should be the collector of taxes. In 1813 the selectmen, the overseers of the poor, and the board of health were authorized to choose the town treas urer and the collectors (4 Spec. Laws, 502). The same officers, thirty- three in all, had been authorized in 1812 to superintend the finances of the town, and were called the committee of finance (By-Laws of 1818, p. 4). The city charter transferred the election of the city treasurer to the mayor and aldermen, but the assessment and collection of taxes to the discretion of the city council — good evidence that the charter was not a thoroughly well-considered instrument. The town had ordered as early as 1786 that at every town vote involving money the vote should be counted, and that reconsideration should not be allowed, un less demanded by at least the same number of voters (By-Laws of 1786, p. 84). This prevented undue haste, and worked well. Regular committees audited the accounts of the town treasurer, and submitted town budgets. Before the close of the eighteenth century the accounts of the town were annually published, at first in the form of broadsides. In 1811 a detailed account of expenses and town prop erty was begun in pamphlet form. ' In 1812 this duty was assigned to the committee on finance, consisting of the nine selectmen, the twelve overseers of the poor, and the twelve members of the board of health, and when the office of city auditor was established, in 1824, he con tinued the series of reports begun by the finance committee of the town, his first report being the thirteenth in the series. Indeed, no suspicion attaches to the financial transactions of the town and its officers. The town was equally fortunate in the orders it issued. To prevent block- 12 90 BOSTON. ades in the principal street of the town, now Washington street, all teams were required more than a century ago to drive on the east side of the street when going north, and on the west side when going south, under a fine of ten shillings for every offense (By-Laws of 1786, p. 11). The Province system of fire companies was continued, but the selectmen were allowed in 1785 to appoint eighteen men for every engine, and in 1801 the number was increased to twenty -four men. The " Cata ract," or number 14, was allowed forty men. The men attached to each engine chose their own captains, and made their own rules (By- Laws of 1818, pp. 150-154). In a case of fire the twenty-four firewards took control, if disorder can be called control. Nor was the later vol unteer system an improvement equal to the occasion, though Mayor Quiney boasted in 1828 that he had twelve hundred firemen to fight the enemy of the town. The truth is, the town had not the money to pay for a good police, a good fire service, good water, good sewers, and good streets. Plans for a City in 1784. The change from town to city was taken with great reluctance. It was thought best to amend the State Constitution, in order to dispel all doubt about a city charter the General Court might grant. This amendment, proposed by the constitutional convention of 1820, was ratified by a very small majority- of the voters, but it was ratified and still stands. It authorizes the General Court to give a city constitution to such towns as have at least twelve thousand inhabitants, provided such towns make formal application and give due consent (art. 2 of the Amendments). This amendment did not take effect until 1821, but prepared public opinion for the change impending in Boston. In the Colony and the Province the mere suggestion of such a change was re jected by the town meeting. Under the Commonwealth formal plans for the transition from the town organization, which is simple democ racy, to a city, which is representative democracy, were submitted in 1784, in 1792, in 1804, and in 1815. They were all rejected, and fort unate it is they were rejected. The constitutions of the State and the United States supplied good precedents for a city charter; these prec edents were not mentioned. Yet the government of a city cannot be wholly unlike that of a State or the nation. The essential part, as far as the constitution of either is concerned, is the extent and the proper distribution of the power to be vested in the government. The Con- Oj%/&c^zgLg^ CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY. 91 stitution of Massachusetts had laid down the ideal principle as to the distribution of power in a free government (Declaration of Rights, art. 30). When the charter of Boston was drawn up, the learned jurists looked to the town they would and would not abandon, and never to the State or the nation which had shown how to organise democracy, through representative institutions, in a free and efficient government. The lesson of the Articles of Confederation of 1777 had been forgot ten. ¦ — The several plans for a city charter, submitted to the town meeting from 1784 to 1821, are still extant, but have very little save antiquarian or pathological interest. The committee of 1784, which included Samuel Adams, William Tudor, James Sullivan, and Thomas Dawes^. submitted two plans, one of them an adaptation of the old New-York charter, as if the world had not advanced since King George II. The- town meeting ordered the " Two Plans " printed and distributed, and at a later meeting rejected the schemes tumultuously (Quiney, Mun. Hist., 22-24; H. H. Sprague, City Government in Boston, 10-11). The first plan contemplated four annual elections by the people, two to be held in March, beside general meetings. The people were to meet for certain purposes in wards, for other purposes at Faneuil Hall. In a word, the simple arrangement of the town meeting was to be replaced by a complicated system. The government was to be vested in a cor poration called ' ' The Mayor, Aldermen, and Common Council of the City of Boston, in the Commonwealth of Massachusetts." The corpora tion was to be divided against itself, the mayor, recorder, and twenty-four councilmen to constitute the common council, but no common-council meeting to be legal, unless the aldermen were present. The mayor, recorder, twelve aldermen, and twenty-four councilmen were to make the ordinances ; the mayor, recorder, and twenty-four councilmen were to raise the mOney for the use of the city ; but only the mayor and aldermen were to appropriate and expend it There was to be a town clerk, but the recorder was not to be that person ; he was to tell the corporation of thirty-eight persons what each division could lawfully do. The second plan proposed that the corporation consist of the president and eighteen selectmen, one-third of the latter to be chosen by the people at large in a general meeting, and the remaining twelve selectmen by wards on the next day. No checks and balances were provided, and the corporation of nineteen was to tax and expend taxes at pleasure. This plan was rejected because the people understood it 92 BOSTON. too well ; the other plan because nobody could understand it. The town was not prepared to transfer its whole government to an irrespon sible committee of nineteen; neither would the town accept a common council of thirty-eight for one purpose, of twenty-six for another, while the power of appropriating and expending money, and of appointing city officers, was vested in the mayor and aldermen who were part of the common council, but voted only on certain topics. The wonder is, not that the plans were rejected, but that men of standing and reputa tion proposed them. The administration of justice and the onerous dependence on the county justices were not touched in the plans of 1784 ; the legislative and executive powers of the government were neither separated nor even defined ; government by committee was to be made permanent ; no appreciable relief or gain was offered to the voters and taxpayers. How could they help- rejecting the plans? The rejection took place on June 17, 1784, and was complete. Town versus City. In 1785 a committee including Adams, Tudor, Sullivan, and Dawes, of the committee of 1784, reported that the constitution of the town was perfect, thus justifying the rejection of the previous plans (Sprague, 1. c, 12). On March 23, 1786, the General Court passed its general town act, declaring ' ' the inhabitants of every town within this govern ment to be a body politic and corporate " (1 Gen. Laws, 250). The statement, therefore, that "the town of Boston was never formally incorporated " (Sprague, 6), is not entirely correct. The act of 1786 replaced the general town act of 1692 (1 Prov. Laws, 64), and this took the place of the memorable Colony act passed in 1635-36 (1 Mass. Rec, 172). These three acts are the ancient charters of the Massachu setts town, and as such have permanent interest. Without them it is difficult to understand the constitution of these towns, even at the present time. But it is significant that the rights and duties of a town or its selectmen have never been enumerated, and that towns generally may do anything not expressly prohibited by the General Court, or since 1789, by the law of the United States. The powers not delegated to the United States are certainly reserved to the States or the people. In Massachusetts the State has enumerated powers, and the State Con stitution does not vainly enumerate and reserve the rights remaining with the people and not delegated. The declaration of rights is almost profuse in affirming the rights remaining with "the people," a term CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY. 93 used as freely as the term "town" is used in the frame of government It is not unreasonable, then, to conclude that the people certainly have many reserved rights, and that they are free to exercise these rights in their corporate capacity as towns. The General Court can establish and abolish towns, but not wholly without their consent ; it cannot pro hibit town meetings (decl. of rights, art. 19), and it cannot annul a lawful contract (U. S. Const., art. 1, sec. 10). It cannot prevent the people from organising themselves for public purposes, from taxing themselves, from changing their government, and from treating all government as an agent of the people to whom it is responsible (decl. of rights, art. 5, 7). In their town meetings the men of Massachusetts could exercise the rights justly dear to them as freemen and as mem bers of organised society. There they exerted their powers directly and visibly; there they could speak their minds; there they could join with their neighbors in ordaining what should be, or what should not be. It was in the town meeting and by the town meeting that the local aristocracy had become democratic, and that the American principle of equal rights and equal duties had been established. The people of Boston might exchange this government, with its many re served and prescriptive rights, for something better ; but the town meet ing would not abdicate in favor of a committee, which it had been in the habit of creating and discharging at pleasure. The town might be disposed to delegate a part of its power temporarily to one set of agents, another part to another set of agents ; it would not retire in favor of an annual committee. The town would accept greater power; it would not resign the power it had. The Boston men feared that the estab lishment of a city meant the loss of town rights ; the neighbors of Bos ton feared that a city meant an increase in- Boston rights, to the detri ment of the neighbors. In 1792 the town discussed the melioration of its government as pro posed by a committee of twenty-one, including James Sullivan, William Tudor, Christopher Gore, John Quiney Adams, and Charles Bulfinch. They proposed a town council of twenty-seven, the nine selectmen to be chosen on a general ticket, and the remaining eighteen in the nine wards to be established. This town council was to make bylaws, and to choose a town attorney for prosecuting their violation. A special court was to be established for these causes. The town did not take kindly to this notion. The average voter does not naturally like a pros ecuting attorney, and the idea of a town attorney to prosecute all 94 BOSTON. violations of town ordinances was not acceptable. The town would elect a number of officers ; but the legislative and executive power was vested in the town council. That was more than the town meeting could bear, and, greatly to the surprise of John Quiney Adams and young Harrison Gray Otis, the whole scheme was rejected after full and fair consideration. Mr. Adams was disgusted with "simple democ racy." Yet what could have induced the town to transfer the power of the town meeting to a committee of twenty-seven? To establish this committee, the people were required to have a general election and an election by wards, and the committee so elected was to unite legislative, executive, and prosecuting powers. The men who finally rejected the scheme have not been praised (Sprague, 12-14); but was it right, was it prudent, was it American, to vest nearly the whole power of the town in one unwieldy and irresponsible committee? Had not the Con federation illustrated the efficiency of committees that legislated and executed, nobody in particular being responsible for failures? The superiority of an annual committee over a temporary committee was not conceded. So the attempt of 1791-2 fell through, on January 26, 1792 (Quiney, Mun. Hist, 25).The Plan of 1804. In 1804 the town ordered a constitutional convention. The members were chosen in wards, that system having been introduced in 1799. The convention included James Sullivan, James Prince, John Davis, and Harrison Gray Otis, but none of the town officers that knew best where the shoe pinched. The convention met in Faneuil Hall, and was charged to propose whatever changes might be necessary in the town and county government. The work of the convention was pre- ¦ pared by a committee of the gentlemen named, with R. G. Amory and Charles Jarvis added. The convention finally proposed a town council of thirty-three or thirty-four, to consist of nine selectmen chosen at large, of twenty-four delegates chosen two by each ward, and of the Intendant, to be chosen by the thirty-three from among themselves or from the people at large. This title was borrowed from Charleston, S. C. The intendant was to preside at the town council, which made the bylaws, ordered taxes, appropriated money, and, strange to say, was to prosecute all suits in which the town might be a party. Lest this legislative body lack executive power, it was to manage all town property and to "give deeds in their name and behalf." The selectmen CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY. 95 were to expend the money not spent by the town council, the board of health, the overseers of the poor, or other town officers. The latter were to be appointed by the town council, except that the intendant was to appoint "the police officer" [sicj. The intendant was to preside at the meetings of the school committee, the selectmen, and the town council, and, worst of all, he was to appoint a regular time and place "to receive the complaints and representations of individuals. " There he was to attend " daily." He was to have a salary, and would have earned it. The convention — famous as the only constitutional convention ever held by the town — recommended " that suitable measures be taken to render the town of Boston a county," the town council to be the heir of the court of sessions, whose judicial work had been transferred to the municipal court. The reason why the selectmen were retained, is not clear, except that in managing his police officer the intendant was to have "the concurrence of the selectmen." But they were to be sur veyors of highways. To produce the town council, at least two elec tions were required. As for the intendant, the town would be unable to see why he should not be elected by the people. If he was to be the head of the town, though only in name, the town would never permit him to be chosen by the town council, which was altogether overloaded with legislative and executive duties, and was to have more, should the court of sessions be abolished. Still the convention showed a certain improvement upon all previous attempts : it tried to regulate the town finances, it proposed to unite the town and county, and it undertook to give the town a visible head. The chairman of the selectmen was simply the parliamentary chairman of a board with undefined powers and rights. The town meeting was retained, but it was shorn of power. Then why retain it ? the town meeting might ask. Plain men have a keen eye to the difference between shadow and substance. The people were less partial to the name of town, town meeting, or select man, than to the power they knew so well how to exercise through these agencies. The people desired this exercise of power, and they were not prepared to transfer the whole power of the town to a stand ing committee they could not control. Nor are the plain men ever wholly wrong in their conclusions and judgments. The scheme of 1804 was laid before the town on March 12, and was not accepted. The people might distribute power, as they did in town meeting ; they would not transfer all power to one body however representative. 96 BOSTON. The Rehash of 1815. The plan of 1804, somewhat modified, was again proposed in 1815, when certain members of the town government had failed to be re elected, and gentlemen felt that town government was a failure (Quiney, Mun. Hist., 26). Charles Bulfinch, who had been defeated, was chair man of the selectmen, received a salary, and was superintendent of police. Such men are apt to lose in popular elections. Nor does it appear why town government was a failure when certain good officers were thrown out. The town appointed a large and influential committee to report on the expediency of changing the municipal constitution. The committee included Jacob Rhodes, Redford Webster, and George Blake, who had served in the convention of 1804. Among the new members were John Phillips and Josiah Quiney, both destined to serve the city of Boston as mayors. The report of the committee is amusing, and the draft of the charter they submitted an echo of 1804. The convention had proposed a plain town council ; the gentlemen 1815 proposed to call it "The Intendant and Municipality of the Town and City of Boston," adding that the term "town " was " absolutely indispensable " because it stood in the State Constitution ; that Boston should be called a city because ' ' this name has an effect to raise the rank of a place in the es timation of foreigners;" and that the head of the city-town should be called intendant because that term was used in Charleston, South Caro lina, "implying the duties which he is to execute." The convention of 1804 had proposed that the intendant should be removable by three quarters of the town council so voting. The committee of 1815 omitted this bit of pleasantry. They gave him a voice at least in the manage ment of town property, and treated the selectmen with some respect. All money not expended by the board of health or the overseers of the poor was to be expended by the selectmen, but only upon appropri ations made by the municipality, which was to consist, apparently, of the intendant, the nine selectmen, and the twenty-four delegates com bined. The school committee and the county justices were treated with slender respect, and it was provided that ' ' the town and city of Boston shall hereafter be a county." But the thirty-three or thirty-four mem bers of the municipality were to appoint three justices of a police court and "care shall be taken that all the justices of the county shall be taken in succession quarterly, if they shall express their consent to act as justices of said court." The same municipality was to appoint the CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY. 97 clerk of this police court. Possibly as a bid for votes the committee proposed that the municipality should ' ' grant to any association of ar tists, artificers, or mechanics, such power . of regulating themselves in their several occupations, and of possessing such immunities, and im-< posing such restrictions, as the said municipality shall consider for the benefit of the community and for the encouragement of industry." The chief executive of the town was to be chosen by a convention of the nine selectmen, the twenty-four delegates, the twelve overseers of the poor, and the twelve members of the board of health. The select men, overseers, and board of health, acting under the law of 1813, chose the town treasurer and- collectors ; this power the committee pro posed to transfer to their municipality. But the most brilliant passage of their report is this : ' ' The executive power efficiently exists at pres ent in a superintendent of police, who is chosen by the selectmen out of their own body, and receiving a salary dependent upon their discre tion, and responsible solely to them." The committee appears to have thought that the executive work of the town consisted in the duties discharged by the head policeman. Yet Josiah Quiney, who fancied himself a champion of the town meeting, would not trust the same town meeting to appoint a superintendent of police. The real execu tive work of the town-city was to be done by the thirty-three select men and delegates, the intendant to be the figure head, while the in evitable committees would use their best judgment in managing mat ters. The constitutional reasoning offered by the report is astonishing. The report states correctly that the chief executive of the city-town should not be vested with judiciary powers [be the judge of the police court?], because in that case he would have to be appointed by the governor. Then the report proposes a police court of three justices selected by the city-town in quarter-yearly rotation, and " acting under the authority of the government of the town." The State Constitution said, and still says : "All judicial officers . shall be nominated and appointed by the governor, by and with the advice and consent of .the council," and Mr. Phillips, who signed the report, was president of the State senate. As the State Constitution contained the words " town " and " selectmen," the committee concluded .bravely that " a board of selectmen is rendered necessary, by the letter of the Constitu tion, in every town in this Commonwealth." By a like train of think ing the terms " town " and " town clerk " were offered as " absolutely. 13 98 BOSTON. indispensable," being "made so essential by the provisions of the State Constitution," which mentioned the terms just as it happens to mention ' ' subjects, " meaning citizens. The report tried to draw a line between executive and judiciary powers, though it treated justices of the peace and the police court as executive agencies. The obvious line between executive and legislative work was not drawn, partly, perhaps, because town affairs had always been conducted by committees, the members of which took part in town meeting ; and it seemed natural that the men who had voted th'e money should expend it. The ideal that runs through all these committee reports is a town government containing none but able, honest and thrifty men, with a predominance of persons that have attended at least a highschool, and occupy some social position. The class of inhabitants that had neither wealth nor educa tion nor influence to boast of, took a different view. They knew that they were not drones in the body politic or the body social, and that power belongs to him that fairly takes it. The report of 1815 was treated kindly by the town, which rejected it by a vote of 951 to 920. About one person in twenty saw fit to vote. The liberties of the town were saved. From Town to City. On June 5, 1821, the governor of Massachusetts announced that the General Court, under the second amendment of the Constitution, might incorporate cities. The people had approved the amendment with special reference to Boston, although it applied also to Salem which had the requisite 12,000 inhabitants. The amendment was carried by a very small majority, but it was carried, and prepared the public mind for the impending change. If the General Court could incorporate towns, it could incorporate cities; but the law lights of the Common wealth thought the- amendment desirable. In the same month — June, 1821 — the Boston town meeting proposed to unite the office of town and county treasurer. The finance committee, which elected the town treasurer under the authority of ch. 62, Acts of 1813, failed to comply with the request of the town, for the county treasurer was elected by the people. This petty incident led the town to insist upon its prefer ence, and to reconsider the relations of the town to the county. As usual when there is discontent, the cry of extravagance was raised. The fact is, the county expenses were moderate, but the county author ities were unpopular, mainly because most of them were Bostonians CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY.' 99 appointed by the governor, and lived on fees and litigation. As the town was virtually the county, it seemed inconsistent with self- government that the acts of the town should be revised and occasion- • ally set aside by a few townsmen whom the governor had commissioned. In due course the town received two reports, on the union of the town and county treasurer, and on making Boston a county. The two re ports were turned over to a committee of thirteen, with instructions to report a plan for a better town and county government. Clearly the town was ready to act. It was ready to escape, if possible, from all county bondage. The committee, as usual under the town, when important affairs were in hand, included great names : John Phillips, for years president of the Massachusetts senate, and destined to be the first mayor of Bos ton; Josiah Quiney, the speaker of the house, and deeply interested in Boston affairs, destined to be the great mayor ; Lemuel Shaw, who had been selectman, and was to be chief justice ; and Daniel Webster. The committee report was considered by the town on December 10, and re committed. The report, commonly attributed to Lemuel Shaw, recom mended the union of the town and county, and for the rest hoped that all powers of the town and county might be vested in a town council of nine selectmen and "about forty" assistants, except that the town clerk, the board of health, the overseers of the poor, the assessors, the firewards, the school committee, and some fifty petty officers shotild be chosen by the people, and,- — which is important, — that the court of sessions be abolished, its executive duties to go to the town, while the judiciary work of the court and its members was to be vested in salaried law courts. The report appeared to separate the judiciary from the other branches, but, while leaving the town to choose annually some hundred and twenty town officers, not counting ward officers and State or national representatives, the executive and legislative work of the town and county was to be done by nine selectmen and forty assistants, without an executive head, that is, without responsibility. Boston, at that time, had about 45,000 inhabitants. The committee allowed one assistant to every nine hundred, and concluded that the total number of assistants wquld be "about forty." The town concluded that the committee had not gone far enough, added twelve men, and instructed this committee of twenty-five to draft a city charter. The report so called for was submitted on December 31, and led to a memorable debate. The debate lasted three days, and ended in the 100 BOSTON. adoption of the terms mayor, aldermen, and common council, where the committee had proposed intendant, selectmen, and assistants ; but far more important was the adoption of the principle that the executive power of the town and county was not to be in the hands of one body ; it was to be divided ; there was to be a system of checks and balances. The report had wisely proposed that the judiciary be separated from the other branches ; the remaining power was to be distributed, lest any one -branch wield too much power. This was achieved by the democ racy of the town meeting. The plain men felt that the town gained when it inherited all the administrative work of the county ; the plain men felt, also, that it was better to divide and distribute the adminis trative and legislative power of the town than to lodge it in any one body. The committee had proposed that the selectmen, now reduced to seven, should elect the "intendant;" the town voted that the mayor be chosen by the people. With like intelligence the plain men insisted upon elections by wards, and that the city government should not have the right to sell the common or "Funnel Hall." On the whole, the people showed greater progress and better insight than did the gentle men who fought so tenderly for leaving things more or less as they were. It was the honor of the lawyers to have separated the judiciary from all other work. Nobody thought of separating executive and legislative work; everybody appeared to think that the mayor and aldermen were the executive body, while the city council was to be the town legislature that passed ordinances and made appropriations. The consequences of this confusion were to be felt for more than sixty years of administration by committee. The result of the debate begun on December 31, 1821, was submitted to a popular vote on January 7, 1822. The people voted almost unan imously that Boston be a county, and, by a vote of 2,805 yeas to 2,006 nays, that the report for changing the town to a city, as adopted in town meeting, be approved and carried into effect. The act of the General Court was approved on February 23 ; on March 4 it was ac cepted by a popular vote of 2,797 yeas, to 1,881 nays, about one person in ten voting. On April 8 the first city election was held. Josiah Quiney describes the change from personal knowledge. Mr. H. PI. Sprague (pp. 18-31) gives additional details. It is difficult to exagger ate the services the town officers had rendered, especially the selectmen who were not consulted when a city charter was under consideration. Under the Colony the selectmen had been administrative, legislative, CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY. 101 and semi-judicial officers in one ; under the Province all their judiciary and many of their administrative duties had been lost to the county justices ; the management of many important affairs had been trans ferred, both under the Province and. especially under the Common wealth, to other town officers; yet they had served faithfully and without compensation, except that their chairman received a salary when he became superintendent of police. The selectmen, the over seers, and the board of health had free access to the town treasury ; their acts were never suspected. They had the power to incur debts ; they left the town without a debt ; the city inherited from the county a debt of $71,185. The volume of By-Laws published by the selectmen of 1818, possibly the compilation of Thomas Clark, the town clerk, illustrates the fidelity and insight of the selectmen,, and presents a matchless picture of the town government. No later attempt has equal value. The city has published many ambitious volumes; but only the code of 1818 under takes to cover the whole field of local government. And. that attempt is almost silent as to schools. It enumerates the 112 officers chosen annually in town meeting; also the officers appointed by the selectmen. It shows how each ward elected a member of the board of health, two assessors of taxes, and a ward clerk, and how the board of health to gether with the overseers and selectmen elected the town treasurer and collectors of taxes. In the place of this army the citizens of Boston, qualified as the amended State Constitution prescribed, were to choose one mayor and eight aldermen at large ; in each ward four councilmen, one member of the school committee, one overseer of the poor, not less than three firewards, and the ward officers. All .other officers were to be appointed by the city government. The town and county finances, managed by two treasurers and at least four conflicting boards, were united and transferred to the city government. The ordinances of the city were' not subject to the veto power exercised by justices of the peace. The city was to have a representative head, and the powers formerly exercised by the town meeting were distributed among two bodies, each having the negative upon the other. The town, then, made a great gain in power ; this power was not vested in any one body, but distributed; the constitution was simplified; a system of accounta bility was made possible ; and the individual citizen was relieved. Under the town he had to elect more officers than he could possibly know, and to attend more meetings than was reasonable. Under the city he was 102 BOSTON. to attend to all local affairs in one election. The town had gained ; the citizen had gained; the government had gained; and the liberties of Boston were increased beyond those of any other community in Massa chusetts. This very striking advantage was secured by the plain men of Boston who did not reason closely upon constitutional principles, but . knew very well whether popular rights were to be increased or .dimin ished. Much is due to the learned and highminded men that drafted the charter; more is due to the town meeting that stood for popular rights. All honor to the reforms that come from the intellectual and scholarly few ; the noblest reforms come from the plain people. THE CITY PERIOD, 1822 TO 1890. The chief source for a constitutional history of the city is to be found in the Acts of the General Court. A complete set of these laws is not common ; nor is there a general index. Up to 1831 the General Court usually met twice a year. The general laws have been digested in three several- codes, the Revised Statutes, passed November 4, 1835 ; the General Statutes, passed December 28, 1859 ; and the Public Stat utes, passed November 19, 1881. The special statutes passed by the Commonwealth have been printed in a separate set, under the author ity of the State ; but the set is not absolutely complete. The city of Boston has repeatedly tried to make a code of all laws and ordinances applicable to the municipality. Such codes were issued in 1827, 1834, 1850, 1864, 1869, and 1876. The compilations of 1827 and of 1850 are interesting as illustrating the government of the city under the first charter ; the compilation of 1864, with its several supplements, is rela] tively complete ; and the compilation of 1876, being the work of James M. Bugbee, is valuable. A purely historical treatment of the laws, ordinances, regulations, and orders of the city government is a desid eratum. The city published in 1860 the Annals of the Boston Primary School Committee, by Joseph M. Wightman, covering the government of the lower schools from 1818 to 1855. A " Manual for the use of the Overseers of the Poor " appeared in 1866. Private enterprise has un dertaken a history of the Boston fire department. And some of the ex ecutive departments have begun to publish the law by which they are governed. The city ordinances have been issued, in separate digests, in 1883, 1885, 1890, and 1892, with the Regulations of the Board of Aldermen added. In 1885 the law department of the city issued a vol ume of special statutes relating to Boston ; an enlarged edition, with CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY. 103 " extracts from the Public Statutes," appeared in 1887; a third edition, entitled "Special Statutes relating to the City of Boston," and omit ting the general laws, appeared in 1892, but is not complete. Much information is scattered through the "City Documents," the titles of which are digested in an index. The documents mentioned under the entry of "charter" are important. Charter digests appear in the city codes, up to 1876, also in document 28 of the year 1875, in a pamphlet published by the city in 1886, and in the Municipal Register, published annually since 1841. All these digests should be used with reserve. Quincy's Municipal History is a brilliant account of the author's admin istration, from 1823 to 1828. Mr. James M. Bugbee, in 1887, and Mr. H. H. Sprague, in 1890, published brief reviews of the Boston govern ment from the beginning. In 1891 the Record Commissioners pub lished a Catalogue of the past City governments. Area and Population. i The area of Boston was smallest from 1739, when Chelsea was set off, to 1804, when South Boston was annexed. The area of the city was enlarged by encroachments upon the surrounding water, especially in the South and Back Bays, by the annexation of Roxbury in 1868, of Dorchester in 1870, of West Roxbury in 1874, all these being trans ferred from Norfolk County, and by the annexation of Charlestown and Brighton in 1874, these two being transferred from Middlesex County. Including the harbor islands, the area of the city is nearly forty square miles ; the original peninsula, north of Dover street, was less than five hundred acres. The population of .Boston, in 1820,' was 43,298; in 1890 it had risen to 448,477, the original peninsula, enlarged by encroachments upon tide water, containing 161,330, while 287,147 lived on annexed territory, including East Boston, the harbor islands. and South Boston. Suffolk County, which had 43,940 inhabitants in 1820, rose to 484,780 in 1890. Its area was smallest from 1803 to 1804. The annexations of 1874 made it the most populous county in Massa chusetts. The city and the county are one ; the city holds all property of Suffolk County ; the voice of Chelsea, Revere, and Winthrop in Suf folk-County matters is insignificant; the dreams of 1650 and 1677 have been realised ; Boston is the only municipality in Massachusetts not subject to a separate body of county commissioners ; it is not surpassed for municipal spirit ; and yet the great city has not become a homo geneous community. East Boston and West Roxbury have a city gov- 104 ' BOSTON. ernment in common, but little else that they have not in common with other cities or towns. The law of 1885 made the city a monarchy ; but even a great monarch in this democratic land cannot master the rea sonable ambition of so composite a community. Local ambition has achieved magnitude. Has it achieved municipal greatness ? Has it magnified self-government ? In 1845 it was thought that foreign im migration destroyed or impaired the unity of Boston. In the fifties this sentiment swept through the State ; and yet the foreign immigrant should not be blamed when Brighton and East Boston are commonly spoken of as separate communities. Boston made its greatest gains in self-government before it covered thirty-seven square miles. After the great annexation it has been governed mainly by State law, and since 1885 the General Court is the chief legislature of Boston ; the mayor the executive officer chiefly of State-House law. "The ordinances of the city, since 1885, have been comparatively insignificant. Boston has be come large; but it consists of the city proper, with a half-dozen thrifty suburbs mechanically attached to the metropolis. These suburbs have gained by annexation, the old peninsula has not. Once it had to sat isfy only its own local wants; now it has to provide for a family enlarged by hopeful . agreement. Yet the old peninsula, up to the Roxbury line, contains two-thirds of all the property taxed by the city. Of the Boston population roughly one-third is foreign born ; another third is of foreign parentage. In 1845 it was noticed that only 27 per cent, of the population was born in Boston of American parents, and that " foreigners and their children " constituted nearly .one-third of our population. Persons interested in such subjects will find Lemuel Shattuck's Census of Boston for 1845 interesting, and may consult Carroll D. Wright's digest of the Boston census for 1880. The national census of 1890 promises the latest details. The admirable State Census of 1885 gives luminous details as to the parent nativity of our popula tion. These writers all show how largely our population has been recruited from Ireland and British North America, and, to the thinking mind, how rapidly this immigrant element is either amalgamated or lost. A great city seems to be the cemetery of the country, and America seems to be the cemetery of foreign nations. What survives helps to make up the American nation, without visibly affecting our inherited laws, institutions or language. These appear to be stronger than all influences from without, And even the humble immigrant -etirvu cu^j CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY. 105 comes here very much as did the fathers we honor, — to improve his condition, not to upset the law and order to which he looks for encour agement. This immigration is governed by natural causes. It was slight while Boston was a commercial city ; it became noticeable when we had occasion to build canals, turnpikes, and especially factories. In 1822, when Boston became a city, the art of Macadam was not gener ally known ; illuminating gas did nqt light the streets • of Boston ; steamboats had been seen, but were not trusted ; our first railway track was laid in 1826, at Quiney; our passenger railways belong to 1834 and later years; the first ocean steamer, the " Britannia," arrived in 1840; our first line of street railways was opened in 1856,; we had our last riot in 1863; the elevator in our city hall was built in 1874; the first message by the electric telegraph was sent by Morse in 1844; in 1846 the telegraph connected Boston with Springfield; the telephone came in 1877; the city introduced electric lights in 1882; electricity as a motor in our streets was accepted by the city in 1889. The number of tippling-shops in Boston is not any larger in 1892 than it was in 1822. On the whole, then, immigration has not checked progress, and per haps it has supplied some of the hard work that had to be done to build our sewers, streets, canals, railways, and waterworks, and to carry out the plans of more enterprising minds. These minds have more enter prises than there are hands to carry them out, and the whole world has more work, to do than there are men ready to do it. Boston would be a small city but for fresh blood from the country, and New England would have lost its people in good part to the great West, had not foreign immigration supplied the places left vacant by our own emi grant who sought to improve his condition beyond the Alleghanies. But the character of New England and Massachusetts and Boston has not suffered. The census of 1885 tells us that of the Boston population ten years of age and older, seven per cent, was illiterate. That fact is due to immigrants. But they have neither made nor marred the laws that govern the city. The City and the County. In accepting the city charter the people of Boston accepted also the Act of 23 February, 1822, for regulating the administration of justice in Suffolk County. This interesting act, known as ch. 109 of 1821, formed part of the charter, with which it was to stand or fall. Without this act the charter is incomplete. Its effect is still felt, It drew a 14 106 BOSTON. sharp line between the administration of justice and all other work of the city and county. It relieved the law courts of all administrative work, which was assigned to the board of mayor and aldermen, and it abolished the veto power the ancient court of sessions had exercised since 1699 over all bylaws passed by the town. The administration of justice was kept by the State; the executive power of the county was transferred to the city, and by the Act of February 10, 1823, the city council.was empowered to lay and assess county taxes (1821, ch. 109, s. 13; ch. 110, s. 15; 1822, ch. 85). The town of Chelsea, beside Bos ton the only town in Suffolk County from 1803 to 1846, was relieved of all county taxes, and of all ownership in the property of Suffolk County in 1831 (1831, ch. 65, accepted by Chelsea Sept. 5, 1831). But Boston supplies all Suffolk county, now consisting of the cities of Boston (since 1822) and Chelsea (since 1857), and the towns of Revere (setoff in 1846 as North Chelsea, named Revere in 1871) and Winthrop (since 1852, when it was' set off from North Chelsea), with county buildings, and pays all expenses of Suffolk County, except that Chelsea, Revere and Winthrop pay for such services as they may accept from the county commissioners of Middlesex acting in the three communities named (Publ. Stat, 205). By a fiction Boston became virtually a county. Under another fiction Chelsea, Revere, and Winthrop remain in Suffolk county, and vote for certain officers of Suffolk county, such as the district attorney, three clerks of the Supreme and Superior courts for Suffolk county, the register of probate, the register of deeds, the commissioners of insolv ency, and the sheriff, though all these officers are paid by the city of Boston. At the same time the people of Chelsea, Revere and Winthrop vote for the county and special commissoners of Middlesex, who have one kind of jurisdiction in Chelsea (1872, ch.. 87), and another in Re vere and Winthrop (1893, ch. 417, s. 255). The East-Boston District Court has jurisdiction of Winthrop (1886, ch. 15), and the Police Court at Chelsea has jurisdiction in Revere, but both courts are a charge upon the city of Boston, while the justices and clerks of these courts are ap pointed by the State. The Boston city charters of 1822 and 1854 con templated that Boston should become a county in fact (1821, ch. 110, 15; 1854, ch. 448, s. 38); and the law of 1831 debarred Boston from opposition, should Chelsea, since then divided into one city and two towns, request to be set off to "any other county." But why should Chelsea, Revere and Winthrop ask for such a transfer, when Boston CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY. 107 pays their, county expenses, and -they vote for county officers in both Suffolk and Middlesex? The Superior Court for Suffolk County, the Municipal Court of the City of Boston, the East-Boston District Court, the municipal court for the Charlestown district, and the municipal court of the South-Boston district, moreover, have concurrent criminal juris diction over a part of Hingham and over Hull (set off from Suffolk to Plymouth county in 1803), and over the islands in the lower harbor, as well as over a large water area (Publ. St., 202, 409, 856). By implica tion this jurisdiction is held to extend,., in a measure, to the Boston police force, which is an executive body (Rules and Reg. of Police Department, 1889, p. 12). The jurisdiction of Boston includes the harbor as far as Lovell's island; a certain joint jurisdiction goes farther, and includes a part of Plymouth county. Chelsea, Revere and Winthrop, on the other hand, are nominally in Suffolk county, but virtually in Middlesex county as well. The jurisdiction of the lower law courts is concurrent along, the boundary lines of their respective districts (Publ. St., ch. 154, s. 50); and where the counties of Suffolk and Middlesex are separated by the Charles river, the counties have concurrent jurisdiction over the river (1794, ch. 31; Publ. St., ch. 22, s. 11). The rights and duties of Suffolk county, then, are extremely complicated, and not always clearly defined. But Boston alone among all the municipalities in the Commonwealth exercises all the powers a county and city can exercise in Massachusetts; and this advantage was obtained by the two acts of 1822, which made Boston a city. No other city in the State has like advantages. Boston had fought for this unique position in Colony and Province times, and from the very beginning it had shown generous hospitality to the government offices of Massachusetts. This hospitality continues ; for the court house of Suffolk county is main tained by the city of Boston and is the home of the Supreme Court for the Commonwealth. Accordingly the proud capital still repays the privilege conferred upon it in 1822. It has always been the capital, and it has never failed to discharge the duties of a capital. Some of these duties it has discharged with munificence, and since 1822 it has not asked for favors. Administration of Justice. The reason why the administration of justice, during the later years of the town, was so unsatisfactory, is twofold. In the first place, the 108 BOSTON. justices of the peace could not command public confidence ; their courts were almost private, and they lived on fees. Far more serious and annoying was the fact that the court of sessions, which consisted of justices of the peace, had large administrative powers, especially in county matters. This was remedied by the act of 1822 (1821, ch. 109). The police court then established consisted of three competent judges, who inherited the criminal jurisdiction of the sessions and the justices of the peace, and also, as a justices' court, the entire civil jurisdiction of the justices of the peace. The town court, which had existed since 1814, was merged in the Court of Common Pleas for the Commonwealth, in 1821. The municipal court, established in 1800, remained — since 1843 as a branch of the Common Pleas — until 1859, when it was merged in the Superior Court, as was the Superior Court of the County of Suffolk, that had been established in 1855 (ch. 449). The Superior Court, then, established in 1859, was the heir of the Superior Court of Suffolk County, of the Municipal Court, of the Court of Common Pleas, and,' indirectly, of the town court. Under the amended Constitution (am. 19) the clerks of the Supreme and Superior courts for Suffolk county have been elected by the people since 1855. The police court of 1822, and its civil branch, the" justices' court, were merged, in 1866, in the Municipal Court of the City of Boston (1866, ch. 279). At first its judges were paid by the Commonwealth ; but its clerks were elected by the voters of Boston. The clerks are now appointed by the State, and the judges are paid by the city. The court has given great satis faction, but was established before the great annexations took place. Boston had a prosecuting attorney as early as 1800; and he was elected by the people (1799, ch. 81, sec. 4). In 1807 his appointment was vested in the State, and for obvious reasons the offices of town and county attorney were united when Boston, in 1822, assumed all expenses of Suffolk County (1821, ch. 104). In 1855, in an age that had limited wisdom and unlimited courage, the attorney-general and all district at torneys were made elective officers, the district attorney being chosen triennially by the voters in Suffolk county (Mass. Const., am. 17, 19; St. 1893, ch. 417, sec. 250). But a prosecuting officer is clearly a branch of the executive, not of the judiciary. For this reason he should be ap pointed by, and responsible to, the executive head. For purely execu tive purposes, and as counsel, the city established a law department in 1827, the head of the department being called city solicitor, who had an assistant, from 1839 to 1844, called city attorney. In 1881 the office CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY. 109 of corporation counsel was established, the city solicitor being his asso ciate. Unfortunately the opinions of this law department are not pub lished, except incidentally. But the city has- been well advised in the law, and the law courts in Boston, down to the lowest, are above re proach. The judges have been learned in the law, very faithful, and in the full possession of public confidence. The city of Boston votes higher salaries than does the General Court. The country appears to oppose salaries above a certain conventional point, and may boast that it has not failed in securing both talent and integrity, particularly in the administration of justice. The judiciary is the only branch of govern ment in the United States that has escaped general distrust. In consequence of annexations to the city, its municipal court, as es tablished in 1866, would have proved insufficient, had it been required to serve the enlarged community. Like its predecessor it had but three judges ; now it has five. The police court at Chelsea had been estab lished in 1855 (1855, ch. 26) ; in 1874 the municipal court of the East- Boston district, with jurisdiction over Winthrop, was established, and became the East-Boston district court in 1886 (1874, ch. 271; 1876, ch. 240; 1886, ch. 15); the municipal court of the South-Boston district was established in 1874 (1874, ch. 271 ; 1876, ch. 240). This relieved the municipal court of the city of Boston, the jurisdiction of which is limited, since 1876, -to the peninsula proper, or wards 6-12 and 16-18. When Roxbury was annexed, in 1868, its police court was retained, and is now known- as the municipal court of the Roxbury district (1867, ch. 359; 1876, ch. 240). In 1870, soon after annexation, the municipal court at Dorchester - was established (1870, ch. 333). When Charles town was annexed, in 1874, its police court became the municipal court of the Charlestown district (1873, ch. 286, sec. 4), and in the same year the municipal courts in the West-Roxbury and the Brighton district were established (1874, ch. 271; 1876. ch. 240). So there are nine municipal, courts in Suffolk County, and eight in Boston. They have jurisdiction of civil causes involving not above a thousand dollars, and of crimes under the degree of felony, where a prosecution by jnforma- tion or indictment is not required ( Publ. St., ch. 154; St. 1893, ch. 396). Owing to the uniformity of the law, and to the authority of the higher courts, but especially in consequence of the character of the justices who have summary power, the municipal courts have worked well. The Probate Court, inherited from the earliest time of the Province, now also a court of insolvency, is a county court in the best sense. It 110 BOSTON. still acts under the interesting law of 1818 (ch. 190) ; but since 1858 the register of probate is elected quinquennially by the people (1893, ch. 417, s. 252). The Charter. The first city government of Boston was organized on May 1, 1822. The mayor, the eight aldermen, and the common council were im pressed with the idea, that town government was a great blessing, and that a city was intended to be as nearly like a town as possible. ' ' As far as practicable," Mr. Quiney tells us, "the customs and forms to which the citizens had been familiarized under the government of the town, were adopted" (Quiney, Mun. Hist., 44). The same prejudice, for such it was, runs through the charter of 1822. The administration pf police, the executive powers of the' city, and all the powers previously vested in the selectmen, whether by law, by town vote, or by prescrip tion, were given to the board of mayor and aldermen (1821, ch. 110, sec. 13), and all other powers previously exercised by the town were vested in the two branches of the city council, to be exercised by con current vote, each branch having a negative upon the other (1. c, sec, 15). The mayor was to nominate all officers whose appointment de pended on the aldermen (sec 21), and he could summon the city coun cil or either branch to hear his recommendations (sec. 12) ; but he was to be no more and no less than the chairman of the city board of select men, with strict orders to be a vigilant and useful inspector. The real power of administration was lodged with the aldermen. The same principle still adorns the statute book of Massachusetts. City coun cils have the power of towns, ' ' the mayor and aldermen shall have the powers and be subject to the liabilities of selectmen " (Publ. Stat., ch. 28, sec 2). The intention of the charter was that the city should be governed like a town, or that a representative democracy should follow the precedents of a self-governing democracy. But the difference between a simple democracy and representative democracy is radical. The powers vested in a town are not defined, save in particular in stances. Neither are the powers of selectmen. It appears that select men are chosen for a definite period of time; but their powers are indefinite (see 1893, ch. 423, sec. 6-9), and subject to orders issued by the town meeting, which is the town government. A selectman is an agent ; a board of selectmen is not a government. The mayor of a city CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY. Ill and the members of a -city council are not the agents, but the members of a government. Selectmen are the agents of a government; the mayor and city council are themselves a government. Public opinion shrinks from this conclusion, and likes to urge that cities are mere cor porations, but not a government In truth, the mayor and city council of Boston are a real government, not wholly unlike that of either the State or the United States. All three have limited powers ; but within the limits prescribed by law each government has very great powers. A selectman is constantly subject to new orders from the town meeting; a city government is not, although the Boston charter of 1822 retained the semblance of general meetings giving instructions to the city gov ernment (1821, ch. 110, sec. 26). The orders of a town meeting are binding upon the selectmen; the "instructions" of a Faneuil-Hall meeting are not binding upon the city government. It was an ilkision to retain these meetings. It is an- illusion to say that aldermen have the power of selectmen. It is an illusion to think that a town govern ment and a city government can be similar. Being a representative government, with distributed power, the government of the city of Boston resembles that of the United States rather than that of a Massa chusetts town. A town government is the very ideal of self-governing democracy acting for itself, issuing, orders, and supervising its agents ; a representative government is not a real democracy, but a sort of democratic aristocracy, on the theory that the democracy will choose the best men to conduct the government business. A town meeting is detaocracy with government power exercised by the many ; represent ative democracy is the power of the many transferred to the few. The charter pf 1822 made this transfer, but failed in the proper distribution of the power transferred. It separated the judiciary from the executive and legislative branches; and this separation entitles the charter to permanent respect. The charter erred in not separating the legislative and executive officers of the city government, and in not establishing a system of checks and balances, which is the very essence of represent ative government. Without a sharp separation of powers, and without a full system of checks and balances, a representative government might be a tyranny. Democracy, as the town meeting well knows, holds all municipal power. When the town surrenders the direct exer cise of this power, when simple democracy becomes representative democracy, full municipal power is not given to one person, nor to one body, but is carefully divided, lest the government be despotic. Under 112 BOSTON. a wise separation and distribution of power, the legislative authority of the municipality is vested in a body composed of two branches, each having the negative upon the other, lest there be hasty ordinances, hasty loans, hasty appropriations, hasty action. The executive power is vested elsewhere, lest the laws of the city fail of impartial, fearless, and prompt execution. The charter of 1822 did not make this necessary separation ; it vested in the aldermen full legislative and executive power, while establishing a figure head called the mayor, whom the public might blame when the aldermen did not govern well. As great executive power was vested in the eight aldermen, the forty-eight members of the common council were pardonably jealous, and tried to secure a part of the ad ministrative power. When the aldermen consented to a government by committees, the common council came very near exercising execu tive power through the joint committees of the two legislative branches. The charter itself gave the city council power to elect all officers not otherwise provided for, and this power was used freely (1. c. , sec 16). Nor is it wrong that a government branch or board or officer should exercise all power within lawful reach: The result was that as late as 1881 Mayor Prince declared the functions of the mayor, in the inaugura tion of civic measures, to be " merely advisory " (Inaug. Addr., p. 8). He might have added that his executive powers were chiefly advisory, and that city councils were reasonably unwilling to take advice. Why should they seek advice? It is as safe to trust one's own judgment as to follow other men's advice. The fault was not with the city council, to whom it is usually charged, but with the charter of 1822. That instrument lodged all municipal power in the city council, and instead of creating an executive officer, the equal and rival of the city council, made the mayor the chairman of the aldermen, without any veto power beyond his vote. At the same time he was made a member of the school committee, and not even its chairman, except by courtesy. The " care, custody, and management of all the property of the city " was expressly vested in the city council (1821, ch. 110, sec. 16) In a word, the charter of 1822 transferred the power of the municipality to the city council, except the judiciary, and a few matters, like the fire- wards, the overseers of the poor, and the care of the public schools. The only remedy left with the people was a refusal to re-elect members of the government that had proved unsatisfactory. Beyond this the city council had almost unlimited municipal power, and one marvels CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY. 113 that this power of creating taxes and debts was not used more extrav agantly than the records disclose. One marvels at the ability and fidelity of the several city councils. One wonders that the city ever escaped a great scandal in its municipal affairs. It was not the virtue of the charter that saved the city government from disgrace. On the whole, the city councils and their committees were better than the charter, and did better than the charter required. For the charter almost invited misgovernment. It established irresponsibility, and yet the city was not totally misgoverned. The Public Schools. Easily the most interesting of all our municipal institutions are the public schools, not only for the lavish support they have from the tax levy, but also for the position they occupy in our system of govern ment. The schools are entirely supported from taxes, and now con sume, speaking roughly, about one-fifth of the annual tax. No ex pense for schools seems too high in the estimation of the people, and an attempt to reduce teachers' salaries, or to delay the erection of new schoolhouses, or to reduce the work of the schools, excites popular indignation. At the same time the schools retain the traditional government by committee. And the more popular they became, the more they drifted away from the general city government. The city council votes a gross sum for schools ; the school committee expends the money, and has entire charge of- the schools, including, since 1889, the erection and repair of all school buildings. The mayor of the city, however, has a limited veto power over all school-committee votes involving the expenditure of money (1885, 266, sec 10), and .his ap proval of contracts involving $2,000 or more, is- required (1890, 418, sec. 6). But the civil-service law of the State does not apply. The laborers and clerks employed by the city must first pass an examination conducted by the State, while the teachers in' our schools are entirely under the control of the school committee. ' The charter of 1822 vested the care and superintendence of the pub lic schools in a board of twenty-one persons consisting of the mayor, the eight aldermen, and one person in each of the twelve wards chosen at the annual city election. As the aldermen were overwhelmed with all sorts of duties, many of them purely administrative, they were relieved of their school work in 1835, The law of that year (ch. 128), 15 114 BOSTON. adopted by the people on April 29, 1835, vested the management of the schools in a school committee of twenty-six persons, including the mayor, the president of the common council, and two persons from each of the twelve wards chosen annually by the people. The common council was jealous of the executive power exercised by the aldermen, and the new arrangement, such as it was, appears to have been a con cession. But this school committee dealt with the grammar schools, the primary schools being left to the care of the self-perpetuating primary school committee established in 1818, and continued until 1854. The city built its first primary school house in 1835. Even so great a man as the elder Mayor Quiney rejoiced when the establishment of a girls' highschool was prevented (Mun. Hist., 216-225, 269-271). He seemed happy that the girls' highschool had not been revived in 1851. Yet when the first examination for admission to the girls' high- school was held in 1826, the number of applicants was two hundred and eighty-six. In other words, the school system was imperfect, and the school government irregular in fact as well as in law (Mayor Bige- low's inaug. address, 1850, p. 5; city docs, of 1852, no. 22). This irregularity was removed by the city charter of 1854, which incidentally abolished the primary school committee, and placed the care and management of the public schools under a committee of seventy-four persons, consisting of the mayor, the president of the common council, and six persons from each of the twelve wards, chosen by the people. These specially-elected members of the school commit tee were chosen for three years, being the first departure from the ancient habit of returning public officers once a year to the people. Not only were these members of the school committee chosen by wards, but they must be inhabitants of the wards that chose them. The ques tion whether aldermen and members of the school committee should be chosen by wards, or by the city at large, has been much discussed. The critics usually prefer the arrangement that has not been made. As long as the city was relatively compact, that is, before the annexa tions from 1868 to 1874, a certain community of interests existed which justified general popular votes for general officers. Yet this principle was in part abandoned as early as 1799, to the satisfaction of the people. The school committee established in 1854 certainly gave satisfaction, and unified the school department. The primary school committee, with its 199 members, — one to each primary school, — was discontinued, and an attempt was made to give the schools an executive Constitutional History. us head, by the title of superintendent. The first superintendent of schools was appointed in 1851; but he is still the mere clerk of the school committee. The principle of dividing legislative and administrative functions as to the public schools was not considered in 1854, and has not been established since. This fact, that the schools needed an executive head, and the annex ations of the suburbs to 1874, occasioned the law of May 19, 1875 (ch. 241), which still controls. This law continued the mayor as chairman of the school committee, as if to maintain some connection between the public schools and city hall; occasionally the mayor would serve as chairman of some sub-committee appointed from the general school committee. The latter consisted, beside the mayor, of twenty-four members, eight being chosen annually to serve three years. They are chosen by the voters of the city at large, and in 1879 the right to vote for members of the school committee was given to women substantially on the same conditions as the male voters must comply with. The law of 1885, ch. 266, wisely excluded the mayor from the school commit tee, which thus consists of twenty-four persons elected by the people at large, under a generous suffrage, the constitutional amendment of 1891 having swept away the payment of a tax as a prerequisite of voting. All American citizens at least twenty-one years of age, not paupers, able to read the Constitution of Massachusetts in English and to write their names, who have lived a year in Massachusetts, and six months in Boston, who are duly registered as voters, may now vote for the Boston school committee (1893, ch. 417, sec 13, 14). While the pos sible number of voters for school committee is now (in 1893) about 200,000, the actual number has never approached 100,000. At the city election of 1888, when the largest number of citizens voted, the total was only 63,548 men and 19,490 women. At the city election of 1892 the number of municipal voters was 68,447- men and 9,510 women. The expense for schools, disbursed by the school committee, is about two million dollars a year. Nominally the expense was as high in the first year after the great annexations. Theoretically the school com mittee is the product of a suffrage that cannot be more liberal, unless aliens and minors be included. The school committee of twenty-four persons can discharge teachers and other servants at pleasure. It may engage them on its own conditions, except that janitors and persons having charge of boilers are supplied by the civil-service commissioners 116 BOSTON. of the Commonwealth. For executive officers the school committee has a board of one superintendent and six supervisors, who may ex amine and report, but cannot really order or act, their power over prin cipals being specially limited. Yet the vast establishment has never been tainted by party politics ; owing in part to the high salaries of fered, the school committee, itself unpaid, has secured instructors and other officers of the best character; and the schools have the enthusi astic support of the people. From time to time the general city gov ernment has been assailed by public opinion ; the school committee has not. The organisation of the city government has been condemned; the organisation of the schools and their government is scarcely a sub ject of discussion, much less of criticism. The system may be theo retically wrong ; it has worked to the general satisfaction of the people who pay the bills. The establishment shows that even a defective law may be well administered, and the school committee itself is the best illustration of American adaptability and of unselfish citizenship de voted to the public service. Fire Department. , The charter of 1822, in establishing the city of Boston as a municipal corporation, vested its government in the mayor and city council, the school committee, the overseers of the poor, and the firewards, respect ively. The firewards had existed for more than a century, and under the law of 1711 were appointed by the selectmen and the justices. Ever since 1745 they were elected by the people, and the city charter of 1822 (sec. 19) required that three or more firewards be chosen in each of the twelve wards. A fireward was in command at fires, and could require any person to obey. The term is still used (Publ. Stat, 267), afire engineer having the authority of a fireward. At the same time, the firewards had a 'certain authority over buildings and explosives. The appearance Of dozens of commanders at a fire may be imagined. A petty conflict of opinion between the fire companies and the elder Quiney led to the appointment of a chief engineer, in 1826, and to the repeal of the law requiring the election of firewards (see the law of June 18, 1825, adopted by the people on July 25, 1825). Mayor Quincy's Municipal History tells the story in detail ; but the real point is the establishment of-an executive officer to take command at fires. That office still ex ists. When Mayor Quiney retired, he reported the department to con sist of "twelve hundred men and officers " (Mun. Hist., 264); the re- : CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY. 117 port of the department for 1892 says: " The entire force of the depart ment consists of about 800 men. " The chief engineer and his assistants were elected by the mayor and city council; the fire companies were appointed by the mayor and aldermen, but elected their own foreman, and made their own rules and regulations, subject to the approbation of the mayor and aldermen. It was the old volunteer department, with a Volunteer in command. This led to the very difficulties encountered by Mayor Quiney, particu larly as premiums were paid to the ardent volunteers. From and after February 16, 1829, a salary was paid to the chief engineer, and Mayor Eliot, a man of high ability,, established the important principle of a paid fire department, in 1837 (city ordinance of July 29, 1837). -In 1826 it was found expedient to reorganise the entire force of the fire department (Quiney, Mun. Hist., 203, 264); Mayor Eliot did the same thing in 1837 (see his inaug. addr. of 1838, p. 3). But even the ordi nance of 1861 left the choice of the chief and the assistant engineers to the city council, and the appointment of the companies to the mayor and aldermen, each company choosing its own foreman, subject to ap proval. All this was swept away by the great fire of 1B72, and the ordinance of 1873, which required the mayor to appoint, subject to approval on the part of the board of aldermen, a board of three fire commissioners, who appoint the chief engineer and all other members of the department, purchase supplies, and manage the department. The law of June 21, 1831, enabled the city to pay an indemnity to members of the fire department disabled- in the discharge of their duties. In 1874 (ch. 61) the Boston Protective department was incor porated, and in 1886 the office of fire marshal was established, this officer, appointed by the State, to pass semi-judicially upon fires. In 1850 the General Court passed a special act relating to the Boston fire department (1850, ch. 262), the value of the act consisting in the repeal of old statutes, and in leaving the city free to work out its own safety. The city government decided finally in favor of a paid com mission. Government by committee had broken down, partly because it was inefficient, partly because it was gratuitous, and mainty because it was irresponsible. Public opinion was not prepared to establish one- man power, and compromised by establishing paid commissions, such as still conduct a large part of the business of the State. The Boston fire commission has given great satisfaction. It is watched very closely, especially by underwriters. At the same time the popular interest in 118 BOSTON. the department is lively. It is one of the few departments that has found a chronicler. It controls scores of buildings, valuable apparatus and supplies, and a numerous force ; the cost of the department is not far from a million dollars a year ; yet it has not been found necessary to invoke the State for regulating or reforming the establishment. Twice in the remote past the city government has disbanded the whole depart ment ; but municipal authority has sufficed to establish order, discipline, and extraordinary efficiency. One is tempted to affirm that the depart ments are generally efficient in proportion to the popular interest they command,, and that popular opinion is apt to be right. But much is due, also, to the city council, which has created and sustained the fire department, thus proving that a city council, duly informed, is likely to consult the public good. Of all municipal departments created by the city council, the fire department is the most typical. As such it deserves special attention on the part of students devoted to municipal affairs. Relief and Correction. The charter of 1822 (sec. 19) required the election, in each ward, of an overseer of the poor, who must be an inhabitant of the ward. The charter of 1854 retained this provision without material modification. But the board of overseers had changed in its powers and duties. When Boston became a city, the overseers were the most venerable corporation, and the only branch of the government that had been formally incorporated. They had charge of the poor, of the degraded, of the insane, and of prisoners. To provide for the poor that could work, the house of industry was built in South Boston. Instead of interesting the overseers in the undertaking, they were alienated, and a long controversy ended in the defeat of the overseers. Then the house of reformation for juvenile offenders was established; also, the house of correction, a lunatic hospital, an almshouse, and a home for neglected children. All these establishments, to which the city hospital might be added, were the natural province of the overseers of the poor. They permitted the establishment of rival boards, the result being that in 1857 all indoor relief, together with the reformatory and correctional institutions, were united under twelve directors for public institutions, and that in 1864 the election of the overseers was transferred to the city council, to pass, in 1885, to the mayor, acting with the approval of the board of aldermen. In 1889 the public institutions were placed CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY. 119 under a board of three commissioners (1864, ch. 128; 1857, ch. 35; 1889, ch. 245). The overseers hold trust funds amounting, in 1893, to more than $700,000. They devote about $100,000 a year to charity, but maintain a temporary home and a lodge so-called. The real mission of the board is out-door relief. The commissioners, on the other hand, deal with some 3,500 paupers, orphans, truants, insane, and malefactors, at a cost not far from $200 per head. But the complete separation of the unfortunate from the vicious has not been effected, though attempted by Mayor Quiney. On the other hand, the city provides generously for those whom it is required to support. The overseers of the poor have always served without pay ; so did the directors for public institutions from 1857 to 1889. The board of directors included three members of the city council, elected annually, and nine citizens at large, three of whom were annually elected for three years. Of course, a board so composed was apt to lack that force which is specially required in deal ing with thousands of unfortunates and criminals. But the fault lay largely in the law. It was to oppose the overseers of the poor that the General Court was induced to establish a separate board of directors for the house of industry, in 1823 (1822, ch. 56). In 1824 separate directors for the house of correction were authorized by the General Court (1824, ch. 28). In 1825 another board, for the house of reforma tion, was authorized (1826, ch. 182). In 1827 the directors of the house of industry were given the same power as to paupers that overseers of the poor had ; but the Boston overseers were not deprived of this power (1826, ch. 111). The wonder is that the work of dealing with the un fortunate and vicious did not itself become more unfortunate. Had the General Court required the city to work out this problem, the city would have supplied the means. Nor is it ever well to invoke the General Court, when municipal means will answer. Municipal prob lems are best solved by municipalities, not by outside power. It is safe to add that true municipal reform, when needed, must come from within. The new city was mistaken when it created several depart ments to do the work of one inherited from 1691. It was competent for the city to establish a house of industry, in which to house and employ its paupers ; but law, tradition, and pro priety vested the management of the enterprise in the overseers of the poor. It was an unfortunate precedent when a rival establishment, with like powers as the overseers had, was set up. The law of Febru- 120 BOSTON. ary 3, 1823, under which this step was taken, has not proved a benefit, least of all in the general policy it established. The city government had the highest interest to keep down the number of independent ad ministrative departments ; by pursuing the opposite course, it has sur rounded the mayor of Boston with'a cabinet as large as a town meeting. The President of the United States has a cabinet of eight men; the mayor of Boston of about a hundred. That the General Court con sented, is natural, as it must take its Boston information from Boston, not from Berkshire. Nor were the overseers blameless. They did not think it their duty to cooperate with the city council, and set up the idle claim that they were not accountable for their expenditures. Yet the charter provided, and still provides (1821, ch. 110, sec 20; 1854, ch. 448, sec 51), that all boards and officers of the city, " entrusted with the expenditure of public money, shall be accountable therefor to the city council, in such manner as they may direct." The city council, therefore, had the right to ask very close questions wherever money of the city was involved, and might have extended its enquiries to school and county matters. The claim of the overseers was not tenable, and led to their own defeat (compare Mayor Lincoln's inaugural address, 1859, page 21). The results continue in 1893, and so does the needless multiplicity of rival departments. The seed was sown in the charter; the city council and the General Court have added indiscriminately. What harvest could they expect? Police Department. The charter vested "the administration of police " in the board of mayor and aldermen (1821, ch. 110, sec. 13). The charter of 1854 pre scribed that appointments should emanate from the mayor, then to be acted upon by the aldermen (1854, ch. 448, sec. 49), while in all other cases the aldermen were to act first (sec. 48), when the mayor and aldermen were required to act (see also 1821, ch. 110, sec. 21; 1882, ch. 164). The term "police," as used in the charters of 1821 and 1854, did not mean " police officers " or " police force," but had reference to the general good order of the municipality. Even the Revised Statutes of 1836 do not mention any police force or police officers. In fact, the first law of the State authorizing the appointment of " police officers " in Boston, was passed in 1838 (ch. 123), and the first law authorizing cities and towns in general to make such appointments, was not passed by the General Court until 1851. Boston had acted in the premises soon I - 1 /,WJ*;J# >. 7W-- CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY. 121 after the Province reign was ended, the confusion occasioned at that time requiring the employment of special officers for maintaining order in the streets. This led to the interesting ordinance on page 66 of the By-Laws of 1786, which authorized the selectmen to appoint officers called " the inspectors of the police," who were day patrolmen. The night watch had been established soon after 1630. The "inspectors of the police " were required to report once a week to the selectmen, and were otherwise inefficient. The selectmen were therefore authorized by the town to elect " one suitable person to superintend the police of this town" (By-Laws of 1801, p. 33). The term police, in this case, meant "good order," and the selectmen could appoint "assistants to the superintendent" (1. c, 34), that is, appoint day policemen, if necessary, provided there was money to pay them. The chairman of the board of selectmen was usually chosen superintendent of police, and the mayor and aldermen, in 1822, inherited the police arrangements of the town. They inherited also the night watch, which, under the law of January 29, 1802, had been appointed by the selectmen. The mayor and aldermen took charge of the day police and the night watch because these establishments had been under the care of the selectmen, who appointed them. The common council tried repeatedly to get concurrent power over the police, but failed; the legislative power the common council shared with the mayor and aldermen was not well exe'fcised, least of all by the common council. The city council maintained separate watch and police departments to the year 1854. In 1823 a special head for the day police was estab lished, .under the name of city marshal, who was also tithingman and constable, and soon took charge, in a measure, of street cleaning and the removal of house refuse, the ordinance of 1833 providing that " the de partment of internal and external police, as far as it regards the pres ervation of the health of the city, be placed under the superintendence of the city marshal" (code of 1834, pp. 174, 226). The captain of the watch, on the other hand, took charge of the street lamps. When the night watch and the day police were united in 1854, the lamp depart ment became a separate establishment, with a separate superintendent, but continued under the special control of the mayor and aldermen. The removal of house refuse and street refuse, after consideration, was treated, the former as a health matter under the jurisdiction of the city council (1821, 110, sec. 17), and street refuse as a police matter to be regulated by the mayor and aldermen only (1. c, sec, 13). This dis- 10 122 BOSTON. tribution of power is related by Mayor Quiney with great spirit (Mun. Hist., 62-73). The real work drifted into the hands of the superinten dent of streets, who had teams to work with. The ordinance of 1833 made the superintendent of streets a general officer for paving and re pairing streets, for laying out and widening them, for building and re pairing sewers, for the repair of public buildings, the school houses in cluded, for supplying fuel, and "for cleaning the streets, disposing of manure, and removing house dirt " (code of 1834, 260). The superin tendent of streets attended to this police duty until 1853, when a sep arate department for " cleaning the streets, disposing of manure, and removing house dirt and house offal " was established and placed under a " superintendent of the health department." From 1890 to 1891 this officer was called "superintendent of sanitary police" (Rev. Ord. of 1890, 55), then to be merged again in the street department, the head of which is called superintendent of streets (ordin. of March 9, 1891). The confusion of the departments was due to a confusion of terms. From 1834 to 1837 the city marshal was superintendent of sewers (code of 1834, 246). -As late as 1867 the aldermen had a committee on ex ternal health, and another on internal health. The term police was used by the charter of 1822 in a very general sense, but soon acquired the narrower meaning of police officer, without losing the law sense that recurs in the term ' ' sanitary police. " In some instances the terms health and police were used as identical, even by Mayor Quiney, and the city marshal was actually the health officer of the city, under the ordinance of October 7, 1833 (code of 1834, p. 175). The health ordi nance of May 31, 1824 (code of 1827, p. 170), was entitled "an ordi nance relative to the police of the city of Boston. " The chief impulse for establishing a regular police force in Boston came from Mayor Eliot, who has left his impressions in other branches of the city government. But it was an error to leave the appointment of all police officers with the mayor and aldermen. Before 1838 the night watchmen were the principal police force. When Mayor Quiney retired from office, he exclaimed: "The name of police officer has in deed been changed to city marshal. The venerable old charter num ber of twenty-four constables still continue the entire array of city police; and eighty watchmen, of whom never more than eighteen are out at a time, constitute the whole nocturnal host of police militant, to maintain the peace and vindicate the wrongs of upwards of sixty thou sand citizens " (Mun. Hist., 272). Later the city marshal was given Constitutional history. 123 deputies to aid him, but the constables continued the chief peace of ficers. After the act of 1838 (ch. 123) the appointment of regular police officers began; but the first Municipal Register, of 1841, enumerates all police officers in two lines (p. 89), and in 1854 the force numbered but 47 men. After the union with the watch, which took place on May 26, 1854, the department consisted of 236 men. When it passed under the control of commissioners, the force was about .700 strong, every man appointed by the mayor and aldermen. Well might Mayor Cobb ask to be relieved of this business ; well might he say that ' ' the affairs of this department cannot be properly attended to by the com mittee on police" (Inaug. Addr., 1876, 21). Mayor Lincoln had ex pressed another view in 1864 (Inaug. Addr., 25). It was finally under Mayor Pierce, and in part on his suggestion,. that the police department was placed under three commissioners, appointed by the mayor and aldermen. At the same time the new commissioners were given the power to grant liquor licenses, which is not, perhaps, a police duty (1878, ch. 244; Mayor Pierce's Inaug. Addr., 1878, p. 20). With un conscious rashness the whole " administration of police," as mentioned' in the charters of 1822 and 1854, was transferred from the aldermen to the new board. The new board was destined to have a stormy career. The civil- service law of 1884 had not been passed, the commission was exposed to the whole force of municipal pressure. In seven years it had ten different members, and in 1885 it was superseded by a board of three members, appointed by the State. They are appointed for five years, and the first change in the membership of the board was made in 1893. The law requires the board to be selected from the ' ' two principal po litical parties," the members of the board cannot be removed without the consent of the governor and council, and the expenses of the board in the administration of their department must be paid by the city. The number of patrolmen, and their pay, cannot be increased without the consent of the city. The board, as far as the city had any power to part with, holds all the power vested in the previous board on June 12, 1885. The .city council may grant additional power. The mem bers Of the police force hold the power of constables and watchmen, as exercised ever since the days of the Colony. The principle of a board appointed by the Commonwealth, in the exercise of the constitutional right vested in the Commonwealth, but paid by the city, has been called in question, especially as interfering with municipal self-govern- 124 BOSTON. ment. On the other hand, the city has had the benefit of a quiet and efficient police service, and the political complexion of the board has not occasioned the evils it appeared to invite. For the board is pro fessedly a body made up of party men. Financially the arrangement has worked well, as a comparison with the kindred fire department shows. A government machine that works well, and satisfies a public want, justifies itself. But it is never well to invoke the country for redressing the evils of the city, and a city is not doing .its whole duty when it occasions interference from the General Court. The latter should not be invoked by the city, except to give strength or relief, after the resources of the city and the citizens are exhausted. Nor can the supreme power ever relieve the citizen and the city of their public duty, including that of caring well for their own. Health Department. The history of the Boston health department, as made by the city council, is mournful, and proves conclusively that the charter of 1822 made a mistake when it transferred the power of the old board of health, established in 1799, to the city council, to be exercised at pleas ure (sec. 17). The law under which the early board acted was excep tionally good, and the elective board showed great efficiency (see By- Laws of 1818), though Mayor Quiney holds the opposite view (Mun. Hist., 64). From the adoption of the city charter, in 1822, to 1847, the city council was the board of health. Then the mayor and alder men were the board of health until 1873, when a better arrangement went into effect. The charter of 1822 did not contemplate that the council should be an executive board, but provided expressly that the health power vested in the city council should be carried into execution " by the appointment of health commissioners," or in some other way. The Revised Statutes of 1836 said instead: " In the city of Boston, the city council shall exercise all the powers, and perform all the duties, of a board of health for the said city " (ch. 21, sec. 2). It is worth adding that the Revised Statutes, being the first codification of the Massachu setts statutes, were the work of Theron Metcalf and Horace Mann. The clause, due perhaps to the dim ideas then entertained of municipal government, was repealed April 23, 1847, and on June 8 of the same year the city council appointed the mayor and aldermen health com missioners for the city (Mun. Reg., 1848, 46, 83). They continued to be the nominal board of health until 1873, although the laws of 1849 CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY. 125 (ch. 211) and 1854 (ch. 448, sec 40) persisted in making the city coun cil a board of health, with power to delegate their authority, as a board of health, to "any committee of their number." The city council delegated its power to the mayor and aldermen (code of 1851, 102; code of 1863, 306), but created the superintendent of health, in 1853, to carry out all laws and ordinances relating to " the subject of internal health." This confusion ended in 1873, with the appointment of the board of health. Of course, neither the aldermen nor the city council could do execu tive health work. In 1824 the work was divided between a health commissioner, who attended to "the external police" or health, especially quarantine matters ; a superintendent of burial grounds ; and the city marshal, who had control of " the internal police " or health (code of 1827, 170; Quiney, Mun. Hist, 73)! In 1833 the city marshal was given control of all health matters, and up to 1853 he was virtually the Boston board of health. The duty of street cleaning and the re moval of house refuse was transferred, in 1825, to the superintendent of streets, who performed that duty until 1853. In 1834 the city coun cil treated sewers as a health matter, and required the city marshal, the police officer of the city, " to take the general superintendence of all common sewers " (code pf 1834, 246, 174). In 1837 the effice of superintendent of sewers was created, thus relieving the city marshal ; but the first Municipal Register issued by the city, in 1841, treated the superintendent of sewers, the superintendent of streets, and even the surveyors of highways as parts of the "health department." So did Mayor Lyman in his inaugural address of 1835 (p. 11), as far as sewers are concerned. The division of quarantine, meanwhile, had drifted under the control of a physician, and the superintendent of burials con tinued his special work. To promote executive efficiency, then, the early city government abolished the board of health, which should have been retained, and divided its power among three departments newly created, but not defined, for in the city the health duties of the city marshal, the superintendent of streets, the sewer department, and the two branches of the city council were commingled. The city marshal, however, was the health officer of Boston from 1823 to 1853. while the superintendent of streets, from 1825 to 1853, removed the street and house refuse. To terminate this confusion as to " internal health " or police, the city council of 1853 created a superintendent of the health department, 126 BOSTON. requiring him to execute all laws and ordinances relating to " the sub ject of internal health." In truth, the superintendent had charge of the city stables and teams, and attended to street sweeping and the removal of house dirt. Later ages will wonder how such a department ever came to be called a health department. Mayors Shurtleff and Gaston (inaug. addr., 1869, 30; 1870, 52; 1872, 18) insisted that street cleaning was one thing, and that the city needed a professional board of health. Mayor Gaston approved the ordinance of December 2, 1872, under which the health power of the city was transferred to a board of health, consisting of three men. They were to serve three years, and the arrangement has worked well, mainly because the ordinance was reasonable, although it continued the ' ' superintendent of health,'.' as a subordinate of the board, requiring him to ' ' make all necessary arrange ments for cleaning the streets, disposing of manure, and removing house dirt and house offal, to the entire satisfaction of the board of health," (code of 1876, 403). The Revised Ordinances of 1885 made the superintendent of health once more an independent officer, ap pointed by the mayor, subject to approval, on the part of the board of aldermen, and popularly his division was known as the health depart ment (auditor's finance report for 1889-90, 97). In 1890-91 the estab lishment, was called the department of sanitary police, to be merged, by the ordinance of March 9, 1891, in the street department, which still calls the removal of house refuse its "sanitary division," beside having a street-cleaning division (rep. of street department for 1891, 1-2). The board of health, on the other hand, has become a great department. It holds all the power of the former board, with some additions. Its quarantine service is good, and beside having charge of cemeteries and undertakers, public baths and lying-in hospitals, the the abattoir, stable permits, and hawkers, it guards the general health of the city. When the city of Boston decides not to have more depart ments than the government of the United States, the health department may include the inspection of milk and vinegar, the inspection of pro visions, the registry department, and possibly the hospital department. Certainly there is no reason why the city should not have entrusted absolutely all health matters to the board of health, which has so amply justified the ordinance sighed by Mayor Gaston. It is pleasant to add that the chairman of the board in 1893, Dr. Samuel H. Durgin, has been a member of the board from its establishment in 1873, and that the publications of the board have some scientific value. CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY. 127 Taxation. The city charter vested the power to lay and assess taxes in the city council (1821, ch. 109, sec. 1; ch. 110, sec. 15, 28; 1822, ch. 85). The city council discharged this duty with reasonable judgment, having good precedents to go by. As early as 1694 the town chose assessors separate from the selectmen, and in 18C2 the law authorized the town to elect two assistant assessors in each of the twelve wards, the assist ants electing the three principal assessors. This -law was repealed by the charter, and from 1822 to 1885 the city council chose ajl assessors of taxes. The number established in 1802 was not changed until 1849, and by the ordinance of October 24, 1850, the distinction between first and second assistants was virtually established. In 1866 the board of principal assessors was increased to five, and so remained until the ordi nance of April 20, 1891, required the appointment of nine assessors. The institution of assessment districts, together with first and second assistants for each, was established by the ordinance of January 3, 1868, .due to the annexation - of Roxbury, and in 1880 the principle of electing assessors for three years was established. The law of 1885 (ch. 266) transferred the appointment of assessors to the mayor, subject to ap proval by the board of aldermen, and the appointment of assistant as sessors was left to the assessors (Rev. Ord. of 1885, 55 ; but see St. 1885, ch. 266, sec 1), it being the apparent policy to vest great power in heads of departments. The city councils, from 1822 to 1885, acted conservatively in this matter, especially as regards the choice of princi pal assessors. As under the town, the assessors were the first city department to administer State law only, the city supplying merely the means for carrying the tax laws of the State into local effect Massachusetts taxes wealth, and the Boston assessors were among the first to tax wealth at its real value as nearly as the market can indicate value. That personal property largely escapes direct taxation, is not the fault of the assessors. Neither is it their fault that the principle of municipal or special taxes has been discouraged in Massachusetts. The vast privileges conferred by the city, therefore, have not yielded fair returns to the corporation as such. The assessors tax the wealth they find, and out of the general levy on wealth nearly all municipal expenses are de frayed. As these' expenses are heavy, the tax is heavy, the principle of special assessments or of fees for special rights or services having 128 BOSTON. been discouraged. But the fax actually assessed is apparently borne without hardship, payments being prompt. Up to the war period the expenses of the. city and county were relatively light. For the year ended April 30, 1862, the city and county expenses, including the State tax, were $3,438,651.91, against $5,203,706.55 for the next year. But during the first year the premium on gold did not touch 105, while in the second year it rose above 172. Municipal: expenses grew very high when Boston saw fit to annex the suburbs, while the premium on gold melted away. In the year preceding annexation, when Boston had about 200,000 inhabitants, expenses were $6,532,619.77, and the gold premium rose above 167. During the first year after annexation, when the gold premium did not go above 117, and the population was 341,919, municipal expense reached $15, 388, 632. 28. On April 30, 1867, the net debt of the city was $8,558,281.59; on April 30, 1874, it was $27,473,213.02. All this is not due to annexation; but during the years of annexation Boston began its present scale of municipal house keeping- Ten years after this period, in 1885, an accident led to a law (1885, ch. 178) limiting both the debt and the tax of Boston. This interesting law has prevented the Boston tax rate from being 17 per thousand of assessed property, which was the rate in 1884, but has not checked gen erous expenses. The law desired the net debt of the city to be within 2 per centum of the average valuation. On this basis the net debt, on January 31, 1893, ought to have been within $16,386,264.04; it was re ported by the auditor at $21,323,238.11 (ann. rep., 1893, p. 8, 9), this amount not including the debt for water supply. The General Court of 1885 laid down a strict rule, and its successors from 1886 to 1892 authorized the city to incur debts amounting to $28, 806, 469. 69, to which the fine resolutions of 1885 need not apply. The auditor reports the net debt of the city (funded debt, less means to pay), on January 31, 1893, at $30,908,879.14, which includes the debt for water supply, and is nearly four per centum of the average valuation for the preceding five years, less abatements. Against this stand the vast assets of the corporation, briefly alluded to in Mayor Hart's inaugural address of 1890, p. 13. For the amount of interest and sinking-fund requirements of the city, see Mayor Hart's inaugural address of 1889, p. 10. It should be remembered, also, that the city debt includes the county debt, and that the city tax includes the county and State tax. That (iebts are an evil, need not be stated ; nor that the prudence of a gov-- CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY. 129 ernment is measured by the degree to which it meets current require ments from current revenues. Voting. As the right of suffrage in Massachusetts could not be exercised, until 1892, except upon the payment of a tax, it was natural that the assessors should make out the lists of voters. The city charter placed this duty upon the mayor and aldermen; and Mayor Quiney, always energetic, seems to have personally revised such a list, " subject to the revision of the board of aldermen" (Mun. Hist., 237). The list con tained about twelve thousand names. The list of 1892 contained but 87,227, or a smaller proportion, notwithstanding the tax requirement upon voters had been abolished. Mayor Quiney may have thought that mayor and aldermen meant chiefly the mayor; after his time it meant chiefly the aldermen, and Mayor Shurtleff tells in his last inaugural address how the aldermen made voting lists (1870, 35). They let the faithful city clerk do the work, of course with the aid of the assessors. Annexation made this arrangement impossible, and in 1874 (ch. 60) the duty of preparing lists of voters was transferred to a board of three registrars. These registrars and their assistants are not allowed to hold any other office, and since 1890 they are required to represent political parties (1893, ch. 417, sec. 28, 33). When such a man quits the political party "which he was appointed to represent," he must be removed from office, says the statute (1. c, sec. 29). How the politics of a clerk can be ascertained under the guarded secrecy of the ballot, established in 1889, the law does not indicate. But it provides that assessors shall send their assessment lists to the registrars (1. c. , sec. 16, 17), which lists must contain the names of all men of the vot ing age, and of such women as make written application therefor. The law intended from the outset to guard the registrars of voters, but could not separate them from other offices. Even after the repeal of the tax requirement upon voters, the assessors' list of persons to be taxed is justly made a basis for registering voters ; for the assessors go from house to house to learn who should be taxed, and the city requires them to keep ' ' a full and complete record of the name of each person having a residence in the city of Boston, and his present and past resi dences " (Rev. Ordin. of 1892, 21). The State requires every male of the age of twenty years or above to be taxed ; women of the voting age may be taxed, and in case they hold taxable property must be 17 130 BOSTON. taxed. Registrars are justly required to help in enforcing the tax laws (1893, ch. 417, s. 21). It is not quite certain, therefore, that it was best to make them an independent department, and that an attempt to reduce the many independent departments of the city might not make the registry of voters a bureau under the assessing department. The government of the United States requires many executive offices, but nearly all are. subordinate to one of the eight cabinet officers. The work of the registrars of voters is largely ministerial, and a ministerial office should not be made an independent department. The govern ment of the United States requires good work of the coast survey and the mint, but has properly subordinated these offices. It is pleasant to add that the Boston voting list is very accurate, especially in the case of naturalised voters, whose names are not entered, save upon adequate evidence. The present ward lines of Boston were established in 1875-6, previous divisions having been made in 1715 (eight wards), 1735, 1805, 1822, 1838, 1850, and 1865 (always twelve wards). The annexed cities and town were treated as new wards, until 1875-6. Precincts, for voting, were not established until 1878, the number being 107, until 1889, when it was increased to 286, to be reduced in 1890 to 205. The city charter accepted the suffrage requirements of the third amendment to the Constitution of Massachusetts (the amendment was adopted in 1821) as the proper test for municipal voters. The ancient difference between State suffrage and municipal suffrage was thus swept away, to be restored in 1879, when women were given the right to vote for school committee. The General Court may establish munic ipal suffrage at pleasure, while State suffrage is regulated by the Constitution. The male inhabitant of the Province was not replaced, until 1821, by the citizen; nor, until 1857, by the legal voter, who must be a citizen as well as an inhabitant. But the poll tax as such never had anything to do with voters as such. The poll tax is still assessed on minors, and until 1844 it was assessed on all males "between the ages of sixteen and seventy years." In 1855 the constitution was so amended as to establish the principle of plurality elections, in the place of the majority previously required by candidates. For town, city, and county elections the plurality rule had been previously adopted, on February 27, 1854 (1854, ch. 39). The publication of election re turns used to be left to private enterprise. In 1875 the Boston reg istrars of voters issued a sheet showing, by wards, the number of names registered for the city election of 1874. The number was 57,045; the CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY. 131 total vote for mayor was 18,733; yet the city had about 330,000 inhab itants. In 1822, when Mayor Phillips was elected, the entire vote was 2,650,- in a population of more than 45,000. For the national election of 1892 the registrars report the Boston vote at 74,883, and the num ber of registered voters at 87,227, while the population was about 460,000. For the votes of the mayors, see the Catalogue of the City Councils XXXIII (published in 1891). The registrars of voters issue annual reports. In 1888 (ch. 436) the law established the principle of ballots supplied at the public expense, of elections conducted entirely by public officers, and of secret voting. This arrangement, popularly known as the Australian ballot, was first used at the November election of 1889, for State officers, and met a public want, especially on the part of candidates for office and of all persons who desired orderly elections. A code of all election laws was presented in the acts of 1893, ch. 417. Occasionally the charge of fraud or corruption has been made in regard to Boston elections, but always without evidence. The elections, or the contrary, shpw great intelligence and independence on the part of voters. Finance Departments. The financial departments of the city were greatly simplified by the charter. Previously there were separate treasurers for the town and county, and the town collectors were separate from the town treasurer. Until 1811 the collectors allowed a discount to tax payers who paid within three months after the delivery of the tax bill. The city char ter vested the appointment of the city treasurer in the city council (1821, ch. 110, 18), and the supplement of the charter (1821, ch. 109, sec. 12) made the city treasurer the treasurer of Suffolk county. He was also collector of taxes until 1875 (ch. 176), and as such appointed deputies, while up to 1822 the constables were the real collectors, police and peace officers. Since 1875 the office of- the city treasurer, there fore, performs mostly ministerial duties. Unless otherwise ordered, the city treasurer holds the trust funds devised to the city, the amount on January 31, 1893, being $578,932.11. He receives the same salary as the treasurer of the United States ($6,000). The collecting depart ment has been remarkably successful in collecting taxes and other sums due to the city, except poll taxes. This may be adduced as a justifica tion of the tax system that prevails in Boston and Massachusetts, and makes any material changes difficult. Those that ought to pay special 132 BOSTON. taxes or fees oppose the change, and the community as a whole appears to favor the payment of all municipal expenditures from the general tax levy. But this system, inherited from the remote past, invites spe cial appropriations and demands for special work. Special work done by the city for special interests should be specially paid for. The amount of special collections in Boston is slight. The tax year begins on May 1 ; the finance year of the city and town began on the same day, except from 1823 to 1825, and since 1892, when it began on Feb ruary 1. From 1823 to 1825 it began on June 1. Under the town government all finances finally drifted under the con trol of the selectmen, the overseers of the poor, and the board of health, who constituted the committee of finance, and acted as such since 1812, though the town meeting elected annually three auditors of accounts (code of 1818, p. 4). These auditors simply took a final look at the ac counts before they were published. The charter supplement (1821, ch. 109, sec. 14) authorized the city to appoint an auditor, and an ordinance to that effect was passed on August 2, 1824. By a curious anomaly a separate board of accounts was established for the county courts and prisons (1821, ch. 109, sec. 9). This board, consisting of judges, was replaced, in 1866 (ch. 117), by the board of aldermen, who acted until 1879, when the city auditor became county auditor, — an office that should have been assigned to him in 1824 (1879, ch. 256). A greater anomaly is the fact that Boston became a city to get rid of county in terference, and then let all county matters drift away from city con trol. The charter supplement (1821, ch. 109, sec. 13) vested the laying of county taxes in the city council, and permitted county taxes to be treated as city taxes (see also 1822, ch. 85); yet the city council chose to neglect county matters, and so occasioned the constant interference of the State with this subject. Originally (1821, ch. 109, 4, 5) the sal aries of the police court and its clerk were fixed by the city. As the city council neglected county finances, the General Court took charge, the result being that county expenses have become rather onerous. This unsatisfactory condition could have been avoided, if the city gov ernment had given due attention to county affairs. It was more atten tive to city finances proper. To meet all public indebtedness, the ordi nance of December 28, 1840, required the annual purchase of three per cent, of the city debt, which from the days of Mayor Quiney (Mun. Hist., 274) to 1870 was managed by a special committee. The ordi nance of December 24, 1870, created the board of sinking-fund commis- CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY. 133 sioners (Mayor Gaston's inaug. addr., 1871,11), but did not prevent an alarming increase of the city debt, the fire of 1872 and the annexations adding to its growth. The ancient committee on the reduction of the city debt, consisting of the mayor and two members of the common council, established on April 23, 1827, had acted with ability and success. They had excellent ordi nances to aid them. The sinking-fund commissioners are ministerial officers. The ordinance of 1870, which created the board, laid down the rule that loans for public buildings should run ten years ; loans for street widenings and improvements were to run twenty years ; loans for the water supply were to run thirty years. These loans were to be pro vided for by paying into the sinking fund, respectively, six, three, and one and a-half per cent, on each. The General Court, alarmed by the increase of municipal debts, provided in 1875 (ch. 209) for sinking funds in general, and required at least eight per cent, to be set aside against ten-year loans, and enough against other loans to cancel them at matu rity. The same law provided that water loans should not run above thirty years, sewer loans not above twenty years, and all other loans not above ten years. The city requires eight per cent, on ten-year loans, three and a-half per cent, on twenty-year loans, and two per cent. on thirty-year loans (code of 1876, 320; Rev. Ordin. of 1892, 70). The court-house loan the General Court permitted to run fifty years (1885, ch. 377) by which time the present building and its furniture will cer tainly be inadequate ; fifty-year park construction loans have also been authorized (1891, ch. 301 ; 1886, ch. 304). A catalogue of the city debt, on January 31, 1893, appears in th-j annual report of the auditor, 1893, p. 170-201. It should be stated that the city has always met its debt at maturity, except twice, in the case of water loans (1. c. , 190), and that its debt management was best, perhaps, when it rested entirely with the city. The water debt has always been treated as a separate establishment, and was the first to have a sinking fund by that name (1846, 167, sec. 11). In 1882 (ch. 133) the General Court wisely per mitted the annual payment of loans or loan certificates, instead of re quiring the accumulation of sinking funds, provided a given loan is thus cancelled at maturity. This arrangement is not favored, but is pref erable to a sinking fund. Superintendent of Streets. The administrative departments traced in the preceding pages are mentioned, if not founded, in the charter of 1822. But the charter 134 BOSTON. could not keep them from a tortuous course. The departments created by ordinance were not more fortunate. When Boston became a city, the duty of paving and repairing all streets and ways was found to rest with the surveyors of highways, while the selectmen could widen, lay out, and discontinue such ways, though the court of sessions also had the power to lay out highways. The mayor and aldermen inherited the power of the selectmen and the sessions, and greatly desired to be surveyors of highways, the more so because the selectmen had usually acted as surveyors. But the city council of 1822 elected three sur veyors of highways, and it took much pressure to make the common council recede from its desire to have some control of street work. A citizens' meeting was held, a law was passed by the General Court (Quiney, M. H., 65), and in 1823 the mayor and aldermen became sur veyors of highways. They divided the city into four districts of three wards each, and, in the words of Mayor Quiney, "appointed two alder men superintendents of each district." This arrangement gave way, in 1835, to the committee on paving. From 1835 to 1885 that com mittee ruled over the streets of Boston, wielding great power and expending vast fortunes. In theory the mayor and aldermen were the surveyors of highways from 1823 to 1854, and the aldermen alone from 1854 to 1885 (1854, ch. 448, sec. 41). The law of 1885 (ch. 266, sec. 6) undertook to separate the executive powers of the highway surveyors from their legislative and judicial powers, if any. In fact, the mayor was made surveyor of highways, and as such wields great power (see also 1893, ch. 423, sec. 21, 22). As early as May 23, 1825, the mayor and aldermen appointed a superintendent of streets, and made him their agent for general street work. As they obliged him to do much additional work, such as re pairing school houses, the common council insisted upon having a voice in appointing the superintendent. The ordinance of April 23, 1827, provided for his annual election and prescribed his duties. Up to 1885 he was elected by the concurrent vote of the two branches of the city council ; since then he is appointed by the mayor, subject to approval on the part of the board of aldermen. Up to 1885 he was the special agent of the aldermanic committee on paving; since then he is the special agent of the mayor. At first the superintendent of streets had charge of laying out and widening, of paving and repairing streets, of all common sewers, of cleaning streets and removing house dirt, of the public buildings, the public wells and pumps, and whatever else the - _ BBraW mm fZcUZ n UMM^Hi^ CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY. 135 aldermen might direct, though up to 1854 the mayor had some authority over the superintendent. As a curiosity the health ordinance of May 31, 1824, "relative to the police of the city of Boston," may be men tioned. It ordains that " the department of internal police be placed under the superintendence of the city marshal," and that " to this de partment shall belong the care of the streets, the care of the common sewers, and the care of the common vaults, and whatever else affects the health, security, and comfort of the city " (code of 1827, 170-1). In 1834 an ordinance required the city marshal " to take the' general superintendence of all common sewers " and even to make plans of them (code of 1834, 246). The actual work on public sewers, however, was done by the superintendent of streets (1. c, 261), and the sewer assessments made by the city marshal proved an illusion. The duties assigned to the superintendent of streets could not be discharged by one officer, however diligent, and by the ordinance of June 6, 1837, the office of superintendent of sewers was established, relieving the superintendent of streets of much work, and the city marshal of inspecting, accounting and drafting he was not well qualified to manage. The sewer department has always been interesting for the attempt it made to assess the cost of sewers, in part or altogether, on the abutters or immediate beneficiaries. On the whole, the attempt has failed in a city that paid all public expenses from the general tax levy; the town, however, had never treated sewers as a town affair. In 1840 the care of the public buildings was transferred from the superintendent of streets to the superintendent of lands (ordin. of Sep tember 17, 1840), and in 1846 an "independent superintendent of public buildings was authorized (ordin. of December 24, 1846), who has charge, also, of the fuel for the city. By the ordinance of April 26, 1853, finally, the city stables and the work of street cleaning, as well as the removal of house refuse, were transferred from the superintend ent of streets to the superintendent of health, so called. The ordinance of March 9, 1891, again united the street, sewer, health or sanitary- police, and bridge departments (the latter having been authorized in 1828, 1870, and 1885, respectively) under the superintendent of streets. Possibly the work of the street commissioners, the board of survey, the lamp and ferry departments might have been added. At any rate the first superintendent of our streets was required to do the work now assigned to the board of survey and the street commissioners (see also Quiney, Mun. Hist., 194). 136 BOSTON. Additional Departments Established Before 1854. Law Department. The city of Boston began, and continued for more than five years, without a law department. The early mayors were learned in the law, yet the failure-of establishing a department for interpreting and apply ing the city charter proved a mistake. In 1827, after some heavy bills for counsel had been incurred, the office of city solicitor was established (ordin. of June 18, 1827). His duties have continued substantially the same, and may be described as those of a business lawyer. The salaries paid at that time to city officers ranged at or above a thousand dollars each. The clerk of the police court received $1,400, and his assistant $700. The city solicitor was allowed $600, the same as the city mes senger. From 1839 to 1843 the city solicitor, at that time John Pick ering, had the assistance of a city attorney, Elbridge G. Austin. Mr. Pickering served from 1829 to 1846, and was unsurpassed for accuracy. Unfortunately few of his opinions are published; but he overruled many views and precedents he found, and placed the law business of the city on a good foundation. In particular he put an end to the absurd habit of the early city fathers to imitate town usages. The code of 1827 illustrates the early period ; the code of 1834 introduces a better age. Mr. Pickering drafted the first part of the Revised Statutes, "Of the internal administration of the government," which still stands, duly amended, in the Public Statutes of the Commonwealth. Before he became city solicitor, he had won fame by his dictionary of Greek, and previous to that he had published- his vocabulary of Americanisms. He was easily the most learned man in the service of the city. His successor, Peleg W. Chandler, was city solicitor from 1846 to 1853, and has left two monuments behind him, the city code of 1850 and the charter of 1854. Of the two, the former is the better. It presents a complete picture of the city laws and ordinances prior to the charter of 1854, and contains some historical references. Mr. Healy was the head of the law department from 1856 to 1882. In 1881 the office of corporation council was created for him (ordin. of March 30, 1881). He was the pupil and partner of Daniel Webster, and him self the Webster of our municipal law. He was not a literary lawyer, and few of his opinions are published. But it was in part due to his sturdy honesty and courage that the affairs of the city were kept un tarnished at a time when municipal extravagance was not uncommon, CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY. 137 and corruption sometimes charged against other cities. He was annually elected by the city council ; he reigned while government by committee was supreme ; his speech was homely ; he was incapable of an indirection ; but he kept the corporation straight. The law of the corporatioh, perhaps, deserved no other monument than the name of its honest and faithful servant (a portrait and sketch of Mr. Healy ap peared in the Municipal Register of 1882). It is not creditable to the city that its law department continues to be "under the charge of the corporation counsel and the city solicitor jointly " (Rev. Ord. of 1892, 46). The United-States Department of Justice is better arranged. It is to be regretted, also, that all formal opinions given by the law de partment of the city are not published. They might be an honor to the department and a light to the corporation. The city has had good law at a smallcost. Bridge Department. On November 3, 1828, the city appointed a superintendent of the free bridge. A few years later a superintendent of the Boston south bridge was appointed. The free bridge is now known as the Federal- street bridge, and the Boston south bridge is called the Dover-street bridge. The principle established by the appointment of the bridge superintendent has proved a source of great expense. In 1857 the city had seven superintendents of as many free bridges ; on May 22, 1871, the two bridges to Charlestown, and the two to Cambridge, were added (auditor's report for 1871-72, 19, 71, 81). The Revised Ordinances of 1885 united all bridges, except three to Cambridge, under one super intendent of bridges, who began to serve on April 5, 1886, taking charge of more than twenty bridges over navigable waters. The ordi nance of March 9, 1891, placed all highway bridges under the care of the superintendent of streets, thus restoring the establishment to the simple arrangement with which it began in 1828. Meantime the number of bridges maintained in part or wholly by the city is seventy- five, and the total number of public bridges in the city is a hundred and ten (ann. rep. of city engineer for 1892-93, 14). The first bridge that connected Boston with any of its neighbors, Charles-river bridge, was opened to the public on June 17, 1786. Forty years later there was no free bridge in Boston. Exactly a hundred years after the com pletion of the first Boston bridge, some twenty superintendents of bridges, nearly all elected annually by the city council, were reduced 18 138 BOSTON. to the rank of draw-tenders, under a general superintendent, who be came a mere division chief in 1891. Had not Boston yielded to annexation, the history of its bridges might be simpler. South Boston was annexed for the benefit of South Boston, and did not rest until the free bridge of 1828 was accepted by the city, the outlay in the first fiscal year thereafter being more than $3,000. To make the city accept the bridge, the owners paid $1,607, which was immediately required to put the bridge in order. The Dover-street bridge was purchased at $3,500, and then a larger sum was expended on repairs. The Charles-river bridges to Charlestown and Cambridge were obtained on the like principle as the free bridge of 1828. The South-Boston bridges, in particular, were the subject of meetings, debates, divisions, legislation, and great excitement. But South Boston committed the city to the principle that bridges are ways to be maintained, like other ways, out of the annual tax. Later on, in the case of the Charles-river bridges, the same principle was applied to structures connecting the city, not with another part of the city (South Boston), but with the municipalities on the other side of Charles river. Is it inconsistent in East Boston to ask for a free bridge, or, in default of that, for free ferries? To be sure, the people of Boston have had a free road to South Boston since 1828, and across Charles river since 1858 (for historical notes see the code of 1876, 64). To be sure, the city is rich ; but New York is richer, and the East-river bridge is not free. The people of Boston and the General Court have always had great faith in the city treasury, and the treasury has justified this con fidence. In addition, the city has. provided sumptuously for the suburbs whose inhabitants desired to do business in Boston. No wonder the proposition is now made that Boston build elevated roads, tunnels, and tracks of steel in order that the suburbs may have free access to the market they want, and none of the expense that main tains the great metropolis. Quarantine and City Physician. The city council of 1824, apparently anxious to delegate as little power as possible, and to increase the number of its servants, under took to do all the work previously transferred to the board of health. The astonishing ordinance of May 31, 1821 (code of 1827, 170), estab lished three coordinate health departments, — the city marshal, to take care of health in the city ; the commissioner of health, to take care of CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY 139 quarantine matters ; and the superintendent of burial grounds. This officer, Deacon Hewes, rose to some importance. The city owned the "funeral cars," and conducted the funerals, took care of the cemeteries, and the superintendent kept the mortality record. The ordinance re quiring the city to conduct funerals and to supply the funeral cars, continued until 1869, though the office of superintendent of burial grounds was changed, in 1849, to that of city registrar, which still con tinues (in 1893). This office is now devoted to the recording of births, marriages, and deaths, the former having been transferred from the city clerk's office. The department, it appears, came from the board of health (code of 1818, 73), to which it may return, unless departments are to be multiplied. The records of marriages and deaths in Boston are strikingly accurate ; those of births are not. If the registry depart ment has not served the cause of medical science or vital statistics, it has been careful of all records within its province, and accurate in essentials, the value of the papers being personal and legal, rather than medical. The board of health, established in 1799, had received from the selectmen all quarantine matters, and did very well. The early city government transferred the general supervision of the quarantine service to a commissioner, who was abolished in 1826 (code of 1827, 177). Of course, the board of health and the commissioner employed a physician to do the work; in 1826 the "resident physician," as they called him, was made the head of the quarantine service. He was called resident physician because he did not reside at the quarantine station, which was Rainsford island, as in the past. In 1841 the resi dent physician's title was changed to port physician ; he was required to vaccinate all suitable applicants, and he was virtually the city phy sician, though the mayor and aldermen fancied themselves to be the real board of health because they were the nominal board. In 1849 the office of city physician was established (Mun. Reg. for 1850, 85- 90) ; and the port physician was transferred to Deer Island, which was made the quarantine station, and was to contain the house of industry, the house of reformation, and other correctional establishments previ ously located at South Boston. The quarantine hospital was trans ferred, in 1866, to Gallop's island, the pearl of the harbor islands. From 1826 to 1849 Dr. J. V. C. Smith was the resident or port phy sician. He attended to his business, studied local history, and later on was mayor for two terms. Another city physician, Dr. S. A. Green, 140 BOSTON. was mayor in 1882. The wise ordinance of 1872 restored all quaran tine matters, all health matters, cemeteries, and kindred affairs to the board of health, which appoints its own physicians, and has done well, although its jurisdiction might be larger. In a large sense, quarantine and public health are not a municipal subject, perhaps ; but the Boston quarantine and health service is good. Public Lands. When Boston became a city, it held large tracts of land. Boston owned a township in Maine, and within the city limits it owned large estates at the north end, Fort Hill, and especially some 280 acres of neck lands, so called. These latter became the South End, a name that continued long after Roxbury had been annexed. By filling, the real estate of the corporation was greatly increased, and for sixty years the city was a large operator in the land market. From 1834 to 1880 it had a superintendent of lands, who performed the ministerial duties con nected with the preparation of the lands for the market, and their sale. The directing was done by committees, and on the whole it was well done. The system invited malfeasance, yet the city was not defrauded. The ordinance of 1834 (code of 1834, 298) required the superintendent of public lands to sign contracts and agreements, and in case he was prevented authorized the mayor to execute all legal instruments. This illustrates the view the city government took of its power. Nor was it strange that the committees on lands committed certain errors of judg ment, among them the costly blunder in the Suffolk-street district so called. This district covers the territory between Pleasant, Washing ton, Dover, and Tremont streets, about 31 acres, and was nearly all wrested from tide water. But the grade adopted was so low that when additional land was filled in, the Suffolk district could not be drained and was subject to overflows when the tide was high. It had to be raised at an expense of some $2,500,000. Yet when Middlesex street was accepted by the city, in 1831, who could foresee that the Back-Bay basin would be filled in as far as the mill dam, now Beacon street ? Very likely the city might have become rich, had its public lands been leased instead of sold. On the other hand, the committee contrived to sell the public lands for immediate improvements of the first order. The policy pursued was not the best, perhaps, but nobody was wronged. A government that does not wrong the people, has nothing to regret. The larger part of the streets laid out by the committee on lands has CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY. 141 borne the test of time, and continues among the best improved estates in Boston. The public lands of the city, not otherwise cared for, passed in 1880 to the street commissioners. Harbor. In 1847 the office of harbor master was established. In 1889 the office was wisely transferred to the board of police. The jurisdiction of the police has been gradually extended over the outer harbor as well, and over certain adjacent territory (St. 1864, ch. 50; 1868, ch. 168). The wonder is that no harbor police was had until 1847, and that hardly any harbor legislation was passed until 1837. Up to that time the harbor was generally treated as public property with which men might do as they chose, provided no individual was wronged. The result was that the harbor of Boston was greatly injured; for in the early days of the city the government of the United States did very little for harbors. Harbor lines, beyond which piers must not extend, were first established in 1837 (ch. 229) ; a map of the inner harbor, with a view to its preservation, was made by the Commonwealth in 1847; and early in the sixties, mainly at the suggestion of Mayor Lincoln, the harbor was surveyed, by the city of Boston, again with a view to its preservation and improvement. Since then the government of the United States has cared for the harbor with great liberality, while the Commonwealth regulates riparian interests, and the city performs police duty. This police duty, it is interesting to think, covers a hun dred square miles or more ; the original area of Boston proper was less than one square mile. The United States Coast Survey published its first chart of the Boston harbor in 1856. Minor Departments. In 1849 the city was first authorized to appoint coal weighers. The law is important to coal consumers, especially such as buy in very small quantities. The city commissions these sworn weighers by the score, and the arrangement works. From the outset the municipal "govern ment has supervised weights and measures with skill and care ; yet it would have been well to lodge the appointment of all weighers and measurers with the city sealer, and to attach the latter ,to the police department. The traditional phrase of the General Court in providing for municipal officers of a minor character vests their appointment in 142 BOSTON. the selectmen, or mayor and aldermen, respectively, the result being that the mayor of Boston has to appoint thousands of officers every year, or more than the greatest care of one man can readily supervise. The city government, on the other hand, made few attempts at con solidating departments and offices, the tendency being rather in the opposite direction, partly, perhaps, on the theory that all appointments have something of patronage about them, and that patronage is worth having. It may have been for some such reason, coupled with the dis like of novelty in public affairs, that Boston appointed a surveyor of hemp as late as 1850, and an assay master as late as 1857. The assay master had to certify, under the law of 1723, that distilleries did not use lead in their apparatus, and the surveyor of hemp had to certify, under an act which expired in 1738, that certain hemp and flax grown in this "province" were "of great service to the crown" (2 Prov. Laws, 737). Perhaps it was the love of creating departments that led the government of 1852 to make its messenger a sort of a department officer, and the Revised Ordinances of 1890 to establish the " city mes senger department." Of course, the city government had a messenger from the start, and the selectmen had under the Province, but without es tablishing a separate department. The superintendence and lighting of street lamps was the duty of the night watch up to 1854, the captain of the watch receiving an allowance as superintendent of lamps. When the watch was merged in the police department, in 1854, a separate lamp department, with a separate superintendent, was created, and is still continued, although the department might be a bureau under the superintendent of streets. The aldermen treated lamps as their special province, and the common council was unable to get a voice in the matter, the law of 1772 having authorized the selectmen to set up street lamps, and the aldermen having been made the heirs of the selectmen, although the city council had the sole right to create the office of superintendent of lamps. Truant Officers, In 1850 the mayor and aldermen appointed the first truant officers. In 1873 the appointment of these officers was wisely transferred to the School Committee, and in 1893 the appointment was confined to persons certified by the civil-service commissioners of the Commonwealth. In Colony days the selectmen were the truant officers; in 1735 the over seers of the poor had joint authority; when the city was established, CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY. 143 and Mayor Quiney had his struggle with the overseers of the poor, the city had a great many truant officers, namely, the mayor, every alder man, any director of the house of industry, any director of the house of reformation, anj^ overseer of the poor (Act of March 4, 1826, sec. 3; Act of March 21, 1843), the result being total neglect. Nominally the house of reformation, was the truant school; but the authorities of the public institutions were at "liberty to transfer inmates from one establish ment to another, and unable to effect a full separation of the vicious from the unfortunate. It has been intended to establish a parental school, especially for minors not simply criminal ; but the management has not been entrusted to the School Committee (St. 1886, ch. 282). The ancient confusion, therefore, continues ; for if there were a parental school, the commissioners of public institutions and the school com mittee would have joint authority over an establishment nominally parental, but correctional in fact. The subject falls properly under the care of the School Committee, which appoints the truant officers. Market Department. Under the interesting ordinance of September 9, 1852, the city ap pointed a superintendent of the Faneuil-Hall market, since called the superintendent of markets (Rev. Ord. of 1890, p. 67), and previously known as the clerk of the market, the first being chosen in 1649. This is, in one respect, the most interesting office under the city government. The modern city of the Germanic world owes its first character largely to market laws ; and a trace of these early laws still survives in Boston (Rev. Ord. of 1892, ch. 43, sec. 60). When markets became a neces sity, special laws for regulating them were required. The administra tion of these market laws and regulations was vested in the market towns; whence the piepowder courts, courts with summary proceed ings, and municipal courts, round which gathered the municipal rights and duties that distinguish a market town from other municipalities. The Boston market place retained the medieval law, and a part of it still reigns within the limits of the Faneuil-Hall market. Within these limits the ordinance of 1852 permitted free trade only two days before Thanksgiving and Christmas, respectively. The purpose of the market is to give the people of Boston the full advantage of open competition in the sale of perishable provisions, and to give the farmers within the neighborhood of Boston a certain advantage over distant rivals. A history of the market laws has not been written. In early English 144 BOSTON. cities the mayor was generally clerk of the market and judge of the piepowder court, whence his popular title "your honor," which still survives in Boston, by a sort of atavism (see G. L. Gomme's Index of Municipal Offices, 11). Water Department. Engineer and Surveyor. The Boston water supply has more interest as a financial and engin eering enterprise than in law. Up to the present time the work has cost nearly twenty-four million dollars, and is sufficiently vast to transcend mastery by one mind. The literature of the subject is a library. In 1825 the City ordered the first report upon the subject, and in 1834 Loammi Baldwin's famous report pointed to the supply that was taken. In 1846 the proper authority was obtained, and the work begun, Nathan Hale, James F. Baldwin, and Thomas B. Curtis being the commissioners who carried the Lake Cochituate supply to Boston, at an expense of four million dollars. The introduction of water was duty celebrated on October 25, 1848. In 1849 an ordinance established the Cochituate Water Board, to consist of a commissioner, an engineer, and a water registrar who, together with the committee on water, were to manage the great undertaking. In 1850 the board was so changed as to consist of an alderman, a member of the common council, and five citizens at large, who served without pay. The board was chosen by the city council, as were the city engineer and the water registrar, whose offices were created by the same ordi nance (Oct. 31, 1850). The city council, then, created three depart ments, where one would have sufficed. And yet the arrangement worked. The board was faithful, the engineer excellent, and the water registrar all that was wanted, as far as the assessment of water rates was concerned. The first report of the new board, issued in 1852, pre sented a good history of the establishment. The commissioners who built the works were also appointed by the city council, but they were paid. They, secured the service of E. S. Chesbrough, engineer, and overcame all obstacles occasioned by indif ferent regulations and divided authority. The act of 1S46, under which the work was done, is interesting, also, for the first mention of a sink ing fund in the history of the city government. The sinking fund was controlled by the mayor, treasurer, and auditor of the city, yet it was not well managed. Apparently a part of the water revenue was ex pended for new construction, and the sinking fund was supplied from CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY. 145 the general tax levy (see the auditor's annual report for 1879, p. 9). In 1877, therefore, this subject was transferred to the board of sinking- fund commissioners. The case shows that at times a good law may operate indifferently, and that an indifferent law will not prevent the right men from doing their duty. The union with Charlestown brought the Mystic water works under the control of the city, and led, in 1876, to the establishment of the Boston Water Board, consisting of three paid members, appointed for terms of three years, respectively, by the mayor, with the approval of the city council up to 1885, and the board of aldermen since. The ordinance provided, also, that the members of the board should not be directly or indirectly interested in any matter or thing connected with the water works (code of 1876, 941). The intent of the ordinance is obvious. Nor has it been necessary to construe the terms. The city has had good water, apparently at a fair price, and certainly without disgrace. The engineering department owed its origin to the water works, but the bridges, sewers, and parks made it an office of general importance, and the increase in street work led, in 1868, to the separate establish ment of the surveying department. This department should have remained a bureau under the city engineer ; but the betterment law of 1866 (ch. 174) gave added importance to the aldermen's committee on laying out and widening streets, and the city surveyor was made their clerk. But the " care and supervision" of the office were vested in a special committee, which fixed the salaries of the subordinates, and had the approval of their appointment and discharge. The same prin ciple was applied to the engineering department. The heads were elected by the city council for a year at the time. None the less both departments were efficient, possibly because the publicity of the super vision was a protection. Systematic work was not possible in offices that took their orders from "any committee of the city council," yet the city was well served. As the water department is supposed to pay for itself, it is an open question how far it should employ engineers and other officers paid entirely from the water revenue. Its sinking fund used to get replenished from the general tax levy, and some of its law, engineering, and other expenses are still charged to general appropria tions. On the other hand, the water revenue may be used, under the law (St. 1892, ch. 213), for new construction. To have made the water registrar an independent department, which assesses the water rates, seems odd, unless it is proper to multiply departments. 19 146 BOSTON. The Public Library. At the time when the popular interest in public schools was inflamed, the city of Boston received the gift of some books from Paris, and con cluded that these documents were a proper nucleus for a free public library. In 1848 the General Court authorized the city to expend not exceeding $5,000 a year for such a purpose. In 1850 Edward Everett offered a thousand volumes of public documents, and Mayor Bigelow $1,000. In 1851 the General Court authorized cities and towns to establish and maintain public libraries open to ' ' the inhabitants there of," Boston being allowed to expend $28,000 the first year, and about $7,000 a year for maintenance. In 1852 Mayor Bigelow suggested the appointment of a librarian, whose work began May 13, and of trustees, whose first report led Joshua Bates to offer $50,000 toward the library, the city to find a suitable building. In the same year the permanent board of trustees was organized under an ordinance which called also for the annual election of a librarian by the city council. In 1853 the General Court authorized the expenditure of $150,000 for the library, up to December 31, 1856, and $10,000 a year thereafter. In 1854 the library had the services of a librarian, who was chosen by the city council ; of trustees chosen in the same way ; of commissioners who were to provide the library building ; and of the usual committee, with the mayor left off. The circulating department was opened on May 2, 1854. On January 1, 1858, the library building in Boylston street was dedicated; in 1863 the trustees were authorized to appoint the librarian and superintendent, subject to the approval of the city council; in 1869 the trustees received authority to appoint their subordinates, but the city council was represented in the board up to 1885. The law limit ing the library expenses to $10,000 a year had been repealed in 1857, and in 1878 the trustees were incorporated, with leave to hold property up to $1,000,000. In 1880 the State gave a piece of land for the erection of a new library building, at the corner of Boylston and Dartmouth streets, the building to be erected within three years, and to be open to all the citizens of the Commonwealth. This estate has been added to by the city, and in 1887 the trustees were given entire control of the new building, its erection and management. In 1869 the city had authorized them to establish branch libraries ; but up to 1863 -the ordinance vested in the trustees only "the general care and control of the public library," and in the librarian its "immediate care and custody." So far from CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY. 147 preventing the growth of the establishment were the early ordinances, with their conflict of authority, that those were really the palmy, days of the library. The people had found a new idol, the municipality a new mission. The people were passionate in their attachment to the library, and a share of this early love continues, unchecked by the vast expenses incurred in recent years. Apparently the city expends more for its public library than does any imperial government. The services of the trustees are gratuitous. The Charter, 1822 to 1854. The charter of 1822 made the mistake of trying to adapt a city to town government. But the difference between direct self-government by the people and representative government is radical. The mistake of treating the two alike still haunts our municipal jurisprudence (Publ. Stat, ch. 28, sec. 2), and illustrates the conservatism of American democracy. If town government and its departments were sacred, they should have been retained, and Boston should not have become a city. Having become a city, the methods of town government should have been abandoned. The charter of 1822 failed in this, and by false conservatism increased the evils it meant to remedy. In theory the principle was established that the city council should have the powers of the town meeting, and that aldermen should have the powers of selectmen. The theory was wrong ; for a town meeting is essentially an administrative body, giving specific orders to its agents and servants, while the city council is not the agent and servant of the government, but itself the most important branch of the government. In substance, the charter placed the actual government of the city in the hands of eight aldermen, requiring them only to obtain in some matters the concurrence of the common council. Instead of dividing and distribut ing the power of the corporation, in a system of checks and balances, the charter provided for the continuance of town offices, and placed the real authority with the aldermen, who were not required to act as a board only, but had great power as individual aldermen. The framers of the charter were bound to draw a sharp line between legislative and administrative work in the city government; for the very purpose and essence of a representative government consists in "a government of laws, and not of men," as the Massachusetts declar ation of rights expressed it in 1780. In a town it is not necessary to legislate much, or to give many permanent orders, because the town 148 BOSTON. meeting may issue new orders at short notice. In a representative government legislation is of the utmost importance, because the direct self-government of men has been displaced by the indirect self-govern ment through law. In a city government that neglects municipal legislation, the administration will become irresponsible and reckless. Yet our charter of 1822 gave the city council chiefly administrative duties, and reserved the legislative work in good part to the General Court. The charter provided for ward officers, firewards, overseers of the poor, school committee, and the treasurer and auditor; and then vested in the corporation " the administration of all the fiscal, pruden tial, and mnnicipal concerns" (St. 1821, ch. 110, sec. 1). " The care, custody, and management of all the property of the city" were assigned to the city council (sec. 16), and " the administration of police, together with the executive powers " were vested in the mayor and aldermen (sec. 13). What wonder that every man named in the charter tried to administer and manage? What wonder that Mayor Quiney called the common council the legislative branch of the government, and the aldermen its executive board? What wonder that in the general en deavor to manage and administer, the mayor and the common council were crowded to the wall? What wonder that the city council neglected its legislative duties? It is a wonder that the charter did not work mischief. The government was saved, not by the merit of the charter, but by the character and integrity of the mayor and aldermen. The standard by which the charter of 1822 should be judged is not the constitution of a Massachusetts town, but the Constitution of the United States, which had been in operation for more than thirty years. Nor is there an essential difference between the governments of Boston and the United States. Both have limited powers ; the powers of both can be enumerated; both governments are representative and free. But the Constitution of the United States did not engage in any at tempt at saving the offices of the Confederation ; neither did it establish executive departments. It divided and distributed government power, and left the rest to Congress and the good sense of future generations. In more than a century it has not been very much changed ; the Boston charter of 1822 required amending in 1823, and had received more than fifteen amendments by 1854, when it was revised (see the code of 1850, 453-482). Yet it cannot be harder to make a constitution for a city than for a sovereign nation. The defect of our charter was the imper fect distribution of power, and the implication that the city council CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY. 149 might manage and administer, while the real legislative authority was to be exercised by the General Court. In defense of the framers it should be stated that the administrative sub-divisions of the Common wealth and the United States are as complicated and confusing as those of Boston, and that the fault lies with the legislative bodies that make them. But in the State and nation the fault is not constitutional; in Boston it is. This fault of our charter consisted in reserving to the General Court certain legislative functions that should have been en trusted to the city council, and in imposing upon the city council administrative duties which should have been withheld. In a repre sentative government it is fatal to let the same body legislate and administer. The population of Boston had increased from about 45,000, in 1822, to less than 160,000 in 1854; the taxes were less than $160,000 in the first year of the city; in 1853-54 they exceeded $1,500,000. The city did not inherit any town debt, and the county debt left to the city was $71,815; in 1854 the city owed more than seven million dollars, includ ing nearly two millions for general city purposes, except the water supply. Yet the government had been honest. It might have done better; but it was not to be expected that it should do better than the charter prescribed or permitted. And the charter prescribed that the city council should manage and administer in general, that the alder men should administer and manage in particular. They did ; and the people might have fared worse. The public schools, those idols of the plain people, are still managed by a committee of twenty-four, and are well managed, certainly with some ability, great fidelity, and entire integrity. General city affairs were equally well managed under the charter of 1822. To be sure, the early city councils were strikingly unfortunate in their ordinances, as is illustrated in the town code of 1827. But could city councils do much, when anybody and everybody might go to the General Court for Boston legislation ? The special laws relating to Boston, and passed by the General Court, are not less than six hundred, and one-fifth of the number was passed from 1822 to 1854. Such an arrangement must be ruinous to city-council work. And the common council was treated with peculiar contempt. The charter did not intend to give the common council concurrent jurisdiction, which is the greatest protection against haste, negligence, and corruption. In 1847 the mayor and aldermen as a board were authorized to make penal by-laws, known as regulations ; and the charter revision of 1854 150 BOSTON. made the municipal power of aldermen supreme, save where they shared it with joint committees. But the responsibility for the unhappy arrangements rests with the General Court. The members of the city government must answer for individual shortcomings, if any; the system, the government, the constitution of the city were not of their making. These were made and marred at the State House. Attempts at Reform, 1822-1854. When matters did not go to the satisfaction of the people, it was customary, in the early days of the city charter, to hold meetings at Faneuil Hall, under sec. 25 of the city charter. Mayor Quiney thought well of these meetings, and considered them a continuation of the old town meeting. They were nothing of the kind. The town meeting could order the town officers; the " general meetings " authorized by sec. 25 of the city charter might advise or censure, but had no power that bound anybody. Anybody could hold such meetings, and any body could advise or censure the city government, charter or no charter. Those general meetings merely show how useless it was to retain the form of town government, when the substance was gone. Accordingly a new way at reform had to be found. It became cus tomary to get an act passed by the General Court, and to let the people vote upon its acceptance. Of course, the people usually rejected such acts, save where some substantial gain was offered. An act enabling the mayor and aldermen to choose one of their own number superin tendent of police, as under the town, and to order ward meetings to be held outside the respective wards (6 Spec. Laws, 84), fell by its own weight. So did a btiilding law, passed in 1827 (1. c, 564), which called for non-combustible or slow-burning architecture, but gave the mayor and aldermen great latitude. In Mayor Eliot's day the people were twice invited to vote on charter amendments proposed by the city government (city doc. 21 of 1837, doc. 5 of 1838). The amendments were rejected. The reason why these measures were rejected is apparent. The people favor what they think advantageous ; all else they view with indifference or opposition. It was not to be expected, in the early years of the city charter, that the people would add to the power of the mayor and aldermen. Why should they? The charter amendments of 1837 and 1838 proppsed tp transfer the election of the overseers of the poor from the people to the city council. Why should the people CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY. 151 support such a proposition? A more radical measure might have been approved, provided some public gain was to be made. How discrimin ating a popular vote may be, was illustrated by the treatment of St. 1852, ch. 266. The people rejected the offer to choose aldermen and assistant assessors by wards, but gave the common council concurrent authority, with the mayor and aldermen, when more than $5, 000 was to be expended on a county building, or in laying out a street. The people decided correctly that it was immaterial whether they had eight •or twelve aldermen, and whether these aldermen were chosen by wards or at large, but that the power vested in the board of aldermen was an important matter, and that concurrent authority should be vested in the common council. Unlike the student or lawyer, the people are in different as to form ; they are disposed to trust, and are not jealous of power where power is properly vested and exercised. They are dis posed to delegate much, and are not pining for the Swiss referendum. But they insist that government shall be orderly and efficient. If the government be orderly, efficient, and creditable, the people are ready to support, to bear much, and to forgive something. But the people have an intuitive dislike for measures not transparently clear and useful. The reforms proposed from 1822 to 1854 were a matter of form, and for that reason could not command public respect. Nobody floundered more than the members of the government, ex cept the eight aldermen. They used the power they had, and did not complain. They said very little, and during the period under discus sion did not even publish their rules of procedure, if they had any. They acted as a legislative board, as a branch of the city council, as an executive board, and as individual executives. The common council demanded more power, but met with opposition both quiet and effect ive. The concession made by the aldermen consisted in the appoint ment of joint committees, which rose to such importance that they figure in the charter of 1854 (sec 40). The charter amendments of 1837 and 1838 had proposed that either branch of the city council, or any committee thereof, should have power to lease or sell city property. This passion for committees was honestly inherited. Under the town, orders were usually carried out by committees. Indeed, the selectmen were a standing committee of the town meeting. Under the city charter all executive and administrative work should have been done, as since 1885, by paid officers. The members of the city council were not so anxious to do work as they were willing to supervise and direct 152 BOSTON. the work of others, to help in selecting these others, to wield patron age, and to dine or celebrate at the public expense. They have been bitterly denounced for this ; but they did not create the absurd system that required the city council to give orders and to manage the execu tion. The chief sufferer was the mayor. Mayor Bigelow explained this with insight when he retired in 1852. The duties of the mayor, he said after three years' experience, should be purely of an executive character, whereas he presided over the board of aldermen, the school committee, and many other committees, to the exclusion of adminis trative work. As a member of these bodies he had one vote, and no more. He had no veto power, and as an executive he had about the same power as an alderman, except that he nominated police officers, undertakers, and weighers. Mayor Bigelow (see doc. 80 of 1851) was the first to point out the true reform. Charter of 1854. Mayor Bigelow had pointed out that the mayor should be an execu tive officer, and that he should not be a member of the board of alder men and the school committee. The city goverment of 1854 undertook to act upon this hint, the outcome being the charter of 1854, which is still in force, though literally reformed by many amendments. The immediate impulse for the new charter came from Mayor Smith and Henry J. Gardner, prominent members of the Native American part}7. There is no reason why such a party might not produce a good charter. But the charter was drafted under directions from the city council, and the city council was not likely to deprive itself of the administrative powers conferred by the charter of 1822. Nor were the times favorable to sound legislation. The Constitutional Convention of the State, assembled in 1853, had failed of success; the Commonwealth was divided into three or more parties, none of which commanded a majority, and Boston was more divided than the Commonwealth. The contest for the mayoralty, in 1853, had been led by a Whig, a Prohibition ist, and a Know-Nothing, the last named being elected on the third trial. This contest led the General Court to establish the principle of election by plurality vote in all town, city, and county elections, in the place of elections by majority vote that had been in force up to that time (St. 1854, ch. 39). That the General Court should improve the charter submitted by the city council, was not to be expected. It was not apt to have better views of a city charter than the men of Boston. CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY. 153 The new charter, as first proposed, placed the election of the school committee under the control of the city council. This was expunged. In order to make the mayor an executive officer, he was deprived of his vote in the board of aldermen, over whom he was to preside ; and it was decided that the term "mayor and aldermen" should virtually mean "aldermen," except that the mayor was to have the qualified veto power over formal votes of the- board or the city council, and that he should continue to nominate a few petty officers whose appointment was vested in the mayor and aldermen. These he might also remove. But all important officers, save the police, were chosen and removed by the city council. Over the executive power vested in the aldermen the mayor had no control. Indeed, the only new power given to the mayor was the qualified veto ; but every alderman could nominate officers, give information to the city council, direct the department officers, and watch the execution of the laws and orders. The charter was just such an instrument as the aldermen wished, and ought not to have had. It made the mayor a figure head of the administration, it con firmed and increased the power of the aldermen, and virtually estab lished government by legislative committees. The provision that ordinances might carry a penalty up to $50, has not been carried, out by the city government. But a term of three years was wisely estab lished for members of the school committee. The number of aldermen was increased to twelve, but the plan of electing them by wards was rejected by the people. As nothing better was offered, the people accepted the charter, but in alight vote. The yeas were 9,166, the nays 990; the population of the city more than 150,000. The proposed election of aldermen by wards was rejected by 5,138 votes, against 4,833 in its favor. At the previous city election more than 13,000 ballots were cast. The common council attempted to get the same pewer as the board of aldermen, but failed. Public opinion acquiesced in the idea that municipal business was mainly administrative, that aldermen were the legitimate administrative officers, like selectmen in towns, and that common councilmen might possibly do the work of minor town officers who did not draw pay. The common council itself supported this position by giving much attention to purely administrative work, to the neglect of municipal legislation. The lawyers seemed partial to the prerogative of aldermen, and the germ of power entrusted to the com mon council was never allowed to develop beyond the state of a modest 20 154 BOSTON. bud. Yet the city council had the power of towns, aldermen had only the power of selectmen, and towns were not obliged to employ select men as their agents for every kind of town business. The philosophy and jurisprudence of the charter were neglected in the general attempt of the city council to administer and manage as much as possible, and to avoid theoretical questions. In this misplaced endeavor the common council could not compete with the aldermen. It fought for executive rights; the more important field of legislation was neglected, and the great constitutional problems of municipal government were not touched. In fact, whenever important legislation was desired for the city, application was made to the General Court, and the General Court, always partial to special legislation, rarely refused to consider problems which should have been solved by the city government. The aldermen worked night and day, the common councilmen were faithful, the people could not understand their government. Its fault was not want of integrity or diligence, but constitutional. The mayor, who should have had full executive power, was confined to ornamental speeches. The city council, which should have legislated for all mu nicipal departments and concerns, was required by the charter to admin ister and manage, and the General Court never hesitated to legislate for the city of Boston. The city, therefore, had three legislatures, — two at city hall, another at the State House. For the aldermen could legislate without the concurrence of the common council. The mayor was to be "taken and deemed" the chief executive officer; but the ex ecutive powers of the corporation were vested in the aldermen (not in the board of aldermen) ; yet the city council was to appoint the prin cipal city officers, and had the care, custody, and management of all city property, as well as " the administration of all the fiscal, pruden tial, and municipal concerns." The lawyers decided that cities were " created " by the General Court, and the people were too civil to find fault with their creators at the State House, but blamed the city government when taxes or debts were too high, or improvements too slow. They demanded the best that money would buy, and insisted that taxes must be low. With few exceptions all public expenses were met from the general tax levy or loans, and there is still a lurking belief that a government may be rich while taxes are low, or that skill and influence can get improvements for which the beneficiary need not pay. As the city could assess taxes and incur debts without limit, it is greatly to the credit of the city governments and their committees CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY. 155 that the people who pay the bills fared so well. Surely, worse things might have come from a city council that both levied and disbursed the tax, and could borrow millions to satisfy the popular cry for the latest improvements. Future generations will marvel when they read the Boston charter of 1854. City Hospital. Before the charter of 1854 went into the effect, the machinery for governing the city was complete. Great ingenuity in establishing a variety of conflicting departments and city organs had been shown. The departments created since then might have been made a part of some department to which the people were accustomed ; but the Gen eral Court and the city council were determined to create a new depart ment for every kind of work that could be entrusted to new officers and at least one governing committee. From time immemorial the town had established a hospital when occasion required, and the Province had a regular establishment on Rainsford island. This hospital was at first kept by the Province; it was then kept by the town at the expense of the Province; finally it was ingeniously transferred, to Boston. When Boston indicated a willingness to establish a permanent hospital, nominally for emergency cases, the General Court hastened to grant permission (St. 1858, ch. 113). ' The usual committees were appointed; in addition a board of trustees was created, and on May 24, 1864, the city hospital was dedicated. The late Elisha Goodnow had left a bequest of $26,000 for a hospital to be erected in or near South Boston, half the income to be used for free beds ; in 1862 the city pro vided for a board of trustees of the hospital ; the building was erected under the joint management of the committee on public buildings, the committee on the city hospital, and the trustees. Between them they laid a very broad foundation, thpugh Thomas C. Amory, jr. , chairman of the trustees, confessed at the dedication that, ' ' were we permitted, with our present experience, to recommence our task, the control would be left with a single committee, and to fewer minds" (1864, city doc. 40, 31). The city hospital has become a whole colony, with more than twenty buildings, and an annual requirement of not less than $250,000 for maintenance. It is well managed, and one of the few city departments that have undertaken to enrich knowledge, and not simply to consume. In 1880 the trustees, now five in number, were incorporated, and have 156 BOSTON. "the general care and control" of the hospital with all its branches, training school, convalescent home, and out-patient departments. Yet when this enterprise was proposed, in 1849, so distinguished a man as Dr. D. Humphreys Storer, whose opinion was entitled to attention, de clared that the institution was not required, and that he was not the only physician who held that view. Mr. Amory comforted his dedica tion audience in advance, ' ' if our beds are not immediately in requisi tion," with the statement that the Massachusetts General Hospital re ceived its first patient on Sept. 3, 1821, and "no other application be fore the twentieth." Of course, a hospital offering the best treatment free of expense was not to be wholly without applicants. The building, when delivered to the trustees for use, had cost $350,000; the expense in the first year thereafter was $113,437, a large part of this being bor rowed, while the building was erected almost entirely from borrowed money. The city thus committed itself to expenses not exclusively of a public nature, and the General Court consented. The people rejoiced, and look upon the city hospital with almost the same delight they take in the Public Library. The trustees are not paid, they are appointed for five years each, and they collect from patients that are able to pay. The city council leaves the management of the hospital entirely to the trustees. East Boston Ferry. In view of the money devoted by the city to the hospital and the pub lic library, which were not municipal necessities, as defined by munic ipal jurisprudence, it seems surprising that the East Boston ferry, though owned and operated by the city, should continue as a toll ferry. In old times the East-Boston ferry, when operated, was a part of the Chelsea ferry, which was in private hands. The first regular ferry to East Boston appears to have been established in 1833. In 1852 the East-Boston Ferry Company bought the ferry then in operation for $200,000, the city was to prescribe the duties of the company and the tolls, provided the latter netted eight per cent, on the capital invested, which might be $300,000. The act of incorporation held out the hope of a free ferry, to be established by the city. In 1870 the city bought the ferry property for $275,000, and the enabling act again held out the hope of a free ferry. In 1877 the city council voted to make the ferry free, but the Supreme Court of Massachusetts ruled such a vote to be illegal. Whether or not the city might have established a free ferry in CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY. 157 1870, under St. 1869, ch. 155, is undecided, although the presumption is against free ferries, as far as the science of jurisprudence is con cerned. The question would be free from doubt, were East Boston an other town or city; but it has been a part of Boston since 1637, and the right of the city to build a free bridge to East Boston is not to be doubted, provided authority from the General Court is obtained. The ferry has cost the Boston tax payers about $2,000,000. (See St. 1852, 244; 1868, 352; 1869, 155; Chief Justice Gray's decision in 123 Mass. Rep., 460). The ordinance of April 17, 1891, wisely transferred the management of the ferry from a board of commissioners or directors, appointed annually, to one superintendent. Another ferry, conducted by a railroad company, connects the city proper with East Boston. Parks. In 1870 the people of Boston voted upon an act (St. 1870, ch. 283) under which a board of nine park commissioners, four to be appointed by the State, should lay out one or more parks, the annual cost of maintenance not to exceed $50,000. Two-thirds of the voters were to accept the act to make it binding upon the city. The vote was 9,233 in favor, and 5,916 opposed; so the measure failed. After the annexa tions of 1874 another act, under which three park commissioners, appointed by the mayor and city council, were to establish parks within the city limits, was accepted by the light vote of 3,706 yeas, to 2,211 nays, a majority vote to decide. The act did not contain any limitations, except that expenses were to be kept within appropriations made by the city council. The park commissioners have never received a salary ; yet the city has had good service. A fine system of parks has been projected, and is in part complete. Not including the common, the public garden, and the public squares, the parks cover nearly three square miles, and the cost, up to January 31, 1893, was about $11,500,000. The General Court and the city government have been equally lavish in this matter, and the city has received an equiva lent for its great outlay. The city government has very little to do with the parks, beyond authorizing the loans and expenditures. But the common, the public garden, and,other public grounds, to the extent of about 140 acres, with some thirty thousand trees, remain under the care of the city government and its superintendent of public grounds, an office established as early as 1841, and important since the public 158 BOSTON. garden has been made a delight to all comers. The parks and these public grounds might well be under one management. Review of Executive Departments. This ends the list of the great spending departments. Other depart ments created since the charter of 1854 are certain cemeteries; the in spection of milk and vinegar, which has proved a benefit ; the commis sioners of the Charles-river bridges ; the inspection of buildings, which looks after the safety of all houses and other buildings in the city, and has had the benefit of very much legislation from the General Court, but has been useful; the inspection of provisions; the record commis sioners, who have published important documents of the early local government ; the city architect ; and even an art commission. In 1870 the laying out and widening of streets was transferred from the alder men to the board of three street commissioners, elected by the people ; and in 1874 the registration of voters was transferred from the alder men to a board of three registrars, appointed by the mayor and alder men, who could not properly attend to such things. In 1871 a superin tendent of printing was appointed, whose duties, however, are minis terial. In 1875 the collecting department was separated from the treasury. But, on the whole, the city government prefers not to mul tiply administrative departments, and in 1891 an interesting consolida tion of the bridge, sewer, and sanitary-police departments with the street department was effected. Still there are some thirty-five coor dinate departments directly amenable to the mayor, not counting the schools, the county officers, the police, and numerous officers paid by fees. The number of appointments made annually by the mayor and aldermen is nearly three thousand, and the number of persons in the service of the city about three times that number. It is due to the city government to state that most of the city depart ments are created by the General Court. When a public want arises, and the General Court acts at all, it usually creates a new municipal department, as far as Boston is concerned ; for some new duty of town officers in the nature of things means a new department in the city of Boston. In addition, the city has «many wants that do not arise else where. The result is an administrative machinery of vast extent and extremely complicated, but with this element of unity that the expense is assessed upon the Boston tax payers. County expenses are pre scribed almost wholly by the General Court, and defrayed by the city. CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY. 159 For years past they have exceeded a million dollars annually. The school expense averages above two millions a year, and is appropriated by the city council in bulk, to be expended by the school committee. In the appointment of the police force, the city has no voice, but it bears the expense, which exceeds a million dollars a year. The ex penditures of the departments under the control of the city govern ment are mostly fixed charges. Yet nearly every administrative de partment, and nearly every expenditure, have been created at the re quest of the tax payers. They have demanded the best, and they have borne the cost with, astonishing ease. With the exception of the nomi nal poll tax, the city collects nearly every tax it assesses ; and the pay ments are prompt. Yet owing to the fact that the people of Boston de mand more and receive more, their taxes are the highest in the coun try. Since the charter of 1854 our population has trebled; our tax has sextupled; yet the community bears the burden without apparent dif- 'ficulty. But it dislikes special assessments. It prefers that the munici pality shall do as much as possible, and that the cost shall be de frayed from the general tax levy. Under the law of 1890 all subordinates hold their places during good behavior, and since the charter of 1854 the rule of annually appointing all heads of departments has been in .part abandoned. A slight begin ning has been made in reducing departments to divisions of a depart ment, the advantage being, not economy, but better supervision, greater stability, and less contact with political appointments. For in an important sense appointments made by the mayor are more or less political appointments. Perhaps the administrative machinery of the city could be reduced to a few departments, the political heads of which might come and go with every mayor, while all division heads and their subordinates would serve during good behavior. The United- States Treasury shows that all financial departments of the city might be safely united under one head. Such a department of finance should include the assessors of taxes as bureau officers, and might include the registration of voters, because the assessing and collecting departments have the best knowledge of persons in the city. A great health de partment might include the city hospital, the inspection of food for man and beast, all cemeteries, and the entire registry of births, mar riages and deaths. The public library, the publication of early records, and printing naturally go together, and have very much in common with our system of schools. The great departments of police, fire, in- 160 , BOSTON. spection of buildings, weighers, and medical examiners could be joined. The departments of relief, correction and prisons should be consoli dated. Finally there would be, or could be, a department of public works, comprising streets, sewers, bridges, parks, lighting^ public buildings, the city engineer and surveyor, the architect, the water division, and the ferries, together with the board of survey, and all administrative work now assigned to the street commissioners. It is not unreasonable that with a new mayor there should be six or eight, but not exceeding ten, new heads of departments. It is contrary to reason that such officers as the city architect, assessors of taxes, the engineer and surveyor, the water registrar, the superintendent of printing, or the city registrar should be quasi-political officers. An officer elected by the people, or appointed by the mayor and aldermen, is almost inevitably a political officer. When the people elect a new mayor, they practically declare that he may select all officers for whose conduct he is respcnsible. In order to eliminate party politics from the service, therefore, it is important that as few offices as possible should be elective, or subject to the pleasure of the appointing power, and that as many offices as possible, including all ministerial offices, should be taken out of party politics. It is important, also, that the adminis trative machinery of the municipal service be simplified. The admin istrative branch of a government should resemble a pyramid. To command popular interest, the system of administration must be in telligible. The laws that govern Boston are more complicated than the laws that govern the United States ; our executive departments are more numerous ; supervision is more difficult. The reason is apparent. We have but one national legislature; the city has three or four. There is but one national administration ; the administrative officers of Boston carry into effect the Regulations of the Board of Aldermen, the Ordinances of the City Council, the statutes of the General Court, the laws of Congress, and the directions of the mayor. No wonder, the reformers despair when they undertake to deal with municipal govern ment. The Balance of Municipal Power. This fact, that the spending officers of the. city are the servants of so many masters, and that the supreme master, the voter and tax payer, is so exacting, is the chief reason why taxes in Boston are high, and why the municipality does many things that are elsewhere left to CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY. 161 private enterprise, and for that reason do not appear in the tax levy. The tax payer and the municipal government stand, to some extent, in the relation of principal and agent, or master and servant. Accord ingly the municipal government cannot be judged justly without some attention to the public that clamors for improvements and is willing to pay the cost ; though some persons demand generous expenses and low taxes. To reduce the general tax levy, the betterment law was passed in 1866 (St. 174). It was to let abutters bear a part of public improve ments; but has not worked well. In theory common sewers were to be paid for by the abutting estates ; but collections have been light. Even the parks were to be paid for, in part, by abutters; the object has not been obtained. When municipal expenses became enormous, under the joint influence of inflation, annexation, and the fire of 1872, the General Court limited municipal indebtedness by statute (St. 1875, ch. 209), ordaining that Massachusetts cities and towns should not owe above three per centum of their taxable property as valued by the assessors, though communities owing between two and three per centum of the assessed valuation might incur another one per centum of debt. The same law required sinking funds to be established. Ten years later, the debts as well as the taxes of Boston were re stricted by a law of Spartan rigor (St. 1885, ch. 178); but the General Court itself forced numerous exceptions upon the city. The net debt of the city in 1893 (gross funded debt, less cash available for redemp tion) is not far from four per cent, of the assessed valuation, and the amount required in 1892-3 for interest and sinking funds exceeded four million dollars. The city government is not alone responsible for this ; neither is a stringent law a protection against lavish expenditures. Indeed the city government has been carefully protected. The city charters of 1821 and 1854 made members of the city council ineligible for salaried city offices. In 1884 members of the city council were made ineligible for such offices during the term for which they were elected. In 1850 they passed an ordinance making void all sales and contracts, purchases and agreements in which a member of the city council or an officer of the city had any private interest, director indirect (Ordin. of Dec. 23, 1850). The civil-service law (St. 1884, ch. 320, sec. 13) made it impossible for the members of the city council to charge wine or tobacco to the city, or more than a dollar a day for meals. The legis lators appear to have felt that personal economy in members of the city government might promote municipal frugality. But a few 21 162 BOSTON. thousand dollars saved on municipal dinners or carriages are a small item in municipal expenditures that exceeded twenty-one million dol lars in 1892-3. The real expenditures are demanded by the city gov ernment, by the General Court, and by the public, though it is customary to chide aldermen and common cpuncilmen, when ecpnomy, retrenchment, and reform are in demand. Up to 1885 the annual city councils controlled municipal expendi tures, and are responsible for much that happened, though both the General Court and the public demanded much. Under a feeling that the city must be protected, as though it could not protect itself, the power of the city council, and especially the board of aldermen, was gradually curtailed. The establishment of the board of street commis sioners, in 1870, is a good illustration. It transferred the right of laying out and widening streets from the aldermen to the street com missioners. Other executive departments were created at the expense of power which the charters of 1822 and 1854 had vested in the city council. The last favor shown by the General Court to the city council was in 1864, when the election of overseers of the poor was transferred from the people to the city council. The aldermen enjoyed the highest degree of power from 1847 to about 1876, and vast power up to 1885. But they gradually lost ground. Misled by a foolish charter they undertook too much ; the result was inevitable distrust. In 1884 the law requiring the election of aldermen by districts was passed. It has not proved specially beneficial, nor at all injurious, for the reason that it cannot make any material difference whether an alderman is chosen by one-twelfth of the city or by the whole. The smaller States send at least as good men to Washington as do the large States, and a limited district is as apt to choose well as is a much larger district. But before the law of 1884 could produce results of importance, the storm that had gathered over the board of aldermen and its despised brethren of the common council, burst forth. It was to be a hurricane. The great wrong of the charters of 1822 and 1854 was to be redressed at last. The power of the aldermen was to be placed between the upper and the nether millstone. The Balance of Power Recast. In 1883 Benjamin F. Butler had been Governor of Massachusetts, to the sorrow of all conservatives in a State that thought well of the past. In 1884 and 1885, therefore, the General Court undertook to repair all H CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY. 163 the mischief that had brought the political aspirant to the head of affairs for a twelvemonth. In those two years the constitution of Bos ton was revolutionised. Boston had supported Butler; in 1884 it had occasioned a tax rate of 17 per mille, against 14.50 in 1883. This led the tax payer to demand reform. In addition, the city was Democratic ; the State was not ; the General Court was overwhelmingly Republican. The time was favorable to radical measures. The civil-service law of 1884 destroyed the favorite patronage of the Boston city council, by placing the clerical and labor force of the city under the rules of the Commonwealth. The law made it illegal fer members of the city council to recommend the appointment of policemen, firemen, laborers in the street or clerks in offices, on any political or personal ground. Most of the sections in this good law showed the temper of the General Court by beginning with the word "No." In 1885 the law limiting the debt and the tax of Boston was passed (ch. 178), leaving the city council no latitude in making appropriations, the tax available under the limit (nine per thousand of the average assessed valuation for cur rent expenses, exclusive of the debt and the State tax) being impera tively required for the fixed expenditures of the city. Indeed, under the new law the appropriating power could only decide whether the reduction in the income of the city should reduce the outlay for paving, for sewers, for the salary of teachers or something similar. It was a cast-iron law ; but cast iron is not as enduring as a watch-spring, nor so useful. In 1885 (St. 323) the appointment of the police board was transferred from the city to the Commonwealth, and the famous act of May 27 (St. 266) drew the line between executive and legislative work of the city government, as prescribed in the Massachusetts declaration of rights, in the Constitution of the United States, and in the very phrases that school children use when they speak of their government. The act of 1885 repeated the language of the charters, and then vested all execu tive and administrative power of the city government in the mayor, to be exercised through the many executive and administrative depart ments which the past had brought forth. By a stroke of the pen, the executive power exercised by the city council, but especially by the aldermen, who would not concede equal rights to the common council, was transferred to the mayor. For more than sixty years he had been very little else than head alderman, or the presiding officer of the cor poration ; on June 26, 1885, when the new law took effect, he became 164 BOSTON. an officer of .very great power. He was made the appointing power, though the board of aldermen was wisely given the power of confirma tion ; he might veto separate items in appropriation bills ; he was made supreme in. all administrative duties, the heads of departments being his servants, whom he could remove at pleasure, and the members of the city council expressly debarred from participation in the executive work of the city, such as the employment of labor, the making of con tracts, the purchase of supplies, the repair of a sidewalk, the care of public property, or the expenditure of public money. Neither an alder- derman, nor the whole city council, could issue binding orders or in structions to an administrative department, which thenceforth took its directions from the mayor alone. Government by committee thus came to an end m Boston sooner than in the Commonwealth, and more radically than in the government of the United States. The General Court acted on the theory, carefully expressed in the Boston charters (St. 1821, ch. 110, sec. 30; 18-54, ch. 448, sec. 62), that municipalities are the creatures of the State, and that the will of the General Court is the real charter of the proud city. Fortunately, the nature of things sets a limit to theories. In theory the General Court creates cities ; in fact cities grow ; , and the best legis lature can but recognise and try to regulate. In theory Boston was made a constitutional monarchy, with the General Court for its legis lative branch ; in fact the General Court cannot legislate for everything in Boston, because in the nature of things the General Court cannot be familiar with all the interests of the city government, and prudent men hesitate to regulate what they do not understand: In theorythe mayor of Boston is the master of the many millions the household of the city requires ; in fact he has less than his households wants. In theory he holds " the executive powers of the city " (St 1885, ch. 266, ch. 6); in fact, many powers of a purely executive nature, as to schopls, police, county affairs, parks, great public buildings, and even the erection of petty monuments, are past his control. But he is not the servant of the city council ; neither can the city council act independently of the mayor. Indeed, real action and execution rest with the mayor; and his authority is derived from the General Court, rather than from the city council. Like so many of his appointees he executes stat utes rather than ordinances, and he is not required to give an ac count of his stewardship to the powers that have created his preroga tive. CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY. 165 As neither jurisprudence nor political philosophy has drawn the ex act line between executive and legislative functions, the city council of Boston should not be censured for neither understanding nor admiring the law of 1885. Surveyors of highways appear to be executive of ficers; the law of 1885 vests the executive powers of the surveyors in the mayor, and appears to leave their legislative power in the board of aldermen. But what is the power of a surveyor of highways that is not executive ? A similar question applies to the whole charter amend ment of 1885. The charter of 1822 had vested in the city "the admin istration of all the fiscal, prudential, and municipal concerns of said city, with the conduct and government thereof " (sec. 1). In 1885 the administration was clearly transferred to the mayor; what, then, was left to the city council ? The inaugural message of Mayor Matthews, in 1892, gives this answer: " The chief function of the city council, as the legislative branch of the city government, is to determine the amounts of money which the executive departments shall be authorized to expend during the year, and the manner in which the money shall be raised. " That is, under sharp limitations the city council has a voice as to appropriations and loans (for since 1885 the tax always goes up to the limit then prescribed). No doubt, the city council has other pow ers; but it has not yet recovered from the hurricane of 1885. Nor is this strange. Chapter 266 of 1885 destroyed the traditions that began with Boston itself; it destroyed the belief that towns were the true model for city government ; it destroyed the very theory of munici pal government on which all New England was brought up. For after all had been said about the General Court being a creator of municipal government, the fact remained that towns had some rights, that they were the organs and the constituents of the Commonwealth, and that the town delegates of 1779 had made the Constitution of the State. The city council suddenly found itself deprived of the only power it valued, and that was the administrative power of the charter. The legislative power the city council knew to be slight. Hence its sorrow, unrelieved by public pity. But since 1888 the aldermen receive an annual salary of $1,500 each; the common councilmen do not. Conclusion. After two centuries of town government, the power of which was felt by the British crown, and after more than sixty years under a city charter that was thought to preserve what was best in town govern- 166 BOSTON. ment, — for the charter of 1854 was merely an amplification of the first charter, — the city of Boston has virtually a government in which the powers are divided as the theories of Locke and Montesquieu, of John Adams and Alexander Hamilton require. The city has an executive head with ample powers. The judiciary, of course, is reserved to the Commonwealth, because the judicial power cannot be municipal, and for that reason should not be vested in a municipal government The legislative power is nominally vested in the city council ; in fact it is chiefly exercised by the General Court, in a long and bewildering set of general and special laws. Where the General Court has left the requisite power, the city council may act. But the General Court does not acknowledge any inherent or natural rights of the great corporation which we call the city of Boston. Jurisprudence sustains the position of the General Court. History teaches a different lesson. It shows clearly and impressively that there is a line to be drawn between munici pal and State interests, and that municipal concerns should be left to the municipalities that pay the cost, and must share in their honor or their shame. The political history of all great states shows also that free municipalities, ffe'e to flourish, and free to suffer, are the nursery of citizens and statesmen fit to govern a free Commonwealth and a free people. CHRONOLOGY OF THE BOSTON GOVERNMENT. 1628-9, March 4-14. — Massachusetts Colony charter. 1630, Sept. 7-17.— " Trimontaine shalbe called Boston." " -1634. — Earliest officers appointed: Constables, watchmen, sur veyors of highways(?) " — Municipal and calendar years begin in March. 1634. — Breed's and Long islands annexed to Boston. " — Wharfinger chosen. 1635-6, March 3. — Quarter courts established. " " — General charter of towns. 1636, Aug. 15. — Water bailiffs chosen (shore police). " Nov. 15. — Hogreeve chosen. 1636-7, March 9-19. — East Boston annexed. 1641. — Town recorder (called town clerk in 1692-3, under 1 Prov. L., 65). " — Town treasurer. 1643. — Selectmen first called by that name in the town records. CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY. 167 1645. — First annual election of selectmen. 1647-8. — Sealers of leather chosen. 1649-50. — -Clerks of the market chosen. 1650. — -Sealer of weights and measures appointed. 1652-3. — -Packer of flesh and fish chosen. 1655. — Corders of wood chosen. " — General Court authorizes appointment of sworn measurers of corn, wood, and boards. 1659. — -Moderator for town meeting. 1660. — Almshouse ordered by town. Built north of Common. " — Fence viewers authorized by Massachusetts code. 1663-4. — Cullers of fish chosen; also, of staves. 1665-6. — Measurer of salt chosen. 1667-8. — Scavengers chosen. 1677. — Tithingmen to be appointed (police). 1690-1, March 9. — Overseers of poor chosen. 1691, October 7.— Massachusetts Province charter. 1692, November 16. — General town charter from the Province. 1694. — Assessors first chosen. 1699-1781.— Superior Court of Judicature. " -1782. — Province Court of Common Pleas. " -1822. — Court of sessions. 1705. — Brookline set off from Boston. 1710. — Appointment of hay weighers required. 1711. — Appointment of firewards authorized. 1712, February 1. — Firewards appointed. 1713 and 1715. — First division of town into eight wards. 1718. — Quarantine transferred to selectmen. Hospital at Spectacle island. 1723-1857 (?)— Assay masters (for distilleries). 1734-5-1850. — Surveyor of hemp and flax. 1735. — Establishment of twelve wards. 1737-1849. — Quarantine hospital at Rainsford island. 1738. — Hay weigher appointed. 1739.— Hay scales built at South End. " — Chelsea set off. 1742, December 27. — First town meeting in FaneuiJ Hall. 1745-1824. — Firewards elected by the people. 1762-1775.— Wardens (Sunday police). 168 BOSTON. 1764. — Deer reeves (to enforce close season). 1772. — Overseers of the poor incorporated. " — Lamp department authorized. 1776, March 5. — Boston town meeting at Watertown. " July 4. — Declaration of Independence. 1780. — Massachusetts State Constitution. 1781. — Superior Court of Judicature changed to Supreme Judicial Court of the Commonwealth. 1782-1821.— Court of Common Pleas (not for Suffolk County 1814-21). , 1786, March 23. — General State charter for towns. " June 17. — Charles-river bridge dedicated. " — Inspectors of the police authorized by town code. Four police officers appointed. 1789, October 20. — First School Committee chosen. School Committee of 21 members 1789-1835. " — Constitution of the United States. 1793.— Norfolk county set off from Suffolk. " November 23. — West-Boston bridge dedicated. 1799-1821. — Board of health, chosen in wards. " — Quarantine transferred from selectmen to board of health. Port physician (or resident physician) appointed. " — Ward clerks first chosen. 1800-1859.— Municipal court (with jury). " — Town attorney. 1801. — Inspection of lighters, or boats carrying stone and gravel. 1802. — Almshouse, including bridewell and workhouse, removed to Leverett street. " — Assistant assessors first chosen, in wards. 1804. — South Boston annexed. 1806. — Second establishment of twelve wards (see 1735 and 1822). 1810. — Inspectors of stone lime. 1814-21. — Town court for summary trial of petty causes. " " — Boston Court of Common Pleas. 1816. — Weighers of beef. 1818-1855. — Primary-school committee. 1821-59. — Massachusetts Court of Common Pleas. 1822, February 23. — The city charter signed. " — Third division into twelve wards (see 1806 and 1838). " April 8. — First city election, CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY. 169 1822, May 1. — Inauguration of the city government: Mayor, eight aldermen, forty-eight common councilmen. " May 1. — The city assumes county rights and duties. " — Wardens, to preside at ward meetings. City elections to be held on second Monday in April. ' ' — Police court established. Court of sessions abolished. " -1875. — Office of the city and county treasurer and collector united. 1823-25.— Fiscal years end on May 31. " -51. — Jail in Leverett street. " -28. Josiah Quiney mayor. " — House of industry at South Boston; occupied in 1825. " — City marshal appointed (chief of police). " July 31. — Mayor Quiney recommends the extension of Faneuil Hall Market. 1824. — House of correction, nine directors. " — Board of health superseded by city government. " -49. — Superintendent of burial grounds. " August 2. — Office of auditor established. 1825. — House of reformation at South Boston, nine directors. " — City elections to be held on second Monday in December. " May 23. — Office of superintendent of streets established. 1826. — Municipal year begins on first Monday in January. " — Firewards abolished. Chief engineer of fire department. " -1891. — Fiscal years begin on May 1. 1827. — City solicitor. " Quiney market dedicated. " -1870. — Committee for the reduction of the city debt. 1828, November 3. — First superintendent of bridge. 1830, September 17. — Old State House occupied as City Hall. 1831. — Property of Suffolk County vested in Boston. 1833. — Surveyor-general of lumber. 1834-1880. — Superintendent of public lands. 1835. — Railroads to Providence, Worcester, and Lowell completed. 1836-1854. — School Committee of twenty-six members. 1837-1839.— Mayor Eliot in office. " -1891. — Superintendent of sewers. ' ' -1848. — Superintendent of alien .passengers, 23 170 BOSTON. 1838.— Appointment of Boston police officers authorized by General Court. " — Fourth division of Boston into twelve wards (see 1822 and 1850). 1839-1844.— City attorney. 1839. — Lunatic-hospital established. 1840. — Superintendent of public buildings. " July 19.— Arrival of the first Cunard S.S., the " Britannia." 1841. — Superintendent of Common (see 1870). " — Railroad to Albany completed. ' ' — Measurer of upper leather. " —County Court House, School street, changed to City Hall. 1844-5. — Eight trials to elect Thomas A. Davis mayor. 1847. — Mayor and aldermen authorized to make penal orders. " — Harbormaster. ' ' — Inspector of hay. 1848, October 25. — Introduction of Cochituate water celebrated. 1849. — Registry department. " — City physician. " — Coal weighers. " -1866. — Quarantine hospital at Deer Island. " — Cochituate water board and water registrar (see 1876). 1850. — City engineer. " — Truant officers. " — Second assistant assessors. " — Fifth division into twelve wards (see 1838 and 1865). 1851. — Surveyor of marble. ' ' — Superintendent of schools. " — Jail in Charles street. " — Electric fire alarm introduced. " — Railroad to Montreal completed. 1852. — Library department. " —Superintendent of markets. " — City messenger department. 1853-1891. — Superintendent of health (of street cleaning or sanitary police). 1854. — Plurality to decide in municipal elections. " — Roxbury police court established. '¦ = — Police and watch departments united, CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY. 171 1854. — Amended city charter. Mayor receives veto power. Number of aldermen increased from eight to twelve. 1855. — Chelsea police court established. " -1856. — -County physician. " -1859. — Superior Court for Suffolk count}'-. " -1875. — School committee of seventy-four members. " — Half the cost of new sidewalks borne by the city. 1856. — Clerks of the Supreme and Superior Courts, district attorney, sheriff, register of probate, and commissioners of insolvency elected by the county voters. 1857. — Five trustees of Mount-Hope cemetery. " — Reformatory and charitable institutions at South Boston and Deer island united under twelve directors. 1858. — Clerk of committees. 1859. — Superior Court established. ' ' — Inspector x>f milk. 1862. — Hospital department. " — Charlestown police court established. 1863-1865. — City offices at Mechanic building, Bedford and Chauncy streets. ' ' — Weighers of boilers and heavy machinery. 1865. — Sixth division of Boston into twelve wards (see 1850 and 1876). " — September 17. — New City Hall in School street dedicated. 1866. — Municipal Court established; police court abolished. ' ' — Betterment law passed. " — Quarantine hospital at Gallop's island. 1868. — Roxbury annexed. " — Surveying department. 1869.- — Inspection of petroleum. 1870. — Dorchester annexed. Municipal court of Dorchester district. " - — Board of street commissioners. " — Ferry department. " — Superintendent of Common and public grounds (see 1841). " — Department of sinking funds. " -1887.— Cedar-Grove cemetery. 1871. — Inspector of buildings. ' ' — Commissioners of Charles bridges. ' ' — Superintendent of printing. 1872.— Board of health. 172 BOSTON. 1872. — City elections held on Tuesday after second Monday in Decem ber. ' ' — Inspector of provisions. 1873. — Board of fire commissioners. ' ' — Appointment of truant officers by School Committee. 1874.- — Charlestown, West Roxbury, and Brighton annexed. " — Municipal (district) courts established at East Boston, South Boston, West Roxbury, and Brighton. " — Board of registrars of voters. " -75.— (Fiscal year). The city received $12,176,436.08 in taxes. 1875-1878. — Liquor license commissioners. " -1892. — Department of record commissioners. " — Municipal debt limited by law to 3 p. c. of property taxed. " — A new charter proposed by Mayor Pierce's commission. " — School Committee reorganized. Supervisors. " — Three common councilmen elected from each ward. ' ' — Collecting department. " — Park department " — City architect. 1S76. — Boston water board, in place of Cochituate and Mystic water boards. " -1893. — Boston has twenty-five wards, unchanged. " -1885. — School Committee of twenty-five members. 1878. — Precincts established for voting purposes. " — Probation officers. " -1885. — Police commissioners, appointed by the city. 1879. — Women receive the right to vote for School Committee. 1880. — Inspector of vinegar. 1881. — Corporation counsel. 1884. — Civil-service law for State and cities. " -1892. — Aldermen elected by districts. " — Mayor Martin's commission recommends charter amendments; three reports. 1885. — Boston board of police, appointed by the State. " — Charter powers recast; city council deprived of executive func tions ; mayor's power increased. School Committee of twenty- four members. " — Debt and tax limit for Boston. 1886-1891. — General superintendent of bridges. CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY. 173 1886. — -Fire marshal, appointed by the State. 1888. — Weigher of salt water fish. 1890-1891. — Inspector of wires. 1890. — Art commission. 1891.— Board of Survey. " - — Superintendent of ferries replaces commissioners. " — Sewer, bridge and sanitary police departments placed under superintendent of streets. " April 30.— Net debt of city $31,342,638.47. 1892. — Fiscal year begins on February 1. " — Common council has seventy-five members, three from each ward. " -93 (fiscal year). --Municipal expenditures, $21,300,665.04. A SKETCH OF THE MEDICAL PROFESSION OF SUFFOLK COUNTY. BY Edward Jacob Forster, M.D. After the writings of Josiah Bartlett, who in 1810 delivered the annual address before the Massachusetts Medical Society, giving an account of the progress of medicine in Massachusetts from the earliest settlement to that date, the very interesting lecture of Dr. Oliver Wendell Holmes, given in 1869 at the Lowell Institute, upon the Medical Profession of Massachusetts, and the masterly address of Dr. Samuel A. Green, entitled " The History of Medicine in Massachu setts," and delivered in the Saunders Theatre before the Massachusetts Medical Society on the occasion of its centennial anniversary in 1881, the whole field, of which this county is now but a small portion, has been so well gone over that a late gleaner has but little chance to find anything of interest which has escaped the careful search of the earlier workers, well known, not only as historical scholars of more than local fame, but are otherwise distinguished. Besides these accounts of medicine in the larger field of the old Bay State, Drs. Holmes and Green have in the Memorial History of Boston contributed a further account of medicine, its men and its institutions, as found in Boston, which is practically synonymous with Suffolk county. Suffolk county was incorporated May 10, 1643, and has since that time both gained and lost territory. We find that in May, 1781, it included within its limits, Boston, Rox bury, Dorchester, Milton, Braintree, Weymouth, Hingham, Cohasset, Dedham, Medfield, Wrentham, Brookline, Needham, Stoughton, Stoughtonham (Sharon), Medway, Bellingham, Walpole, Chelsea, Franklin, Foxborough, or a great part of the present Norfolk county, MEDICAL HISTORY. 175 which was incorporated March 26, 1793. After this county was set off, until the annexation of Roxbury in 1868, Dorchester in 1870, Charles town and West Roxbury in 1874, it comprised only the cities of Boston and Chelsea, the townships of Winthrop and Revere, and the islands in Boston Harbor. It may be said to have included only Boston, for Winthrop and Re vere were formerly parts of Chelsea, and the latter, under the names of Winnissimet and Rumney Marsh, was a part of Boston. It is with this Suffolk county that we shall have to deal in the present article, otherwise we should be encroaching on the work of those who have written, or will write, the medical sketches of the adjacent counties of Norfolk and Middlesex. The earliest record we have relating to medicine is that of the action of the Company in London, at one of its earliest meetings, held March 5, 1628-29, when a proposition was made "to Intertayne a surgeon for [the] plantacion, " and Mr. John Pratt "was appointed an abell man," and Robert Morley was apppinted to " serve as a barber and surgeon [on allj occasyons belonging to his Calling to aney of this [company] that are planters, or there servants." The two professions of theology and medicine were for a time united in the "Angelical Conjunction," as this union was styled by Cotton Mather, and so in the list of practitioners of medicine must be included those whose chief business was the care of souls. A knowledge of physic was then considered as part of a liberal edu cation, and thus we find Governor Winthrop, the founder of Boston, spoken of by Mather as having been a " Help for our Bodies by Physick. " The first action of the Massachusetts Colony in regard to the prac tice of medicine was embodied in the following law intended to protect the public from ignorant practitioners. The law is as follows : Chirurgeons, Midwives, Physitians. Forasmuch as the Law of God allows no man to impaire the Life, or Limbs of any Person, but in a judicial way; It is therefore Ordered, That no person or persons whatsoever, imployed at any time about the bodyes of men, women, or children, for preservation of life or health; as Chirurgions, Midwives, Physitians or others, presume to exercise, or put forth any act contrary to the known approved Rules of Art, in each Mystery and occupation, nor exercise any force, violence or cruelty upon, or towards the body of any, whether 176 SUFFOLK COUNTY. young or old, (no not in the most difficult and desperate cases) without the advice and consent of such as are skillfull in the same art (if such may be had) or at least of some of the wisest and gravest then present, and consent of the patient or patients if they be mentis compotes, much less contrary to such advice and consent ; upon such severe punishment as the nature of the fact may deserve, which Law nevertheless, is not intended to discourage any from all lawfull use of their skill, but rather to in. courage and direct them in the right use thereof, and inhibit and restreine the pre sumptuous arrogancy of such as through presidence of their own skill, or any other sinister respects, dare boldly attempt to exercise any violence upon or towards the bodyes of young ar old, one or other, to the prejudice or hazard of the life or limbe of man, woman or child. — " The General Laws and Liberties of the Massachusetts Colony," Cambridge, 1672, page 28. This early account of a slight accident is so quaintly told we give it place here. In Sewall's Diary, under date of July 26, 1695, we find recorded: Poor little Mary falls down into the cellar of Matthias Smith's house, and cuts her head against the stones, making a large orifice of more than two inches long ; it was about 6 post meridien. The Lord sanctify to me this bloody Accident. A disease supposed to be small-pox had even preceded the coming of the colonists, and had created great havoc among the Indians. It is supposed to have been introduced by Europeans who touched along the coast in some of their fishing expeditions. Cotton Mather speaks of it in his journal, regarding it in some aspects as a fortunate visitation of Providence. He says : The Indians in these Parts had newly, even about a year or two before, been visited with such a prodigious Pestilence, as carried away not a Tenth, but Nine Parts of Ten (yea it is said Nineteen of Twenty) among them : So that the Woods were almost cleared of those pernicious Creatures to make Room for a better Growth. It continued to be from time to time a scourge to the colonists, and we are not surprised to find them interested in the introduction of European methods of contending with it As early as 1717 Lady Mary Wortley Montague wrote from Adrian- ople describing the method and effect of inoculation, and in 1721 she had her son publicly inoculated in England, and it was soon after gen erally adopted. In the same year we find that experiments in inoculation were made in Boston. Cotton Mather, who evidently wished the disease to be fatal only to the Indians, is said to have brought it to the attention of the Boston physicians. It met there, as in London, with great opposition, but finally was generally adopted, MEDICAL HISTORY 177 The leader of the opposition was Dr. William Douglass, a Scotchman, who had come to Boston in 1718, and was perphaps, the most prom inent of Boston physicians, both from education and ability. Dr. Zabdiel Boylston had, on the other hand, the enterprise and courage to prove the advantages of inoculation by experimenting with it in his own family, and may be considered its champion. In the winter of 1763-64 an epidemic of small-pox broke out in Bos ton, and an inoculating hospital was established at Point Shirley by the Governor and Council for the treatment of the disease. The governor also opened Castle William, now Fort Independence, to the use of physicians engaged in its treatment, as is shown by the following con temporaneous advertisements : In order to inlarge the Conveniences for Inoculation in addition to those already proposed at Point-Shirley that every Person desirous of undergoing that Operation may have an Opportunity of doing it, without endangering the Spreading the Dis temper, and that this Town may be, as soon as possible, freed from the apprehen sion of the Small-Pox; the Governor has consented that the Barracks of Castle- William shall be improved for the Purpose of Inoculation, from this Time into the Middle of May next. And the said Barrack are how opened to ALL PHYSICIANS having Patients to Inoculate, under such Rules as shall be thought proper to be made for that purpose. There are in the Barracks 48 Rooms, each o which will contain ten Patients con veniently. — The Boston Post-Boy S~» Advertiser, February 27, 1764. The following notices from the same paper inform us that distin guished physicians from other provinces and localities joined them selves with the Boston physicians in the treatment of the disease at these hospitals : Those Physicians of the Town of Boston who are engaged in carrying on the inoculating Hospital at Point- Shir ley, being prevented giving their constant Attendance there during the continuance of the Small-Pox in Town, hereby notify the Public, that they are join'd by Doctor Barnett of New-Jersey, who will con stantly attend at said Hospital with one or other of said Physicians whose Business will permit, and employ the utmost Diligence and Attention for the relief of those that put themselves under their care. They further notify, that Point-Shirley con tains as many comfortable and decent Houses a< will be sufficient to accommodate as many Persons as will probably ever offer for Inoculation at one Time, from this or the neighboring Governments, and is well furnished with every requisite Con venience both for Sickness and Health. — Boston Post-Boy &> Advertiser, March 19, 1764. DR. SAMUEL GELSTON Gives this Publick Notice to his Patients in Boston and the adjacent Towns, that he has prepared (by Permission of his Excellency the Governor) all comfortable 23 178 SUFFOLK COUNTY Accommodations for them at the Barracks at Castle- William, in order to their being inoculated for the Small-Pox under his immediate Care. N. B. His Rooms are in that Part of the Barracks where the Patients of Dr. Na thaniel Perkins, Dr. Whitworth and Dr. Lloyd' s are received. |g" Dr. Gelston and Dr. Warren reside at Castle- William day and night. ALL Persons inclined to go to the Barracks at Castle- William to be inoculated where Dr. Gelston resides, may apply to Dr. Lloyd at his House near the King's Chapel, who will provide them a Passage to the Castle. — Boston Post-Boy &° Ad vertiser, November 5, 1764. Private hospitals were also opened in the city, and several thousand people came from all parts of the Province for treatment. We find in the Boston Town Records, 1758-1769, in one of the Record Commissioners' Reports, the following record of the action of a town meeting, showing that these arrangements for the treatment of the disease were generally acceptable to the citizens: Feb. 24 (1764) 10 o'clock A. M. The Town Met according to Adjournment. The Committee Appointed the 20th of this Instant February to consider what are the most expedient Methods for the Town to take in their present distressed circum stances by reason of the Small Pox, and of the Proposals made relative to Inoculation Hospitals — Report, That it be recommended to the Selectmen still to continue their endeavors to prevent the spread of the Distemper, and that for the accommodation of such of the Inhabitants as are inclined to take the Distemper by Inoculation it will be expedient for the Town to countenance the Establishment of Inoculating Hos pitals, and they find upon enquiry that the Houses at Point Shirley are very conven ient for that purpose ; that a number of Physicians have hired the Houses at said Place with a view of improving them as Inoculating Hospitals, and are ready to admit any of the Physicians of the Town to Inoculate their Patients there, they pay ing a reasonable consideration for the Houses and Furniture, and that a number of Physicians are about engaging Houses at some of the Islands near the Town for the same purpose — They further Report — that they have also considered the Petition for establishing an Inoculating Hospital in this Town, and are of the opinion it will not be convenient at present to have such an Hospital within the Peninsula. The above Report having been read and debate had thereon, Voted, that the same be accepted. The following record from the same source is of interest in this con nection : At a Meeting of the Freeholders and other Inhabitants of the Town of Boston legally qualified and warned in publick Town Meeting Assembled at Faneuil Hall on Monday the 12th Day of March Anno Dom. 1764. Royal Tyler Esq. in the name of the Overseers represented to the Town, that being acquainted by the Selectmen that a number of Physicians were willing to Inoculate such of the Poor Gratis, as were desirous of receiving the Sm^ll Pox in - \ ¦ ^-^v^^ /£, MEDICAL HISTORY. 179 that way ; they had accordingly waited upon those Gentlemen, who readily engaged to carry through that Distemper their proportion of the Poor of the Town either in the natural way or by Inoculation, as also to find Medicines and give proper attend ance Gratis — they mentioned among other Things, that they were apprehensive that. the great number of Persons which will be immediately laid down may so take up the attention of those Physicians who have thus engaged, as to prevent them in some instances from attending the sick Poor who may thereby suffer ; and that therefore they had secured as Physicians to be at the call of the Overseers in all such cases — Whereupon it was Voted That the Conduct of the Overseers in those particulars are satisfactory to the Town. A vote taken at the same meeting indicated a feeling of apprehension of the effects of the wholesale inoculation which had been going on for some time. Upon consideration of that Clause in the Warrant (Viz't): Whether any Measures shall be taken to prevent Strangers coming into Town or any of the Inhabitants to be Inoculated after a certain time allowed for that purpose. Voted, that the Hon'ble Harrison Gray Esq. Hon. Samuel Wells Esq. Royal Tyler Esq. John Barratt Esq. Thomas Cushing Esq. John Ruddock Esq. Benjamin Kent Esq. be and here by are appointed a Committee to consider of -this Matter, and Re port as soon as may be. The Records show the action of the committee at an adjourned meeting held in the afternoon of the same day : The Committee Appointed to consider "Whether the Town will take any Measures to prevent Strangers coming into the Town or any of the Inhabitants to be Inocu lated after a certain Time allowed for that purpose," Report — That no Person not being an Inhabitant of this Town shall have, liberty to come into this Town in order to be Inoculated untill the first of April, nor shall be Inoculated in said Town after the 10th Day of April next. And those Of the Inhabitants of the Town that have removed into the Country, shall not have liberty to be Inoculated in the Town after the first Day of May next, unless at that Time there shall be upwards of twenty Familys visited with that Distemper — After debate had thereon, the Question was put, Whether said Report be accepted — Passed in the Affermative. At an adjourned meeting, on the following day, it was Voted, That the said Report be in part reconsidered, and that all Persons Inhab itants and others have free liberty to come into Town and be Inoculated before the 20th of April next ; and that after that Time the Selectmen be desired to take the same Measures for cleansing the Town of ye Infection as were practised in 1732, and that those Votes be published in the Boston News Papers, that all Persons may have notice of the Town resolutions and conform themselves accordingly. At an adjourned town meeting on the afternoon of the 15th day of May the town took more decided action upon the matter of inoculation, as will be seen by the following extracts from the Records : 180 SUFFOLK COUNTY. Royal Tyler, Esq., in the Name of the Overseers, acquainted the Town that 1,025 of the poor Inhabitants had passed through the Small Pox by Inoculation under their inspection and care, a number of whom who had been Inoculated, supplied with Medicines and attended Gratis by the Physicians as follows, viz. : Dr. Kast, 150 ; Dr. Sprague, 71; Drs. Church & Lord, 50; Dr. Roberts, 43; Dr. Jackson of P., N. Hampshire, 33 ; Dr. Sylvester Gardner, 31 ; Drs. Gardner and Barnett, 27 ; Dr. John Perkins, 24; Dr. Whitworth, 23; Dr. Yougust, 17; Dr. Bulfinch, 16; Dr. Pecker, 16; Dr. Doubt, 15; Dr. Warren, 14; Dr. Loyd, 7; Dr. Grozier, 4; Dr. William Per kins, 4; Dr. Pynchon, 4; in all, 526. Whereupon it was Voted unanimously that the Thanks of the Town be and hereby are given those Gentlemen Physicians, who in this Season of difficulty and distress have generously Inoculated and carried through the Small Pox Gratis so considerable a number of the poor Inhabitants. The Town entered upon the consideration of that part of the Warrant which re lates to the clearing of the Town of the Small Pox and being informed that many Persons now Inoculated and sick of the said Distemper do come from other Towns to this for that purpose, Voted, that the Town esteem it a great grievance that such Persons obtrude them selves to perpetuate a Distemper among us, which the Town are taking every Measure to clear themselves from and therefore, Voted, that the Selectmen take every legal Measure to remove any Persons from the Town whoshall after this date obtrude themselves in the like manner upon the Town, and that the Names of such Persons who shall hereafter obtrude themselves as aforesaid, the Towns they come from, and the Places in this Town where they are harbaured, shall be published in the Papers, and all the Inhabitants are desired upon any such Persons coming into the Town, to give immediate notice thereof to the Selectmen. At the same meeting steps were taken to obtain authority from the General Court to free themselves from the same danger: Upon a motion made and seconded, the Question was put (viz't.): " Whether the Representatives shall be Instructed to make Application to the General Court the approaching Session for an Act to be provided Which shall impower the Selectmen to remove an}- Persons who shall presume to come from other Towns into this either infected with the Small Pox, or with design to receive the Infection — Passed in the Affermative — It was then Voted that the Committee Appointed to draw up Instruc tions to our Representatives, be desired to instruct them on this head accordingly. A few days after, May 24, 1764, the citizens took measures to do away with the inoculating hospitals that had been established in their midst. The report of a town meeting, held at that date, is in part as follows: The Petition of a considerable number of Inhabitants that the sense of the Town may be known respecting Inoculating at Noddles Island: And that such steps may be taken as will effectually prevent any Inoculating Hospitals being erected in this Town, or the Limits of it — was read — Also Letters from the Selectmen of Chelsea, and the Doctors Perkins and Loyd — MEDICAL HISTORY. 181 And after the Debate had thereon— Voted, That the Selectmen be desired to with draw their leave of Inoculating at Noddles Island, and that the Hospital there be discontinued ; And that the Town allow of no Inoculating Hospital within the Limits and Confines of the Town of Boston. The selectmen, who had been very active in taking measures to ex tirpate the dread disease, acted at once upon the instructions of the town meetings. We find in the selectmens' minutes, 1764-1768 (twentieth report Record Commissioners), the following account of their action, and that of the physicians in consultation with them : At a Meeting of the Select men April 19. 1766 [sic] Present Joshua Henshaw Esq. Joseph Jackson Esq. , John Scollay Esq. Benjamin Austin Esq. Samuel Sewall Esq. The following Advertisement was sent to the several Printers, for a place in their Papers, viz't. . Boston, April 19, 1764. The Time for the permission of Inoculated in this Town by a Vote of the Inhabit ants at a General Town Meeting being limitted to the 20t of April ends to Morrow, therefore the Selectmen expect that no Person will presume to come in for Inocula tion after the 20t Day is past, and they hereby inform the Public, that the" Gentlemen Physicians belonging to or now in the Town have engaged to conformity to said Vote, that they will not Inoculate any Person after the time limitted. By Order of the Selectmen, William Cooper, Town Clerk. The Time for the permission of Inoculation in this Town, ending to Morrow, the Gentlemen Physicians belonging to or now in the Town, were desired to attend the Selectmen, who accordingly attended, when they engaged that they would not Inoc ulate any Person after the Time Limitted by the Town — The Physicians who came into this agreement are as follows, viz't. : John Perkins, James Pecker, John Clark, Nyot Doubt, James Lloyd, John Sprague, Henry Will : Crozier, Hall Jackson, Joseph Warren, John Peck, Mr. Mather, Nathaniel Perkins, Thomas Bulfinch, Myles Whit- worth, Sylvester Gardner, Benjamin Church, Mr. Lord, Mr. Williams, Charles Pyncheon, Mr. Tamer, Mr. Thomas, Mr. Roberts, Godfrey Cast for himself and Mr. Wells, Joseph Gardner for himself and Mr. Barrett. Memo. The Physicians sent to who did not attend the Selectmen are Samuel Marshall, Samuel Gilston, Mr. Smith, Mr. Mather, Mr. William Perkins. 182 SUFFOLK COUNTY. We select the following reports of the official action of the selectmen in regard to this matter from many appearing in these same "minutes :" At a meeting of the Selectmen, May 12, 1764. Present Joshua Henshaw Esq. Joseph Jackson Esq. John Scollay Esq. Samuel Sewall Esq. John Ruddock Esq. The following Advertisement was sent to several Printers for a place in their Papers to be published Monday next. The Selectmen have heard that many Persons are coming into Town from the Country for Inoculation, under a notion that liberty has been granted therefor, wherefore they inform all Persons whatsoever, that no such liberty has been or will by them be given, and if Persons do persist in their intrusion upon the Town they cannot answer for the effects of that resentment which has risen and is still rising in the Breasts of Multitudes of the Inhabitants against those -who attempt so grossly to abuse them as to make this Town a Hospital, notwithstanding proper Hospitals are provided conveniently situated to receive such as incline to take the Distemper. The Selectmen and Overseers are now visiting the Town for the information of the In habitants at their meeting tomorrow, by which will be discovered the state of the Town with regard to the Infection, and what Strangers or others do intrude upon us. By Order of the Selectmen, William Cooper, Town Clerk. And again : At a Meeting of the Selectmen, June 9, 1764. The Several Constables of the Town attended, and gave in their Return of the state of the Town with respect to the . Small Pox ; by which it appears that there are 33 Familys in Town which have the Small Pox among them, in which are 41 Persons still sick of that Distemper — and that 178 Familys are yet exposed to the Infection, in which are 291 Persons liable to the Disorder. The following letter was sent Drs. Nathaniel Parker and Loyde: . Gentlemen — Above is an attested Copy of the Town Vote relative to Inoculating at Noddles Island, & whereby you '1 perceive that we follow the Orders of the Town when we acquaint you that we now Withdraw our leave for Inoculating at said place. By Order of the Selectmen, William Cooper, Town Clerk. Boston, June 9, 1764. Drs. Nathaniel Perkins & Loyd. MEDICAL HISTORY. 183 At a Meeting of the Selectmen June 11, 1764. The following Advertisement was this Day published in the several News Papers: Boston, June 9, 1764. Upon enquiry into the state of the Town with regard to Small Pox, it appears it is now in only thirty three Familys, which encourages the Selectmen to hope that the Town may be cleared of said Distemper in ten Days or a Fortnight provided those who moved into the Country to avoid it will forbear coming in, till they may do it with less danger than at present. In the mean Time we would advise all Persons who have had the Infection in their Familys immediately to smoke, Cleanse and air their Houses and all such Things as may retain the Infection, that our Friends from the Country may not be exposed when they return to us. Also that all Persons who have been Inoculated for the Small Pox at Point Shirley, are warned against coming up to this Town without producing a Certificate from their Doctors, or in their in fected Garments, or untill they are thoroughly air'd and cleansed, and entirely clear from Infection, as they would avoid the resentment of the Town which runs too high to be long restrained. As to the Physicians of the Town, the Gentlemen will not violate their Obligations to us, or be so regardless of the interest of this Community as to Inoculate a single Person in the Town after this Time. Joshua Henshaw, Benjamin Austin, Joseph Jackson, Samuel Sewall, John Scollay, John Ruddock, Selectmen. The selectmen finally succeeded in confining small-pox patients to designated hospitals, in establishing a partially effective quarantine at Castle William and Rainsford Island, and in overcoming the disease as an epidemic, although the Records show that they were continually contending with cases imported in trading vessels, and that their quarantine rules, judged by those of to-day, were sadly wanting in stringency. Diphtheria, or a disease of very similar nature, broke out as epidemic in Boston and vicinity in 1735-36, and created great excitement and dread. Dr. Douglass, whom we have before mentioned, and who was a really scientific and skilled physician, described it in a pamphlet bearing the following remarkable title : The Practical History of A New Epidemical Eruptive Miliary" Fever, with an Angina Ulcusculosa which prevailed in Boston, New England, in the Years 1735 and 1736— [Boston, 1736]. It is inscribed to a medical society in Boston, and the preface begins : Gentlemen, This Piece of Medical History does naturally address itself to you con sidering that I have the pleasure of being one of your number, that you have been fellow laborers in the management of this distemper, and therefore competent judges 184 SUFFOLK COUNTY. of this performance, and that where difficult or extraordinary cases have occurred in any of your private practice, I was favoured to visit the Patients in order to make a minute Clinical enquiry : in short, without your assistance this piece would have been less perfect, and not so well vouched. He says of the disease, " It was vulgarly called the Throat Illness, or a Plague in the Throat." The disease was so destructive, and the reputation of it had so far spread through the Province, that the selectmen felt called upon to issue the following circular in order to protect their trade : THE Select-Men of the Town of Boston, in order to inform the Trading Part of our neighbouring Colonies, concerning the State of the present prevailing Distemper in this Place, did desire a Meeting of as many of the Practitioners in Physick as could then be conveniently obtain' d. The Practitioners being accordingly met, did unanimously agree to the following Articles : 1. THAT upon the first appearance of this Illness in Boston the Select-Men did advise with the Practitioners ; but they at that Time having not had Opportunities of observing the Progress of the Distemper, it was thought advisable (until further Experience) to shut up that Person who was supposed to have received it in Exeter to the Eastward; upon his Death the Watch was soon removed, but no Infection was observed to spread or catch in that Quarter of the Town ; therefore no Watches were appointed in the other Parts of the Town where it afterwards appeared, the Prac titioners judging it to proceed from some occult. Quality in the Air. and not from any observable Infection communicated by Persons or Goods. 2. THE Practitioners and their Families have not been seized with this Distemper in a more remarkable manner (and as it has happened not so much) than other Families in Town, even those Families who live in solitary Parts thereof. 3. AS to the Mortality or Malignity of this Distemper, all whom it may concern are referred to the Boston Weekly-Journal of Burials : by the Burials it is notorious, that scarce any Distemper, even the most favourable which has at any Time pre vail' d so generally, has produc'd fewer Deaths. 4. AS formerly, so now again after many Months observation, we conclude, That the present prevailing Distemper appears to us to proceed from some Affection of the Air, and not from any personal Infection receiv'd from the Sick, or Goods in their neighborhood. Nathaniel Williams, Hugh Kennedy, William Douglass, William Davis, John Cutler, Thomas Bulfinch, MEDICAL SOCIETIES. The first medical society in America was formed in Boston, but, un fortunately, we have no knowledge of its name, and its records, if ever kept, have completely disappeared. MEDIC A L HIS TOR Y. 185 From contemporary correspondence fortunately preserved we know of its existence, and are able to fix the date of its formation at about 1735. Dr. William Douglass, a noted author and physician of that day, writes, under date of February 18, 1735-36, to Cadwallader Colden, of New York, that We have lately in Boston formed a medical society, of which, this gentle man [Dr. Clark, the bearer of the letter], a member thereof, can give you a partic ular account. We design from time to time to publish some short pieces ; there is now ready for the press number one, with this title page : — Number One, MEDICAL MEMOIRS containing 1. A miscellany. Practical introduction. 2. A history of the dysentery epidemical in Boston in 1734. 3. Some account of a gutta-serena in a young woman. 4. The anatomical inspection of a spina ventosa in the vertebras of the loins of a young woman. 5. Some practical comments or remarks on the writings of Dr. Thomas Sydenham. Published by a Medical-Society in Boston, New-England. This letter is now among the Colden Papers, in the possession of the New York Historical Society; a copy of it is printed in the second volume, fourth series, of the Massachusetts Historical Collections (pages 188, 189). The first number of these "Medical Memoirs" was never printed. It was probably Dr. John Clark, at that time an eminent practitioner of medicine, who is referred to in the letter, as a member of the society. He was born on December 15, 1698, and was then at the height of his professional zeal, when he would naturally be interested in a scientific association. He belonged to a family of medical antecedents and traditions, being himself of the fourth generation in a direct line of John Clarks, all physicians, and he was followed by three more, equally direct, of John Clarks, these three also physicians, — covering a period of more than a century and a half and including seven generations of the name. In The Boston Weekly News-Letter, January 5, 1737, there ii a long communication, addressed " To the Judicious and Learned President and Members of the Medical Society in Boston," and signed " Philan- thropos." It takes strong ground in favor of regulating the practice of physic throughout the province, and advocates the plan of having all 24 186 SUFFOLK COUNTY practitioners examined by a board of physicians and surgeons appointed by the General Court. The writer is justly severe on the "Shoemakers, Weavers, and Almanackmakers, with their virtuous Consorts, who have laid aside the proper Business of their Lives, to turn Quacks." In the same newspaper of November 13, 1741, is an interesting re port of a surgical operation performed about that time for urinary cal culus, on Joseph Baker, a boy six years old. ' It was done "in Presence of the Medical Society," by Dr. Sylvester Gardiner, and "according to Mr. Cheselden's late Improvement of the lateral Way." The report begins : A Medical Society in Boston, New-England, with no quackish View, as is the manner of some; but for the Comfort and Benefit of the unhappy and miserable Sufferers by the excruciating Pain occasioned by a Stone in the Bladder, do Pub lish the following case. Although the Medical Society in Boston was short-lived, an account of the history of medicine in the State would be incomplete which did not mention its existence. In its day it exerted a good influence on the profession, and showed a zeal on the part of the physicians which is alike honorable to their heads and creditable to their hearts. The origin of the society may have had some connection with the epidemic of diphtheria which broke out in Boston during the summer of 1735; at any rate, it was organized about that time. It is known to have been in existence late in the autumn of 1741, though ten years afterwards there was no trace of it. Dr. Lloyd, who began the practice of medi cine in Boston about the year 1752, and continued in it for more than half a century, had no recollection of such an association. This last fact is mentioned by Dr. Bartlett, in his address before the Massachu setts Medical Society, June 6, 1810, and shows that it had disappeared before Dr. Lloyd's time. The founders of this local society, the pioneer association of its kind in the country, represented the active medical thought of Boston. The Massachusetts Medical Society. The war for Independence had brought the medical fraternity into prominence and had been the means of bringing together from differ ent parts of the State physicians of skill and experience. The formation of a society for mutual discussion and improvement was a natural outcome of this increased intercourse among men who MEDICAL HISTORY. 187 had felt the evils of isolation, and the need of a larger field of observa tion and study. In establishing the Massachusetts Medical Society its founders took an important step in securing a steady progress in their profession and in building up the reputation which attaches to Massachusetts medical men as a class. The Act of Incorporation under which this society came into existence is as follows : COMMONWEALTH Of MASSACHUSETTS. In the Year of our Lord, 1781. An ACT to incorporate certain Physicians by the Name of The Massachusetts Medical Society. As health is essentially necessary to the happiness of society; and as its pres ervation or recovery is closely connected with the knowledge of the animal economy, and of the properties and effects of medicines; and as the benefit of medical institutions, formed on liberal principles, and encouraged by the patron age of the law, is universally acknowledged : Be it therefore enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives in General Court assembled, and by the authority of the same, That, Nathaniel Walker Appleton, William Baylies, Benjamin Curtis, Samuel Danforth, Aaron Dexter ; Shirley Erving, John Frink, foseph Gardner, Samuel Holten, Edward Augustus Holyoke, Ebenezer Hunt, Charles Jarvis, Thomas Kast, Giles Crouch Kellogg, fohn Lynn, fames Lloyd, foseph Orne, fames Pecker, Oliver Prescott, Charles Pynchon, Isaac Rand, Isaac Rand, jun., Micaijah Sawyer, fohn Sprague, Charles Stockbridge, fohn Barnard Swell, Cotton Tufts, fohn Warren, Thomas Welsh, foseph Whipple, William Whiting, be, and they hereby are formed into, constituted and made a body politic and corporate, by the name of The Massa-. hu- setts Medical Society; and that they and their successors, and such other persons as shall be elected in the manner hereinafter mentioned, shall be and continue a body politic and corporate by the same name forever. And be it enacted by the authority aforesaid, That the fellows of said society may from time to time elect a president, vice president and secretary, with other officers as they shall judge necessary and convenient; and they the fellows of -said society, shall have full power and authority, from time to time, to determine and establish the names, number and duty of their several officers, and the tenure or estate they shall respectively have in their offices ; and also to authorize and empower their president or some other officer to administer such oaths to such officers as they, the fellows of said society, shall appoint and determine for the well ordering and good government of said society, provided the same be not repugnant to the laws of this commonwealth. And be it enacted by the authority aforesaid, That the fellows of said society shall have one common seal, and power to break, change and renew the same at their pleasure. 188 SUFFOLK COUNTY. And be it enacted by the authority aforesaid, That they, the fellows of said society, may sue and be sued in all actions, real, personal or mixed, and prosecute and defend the same unto final judgment and execution, by the name of The Massa chusetts Medical Society. And be it enacted by the authority aforesaid, That the fellows of said society may from time to time elect such persons to be fellows thereof, as they shall judge proper ; and that they, the fellows of said society, shall have power to suspend, expel or disfranchise any fellows of said society. And be it enacted by the authority aforesaid, That the fellows of said society shall have full power and authority to make and enact such rules and bye laws for the better government of said society. And be it further enacted, That the first meeting of the said .Medical Society shall be held in some convenient place in the town of Boston; and that Edward Augustus Holyoke, Esq; be, and he hereby is authorised and directed to fix the time for holding the said meeting, and to notify the same to the fellows of said Medical Society. In the House op Representatives, October 30, 1781. This bill having had three several readings, passed to be enacted. NATHANIEL GORHAM, Speaker. In Senate, November 1, 1781. This bill having had two several reading, passed to be enacted. SAMUEL ADAMS, President. Approved, JOHN HANCOCK. A true copy. Attest, JOHN AVERY, jun, Secretary. In accordance with the last clause of this Act, Dr. Holyoke published a notice in The Boston Gazette and The Country Journal, November 12, 1781, calling a meeting of the members whose names were mentioned in the charter. It was called " at the County Court-House, in Boston, on Wednesday the 28th Day of this Instant November, at Ten o'Clock, A. M. for the Purpose of chusing Officers of the Society, and transact ing any other Matter (which by this Act they are empowered to do) as they shall think proper." The charter members were thirty-one in number and represented different sections of the State: fourteen of them lived in Boston ; two in Newburyport ; two in Salem ; and one in each of the following towns : Cambridge, Danvers, Dedham, Dighton, Great Barrington, Groton, Hadley, Northampton, Portland, Rutland, Scituate, Springfield, and Weymouth. By counties, as constituted at that time, Suffolk had sixteen members ; Essex had five ; Hampshire, three; Middlesex, two; Berkshire, Bristol, Plymouth. Worcester, and Cumberland, in the District of Maine, one each. ] 1 A curious incident happened in connection with the formation of the Medical Society. The name of John Sprague appears among those mentioned in the Act of Incorporation; and accord- MEDICAL HISTORY. 189 The first meeting of the corporation was duly held in the county court house on November 28, 1781, at which time there were present nineteen of the thirty-one persons whose names are given in the Act of Incorporation. The court house of that period stood on the site of the present one in Court street. The first vote passed was that the officers at this meeting should be chosen pro tempore; and subsequently " Ed ward Augustus Holyoke Esq:" was elected president, " Doct'r Isaac Rand jun'r " secretary, and " Doct'r Thomas Welsh," treasurer. About this time (1783) the Boston Medical Society was organized for the study of anatomy. Its only known work was in promoting the growth of the Medical School, just then coming into existence, and whether swallowed up by the larger Massachusetts Medical Society or superseded by the demonstrations at the school, it soon disappeared from view. Of the thirty-one who are named in the act of 1781 as incorporators of the Massachusetts Medical Society, fourteen were residents of Bos ton, and are worthy of special mention, as being among the successful organizers who thus gave position to the profession ; their names are here grouped together. Nathaniel Walker Appleton, Benjamin Curtis, Samuel Danforth, Aaron Dexter, Joseph Gardner, Charles Jarvis, Thomas Kast, John Linn, James Lloyd, James Pecker, Isaac Rand, jr., John Warren, Thomas Welsh, Joseph Whipple. At this time Dedham and Weymouth were parts of Suffolk county, and we should therefore include John Sprague, of Dedham, and Cotton Tufts, of Weymouth. Accounts of each will be found among the biographical sketches. We here give a brief account of the existing medical societies ; some confine their membership to residents of Boston ; others, like the Mas sachusetts Medical Society, while they hold their meetings here, have no limit as regards residence but the boundaries of the Common wealth. ingly Dr. John Sprague, of Dedham, was present at the early meetings and took part in the pro ceedings. This continued until July 18, 1782, when Dr. John Sprague, of Newburyport, was chosen a member. At the meeting of the councillors, held October 4. 1782, a reply to the notification of his election was read, wherein he stated that he was the senior physician of the name in the State, and that he considered himself already a member by the charter. Dr. Sprague, of Dedham, who was present at the time, quietly resigned his supposed membership ; but he was chosen again a member at the same meeting. 190 SUFFOLK COUNTY. Suffolk District Medical Society. This society was organized in 1849, and includes in its membership all Fellows of the Massachusetts Medical Society residing in Boston (proper), East and South Boston, Chelsea and Winthrop. The society is divided into a number of sections, to each of which is assigned the investigation of a particular branch of medicine. Boston Medical Association. This association is made up of a majority of the regular physicians of Boston, who establish the code governing practice, and the fees to be charged. Boston Society for Medical Observation. This society was organized in 1835, discontinued in 1838, and re established in 1846. Its object is " to make its members good observers of disease, to collect and arrange accurately recorded facts in the fur therance of the cause of medical science, and to publish from time to time the results of the observation of such facts." Its active member ship is limited to forty, who must be members of the Massachusetts Medical Society, living in Boston. It has also associate and corres ponding members. Active and associate members of twenty years' standing are eligible for election as honorary members. It takes and circulates among its members the leading foreign and American medical journals. Its library is deposited in the rooms of the Medical Library Association. Boston Society for Medical Improvement. This society was incorporated March 20, 1869, for mutual professional improvement in the different branches of medical science. Its meet ings are held at the hall of the Medical Library Association, and its library has been placed in their rooms. Its scientific communications are published in the Boston Medical and Surgical Journal. The valuable anatomical collection of the society was presented to the Medical School of Harvard University, and is now placed in the new Medical School building on Boylston street. MEDICAL HISTORY. 191 Obstetrical Society of Boston. This society was organized in 1860. Its object is the study of ob stetrics and the diseases of women and children. Its members must be members of the Massachusetts Medical Society, and are limited to thirty. It has also a small honorary membership. Its meetings are held at the houses of its members in turn, and are always followed by a social reunion and supper. Its proceedings are published in the Boston Medical and Surgical J ournal. The Boston Society of' Medical Sciences. This society was organized in 1869, and has for its object the promo tion of the sciences connected with medicine. Boston Medico-Psychological Association. This society was organized in 1880, for the purpose of reading and discussing papers on psychological subjects, of reporting cases, and of taking psychological journals. Massachusetts Medico-Legal Society. This society was organized July 9, 1877. Its object is the instruction and professional improvement of the medical examiners, the successors of the coroners. The society has both regular and associate members. The regular members must be members of the Massachusetts Medical Society or of the Massachusetts Bar, with the provision that two-thirds of them shall hold commissions as State Medical Examiners. They transact all the business of the society, while the associate members can be present at stated meetings for discussions, etc. "Provision is made for the election of distinguished professional men, medical, legal or scien tific, to permanent associate membership. Massachusetts Medical Benevolent Society. The organization of this society dates from 1857; in 1871 it received an act of incorporation from the Legislature of Massachusetts. Its object is the relief of its members, or of their families, should they need assistance ; and of such other members of the medical profession or their families as may be deemed by the society suitable objects of 192 SUFFOLK COUNTY. its beneficence. The society has now over $33,000 of invested funds, and fourteen beneficiaries who are recipients of its bounty. Boylston Medical Society of Harvard University. The society was organized January 6, 1811, for the purpose of pro moting emulation and inquiry among the students at the Medical School connected with Harvard University, of whom its membership is alone composed. It was incorporated in 1823. The president must be a physician of regular standing, elected by the immediate members. A printed catalogue of the members is issued once in three years. The income of a fund, the gift of the late Ward Nicholas Boylston, M.D., for whom the society was named, is appropriated to prizes. In accord ance with the terms of incorporation, seven trustees, who must be practicing physicians, are annually appointed, who have the sole man agement and control of the permanent funds. South Boston Medical Club. This is composed of members of the Massashusetts Medical Society living in South Boston, and has for its objects professional improve ment and social intercourse. It was organized Februury 25, 1873, and meets at the houses of members on the second Thursday of each month. New England Hospital Medical Society. This society was organized in January, 1878, for the professional im provement of educated women physicians, graduates of regular medical schools. There are a few smaller societies, but their existence is hardly known outside of their very limited membership. HOSPITALS. Boston is well supplied with hospitals and dispensaries ; besides those given in the following pages, there are some smaller ones which are not incorporated, but are under the care of private individuals and cannot properly be considered as public institutions, J"y *i'j. jzjszcs £c7is.i .-•-¦ MEDICAL HISTORY 193 Massachusetts General Hospital. This hospital was incorporated February 25, 1811, and opened for the reception of patients September 3, 1821. It is one of the oldest institutions of its kind in the country, and under the most efficient management. More than a thousand in-patients receive its advantages annually, and nearly five thousand out-patients. It is supported by invested funds, voluntary contributions from citizens of Boston and vicinity, and by moderate charges where patients can afford to pay. for care and treatment. The hospital has 243 beds. Patients suffering from medical or surgical diseases are received from any part of the United States or Provinces. Chronic. or incurable cases are not,- as a rule, admitted, and the rule is invariable against contagious diseases. Since 1872 four new pavilion wards have been constructed on the grounds of the hospital. These buildings are called the Jackson, War ren, Bigelow and Townsend wards respectively, in memory of the services of Drs. James Jackson, John C. Warren, Jacob Bigelow, and S. D. Townsend. The Thayer Building for nurses was built in 1882, and the Gay Ward for out-patients in 1883. The former was named after Nathaniel Thayer, for many years a trustee and a liberal contributor to the hos pital;- the latter after Dr. George H. Gay, one of the surgeons of the the hospital for many years. A Convalescent Home, connected with the hospital, is located in Belmont. It has thirty beds. A new edition of a history of the hospital, written by the late N. I. Bowditch, was issued in 1872 under the editorial care of Rev. George E. Ellis, D.D., one of the trustees of that time. Boston City Hospital. This hospital was incorporated in 1880. It was established and is maintained by annual appropriations from the city government ; be quests and donations have also been given to it amounting up to the present time to $43,500. The total cost of the buildings alone was $750,000. It was opened for the reception of patients June 1, 1864, and at that time consisted of a central administrative building, two three-storied pavilions, and morgue. Three years later a two-storied 25 194 SUFFOLK COUNTY. pavilion, divided into small rooms, was built for the reception of dis eases requiring isolation. In 1874 and 1875 the hospital was again enlarged by the erection of two three-storied buildings, two one-story pavilions, and a building for the use of the various departments for out-patients. It now has 480 beds. It is intended for those only who require temporary relief during sickness, especially those suffering from acute medical or surgical dis eases, and except in special cases is limited to residents of Boston. The hospital is open at all hours to cases of emergency. Physicians and surgeons are in daily attendance for the treatment of out-patients. A Convalescent Home was established in 1890 in Dorchester; it has accommodation for thirty-four patients. Large additions are now in process of erection for the better isolation and care of contagious diseases. The Children's Hospital. This hospital was incorporated February 26, 1869, and its present quarters on Huntington avenue were opened in December, 1882. It has one hundred beds. It provides medical and surgical treatment for the diseases of chil dren. Patients between the ages of two and twelve, and suffering from acute diseases, are received. Those having infectious or contagious diseases are never admitted, and chronic cases only when they offer urgent symptoms which seem capable of relief. The beds are free to the poor of Boston, but a moderate charge is made for those who are able to pay. The very moderate charge of four dollars per week for those who reside outside the city. The immediate care of the hospital, and the nursing, is entrusted to members of the Protestant Episcopal Sisterhood of St. Margaret, East Grimstead, Eng; A convalescent home at Wellesley, containing eighteen beds, has been established in connection with the hospital. Boston Lying-in Hospital. This hospital, which was organized in 1832, now occupies a new, spacious and well-appointed building on McLean street. It has a capacity of seventy beds, and cares for about 500 house-patients yearly. It also maintains a well organized out-patient service, which annually MEDICAL HISTORY. 195 cares for over a thousand women in their homes. This service is gratuitous. The house-patients are charged a fee which must be paid on entrance, and includes all charges for care during labor and for two weeks thereafter, or for such further time as may be necessary for the patient to become able to leave the hospital. Those ¦ awaiting labor are not received ; but a list of approved and convenient boarding-places and homes is kept at the hospital, where they may remain until the proper time for entrance. Deserving women, who are unable to pay, are received free, if residents of Boston ; non-residents by special vote of the executive committee. The hospital is governed by a Board of Trustees, and has an advisory Board of Lady Visitors. The medical staff consists of three consulting physicians, a visiting physician, an assistant visiting physician, and three physicians to out-patients. The house-staff consists of three physicians, who are appointed for terms of six months ; and five ex- ternes, who attend to the out-patient service under the supervision of the out-patient physicians and the house physicians. The hospital also maintains a training school for nurses, in which women are thoroughly trained for obstetric nursing. Instruction is given by lectures by the staff and the house physicians, by recitations, and by constant bedside teaching under the supervision of the director of nurses. Diplomas are awarded to those who pass a creditable exam ination at the end of their course. Massachusetts Charitable Eye and Ear Infirmary. This institution owes its origin to Drs. Edward Reynolds and John Jeffries, who, in November, 1824, opened a small room in Scollay's Building as a dispensary for the gratuitous treatment of the poor afflicted with diseases of the eye. In March, 1826, their dispensary was regularly organized as the Boston Eye Infirmary. A month later it was incorporated by the State Legislature under its present title. It was soon after removed to Court street, and six years later to the Gore Mansion in Green street, where it remained until 1850. It was then removed to the building now occupied in Charles street, which was dedicated July 3 of that year. The Eye and Ear Infirmary has become one of the most important charitable institutions of Boston, and the demands upon it have con stantly increased. A new wing has recently been added to its building for the better accommodation of out-patients. 196 SUFFOLK COUNTY. Boston Lunatic Hospital. This hospital was built in 1839, was enlarged in 1846, and again in 1882. It has a capacity of over 200 patients, and is supported by the city of Boston, through the Board of Directors for Public Institutions. It is intended for the insane of the city of Boston, and accommodates about one-fifth of those unfortunates. It is free to the poor, but those who are able to pay are charged a moderate sum. Free Hospital for Women. Established in December, 1875; incorporated August, 1879. The hospital is entirely free, and receives only those women who suffer from diseases peculiar to their sex, and have not the means to obtain the medical advice or the care which they need. It contains twenty beds, and is supported by contributions from religious societies and private individuals. Connected with the hospital is an out-patient de partment. Those who give the full amount, $250, which is fixed for the support of a bed, are entitled to designate a patient throughout the whole year; but any one giving not less than $150 is entitled to share with another person giving alike amount the right to designate patients. A new hospital building in Brookline is now under construction. This hospital owes its existence to the energy of the professor of gy necology at Harvard University. St. Margaret's Infirmary. Organized in 1882 by the Sisters of St. Margaret (Protestant Epis copal) in order to receive patients (usually women and children) re quiring medical or surgical care. About fourteen patients can be accommodated. Physicians, members of the Massachusetts Medical Society, are allowed to send and attend patients. The inmates are cared for by the Sisters and trained nurses, and receive every kindness. The infirmary occupies two house in Louisburg square. Carney Hospital. Established in June, 1863, and incorporated in 1865, for the purpose of affording relief to the sick poor. Both acute and chronic cases are received, contagious diseases excepted. This institution is in charge of Roman Catholic Sisters of Charity, but receives patients of all de nominations. It is located in South Boston. MEDICAL HISTORY 197 St. Joseph's Home for Sick and Destitute Servant Girls. Incorporated in 1867, for the purpose of providing a home for, and otherwise aiding, sick and destitute servant girls. It includes under its organization a hospital for the treatment of diseases, especially those of an incurable character, and for women who have become ex hausted and unwell while at their work, and need a temporary respite. The institution has ninety beds, of which twenty-four are devoted to the hospital department. The institution was organized by and is under the charge of the Sisters of St. Francis. House of the Good Samaritan. Incorporated in 1860, for the care and treatment of sick women and girls, and of boys below six years of age, especially those suffering under diseases of long duration. It is supported by voluntary contri butions and from the income of its funds. St. Elizabeth's Hospital. Established in 1868, by the Sisters of St. Francis, and incorporated January 29, 1872, for the treatment of the medical and surgical diseases peculiar to women. It is especially intended for patients in moderate circumstances who can afford to pay only a low rate of board and mod erate fees for medical attendance. The institution has about sixty beds. In 1881 a branch was established in Roxbury. St. Mary's Infant Asylum antj Lying-in Hospital. This institution was founded by Roman Catholic Sisters of Charity and the Society of St. Vincent de Paul in 1868, and incorporated in 1870, as an institution for the maintenance and support of foundlings, orphan and half-orphan children. It also accommodates deserving indigent females during their confinement in childbirth. The asylum will receive ten patients and fifty children. Patients are received on application at the asylum. No distinction is made on account of re ligion ; and no patient is refused on account of her inability to pay. Deer Island Institutions — Hospital Department. The hospital connected with the public institutions of Boston is located on Deer Island in Boston Harbor, with a branch at Rainsford 198 SUFFOLK COUNTY. Island. Patients are received from the City Almshouse, the House of. Industry, and the House of Reformation for Juvenile Offenders. The hospital is under the care of the Board of Directors for Public Institutions. Small-Pox Hospital. This hospital was organized in June, 1877. It contains forty beds, but a larger number of patients could be accommodated if necessary. It is under the care and direction of the Boston Board of Health. The Channing Home. Established in 1857, by Miss Harriet Ryan (the late Mrs. Albee), through the assistance of friends whom she had« drawn into sympa thy with her benevolent purpose. It was incorporated in 1861. This is not a hospital in the common acceptation of the word, but a home for those whose death seems quite certain and require constant medical attendance. New England Hospital for Women and Children. This hospital was incorporated March 12, 1863, for the purpose of establishing and maintaining in the city of Boston or its vicinity a hospital for the treatment of the diseases of women and children, giv ing also clinical instruction to female students of medicine, and of training nurses. The present hospital building, located in Roxbury, was erected in 1872, and opened the same year for the reception of patients. It contains fifty-eight beds in rooms of two and four beds each. The maternity building is entirely separate, and consists of a small house of two stories, each having three rooms of two beds each, and a separate room for the delivery. There are also two isolated houses for the care of cases of contagion arising in the hospital. Patients are admitted on application at stated times. Chronic or incurable cases are, as a rule, not admitted, and contagious cases are re fused. There are eleven endowment free beds, and six annual free beds. West End Nursery and Infant's Hospital. This institution was incorporated in 1881. Children are admitted to the Nursery Department if below the age of two. Babies are taken MEDICAL HISTORY. 199 to board, without surrender, at three dollars per week. The number of free beds in the hospital is fifteen, and in the nursery fifteen. No infants are taken in the nursery free if the mothers are earning any thing. In the Hospital Department the medical and surgical diseases of children are treated. The beds are free, and in certain cases the mother is admitted with the child. An out-patient department is open daily. Boston Home for Incurables. This Home was organized in 1822, and formally opened for patients December 4, 1882, and incorporated in 1884. Accommodations are furnished for thirty adult patients, of both sexes, and thirty children. The design of the Home is to receive gratuitously patients who are incapacitated for life, who are unable to provide for themselves. Cases of contagious disease, syphilis, consumption, cancer, or any form of insanity are not received. Washingtonian Home. This Home was organized in 1857, and incorporated in 1859, for the cure of inebriates who wish to reform. Persons having a permanent home within the State, whose circum stances render it imperatively necessary, may be admitted to a free bed ; all other persons are charged a moderate sum for their board, according to their ability to pay, and the rooms, attendance, and ac commodations furnished them. The institution furnishes accommo dations to forty inmates. While this institution is not strictly a hospital, it is devoted to the cure of the disease of intemperance, and should be classed as a special hospital. Vincent Memorial Hospital. This hospital was incorporated in 1890, to honor the memory of Mrs. I. R. Vincent, for many years a member of the Boston Museum Com pany. It has ten beds, four of which are free. The visiting physicians are women. Boston Dispensary. This institution was founded in 1796, and incorporated in 1801. It is supported by funds heretofore contributed and by private charity, 200 SUFFOLK COUNTY. receiving no assistance from the city. Its operations are confined to the city proper, East and South Boston. It has a fine building for its central office, erected in 1883. Here physicians are in attendance daily, who treat respectively men, women and children, and surgical cases, at stated hours. In addition to this office, the city is divided into nine districts, each having a physician assigned, who cares for those unable to leave their homes. Medicines are given out at the central office daily at stated hours. New England Dispensary. This is the out-patient department of the New England Hospital, with which it was connected until the removal of the latter out of town in 1872. It is located on Fayette street. The physicians in attendance are women. As supplementing the work of the dispensaries should be noticed the North End Diet Kitchen. Organized in December, 1874, for the relief of the sick poor at the North and West End. Plain, nourishing food is given without pay ment, but only on the orders of the dispensary physicians. And the South End Diet Kitchen. Organized in November, 1875, and incorporated in 1882, at the south part of the city, to provide simple food for the sick. " Any person may obtain diet at the kitchen upon presentation of the slip-card of the corporation, signed by a Boston physician of regular standing, by a bible reader, a city missionary, an officer of the Associated Charities, or by such person as the managers of the corporation may have authorized to sign such slip-card." MEDICAL EDUCATION. In the letter of instructions given to Governor Endicott on leaving the old country, occurs the following, an evidence of forethought in the matter of medical education (Young, Chron. Mass., 165): We have entertained Lambert Wilson, Chirurgeon, to remain with you in the service of the Plantation ; with whom we are agreed that he shall serve this Company and the other planters that live in the Plantation for three years, and in that time MEDICAL HISTORY. 201. apply himself to cure not only of such as come from hence for the general and par ticular accounts, but also for the Indians, as from time to time he shall be directed by yourself or your successor and the rest of the Council. And moreover he is to educate and instruct in his art one or more youths, such as you and the said Council shall appoint, that may be helpful to him, and, if occasion serve, succeed him in the Plantation: which youth or youths, fit to learn that Profession, let be placed with him ; of which Mr. Hugesson's son, if his father approve thereof, may be one, the rather because he hath been trained up in literature ; but if not he, then such other as you shall judge most fittest. Young adds in a foot note : We have here the embryo of a medical school, undoubtedly the first contemplated on the continent of America. Whether it ever went into operation, or how it suc ceeded, we are not informed. The beginning of the present Medical Department of Harvard Uni versity cannot be better told than by quoting from the account given by Dr. Ephraim Eliot, one of the physicians of Boston, during and after the Revolutionary war. About 1781 or 1782, when Dr. Eliot was studying with Dr. Rand, the physicians formed a club, which met at the Green Dragon Tavern ; one of their objects was to arrange the fee table, and make regulations for the benefit of the profession. Dr. Eliot writes : The profession was much benefited by these regulations. The physicians became acquainted with each other ; party politics were dropped at the meetings ; but oil and vinegar will not unite. They did not love each other, and all were determined to put down Warren ; but they could not : he rose triumphant over them all. One night Dr. Rand returned home from one of these professional meetings : and, addressing himself to me, he said, "Eliot, that Warren is an artful man, and will get to windward of us all. He has made a proposition to the club, that, as there are nearly a dozen pupils studying in town, there should be an incipient medical school instituted here for their benefit ; and has nominated Danforth to read on materia medica and chemistry, proposed that I should read on the theory and practice of physic, and some suitable person on anatomy and surgery. He was immediately put up for the latter branch; and after a little maiden coyness, agreed to commence a course, as he had many operations and surgical cases in the Continental Hospital, of which he is sole director in every respect ; and he can always have command of subjects for dissection, without exciting alarm, or being reduced to the necessity of taking bodies from the burying-ground, as most of the inmates were foreigners, and no one could scrutinize into the matter. I would have you attend the lectures, which will save me the trouble of dissecting with you in order to qualify )'ou for a Surgeon. Danforth declined, as it was not possible to command a chemical apparatus ; as to myself, who would want to hear an interesting course of lectures on fevers and con sumption? so I followed his steps. Now, Warren will be able to be obtain fees from the pupils who will attend his lectures on anatomy and surgery, and turn it to pe- 20 202 SUFFOLK COUNTY cuniary advantage. But he will not stop there ; he well knows that moneys have been left to the college for such an establishment as he is appointed to, and he is looking at the professorship. Mark what I say, Eliot : you will probably live to see it verified." Thus Rand, evidently chagrined. At the proper season, Dr. Warren read a very excellent course of anatomical lectures with demonstrations, and exhibited the various operations of surgery. It was renewed the next year. The fullness of time having come, the corporation [of] Harvard University began seriously to think of setting up a medical institution. At first the improvement of Dr. Hersey's legacy was deemed a sufficient foundation; but on the suggestions of the friends of that seminary, a more enlarged plan was determined to be adopted: a professor of chemistry and materia medica, a professor of anatomy 1 and surgery, and one of the theory and practice of physic, were to be established. But professors were to be sought: a prof essor of anatomy and surgery, eminently qualified, could be obtained at once. For the other branches it required reflection. It was suggested that Dr. Aaron Dexter, who had attended the practice of Dr. Danforth, the most scientific chemist then on the stage, could easily qualify himself for a chemical pro fessor. Dr. Waterhouse had recently arrived in Boston, or was expected in a short time. He had spent some years in London, and had completed his education at Leyden ; was a relative and pupil of the excellent Dr. Fothergill, who, it was said, had contemplated such an establishment at this university ; and, although he had died, it was also reported that Dr. Lettsom had succeeded to much of his business, and meant to fulfill his benevolent intentions. This was only a gossiping story, but was believed, or rather hoped for, by many persons. Dr. Waterhouse was therefore determined upon for the other professorship. According to the bequest of Dr. Hersey, his professor was to be a resident in Cambridge ; and there was no provision for a division of the legacy. It was to be for the benefit of a professor of physic and surgery ; but, by an arrangement with the heirs of Dr. Hersey, it was consented to that Waterhouse should reside in Cambridge, the income to be divided in proportions to be determined upon between Warren and Waterhouse. Major William Erving, a Bostonian, and relative of Governor Bowdoin, who had been in the British service from his youth, but had retired therefrom, and having been much acquainted with Dr. Dexter, died in good time, and left an income to the chemical professorship. It was presumed that the attending students in the medical establishment would make up a sufficient gratuity to render it an object to the several gentlemen who had the appointments. The Massachusetts Medical Society had authority to examine such candidates for the practice of physic as should offer themselves for the purpose, and grant diplomas signifying such persons as they found to be qualified for the profession ; but they had no power to give degrees. The medical professors had similar powers, and were quite independent of the Medical Society. The university could give degrees and confer titles upon such as passed examination before their professors. Here, it was supposed, there would be some clashing of interests. The number who had been examined by the censor [s] of the society was not great. It was not long before 1 In the manuscript, a pen has been drawn through the word * anatomy " and what appears like " phisic " written over it. MEDICAL HISTORY. 203 the two institutions were at issue. . None had been examined by the university ; and no degrees but such as were honorary, had been granted. About the year 1788, George Holmes Hall- and John Fleet offered themselves for examination to the cen sors. Dr. Oliver Prescott of Groton, Drs. Lloyd, Gardner, Danforth, and Rand were then in the office — a formidable host. The candidates -were students in Dr. Warren's surgery, had dissected much, and were probably far better qualified than any who had presented themselves : in fact, the doctor had bestowed great pains in regard to their qualifications. Dr. Prescott, being hard of hearing, said nothing ; and I think Dr. Danforth's business prevented his attendance, but he heartily joined in putting them down. It was judged that now was the time to mortify their instructor. Various times were appointed for attending to the business, and it was as often post poned ; till the young gentlemen actually became confident that the censors, sensible of their own deficiencies, were afraid to encounter them. At length, the time came ; and they found it a fiery trial. They then became convinced that all knowledge was not shut up in the brains of the professors: they were set aside and could not obtain certificates. Here they thought the matter would drop; but they were mistaken. Dr. Warren was neither mortified nor foiled. He had wished for an opportunity of commencing the examinations at Cambridge : this was a good opportunity. Lectures were immediately commenced, and got through before Commencement. This was an unexpected matter, and measures were taken to prevent its having effect. Presi dent Willard was applied to, to put a stop to the progress of the professors, lest it should generate serious misunderstandings between the two societies. Dr. Rand called on me, and desired me to prevail upon Dr. Fleet to suspend the matter; assur ing me that the censors would make such representations as would effectually pre vent him from getting into business, and that both he and Hall would be ruined. I was applied to, as I was like to, and did become his brother-in-law ; but I had no influence over him, and declined any interferences. A public examination was held in the philosophy chamber of the university, at which many persons not of the pro fession attended. They were thoroughly sifted; and they afforded much gratification to all who were present. On the Saturday previous to Commencement, notice was sent that the censors would meet for their re-examination. They attended; when a few questions were asked, and they were passed. On Commencement day, not having been informed of this matter, a public attempt was made by some of the overseers, that the degree of Doctor of Physic should be. withheld. Having been informed of the re-examination,- opposition was withdrawn; and George Holmes Hall, who received the degree of Master of Arts in 1781, and John Fleet ad eundem in 1788, were admitted the first in course to the degree of Doctor of Physic. This, it is believed, has been the only interruption that has taken place between the societies ; and they have mutually contributed to the reputation of each other, and have'done their part to raise the respect of both to their present high standing among the literary institutions of the country. — Proceedings Mass. Hist. Soc, 1863- 1864, vol. VII., pp. 188-4. From the day when the medical degree was conferred on Hall and Fleet to the present, the history of the Harvard Medical School has been one of steady growth in importance and influence. The lectures of the newly-formed school were delivered in the old Holden Chapel 204 SUFFOLK COUNTY. and in the basement of University Hall in Cambridge, until the erec tion of the building known as the Massachusetts Medical College in Mason street in Boston in 1815. It was no easy matter for a busy Bos ton practitioner to deliver a course of lectures in the university town. " In the fullness of professional business he daily passed over Charles town ferry to Cambridge, there not being a bridge at that time ; and sometimes when impeded by ice, was compelled to lake the route through Roxbury and Brookline to Cambridge, and to return the same evening, after himself performing the dissections and giving a lecture sometimes three hours long," as Dr. Thacher says in his medical biography. Dr. Benjamin Waterhouse, the introducer of vaccination into America, was the first professor of the theory and practice of medicine, and Dr. Aaron Dexter instilled into the pupils of the new institution the still crude theories which were being organized into a system by such men as Balch, Cavendish, Priestley, Lavoisier, and others, as the foundation of the modern chemistry. With this triad of men the school began, men of mark of their day, but with means and methods of the simplest character, the profession itself and the knowledge of medicine apparently just emerging from the ignorance of the earlier periods, and with everything to be form ulated in the matter of technical knowledge as we know it to-day. In 1815 the school was moved to Boston in order to be nearer the homes of those who were engaged in instruction; in 1846, under the name of the Harvard Medical School, it occupied the building erected for its use in North Grove street in Boston; and. in 1883 that at present in use in Boylston street. In all these years a long line of professors and teachers have followed each other; it is possible only to mention some of them by name: John C. Warren, eminent as a surgeon and a teacher; James Jackson, in theory and practice; Jacob Bigelow and his not less distinguished son, Henry J Bigelow, John Ware, Walter Channing, D. Humphreys Storer, Jeffries and Morrill Wyman, Henry I. Bowditch, John B. S. Jackson. These are some of the men who have by hard labor continued the work to our own time, and have brought the school to the position it holds. During this middle period of its history the most important advances have been made in medicine and surgery. The first experiments of the ana;sthetic properties of ether belong of right to the teachers in the MEDICAL HISTORY. 205 Harvard Medical School and the surgeons of the Massachusetts General Hospital ; the Bigelow method of reducing the femur and the practice of litholapaxy; various methods adopted in the subject of orthopraxy; frozen- sections in the study of anatomy ; all owe their origin to this school; and the studies of abdominal and brain surgery, histology, antisepsis and asepsis, obstetrical, and gynecological surgery have been either initiated or closely followed up — from hints given by others — by the various professors and teachers. At this time the Medical School of Harvard University has a teach ing force of seventy-one professors and instructors, and four hundred and fifty-one students were enrolled during the year 1892-93, All candidates for admission pass an examination in English, Latin, physics, chemistry and one elective study, viz. : French, German, math ematics or botany/ Beginning with the year 1892-93 all students are required to complete the full term of four years' study before taking a degree in medicine; one year at least must have been spent in this school. The degree cum laude is given to candidates who obtain an average of seventy-five per cent, in all the required examinations. The degree of Master of Arts is open to graduates of the school who are Bachelors of Harvard University or of other recognized colleges, who shall pursue an approved course of study in medicine for at least one year after taking the degree of Doctor of Medicine. Candidates for admission to the school may be examined either in Boston, or at either of the twenty other designated places, including such distant points as Portland, Ore. , Bonne, Germany, and Tokio, Japan. The course of instruction includes a carefully graded system of studies from the most elementary to the most advanced, with lectures, laboratory and hospital work, special attention being given in the later years to individual investigation and clinical study and conferences in the more advanced branches. For all this system of studies elaborate laboratories, with every requisite, are furnished ; students are employed as assistants in the many hospitals and dispensaries of the city and its neighborhood ; abundant means are furnished for the practical study of obstetrics ; and no means are spared for the complete knowledge of medical science in conformity with the latest knowledge of the day. Twenty-five appointments are made annually as internes in the various hospitals, and as many more for assistants in the out-patient depart ments. More than one hundred thousand patients are treated annually in the various hospitals and dispensaries of Boston, and students have 206 SUFFOLK COUNTY free admission to the practice at these institutions. They have also access to the college and medical school libraries, to the Boston Public Library, and to various other collections of books of a general or special character. The Warren Anatomical Museum furnishes abundant means of instruction in technical studies, and various other collections in the city on special topics. Twelve scholarships are offered for the assist ance of deserving students. Courses of study for graduates and summer classes are arranged for those needing such advantages. In these instruction is conducted in small classes, under the immediate supervision of the professors or instructors. Various prizes are open for public competition or for students of the school. The following extract from the "Conspectus of the Medical Colleges of America," compiled and issued by the State Board of Health of Illinois, in 1884, shows that temporarily our city has not been free from those who, for purely mercenary motives, issued degrees fraudulent in character arid preceded by no medical training : New England University of Arts and Sciences, Boston, Mass. Fraudulent. Extinct. Bellevue Medical College of Massachusetts, Boston, Mass. Organized in 1880. . A fraudulent institution, exposed by the Illinois State Board or Health in 1882. Vide infra ; see also pp. xiii-xv, Fourth Annual Report of the Board. Medical Department of the American University of Boston. First Medical College of the American Health Society. Excelsior Medical College. The exposure, in November, 1882,- by the Illinois Board of Health of the fraudulent Bellevue Medical College of Massachusetts; led to the correction of a flagrant abuse in' connection with the issuing of medical diplomas in Massachusetts. The "Bellevue" was 'organized under the "Public Statutes relating to Manu facturing and other Corporations," and its officers, on the trial which resulted from. the exposure referred to, pleaded that they were legally incorporated, and were empowered by the laws of Massachusetts to issue diplomas and confer de grees without any restriction as to course of study or professional attainments. The United States Commissioner, before whom the trial was had, held the plea to be valid, and dismissed the case, with the folio wing' remarks : ' ' ' The State has authorized this 'college to issue degrees, and it has been done according to legal right The law makes the faculty of the college the sole judges of elegibility of applicants for diplomas. There is no legal restriction, no legal requirements. If the faculty chose to issue degrees to incompetent persons, the laws of Massachusetts authorize it." As a result of this decision, the "American University of Boston,'' and the " First Medical College of the American Health Society " were incorporated under the same authority as the " Bellevue ;'' and the "Excelsior Medical College " and others were projected. I ' MEDICAL HISTORY. 207 An Act was passed by the Legislature, in 1883, forbidding any cor poration, organized under the public statutes referred to in' the above extract, from conferring medical degrees or issuing diplomas, or cer tificates conferring or purporting to confer degrees, unless specially authorized by the Legislature so to do. The result of this salutary legislation has been to rid our community of what threatened to become a growing evil. An organization which has been the means of conveying general information on medical matters to the laity should be mentioned, and which has certainly done much good in the community, the Massachusetts Emergency and Hygiene Association, Which was organized in the winter of 1883 by the Women's Educa tion Association, to provide, for both men and women, instruction which should fit them to be of use in cases of sudden illness or accident. Organized under its present title in order to give instruction in hygiene and the laws of health, and to qualify men and women to keep their presence of mind and act intelligently in cases of sudden accident and emergency, pending the arrival of surgeon or physician. Emergency courses of lectures are given in Boston, Worcester, Lynn, to classes, consisting of not more than twenty-five, by physicians appointed by the Executive Committee. New England Female Medical College. This college was organized in 1848. Lectures were delivered and classes graduated until 1874, when it became merged with the Boston University School of Medicine. During dts separate existence it was not a sectarian school. Boston University School of Medicine. This school was organized in 1873, and graduated its first class in 1874. It has always taught homoeopathy, and admits students of both sexes on equal terms. A four years' course of professional study is now obligatory before graduation. The teaching board, as shown by the last catalogue (1893), consists of fourteen full professors, four associate professors, fifteen lecturers, and fourteen instructors and assistants. The number of students was one hundred and fifty-three. 208 SUFFOLK COUNTY. College of Physicians and Surgeons. This college was organized in 1880, and graduated its .first class in 1881. For many years it was located on Essex street, more recently on Boylston street, and is now located on Shawmut avenue. During the present year a reorganization of its board of governrnent has taken place, and it begins the winter's course with a practically new board of instructors. It admits students of both sexes. Tufts College Medical School. The trustees of Tufts College have this- year opened a medical school in Boston, for men and women. Twelve professors, ten lecturers, and six other instructors are an nounced as comprising the faculty, DENTISTRY. Dentistry, which has now become an important branch of medicine, and which includes among its practitioners a rapidly increasing number of highly educated and scientific professional men, was in early days but little understood and but rudely practiced. Physicians, no doubt, until recent years, extracted teeth when they had become too painful for endurance ; little attention had been given to saving or replacing them. We gather from the following amusing advertisements in Boston newspapers (1780 and 1781) that a beginning had been made in den tistry at that time, although one of the practitioners included among his attainments the manufacture of musical instruments and the re covering of " Umbrilloes. " MR. TEMPLEMAN, Surgeon Dentist, Incouraged by the success of his practice in different parts of Europe and America, begs leave to acquaint the public, That he is furnished with materials with which, and a dexterity peculiar to the art, He preserves the Teeth, Cures the scurvy in the Gums, Extracts and transplants Teeth, Scales Teeth, Substitutes artificial Teeth, Gives the Teeth proper vacancies, Regulates childrens Teeth, And plumbs concave Teeth, MEDICAL HISTORY. 209 which prevents their colluting or being offensive, besides many other operations too tedious to mention, as without the least pain (except that of extracting) since scaling the Teeth is carefully to take from them an infectious tartar which destroys the animal [enamel?], eats the gums, renders them spungy ulcerated, and incapable of affording any support. Its being removed, which is not in the power of composition to effect, renders the gums firm, and leaves the teeth in their natural purity. Many people blame the climate, &c. for the loss of Teeth, — But it is too often the case, as I 've observ'd in the course of my practice on the Continent, that but few people take care of their Teeth, till they become defective. The Europeans are remarkable (particularly the French) for their good and beautiful Teeth, owing to their own care, and knowledge of the art. N. B. Mr. TEMPLEMAN will, with pleasure, attend those Ladies or Gentlemen who cannot conveniently wait on him at Mrs. Frasier's, near the Town-House, Bos ton. — "The Boston Gazette and The Country Journal," October 8, 1781. Gentlemen and Ladies -that may want Artificial Teeth, may have them made and fixed in the neatest manner without the least pain by ISAAC GREENWOOD, Ivory-Turner, at his house in the Main Street, between the Old South and Seven-Star Lane, at the South-End of Boston ; they help the Speech as becoming as the natural ones. $F Ladies, wax rots your Teeth and Gums, throw it away. Come and have your Teeth cleansed, and if done in time, saves them from rotting and parting from the Gums. N. B. Said GREENWOOD continues to make Artificial Leggs and Hands: Turns in Ivory, Bone, Silver and Wood: Makes Fifes, German-Flutes, Hautboys, &c. &c. &B° Ladies please to send your Umbrilloes to be mended and cover ' d. — (The Continental Journal and Weekly Advertiser, April 20, 1780.) Special schools and societies have naturally followed the advance in scientific dentistry. The importance to the public of proper treatment of the teeth demanded the attention first of physicians who made it a part of their practice, and afterwards of men who could give it their whole attention. Professional reputation followed study under representative dentists, and then the foundation of regular schools and societies for professional study and development. There are in Boston two important schools of dentistry, one under the auspices of Harvard University, named the Dental Department of Harvard University, and the other the Boston Dental College. Dental Department of Harvard University. The Dental Department of the university is located in Boston in North Grovfe street, in the building formerly occupied by the Medical 27 210 SUFFOLK COUNTY. School, but having outgrown their quarters, an effort is now being made to erect a building especially designed for its use, in order to secure in connection with the Medical Department those advantages for clinical instruction which are found only in large cities. Instruction in this school is given throughout the academic year by lectures, recitations, clinical teaching, and practical exercises, uniformly distributed. The course of instruction is progressive, and extends over two years, the teaching of one year not being repeated the next. The first year is identical with that of the Harvard Medical School, the student receiving the same instruction by the same professors at the same time and place with the medical students, and at the end of the year passing with them the same examinations. It is the object of the faculty to present a complete course of instruc tion in the theory and practice of dentistry ; and for this purpose a well-appointed laboratory and infirmary are provided, and such ar rangements made as to insure an ample supply of patients. Clinical instruction is given by the professors and other instructors; and, under the direction of demonstrators, patients are assigned to the students, securing to all an opportunity of operating at the chair, and becoming by actual practice familiar with all the operations demanded of the dentist. The infirmary, which is a department of the Massachusetts General Hospital, remains open, and one of the clinical instructors and the demonstrator are in attendance daily throughout the academic year. Students have access to the hospitals of the city, and to the dissecting- room and museum of the Medical School. Boston Dental College. The Boston Dental College is located at 485 Tremont street, Boston, Mass. It was incorporated June 3, 1868, for the advancement of dental science and art, by means of lectures, clinical instruction, library, and museum. It is authorized by the Legislature to confer the degree of Doctor of Dental Surgery. The college pupilage is continuous over three years. In this institution all branches of the ' dental and collateral sciences are taught, so far as they can be made available to the dentist. Every endeavor is used to make the course scientific and practical by demon stration and experiment. The principal society of those of who practice this special branch of medicine is the MEDICAL HISTORY. 211 Massachusetts Dental Society, Which was formed May, 1864, and received an act of incorporation from the Legislature in April, 1865. Its object is to cultivate the science and art of dentistry and all its collateral branches, by means of a library and museum, professional lectures, and publications, and by premiums and medals for original researches and discoveries ; to elevate and sus tain the professional character of dentists, and to promote among them mutual improvement, social intercourse, and good-will. It includes active, junior, corresponding, and honorary members. Active members consist of practitioners of dentistry living in the State of Massachusetts. They must be twenty-one years of age, of good moral character, and have received a diploma from a respectable med ical or dental college, or have been five years in the practice of dentistry, including term of pupilage. Junior members consist of students of dentistry and dentists not eligible to active membership. Correspond ing members consist of practitioners of dentistry living in other States of the Union, or in foreign countries, who manifest a disposition to ad vance the science and art of the profession by contributing to its liter ature. Honorary memberships are conferred by the society on distinguished members of the profession, and others who may merit the distinction. The other dental societies are the following: Harvard Dental Alumni Association. This association was organized in 1870, for the purpose of uniting the alumni of the Harvard Dental School. Alumni Association of the Boston Dental College. This society was organized in March, 1872. Harvard Odontological Society. This society was organized July 2, 1878, for the purpose of maintain ing and cultivating professional and social relations among graduates of the Dental Department of Harvard University. Any graduate of the Dental School is eligible to membership. Boston Society for Dental Improvement. This society was organized January 13, 1874. 212 SUFFOLK COUNTY. TRAINING SCHOOLS FOR NURSES. Experience in the practice of medicine in hospitals has shown the importance of employing the services of competent nurses to carry out accurately the instructions of the physician, and schools under the auspices of the hospitals have grown up for their instruction. There is now in successful operation a school connected with each of the principal hospitals, and at the McLean Asylum and the Boston Lying-in Hospital, where the instruction is of a special character. The several schools are all organized on the same general plan ; it will therefore suffice to speak in detail only of the Boston City Hospital Training School for Nurses. The trustees of the Boston City Hospital organized in 1877 a training school for nurses, for the purpose of giving a systematic and thorough course of instruction in nursing to women who intend to become pro fessional nurses. The school is under the direction of the trustees and a committee of the hospital staff, but is more immediately under the charge of the superintendent of the school, and the resident physician and superin tendent of the hospital. The pupils of the school live at the hospital and serve as nurses in the wards for men, women and children, passing in rotation through the various services of the hospital, in order that experience may be had in all the departments. Pupils of the school are under the authority of the superintendent of the school and the resident physician of the hospital, and are subject to the rules and regulations of the hospital. The most desirable age for candidates is from twenty-one to thirtv- five years; they must be in good, sound health, and must present on application a certificate from two or more responsible persons (one a physician preferred) as to their good character, education, capabilities, and good health. Upon the recommendation of the superintendent of the hospital and the approval of the trustees, they will be received for one month on probation. During this month they are boarded and lodged at the hospital, but receive no compensation. At the end of the probationary month, if accepted as pupils, the candidates will sign an agreement to remain at the training school for two years, and to conform to the rules of the hospital. MEDICAL HISTORY 213 At the end of the two years, they pass an examination by members of. the staff, and if successful are given a diploma. No single institution in the country has probably given more comfort to the individual members of the profession, and to their clients, than the one now to be described : The Directory for Nurses at the Boston Medical Library, No. 19 Boylston Place, Which was opened in November, 1879. At this Directory a nurse, either male or female, can be secured at any time in the day or night, either for immediate service or for future engagement. Applications are received by messenger, by telephone or by telegraph. More than twenty-one thousand nurses have been furnished in less than fourteen years. » It is hard to realize how difficult it was to obtain good nurses for the sick before the Directory was opened, and how much .more often nurses are employed now than formerly. People were slow to make up their minds to look for a nurse, if it could be avoided, and when it could be no longer avoided, the family of the sick person, the physician, and often members of his family too, would hurry in search of a nurse from one part of the city to another on foot and by carriage, only to find at night, perhaps, that no one had been successful, and that the search must be taken up again in the morning. The training schools for nurses had increased the number of nurses, but had not made it much easier to find them. A list of nurses was to be found in every physician's office, but if it contained the names of a hundred nurses, only one out of all was likely to be found disengaged, and on the other hand, at inconvenient hours, nurses, generally the less desirable, would come to his office to tell in detail of how long they had been out of work. There were also employment offices that professed to supply nurses, but they had only lists of nurses that could be looked up. When in 1879 a committee was appointed to make arrangements for furnishing nurses, it was decided that, in order to do satisfactory work, a Directory must give sufficient guarantee of the qualifications and character of the nurses, that it must be able to say positively what nurses would be found disengaged. 214 SUFFOLK COUNTY The sixth annual report of the Medical Library gives an account of the methods of the Directory, which we quote : Each applicant is required to fill out a blank form stating the name, residence, age, length of experience in nursing, from what training school, if any, he or she has a diploma, whether any particular branch of nursing is preferred to others, whether he or she is willing to take meals ill the kitchen, the price per day and per week, and the names of three or four physicians and of a like number of families as references. When this blank is filled out and returned the registrar sends blanks, with a stamped and directed envelope inclosed, to the families and physicians named as references. The blank to a physician inquires whether the doctor considers the applicant a desirable nurse, whether she is good - tempered, neat, capable, and mindful of directions, whether she has any faults, and whether she is to be recommended in any special class of cases. The blank to families makes similar inquiries, and begs for any information bearing on the character and quali fications of the applicant. When this set of blanks is filled and returned, the infor mation contained is carefully examined by the committee, and if the n urse is accepted an abstract is made of the reports and recorded in indexed books specially prepared for the purpose. Postal cards which merely require a moment to fill out are kept constantly on hand and sold to nurses at cost price, so that the directory may be immediately notified of the taking or termination of an engagement, or of a change in residence, price, etc. On the first failure of a nurse to report an engagement promptly, a warning is sent, and on the second failure the name of the delinquent is dropped from the register, to which it can be restored only on payment of a second registration fee. A card catalogue of all nurses registered is also kept so that the registrar can tell almost at a glance just which nurses are free at any given moment; nurses are also expected to keep the Directory informed as to future engagements, a point of special importance in securing attendance for ladies expecting confinement. But the work of the Directory does not stop here. A nurse applying for registration is at liberty to choose her references, and will naturally refer to those families and physicians who she thinks will report most favorably about her. But when once the nurse is registered, blanks specially prepared for the purpose are sent to each person who secures her through the Directory, as well as to the physician in charge of the case. The replies are all submitted to the committee, and then copied in ab stract into the register, or filed away, according to whether new facts are elicited or not. All complaints made by employers are investigated patiently, and every care is taken that strict justice is done as far as possible. In July, 1879, the preliminary work was begun, and in the November following the Directory opened with the names of about sixty nurses on its books. The first step was to send a circular to a number of the physicians in the largest practice in and about Boston, informing them of the project, and asking from each of them a list of such nurses as from personal knowledge he could recommend. To all nurses so vouched for, as well as to all graduates of the training schools for nurses, circulars were then sent explaining the plan and inviting them to register themselves. Nurses were not slow to see the benefits which would accrue to them selves and the public, and applications for registration soon began to pour in. MEDICAL HISTORY 215 Nurses are not guaranteed employment by the Directory, and are always at liberty to seek occupation for themselves, provided only that they send prompt notification of any engagement secured. The chief aims of the Directory are to put employers and nurses in ready communication with one another, and to afford employers reliable information as to the character and qualifications of one who is about to become an important member of the household. These methods have been followed hitherto with only occasional modifications of detail. The success of the institution was notable at the very outset, and the almost uninterrupted yearly increase in its business has been extraordinary. From November 23 to December 21, 1879, sixty-one nurses were sent out; during 1880, six hundred and twenty; 1883, almost twice as many — 1,204; in 1886, 1,349. In the report of this year the committee expressed the opinion that there would not be any great or rapid in crease of business of the Directory. But that expectation was destined to be agreeably disappointed, for in the very next year the number had risen to 1,613, and in 1891 it reached 2,313. These nurses were furnished to applicants not only in Boston, but in all parts of New England and occasionally outside of it. Of female nurses the proportion of graduates from training schools to non -graduates has changed very much in the course of years. The were in 1881 75 graduates and 291 non-graduates; 1884, 155 graduates and 380 non-graduates; 1892, 509 graduates and 469 non- graduates. The rise in the proportion of training school nurses is still more marked if we. take those only who do the work of the year. Thus in the year ending September, 1892, the year's work of the female nurses was divided between 153 non-graduates and 385 graduates. The number of male nurses has steadily increased and the quality of these is greatly improved. On September 28, 1892, there were 125 on the register, and 96 had been heard from during the year. Taking all the nurses together there were on the books on Septem ber 28, 1892, 1,304, of these 187 were known to have died or given up nursing, leaving 1,117, who were supposed to be available. But of these only 434 were heard from and did the work during the preceding year. The number of nurses disengaged at any one moment varies much. When there is little sickness it rises to a considerable number, but dur ing the busiest season it often falls to two or three. But every mail is likely to bring in new ones. 216 SUFFOLK COUNTY. During the year 1893, attendants for invalids and children having been instructed by means of lectures under the auspices of the Massa chusetts Emergency and Hygiene Association, have been placed on the books of the Directory for nurses. They are not expected to take care of persons who are acutely ill, and receive at most seven dollars per week. Places have been found for them without difficulty. The reasons of the remarkable success of the Directory have been suggested already in part. It commends itself to nurses (1) Because it supplies them with a large amount of work; (2) Because, being under the care of physicians, it recognizes and encourages good work, while its criticisms are unprejudiced and fair. It is liked by the employer (1) Because he obtains a nurse without delay ; (2) Because he finds that the nurse is, as far as possible, selected with reference to the peculiarities of each case. Such an institution could hardly attain the same success if not under the care of physicians. Since the Directory opened in 1878 six similar institutions are known to have been opened in Philadelphia, Brooklyn, Baltimore, Washing ton, San Francisco and Chicago. County Medical Officers. The only medical officers of the county are the two medical examin ers and their assistant, the successors of the coroners, who were legis lated out of office by the General Court in 1877, and the City Physician of Boston, now officially designated as the Physician to the Board of Health, one of whose duties is to attend professionally the county jail. .The office of city physician was established by ordinance in 1847. Dr. Henry G. Clark was the first incumbent, and held office until 1860. The appointment was made at this time by the mayor, and confirmed by a concurrent vote of the Board of Aldermen and Common Council. The duties then embraced medical attendance at the Suffolk County Jail, examination of all sources of danger to the public health, medical attendance at the various police stations, and the vaccination and re- vaccination of all applicants. He was also required to give certificates of vaccination to all children for their admission to the public schools. It was during Dr. Clark's term of service that Boston, in 1849, was visited by a very severe epidemic of cholera. [A very exhaustive re port of this epidemic was published by Dr. Clark.] In 1854 occurred a comparatively slight epidemic of cholera. MEDICAL HISTORY 217 In 1861 Dr. John S. Jones succeeded to the office, which he held until 1864. There is no record of any severe epidemic during his in cumbency, although small-pox was more or less prevalent during this time. Dr. William Read next held the office, from 1864 to 1869. In 1866 there was a , slight epidemic of cholera which caused eleven deaths. Small-pox caused a certain number of deaths, but at no time was there anything approaching an epidemic. Dr. William H. Page was appointed in 1870, and held office one year. During this time nothing of interest regarding the health of the city occurred. In 1871 Dr. Samuel A. Green succeeded to the office, which he held until his election, in 1882, as mayor of the city. In January, 1872, the Board of Health was established, and the appointment of city phy sician was vested in this body subject to the approval of the mayor. It was during Dr.- Green's term of service that Boston was visited by a very severe epidemic of small-pox. By the arduous and zealous work of this officer, in conjunction with the support and assistance of the Board of Health, the epidemic was speedily stamped out. In January, 1882, the present incumbent, Dr. John H. McCollom, who had served as an assistant to Dr. Green, was appointed as his successor. By a recent revision of the city charter the city physician is now (1893) appointed by the Board of Health as a permanent officer, and not annually, as before, and his title changed to Physician to the Board of Health. As the population of Boston has increased from 122,346 in 1847, the first year of Dr. Clark's term of service, to 467,647 in 1892, the duties of the office have been greatly augmented. To give an idea of the work of this department, the following details are taken from the last report of the city physician : During 1892 3, 909 persons were vaccinated and certificates of vaccination were given to 2,967 children for their admission to the public schools. At the request of the Civil Service Commissioners, 255 men were examined for appointment in the Police and in the Fire Departments. At the request of the Board of Police and Board of Fire Commissioners, respectively, twelve policemen and twenty-five firemen were examined for retirement, and nine cases of supposed injury or disease investigated. A careful external examina tion was made, the symptons learned and a diagnosis sufficiently accu- 28 218 SUFFOLK COUNTY. rate for all practical purposes reached in the cases of 557 persons dying without a physician in attendance. In Suffolk county jail 936 patients were treated, requiring 2,080 visits. In the City Temporary Home twenty cases of confinement were attended, and 208 visits made to persons suffering from various diseases. Fifty-two cases of eruptive disease, reported as small-pox, were examined. In only one instance was the disease found to exist. Six cases of reported typhus fever were examined, but in each instance the disease was found to be typhoid fever instead. The reports of 1,353 cases of diphtheria and 2,938 cases of scarlet fever were investigated. VETERINARY MEDICINE. The care and treatment of animals has of late years been recognized as a branch of medicine, and a school and hospital have been established for professional education and practice. The Civil War brought together immense numbers of horses, and their treatment became of great importance to the country. Veterinary surgeons were appointed by the War Department, and valuable service was rendered by them. After the war the public was not long in realizing how valuable such services would be in civil life, and this new field for professional services has continued steadily to enlarge, and our animals are no longer necessarily left to the care of the thumb rules of ignorant grooms and hostlers. The school is under the control of Harvard University, and is called the School of Veterinary Medicine of Harvard University. It provides a three years' course of instruction in the science and practice of veteri nary medicine and surgery. The sanitary relation of animals to man has received much attention, and much important work has been done. Harvard Veterinary Hospital. The Harvard Veterinary Hospital was established in 1883 at 50 Village street, Boston, and is a commodious and substantial building, offering every advantage for the observation and treatment of sick animals. Massachusetts Veterinary Association. The Massachusetts Veterinary Association, for the mutual intercourse and improvement of the graduates of veterinary medicine, was organ ized in 1884 and incorporated in 1887. MEDICAL HISTORY. 219 PHARMACY. Pharmacy claims a close relation to medicine. The need of a proper training for apothecaries had become pressing with their great increase in numbers following upon the growth of the city. The larger establishments for the preparation and sale of medi cines required competent men, and there was no time for private education as formerly. Under the auspices of the leading men in the business, the Massa chusetts College of Pharmacy was organized in February, 1823, and incorporated in 1852. Its object was to provide the means of a system atic education ; to regulate the instruction of apprentices ; to promote investigation, and to diffuse information among the members of the profession. The School of Pharmacy, under the control of the college, offers to its students a theoretical and practical instruction. The graduates of the college organized, in 1870, the "Association of Alumni of the Massachusetts College of Pharmacy." HOMCEOPATHY. The present Condition of this school of practice in this city and State is shown by the following list of institutions, etc., which acknowledge allegiance to this system : The Massachusetts Homoeopathic Medical Society, established in 1840, incorporated in 1856; meetings held second Wednesday in April and October. The Boston Homoeopathic Medical Society, established 1859, 210 members ; meetings held on the first Monday of each month. The Hahnemannian Medical Society, 30 members, meetings monthly. The Massachusetts Surgical and Gynecological Society, established 1877, 120 members, meetings quarterly. The Hughes Medical Club, 15 members, meetings monthly. The Homoeopathic Dispensary Medical Association, 60 members, meetings annually. The Massachusetts Homoeopathic Hospital, incorporated 1855, opened to patients in 1871. The Ladies' Aid Association of the Homoeopathic Hospital, 300 mem bers, meetings monthly. 220 SUFFOLK COUNTY. The Medical Board Association of the Homoeopathic Hospital, 22 members, meetings quarterly. The Homoeopathic Medical Dispensary, incorporated 1856, opened to the public in April, 1857; has treated 240,585 patients, with 643,771 prescriptions, previous to January 1, 1893. The Consumptives' Home, at Grove Hall, established by Dr. Charles Cullis in 1858. The Boothby Surgical Hospital, established in 1888. The Roxbury Homoeopathic Dispensary, established in 1885. The Westborough Insane Hospital, established by the State in 1884. The Boston University School of Medicine, established in 1873. The New England Medical Gazette, published monthly, by Otis Clapp & Sons, established in January, 1866. The Medical Student, established in 1888. In addition, there are in the State five hospitals which have double services, one being in charge of homoeopathic practitioners, namel3T, the Newton Cottage Hospital, the Taunton Hospital, the Quiney Hospital, the Rufus S. Frost Hospital, in Chelsea, and the Maiden Hospital. There are also five other medical societies of this school in different parts of the State. MEDICAL LIBRARIES. Boston has quite a number of medical libraries, the principal one being the Boston Medical Library, owned by the Boston Medical Library Association ; the others are connected with State or city de partments or with some hospital. A detailed account of all these is here given : The first extensive collection of medical books that was made in the city was The Second1 Social or Boston Medical Library. In 1805 Drs. John C. Warren and James Jackson formed a private medical society for mutual improvement, in conjunction with Drs. Dix- well, Coffin, Bullard, Shattuck, Jeffries, Fleet and Homans. The society came together once a week for the purpose of reading and listening to papers. The members continued to meet until death re moved all in succession. From this society, and principally from the 1 The First Social Library was a law library. // ^C^^-^/t /2 MEDICAL HISTORY. 221 exertions of Drs. Warren and Jackson, sprang the Boston Medical Library. Among the papers of the late Dr. John Jeffries was the following autograph announcement : December 30, 1805. The Boston Medical Library will be opened on Thursday next at Dr. Fleet's. A few books only have arrived. N. B. Books received and delivered on Mondays and Thursdays between three and five o'clock, p. m. Dr. John Fleet, jr., lived in Milk street, and was, presumably, the first librarian. About the year 1807 the library was entrusted to the care of a sub librarian, Mr. Amos Smith, apothecary, and "kept in his shop," No. 39 Marlborough street. The Marlborough street of those days was the portion of what is now Washington street, which is included between Milk and Bedford streets. The list of books, printed at the time of re moval, contains twenty-nine titles and forty-three volumes. The annual assessment was ten dollars. In 1826 the Boston Medical Library ceded its whole collection of books, which in 1823 numbered 1,311 volumes, and was valued at the time of transfer at $4,500, to the Athenaeum on the following terms: It was agreed : " That each proprietor of the medical library should have the privilege of life-subscriber on the payment of five dollars per annum, and should become a proprietor of the Athenaeum by pay ing one hundred and fifty dollars, such life -subscriber to have the right, on his removal from Boston, to transfer his share for and during the period of his life ; that the members of the medical library should have access to the privileges of the Athenaeum during the then coming year for the sum of ten dollars ; and that the medical department should re ceive its full proportion of the sums applied hereafter to the purchase of books." As the shares of the Athenaeum were then valued at three hundred dollars, it is probable that nearly all the members of the medical li- brar}7 availed themselves of the opportunity of purchasing at half-price ; thirty shares were so taken. In a letter of Dr. Shattuck dated 1828, published in the proceedings of the Suffolk District Medical Society, we are informed that there were at that time but seventy-one "regularly-bred " physicians in the city of Boston, so that at least one-half of the whole number must have 222 SUFFOLK COUNTY. been members of the library. There were only thirty-five physicians who, in his opinion, could support themselves by their practice. The Boston Medical Library. The importance of having a reading-room provided with current medical journals and of forming the nucleus of a future medical library of reference, in a locality easy of access from all parts of the city, had long been felt by the profession of Boston. The movement, which cul minated in the formation of the present association, emanated from among members of the Boston Society for Medical Observation. The first meeting of six gentlemen at the house of Dr. H. I. Bow- ditch, on December 21, 1874, for the purpose of discussing schemes for a library, was succeeded by others, with a steadily increasing number of participants, during the spring of 1875, and later by a general call to the profession to meet on August 20, 1875. On this occasion organ ization was effected and officers for the first year were elected. In 1877 the assaeiation was incorporated under the general statutes, The Boston Medical Library Association. Rooms at No. 5 Hamilton Place were first secured as possessing the prime requisites of central position and freedom from noise of passing traffic. In 1881 the present building, 19 Boylston Place, was purchased and altered over for the accommodation of books and to provide a suitable hall and committee rooms for the use of the different medical societies. All the principal ones are now regular tenants of the association. This building soon became inadequate for the proper accommodation of the library and its .members, and in 1887 preliminary steps were taken to move to new and more commodious quarters. A lot of land on the corner of St. Botolph and Garrison street was purchased with the hope of erecting, in the near future, a fire-proof building. This hope is now nearing fruition, plans having been drawn and accepted and the executive committee given authority to build, The Directory for Nurses (for an account of which see page 213), is domiciled in the library building. The first extensive collection of books received was that of the So ciety for Medical Observation, amounting to 911 volumes of the most valuable American, English, French, and German journals. This is still yearly augmented by the periodicals for which the society sub scribes. By the terms of the contract the society retains full ownership MEDICAL HISTORY. 223 in its library, and the right to take from the rooms its own books for the period of one week. It binds its own journals and insures its own library, as heretofore. The next considerable acquisition of books was the obstetrical library of the late Dr. William Read, numbering nearly two hundred volumes, and containing all the standard publications on midwifery that have appeared in England during the past century, including many rare and choice works. In 1876 the trustees of the Boston Dispensary presented a library left in their building by the late Dr. John B. Alley. In the same year the Boston Society for Medical Improvement de posited its library of 474 volumes on the same terms as were accorded the Society for Medical Observation. Thus were acquired many sets of old English and American journals of great rarity and of practical as well as historic worth. The list of individual contributors is a very long one. The library at present contains (October, 1893): Books, 23,426; pamphlets, 23,472 — making 46,898 titles; 472 different periodicals are regularly received. A carefully prepared cross reference card catalogue has been prepared. The association is the possessor of many valuable portraits, rare manuscripts and early volumes, which it is now obliged to store, await ing the advent of its fire-proof building. Library of the State Board of Health. The library dates from the organization of the board in June, 1869, and has been gradually increasing since that date, till it is now one of the most valuable sanitary libraries in the country. The books almost exclusively relate to hygiene and preventive medicine. The whole number of volumes is about 3,500, and there are about 3,000 pamphlets. The library is not a circulating library, but is open for reference to all persons interested in matters pertaining to public health, and books are loaned at discretion to such persons as agree to return them in a reasonable time in good condition. The following are some of the more valuable books in this collection : Reports of the medical officer of the Privy Council of England, full set. Reports of the Local Government Board of England, annual and supplements, full set. 224 SUFFOLK COUNTY. Works of the Imperial Board of Health of Germany, Veroffentlich- ungen, Mittheilungen, and Arbeiten. Transactions of the American Public Health Association, full set. Annales de l'lnstitut Pasteur. Full sets of reports of American Boards of Health, about 200 vol umes. Parliamentary reports on water-supply, sewerage, rivers, pollution, vaccination, and other sanitary subjects. Registrar General's reports, England, full set, fifty-four volumes. Registration reports, Massachusetts, full set, fifty volumes. Registration reports of other States and countries. Many special volumes on food and drugs, water analysis, air analysis, toxicology, ventilation, school hygiene, health of occupations, sewage disposal,. infectious diseases, cremation, etc. Several periodicals relating to Public Health in English, German and French are regularly received. State Library of Massachusetts. There are few general medical books in the State Library of Massa chusetts, with the exception of medical dictionaries and books of that nature. It has quite a full collection of books bearing upon public medicine and sanitary science. Library of the Surgeon General. The library in the office of the surgeon-general of this Common wealth consists of books of reference upon medical and military mat ters, monographs and reports, in all about sixty volumes. Library of the City Board of Health. This library is principally made up of public documents and health reports, and is not very extensive. The Boston Public Library Has in its medical department over 13,500 volumes. Its collection of journals is very valuable, and the sets are tolerably complete. The regulations necessitated in a large general library do not allow of access to the shelves, except with an attendant as a special favor. Since MEDICAL HISTORY. 225 its foundation in 1852, many private collections of books have been de posited* in its medical alcoves, among others a large portion of the library of the late Dr. James Jackson, and later the library of the late Dr. Daniel Tyler Coit. The library of the Massachusetts Medical Society was given to the city some years ago, at a time when all hope that the pro fession would ever have a library of its own was entirely relinquished. In the reading-room the leading medical journals (American and Euro pean) are accessible. The Library of the Harvard Medical School Consists almost exclusively of old text-books and sets of journals; it is used chiefly by the students of the school, for whom it was avowedly designed by its founders. It originated in a donation of books drawn from the private libraries of the faculty of the school in 1819. The number of books is estimated at about eighteen hundred, of which many are duplicates. The physiological laboratory of the medical school has been the recip ient of a very large cabinet of microscopic specimens and three hundred and fifty volumes from Dr. John Dean, late of this city. The library contains full sets of all the best German, French, and English period icals relating .to anatomy, physiology, and microscopy. Library of the College of Physicians and Surgeons. This college has about 700 volumes, but which are not at present arranged so as to be available. Library of the Boston University School of Medicine. The library of this school contains three thousand bound volumes, comprising some of the most recent and valuable works in medicine and the collateral sciences, including text -books and works of reference, of which a printed and also a card catalogue on the decimal system has been prepared. There are also several thousand monographs and pamphlets and a large collection of journals. The library in the new college building furnishes excellent facilities for medical reading and study. Two reading-rooms have been fitted up, one supplied with many of the leading medical journals and current literature, the other with works of reference, to which students have daily access. 29 226 SUFFOLK COUNTY. The library is especially full in some of the earlier publications on homoeopathy, which are long since out of print, as well as many more of recent date. It has complete sets of many of the most valuable journals, such as the British Journal of Homoeopathy, New England Medical Gazette, North American Journal of Homoeopathy, Hahnneman- nian Monthly, and many others, and has also complete files of the publications of the American Institute of Homoeopathy, 1844-91; Massachusetts Homoeopathic Medical Society, 1840-92; New York Homoeopathic Medical Society, Pennsylvania Homoeopathic Medical Society, etc. Some rather rare old books and interesting manuscripts. Library of the Boston Dental College. The college has a library of about 300 volumes ; these are mainly devoted to medical and chemical subjects, including many works on dentistry, made up by contributions from members of the staff and trustees, and of works purchased by the institution. The library is open to students and members of the faculty. Library of the Massachusetts College of Pharmacy. This library is largely the gift of Samuel A. D. Sheppard, Ph. G. It contains about 3,200 volumes, devoted chiefly to pharmacy, chem istry, materia medica, medical botany and microscopy. Among its works of especial importance are an unusually complete collection of pharmacopoeias and dispensatories, embracing nearly all extant to-day, and many of historical importance ; illustrated works on medicinal plants, as Nees Von Essenbeck, Bigelow, Bently and Trimens, and Lochman; also a complete set of American journals of pharmacy and a large collection of journals of other countries. In addition to the above are about 1,000 volumes, including reports of colleges of pharmacy, pharmaceutical societies, and boards of health. A portion of the library is set aside for the free use of the students in the reading-room. The greater portion, however, is kept in the library for purposes of individual consultation, and under the immediate charge of the librarian. There is a card catalogue. Medical Library of the Boston City Hospital. The Medical Library of the Boston City Hospital was commenced at the opening of the hospital, in 1864. The nucleus of the library was MEDICAL HISTORY. 227 about 200 books, mostly duplicates, presented by the Boston Public Library. Many of these books were standard books on medicine and surgery, and several old books with valuable plates. Many books were given by members of the medical and surgical staff, and also by other physicians in the city. There was at this time no special room assigned for the library, the books being kept under lock and key in elaborate hard wood cases in the board room of the hospital. The number of books did not increase rapidly in number, and the library became the repository of official documents of a miscellaneous sort, of no special professional value. From time to time the trustees of the hospital allowed a small sum each year for the purchase of medical journals and books. The number of volumes finally exceeded the capacity of the cases, and there being no special room, a large number of volumes were stored in closets and places not available for use. The growth of the Medical Library was slow and not of special interest until the year 1890. At this time, after repeated petitions of the trustees and staff, the City Council appropriated $17,500 for the construction of a building in the rear of the Administration Building, for a medical library, a pamphlet room, a place for keeping the clinical records, and for allied purposes. The library has now a room especially constructed for it, which not only serves most admirably for the deposit of about 6,000 volumes, but also as a proper place for the headquarters of the medical and surgical staff. The present capacity of the library may be increased by means of recessed alcoves, as the library grows in the number of its volumes. When this library was transferred to its new quarters there were about 900 volumes. During the years 1891 and 1892, special appropria tions and special methods were taken for increasing the number of books. There are now 2,743 volumes upon the shelves, all in good condition, with thousands of "unbound pamphlets, medical journals, monographs, duplicates, etc. , in the pamphlet room. The hospital now has a most excellent practical working medical library. A large number of the books are those which have been pub lished within the last five years. There are a large number of medical journals, both American and foreign, bound and properly classified ; also large numbers of the reports of the leading American, London and foreign hospitals, together with the publications of American and foreign medical and surgical societies. 228 SUFFOLK COUNTY. A card catalogue with cross references of all cases, medical and surgi cal, treated during the last ten years is kept in the library. A special feature of this library is a section devoted to hospitals, their construc tion, organization and administration, and also a section on public hygiene. It is intended to be a practical working library for the medical and surgical and house staff of the hospital. Medical Library of the Massachusetts General Hospital. This library is known as the Treadwell Library, and was founded by the will of the late Dr. John Goodhue Treadwell, of Salem, in 1857. By its terms his library and some forty thousand dollars reverted to the hospital, the gift having been declined by the president and fellows of Harvard College on account of certain- "unusual and embarrassing conditions. " These conditions were in reference to ' ' the support and maintenance of a Teacher of Physiology and Structural Anatomy, the Laws of Life and Organization." Eight closely written pages define how this teacher was to have been appointed, his duties, remuneration, etc. Most of this money was given to establish free beds. In addition to the books directly given to the hospital, "to be held in trust by the corporation for the use of the physicians and surgeons of the staff and their successors," the sum of five thousand dollars was especially set apart and reserved as a library fund. The income of this fund was to be " applied annually to the increase and repair of the library." No books could be purchased from this source excepting those on ' ' anat omy, physiology, chemistry, medicine, surgery, and the collateral sciences." To the original books contained in the library of Dr. Treadwell have been added from time to time large numbers of works on medical and surgical subjects in German, French and English, until the number now exceeds five thousand volumes. Nearly fifty of the best medical and surgical periodicals in these languages are printed. Officers and students of the hospital have the benefit of bound volumes of the lead ing periodicals issued subsequent to the year 1857. The library is especially rich in works on surgery, and has man)- very valuable plates for teaching this and other branches of medicine. The Treadwell Library has recently been moved from the room which it has occupied for many years to a large, light, and well venti- MEDICAL HISTORY. 229 lated apartment in the central building of the hospital, formerly occu pied by the resident physician. There are accommodations here for an expansion to twenty-five thousand volumes. In addition to a large reading-room for general use, in which are arranged the periodicals as they appear, are alcoves for quiet study, conversation, and consultation. A librarian has recently been appointed, who has full charge of the de tails of management. A card catalogue of every case that has been treated in the wards of the hospital since its foundation is being made, with cross references, so that, knowing the name of the patient or the disease, it may be pos sible in a moment's time to find any case that has ever been under hospital care. The hospital records in detail — that most valuable mon ument of the labors of previous generations — are provided for, so that they can be easily consulted, and so that it is impossible for them to be lost or stolen. This catalogue and the records are part of the library and constitute a special feature. The Treadwell Library of the Massachusetts General Hospital, in its practical workings, gives the hospital staff the daily opportunity of keeping up with the work of the profession throughout the world through its best medical journals. It provides, by easy methods of reference, the records of the work and experience of previous ¦ genera tions of physicians and surgeons ; and, finally, it gives, to those of the staff who wish to do literary work, abundant material for research in well lighted, well ventilated and quiet rooms. The Library of the Children's Hospital Is only a small reference library for use of the house officers. The Medical Library of the Massachusetts Charitable Eye and Ear Infirmary Consists of two libraries, one for each department of the institution. The library of the ophthalmology department was started by gifts of the medical staff and continued by appropriations from the board of managers. It has now about 500 volumes, and is purely special in char acter. Its use is limited to the medical officers of the institution. The medical library of the Aural department was founded by one of the aural surgeons in the year 1888. Since the opening pf the new aural building the provision of a special library fund by the board of 230 SUFFOLK COUNTY. managers of the institution has enabled the staff to provide the depart ment with most of the modern works on otology, to which individual contributors are constantly making additions. The library includes, besides special works upon diseases of the ear, the Index Medicus and several works on anatomy, physiology, and gen eral medicine. At present there are ninety-eight bound volumes, sev eral volumes of medical magazines, and about fifty pamphlets and mon ographs. The library is in charge of the aural interne, under the direction of the surgeon on duty, and books may be loaned to any one connected with the institution. Medical Library of the. Carney Hospital. There are over two hundred volumes in the medical library, which was started by Dr. M. F. Gavin, of the surgical staff, and is for the use of the staff and house officers. The books are principally bound volumes of journals. There are also quite a number of works in French, the gift of Dr. Sargent. A room is devoted to the library, and it is hoped to increase the num ber and value of the books in the near future. The Boston Athenaeum, With the Second Social Library as a nucleus (see page 220), has added to its medical department until it numbers to-day about five thousand volumes, but it no longer adds to the collection. It subscribes to four medical journals. Its sets of journals are neither numerous nor com plete. The Harvard University Library, In Gore Hall, Cambridge, now contains 3,783 medical books. This department of the library was founded by Ward Nicholas Boylston, esq., who in the year 1802 gave to the college a medical library of eleven hundred volumes, as a special tribute of respect to his uncle, Dr. Zabdiel Boylston. In 1803 he established a permanent fund of five hundred dollars, subsequently augmented, the interest of which was to be expended in the purchase of books and the publication of prize dis sertations. About five hundred volumes were added to this collection some years since by Dr. B. Joy Jeffries, from the library of his father, the late Dr. John Jeffries. MEDICAL HISTORY. 231 The library contains but few modern works, and few recent period icals. It receives but one strictly medical journal, and that gratu itously. The Boston Society of Natural History Has a very choice library of twelve thousand volumes, and receives regularly over five hundred journals, reports, society transactions, etc. Among them are series of all the best journals relating to anatomy, physiology, microscopy, chemistry, botany, and other kindred branches of medical science. Free use of the books is accorded to all who apply for the privilege. As supplementary to the libraries, mention should be made of the Warren Museum. The nucleus of this collection was presented to Harvard College by Dr. John C. Warren in 1847. Since this time it has been largely increased by gifts from different members of the medical profession, and is of great advantage to the students of the Harvard Medical School. And also of the Warren Museum of National History. This museum was incorporated by the Legislature in 1858, although the fire-proof building, which it occupies, was built in 1849 by Dr. John C. Warren, to whom it is indebted for its establishment and many of its valuable specimens, including the skeleton of the great mastodon. MEDICAL PRACTITIONERS IN SUFFOLK COUNTY. An account of the rank and file will give a better insight into the character of any army than a record of its officers, however brilliant some of them may have been. So it is thought that an account of all individual practitioners from the earliest days of the county will give a clear view of the profession in the times when they were its repre sentatives. With this view the following sketches have been collected. Until a profession is organized it has but little weight in a commu nity as such, although much may be accomplished by its individual members. With organization come concerted action, the preservation of records, and results that can easily be traced and recorded. Prior to organization we must content ourselves with recording the work of 232 SUFFOLK COUNTY. individuals, and it will be a part of our task to present as far as possible the records of the physicians of Suffolk county until the profession organized itself in this community by establishing the Massachusetts Medical Society. •The biographical sketches of the practitioners of medicine in Suffolk county have been divided in two parts. Those who practiced their pro fession during the years succeeding the settlement of Boston in 1630 until the year 1700, are included in the first part. Those who were here between 1700 and 1800 are included in the second part. This list of practitioners in Boston is believed to contain the names of all who practiced medicine previous to 1700: Pemberton Thomas. Addington Isaac, sr. Addington Isaac, jr. Alcock Samuel. Allen Daniel. Ashton (Henry?) Avery William. Barnaby Ruth. Bowdoin Peter. Boylston Thomas. Brackenbury Samuel. Brackenbury Samuel, jr. Bradstreet Samuel. Bullivant Benjamin. Chauncey Elnathan. Checkley Samuel. Child Robert. Clark John. Clark John. Clark John, the Counsellor Clark John. Cooke Elisha. Cutler John. Cutler John J. Cutler Peter. Dinely William. Ellis Edward. Ellis Edward, jr. Ellis Robert. Eyre John . Eyre Jonathan. Eyre Simon. Firmin Giles. Gager William. Glover John. Hall Nathaniel. Hawkins Jane. Hughs William. Hutchinson Anne. Kittredge John. Knopp Nicholas. Lake Lancelot. Ludovick Christian. Lunerus Polus. Lyall Francis. Mather Increase. Morley Robert. Morton Charles. Mountfort Jonathan. Noyes Oliver. Oakes Thomas. Oliver James. Oliver Thomas. Perkins John. Pighogg Pratt Abraham. Pratt John. Scottow Thomas. .Snelling William. Starr Comfort. Starr Thomas. Stewart . Stone Daniel. Stone Samuel. Swan Thomas. Swan Thomas, jr. Taylor Henry. Thacher Thomas. Wadsworth Waldron Isaac. Weeden Elizabeth. Wigglesworth Michael. Wilkinson Thomas. Williams Richard. Winslow Edward. Winthrop John. Winthrop John. jr. Winthrop Wait. Palgrave Richard. Addington, Isaac, sr., "a single man," was admitted a member of the First Church, 1640, 13 4 mo.; "is believed to have been a sur geon; " the evidence of this seems to rest upon items in the inventory of his estate— "Steele instruments," "a box of lancets tipt with silver," MEDICAL HISTORY. 233 and " a surgeon's chest." He was a freeman 22 May, 1650, and joined the Art. Co. in 1650. Whitman says: "This christian name is Jesse on the old roll — probably a mistake." His autograph on a half-length portrait is given in the first volume of the Memorial History of Boston. His wife was Anne, daughter of Elder Thomas and Anne Leverett, sister of John, afterwards governor. He died in 1653. He had five children, the eldest, Isaac, a physician. Addington, Isaac, jr., was born 22 January, 1644-5, son of the pre ceding; is styled chirurgeon in three deeds, 1669-70-71. Eliot, in his Biographical Dictionary of New England, says he was " an eminent magistrate of Massachusetts." He was one of the worthies who op posed the administration of Sir Edmund Andros; and was appointed secretary of the Province by those who adhered to the old charter. He also received the same appointment from the crown when the charter of William and Mary was brought over. He was chosen for many years one of the Council, and was very active as a justice of the peace. He was admitted a freeman 7 May, 1673, joined the First Church 1688. and was a prominent member. He held many offices, and it seems doubtful if he could have devoted much time to the practice of medicine. Chief Justice Sewall, in his diary, speaks of having " the advice of Mr. Addington and Dr. Allen." He died 17 March, 1715. Alcock, Samuel, son of Dr. George, and brother of Dr. John, of Roxbury, who graduated from Harvard College 1646. Toner, in his "Annals of Medical Progress," says he "was born in Roxbury and settled in Boston as a chirurgeon. " In 1676 he is rated on the tax lists. Sewall, in his diary, under date of 16 month, 1677: " Dr. Alcock dyes about midnight. . Dr. Alcock was 39 years old. " Samuel was a graduate of H. C. in 1659. Allen, Daniel, son of Rev. John Allen, of Dedham, born 5 August, 1656, died 1692. Winthrop, in his interleaved catalogue, says he was a physician in Boston; and Sewall writes in 1677: " Have the advice of Mr. Addington and Dr. Allin, who made the issue." He was grad uated from H. C. in 1675, and was librarian of the college 1676 to 1679. Savage says he lived in Charlestown, mortgaged his estate in Dedham, and died in 1692. Ashton, {Henry?) Drake, in his History pf Boston, says: "over against Dr. Ashton 's in Marlboro street." Savage mentions Henry 30 234 ' SUFFOLK COUNTY. Ashton as of Boston in 1673, coming from Lancastershire, England, and presumes he is of Providence in 1676, and one of those who, for staying out the war, was entitled to receive an Indian for a slave. Avery, William, was born in England, came to Boston, in 1650, with his wife Mary and children Mary, William and Robert ; settled first in Dedham, where he was the first educated physician ; was in Boston in 1680, for Withington, in his history of Dedham, writes: "In 1680 Captain Daniel Fisher and Ensign Fuller report that Dr. William Avery, now of Boston, but formerly of the Dedham church,, out of his entire love to this church and town, freely gives into their hands sixty pounds for a Latin school." He opened an apothecary's shop, which is said to have been the first established in New England. He died 18 March, 1686, in Boston, aged sixty-five years. Toner says he was a benefactor of Harvard College. He is buried in the Chapel burying-ground, where a small gravestone marks the place of interment. Possibly he is "Lieut. William Avery, Dedham physician," who joined the Art. Co. in 1654. " There is a will .of William "Av.ery, Suff. Prob. Rec, 1680, bookseller — on the back says, now of Boston, formerty of Dedham." Toner says that "Jonathan, son of. Dr. William, was born in Boston, and in his will, made in May, 1691, describes himself as a resident of Dedham, a practitioner of physic, aged 35 years." Barnaby, Ruth. Of her, Toner writes, that she was a noted midwife ¦ of Boston, " who practiced her calling in that town for more than forty years. She was born in Marblehead, in August, 1664, and died 12 Feb., 1765, aged 101 .years." He also states that at the age of one hundred years she was .inoculated, and thus . escaped dying with the loathsome disease which carried off some of her family. Bowdoin, Peter, although a physician, his career in Boston was that of a successful merchant. He came from La Rochelle, and was in Casco in 1687. He died in Boston, in September, 1706. Brackenbury,- Samuel, was born 10 February, 1645-6, admitted to Second Church in 1677. He was graduated from H. C. in 1664. He was at first a preacher, and assisted Rev. Samuel Phillips at Rowley. He married Mary, daughter of Rev. Michael Wigglesworth, and moved to Boston. Sewall says, 3 October, L676: " For the Flux . . . Dr. Brackenbury advises to Diacodium to more Rest and Approves Pepper boyled in Milk and Water alike of each. Diacod. 6 ounces." Again, '•:.;:;ff':fJf:0:^::WfmSJs~JfA ¦ '. -. -..'.' ' - ¦ ' ¦ ?¦-¦ ' J,' I a each — ^60." He left only one son, John, also a physician. Clark, John, - son of the preceding, pursued his father's calling. He was interested in civil affairs, and was chosen representative from Bos ton in 1689 and 1690. He married Martha, daughter of John Whitting- ham, and had sons John, William and Samuel. He was a freeman in 1673, and graduated at Harvard in 1687. He died on the 19th of De cember, 1690, without leaving a will. Clark, John,s son of the preceding, was born 27 January, 1668, grad uated at Harvard in 1687. He was married three times, first to Sarah Shrimpton, 30 April, 1691, who died 20 November, 1717; second, to Elizabeth Hutchinson, 16 April, 1718, who died 2 December, 1722; he married for the third time, 15 July, 1725, Sarah Leverett, who survived him, and subsequently married Rev. Dr. Benjamin Colman. In Copp's Hill burying-ground is this epitaph : Reliqtue Johannis Clarke Armig laudatissimi senatoris et medicinae doctoris probitate modestina et mansuetudine prseclari terram reliquit Decern 5 1728 a;tat 62 Nomen et pietas manent post funera MEDICAL HISTORY. 239 He had several 'daughters and one son, John, * born December 15, 1698. He was a representative for Boston in 1708 to 1714, and 1720 to 1724, and was thrice chosen speaker of the House. While he was a representative in 1721, a controversy arose between the House and the Council, and at the same time the small-pox began to spread. Hutch inson, in his history, says; " In the midst of the dispute, Mr. Hutch inson, one of the members for Boston, was seized with the small-pox and died in a few days. The speaker, Mr. Clark, was one of the most noted physicians in Boston, and notwithstanding all his care to cleanse himself from infection after, visiting his patients, it was supposed, brought the distemper to his brother member. " This occurrence so terrified the Court that they could not be kept together. From 1724 to the time of his death he was in the Council of the Province. Clarke, John, was a physician in London before he came to this country. He came to Boston in 1637; as a favorer of Mr. Hutchinson, he was driven thence, and the next year went to Rhode Island, and is venerated as the father of the settlement at Newport, where he died 20 April, 1676. He was from Bedfordshire, and son of Thomas and Rose. He was the author of " 111 News from N. E.," and an account of his life in Rhode Island is to be found in Rev. Dr." Allen's American Biographical Dictionary. He is not known to have been related to those of the name who follow. During his life in Rhode Island he was more interested in theology than medicine, forming a church at New port, being the second Baptist church established in America, and of which he was pastor at the time of his death. Cooke, Elisha, was a prominent physcian as well as a politician of this period. He was the son of Richard, a tailor of Boston, where he was born, 16 September, 1637, and graduated at Harvard College in the class of 1657, being one of the first natives of the town that studied medicine. While esteemed as a physician, his reputation is based more on his labors in connection with the body politic than the body physical. Hutchinson says: "Though esteemed as a physician, he was most rem'kable in his political character, having been more than forty years in places of public trust and being always firm and steady to his principles." He married Elizabeth, a daughter of Governor Leverett. - He had a son, Elisha, who was also a prominent politician, speaker and counsellor. He died 31 October, 1715. Cutler, John, was a " chirurgeon," and served in King Philip's war in 1676-7, and drew pay so much larger in amount as to suggest the 240 SUFFOLK COUNTY supposition that he held the office of chief surgeon. He came origin ally from Holland, where his name was written Demesmaker. On coming to this country he adopted the English translation of his Dutch patronymic, and called himself Cutler ; and ever afterward the family was so designated. His marriage is thus given in the town records of Hingham : Johannes Demesmaker, a Dutchman (who say his name in English in John Cutler) and Mary Cowell the daughter of Edward Co well of Boston were marryed by Cap- taine Joshua Hobart on the fourth day of January 1674. The births of seven children are also recorded in the same records. The entries of the two oldest and the two youngest of these children are given, as they show how the distinction between the names was made at the outset, and that it was dropped in the course of time. The oldest child was John, who became the physician, and signed the circular relating to the epidemic. Johannes Demesmaker, whose name in English is John Cutler, the son of Johannes Demesmaker a Dutchman and of Mary his wife was born on the sixt day of August 1676. Peter Demesmaker (the son of Johannes Demesmaker a Dutchman & of Mary his wife an English woman) was born on the seventh day of July 1679. David Cutler, ye son of Doctor John Cutler & of Mary his wife was born the first of November 1689. Ruth Cutler the daughter of Doctor John Cutler & of Mary his wife was born ye 24th of February 169|. He removed to Boston about the year 1649, and built a splendid house, for that time, in which he lived in Marlborough street, now a part of Washington street, near the Old South Meeting-house. Tradition says that this house was of wood, three stories high ; the tapestry of its rooms was made of leather. He had a large practice, and was the preceptor of Dr. Zabdiel Boylston, who afterward became famous during the time of the small-pox inoculation. He died intestate, leav ing an estate inventoried at ^5,740 15s. His death occurred before 17 February, 1717, at which time his wife administered his estate. Cutler, John, was the son of John Cutler, the preceding, and was born August 6, 1676, at Hingham. He graduated H. C. 1698. Pie inherited from his father his practice, as well as the homestead. The son married the widow, Mrs. Joanna (Dodd) Richards; and he was actively connected with the King's Chapel, of which church he was warden. He died 23 September, 1761, having lived a long life of use- MEDICAL HISTORY. 241 fulness. It is supposed that he was sent to -England for his education. With Drs. William Douglass, William Clark and'Edward Ellis, pn the 10th of July, 1739, he certified to the health of a cargo of negroes. Dr. Boylston was his pupil. Cutler, Peter, was a brother of the preceding. He was born in Hingham, August 6, 1679. He made a voyage in the ship Szvallozv to Trieste as a "surgeon." He was afterwards a shopkeeper, and died in 1720, it is said, on an island in the harbor. Dinely, William. The pathetic story of William Dinely has often been told. He was a barber-surgeon and tooth puller, and perished during a severe snow storm, 15 December, 1638, between Boston and Roxbury, whither he was going to pull a tooth. It was many days be fore his body was found, and his poor widow suffered great anguish. Her grief hastened the coming event which she was anticipating with so much joy, and she named the baby Fathergone Dinely. She after wards married Richard Critchley. Ellis, Edtvard. It is said that Dr. Ellis came from Wales. He mar ried, in Boston, 6 August, 1652, Sarah, daughter of Robert and Susan Blott. Blott lived in Boston, at the time of the marriage of his daugh ter, at the corner of Newbury, now Washington, street and Blott's lane. Dr. Ellis inherited this estate, and the corner of Newbury and Winter streets was called Ellis's corner until 1732. The baptism of each of his children are given in the records of the First Church. He died 23 April, 1695, aged seventy-four. Sewall says, "Neighbor Ellis died to-day." Sarah, widow of Dr. Ellis, " chirurgeon of Boston, " Robert Ellis, chirurgeon, and other surviving children mortgaged the land on Blott's lane, 17 June, 1698. His widow died 18 December, 1711. Ellis, Robert, son of the preceding, was born September 24, 1671. He was a merchant as well as a physician. He married, June 4, 1698, Elizabeth, daughter of James and Sarah Pemberton, of Boston, and had eleven children, whose baptisms are given in the records of t,he old First Church. He was appointed " Chirurgeon" for the expedition to Port Royal, 19 August, 1710, William Rand and Wheatley Gooch being his assistants. He died 7 April, 1720. Ellis, Edward, son of the preceding, was born 23 February, 1698-9; was also a chirurgeon, and is the only one known to have had descend ants. 31 242 SUFFOLK COUNTY. Eyre, John, was born 19 February, 1683-4, son of Simon (given later), and married Catherine, daughter of Thomas Brattle. They had eight children, five of whom died young, as his will mentions only three. A post humous child was born 7 August, 1700, John, who was graduated from Harvard College in 1718. John Eyre was a member of the Artillery Company in 1682; in the Committee on Safety in 1689; representative in 1693 and 1698 ; and died in June, 1700. His widow married Waitstill Winthrop, 13 November, 1707. Eyre, Jonathan, son of the preceding, was born 20 March, 1638. Savage says he "was educated for a surgeon 1656, but no more is known of him." Eyre, Simon, surgeon, came, in 1635, from London in the Increase, being forty-eight years of age, bringing his wife Dorothy and eight children. He settled in Watertown, where he was freeman 1637; he held several offices — selectman 1636-41, town clerk 1641-5, and repre sentative 1641 — until 1645, when he removed to Boston, where his wife died 11 August, 1650. He married again — Martha, daughter of William Husband, sister of the historian, and widow of John Whittingham, of Ipswich. He had several children by each wife. He died 10 October, 1658. His youngest child by his second wife was Dr. John Eyre, al ready given. Firmin, Giles, jr. Dr. Green writes as follows : ' ' Another among the early settlers of Massachusetts who practiced medicine was Giles Firmin, jr., who came to this country in 1632. His father — ' a godly man, an apothecary of Sudbury in England,' according to Winthrop — arrived here about the same time ; and in some accounts the two have been confounded from the similarity of their names. It is very likely that Giles, senior, was a medical practitioner. The son did not long remain in Boston, but soon returned to England ; coming again, how ever, to these shores a few years subsequently. He had been educated at the University of Cambridge, and was learned in medicine. He is the first man known to have taught in New England this branch of science, and he seems to have left a professional imprint on the minds of his students. He soon removed to Ipswich, where he was widely known as a successful physician. His practice does not appear to have been a lucrative one, for he writes to Winthrop some years afterward, — ' I am strongly set upon to studye divinitie, my studies else must MEDICAL HISTORY. 243 be lost: for physick is but a meene helpe. ,J Subsequently he carried this plan into execution, and studied theology, after which he returned to England, where he was ordained and settled as a rector. Never theless, he continued to practice his early profession. "The apostle Eliot, under date of 24 September, 1647, writes to Mr. Shepard, the minister of Cambridge, and expresses the desire that— ' Our young Students in Physick may be trained up better than yet they bee, who have onely theoreticall knowledge, and are forced to fall to practise before ever they saw an Anatomy made, or duely trained up in making experiments, for we never had but one Anatomy in the Countrey, which Mr. Giles Firman (now in England) did make and read upon very well, but no more of that now.' "2 Savage says that he came perhaps with his father in 1630, but settled in Boston before him. He was at Ipswich in 1638, a freeman 22 May, 1639, removed probably to Haverhill with his brother-in-law, Rev. John Ward, having married his sister Susan, daughter of Rev. Na thaniel Ward. In 1644, or soon after, he returned to England, where he was settled as rector in Sholford in Essex. Savage writes: " In a sermon before Parliament and the Westminster Assembly, he said, that in our country, in seven years ' I have never heard one profane oath, and iu all that time never did see a man drunk,' " and quaintly adds, ' ' which is better proof of his keeping good company than for searching for opportunity," adding that "punishment was frequent enough for such offences; but his presence. was, no doubt, protection to both eyes and ears." He was ejected in 1662, and died at Ridgewell, in April, 1697. Firmin, Giles, sr. This " godly man, an apothecary of Sudbury in England," as Winthrop styles him, instead of being a medical prac titioner, as Dr. Green surmises, very likely continued to follow his early calling of an apothecary. The following extract from the early town records, appointing him as an "overseer," would indicate that he was more likely to be about home rather than one who was visiting among the sick, although, like many of his ilk of the present day, he may have combined counter practice with the dispensing of drugs. Snow's "Description of Boston," published in 1817, gives afac-simile of the first entry in the town records, in which Giles Firmin is recorded 1 Hutchinson's Collection of Original Papers, &c, page 109. 2 Massachusetts Historical Collections, third series, iv, 57. 244 SUFFOLK COUNTY. as present with nine others, " 1634; — month 7th daye," and the fol lowing orders were passed: Whereas it hath been founde that much damage hath already happened by laying of stones and logges near the bridge, and landing place, whereby diverse boats have been much bruised : for prevention of such harmes for time to come, it is ordered that whosoever shall unlade any stones, timber or logges, where the same may not be plainly seen at high water, shall set up a pole or beacon to give notice thereof, upon pain that whosoever shall faile so to doe, shall make full recompence for all such damage as shall happen to any boats or other vessels, by occasion of said stones, timber or logges, the same to be recovered by action at the court ; and this order to be in force from this day forwarde. It is also ordered, that no person shall leave any fish or garbage near the said bridge or common landing place, between the creeks, whereby any annoyance may arise to the people that passe that way, upon payne to forfeit for every such offence, five shillings, the same to be levied by distress of the goods of the offenders. And for the better execution of these orders the aforesaid Giles Firmin is appointed overseer of said landing place, to give notice to such strangers and others as come hither with boats. And to take knowledge of all offences committed, and to levye the penalties which shall be forfeited — Pages 72 and 73. Giles, sr., came with Winthrop in 1630, and settled first in Water- town, remaining two years, when he removed to Boston. In 1633 he was chosen deacon by the imposition of hands. He was a selectman, a freeman 4 March, 1634, and died in September of the same year. Gager, William, a surgeon, came with Winthrop to Boston. He joined the church in Charlestown. Winthrop, in a letter to his wife November 29, 1630, speaks of his death: " Yet I have lost of my fam ily . . . Mr. Gager. We conceive that this disease grew from ill diet at sea and proved infectious." Prince also says: "Died of a fever, Mr. 'Gager, a skillful surgeon, aright godly man and one of the deacons of our congregation." This occurred 20 September, 1630. Toner is in error in saying that he practiced many years in Bos ton. " Lord's Day, 1 August, 1630, five were joined to the church in Charlestown Mr. William Gager, surgeon." Glover, John. Savage says: " Cambridge, son of Rev. Josse, born in England. H. C. 1650, in 1654 was living in England, had a degree of M.D. at Aberdeen, and probably never came again to our shores." "Josse, rector, it is said, of Sutton, in Surrey, made contract with Stephen Day, of Cambridge, England, to come over with wife, chil dren, and servants in the John of Loudon, at expense of Glover, his MEDICAL HISTORY 245 design being to set up a printing press here ; died on the passage, and his widow married Henry Dunster, afterwards the first president of* Harvard College." Another authority says: "John was the son of John, and born in Dorchester. After receiving his degree in Europe returned to New England and settled in Roxbury. He was a benefactor of his alma mater and is supposed to have died before the end of the century." His connection with Boston is that he was taxed here in 1674. Hall, Nathaniel, was taxed in Boston, 1695, and we are sure of no more. Possibly he may be the Nathaniel of whom Savage writes : "A captain in the Indian war at the E. under Church ; fought with great bravery in defence of Falmouth, September 21, 1689; was son of the first John, of Falmouth, and married Ann, daughter of Rev. Thomas Thornton ; had no children ; kept a taverm and practiced as a physician ; removed to Hingham, thence to the Delaware River." Hazvkins, Jane', was a physician of some notoriety. According to Governor Winthrop: She used to give young women oil of mandrakes and other stuff to cause concep tion; and she grew into great suspicion to be a witch, for it was credibly reported, that, when she gave any medicines (for she practised physic,) she would ask the party, if she did believe, she could help her. — ("The History of New England," i. 316.) Thomas Welde, in " A Short Story," etc. (London, 1644), says that she was "notorious for familiarity with the devill." Her reputation in the community was anything but good. She was looked upon as a witch, and for that reason greatly feared by her neighbors. Her case was considered at the session of the General Court, beginning 12 March, 1637-8, when it is recorded that: Jane Hawkins the wife of Richard Hawkins had liberty till the beginning of the third mo. called May, & the magistrates (if shee did not depart before) to dispose of her, & and in the meane time shee is not to meddle in surgery, or physick, drinks, or oyles, nor to question matters of religion except w'th the elders for satisfaction. — (General Court Records, i. 219.) The effect of this order is not known ; but some years later summary steps were taken to get rid of her without much previous notice. At the session of the General Court, beginning 2 June, 1641, it was voted that, Jane Hawkins is enioyned to depart away tomorrow morning, & not to returne again hither upon paine of severe whipping, & such other punishment, as the Court 246 SUFFOLK COUNTY. shall thinke meete. & her sonnes stand bound in 201- to carry her away according to (order. — (General Court Records, i. 309.) Hughs, William. "Dr. William Hughs " is recorded in list of in habitants 1695. "Doctor William Huse " is taxed in 1687, and here our knowledge ends. Savage makes no mention of such a person. Toner says "William Hughes practised in Boston between 1685 and 1695." Hutchinson, Anne, was born in Lincolnshire, England, about 1600. She was the wife of William Hutchinson, whom she accompanied to Boston in 1636. She taught doctrines which were condemned as heretical by the Synod of 1637. Shortly after the death of her hus band, in 1642, she was banished and removed to what is now West chester county, N. Y. The next year her house was set on fire by the Indians, and she and her family, consisting of sixteen persons, except a child taken captive, either perished in the flames or were killed by the savages. Dr. Green writes : The women had their representatives in the profession in olden times as well as in our day, though they were not so strenuous in regard to their political rights as are their modern sisters. Anne Hutchinson was among the earliest of the sisterhood who practised medicine in Massachusetts. She came to Boston in the year 1636, and in "A Short Story," &c, by Thomas Welde (London, 1644), she is spoken of as a person " very helpfull in the times of child-birth, and other occasions of bodily in_ firmities, and well-furnished with means for those purposes." — (Page 81.) She was a noted character in colonial history, and by her heretical teachings and preachings soon threw the whole settlement in a flame, for which she was subsequently ban ished. Anne Hutchinson left Boston 28 March, 1638 (Ellis's Life of Anne Hutchinson, v. 320, Sparks's biog. ) Kittr edge, John, was born inBillerica, 24 January, 1666, son of John, who came with his mother from England, and settled in Billerica as a farmer. Farmer, in his " Genealogical Register of the First Settlers of New England," says of John: "Being the first of the name in America styled Dr., a prefix so common among his descendants" He married Hannah French, 2 August, 1685, and had eleven children, six of whom were sons. He was probably of Boston, and died 27 April, 1714. Knopp, Nicholas. During the first winter, 1 March, 1630, at Boston, the Court of Assistants fined Nicholas Knopp five pounds: MEDICAL HISTORY. 247 For takeing vpon him to cure the scurvey by a water of noe worth nor value, which he solde att a very deare rate, to bee imprisoned till hee pay his ffine or giue secury- tie for it, or els to be whipped & shalbe lyable to any mans accon of whom he hath receaued money for the s'd water. — (General Court Records, i. 67.) The record, however, does not state which dose he took in the way of punishment, but as three pounds of the fine were subsequently re mitted, it is fair to infer that he was not whipped. This shows that he was a practitioner, if not a physician. He may be the person of this name who was a proprietor in Watertown, 1636-7. Lake, Lancelot, a physician, of whom it is only known that he mar ried 6 May, 1708, widow Catherine Child, and died 17 September, 1715. In his will he left his widow all his estate. His gravestone was lately found in the burial ground at King's Chapel. Ludowick, Christian. The Rev. Thomas Prince, in speaking of Dr. James Oliver, of Cambridge, says he " had a singular Help in the Art of Chymistry by the ingenious Dr. Lodowick a German, who was also accounted an excellent Physician, and the most skilful Chymist that ever came into these Parts of America." Dr. Green thinks that Dr. Lodowick was the same person as Christian Lodowick who wrote a letter .to Increase Mather, about the Quakers. It is dated 1 February, 1691-2, and was subsequently. printed. Lunerus, Polus. Dr. Lunerus was a German or Polish physician, who married, 1 June, 1652, Margaret Clemens, a widow. By the record of the General Court in 1654, he was to determine when an offender should be whipped, the offender being then too ill. Savage says : "I trust the advice of the physician was on the side of mercy, for the poor Scotch prisoner, a waif from the civil war in Great Britain, died soon after." Lyall, Francis. Savage gives the following spellings of the name : Lysle, Lisle, Lioll or Loyal, and thinks that it may even be the same as Seyle. According to this authority, Francis Lyall was a barber-sur geon of some importance, and went with Leverett, Brunce, Houghton and others to England to serve in the cause of Parliament, where he became surgeon in the life guard of the Earl of Manchester. He re turned to Boston in 1645. In 1641 he bought of Elizabeth, widow of Walter Blackborne, "the dwelling house & shopp with outhouses, garden and 2 acres and halfe of land in centry field of the said Walters. " The lot of land here spoken of was in Washington street, very nearly 248 SUFFOLK COUNTY. opposite where the Old South Church now stands. He also had a lot in the " new field." Mather, Increase, and his son Cotton, both ministers of the North Church, are hardly to be classed as physicians, although they were practitioners to a certain extent, perhaps only among their own parish ioners. They united the professions of theology and physic, in the " angelical conjunction. " Increase was born in Dorchester, 21 June, 1639; died 23 August, 1723. Cotton was born 12 March, 1663, and died June 27, 1785. Dr. Increase Mather wrote a pamphlet entitled ' ' Some further Ac count from London of the Small-Pox Inoculated. The Second Edition. With some Remarks on a late Scandalous Pamphlet Entituled, Inocu lation of the Small-Pox as practis'd in Boston," &c, Boston, 1721. The first half of this pamphlet appeared in the Boston Gazette, of 5 February, 1721-22, No. 115, covering the third page of the news paper; and this impression constituted the first edition. Dr. Mather was also the author of a broadside printed at Boston, in November, 1721, giving " Several Reasons proving that Inoculating or Trans planting the Small-Pox is a Lawful Practice, and that it has been Blessed by GOD for the Saving of many a Life." Cotton Mather, if not a physician, was able to furnish a case which was probably of interest to those who were, for Sewall, in his diary, records under date of "March 28, 1693, Mr. Cotton Mather had a son born, which is his first; it seems it was without a posterior for the voidance of excrements: Dies Satterday, April 1." Holmes speaks of Cotton Mather as a "meddlesome pedant, " tor menting his daughter by giving her an ' ' uncertain and violent drug, in that spirit of well meant but restless quackery, which could touch nothing without mischief, not even a quotation, and yet proved at length the means of bringing a- great blessing to our community" (the inoculation for small-pox). Morley, Robert. Although Robert Morley was appointed to "serve as a barber and surgeon," I can find no record that he ever came to these shores. « Morton, Charles, was only a sojourner, coming to these parts in 1686 with his uncle, Charles Morton, who was the first vice-president of Harvard College. Savage, speaking of the latter, says:' " His nephew Charles, an M, D., came with him, but went home in July of next year, " ' MEDICAL HISTORY 249 Mountfort, Jonathan, the son of Edmund, a tailor, was born 15 June, 1678. Married, 7 January, 1702, Hannah Nichols. He was said to have been a man of liberal education, a physician and apothecary, and lived for many years at what was called "Mountfort's Corner." He was independent in his means and eccentric in his habits. He was founder of tomb fifty-nine in the Granary Burying Ground and also of tomb nineteen in Copp's Hill Cemetery. In 1719 he was one of the seceders from the North Church, and among the founders and building committee of the " New Brick " or " Cockerel Church " on Hanover street, of which he was also treasurer. His descendants in the male line are extinct. Oakes, Dr. Thomas, son of Edward, was born at Cambridge, 18 June, 1644, a brother of President Oakes, and a graduate of Harvard College in 1662; he settled in Boston as a physician. He joined the Artillery Company in 1684, and is styled " Lieut." by Whitman, as he was an officer of the militia. Dunton calls him "the greatest >33sculapius of the Countrey, " and says that: His wise and. safe Prescriptions have expell'd more Diseases and rescu'd Languish ing Patients from the Jaws of Death, than Mountebanks and Quack-Salvers have sent to those dark Regions: And on that score, Death has declar'd himself his Mortal Enemy: Whereas Death claims a Relation to those Pretenders to Physick, as being both of one Occupation, viz. : that of Killing Men." — (" The Publications of the Prince Society," iv. 93). Cotton Mather, in speaking of the physicians who were consulted in the case of the Goodwin children in 1688, says that Dr. Oakes "found himself so affronted by the Distempers of the children, that he con cluded nothing but an hellich Witchcraft could be the original of these Maladies." He was a representative and speaker, and a leader in the opposition to Dudley's government ; he went to England in 1690 as an agent of Massachusetts and assisted in procuring a new charter. He returned to Boston 23 October, 1692. Probably to gratify his son Josiah, he removed to the part of Eastham now called Wellfleet on Cape Cod, where he died 15 July, 1719, his wife, Martha, having died' in Boston on the 19th of the preceding April at the age of seventy years. Oliver, James. Toner says that James Oliver practiced in Boston about 1640, but this is probably an error, as Rev. Thomas Pierce calls ' ' the Learned Dr. James Oliver of Cambridge ; one of the most esteemed 32 250 SUFFOLK COUNTY. Physicians in his Day," and it was this Cambridge physician whom Toner thought to be of Boston. Oliver, Thomas, was a practicing physician of Boston, and was a most useful citizen, active both in town and church matters. In 1644 he is mentioned with high appreciation in Winthrop's Journal, as an experi enced and skillful surgeon. In John Hull's Diary, published in the " Archaeologia Americana" (III. 182), it is recorded that "The 1st of the 11th month [1 January, 1657-8], Mr. Thomas Oliver, one of the ruling elders of this church, died, being ninety years old, — a man by his outward profession a chirurgeon." In 1645 he presented the following petition to the General Court: May it please this honored Court to Consider of ye Paines and Cost : I haue bin at in dressing. Joseph White of ye disease called y6 kings evill. wh hath bine vnder my hand vpon. 20. months both for sergery. and phisick. ye disease being in my Judg ment hard to be Cured w4 out amputation (wc ye boy would never Consent vnto) yet I know not what ye lord will do in blessing ye meanes vsed. for he is in good ease for ye pressent and is able to worke for his liuing and begine to tread upon his foote Yrs in all dewty to be co Tho: Oliver I would for the time past if it. please you. demand for my Pains and Cost 12-00-00 The magistrates judge it reasonable that the Petitioner demand should be granted & desire the concurrence of the Deputyes herein Jo: Winthrop: D: Go: (Massachusetts Archives, c. 10). Palgrave, Richard, a physician, from Stepney, London, came over in Winthrop's fleet. He settled in Charlestown. though neither himself nor his wife was ever connected with the church in that town. Their ecclesiastical relations were always with Boston, where those of their children who were born in this country were baptized. His will, dated i June, 1651, was proved in October of the same year. In this he signs his name "Paulgrave." As Dr. Palgrave was connected with the church here, it seems probable that he must have practiced his profes sion on this side of the Charles River as well as where he resided. Pemberton, Thomas, was the son of James, who was of Newbury, 1646. He was born 17 February, 1653, in Boston. Savage says he was " a surgeon in that unhappy expedition of Phips against Quebec, 1690, and died 26 July, 1693." Under this date Sewall records, " Dr. Thomas Pemberton dies." Perkins, John, was the son of Abraham Perkins, of Ipswich, where he was born 23 August, 1676; graduated at Harvard College, 1695, and MEDICAL HISTORY. 251 soon after began the practice of medicine in Ipswich. He is said to have come to Boston, but when or for how long I have failed to deter mine. Pighogg, . . Farmer says : ' ' The singular cognomen of Pighogg is found in the Boston records, one of this name, dignified with the title'of Mr. , being received as a townsman." Savage says Mr. Pighogg ' ' admitted a townsman 28 February, 1652, with prefix of respect, and entitled a ' churrergeon, ' " and that no baptismal name is given. Dr. Holmes in his Lowell lecture (1869) hopes for the honor of his profession that this name was only Peacock disguised under an alias. Pratt, Abraham, a " chyrurgeon, " was said to have been in Boston in September, 1630. He was an inhabitant of Charlestown, and Wy man, in his "Charlestown Genealogy and Estates," says that he and his wife were "both lost, near Cales [Cadiz], on Coast of Spain, with Capt. Coi tm ore, 1644." Pratt, John, who was " accounted an abell man," came to this coun try, but settled in Cambridge. Scottow, Thomas, was the son of Joshua and Lydia. He was born 30 June; baptized 10 July, 1659, and graduated H. C. 1677. How long he remained in Boston is -unknown. Mr. H. F. Waters has recently discovered his will in London, from which the date of his death can be proximately determined: "Thomas Scottow,- of Boston, in New Eng land, chirurgeon, now bound forth on a voyage to sea in the ship Gen eral of London, Captain William Dennis, commander, 14 November, 1698." The will, penned 4 September, 1699, provides: "To my loving sister, Elizabeth Savage, of New England, aforesaid, all my real and personal estate in New England of what kind soever." Evidently he had neither wife nor child. Snelling, William, son of Thomas Snelling, esq. , of Chaddlewood, in Devonshire, was of Newburyin 1651, in 1654 he purchased an estate in Boston, selling it in 1657, to again buy in 1660. His wife was Mar gery, eldest daughter of Giles Stagge, of Southwark, where he mar ried 5 July, 1648, and died 18 June, 1667, aged forty-six years, in Bos ton. He came to Boston before 1655, says Farmer. His children were: William, born 24 June, 1649; Ann, born 2 March, 1652, proba bly died young; Ann, born 7 May, 1654. His will is dated 7 May, 1674. 252 SUFFOLK COUNTY. Sewall says: Cousin Ana's water was carried to Dr. Snelling on Sat. morning. He affirmed her not to be dangerously ill. My Father-in- law,from the first feared her death, from her trembling pulse, wormes coming away without amendment, and the well looking of her water, when she was manifestly very ill. 25 April, 1660, treasurer to pay Mr. Snelling fifty-four shillings for physic admin istered to Robert Higgins. Starr, Comfort, a physician or surgeon of Ashford, in County Kent, England, came in the Hercules from Sandwich in 1635. He settled first in Cambridge, then in Duxbury, and in Boston after 1643; Savage says, dying here 2 January, 1660. He was chosen surgeon in 1637 to go with the troops under Captain Patrick in the Pequot war, and reached the scene of warfare after the Pequot fort had been destroyed by Underbill and Moran. His bequests show him to have been a man of means. One of his sons bore his Christian name, and graduated at H. C. in 1647, and is catalogued as " Consolantius. " Starr, Thomas, a younger brother of the preceding, a surgeon, came soon after, or perhaps with him, from Canterbury, County Kent, and brought his wife Susan and one child. The Colonial records show that he served in the Pequot war in 1637; he died perhaps in 1640, for in March, 1641, his wife Susan had grant of administration by the General Court. Stewart, . " Dr. Stewart of Boston," is all we know. Stone, Daniel, was of Cambridge until about 1656 he removed to Boston. In the town records, 28 April, 1673, we find the following entry : ' ' Agreed with Dr. Daniel Stone for taking care of infirme and sick people of the towne that are poore on the condition of abatinge or allowinge his rate and paying him 20.J. in money. " Ten years later, 30 July, 1683, it is " ordered 33j>. to be paid Doctr. Daniell Stone for lookinge after and dressing an ulcerous Leg of Griffine, who was form- erlie a serv't to Lt. John Smith." We also find that " Dan'l Stone is fined 20^. for entertaynement of John Hunt and wife and to pay 20s. per weeke as long as they continue with him." Sewall records, "Sab bath March 20 168-f Dr. Stone and . . . dye—" Stone, Samuel. In 1671 Dr. Samuel Stone agreed to attend to "the town's poor for twenty shillings in money and a remittance of taxes." Swan, Thomas, was of Roxbury, and married Mary, daughter of Thomas Lamb ; Savage surmises that as he had a son, Henry, born in MEDICAL HISTORY. 253 Boston, 16 May, 1665; he pursued his profession here, returning to Roxbury so that his son, Francis (H. C. 1689), was born there 15 September, 1669. He died probably in February, 1688. Swan, Thomas, son of the foregoiug, was graduated at H. C, 1689. He married Prudence Wade, of Medford, 27 September, 1692. He practiced at Castle William, dying there 19 October, 1710. A petition for relief of his widow was presented to the Legislature, stating that Whereas Mr. Thomas Swan lately deceased, did practice Physick and Chyrergerye at . . . Castle William, upward of Seven Years last past, for which service he was allowed Twelve pence per week for every Twenty Soldiers Garrisoned there towards ye supplying himself with medicines, for that service, but by reason of Sickness and other Casualties, happening in s'd service, ye said allowance fell short not-withstanding Mr. Swan did from year to year make several Unguents, Oils and Syrrups which were not charged . . . by which means he was forced to Expend a part of his Salary besides his extraordinary Care in Attending ye Sick at all times &c. by all which means he has left his family very necessitous. The Legislature 10 Nov. 1710 voted to her twenty pounds in consideration of his extraordinary Charge and Pains in the Service. It is possible that in regard to their profession the father and son have been confused by Savage. He gives the senior as a physician, but not the son. Taylor, Henry, styled by Savage " a surgeon," a freeman 1665. His wife's name was Mary, and he had children: Hannah, born 7 July, 1665 ; John, born 4 August, 1666 ; Mary, born 6 June, 1668 ; and Henry, born 12 .October, 1670. He was one of the petitioners in 1666 to pre vent a quarrel with the government in England. In 1669 had his rate omitted (?) in consideration of his agreement to attend the sick poor. Thacher, Thomas, was the son of Rev. Peter Thacher, of St. Ed munds, Salisbury, England, where he was born 1 May, 1620, came to this country in the James from Southampton. Neal saysj ' ' This Mr. Thacher was both a good devine and an ex cellent Physician and did a good deal of Good in both Capacities ; he was first minister of Weymouth and from thence removed to the New Church of Boston (the Old South), among whom he spent the rest of his days; he died October the 13th, 1678 in the 59th Year of his age." He is distinguished in medicine as being the author of the first con tribution to its literature in this country ; it was a broadside, twelve inches by seventeen in size, beafs date 21 January, 1677-8, and was printed and sold by John Foster, Boston. The title is " A Brief Rule 254 SUFFOLK COUNTY. To guide the Common People of New England How to order them selves and theirs in the Small Pocks, or Measels. " A second edition was printed in the year 1702. It is reprinted in Toner's "Annals of Medical Progress." Wadsworth. In a " List of the male Persons in the town of Boston from Sixteen years old and upwards," the following entry is found, " Doct. Wadsworth." In the same list occurs the name of " Timothy Wadsworth," it is therefore impossible that they were one and the same. Timothy was one of the constables of the town, and his name only ap pears in a list of the inhabitants in Boston in 1695. Our knowledge is limited to the simple fact that Doctor Wadsworth was taxed in Boston in 1688. In the genealogy of the Wadsworth family recently published, Timothy is called a gunsmith, the son of Samuel and grandson of Christo pher, and born in Boston in 1662. He married Susannah Cooke and had Susannah, born 1687, married Edward Langdon; Recompense, born 1688, graduated at Harvard College 1708. Timothy Wadsworth, the gunsmith, joined the Artillery Company in 1691. Waldron, Isaac, came to Boston in 1676 from York, where he was in 1670. His wife's name was Priscilla; they had children, Isaac, born 23 June, 1677; Priscilla, born 6 December, 1678, died young; Priscilla, born 23 June, 1680, died young; Priscilla, born July 12, 1681; all were baptized at the Old South Church. He died 1683, and little else is known of him. Weeden, Elizabeth, was apparently the regular attendant on Sewall's family, he mentions her as " Goodwife Weeden." Wilkinson, Thomas. Dr. Holmes in his address before mentioned says, Thomas Wilkinson in 1676 was complained of for practicing contrary to law. The law at that time appears on page 175 of this article. In what particular Wilkinson transgressed must be left to conjecture. He continued an inhabitant and is found in the tax list of 1679. Savage says, he was of Billerica, "but continued an inhabitant 'and is found in the tax list of 1679." Williams, Richard. " Dr. Richard Williams " appears in the list of inhabitants in 1695, printed in the first volume, issued by our Record Commissioners. Savage gives two of this name, Richard, who had Phebe, born 1643 ; and Richard who by wife Bathsheba had Joseph, born De cember, 1672. These may be one and the same and the inhabitant of MEDICAL HISTORY. 255 1695. It may be however, that, the Richard of whom Savage speaks was a physician in New Haven in 1691, and of whom no more is heard ; tiring of Connecticut, he came to Boston and was here in 1695. Winslow, Edward, governor of Plymouth, had a knowledge of med icine, and even among the Indians had a wide reputation for his treatment of disease. He was once summoned to visit Massasoit, a prominent chief, who was seriously sick, but who recovered under his care. As a mark of his gratitude, the faithful sachem revealed to the English a plot that was forming against them, which was averted by the timely information. A full report of the case with the treat ment is found in Winslow's "Good Newes from New-England," (London, 1624,) pages 25-32. Winslow was an English gentleman from Worcestershire, born in 1595, and came in the Mayflower. His wife was among those who died the first winter, and he married the widow of William White, 12 May, 1621, this being the first marriage which took place in New England. She was the mother of the first child born here. He died at sea in 1655. Winthrop, John, the founder of Boston and governor of Massachu setts, was well versed in medicine, -but his public services to the colony were so marked that his minor ministrations among friends and neigh bors are thrown into the background. The venerable Cotton says of him just before his death, that he had been a "-Help for our Bodies by Physick, for our Estates by Law."1 He was born in Suffolk, England, in 1588; and died in Boston in 1649. Winthrop, John, jr. , son of the preceding, for some years an inhab itant of Massachusetts and afterward governor of Connecticut, was a noted physician. He was born in England in 1606, and died in Boston, 1676. He was one of the earliest members of the Royal Society of London and an accomplished scholar. He had a large correspondence with scientific men, from which many interesting facts are gathered about medicine in the early history of the colony. Dr. Holmes says he ' ' practiced so extensively, that, but for his more distinguished title in the State, he would have been remembered as the Doctor." Winthrop, Wait, represented the third generation of this noted fam ily; a son of John, jr., he was born in Boston 17 February, 1641-2, and was also proficient in the profession. In Cotton Mather's sermon, 1 Magnalia, Book ii., Chap. iv. 15. 256 SUFFOLK COUNTY. preached at his funeral, November 7, 1717, there is an' " Epitaphium," from which the following is an extract: MEDICINE Peritus; Qui Arcanis vere Aureis, et Auro preciosioribus potitus ; Quseque et Hippocratem et Helmontium latuerunt, Remedia panacseasque Adeptus ; Invalidos omnes ubicunque sine pretio sanitati restituit ; Et pene omnem Naturam fecit Medicam. Mr. Sewall, in his funeral sermon, says he was ' ' a skillful physician, and generously gave, not only his advice, but also his medicine, for the healing of the sick, which, by the Blessing of God, were made success ful for the recovery of many." April 20, 1689, he was appointed sole major-general of Massachusetts, which office he held at the time of his decease. Whitman says he was "Captain of the Ar. Co. the year he joined, which is the second instance known, and the first duly authen ticated. By profession he was a physician, and as such was celebrated for his skill; he practiced extensively, but gratis, finding his own med icines." He died 7 Noveihber, 1717, aged seventy-five. List of practitioners in Boston, 1700 to 1800: Adams Samuel. Appleton Nath'l Walker. Barnet William. Barret Bertody Francis. Boylston Zabdiel. Bulfinch Thomas. Bulfinch Thomas, jr. Cheever Abijah. Church Benjamin. Clark John. Clark John. Clark John. Clark John. Clark William. Cooke Elisha, jr. Crozier Henry Will Curtis Benjamin. Cutler John. Dalhonde Lawrence Danforth Samuel. Davis William. Dexter Aaron. Doubt Nyot. Douglass William. Eliot Ephraim. Euslin John Frederick. Eustis William. Fay Nahum. Fleet John Fleet John, jr. Gardner Joseph. Gardiner Joseph. Gardiner Sylvester. Gelston Samuel. Godfrey Phillip. Greenleaf John. Hall George Holmes. Hayward Lemuel. Hill Homans John, 1753-1800. Hunt Ebenezer. Jackson Hall. Jackson William. Jackson Jarvis Charles. Jeffries John. Jeorku Kast Philip Godfrey, or Godfrist. Kast Thomas. Kennedy Hugh. Latham Leavitt Josiah. Lloyd James. Lord Linn John. Marion Joseph. Marshall Samuel. Mather Nazra Mathew. Noyes Oliver. Pecker James. MEDICAL HISTORY. 257 Perkins John. Perkins Nathaniel. Perkins William Lee. Peters Alexander Aber- crombie. Philips Nathaniel. Pope John. Pynchon Charles. Rand Isaac, jr. Rand Samuel. Rand William. Read William. Roberts Rogers Theophilus. Rogerson Robert. Spooner William. Sprague John. Sprague John, jr. Stewart George. St. Medard Peter. Swetzer Henry Sebastian Tamer Thomas Joshua. Thomas William. Tufts Cotton. Townsend David. Warren John. Warren Joseph. Welsh Thomas. Whipple Joseph. Whitmarsh Miles. Williams Nathaniel. Windship Amos. Windship Charles. Young Lemuel. Youguet 27 October, 1751, and was the was a Latin School boy, and Adams, Samuel, was born in Boston son of Governor Samuel Adams. He graduated from Harvard in 1770. He was a student of medicine under Dr. Joseph Warren, of Revolutionary fame, and practiced in Boston one year. He entered the army as surgeon on the breaking out of the war for independence, and his duties there broke down his health and constitution, so that on his return to Boston he was unable to recom mence the practice, of his profession. He was a member of the Mas sachusetts Medical Society. His death from scrofula occurred 17 Jan uary, 1788. Appleton, Nathaniel Walker, was a grandson of the venerable Na thaniel Appleton, D.D., of Cambridge, and son of Nathaniel and Mary (Walker) Appleton. He was born in Boston, 14 June, 1755, and grad uated at H. C. in 1773. He studied medicine with Dr. Holyoke, the centenarian and first president of the Massachusetts Medical Society. He was one of the founders of that society, and also of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. He was the first secretary of the Medical Society, and was active in its behalf; he resigned in 1794 with a view of removing from Boston, and presented the society a portion of his library and anatomical cabinet as a token of his regard. After a few years' residence in Marietta, Ohio, he returned to Boston, where he died 15 April, 1795, aged forty-three. His wife was Sarah, daughter of William Greenleaf, of Boston. Eliot says of him : ' ' Was a most estimable man, but too diffident to show his real worth and abilities, which were far above mediocrity." Barnett, William, was from Elizabethtown, N. J., and was one of the prominent inoculators in 1764. He was appointed by Congress, 6 January, 1776, surgeon of the First Jersey Battalion. In February 33 258 SUFFOLK COUNTY. of the same year he was appointed major of the regiment of light horse in the Eastern Division of the State of New Jersey. Barret, . Toner says that Dr. Barret was in practice in Bos ton in 1764, and in good repute. I think this is an error for Barnett. Bertody, Francis, resided on Leverett street in 1796. He was from Prussia, and was naturalized 19 June, 1788. He left one son. Boylston, Zabdiel, the son of Thomas and Mary (Gardner) Boylston. He was born 1679, and probably did not practice before the year 1700. He married in Boston, 18 January, 1705-6, Jerusha, born 28 January, 1669, daughter of John and Elizabeth (Birch) Minot, of Dorchester. He was an eminent physician of Boston, though much employed in his native town of Brookline, and in all the region about. He. studied under Dr. John Cutler, of Boston, and, in a few years, arrived at great distinction in his profession, and accumulated a handsome for tune. He introduced inoculation in Boston and America in 1721, in response to the invitation of the Rev. Dr. Cotton Mather, and in spite of violent opposition. He visited England in 1725, where inoculation was common, and was received with the most flattering attention, chosen member of the Royal Society, and was admitted to the intimacy and friendship of the most distinguished characters of the nation. After a long period of wdrk, his age and infirmity induced him to retire to his paternal estate in Brooklinej where he passed the remainder of his days. He died 1 March, 1766. He published some account of what is said about inoculating or transplanting the small-pox by the learned Dr. Emanuel Timonius and Jacobus Pylarinus in 1721. Of the position of the physicians of Boston toward inoculation, Dr. Green writes as follows: With one exception, however, they seemed to be either indifferent or opposed to the whole matter. This exception was Dr. Zabdiel Boylston, who took up the prac tice of it amid the most violent opposition of his professional brethren ; and on the 26th of June, 1721, he inoculated his own son, Thomas, six years of age, his negro man, Jack of thirty-six years, and a little negro boy of two and a half years. They all had the disease very lightly, and he was encouraged to try the experiment on others. Within the period of one year Dr. Boylston inoculated 247 persons, and of this number only six died ; and during the same time 39 other persons in the neighbor hood were inoculated by two other physicians, and all made good recoveries. This low rate of mortality, as compared with that among persons who had taken small pox in the natural way, was a telling argument in favor of inoculation. The array -'¦¦ft C amp h*U. &c -M Y MEDICAL HISTORY. 259 of these statistics carried the public to the side of Dr. Boylston, who was now honored to the same degree that he had previously been libeled by a fickle populace. He was invited by Sir Hans Sloane, the Court Physician, to visit London, where he re ceived the most flattering attentions from the scientists of England, as well as from the reigning family. He was chosen a member of the Royal Society, and read a paper before that learned body on the subject of small-pox inoculation in New Eng land. This was published in London in the vear 1726, and dedicated by permission to the Princess of Wales. In this pamphlet he gives a minute account of many of his cases, telling the names of his patients in full, besides stating their ages ; and in the preface he apologizes for the liberty he has taken in doing so. A second edition of this paniphlet was published at Boston, in the year 1730. In the course of time inoculation conquered all opposition, and finally became a well established fact in the community. Some of those who had bitterly opposed it were now its warmest friends. Dr. Boylston wrote, in 1726, an historical account of the small-pox inoculation in New England, with a statement of the nature of the infec tion and short directions to the inexperienced. His son Thomas, born 30 July, 1715, practiced in Brookline. Bulfinch, Thomas, was the son of Adino Bulfinch, a merchant of Bos ton, who came to this country from England about the year 1680. He was born in 1694, and began the study of his prof ession with Dr. Zabdiel Boylston as his preceptor. He afterward went to London and received instruction in anatomy and surgery under the famous Cheselden, and subsequently to Paris, where he completed his professional, education. He soon required the reputation of an excellent physician, and enjoyed a very large practice. He married,' 11 June, 1724, Judith, daughter of Rev. Benjamin Coleman, of Brattle Square Church. He died 2 Decem ber, 1757, in his sixty-third year, leaving a son, Thomas, jr., who fol lowed in the footsteps of his father as a successful practitioner. He had a brother, Adino, who married; 10 October, 1727, Susannah Green ; he was an apothecary. Bulfinch, Thomas, jr., was born in Boston in 1728. Graduated in 1746 from Harvard College, he studied medicine with his father, also going abroad he received his degree of M.D. at Edinburgh in 1757. Shortlyaf ter he was called home by the death of his father, and began to practice his profession in Boston. He married Susan, daughter of Charles and Guissilde (Estwick) Apthorp, 13 September, 1759. Dr. Elliot has this mention of the younger Dr. Bulfinch : Had a good share of very genteel practice, and lived in good style. He kept a chariot, was very tender and affectionate, and greatly valued by those who employed him. Dr. Bulfinch declined joining the Medical Society. 260 SUFFOLK COUNTY. Cheever, Abijah, son of Abner and Elizabeth (Newhall) Cheever, was born in Lynn, 23 May, 1760; graduated at Harvard College in 1779; was a surgeon in the navy during the Revolutionary War. He after ward established himself in the practice of his profession in Boston, where he married, 5 July, 1789, first Elizabeth Scott, and second, 18 April, 1798. Sarah, widow of Jonathan Williams, daughter of Daniel and Bethial (Ingersoll) Pearce. About the year 1810 he removed from Boston to Saugus, where he died 21 April, 1843, aged eighty-four. He was a member of the Massachusetts Medical Society. Church, Benjamin, senior. Hollis Street Church records state that Benjamin and Hannah had a daughter baptized in 1745, the parents being in communion with the church at Newport. He joined the Artillery Company in 1742. Whitman in his history says, "Boston, physician; father of the famous Dr. B. Church, was a violent Whig at the commencement of the Revolution, but when the tug of war came on, became a Tory. An assessor, 1770. He gradu ated at Harvard College, 1727." Church, Benjamin, jr., son of Deacon Benjamin Church, born at Newport, 24 August, 1734, of the Latin School of Boston 1745, H. C. 1754, studied with Dr. Pynchon, later was a student -of the London Medical College, married Miss Hannah Hill, of Ross, Hertfordshire, England ; was the surgeon who examined the body of Crispus Attucks, pronounced the oration on the massacre; representative, member of Provincial Congress, 1774; physician-general of the army, 1774; direc tor-general of the hospital, 1775 ; court martialed for some treasonable correspondence with the enemy, 3 October, 1775; imprisoned at Nor wich, Conn. ; released May, 1776 ; sailed from Boston to London, and the vessel was wrecked. Of him Eliot says that he ' ' was gaining practice among the Whig interest ; but, for reasons that are sufficiently known, was banished from the country." Clark, John,4- son of Dr. John3 and Sarah Clark, the counsellor, was born 15 December, 1698 ; he died 6 April, 1768, of paralysis. He had sons John and William, to the latter he gave by will all his drugs and medicines, and also a daughter Elizabeth, who was wife of Jonathan Mayhew, D. D. To his grandson John, son of John, were bequeathed all his books, chests of utensils, etc. , relating to surgery and physic, as his son, the physician, had died before him. MEDICAL HISTORY. 261 Clark, John,* grandson of the counsellor; he was also a physician and died before his father, in 1768, but left a son who inherited his grandfather's professional outfit. Clark, John, 6 son of the preceding, graduated at Harvard 1772, then studied with 'Dr. James Lloyd and later visited the hospitals in Europe, intending on his return to participate in the practice of his preceptor. He married Abigail Turner, and had son John, born 1778. His health failing he removed to Wrentham, where he died July 29, 1788. Clark, John, 1 son of the preceding, born 1778, graduated at Harvard College 1799, received the degree of M.B. in 1802. He died at Weston on Sunday, 21 April, 1805, aged twenty-seven, leaving no male issue, and thus ending a famous line of physicians bearing the name of Clark. His only child, Emily, born 8 May, 1804, married first Joseph Merriam, of Lexington, and had three sons and one daughter; and secondly, George D. Soren. Clark, William, son of John and grandson of the counsellor, gradu ated at Harvard in 1726. The Boston Post Boy and Advertiser under date of June, 1760, has this notice of his death : Yesterday departed this life Dr. William Clark, a Physician of Principal Note in this town. He was a Gentleman of Extensive Learning, of great knowledge in that Profession and Success in his Practice. He was easy in his manners ; humane and • benevolent in his Temper ; a Lover and Encourager of Art and Industry ; a ten der Husband, a good Master, and a steady Friend. His Death is universally la mented. In 1758 he visited the schools; in 1759 he was chosen on a committee to make application to the General Court for relief from taxes. He is styled " Surgeon "in a power of attorney given him by his father in 1760. Cooke, Elisha, jr., son of Elisha and Elizabeth (Leverett) Cooke, was born December 20, 1678. He was graduated from Harvard College with the degree of A.M. in 1697. He succeeded to the practice of his father. He was clerk of the Supreme Court in 1702, but was displaced in 1718. He died in 1737. Crozier, Henry Will Grozier, under this latter spelling he inoc ulated and attended gratis four patients in 1764. He entered into the agreement with the selectmen (see pages 179-181). 262 SUFFOLK COUNTY. Curtis, Benjamin, son of Benjamin and Abigail (Bridge) Curtis, was born in Roxbury, September 16, 1752, and graduated, at Harvard Col lege in 1771 with the degree of A.M. He was a pupil of Dr. Joseph Gardner. He married Eliza Billings, of Sharon, Mass. Eliot writes that in 1780 among the gentlemen doing the business of the town, viz. : beginning at the south, Dr. Benjamin Curtis, who was employed there considerably. Toner: "Settled in Boston, main taining a good reputation and practice until his death, which occurred in 1784 in the thirty-second year of his age." He joined the Massachusetts Medical Society in 1781, and died in Boston, 26 November, 1784. His widow married in 1791 Elisha Tick nor, and was the mother of George Ticknor. Cutler, John, born at Hingham, August 6, 1676, is supposed to have been sent to Europe for his education. He inherited the house and practice of his father. He certified to the health of a cargo of negroes, with Dr. William Douglass, William Clark and Edward Ellis, 10 July, 1739. He married, 21 August, 1716, Mrs. Joanna (Dodd) Richards; no children. He adopted first his nephew, Peter Cutler, who died unmarried; secondly, his nephew, John Cutler, who cared for his old age. He died at eighty-five and was buried in King's Chapel burial ground, 28 September, 1761. • Dalhonde, Lawrence. Toner spells the name Dalhounde. He sided with Dr. Douglass in the controversy with Dr. Boylston regarding inoculation in 1721. Wyman is authority for the statement that Elizabeth Delhonde, a daughter of Lawrence and Elizabeth Delhonde, of Boston, married 28 February, 1744, at Boston, Dr. John Sprague, and had a son, John. The Boston Gazette of November 25, 1746, records that: Yesterday died here at an advanced Dr. Lawrence Dahonde a noted and skillful physician among us. In the Shepard Genealogy, it is stated that Dr. John Delhonde, a French Protestant refugee, came first to Boston, went thence to Salem ; was born 21 May, 1716, and married, 1 December, 1737, Elizabeth Pike ; died 10 December, 1793. He was probably the son of Dr. Lawrence Dalhounde. Danforth, Samuel, was the son of the Hon. Samuel Danforth, judge of probate for the county of Middlesex at the time of the Revolution ; he was born in Cambridge on 4 August, 1740, and graduated at H. C. • MEDICAL HISTORY. 263 in 1758. He studied medicine under Dr. Rand, of Charlestown. He first resided in Weston, then went to Newport, R. I., where he remain ed a few years, but finally settled permanently in Boston. Eliot writes : Dr. Samuel Danforth was then (1780) rising to an eminence in the profession which has not been exceeded in Boston. Setting theories aside, he formed one of his own ; he endeavored to enlist no man, but he persevered in it himself till he ac quired a very great confidence in his judgment, and was probably consulted in more cases than any other physician in his day. He was one of the founders of the Massachusetts Medical Society, and its president 1795 to 1798, having previously served as vice-presi dent He was A.M., M.D., hon., 1790, of Harvard; Fellow American Academy ; Cor. Memb. Med. Soc. of London. His death occurred at the age of eighty-seven from a paralytic affection, 16 November, 1827. Davis, William, of him we learn but -little. In the Boston Gazette or Weekly Journal we find this notice of his death : On Friday last died here, aged abo.ut fifty-eight years, Dr. William Davis, a gen tleman much improved and greatly beloved among us, a skillful physician and sur geon, and was held in Esteem for his strict Piety. We hear his funeral will be tomorrow. The bond given by the administratrix of the estate was dated March 28, 1746. An inventory of his property contained among the items ""Druggs [£] 284:4:4;" " Chirorgical Instrum'ts of all Sorts 120;" "3 Glass Cases of Veins & Anat: 50." This appraisal was made ac cording to the paper money of New England, which at that time was much depreciated ; and it would be difficult to calculate the gold value. Dexter, Aaron, the son of Richard and Rebecca (Peabody) Dexter, was born at Maiden, 11 November, 1750, graduated at Harvard College in 1776. He studied medicine with Dr. Samuel Danforth. He made several voyages to Europe as a medical officer, once having been made a prisoner. At the close of the Revolution he settled in Boston. In 1783 he was elected Erving Professor of Chemistry and Materia Medica in the medical department of Harvard College, continuing as such until 1816, when he was made professor emeritus. In 1786 he received from his alma mater the honorary degree of M.D., Dartmouth College con ferring the same in 1805. He died at Cambridge, 28 February, 1829, at the age of seventy-nine. He was a contributor to the early volumes of the communications of the Massachusetts Medical Society, of which 264 SUFFOLK COUNTY he was one of the founders and its first treasurer, serving but one year when he became the society's librarian, an office he held for ten years. He was a member of the Massachusetts Historical Society and a Fel low of the American Academy. Doubt, Nyot. He inoculated and attended gratis fifteen patients, and agreed to discontinue inoculation after the 20th of April, 1764. His wife's name was Sarah, and they had a son, Nyot, born 16 September, 1761. He died 11 June, 1764. Douglass, William. Dr. Douglass was a Scotchman who came to Boston as early as the year 1716, for he was elected a member of the Scots Charitable Society, 7 February, 1716, of which he was vice-presi dent in 1721 until elected president 1736, which office he held at the time of his death. An extended biographical sketch has been published in the communications of the Massachusetts Medical Society. He re ceived his medical education in Paris and Leyden ; was a man of fine intellectual parts, and a versatile writer. He knew astronomy and could calculate eclipses ; he had a taste for natural history, and was withal an excellent botanist. He studied his medical cases, and took careful notes by the bedside. With a large practice, he wrote on a great variety of subjects, and it is not strange that occasionally he was inexact in his statements. It was wittily said of him by some one that he was always positive and sometimes accurate. He had little tact, and it is not surprising that he found himself continually in controversy. He. was the leader of the opponents of inoculation during the epidemic of small-pox which occurred in the summer of 1721. At that time he was the only regularly graduated physician in the town. Some of the ministers were the peers of the doctors in medical knowledge, though with less clinical experience. In this state of affairs, it can readily be understood that it was a free fight whenever there was a medical con troversy. He died on 21 October, 1754, having passed his whole pro fessional life in Boston, where he had much influence as a physician ; and in the small-pox epidemic of 1752, even Dr. Douglass both prac ticed inoculation and spoke of it as a " most beneficial improvement. " He published in 1736 an essay on epidemic fever, and later, 1749 and 1755, a work entitled "The British Settlement in North America," in two volumes. In 1743 Dr. Douglass bought Rev. William Cooper's house, and when Dr. Douglass died, in 1754, mention was made of his mansion in Green Dragon lane. In 1753 MEDICAL HISTORY. 265 Catherine Kerr, a sister of Dr. Douglass, conveyed the house to St. Andrew's Lodge of Freemasons, and it afterwards became famous as the Green Dragon Tavern. Eliot, Ephraim, was the son of the Rev. Andrew Eliot, D.D., pastor of the New North Church in Boston, and brother of the Rev. John Eliot, D.D., author of the "Biographical Dictionary, " etc. He was graduated at Harvard College in 1780, with the degree of A.M., studied medicine with Dr. Isaac Rand, but did not graduate in medi cine or join the Massachusetts Medical Society. For many years he was a well known druggist. He was interested in historical matters, and a member of the Massachusetts Historical Society. He died in September, 1827, aged sixty-five, leaving a sketch in manuscript of the physicians of Boston during and after the Revolutionary war, embrac ing a notice of the formation of the Massachusetts Medical Society. This is printed in the Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society, 1863-1864 (vol. VII, p. 177), and from it I have freely quoted. Euslin, John Frederick, resided on Batterymarch street in 1796, and this is all I have been able to find about him. Eustis, William. This distinguished man was born in Boston, 10 June, 1753. He studied at the Boston Latin School, and was grad uated at Harvard College in 1772. He studied medicine with Dr. Joseph Warren, . nd at his request was commissioned surgeon of Gridley's artillery regiment 19 April, 1775. 1 January, 1777, he was commis sioned hospital surgeon and physician, and served as such during the rest of the war for independence, taking a high position as an officer. At the close of the war he commenced practice in Boston. He joined the Massachusetts Medical Society in 1785, and resigned his fellowship in 1813. In 1786-87 he was a volunteer surgeon in the army which put down Shays's rebellion. In 1788 he became a member of the General Court, serving six or seven years with distinction. He was a member of Congress from 1800 to 1805, and was appointed secretary of war by President Madison in 1809, holding the office till 1812, when he resigned. In 1815 he was appointed minister to Holland. In 1821 he was again elected to Congress, and became governor of Massachu setts in 1823, which office he held until his death in 1825. He received the honorary degree of LL.D. from Harvard College in 1823, and high honors from other colleges. He was for a long time vice-president of the Massachusetts Society of the Cincinnati. His 34 266 SUFFOLK COUNTY. elegant mansion in Roxbury, close to the Dorchester line, was a con spicuous object until recent years. Fay, Nahum, in 1796 lived on -Fleet street, and in 1798 on Garden Court street. He was graduated at Harvard College A.M. in 1790; M.B. in 1793. He died in 1804. Fleet, John. He was born 9 September, and baptized 15 September, 1734, at Old South Chapel. His wife's name was Elizabeth; they had one son, John, born 29 April, 1766. Fleet, John, jr., was born April 29, 1766. He graduated at Harvard College in 1785; received degree of M.B. in 1788, and M.D. (hon.) in 1795. His residence was at 5 Cornhill. He joined the Massachusetts Medical Society in 1796 ; was its recording secretary from 1798, serving unti'. 1802. At the time of his death, in 1813, he was the society's librarian. He was the first to receive a medical degree from Harvard University. Gardiner, Sylvester, was a rising young surgeon who had studied his profession in London and Paris. He began the practice of medicine in Boston, where he also lectured on anatomy, which he illustrated by preparations brought from Europe. His enterprise led him to establish an apothecary's shop, in which he carried on an extensive wholesale a'lJ retail business. His career as a physician and surgeon was at tended with remarkable success, and he soon acquired from his profes sion both fame and fortune. His prosperity, however, was interrupted by the political troubles which preceded' the Revolution, and during the struggle he took sides with the mother country. He thus became odious to the patriots, and when Boston was evacuated by the British troops, he was compelled to leave his native country and pass eight or ten years in exile. He finally returned, and died at Newport, R. I., 8 August, 1786, in the eightieth year of his age. The following advertisement appears in The Boston Gazette, 19 June, 1744: fust imported in the Ship from London, And to be sold by Mr. Sylvester Gar diner, At the sign of the Unicorn and Mortar in Marlborough-Street. All Sorts of Drugs and Medicines, both Chymical and Galenical ; where all Doctors, Apothecaries or others, may be supply' d with the very best and freshest of Either at the lowest Price ; and Captains of Ships with Doctor's Boxes put up in the neatest and best Manner; with printed Directions: Likewise all Merchants may be fur nished at the same Place with Surgeons Chests put up in the same Manner, and at the same Price, as they are for the Royal Navy, at the Apothecary's Hall in London; MEDICAL HISTORY. 267 where only are to be Sold by Appointment of the Patentees, the true Doctor Bate- man's Pectoral. As early as March, 1761, Dr. Sylvester Gardiner had made a propo sition to th'e town of Boston to build at his own cost an inoculating hospital on a piece' of land, northward from the building which he had previously put up during the French war for sick and wounded' sailors ; but it does not appear that the offer was accepted. In the account, as printed in the "Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical So ciety," for June, 1859, it is stated that — No person in town is to pay more than four dollars for inoculation, medicines, and attendance, and three dollars per week for diet, nursing, and lodging, during his or her illness. Toner says Dr. Gardiner was a native of Kingston, R. I. He died 1786, aged sixty-eight. Eliot says of him, that his reputation was high as- an operator in surgery, and that he did the largest business as a druggist of any per son in Boston. He was one of those proscribed in 1778 as an enemy of the new State. ¦¦ Gardner, Joseph, was a son of Rev. John Gardner; he was born at Stow, Mass., 2.4 May, 1727 ; he practiced in Boston, and died about 1788. " Was employed, " writes Eliot, "both as a physician and surgeon, . probably more than any other gentleman in the profession. He pre tended to look upon learning as superfluous ; that the bedside was the only school for a physician ; but he did study, and was a more learned man than he chose to appear. He was witty and satirical, and very greatly esteemed. " In 1776 he was a representative from Boston. He was one of the founders of the Massachusetts Medical Society., Gelston, Samuel. Samuel Gelston, son of Judge Hugh and Mary (Maltby) Gelston, was born Southampton, L. I., 24 March, 1727. Mar ried a Miss Oliver, of Boston, and resided at Nantucket. We find in Sabine's " Loyalists " that Samuel Gelston, Physician, Jany 1776, held to answer before joint committee of the Council and House : During the proceedings escaped to Rhode Island, where he was apprehended and brought back. While here engaged in inoculating, Drake says, he resided constantly" at Noddle's Island. 268 SUFFOLK COUNTY. Godfrey, Phillip, was born in 1724. Toner says, he was in practice in Boston in 1764, and in good repute. I am inclined to think this is an error for Dr. Phillip Godfrey Kast. Greenleaf, John, son of Rev. Daniel Greenleaf, was born at Yarmouth, Mass., 8 November, 1717. He was invited to accompany the selectmen on a visitation of the free schools 7 July, 1773, and 24 June, 1774. He died 27 August, 1778, and is supposed to have been buried under Brat tle Square Church. He was a druggist but bore the title of "Doctor," although he was not a practicing physician. Hall, George Holmes, son of Willis and Sarah Hall, was born in Med ford, Mass., 8 January, 1763. He was graduated at Harvard College in 1781, and in 1788, with John Fleet. he received the degree of Bach elor of Medicine from Harvard. These were the first medical degrees conferred. He soon went to Brattleborough, Vermont, where he kept a drug store. He died 1807. Hayward, Lemuel, was born in Braintree, 22 November, 1749, was graduated at Harvard College 1768, and received the honorary degree of M.D. in 1808. For one year after graduating he taught the public school at Milton, and subsequently commenced the study of medicine under Dr. Joseph Warren. Having completed his studies, by the advice of his preceptor, he settled at Jamaica Plain, where he acquired a large and lucrative practice. In 1775 he was appointed a hospital surgeon by Congress, but resigned his commission on the removal of the army southwards. In 1783 he removed to Boston, and in 1784 was elected member of the Massachusetts Medical Society. He died 22 March, 1821. Homans, John. He was the second son of Capt. John and Elizabeth ( Alden) Homans. Captain Homans came to this country from England about 1720, settled in Dorchester, and became 4 January, 1773, by vote of the town one of the Committee of Correspondence. Dr. Homans was born in Dorchester, 8 April, 1753. He studied for college at the Boston Latin School, was graduated at Harvard Colleo-e in 1772, and studied medicine with Dr. Joseph Gardner, of Boston. He was commissioned surgeon of the Sixteenth Regiment (Col. Paul Dudley) 1 January, 1776, and from 18 December, 1776, to 4 August, 1781, was surgeon of Second Regiment Light Dragoons (Colonel Sheldon). He was in many engagements, notably at Harlem, White Plains, and in the campaign against Burgoyne. He resigned in 1781 and practiced MEDICAL HISTORY. 269 in Boston till June, 1800, when he started on a voyage for his health, but soon died at sea. His name is still ably represented by members of the family active in the profession. Hill, Dr. The " selectmen's minutes " of a meeting held 27 Novem ber, 1774, read: This Day information was given by Dr. Hill, Surgeon of the 59th Regiment that a Child belonging to that Regiment in a Barrack at Doans Wharf was broke out with the Small pox, upon which Dr. Jarvis was directed to examine into the circumstances of said Child. Dr. Jarvis soon after Reported, that he was of opinion that the Child had not the Small Pox. Hunt, Ebenezer, was born in Northampton, 1744; H.C., 1764; studied with Dr. Pynchon, of Springfield. He was a son of Deacon Ebenezer Hunt of, Northampton, and was born there, but lived in Boston, and the stones erected to him and his wife are in the Granary Burying Ground. He was many times member of the Legislature, an elector of the pres ident of the United States ; practised physic for more than half a cen tury. He died 26 December, 1820, aged seventy-six years. Jackson, Hall, was the son of Dr. Clement Jackson, of Portsmouth. Dr. Jackson resided at Boston two or three months, and carried several classes safely through the small-pox by, inoculation ; a large number came from Portsmouth to put themselves under his care. He was one of those who, in 1764, agreed with the selectmen not to inocu late after the 20th of April. It is recorded that he inoculated thirty- three patients. He had had the disease in 1773 at the Essex Hospital. Jackson, William, joined the Massachusetts Medical Society in 1795, and died in 1800, aged thirty-five years. Jarvis, Charles, was the son of Colonel Leonard Jarvis, born in Boston, 1748, was a Latin School boy, and a graduate of Harvard Col lege in the class of 1766; a member of the American Academy. After finishing his medical studies in Boston, he went to England and took practical courses in medicine and surgery. On his return he established himself in Boston, where he enjoyed a large and successful practice. Dr. Jarvis gave but little medicine, and to-day would be considered a good representative of the " expectant school " of the profession. He took a prominent part in public affairs, and was a " Jeffersonian " in ' politics. Dr. Eliot says : 270 SUFFOLK COUNTY. He stood high in rank, and deservedly ; his practice would doubtless have been' large if he had not chosen to devote himself to political life, which prevented him attending to his profession as was desired. The style of a gentleman which marked his conduct in the chamber of the sick, and the tender sympathy which he evinced when attending to his surgical practice, endeared him in a peculiar manner to his employers. He studied medicine with Drs. William Lee Perkins and Joseph Gardner. He was one of the founders of the Massachusetts Medical Society, and Dr. Ebenezer Alden, in his sketches of them, says he re ceived the degree of M.D. in 1793, but certainly this could not have been from his alma mater, as no such record appears in the catalogue. He was a powerful and impressive orator, and in the Legislature re ceived the sobriquet of the "bald eagle." During the presidency of Thomas Jefferson he was appointed physician and surgeon to the Marine Hospital, then situated at Charlestown, and died there 15 November, 1807, aged fifty -nine years. His wife was the granddaughter of the first Baron Pepperille. Jeffries, John, the son of David and Sarah Jeffries, was born 5 Feb ruary, 1744 (David for thirty-one years was the town treasurer of Bos ton), graduated at Harvard College in the year 1763, with the highest honors of his class, and began at once his medical studies under Dr. Lloyd. Subsequently he studied in England, and took his degree of M.D. at the University of Aberdeen in Scotland, 1769; hon. M.D. from Harvard, 1819. He returned from his studies at Aberdeen just as our strife was opening and entered the British naval service ; went with General Howe as surgeon to the forces in Nova Scotia. He returned to England, and while there crossed the British Channel in a balloon, and came back, 1789, to practice his profession in Boston. His name appears on a list of inhabitants of Boston who, on the evacuation by the British, March, 1776, removed with the army. He died 16 Sep tember, 1819, deeply lamented by his friends. He was buried in the Granary Burying Ground. Jeorku. Dr. Ephraim Eliot, writing of the time he began his pro fessional studies in 1780, says: To the credit of the country, there was not a quack or empirical physician in this place. Such persons were always frowned upon by the people, and soon hid themselves. The only one I recollect who had a footing here was a German, named Jeorku. It was said he had been a dresser in the British military hospital in Quebec. He removed into Boston and got some business among the Dutch inhabitants and MEDICAL HISTORY. 271 their posterity. He was never acknowledged by the physicians as a brother ; but he dressed a wound and applied a bandage with great dispatch and neatness. I never knew him to perform an operation, and [he] was thought to be a very ignorant man. Kast, Philip Godfrid, was of Salem, before coming to Boston, as will be seen by the following advertisement from a Salem paper in 1768 : Philip Godfrid Kast at the sign of the Lion and Mortar. The famous anadyne necklace for children while teething; Dr. Hill's pectoral bal sam of honey; British oil; Turlington's balsam of life used forty years ago; Green- ough's tincture for preserving the teeth; extract of hemlock for cancers, etc. Dr. Anderson's and Dr. Lockyer's pills. He married a daughter of Joseph Proctor. In settling an estate on Prince street, he mentions " Elizabeth Proctor, the great-grandmother of infant son Thomas." In 1749 he lived in Queen street. Eliot says that, being a very old man in 1780, he had "retreated " from practice. His wife's name was Anna; they were attendants' at King's Chapel, where their child Marie was baptized in 1756. He lived in Bradford, Mass., long enough to have the birth of one child recorded. He had also a son, Thomas, a physician. By the diary of John Thomas, under date of 1 July, 1755, published in the "New England Historical and Genealogical Register," 1879, we learn, that Drs.. Kast and Whitworth went to Novia Scotia in Winslow's expedition against the Acadians. Kast, . Thomas, the son of Dr. Philip Godfrist Kast, with whom he studied, was born in Boston, 12 August, 1750. He graduated A. B. at H.C. in 1769, receiving his A.M. in 1774. In 1770 he was appointed surgeon's mate of the British ship Rose, and continued as such for two years, then for an equal length of time attended lectures at Gray's and St. Thomas's hospitals in London. He returned to Boston in 1774, and began a practice which lasted until 1804, when he was attacked by a severe illness. To improve his health he visited Europe in 1810, and remained until 1817, when he again returned to Boston, dying here 20 June, 1820. He was a founder of the Massachusetts Medical So ciety, an*d its second treasurer, serving from 1783 and 1798. Dr. Thomas Kast had a large practice among the lower and middling classes of people, with whom he was a great favorite. He accumulated much property, mak ing every one pay him something ; and being an economist he turned it to much advantage. — (Eliot.) Kennedy, Hugh, was a Scotchman, and of him our knowledge is very meagre. Hugh was baptized at the New Brick Church, 10 February, 272 SUFFOLK COUNTY. 1739-40. He married, 28 December, 1720, Mary Wyer, and 2 Novem ber, 1739, Susanna Pico. Latham, Dr. At a meeting of the selectmen, 23 November, 1774, ' ' Dr. Latham attended and informed the selectmen that a soldier of the Main Guard House of the Fifty-ninth Regiment is broke out with small-pox." In an advertisement which the selectmen published in several newspapers, they stated that they were made acquainted with this outbreak by a surgeon of the army ; we therefore conclude that Dr. Latham was a medical officer of the troops stationed here. Leavitt, Josiah, was born in Hingham, 21 October, 1744, the son of Hezekiah and Grace (Hatch) Leavitt. He practised his profession in his native town until 1777, when he sold his house and removed to Boston. Here he did not practise but engaged in the business of build ing organs. He died in March, 1804, aged fifty-nine years. Lloyd, James, the son of Henry and Rebecca (Nelson) Lloyd, was a native of Oyster Bay, Long Island, where he was born 24 March, 1728. His preliminary education was obtained at Stratford and New Haven, Conn. He began his professional studies in Boston, under the guid ance of Dr. William Clark, with whom he remained nearly five years. At the end of this time he went to England, where he enjoyed the most favorable opportunities of seeing the practice of the best physicians and surgeons of that time, occupying for one year the place of first dresser of wOunds to Mr. Warner. He returned to Boston in the year 1752, and at once entered upon the duties of his chosen profession, in which he soon became eminent. He has the name of being the first educated obstetrician in the country, as well as the credit of introducing the prac tice of amputation by the flap operation, or double incision, as it was then called. Dr. Lloyd was a man of man}? accomplishments, and dur ing the latter half of the last century the prominent figure of the profes sion. He died 14 March, 1810, at the advanced age of eighty-two years. Dr. Lloyd had studied midwifery under the distinguished Smellie, of London ; and after his return home he was considered throughout the province the best authority in this branch of medicine. Ephraim Eliot writes : Dr. James Lloyd was ranked high in the profession. He took the lead in regard to the practice of surgery ; was the first who introduced the male practice of the ob stetric art as a general appendage to the office of a physician ; was very successful in El, kllCmimmsllSrJfl vrcutju* 6> I MEDICAL HISTORY. 273 it, and consequently greatly esteemed among the ladies. He entertained a great deal of company, kept a genteel equipage, and a suite of servants ; his horses were esteemed equal to any in the town. He was a gentleman of the old stamp, and de servedly respected and valued. He observed to a dear and valued friend of mine [Eliot's], in regard to his practice in a lying-in chamber: " I never in my life refused to attend a call, even to the poorest class of society, in those cases which often re quire immediate assistance. If there was only a bed of straw, I saw that it was beaten up, and rendered as easy and comfortable as it was possible, and with my own arms invariably laid the delivered woman upon it ; and I assure you, sir, I have been amply paid by the esteem and affection of my patients." Harvard conferred upon Dr. Lloyd the honorary degree of M.D. in 1790. He was one of the founders of the Massachusetts Medical So ciety. An extended notice of the life of Dr. Lloyd will be found in Thach- er's Medical Biography, written by his son, Hon. James Lloyd, LL.D., etc., who graduated at Harvard College in 1787. From Sabine's " Loyalists " we extract the following: Lloyd, James, of Boston, born on Long Island 1728, educated in Connecticut, studied medicine in Boston, attended London Hospitals two years, returned to Bos ton in 1752, obtained an extensive practice. A moderate Loyalist, he remained in that town while it was occupied by the British troops, zealously devoted to his pro fession. In the French War, Sir William Howe (then a colonel) was dangerously ill at Boston, and ever after attributed (gratefully and publicly) his recovery to the skill and unceasing attentions of Dr. Lloyd, and when in 1775 he came on the hope less mission of subduing a wronged and roused people, he immediately renewed the acquaintance formed under circumstances so interesting to himself and, as events proved, to the Anglo-Saxon race. He owned an estate on Long Island, of which the royal army took possession, and three thousand acres of it were stripped of a val uable growth of wood. In 1789 he went to England to obtain compensation. On being told an allowance would be granted on declaring himself a British subject he at once declined. He returned to Boston without success. He was highly accomplished in all branches of his profession, and in surgery and midwifery was without a superior, probably, in New England. He kept a genteel equipage and entertained company with great liberality. He was an Episcopalian and worshiped at Trinity Church. He died in 1810, aged eighty-two. The Lloyds were ancient and extensive land owners ; the manor of Queens Village, L. I., having been in possession of the family as early as 1679. Lord, Dr., is recorded to have, with Dr. Church, inoculated fifty per sons in 1764. He was probably only here during the time inoculation was being so extensively practised. Linn, John, was one of the founders of the Massachusetts Medical Society. He came from Pennsylvania, was a surgeon during the Revo-, 274 SUFFOLK COUNTY. lution, afterwards settling in Boston, he returned to his native place, where he is supposed to have died about 1793, aged about forty-three. Marion, Joseph, contemporary with Dr. Douglass, and Dr. Dalhonde, made a sworn deposition of their personal experience of the dangerous character of inoculation. Marshall, Samuel, was one of those who in 1764, although sent to, did not attend the meeting of the selectmen, when an agreement was en tered into by the physicians not to inoculate after the 20th of April. He was probably only a transient inhabitant of the town, but may have been the Samuel, son of Francis and Abigail Marshal, who was born in Boston, 12 May, 1747. Mather, Mr. There were two Mr. Mathers, one who agreed with the selectmen at their meeting with the " Gentlemen Physicians " in 1764, not to inoculate after the 20th of April, and one who, although notified, failed to attend and enter into the agreement. Mather, Thomas. Dr. Thomas, the son of Rev. Dr. Samuel and Hannah (Hutchinson) Mather, was born August, 1738. He was a surgeon in a Provincial regiment. He died unmarried in Nova Scotia in 1762. Nazra, Mathew. Of him we only know that his widow, Mary, died 12 September, 1759, in her eighty-eighth year. Noyes, Oliver, the son of John and Sarah (Oliver) Noyes, was born in 1675, and baptized 22 October, 1676. He married first Ann, daughter of the Hon. Andrew Belcher, and second Katherine, widow of the sec ond David Jeffries. He graduated at Harvard College in 1695, was representative for many years, and very prominent in town affairs, and highly esteemed as a physician. Sewall speaks of Dr. Noyes in 1707. In 1710, with others, he proposed to build a wharf, where Long Wharf is now sit uated. In 1716 he was one of a committee on the erection of a market house. Hutchinson writes of him that he was of a very humane, obliging disposition, and very strongly attached to the popular party. 14 March, 1720-21 Sewall writes: "Dr. Oliver Noyes is seized with an apoplexy at 10 at night. " March 16, " Mr. Foxcraft preaches [Thurs day lecture], prays for Dr. Noyes who died at 4 p. m." March 20, "Dr. Noyes is buried in his New Tomb in the South Burying-place. " MEDICAL HISTORY; 275 He joined the Artillery Company in 1699, was an officer in the Bos ton militia,' being an ensign in 1708. He was a member of the Old South Church. He had a son, Belcher, who sold real estate, formerly his father's, in 1743. Pecker, James, was born in Haverhill, the son of Dr. James Pecker, of that town. He graduated at Harvard College 1743 with the degree of A.M., and settled in Boston. He was a founder and first vice-presi dent of the Massachusetts Medical Society. Towards the close of his life he had a stone in the bladder, which was successfully removed by Dr. Rand. He was a loyalist, and his arrest was ordered by the Coun cil of Massachusetts April, 1776. He died in 1794. Pecker, James. Whitman, in his "History of the Anc. and Hon. Artillery Company": " Capt. James Pecker, Boston, physician; in his will styled wharfinger. Founder of the New Brick Church. He died in Boston, 30 April, 1734, after a lingering illness, very much lament ed. Inventory, real and personal, ^2,873 10 3. Grave-stone in the chapel ground. Member of the Old South Church." He joined in 1718. Perkins, John, was born in Ipswich, 28 August, 1676, H. C. 1695. He first practiced in Ipswich, but soon removed to Boston. He mar ried 11 December, 1697, Mrs. Mary McFarland; she died in Boston. He married secondly, Mary, daughter of Anthony Checkley, of Boston, Perkins, John, son of the preceding, was born 9 March, 1698, and was an eminent physician of the town ; he studied two years in Lon don, and practiced . forty years in Boston. In 1755 he published a tract on earthquakes, also an essay on small-pox in the London Maga zine. He left a manuscript of 368 pages, containing an account of his life and experience, which is preserved in the library of of the Ameri can Antiquarian Society. On account of old age he had retreated from practice in 1780, Eliot says. In 1736 he was one of the subscribers to Prince's "Chronological History of New England." His wife Clarissa died in 1749, and he wrote a poem on her death. He died in Lvnnfield in 1780. Perkins, Nathaniel, son of John and Mary (Checkley) Perkins, was born in Boston about 1714-15. In 1723 attended the Boston Latin School. Sabine writes : 276 SUFFOLK COUNTY. Nathaniel Perkins of Boston, Physician, H. U. 1734. When in 1764 hospitals were established in Boston Harbor for treatment of the small pox by inoculation, he was one of attendant physicians. Dr. Perkins was an addresser of Gage 1774, went to Halifax with British Army 1776, was proscribed and banished 1778, died 1799. Eliot says he was supposed to attend a larger number of patients as a physician than any other practitioner in the town. In 1760 his home was on Wing Lane. Perkins, William Lee, the son of Dr. John and Abigail Perkins, was born in Boston, 10 February, 1736; baptized at the New Brick Church, 13 February, 1736-7. He was a descendant of Rev. William Perkins, of Topsford. Eliot says that in 1780 " was respectable as to business and reputation." His name appears on the list of those who in 1778 were proscribed as enemies of the new State, but if Eliot is correct, he was not of those who left the town. Toner says he practiced in Boston about 1764 and was in good repute. Sabine, in his account of the Loyalists, says : William Lee Perkins of Boston, physician, An Addresser of Gage 1775 Went to Halifax 1776. Washington on taking possession of Boston ordered his stock of med icines to be seized for the use of the Continental Army. In 1778 Dr. Perkins was proscribed and banished. He died at Hampton Court, Eng. He was an author of " several medical publications of much merit.'' Peters, Alexander Abercrombie, in 1780 resided on Marlboro' street. and is found only in the directory. Phillips, Nathaniel, son of Nathaniel and Mary (Waterman) Phillips, was baptized at King's Chapel 14 October, 1757. Toner says he " resid ed in Boston at an early date and kept an apothecary shop in Orange (now Washington) street, at the corner of Bennett. " His name is in the Directory for 1789 as an apothecary, and it may be an error to include him among the practitioners. Pope, John. In the Massachusetts Centinel, 21 September, 1785, we find this notice of a pedagogical charlatan : John Pope, who, for eighteen years past has been noted for curing Cancers, schropulus Tumour, fetid and phagedemic Ulcers, etc., has removed into a house, the north corner of Orange and Hollis Street, South End, Boston, where he pro poses to open a school for Reading, Writing, Arithmetick. Pynchon, Charles, born 31 January, 1719, was of Springfield, and only temporarily here during the small-pox epidemic of 1764. He was one of the founders of the Massachusetts Medical Society. He died in Springfield, 19 August, 1783. MEDICAL HISTORY, 277 Rand, Isaac, jr., the son of Dr. Isaac Rand, of Charlestown, was born in Charlestown, 24 April, 1743 ; married Anna, daughter of John Adams. He settled in Boston; he died 11 December, 1822. He re ceived his A. B. from Harvard in 1761, an honorary M.D. in 1799; was an overseer of the college. He was one of the founders of the Massachu setts Medical Society, and its president from 1798 to 1804, and gave the first annual address before that society, choosing as his subject "On Phthisis Pulmonia and the use of the Warm Bath." His father was vice-president of the society from 1787 to 1790, and also one of the incorporators. Dr. Isaac Rand was one of the most learned men of his day. Being much of a mathematician, he was seeking for something like demonstration on which to lean in his profession. For want of it he was always dissatisfied, and probably read more books than any physician among us. He was apt to pin his faith upon the last book. He was, however, a successful practitioner, had a discriminating judgment, was a good surgeon, and remarkably neat in his operations." — Eliot. Rand, Samuel. Whitman gives, among those who joined the Artil lery Company in 1718, " Capt. Samuel Rand, Boston, physician," and adds, " Lieutenant of the Art. Co. 1731; officer of the militia. I suppose him an ancestor of the late Dr. Isaac Rand, of Boston. His will was dated January 9th, proved Feb. 21st, 1748. His gravestone ' was recently standing in the Granary ground. A member of the Old South Church." Rand, William. Whitman, in his history of the Anc. and Hon. Art. Co. , gives this name as first appearing on the roll in 1732, simply adding, "Boston, physician, member of the Old South." He was probably son of Thomas, and born 4 May, 1689, died 29 May, 1759. He kept . an apothecary store at the sign of the Unicorn, near the Town Dock, in 1733. Was admitted to Old South Church 24 February, 1722; his grave stone is in King's Chapel yard. His daughter Sarah married Benjamin Lord 13, August, 1735. He is probably the graduate of Har vard of the class of 1721. Rand, William, another William, son of Samuel, and grandson of Thomas, was born 27 August, 1716, dying in 1758; was also an apothe cary. He was an army surgeon at Louisburg in 1745. His estate was administered by his nephew, Henderson Inches. He was perhaps the graduate of 1742 at Harvard College. Read, William. I have found the name of Dr. William Read, and nothing more. 278 SUFFOLK COUNTY. Roberts, Doctor. Dr. Roberts in 1764 inoculated forty-three persons, supplied the necessary medicines, and attended them gratis, (see page 180). Rogers, Theophilus, son of Capt. Ezekiel and Lois (Bligh) Rogers, was born at Lynn, 4 October, 1699; removed to Boston in 1720, but soon emigrated to Norwich, Conn. , and married the daughter of Wm. Hyde, of that town, where he died 29 September, 1753; his wife died soon after, on the 24th November of the same year, aged fifty-three years and seven months. Rogerson, Robert. Of him or his name I have only learned that Robert and Lucy Rogerson had a son Robert born 30 January, 1768, and that Robert Rogerson and Lucy Dearing were married 24 March, 1785. A Robert Rogerson received an honorary A.M. from Harvard College in 1765, and died in 1799. Spooner, William, the son of John, jr., and Hannah (Jones) Spooner, born in Boston, 24 March, 1760; H.C., 1778; studied medicine with Dr. Samuel Danforth, of Boston, and was surgeon in ships of war in 1781-2. In 1782 he went to Edinburgh to complete his professional studies, where he received the degree of M.D. in 1785; he returned to Boston in 1786, and immediately commenced the practice of medicine. He was a member of the Royal Medical Society of Edinburgh ; of the Massachusetts Medical Society; of the American Academy; of the Massachusetts Historical Society in 1796. He was several times repre sentative and senator in our State Legislature ; a trustee of Humane Society of Massachusetts, and a member of Board of Overseers of Har vard University. He married, 21 October, 1788, Mary, daughter of John and Mary (Winthrop) Phillips. She was born 23 September, 1763. He died in Boston, 15 February, 1836. Sprague, John, was born in 1713; graduated at H. C. , 1737; was a pupil of Dr. William Douglass at the time of his death, and later of Dr. Dalhonde, whose daughter he married. He began practice and con tinued to reside in Boston, until the death of his wife. He again mar ried Mrs. Esther Harrison, widow of Charles Harrison, esq., a lady of fortune, and removed to Dedham, where he remained until his death, in 1797. He acquired a considerable fortune, which, it is said, was due not so much to his successful practice as to the rise in soldiers' claims, which he largely purchased. He considered himself one of the incorporators of the Massachusetts Medical Society, an honor which MEDICAL HISTORY. 279 was claimed by Dr. John Sprague, of Newburyport, as being the elder of the name in the State. The latter having been elected to fellow ship, wrote that he considered himself an original member, where upon Dr. Sprague, of Dedham, resigned, but was immediately elected a fellew. In 1799 he was a delegate to the Massachusetts Convention for framing a constitution. He resided in Federal street in 1780, and was there in 1796. Eliot says he had retired (1780) on an ample fortune, his practice had been large, and that he had a confidence placed in him which followed him in his retreat ; he was sent for and consulted by physicians in Boston for many years. He received the honorary degree of M.D. from his alma mater in 1792. Sprague, John, jr., perhaps the graduate of H.C. in 1765, and Fellow of the American Academy, and who died, 1800. St. Medard, Peter, called himself a surgeon, and in 1796 resided in Garden court, North square ; he became a licentiate of the Massachusetts Medical Society in 1811, and died in 1822. Stewart, George, married 2 June, 1715, for his second wife, Ruth, daughter of John Cutler, who was born 22 February, 1691-2, at Hing ham. Dr. Stewart was treasurer of the Episcopal Charitable Society in 1731, and an attendant at King's Chapel, and of him I know nothing more. Swetzer, Henry Sebastian. The Boston Weekly News-Letter of 14 January, 1717, has the following, which necessitates including Swetzer among the practitioners: Boston, On the Lords day Morning the sixth Currant, a strange thing fell out here, One Thomas Smith a Sawyer about four Month ago, bought a Lusty Tall new negro, fit for his Employ, who after complain'd of something within him that made a Noise Chip, Chip, Chip ; his Master sent for a Doctor, one Sebastian Henry Swetzer, a German, who told him he had Worms, whereupon he gave him some Physick on Wednesday : from Thursday till the Lords Day he gave him some Powders, which on the Lords Day had that effect as to cause him to vomit up a long Worm, that measur'd a hundred and twenty eight Foot, which the negro took to be his Guts; it was almost as big as ones little Finger, its Head was like a Snakes, and would receive a Mans little Finger into its Mouth, it was of a whitish Color all full of Joynts, its tail was long and hard, and with a Microscope it seem'd to be hairy; the Negro before voiding the Worm had an extraordinary Stomack. 280 SUFFOLK COUNTY. Tamer, Mr. Of him it is only known that he was one of those who entered into the agreement with the selectmen in regard to inoculation in 1764. Thomas, John, a surgeon, born in Plymouth, son of Dr. William Thomas. Thomas, Joshua, was born 1766. Married 1 October, 1789, Anna Thomson. H. C. 1772; Fellow American Academy; member Massa chusetts Historical Society. He died in 1821. Whitman gives: "Joshua Thomas, Boston, physician," as joining the Art. Co. in 1792. Thomas, William, born 1718; died 1804; had son John, mentioned above. Townsend, David, the son of Shippie and Ann (Kettell) Townsend, was born in Boston, 7 January, 1753. He graduated at Harvard College in 1770, and received from that institution the honorary degree of M.D. in 1813. Dr. Townsend studied medicine with Dr. Joseph Warren. He was at Cambridge at the time of the battle of Bunker Hill and aided in car ing for the wounded after that engagement. He was commissioned 12 July, 1775, as surgeon in Col. Jonathan Brewer's Regiment. He was commissioned 1 January, 1776, surgeon in the Sixth Regiment (Col. Asa Whitcomb). In March, 1777, he was appointed senior surgeon in the General Hospital of the Northern Department with the army for the invasion of Canada. On the reorganization of the army, he receiv ed, 1 January, 1781, a commission as surgeon-general of the hospital department, to date from 10 October, 1780, which position he held by subsequent reappointments until the close of the war, after which he successfully practiced his profession until his death, 13 April, 1829. He was secretary, vice-president, and president of the Society of the Cincinnati. Tufts, Cotton, was born in Medford in 1731. Graduated at Harvard College 1749, studied medicine with his brother, Dr. Simon Tufts, and settled in Weymouth, where he died in 1815, aged eighty-four. Dr. Ebenezer Alden in his ' ' Early History of the Medical Profession in the County of Norfolk," says: He was esteemed as a well educated and judicious physician. In early and middle life he had an extended medical practice. * * * He was much in public life ; a MEDICAL HISTORY. 281 finished and well-bred gentleman of the old school, courteous, dignified, never assum ing to himself titles or places which did not belong to him, nor shrinking from the performance of any duty to which he was properly called. * * * Towards the close of life his time was so much engrossed with public trusts, that he was riot so much occupied in general practice. He was an incorporator of the Massachusetts Medical Society, and its president from 1787 to 1793. He received the honorary degree of M.D. from Harvard in 1785. Warren, John, was born in Roxbury, 27 July, 1753. He was gradu ated at Harvard in 1771, and received the honorary degree of M.D. in 1786. He was one of the founders of the Massachusetts Medical Society, its corresponding secretary from 1787 to 1800, vice-president from 1800 to 1804, president from 1804 to his death, which occurred 4 April, 1815, aged sixty-two. He was Hersey professor of anatomy and surgery, a fellow of the American Academy. Warren, Joseph, the eldest son of Joseph and Mary (Stevens) War ren, born in Roxbury, 11 June, 1741. Graduated at Harvard College in 1759, kept school in Roxbury in 1760, studied medicine -in Boston with Dr. James Lloyd, and settled there as a physician. He married, 6 September, 1764, Elizabeth, daughter of 'Dr. Richard Horton, of Boston. He pronounced the town oration of 5 March, 1771, 1775 ; was active in battle of Lexington, and in a combat which terminated in the destruc tion of a British ship of war on Chelsea Beach ; he was president of the Provincial Congress, received commission of major-general from that body, was killed at the battle of Bunker Hill, aged thirty-four years and six days. At the time of his decease he was Grand Master of all the lodges of Free Masons in the United States. Of his practice, Eliot writes that it ' ' was large and increasing when he lost his life and immortalized his name. " Welsh, Thomas, was born in 1751. Graduated at Harvard College in 1772, receiving the honorary degree of M.D. in 1811; was a fellow of the American Academy, and a founder of the Massachusetts Medical Society, its vice-president 1815 to 1823, its treasurer 1783 to 1798, corre sponding secretary 1805 to 1815; was an active surgeon during the Revolutionary War, at one time attached to the Marine Hospital at Charlestown, later quarantine physician of the port, and for many years a consulting physician of the Massachusetts General Hospital. He died 36 282 SUFFOLK COUNTY. February, 1831, the oldest physician in the city and the last survivor of the founders of the Massachusetts Medical Society. Whipple Joseph, one of the founders of the Massachusetts Medical Society, and its corresponding secretary from 1800 to 1805. In 1780 he resided on Orange street, and in 1796 on South Bennet street. Eliot says that " in 1780 was rising into notice, Dr. Joseph Gardiner having taken him under his protection. " He lived on Bennet street in 1791. He died 1804, aged forty-eight. Toner says he acquired a large professional business. Whitworth, Miles. This name occurs very frequently in the records of the town. He was a surgeon under Pepperrell at Louisburg, in the campaigns against Ticonderoga and Quebec, and in Nova Scotia under Winslow. In 1774 he was an addresser of Hutchinson. He remained in Boston during the siege and was attending physician and surgeon to the Whig prisoners who were wounded at the battle of Bunker Hill. In 1776 he was arrested and confined by order of the Council of Massa chusetts. He died in Boston in 1779 of a fever contracted while in prison. Of him Eliot says : He had once a respectable share of practice. He was unfortunately the attending surgeon at the jail in'1775. The wounded prisoners from Bunker Hill were thrown into the common prison, and provided with little better than jail provisions. They suffered, and some died ; in particular, Lieutenant-Colonel Parker, a very respectable man. Much blame was laid upon the doctor ; whether justly or not, is dubious. He remained in Boston, was neglected, and died in 1778. His wife was Deborah Thayer; they had a son, Miles, who graduated at Harvard University in 1772; entered the naval service as a surgeon, and died unmarried in England in 1778. In the minutes of the Boston selectmen for 1764, we find this entry: The selectmen appointed Dr. Myles Whetworth to take charge of the Province Hospital New Boston as Physician to the Sick that may be sent there from time to time ; and also agreed with him to provide and furnish the Patients with what Pro visions and Medicines may be necessary and that he does not suffer the Sick to want anything for their Comfort while under his care. Ezekiel Price, in his Diary under date of Saturday, 20 April, 1775, records that: Dr. Whitworth and son were yesterday on their examination and afterwards or dered to give bail. It is said the justices have evidence of the Dr. not having acted the part of an honest surgeon in his practice on the late unfortunate Col. Parker, that MEDICAL HISTORY 283 his limb Was unnecessarily taken off, a cruel neglect of attendance on him, by which means he lost his life. In the town records we find the name given as Whitworth, occasion ally as Whetworth, and in some accounts more erroneously as Whit- marsh. Whitwcll, Samuel, was born in Boston, 12 January, 1754; studied at the Boston Latin School, and in 1774 graduated from Princeton Col lege. He studied medicine under Dr. James Lloyd, and on 1 January, 1777, was commissioned surgeon of Col. John Greaton's Regiment (Third Continental), and served throughout the war. He was one of the thirty- six officers who signed the original " Institution " of the Cincinnati So ciety, adopted by the representatives of the American army at the can tonment on Hudson River, 13 May, 1783. On 4 July, 1789, he deliv ered an oration before the Society of the Cincinnati, which was printed at the request of the society. He died at Newton, 21 November, 1791. Williams, Nathaniel. Of him Dr. Green writes: He was an active and useful man in his day and generation. In the affairs of life he performed the triple role of preacher, doctor and schoolmaster. The union of these three characters was no infrequent occurrence in former times. In each he appears to have played well his part ; and his career entitles him to more than a passing notice. He was the son of Nathaniel and Mary (Oliver) Williams, and was born in Boston, August 23, 1675. He graduated at Harvard College in the class of 1693, and in the summer of 1698 was ordained, — according to the sermon preached at his funeral by Thomas Prince, — "an Evangelist in the College-Hall, for one of the West India Islands. But the climate not agreeing with his Constitution, He soon returned to this his native City." At one time he was engaged in giving private instruction to boys, and he had the reputation of being an excellent classical scholar. In the year 1703 he was appointed usher at the Free Grammar School, now known as the Boston Latin School ; and subsequently, in 1708, he was chosen to the mastership, which position he held until 1734. He studied " Chymistry and Physick under his Uncle the Learned Dr. James Oliver of Cambridge ; one of the most esteemed Physicians in his Day;'' and even while teaching continued to practice his profession of medicine. He died January 10, 1737-38; and "The Boston Weekly News-Letter " of January 12 calls him " the Reverend and Learned Mr. Nathaniel Williams," and speaks of him " as a very skilful and successful Physician;" and says that ''as his Life has been very extensively serviceable, so his Death is es teemed as a public Loss." A posthumous pamphlet by him was printed many years after his death. The title was " The METHOD of Practice in the Small-Pox, with Observations on the Way of Inoculation.. Taken from a Manuscript of the late Dr. Nathaniel Williams of Boston in N. E. Published for the Common Advantage, more especially of the Country Towns, who may be visited with that Distemper." — 284 SUFFOLK COUNTY. (Boston, 1752.) At the end it contains four pages with the heading " Small Pox by Inoculation, in 1730," Dr. Williams had a large practice. Winship, Amos, who lived on Hanover street, near the Mill Bridge, in 1780 and in 1796, was probably born in Lexington, 19 December, 1750, the son of Jonathan and Elizabeth Windship. He graduated at Harvard, receiving his A.B. in 1771, his A.M. and M.B. in 1790, and his M. D. in 1811, the year of his death. He was a corresponding member of the London Medical Society. In the first volume of the Boston News- Letter he is spoken of as of Lexington, Mass. A child of Dr. Amos Win- ship, "Letsance," was presented at Hollis street Church for baptism in 1791 by his grandfather, Mr. E. May, " the father being absent. " From this circumstance we may doubt if Dr. Winship of Boston and Dr. Winship of Lexington are one and the same. Yougust, Dr. , was here in 1764, and inoculated seventeen patients. Young, Lemuel. Toner says that Elijah Hewins, who was born in 1747, and after serving in the Continental army as a surgeon, " studied with Dr. Young of Boston." Young, Thomas. He was one of the Boston Tea Party, and also was one of the Committee of Correspondence with Joseph Warren and Ben jamin Church. It was proposed to substitute the celebration of the Boston Massacre for that of the Gunpowder Plot. Accordingly when the evening arrived in 1771 an address was delivered by Dr. Thomas Young to a collection of people at the Manufactory House. The following physicians are given in the first Boston Directory, 1789. In the general list of names are the following, and except as given differently, the word "physician" only, follows the name and precedes the residence: * Appleton Nathaniel W. *Pecker James. Bulfinch Thomas. Rogerson Robert. *Danforth Samuel. *Rand Isaac. *Dexter Aaron. *Spooner William. *Eustis William.' *Townsend David. *Hayward Lemuel. *Whipple Joseph, physician and sur- *Jarvis Charles. geon. *Kast Thomas. *Warren John. Leavitt Josiah. Windship Amos, physician and apothe- Pope John, School-master and surgeon, cary. particularly a curer of cancers and *Welsh Thomas. malignant ulcers, &c. MEDICAL HISTORY 285 In a separate list of the physicians and surgeons are the following, in addition to those given above : *Lloyd James. *Cheever Abijah. *Homans John, 47. *Fleet John. *Sprague John, junior. Peters Alexander Abercrombie. With the exception that the names of Leavitt and Pope are omitted. In a list of the omissions given at the end of the volume, the names and residences of Homans, Lloyd and Peters are given. Physicians in the Boston Directory for 1796 (the second one): Bertody Francis. *Jarvis Charles. Bulfinch Thomas. *Jeffries John. *Cheever Abijah. *Kast Thomns. *Dexter Aaron. *Lloyd James. *Danforth Samuel. *Rand Isaac. Enslin John Frederick. Read William. *Eustis William. *Spooner William. Fay Nahum. *Sprague John. *Fleet John, jr. St. Medard Peter, surgeon, *Hayward Lemnel. *Welsh Thomas. *Homans John. *Warren John. *Jackson William, apothecary and phy- *Whipple Joseph. sician. Windship Amos. I have prefixed an * to the names of those who were Fellows of the Massachusetts Medical Society, In closing this sketch I desire to acknowledge the kindness of many of my professional friends in freely rendering me assistance ; to Doctors Samuel. A. Green and Francis H. Brown I arri especially indebted. THE STREET RAILWAY SYSTEM OF BOSTON. By Prentiss Cummings. The street railway for the transportation of passengers was an American invention; and the first successful horse railroad for that purpose1 was laid in New York city in 1852. Its engineer, was a Frenchman named Loubat. The principal advantage of the system claimed at the outset was economy of horse-power from the use of a permanent rail. The saving of power by such use is, in fact, much greater than a casual thinker would suppose, 2 and accounts in part for the smaUness of the fares necessary to support a street railway ; but experience has shown many other advantages of perhaps still greater importance, of which its earliest advocates did not dream. Probably there is no locality where a greater change has been wrought by street railways than in Boston and its suburbs. It will be borne in mind that at the time of the advent of the street cars in 1856, Charles town, Roxbury, West Roxbury, Dorchester and Brighton were inde pendent municipalities. Cambridge was a small city of 20,000 inhabitants; and Cambridgeport was to a very considerable extent a mere marsh with a few insecure roads across it. All the bridges leading into Boston were then toll bridges, and the Milldam and Chelsea roads, 1 Tramways operated by horse power were used in coal mines in England many years before that date ; and to some extent horses were there used on railways for passengers, before the steam engine was perfected, but not on the streets. A car drawn by horses was also run at one time over vacant land between Harvard Square, Cambridge, and Union Square, Somerville, connecting with the Pitchburg Railroad. 2 Some engineers have estimated that one horse can haul as large a load on a good rail as thirty- three horses could haul on an average country road. Of course this proportion would vary greatly according to conditions of grade and street construction. l-mi.buECWJhamtbtlrjtf 5 TREE T RAILWAY SYS TEM. 28 7 and perhaps others, were turnpikes upon which tolls were charged. ' The only public means of communication between any of these places and Boston was by lines of coaches. Cambridge, then, as now, was the largest of the suburbs, and the best service at any time between Cam bridge and Boston was a coach every half-hour during the business por tion of the day; and this service was irregular and uncertain, the coaches often foundering in the muddy streets ; and the patronage was precarious. 3 The service between Boston and Roxbury, Charlestown and other suburban towns, was little, if any, better. It was in the main impossible for men doing business in Boston to live outside the city ; and no great amount of business could be done either in the city or suburbs. At this day it is difficult to realize that a state of things so suggestive of the dark ages existed here within the recollection of comparatively young men now living ; and it is not too much to say that the street railway has wrought a complete revolution in the habits, condition, and even civilization 3 of the community. In short, it is the street railway that has made Boston possible. Construction of Main Lines. The opening of a horse-ear line in New York in 1852 was suggestive of what might be' done in this vicinity; and a charter was obtained that same year from the General Court for a horse railroad connecting Dor chester and Roxbury, but it was not constructed until several years later. * In 1853 the Metropolitan Railroad Company and the Cambridge Railroad Company were incorporated to connect Boston with Roxbury and Cambridge respectively. 5 The Metropolitan charter then granted 1 The Cambridge bridges were made free January 30, 1858, and the Charlestown bridges in April of the same year. Tolls were collected on the Milldam until December 8, 1868. In order to free the bridges to Cambridge, the Cambridge Railroad Company paid $32,000, and this expenditure is rep resented by that amount of the capital stock of the West-End Company to-day. 2 In some cases coaches were run under a guaranty of a certain revenue. 3 Philosophic writers agree that railways and all else that facilitates intercourse between man and man are efficient agents in civilization. Macaulay, in' speaking of the evils arising from bad roads in England, says that inventions that abridge distance are second only to the printing press in improving the condition of the race. Missionaries have noticed the vast influence for good of railways in heathen countries. ' The incorporators were William D. Swan, Charles C Holbrook, and William Hendry. BThe incorporators of the Metropolitan road were J. P. Ober, Moses Field Fowler, and Henry N. Hopper ; and of the Cambridge road, were Gardner (J. Hubbard, Charles C. Little, and Isaac Livermore. 288 SUFFOLK COUNfY. turned out to be defective, and no action was taken under it until after it had been amended the following year ; but the Cambridge company was at once formed, and obtained its first location in Boston on Cam bridge, Chambers and Green streets, December 4, 1854. This road encountered great opposition, particularly in Cambridge, and its tracks in Cambridgeport, where it was obliged to build the streets anew in order to get a firm foundation, were repeatedly torn up at night. 1 Capitalists felt great distrust of the enterprise, claiming, not unnaturally, that there was hardly business enough to support the coach line; and the contractor who built the original tracks between Harvard Square, Cambridge, and Bowdoin Square, Boston, and who took his pay in stock at par at the rate of $30,000 per mile, became insolvent owing to the decline of the stock to less than $50 per share. The original stock holders were unwilling to advance the necessary funds for equipping the road when built; and a new corporation, the Union Railway Com pany, was chartered for that purpose, with authority to lease the tracks of the Cambridge Railroad. 2 The first street car in Boston was run March 26, 1856, from Cam bridgeport to Charles street, and shortly afterwards the line was run ning regularly between Harvard and Bowdoin Squares. The Metropolitan began the running of cars between the old Boylston Market at the corner of Washington and Boylston streets, and Eliot Square in Roxbury, the following September. The Cambridge Rail road reported over a million paying passengers for its first year's work, and the Metropolitan road over eight millions ; and it at once became apparent to everybody that there was a demand for local transportation facilities far in excess of what had generally been supposed. The success of the Metropolitan and Cambridge roads speedily led to the construction of other street railways. The Middlesex Railroad Company was chartered in 1854, 3 and the first car ran into the city from Charlestown in 1857. The Broadway Railroad Company, from South Boston, was chartered in 1854, and commenced running in 1858. 4 Ten 1 When the writer graduated from Harvard in 1864, there were no paved sidewalks in Cambridge and no paved streets except the pavement between the rails, and in the spring of the year the whole community habitually walked on the car tracks. 2 The incorporators of the Union Railway were John C Stiles, Moses M. Rice, and T. Russell Jencks. The Cambridge road was operated under this lease until 1882. 8 The incorporators of the Middlesex road were Asa Fisk, Richard Downing, and Asa Kimball. 4 The incorporators of the Broadway Railroad Company were Charles J. F. Allen, Seth Adam's, and John P. Monks, 5 TREE T RAILWAY S YS TEM. 289 years later its name was changed' to the South Boston Railroad Com pany. The Suffolk Railroad Company was chartered in 1857 to construct lines in East Boston, and in the city to run from the East Boston Ferry through Hanover street to Scollay Square, and thence to extend to the Metropolitan tracks on Boylston street. 1 The Boston and Chelsea Railroad Company was chartered in 1854, to construct lines in Chelsea, and connect with the Middlesex road in Charlestown. 2- This road first assumed importance on being leased by the Lynn and Boston Railroad Company, which obtained a charter in 1859. 3 The Lynn and Boston is the only street railway in Boston to day (June 1, 1893) which is not a part of the West End system. It reaches its terminus in the city at Scollay Square by way of Charlestown, and extends in a northerly direction to Marblehead and Salem, and makes connections with other street railways running as far as New buryport. The above are the principal lines operated in Boston, but most of them had several branches which are not of sufficient importance to require detailed' description, but with which they afterwards consoli dated. 4 Consolidation of Branch and Main Lines. \ The Chelsea and East Boston road laid tracks from Chelsea connect ing with the Suffolk Railroad in East Boston ; and this road was con solidated with the Metropolitan in 1865, the Suffolk having been ab sorbed by the same company the previous year. The Metropolitan had made a similar union with the branches of the Dorchester roads in 1863, and purchased the franchises of the Brookline and Back Bay road in 1868. The latter company had tracks leading from Brookline vil lage to Roxbury crossing ; and by means of its charter, the Metropolitan road acquired the right to obtain locations in Brookline. 1 The incorporators o£ the Suffolk road were George H. Plummer, Ebenezer Atkins, Edward F. Porter, David L. Webster, Asa Fisk, and John G. Webster. 2 The incorporators' were Isaac Stebbins, John Low, Bradbury C. Bartlett, John Rice, and Thomas Russell. 3 The incorporators of the Lynn and Boston road were Charles Porter, William W. Wheildon, E. B. Phillips, Henry A. Breed, John Story, Benjamin Shurtleff, and Moses F. Rogers. 4 In fact there was at this time a most exaggerated idea of the value of street railway franchises, which resulted in something like an epidemic on the subject. Many charters were obtained which were never used, and many small roads were built long in advance of any sufficient demand to justify their cost. All the branch roads above named laid tracks which have been maintained to the present time. 37 290 SUFFOLK COUNTY. The Metropolitan road, largely through the Suffolk charter, which gave rights in the centre of the city which at the outset would have been granted to no company, long before the West End consolidation had become the largest street railway in the world. In like manner the Middlesex road absorbed branch lines in Somer ville, Medford, Maiden, and Everett. J The Cambridge Railroad Com pany acquired in the same way tracks in Arlington, Watertown, New ton and Brighton. a Some of these branch roads were doubtless built in good faith, and some for the express purpose of being sold at a profit. There have been several periods in Boston when it has been a regular industry to build roads to use the tracks of the old companies, and intentionally to become such a nuisance as to lead to their being purchased at a large price. Period of Extensions and Encroachments. The four great roads I have named — the Metropolitan, Middlesex, Cambridge, and South Boston — grew rapidly and made many exten sions within their proper territories, some because they were needed, and some to prevent the formation of rival companies. As the tracks of the Metropolitan Company in the centre of the city were the most profitable of any to operate, the other roads sought every pretext of public convenience to secure the right to cross the city. The Middlesex road,- whose earliest terminus was near Haymarket Square, soon obtained permission to run its cars to Scollay Square; and the South Boston road, whose early terminus was Summer street, speedily obtained the right to run to the same point ; and after a stubborn fight, the Cambridge company obtained the same privilege for its East Cam bridge cars, which passed the Northern depots. Thus all the roads met at the old Scollay Building, which was employed as a transfer sta tion; and the Legislature made a limited provision for commutation checks to be there used. When that building was removed, the Mid dlesex and South Boston roads obtained the right to run to the South ern and Northern depots respectively. Charlestown, meanwhile, had 1 The several companies originally owning these lines wei'e the Somerville Horse Railroad Com pany, the Medford and Charlestown Railroad Company, the Maiden and Melrose Railroad Com pany, and the Cliftondale Railroad Company. 2 The companies here referred to were the Watertown and Waltham Railroad Company, the West C2mbridge Horse Railroad Company, and the Newton Railroad Company, the charter of the latter covering Brighton also. STREE T RAILWAY S YS TEM. 291 become a part of Boston ; so both of those roads had direct influence in ¦ the Board of Aldermen. Cambridge being an independent city, had no such influence ; and it is fair to say that its Bowdoin Square cars were ': necessarily kept at that point by the narrowness of Court street. That ; company did, however, obtain the right to run through Charles street to Park Square. There is no doubt that the running of cars from all sources far into ( or through the city proper was in the public interest, and also no doubt J that the motive for so doing was greed ; and the methods employed to j obtain rights were simply piratical. It will give some idea of the ex- * tent to which this system was practiced to say that at the time of the general consolidation in 1887 the South Boston road was actually run ning more miles upon the tracks of the Metropolitan Company than upon its own; and one of its lines, known as the '• Blue Line," only ran a few rods on the South Boston tracks, but made a wide circuit on the Metropolitan tracks through the business portion of the city. Rival Roads. In 1872 the Highland Street Railway Company1 was chartered for the avowed purpose of competing with the Metropolitan in the business of its original line between Roxbury and the city proper; and in 1881 the Charles River Street Railway8 Company was chartered to compete with the Cambridge Railroad on its original line over West Boston Bridge. Of course, the main object of the promoters of both roads was to make money, but they were much aided both in obtaining capital and franchises by popular feeling against the two pioneer rail ways. The public had some real grievances to redress in both cases ; and the two old roads were making money, which in the public mind is itself a grievance. But the Highland Railway was a great benefit to the community in many ways. Its management introduced a better style of cars than had before been run in Boston; they exercised great care in select ing polite and competent employees, and were the first to uniform 1 The original roads were chartered under the name of " Railroads " or " Horse Railroads." In 1874 an act of the Legislature provided that new companies should be entitled " street railway companies." 2 The incorporators of the Highland Railway were Moody Merrill, Samuel Little, Henry Pf aff , Jacob Pfaff, Donald Kennedy and Charles G. Hayden ; and of the Charles River Railway were Samuel L. Montague, Charles E. Raymond, Daniel U. Chamberlain, Edmund Reardon, Walter S. Swan, H. O. Houghton, J. M. W. Hall, Henry P. Woods. 292 SUFFOLK COUNTY. them. The principal tracks of the Highland road were on Shawmut avenue, Blue Hill avenue, Columbus avenue, Dudley and Warren streets. This road is entitled to a large share of the credit of the pres ent park system of Boston, for it was almost wholly due to its influence that Franklin Park was purchased and laid out by the city ; and the whole Roxbury district was benefited and built up by its improved service. Its lines, however, were never pecuniarily profitable until long after the company had passed out of existence. The Charles River Railway was also of some benefit in improving the service in Cambridge ; but in other ways has been a permanent !' detriment to that city. Most of its tracks were located so close to ex isting lines as to be unnecessary, and therefore a needless encumbrance ¦ in the streets. Most of them have since been removed- by order of the I city authorities, and the money invested was therefore wasted, and has become a burden on the present company and on the public. [ ; The Highland and Charles River roads, in another way, were a pub- T lie detriment. Their very existence depended on the business they \ \ could secure on the tracks of other companies, and they sought to en- { Woach wherever they could. Naturally, this excited much bitter feel ing, and the management of the other railways were determined the so called piratical roads should not do a profitable business on their tracks. It is a well-known habit of the public to take the forward of two cars running near together, even if it be crowded ; and the Metro politan and Cambridge roads were at great pains so to arrange their time tables as to have a car to lead every car of other roads when on their tracks ; and the other roads would keep shifting their time tables I to prevent this. Employees had almost more partisan feeling than the managements, and there was a general practice of racing cars to get in ahead ; and the car that was left behind would then fall back and go as slowly as possible in order to get passengers from the car in the rear. All this led to blockades, accidents, and other serious injury to the service.1 1 During this warfare, and while there was the greatest bitterness of feeling, the presidents of I the several companies, under the name of the " We-Are-Seven Club," dined together monthly. They were Calvin A. Richards, president of the Metropolitan Railroad Company; Charles E. Powers, president of the Middlesex Railroad Company ; Moody Merrill, president of the Highland Street Railway Company ; Charles E. Raymond, president of the Charles River Street Railway Company ; Charles H. Hersey, president of the South Boston Railroad Company ; Amos F. Breed, president of the Lynn and Boston Railroad Company ; Prentiss Cummings, president of the Cam bridge Railroad Company. The ostensible object of the meeting was to have an opportunity for consultation for the mutual benefit of the roads and the service ; but the real motive was to fathom STREET RAIL WAY S YSTEM. 293 The successful efforts of these several roads to get rights upon each other's tracks led to a great many involved and zig-zag lines, which are still continued, the cause of which would be inexplicable to strangers unacquainted with the facts. It is impossible to change an established line without causing great dissatisfaction. People are very conserva tive in their habits of travel;1 and in many cases have acquired homes on a particular spot which is convenient to a special line of street cars ; and in other cases their place of business, or their occupation itself has been determined by that line. This is one illustration of the force street railways have been in establishing the habits and manner of life of the community ; and even a slight change in the running of a line, which, to an outsider, would seem a manifest improvement, might, with certain people, unsettle the habits of a lifetime. In 1886 an Act was passed by the Legislature authorizing the street railways running cars in or into the city of Boston to consolidate. This legislation was obtained owing to the efforts of the Highland and j Charles River Companies, which had found competition unprofitable. By virtue of this act, the Cambridge and Charles River roads at once consolidated, under the old name of the Cambridge Railroad Company; and shortly afterwards the Highland and Middlesex Companies united under the name of the Boston Consolidated Street Railway Company. The General Consolidation. In the fall of 1886, two new street railway companies were formed under the general laws by the same men, the West End and the Sub urban. The original incorporators3 started as a land company with the the purposes of the other members if possible. The dinner was always a good one, and there was a great appearance of cordiality and frankness : but in discussing business, the whole truth was not always spoken. ¦ A business man who leaves his office to lunch at the same place every day will almost invari ably take the same sidewalk, and cross the streets at the same points each time, though quite unconsciously. His partner, between the same points, may take a very different route, but it will be no less uniform. The staunchest advocates of the Highland and Charles River roads would abuse the old companies, but almost always ride in the old companies' cars to which they had ber come accustomed. '2 The idea of the Beacon street improvement originated with Henry M. Whitney, of Brookline, who purchased or bonded large tracts of land along the proposed avenue. His plans were so far matured while at his summer house in Cohasset, that he made them known to certain other gentle men in Cohasset for the summer who became associated with him. The original West End Land Syndicate were Henry M. Whitney, Asa P. Potter, Henry D. Hyde, G. T. W Braman, and Isaac T. Burr. In addition to the above Jarvis D. Braman, Ezra H. Baker, Jonas H. French, Grenville D. Braman, M. F. Dickinson, jr., Chas U. Cotting, N. W. Jordan, Elmer P. Howe, W. D. Forbes, and Dwight Braman, were among the original incorporators of the West End Street Railway Com pany. 294 SUFFOLK COUNTY. design of uniting Beacon street, Boston, and Beacon street, Brookline, and widening the street in Brookline into a boulevard, and thus enhance the value of land owned by them along the route. In order to make this land marketable, it was necessary to provide transportation facili ties ; and at the outset these two railways were incorporated simply for that purpose. This Beacon street improvement was the most impor tant in the recent history of Boston, and the West End Railway ob tained the right to enter Boston through the new avenue and the Back Bay. The Metropolitan Company opposed the new railway, regarding it as " another Highland;" but the advantage of the new line to the public was evident and irresistible. The two pioneer roads, the Metropolitan and the Cambridge, had always been friendly ; and while these events were taking place, a plan to consolidate the two companies was formed and the details arranged. This alarmed the West End management, and they suddenly formed the purpose of buying a controlling interest in the stock of all the old roads except the Lynn and Boston, and unit ing them ; and in a few weeks they had acquired enough of the stock to be masters of the situation ; and shortly afterwards obtained from the General Court the necessary legislation to bring about this general consolidation. The Act provided that the new company might purchase the other roads, paying for the same in its own preferred eight per cent, stock, providing, however, that the entire amount of preferred stock so issued should not exceed the total existing capitalization of the roads so pur chased. This legislation naturally met with opposition, but on the whole was sustained by public sentiment, for the intelligent part of the community could see that competition over the same tracks was not in the public interest, and the stockholders of the old companies knew that the existing rivalries were not only unprofitable, but actually imperiled the financial soundness of their several properties. The final consolidation under the name of the West End Street Rail way Company took place November 11, 1887. 1 1 The original officers of the company were: Henry M. Whitney, president; Prentiss Cummings, vice-president and clerk of the corporation ; Calvin A. Richards, general manager ; Joseph H. Goodspeed, treasurer ; Charles S. Sergeant, auditor ; Henry F. Woods, purchasing agent ; Henry D. Hyde, general counsel. These officers are unchanged at this date except that Charles S. Ser geant has become general manager, and H. L. Wilson been chosen auditor in his place. Mr. Rich ards was general manager till February, 1888, and was succeeded by D. F. Longstreet, who held that position till May, 1889. Then Frank H. Monks ta son of John P. Monks, one of the incorpor- STREET RAIL WA Y SYSTEM. 295 There is no doubt that this consolidation was a public benefit Block ades at once ceased, and for three or four years were of infrequent oc currence; and while they are happening again in spite of the most care ful management, the cause now is the insufficiency of the streets, and is recognized as being something for which the railway is not responsi ble. The best evidence that the consolidated road has been better run in the public interest than formerly is the fact that the recent increase in its travel is beyond precedent, and has taken place much faster than the increase in population. 1 In making this comparison it is to be considered that increase in travel in former years grew largely out of extensions into new territory ; but the old roa'ds in the main extended as far into the suburbs as is the proper mission of street cars to go, so that the West End road has made few extensions, and its increased patronage has sprung from better facilities on the old lines. Difficulties of the Business in Boston'. Owing to the narrow area which comprises the business district of Boston, and the fact that all of the eight or nine hundred cars, daily run by the company, pass through some part of that district on every trip, coupled with the further fact that the narrowest and most involved streets of the city are within .that area, the problem of how the ever increasing business of transportation is to be handled has for many years been most perplexing, and has not yet been solved. The prob lem is still further complicated by the position of the Common and Public Garden, and the fact that on one. side they adjoin Beacon Hill, which is impassable for street cars or heavy teams, thus forcing through Boylston street all street cars as well as other teams and vehicles com ing from a wide area on the westerly and southerly side of the city. The Common was laid out as such when the Back Bay district was in ators of the Broadway Railroad), became general manager, and was succeeded by Mr. Sergeant in April, 1892. From November, 1890, to November, 1891, while certain Power House construction was going on, Edmund H. Keardon was vice-president and clerk, Mr. Cummings meanwhile act ing as counsel of the company and head of the Accident Department. Except as above stated the officers have remained the same. 1 The number of paying passengers for the years 1886-1892 were as follows : 1886, 86,246,780 ; 1887, 91,808,219 ; 1888, 97,039,919 ; 1889,104,243,150; 1890,114,853,081; 1891,119,264,401: 1892,126,210,781. It is estimated that the number for 1893 will be about 135,000,000. The average length of a round trip in 1887 was 7.11 miles ; in 1892 it had increased to 7.74 miles, an increase of sixty-three one-hundredths miles 01 nine per cent. Since the introduction of electricity many more cars are run on the long lines than formerly. At present the company is running an average of abont 55,000 miles per day. 296 SUFFOLK COUNTY fact a bay, and it was no obstacle to business ; but now that the whole district is filled in between the old Mill-Dam and Roxbury and has be come densely populated, and affords the most attractive of all the en trances into the city, there is no doubt that the Common is located in the worst possible place, so far as interference with business is con cerned. This fact is to be taken into account in considering the street rail way business in Boston. In fact, Boston is the most difficult and ex pensive place for that business in the country, not only from the insuf ficiency of the streets, but the ordinary severity of our winters, the great cost of supplies, the rates of wages, and the higher grade of service demanded. The Electric System. One of the first things considered by the directors of the West End Company was the adoption of some new motive power, in order to gain room on the streets by the disuse of horses. 1 All the old roads were operated by horse power, and the West End Company required in 1887 nearly ten thousand horses. With its present business, twelve to fifteen thousand would be needed, if horse power were used exclusively. Long continued and costly experiments with storage batteries were tried without success. Then careful investigation was made of the cable system. The difficulties of using that system in Boston were very serious, owing to the crookedness of the streets and the large number of drawbridges ; and when petitioned for the right to use it, the several city governments were very reluctant to consent. While this question was under general discussion, it was reported that the overhead electric system had been proved a success in Richmond, Va. ; and on investigation, this report was so far substantiated that the West End Company determined to try that system on its new line on Beacon street. It was a street admirably adapted for the purpose. Consider able opposition to the granting of the right to use overhead wires was 1 On June i, 1893, the company owned 2,158 cars, including both box and open cars. Of these about 900 are in daily use, and, being mostly long cars, occupy about five miles of 'street space. Short cars, having the same aggregate seating capacity, with horses attached, would occupy about eight miles of space. In four horse time the discrepancy would be much greater. When all the cars are on time there would always, during business hours, be 305 of these cars within the limits of the congested district of Boston ; and thus one mile of street space would be there saved by the electric system. In case of a blockade there might be double that number of cars accumulated, in which. case two miles of space would be saved. STREET RAIL WAY S YSTEM. 297 made, but was finally overcome by an agreement to use an underground conduit for carrying the wires on the Back Bay. The conduit proved a failure; but the overhead system gave so much satisfaction that a general right to use it in Boston was granted in 1889 ; and it is now in use on about seven-eighths of the road. 1 Power Houses. The power is supplied by three power houses belonging to the com pany. The first was built in Allston, and contains a plant of 1,120 horse power. The principal power house is known as the ' ' Central Station," and has a capacity of 14,320 horse power. It was begun in 1889 on the site of the old Hinkley Locomotive Works on Al bany street. The third power house is located in East Cambridge on the old Glass Company site, and has a capacity of 4, 200 horse power. These power houses have had visitors from all parts of the world. Advantages and Disadvantages of Street Railways. The street railway has sometimes been described, not inaptly, as a " necessary nuisance." This is a concrete way of expressing a general truth applicable to most things in this world, that good and evil are united inseparably. I refer not simply to a union of different things, like that of the wheat and the tares mentioned in the Scripture, but to the fact that the same thing is both good and bad from different points of view. Thus a railway is impossible without a rail, and a street rail- ¦¦ way is impossible unless its rails and its -cars occupy a street. 2 All its j distinctive advantages and disadvantages are necessarily involved in . the same fact. The rail in the street is a nuisance to light vehicles ; 3 and the use of the streets by numerous cars is a source of danger and I inconvenience in many ways. , If the operation of street cars could be confined to some lonely field in the remote country, they would neither be unsightly nor in the way, nor a source of accident or apprehension ; and they could be run on time, never be crowded, nor offend by noise — in short, would be quite unobjectionable, and unfortunately, quite useless also. 1 On June i, 1893, the West End Company owned 1,803 car service horses, 45 tow horses, and 338 driving and teaming horses. 2 On June 1, 1893, the West End Company had in the public streets 243^ miles of tracks. 3 The rail is a positive advantage to heavy teams, particularly on country roads or other unpaved streets. 38 298 SUFFOLK COUNTY. Crowded thoroughfares are a necessary incident to a large city, and means of transit for a numerous population are indispensable, and the transit mainly must be through those thoroughfares. The problem is how it can best be accomplished. Four hundred thousand fares, 1 in round numbers, are collected daily on the West End lines, and substan tially all the passengers, not to mention those who walk or use some other convenyance, pass through a small district in Boston. This is a fact, without which Boston would not and could not be Boston. Pro vided the sidewalks were adequate to enable everybody to walk, which they are not, only a limited number would do so, and in a short time there would be no congested district, but the business, like the people, would be somewhere else. If some other means of conveyance were possible, it would necessarily be too expensive for free and general use; but such other 'means of conveyance is physically impossible for want of space, and would be vastly more dangerous than the street -car, if attempted. 2 1 As the receipts of the company pass through the Receiver's and Auditor's Departments the fol lowing explanation of how the business is done in those departments may, be of interest : The Receiver's Department consists of twenty-six employees, whose duties are as foilows : Eight station or division receivers, two collectors, six cash counters, five ticket and check counters, five entry clerks. At the end of the day's work the conductor makes out a separate report for all cash, tickets, checks, etc., collected on each route run. These, together with the cash and the tickets, are en closed in a canvas bag and deposited in the safe at the station from which he starts. This safe is an automatic affair with a hole in the top, into which the conductor drops the bag, which, falling* through the shoot into the safe, rings a bell, which proves that it safely reaches its destination. Early each morning two collectors, with separate teams, drive to each of these stations, open the safes and bring all these bags to the receiver's office at headquarters. Here the money counters verify the cash, the ticket counters verify the tickets and checks, and the entry clerks enter the day.cards upon sheets provided for that purpose, under separate heads for each route. At the end of the day these sheets are totalized, which shows the earnings for that day. The sheets, together with all day-cards, are then forwarded to the auditor, where each entry is examined and each conductor's report compared with the register returns, which are sent direct to this office from the inspectors at the different stations. If a conductor turns in more than the register calls for, the money is returned to him ; if less than it calls for, he is charged with whatever there may be short. By this simple method the company is assured of every fare that is registered. A day's earnings of $20,000 is returned to the receivers, divided up about as follows : $10,000 in bills (mostly small), $500 in silver dollars, $1,700 in silver half-dollars, $3,000 in silver quarter-dollars, $2,000 in silver dimes, $1,400 in nickels, $1,400 in eight-cent checks, etc.— total, $20,000. The change is mostly dis posed of to banks and retail merchants, who send for what they want daily. The Auditing or Ac counting Department consists of thirty-eight clerks, each one of whom has some regular work assign edto his charge : Seven clerks on revenue work, three clerks on disbursements, two clerks on pay rolls, two clerks on general accounts, two clerks on road department accounts, twelve clerks on mechanical, car and building department accounts, eight clerks on store and supply room accounts two stenographers and type-writers. 2 The accidents of the West End Company, though numerous in the aggregate, are relatively few considering the amount of business done and the crowded streets. A computation in 1891 showed that on the doctrine of chances a passenger riding twice a day would not meet with even a slight accident but once in 118 years, and would not be killed in less than 60,000 years, and that a person 5 TREE T RAILWAY S YS TEM. 299 The use of the rail makes it easy to know the course a car will take, and to guard against it, but there is no such certainty as to a carriage ; and cars following one another closely on a rail can carry these vast numbers and carry them exactly where they wish to.go in comparative security and comfort, and for a nominal sum. Most of the criticism of street railways is inconsiderate, and grows out of an imperfect appre hension of the truth that the advantages and disadvantages are insepa rable. It is impossible for cars or any vehicles to go at a reasonable rate of speed and not cause many accidents, some of them fatal ; nor can cars enough be run to accommodate the people without occupying a great deal of space, and if they run where they will best accommodate they will occupy very important space. Since it is the street car that has rendered possible the concentration of business in the city, and only the street car that can keep it so, it is worth considering what the advantages of concentration are, if any. They are several. It leads to great convenience and economy in doing business. Men in the same profession or line of business find it a great advantage to be near each other and near those engaged in a j kindred business, and all like to be near the banks and other similar institutions. The fact that a whole community can be brought to the! very doors for five cents makes large retail establishments possible, and hence lower prices to the consumer, and larger assortments from which / to select. The numerous employees, and the working classes gener ally, can occupy cheap and wholesome houses in the suburbs, and yet ] reach their places of employment at a price they can afford to pay; and/ thus are greatly benefited in a financial as well as a sanitary and moral point of view. Thus life is made more cheerful and wholesome, and the cost of liv-' ing is greatly cheapened. The aggregate of saving to the community ' from this concentration of business, in economy of doing business, and \ cheapening the cost of living, amounts to an enormous sum ; and the ; benefit of suburban homes in the mere prevention of disease is mani- ! festly so great as to render street car accidents a trifle in comparison, j Fifty deaths from typhoid fever would make less impression on the' average person than a single fatal accident on the streets, but the ratio is none the less fifty to one. born upon the cars, and riding all the time during the business day, would live to be 8,000 years old if he did not die till killed by an accident. I have used the cars constantly for over thirty years, much of the time officially, and never yet saw a street-car accident serious enough so that a claim was made upon it. I have seen a great many carriage accidents, though the number of people using carriages is insignificant in comparison. 300 SUFFOLK COUNTY. Effect on the Value of Real Estate. But one of the most significant benefits from street railways is the effect on the value of real estate. That they enhance values in the sub urbs is manifest; but in fact they effect a much greater increase in the congested district. In 1855, being the year before street' railways started in Boston, the real estate valuation of what is now Ward 10 was $35,120,500. It was then as thickly covered with buildings as at present, yet in 1892 the valuation of Ward 10 had grown to $127,252, 200. Ward 11 (the Back Bay ward), which is the second ward in the city in valuation, and one of the finest residential districts in the world, had in 1892 a real estate valuation of $88,366,500, or $3,765,200 less than the gain in Ward 10. Ward 11 itself could never have been built up as it has been, nor could it maintain itself to-day, but for the street railway. Not even the servants could be retained otherwise, and there is no substitute conveyance that would not change the whole character of the district. Transportation in carriages, even if it were physically possible without streets across the Common and Public Garden, would necessitate so many stables in that neighborhood as to ruin it and its value. The town of Brookline had very meagre street car facilities prior to the formation of the West End Company in 1886. Its real estate valuation increased during the thirty years between 1855 and and 1885 from $5, .500,000 to $16,000,000 ; but during the five years from 1885 to 1890 it had increased to upwards of $30,000,000 and in 1892 was $36,958,100. 1 Excellent building land, if a mile distant from any public convey- j ance, has a small market value ; but no sooner is a street car line ex tended to a point near that same land than it becomes available for ! house lots, and will command a large price. If that land be several I' miles from the city, the electric car service will cause a much more rapid increase in its value than a horse car service, since the latter is much inferior for long distances. Districts in Brighton, which had had horse car accommodations for thirty years, have made almost fabulous increases in value since electric cars were substituted. The value of all the real estate in the several towns and cities accommodated by the West End Company is, in round number, a billion of dollars ; and it is a moderate estimate to say that twenty-five per cent, of this is depend ent on the street car service. x The annual interest on that sum at 1 Of course many places derive comparatively little benefit, but in other localities the absolute withdrawal of street cars would destroy nearly all real estate value. 5 TREE T RAILWAY S YS TEM. 301 six per cent, would exceed the capital stock of the company; and when all other pecuniary benefits to the community are added, it will be seen that the investment by the stockholders yields the public a revenue vastly greater than the stockholders themselves receive. Why' Street Railways are Unpopular, The question' naturally arises why the street railway, being so un deniably useful, is so unpopular. The Boston road is no wise ex ceptional in this respect. If we go to any city in the country and pick up the daily papers, we find as many complaints, and the same kind of complaints, which so regularly appear in our papers. The cause in part grows out of the unreasoning belief, before alluded to, that by good management inconsistent things might be accomplished, as for example, that cars enough might be run to give every passenger a seat, and yet not occupy space in the streets. There seldom occurs a street railway hearing where there is not great complaint of lack of accom modations, and an equal complaint that the road "owns the streets." Again, as to crowded cars, at times, it is not considered that the cars must run at stated intervals in order to serve their purpose, while peo ple ride just when they please, so that the demand and supply cannot possibly coincide. Again, it is not considered that the cars must be so run as to pay, in order to run at all. It is here I think that we find the chief reason why the public are always so hostile to the street railway, — that they expect too much for five cents. I have many times asked our critics if they could tell me of any other way in which they could get so much for five cents as from the West End Railway ; and there never has been one who has not admitted that there was nothing. In fact, the low fares, considering the service rendered here, are noth ing less than wonderful. Again, a road with three thousand drivers and conductors must have some who are incompetent and unfit, and who at times give way to infirmities of temper which is often severely tried, 1 The street car is in such universal use, and enters so intimately into our daily lives, that sooner or later, everybody has real as well as fancied grievances, and attributes to the malevolence or stupidity of the management mischiefs which must happen in the nature of things. In truth, all the employees of the street railway, from the president to the 1 The total number of persons regularly employed on the West End system during 1892 was 4,614. 302 SUFFOLK COUNTY. conductor, occupy in their relations to the public a most trying posi tion, and one replete with detail and vexation. It is usually conceded that the street car service in Boston is the best in the world ; and from very considerable experience I say without hesitation that the service has been better than the road really could afford to give, and that the officers of the road have usually understood the problems with which they had to deal much better than their critics, and have been every bit as public-spirited. THE WHOLESALE SHOE TRADE OF SUF FOLK COUNTY, 1629 TO 1892. BY Frank W. Norcross. OF THE " SHOE AND LEATHER REPORTER.'1 A history of the shoe and leather trade of Suffolk County will neces sarily include the whole State of Massachusetts, for Boston is simply the center of a great industrial circumference. The shoe and leather industry originated with the early settlers in the Commonwealth, and its growth and development is creditable to the energy and ability of their descendants. They have raised their calling to a high rank among the mechanical arts. They .have popularized their product to such a degree that they have revolutionized the business to the success of which their labors have been directed. Forty years ago few ready made shoes were worn; now few except ready made shoes are worn, and in point of excellence of material and of workmanship the modern American article is not surpassed in excellence anywhere on the globe. CHAPTER I. The Cordwainers' Era — Early Shoemakers and the Material They Used — Progress of the Art Previous to the Revolution — England and France Compete for Our Trade — Early Tariffs— Improved Methods. " Still from the hurrying train of life Fly backward far and fast. The footprints of the fathers, The landmarks of the past. " The first shoemaker in New England was Thomas Beard, who came over in 1628, in one of the later voyages of the Mayflower. He brought 304 SUFFOLK COUNTY. with him a supply of " hides of leather " for his use. It was directed that " fifty acres of land should be allotted to him, as one that trans ported himself at his own charge. " The first shoemaker in Boston was William Copp, who owned Copp's Hill at the North End. He was made a freeman in 1640. The General Court passed a law in 1648 ' ' in corporating the shewmakers of Boston and vicinity, to regulate the trade for three years." The shoes worn in 1680-90 were coarse, square toed, and -adorned with buckles. A pair of boots were expected to last a lifetime. For a hundred years previous to the Revolution no poor person wore any shoes as fine as calfskin. Servants wore cow hide shoes. Calfskin shoes had a white edge of sheepskin stitched into the top edge of the sole ; this was kept clean and white for dress purposes. There appears to have been no essential change in the style for nearly a century. In 1629 the " town leaders," or selectmen, ordered shoes made " of large size, at two shillings to two and sixpence a pair, for the use of emi grants. " Shoestrings, as now worn, > took the place of the shoe-nose under the Stuarts, and buckles resembling a horse bean came into use in 1688. Boots of large size, and for beaux, of flimsy Spanish leather, russet color, were then much worn in England, but were not approved of in Massachusetts, and not very generally used here, except by Mor ton's colonists at Mt. Wolloston. The first attempt towards manufacturing in this country was made in Lynn. In 1750 a Welsh shoemaker, John Adam Dagyr, settled in Lynn, and soon became known through all the Province as the Essex shoemaker. Many persons acquired from him a better knowledge of the art, and obtained the reward of superiority in the increase of busi ness. A Boston correspondent of the London Chronicle in 1764 wrote that shoes for women were made in Lynn exceeding for strength and beauty any that were usually imported from London. It was claimed in 1752'that as many shoes were made in Essex county as in all the rest of the State. Lynn carried on the manufacture for three quarters of a century before any marked improvement was manifest. The art was not understood ; the workmen unskilled. To attain greater excellence in mechanizing of shoes, the manufacturers sometimes procured choice qualities of shoes from England and took them apart to see how they were made. Up to 1750 only three manu facturers in Lynn employed journeymen, although a surplus of shoes were made for exportation WHOLESALE SHOE TRADE. 305 The tools used by the shoemakers were, the lapstone, an ordinary flat stone from the beach, on which they pounded the sole leather ; a hammer; lougstick, for rubbing down and polishing the sole prepara tory to scraping; "shoulder sticks " of ebony and soapstone for setting up the edges; "stirrup" to secure the shoe on the knees; leather breast plate for protecting the chest while working the longstick; scraper, "steel," "pretty boy, "for shaping the sole to the last; "fender," "last hook," "rubbing down bone," "lining fork," awl and bristles, blacking bottle, knife strops, pegging awl, tacks, wax, etc., made up the " shoe kit " of the journeyman shoemaker for a century previous to about the year 1810. Shoes were made in little buildings erected in the yards or beside the road, wherein two or four workmen could have " a seat to work." The shoes were bound by women at their homes, all by hand. In the Museum of Roman Antiquities at Mayence, Ger many, are preserved the working tools of a Roman shoemaker. They are almost identical with those used in New England up to the year 1850. Considerable quantities of shoes for the use of the army were drawn by Congress from Massachusetts during the Revolution. Immediately after that event the shoe business attracted a larger amount of capital, and increased rapidly. It received a severe check, however, owing to large importations soon after the proclamation of peace. Before the close of the century trade revived and new factories sprang up. In 1788 there was a considerable production of men's shoes in Reading. This town, with Quiney and Braintree, engaged in the shoe manufac ture soon after the Revolution. In 1788, Lynn exported one hundred thousand pairs of women's shoes. In 1795 there were two hundred master workmen and six hundred journeymen in Lynn. They pro duced three hundred thousand pairs of shoes of prunella, silk, or mo rocco (which was mostly imported), or of neats leather. These shoes were sold to dealers in Boston, Philadelphia, Savannah and Charleston ; some were exported. The largest manufacturer made twenty thousand pairs in seven months of that year. General George Washington passed through Lynn in his trip to New England after the war. In his letters he spoke of the place as ' ' the greatest shoe town of the country. " It has so remained to this day. It was estimated that eight million pairs were consumed by four million inhabitants ; three-eighths of that number were made in Lynn. 39 306 SUFFOLK COUNTY. The shoe goods of that date were mostly imported from Europe — lastings, callimanco, all kinds of fancy leather, linings, bindings, thread and nails. Considerable sole leather was imported from England. David Ferris and Zechariah Ferris had large oak sole leather tanneries at Wilmington, Del. They were members of the Society of Friends, and they sold a good deal of leather to Lynn manufacturers, many of whom were Friends also. By the extended importation of shoes from England and France soon after the Revolution, many manufacturers were well nigh ruined. After the adoption of the Constitution, and at the first Congress that met in 1789, Roger Sherman, of Connecticut, a senator, judge of the Supreme Court, a signer of the Declaration of Independence, and a shoemaker, who represented the shoemakers in that body, acting upon the advice of Ebenezer Breed, of Lynn, and Stephen Collins, formerly of Lynn but at that time a shoe merchant in Philadelphia, adjusted the tariff on shoes. Raw hides and skins were admitted free. The first tariff was fifty cents on imported boots, and seven cents a pair on shoes. These rates were increased in 1794 to fifteen per cent, with further increase of ten per cent, when imported in foreign bottoms. In 1816 the tariff on men's boots was put at $1.50 a pair! Since 1789 the shoe manufacturing interest has always had governmental protec tion. Since 1816 the tariff on shoes has been ad valorem, and ranged between 24 and 35 per cent. The present tariff (1892) is "25 per cent. on boots and shoes made of leather." In 1790 wooden heels began to go out of fashion. Leather spring heels were introduced and were used on women's shoes up to 1853. This was a radical and sudden transition, as heels on shoes had been worn very high. The change made walking very uncomfortable, and, indeed, it is said, many women had to go about "on tiptoes," but gradu ally they found their level. There has been a moderate heel used since 1853, say one inch to one and a half inch high. Spring heels for chil dren's and misses' shoes are in vogue now. The leather used in the soles of shoes was always worked on the flesh side up to about 1800. Then it began to be finished on the grain side, making what was known as "duff bottoms." The pictures of Colonel Trumbull in the rotunda of the capitol at Washington, and the print, " Signing of the Declaration of Independence, " shows the kind of shoes worn by gentlemen in 1776, and for many years thereafter. WHOLESALE SHOE TRADE. 307 The representation is of a low-cut strap shoe with large buckles. Turn and channel pumps were fashionable. Boots came into general use after the Revolution. The Hessian boot was first worn about 1789. Its peculiarity was a white top turned down over the leg. The Suwarrow boot with a tassel on the front leg followed. Then the Wellington, ostensibly the same as worn now, was introduced. The Jefferson boot derived its name from Thomas Jefferson and was much worn during his presidency. It was laced up in front as high as the ankles. After that a side lace boot was in style for men's wear, but inconvenience in lacing prevented its general adoption. The following excerpts from the memoirs of Col. Arial Bragg, of Mil ford, give some idea of the methods of the pioneers : He learned the trade from Asa Norcross, worked for him afterwards as journeyman four weeks and made fifteen dollars. Began to make negro brogans in 1795. He borrowed a horse and took them to the city. On Boston Neck he was met by two men who asked: " Have you shoes for sale?" He answered: "Yes, twenty-four pairs." "At what price?" he was asked. " A dollar a pair!" "Will give you $22,50 for the lot!" The offer was accepted, and with the money Mr. Bragg went into the city and bought leather to make some more shoes. In 1801 he went South with a lot of shoes. He says very little regard was paid to the quality of stock or work on these " shoes for slaves." He could make eight pair a day ; his wife could close forty pair a day. He sailed with them to Baltimore in a sloop from Boston, sold the shoes and came home by land. Then he made calf shoes in the winter, and at the end of six months his profits were $350. The business was regularly increased by an addition of one man a year to 1809. In 1819 he states he had brought up eleven children, had no debts, built a factory and house that cost $5,152, all in ten years. He served two terms in the General Court, the last in 1842 as senator; served in the military thirty years, and rose to command a regiment. His sons, Appleton, Fowler, Arial, Willard and Alexis Bragg, were all well known shoe and leather dealers in Bos ton and New York forty years ago. The two last named, with Capt. C. S. Parsons, founded in 1840 the jobbing house now known as C. S. Parsons & Sons. Shoes were packed in barrels and large square boxes for transporta tion. In this way they were sent to all southern cities in packet ships. When unpacked they were flat, and it required a good deal of manipu- 308 SUFFOLK COUNTY. lation to get them in shape again. Shoes were made with long quarters and short vamps. Up to about 1814 soles were sewed on or nailed with Spanish nails. Shoe boxes began to be made about 1830. Car tons came in 1840. Both originated in Lynn. CHAPTER II. The First Boston Shoe Firms — Rise and Progress of the Jobbing and Auction Trade — Sketches of the Founders — Gradual Introduction of Machinery. One of the early shoe firms was Perez, Bryant & Co. , who had a store on Ann street and another in Savannah, Ga., in 1810. Isaiah Faxon had a shoe store on North. Market street in 1812. His sign, a wooden boot, eight feet high, stood outside that store. up to 1872, when it was transported to Detroit, and until recently was in use there to designate a shoe warehouse. Samuel Train sold shoes on Merchants' Row. He was afterwards a large shipowner. He used to tell the story that he walked, when a boy, from his home in New Hampshire to Boston, with all his possessions in a pack on his back. He sat down under a tree in Medford and ate the last of the lunch his mother had put up for him before leaving for the city. Twenty-five years after wards his elegant mansion stood on these grounds, and this tree formed part of his possessions. The introduction of wooden pegs for fastening soles gave an impetus to the business. Shoe pegs, made from maple, were invented in 1811. The grandfather of Hon. Joseph H. Walker, of Worcester, has the credit of making the first pegged shoes in New England. Up to the time of the invention of the sole sewer, about seven-eighths of the sale shoes were pegged. Shoe lasts, rights and lefts, were first used in 1807. A patent was granted that year to Samuel Milliken, of Lexington, for making shoes with metallic bottoms. An important invention, a machine for turning irregular forms, was patented by Thomas Blanchard, of Sutton, Mass., January, 1820. He contrived a lathe to make shoe lasts. They had been made previously by hand, were seldom uniform, and always expensive. By the use of this lathe, they were made correct in shape, rights or lefts, and at a WHOLESALE SHOE TRADE. 309 moderate cost. This, and the machines to make pegs, made shoe manufacturing on a large scale possible. Shoe nails were first made in South Abington, in 1812, by Elisha Hobart; also by Ezekiel Reed, of Hanover. Shoe manufacturing was not established permanently in any town in the State, except Lynn, until near the commencement of the present century. The business was introduced in Danvers by Caleb Oakes and Moses Putnam about 1810. They made coarse bro- gans, which were sold South. Caleb Oakes was the first to send shoes to Baltimore. He accompanied them himself in the sailing vessel, and sold them from the wharf, foot of South Calvert street. During the war of 1812-15, the embargo was in force, and Mr. Oakes took shoes in wagons as far south as Savannah. Georgetown and Topsfield man ufacturers began to make brogans about this time. These shoes were known as negro brogans. They were made from coarse finished cowhide leather, sometimes black, but usually finished in russet color. The soles were heavy, and oftentimes thickened by a piece of shingle inserted between the two soles. These shoes were looked upon by the negroes as a badge of servitude, and they were not marketable after the civil, war. Women's shoes, called buskins, were sold, but most of the demand was for lasting gaiters. Children's shoes made from sheepskin originated in Marblehead. They were known as roan batts. As leather was bought in Boston, the shoes were gradually sold there. Jobbing houses sprang up. The dealers were anxious for trade, and used to go out to Roxbury on Wednesdays or Saturdays to meet manufacturers coming into town; also to Charlestown, to intercept them at the bridge. The first vessel freighted at Boston with a full cargo of shoes was the sloop Delight. She sailed for New York in May, 1818. The shoes were consigned to Spofford & Tileston, No, 19, Fly Market. The members of this firm were from Haverhill; they accumulated large fortunes. The shoe business had its inception in almost every city with young men from Boston, who went out usually as agents for manufacturers. Haddock, Haseltine & Co. was a pioneer Philadelphia concern. The two senior partners went from Haverhill in 1817. John Adden and John F. Henry went to New Orleans a little later, and ¦ were fol lowed by the Tirrells, who did an extensive business. Up to about 1835 all shoes destined for the Southwest were sent to New Orleans 310 SUFFOLK COUNTY. and up the Mississippi. The long journey was made by water, or sometimes by teams, over the mountains. The first wholesale shoe dealers in Boston did business on South Market street. That short thoroughfare had its stores about equally divided between shoe and hardware dealers. Then the shoe men spread out and occupied Broad street on the south, and Fulton street on the north side of Quiney market. The shoes were sold to the South — there were no western markets. St. Louis and everything below it was looked upon as South in those days. Long credits were given; eight and even twelve months' time. Southern jobbers purchased only once a year — in the autumn. An old merchant furnishes the following experience in the Boston shoe trade : " In 1833 I went into a wholesale store the largest in the trade. The business amounted to nearly $200,000 a year. This included shoes of all kinds, sole and upper leather, findings, etc. The firm did a barter business, buying shoes and paying in stock, with perhaps a little money or a note at short date, say eight months, We sold the shoes either for note or any kind of merchandise we could utilize in the business, or sell. It was all right as long as nothing happened — but something did happen. In 1837 the whole country broke from Maine to New Orleans. In most cases the firms settled up, somehow, and went on again." The shoe trade took rank as a leading industry about 1830, caused by a change in the methods of conducting the business. It was formerly the custom to seek a market by consigning shoes to be sold in all the southern cities. That arrangement was remunerative for a time, but on account of competition and increase in trade it became a losing busi ness. Then manufacturers began to sell their own goods and Boston became at once the emporium of the trade. Dealers who did not have stores secured offices and show rooms in the city. The pioneer shoe auction house in Boston was T. P. & O. Rich, es tablished on Broad street in 1825. In 1847 the firm dissolved, Otis Rich retired, and T. P. Rich became connected as special and general partner with the house of Townsend, Mallard & Cowing, afterwards Rich, Cowing & Hatch. Mr. Rich retired in 1868. He was a mem ber of the Massachusetts Senate in 1859 and 1860, and of the Board of Aldermen four terms. His brother, Otis Rich, served in both branches of the Legislature, and died in June, 1876. The firm, founded by the brothers Rich, continued through the above changes to Henry & Hatch, and is now merged in John J. Henry & Co. WHOLESALE SHOE TRADE. 311 Shoe manufacturers, fifty years or so ago, sold on such long credits that they needed all the time they could get on -stock or work. This led them to pay their workpeople in orders on the stores on which they. bought groceries and dry goods. These orders were, of course, not as good as money, but work even with this kind of pay was an advantage. The members of a family could assist at closing, binding or making during the winter seasons when work could not be done on the land, and the manufacturers not feeling able to spare the money, as their sales would not be made until the next autumn, found this method of payment a convenience. Some manufacturers had stores and sold to the workmen. These methods ceased something like forty years ago. A good deal of stock was sent into Maine and New Hampshire to be made into shoes. The farmers and their families worked on them dur ing the winter and spring, and when they returned one, the money to pay for making was sent with the next lot. In this way many stalwart young men and active women learned to make shoes. They eventually came to Massachusetts to find steady work, and then commenced the drain from the "hill towns" of New England of their young people. The shoe business wrought a great and happy change in many families. Until that was introduced, the young people in country towns had few or no occupations to choose from except farming and the ordinary village industries, but in the days be fore machines were invented there was plenty of work to be had on shoes. The first pegging machine was invented by Samuel Preston, of Danvers. His patent, issued March 8, 1833, was signed by Andrew Jackson, president of the United States. Herrick Aikin, of Dracut, invented the pegging haft that year. Previous to the invention of a machine for making pegs, in 1820, shoemakers cut their own pegs. The peg strip, or ribbon of wood, having one end sharpened, so that pegs could be cut off for the machine, was invented by B. F. Sturtevant, of Boston. The device is still used. A Methodist preacher, A. C. Gallihue, patented a pegging machine in 1851. John Kimball, of Boston, was an inventor. He began the shoe busi ness in 1834, and that year introduced the slide block last and metal sole to the trade. In the next thirty years he invented machines for hammering stiffenings and sole shapers. He published a guide for measuring and making shoes, and in 1885 perfected a system of stand ard measurements. He died March, 1886, aged eighty-five years. 312 SUFFOLK COUNTY s India rubber overshoes were first imported from Brazil in 1822. A few were sent to Boston that year and T. B. Wales sold them. B. F. Sturtevant was born in Norridgewock, Me. When he was six years old he cut pegs by hand for a cobbler. He was a shoemaker in after life, but in 1850 he came to Boston with a model of a pegging machine. He perfected and introduced it in 1859. He also invented a machine for making peg wood and wooden toothpicks. They are in use now. He invented the blower used in tanneries, and the projectile known as the "Swamp Angel," famous during the war. Mr. Sturte vant received medals for his inventions at the Vienna, Paris and Cen tennial Expositions. In 1851 Fogg and Burbank, of Boston, exhibited pegged boots at the first World's Fair in London. This was the first pegged work ever seen in England. No trade grew out of this exhibit, unless it was for the pegs, which, from that date began to find sale in Germany among toy makers. At the New York Exhibition of 1853, C. R. Goodwin, of Bos ton, showed a machine for sewing the soles of shoes. This was after wards exhibited at Paris, and several of the machines were sold for $375 each. No steam power could be applied to the machines, and they would sew only 100 pair a day. The date of the adoption of machinery in shoe factories is only a little more than forty years ago. The roller and splitter were in use in 1840, but that was all. Dies were used for hammering out in 1847. In 1851 a Worcester manufacturer used the first sewing machine for stitching shoes. Elias Howe, jr., of Cambridge, took out his first patent in 1846. Isaac M. Singer worked on this sewing machine in a shop now stand ing in Harvard Place, off from Washington street, opposite the Old South Church in 1845. He took out his first patent in 1851, and for the chain stitch in 1854. Die machines were made in 1851. Shoe pegging machines were in use in 1857. Elmer Townsend and B. F. Sturtevant patented one of the first machines which came into general use. Mr. Townsend was an auctioneer at that time on Pearl street. He introduced the shoes made on his machines by selling them at public auction. Steam power for driving shoe machinery began to be used in 1857. During the war it was generally introduced in all large factories. Bancroft and Pur- ington, of Lynn, did the first manufacturing by string teams about 1860, WHOLESALE SHOE TRADE. 313 The McKay sole sewing machines wrought another of the revolutions to which the shoe industry has been subject. It was invented by Ly man R, Blake, of Boston. The first patent was taken out in 1858. An arrangement was made by Mr. Blake with Gordon McKay, 1 a machinist, to perfect some of the parts, and he engaged to introduce it to the notice of shoe manufacturers. A trial was given the machine in the presence of a number of members of the trade in a room on Tremont Row. Stock was cut in Lynn and brought up to be sewed. This ma chine was very unlike the machines now in use. Nevertheless it was conclusively shown that it could do the work. Mr. McKay then pur chased the machine from Mr. Blake for $8,000 cash, and $62,000 to be paid from future profits. He introduced radical improvements and in 1862 it was put on the market. In 1864 the movable horn was added. Eleven machines were put in Lynn factories, then one each in Phila delphia and Cincinnati. As it was in war time, and journeymen were scarce, there was no opposition made to its introduction. In 1863 the stock was divided into 50, 000 shares, valued at five dollars a share. A royalty was charged on all shoes sewed on the machine and 10,000 shares set apart for those who purchased stamps for shoes. They were entitled to one share for every hundred dollars worth of stamps used. This was called " The Shoemakers' Gift Enterprise." The shares rose from five to seventy dollars each, and paid good interest on the invest ment. The inventor and owners of the machine made great fortunes. The royalties, paid in stamps affixed to the bottom of the shoes, were as follows : On slippers, misses' and youths' shoes, one cent ; women's and boys' shoes, two cents ; men's boots, three cents a pair. ' The income from sales of stamps, $99,157.63, in 1864, increased each year, and reached $529,973.81 in 1873, and so on up to $750,000 a year. One Massachusetts manufacturer paid fifteen thousand dollars in one year as royalty on the use of thirteen machines. At last, in November, 1880, the manufacturers held a mass meeting in Philadelphia, and tak ing the ground that the patents had expired, refused to pay royalty any longer. A compromise was effected; the manufacturers bought the machines, and the payment of royalty ceased. In 1867 Charles Goodyear1 introduced the Goodyear turn and welt machine. The first patents on this were granted in 1862. Mr. Good year is the son of the discoverer of vulcanization, and inherited the ' See Biographical Department. 40 314 SUFFOLK COUNTY. inventive genius of his father. The Goodyear Shoe Machinery Com pany was organized in 1882. The capital is $1,250,000. Jonathan Muny an1 is president; John H. Hannan, of New York, vice-president; S. V. R. Hunter, * treasurer. They have a factory, No. 398 Federal street. It is five stories high. In the Goodyear system is an inseamer for sewing welts, machines for stitching the outside of the welt either chain or lockstitch, also one for outsole and insole channeling, machines for grooving and beveling welts, splitting welts, and for beating out the welt after it is sewed. The inseam or welt machine is also used for sewing turn shoes. The cost of the welt and sewing the inseam is claimed to be offset : First, by saving of stock ; second, by the fact that the shoes being stitched and finished on the last requires no second lasting; third, that the lasts do not require iron bottoms ; fourth, that there is no necessity for a sock lining in a welted shoe ; fifth, that the welt supplies the place of a slipsole in giving a heavy edge. The advantages represented to ap ply to the Goodyear welted shoes are that there are no nails, tacks or wax inside the shoe, that the shoes are pliable and as comfortable to wear as hand sewed, that they can be repaired the same as hand sewed, that owing to the solidity and uniformity of the work they are not liable to rip, that shoddy insoles cannot be used, and that the shoes must be made of the best material. About the year 1870, Dr. George H. P. Flagg, of whom a biograph ical sketch appears in this volume, became interested in the Union Edge Setter. This brought the enormous capabilities of the shoe business to his attention, and he embarked in the manufacture of shoe machin ery. He built the stores 110-112 Lincoln street, adapted thoroughly for the business. He invented and perfected a number of machines. A lasting machine was one of the greatest wants of the trade. He bought out the Boston Lasting Machine, which, he says, "does the work a little better and a little more of it than any other," and has sold more than a thousand of them. The Union Edge Setter has been the standard machine, keeping in the lead for more than twenty years. The Rapid Inseam Trimmer trims inseams, and beats out welts at the same time, without injuring the work. He formed the Flagg Manu facturing Company a few years ago. They make the above machines and many others. 1 See Biographical Department. ' Sn,.huE.Q.tflhtm,iBn^ WHOLESALE SHOE TRADE. 315 Self-feeding eyeletting machines came in about 1864; sole moulders 1865; beating-out machines 1867, and crimping ¦ machines the same year; shoe heel pressing, pricking and trimming machines 1869-70; edge trimmers and hot kit burnishing machines 1871. In this machine a flexible gas-pipe is run into the interior of the tool, which keeps it well heated. The tool is made to reciprocate over the surface of the heel, passing from breast to breast at each oscillation, with an elastic pressure. The cable nailing machine of 1872 gave place to the stand ard screw machine in 1876. Almost all nailed work is done on this machine. The date of edge setting machines was 1873-4; sole round ing, sole fitting and channeling machines 1880; lasting machines, on men's work, 1880, and on women's work, five years later; button fas tening machines, 1882. These represent nearly all kinds, but their variety and "improvements" are legion. In lasting machines alone dozens of patents have been taken out, and inventive genius is still active on perfecting all the machines named. Machines used in shoe factories are as follows. For stock fitting: Stripping machines. Dieing machines. Tacking machines. Splitting machines. Channeling machines. Molding machines. Rolling machines. Stock fitting machines. Channel opening machines. • Skiving machines. Tap trimming machines. Heel pricking machines. Shank machines. On McKay sewed work, by which it is estimated one hundred million pairs of shoes are made yearly, these machines are used : Lasting machines. Heeling machines. • Heel burnishing machines. Tacking machines. Heel trimming machines. Sand-papering machines. McKay machines. Edge trimming machines. Buffing machines. Beating-out machines. Edge setting machines. Brushing machines. The first stripping machine was simply a straight knife that severed the sole leather at a blow. A machine for dividing into sole blanks was invented and first used in 1851. With this machine the business of sole cutting was inaugurated. Stock was graded and selected for uniform quality and weight, and sold to shoe manufacturers ready to be shaped into soles for men's, women's or children's work. Perry Newhall was the first man to engage in the sole cutting business in Lynn. The priority for making shoe machinery may be claimed for David Knox & Sons, David T. and George A. Knox. The senior partner in vented a sole cutting machine in 1855, when not much except stitching 316 SUFFOLK COUNTY. machines had come into use. Most soles were then cut with a knife, the patterns being marked out on a side of leather. Mr. Knox's in vention had cutting knives attached to the different beams with lever arms which swung down, alternately cutting the two sides of the sole blank. It is now almost universally used for sole cutting. With the introduction of machinery, steam power began to be used to make it more efficient. Gas engines are common now; they are cleaner, and take up less room than is required for steam. Electric motors are of recent introduction, say about 1888. These are convenient, as motors can be put in each room, and the machinery of any department run independently of the remainder. In fitting rooms the following machines are used : Closing, staying, lining, top closing, top stitching, buttonhole cording, foxing, vamping, all done on sewing machines. Then the seam rubbing, beading, buttonhole cutting, working and finishing machines, eyelet, lacing stud and vamp folding machines are used. Machines for making india-rubber goring for congress shoes were invented in 1844. CHAPTER III. The Rubber Shoe Business — Early Statistics — Trade Fiduciary Institutions — Early Shoe Jobbers — Prominent Maufacturers. In 1835 six companies were formed in Massachusetts to make rubber shoes. Their aggregate capital was $850,000. Charles Goodyear, of Roxbury, took out his first patent June 17, 1837, for gum elastic shoes. In 1839 he discovered vulcanization. In 1830 the shoe manufacture of Lynn was 1,675,781 pairs, valued at $943,171; there were 3,496 hands employed. The first report of the industry of Massachusetts was published in 1837. It stated the value of boots and shoes made that year at $14,642,- 520. The first moneyed institution connected directly with the trade was the Shoe and Leather Bank, incorporated in 1836, with $500,000 capital, increased in 1876 to $1,000,000. The first president, Enoch Baldwin, was succeeded in 1857 by Caleb Stetson. The original directors were WHOLESALE SHOE TRADE. 317 all members of the shoe and leather trade. Among them was Cheever Newhall who began in the shoe business in Ann street in 1802. He was a wholesale dealer from 1812 to 1849, when he retired. Mr. New hall died April, 1878, aged ninety years. Josiah M. Jones, who served his time with Mr. Newhall, went into business in 1823. He was one of the first to build in Pearl street. The firm of J. M. Jones & Company is continued by a son of the founder. George W. Thayer, one of the original projectors of the bank, was also its second cashier. He founded the firm of G. W. Thayer & Brothers, dealers in shoes, in Merchants' Row. His sons, George L. and Edward P. Thayer, succeeded to the business when, in 1847, their father was elected president of the Ex change Bank. Caleb Stetson, the second president of the bank from 1857 to 1867, was a shoe and leather dealer on Washington street in 1829. He moved to Broad street three years later and went into the wholesale trade. He sold out in 1835, but started again in 1838 with his brother as partner. The firm was C. Stetson & Company. He be came a prominent merchant. The head clerk of C. Stetson & Com pany was Samuel Atherton, later the president of the New England National Bank. He connected himself with Amos S., a son of Caleb Stetson and with his brother, William Atherton, formed the house of Atherton, Stetson & Company. For many years theirs was the lead ing house in the shoe and leather trade in Boston. They were agents for Philadelphia tanners in the days before the war, when nothing but oak sole leather was cut in women's shoes in Massachusetts. John C. Potter was president of the bank from 1867 to 1870. He was originally with the firm of Amasa Walker & Company, and Walker, Emerson & Company, and third partner in the firm of Allen, Harris & Potter. He died in 1870. Luke Brooks was another of the directors. He invented the splitting machine still used in tanner ies. Isaac Williams, another director, went into the shoe busi ness in 1824, retired 1849, died 1857. Henry L. Daggett, an im porter of shoe goods and dealer in shoes from 1833 to 1865, married his daughter. Mr. Daggett was Boston agent for Horace H. Day, manu facturer of rubber webbing, and one of the pioneers in the rubber business. James Tirrell was a director twenty years. He began trad ing in Fulton street in 1855, having previously established a shoe jobbing house in New Orleans. His brothers, Albert and Minot, were con nected with him in business. Benjamin E. Cole became a director in 1875. His connection with the shoe trade dates from 1850. Jonathan 318 SUFFOLK COUNTY. Forbush, an old shoe merchant, was director, 1836 to 1847. John Al- bree, another of the original directors, was said to be the first to carry shoes westward. He crossed the Alleghanies in 1832, founded the house of Albree & Childs in Pittsburgh. He sold out and returned to Boston. He died in 1863. The Hide and Leather Bank was founded in 1857. Frederick Jones, William B. Spooner, Henry Poor, William Claflin, aud other dealers in shoes and leather, were among its early stockholders. Previous to 1825 the shoe trade in Boston was all done by wholesale dealers. Manufacturers had not established themselves here. The largest house was that of Carleton, Walker & Co. , afterwards Amasa Walker & Co. Amasa Walker was born in Woodstock, Conn., in 1799, and died in North Brookfield, Mass., October 29, 1875. In 1825 he was doing busi ness in South Market street. His sales were $25,000 the first year, $30,000 in 1830, and increased to $600,000 in 1836. The style had been changed to Walker, Emerson & Co. , and Emerson, Cochran & Co. Mr. Walker retired with a fortune in 1840. Mr. Walker, in 1834, built the first shoe factory in Maine. It was in the town of Minot. He was a State senator in 1849, secretary of state in 1851-2, and 1861 and 1862 a member of Congress. He was for many years professor of political economy at Oberlin College, and published two books on this subject. From 1861 to the time of his decease he was lecturer on political econ omy at Amherst College. Mr. Walker's son, Gen. Francis Amasa Walker, was made brigadier-general by brevet for gallant services in the war. He was superintendent of the census of 1880, professor of political economy and history at Yale College, and is now (1892) presi dent of the Institute of Technology in Boston. A daughter, Emma, married Alfred H. Batcheller, of E. & A. H. Batcheller & Co. Free man Walker, a brother of Amasa Walker, joined him 'in business in 1826. In 1830 he became a member of the firm of T. & E. Batcheller & Walker. This continued to 1834, when he left that house and did busines alone to 1842, when he retired. Henry Wilson, as everybody knows, was a shoe manufacturer. He was born in Farmington, N. H., February 16, 1812, and died in the vice-president's room at Washington, November 22, 1875. His name was originally Jeremiah Colbath, but at the age of seventeen years it was changed by act of Legislature. He worked at shoemaking, and on attaining his majority he had only received twelve months' schooling, WHOLESALE SHOE TRADE. 319 but had read more than a thousand books. These were loaned to him by a gentlemen who lived two miles from where young Wilson worked. He had to go for them after his work was done, read them nights, and when one or at most two were read and returned, he could take others. He said afterwards that for the first three months after that library was placed at his disposal he only slept from three to six o'clock in the morning, devoting his spare time to reading. In 1832, with his earthly possessions all on his back, he walked from Farmington to Natick, where he was employed a few years at shoemaking. His old shopmates, long after, told of his ability and the rapidity with which he worked. He engaged in business for himself about 1836. He manufactured pegged brogans. In 1840 his interest was first awakened in politics, and he " took the stump " in support of Harrison and Tyler. He was jeered at and nicknamed the "Natick Cobbler." His friends adopted the sobriquet as a decoration. He was three times elected a represent ative, and twice a State senator. In 1848 he quit the Whig party on account of its pro-slavery attitude, and supported the Free Soil candi dates, Van Buren and Adams. In 1850 and 1851 he was president of the State Senate. In 1855 he was chosen to succeed Edward Everett in the United States Senate. In 1859 he was re-elected by nearly an unanimous vote. In 1865 he was elected for the third time; in 1872 he was nominated for vice-president on the ticket with General Grant and elected by an overwhelming majority. General Grant's father, Jesse R. Grant, was a tanner, and his son had had sufficient familiarity with the trade in his boyhood to be reckoned as one of the craft, so during his second term his was looked upon as a thorough leather administra tion, having a tanner and a shoe manufacturer at its head. Henry Wilson wrote several books. His history of the rise and fall of the slave power was being issued from the press at the time of his death. Samuel Atherton was one of Boston's most honored merchants. He was born in Stoughton, January 26, 1815. In 1835 he went to Boston as clerk for William Capen, a shoe dealer. About 1838 he had established a shoe business in Washington street with Edwin Battles. The firm was Battles & Atherton. After one year this was dissolved and Mr. Atherton went as clerk with Caleb Stetson, wholesale shoes and leather, at the corner of Broad and Central streets. Here he was admitted a partner in 1842. In 1845 Mr. Stetson drew out, but retained connec tion as a special partner. About 1850 Amos W. Stetson, afterwards president of the State Bank, with Mr. Atherton formed the firm of 320 SUFFOLK COUNTY Atherton, Stetson & Co. It almost immediately took front rank in the trade. The partners were rich, their connection influential, and dur ing its existence five or six partners retired at different periods with large amounts of money accumulated in the business. Mr. Atherton lived in Dorchester, represented that town for 1867, 1870 and 1877 in the State Legislature, and died there about ten years ago. CHAPTER IV Styles of Shoes — Rise of Shoe Associations — History of the New England Shoe and Leather Manufacturers' Association — Its Executives — Boot and Shoe Out) — Note Brokerage — Great Jobbing Houses. Congress shoes were introduced about 1845. J. Sparkes Hall, of London, claimed the priority of invention. He made a pair for Queen Victoria, and for many years Her Majesty wore no other kind. Of course this popularized them, but they have intrinsic merit, being so easy to put on and off. With recent improvements in goring they are a very desirable kind of shoe. They were made without heels for women's wear up to 1853 ; since then heels of various heights have been used. Shoes with very thick soles were worn by all sorts of people dur ing the Civil War. Later, they were made medium thickness, and at the present time they are required to be very thin and flexible. Gaiter boots, lasting or serge, were laced on the side about 1840. This fashion went out twenty years later. Polish, or high cut boots, called also polkas, began to be made in 1860. Button boots, which were first made in the 50's, became very popular along in 1864, and have con tinued so for women's wear. Men's shoes are seldom made to button now. Cloth tops and cloth gaiters are fashionable for the time being. Women's shoes of fine kid came in fashion about 1865. French leather was used largely in their construction. Great improvements in American kid have been made in a few years past, and now there is as good kid produced here as any where. Patent leather is a fashionable material for both men's and women's shoes now, and tanners are beginning to produce it here. Shoe manufacturing was a profitable occupation, with few drawbacks, up to the year 1837. In 1822 there were a good many failures, but WHOLESALE SHOE TRADE. 321 they were for small amounts. No one had much capital in the busi ness. There was not a shoe manufacturer in Massachusetts, at that time, worth $40,000. In 1837, the time of the greatest "panic " that had ever been heard of all over the country, the losses by bad debts and shrinkage of prices were terrific. The business had been overdone. Multitudes of firms had commenced making shoes since 1830. A ma jority of them were unable to meet their engagements at maturity. They obtained extensions, but they took hold with renewed vigor. Although constant accessions were made to their ranks, they enjoyed a season of great prosperity for twenty years. Then occurred the " panic " of 1857, but the trade was on so firm a foundation that there were very few failures. From 1857 to 1861 the business thrived. Then the Civil War commenced, and for a while all was chaos commercially. Up to 1830 the Boston wholesale shoe dealers were all jobbers. The manufacturers- sold from their shops in the country, where buyers visited them regularly. While the number of manufacturers has greatly multiplied in Boston — indeed all of them have stores or offices here — yet the jobbing trade has not retrograded. In 1828 there were $1,200,000 worth of shoes sold at wholesale. In 1840 ten houses were located in the vicinity of Quiney Market and Broad street; they sold $2,500,000 worth. In 1857 the number had increased to nineteen; the sales approximated $4,000,000. The largest, Atherton, Stetson & Co., sold $500,000 worth a year. They also sold leather. Benjamin P. Hutchinson,, lately cele brated as a Chicago grain speculator, was a jobber of shoes on Central street. Brigham & Gore is perpetuated by the house of George P. Gore & Co., of Chicago. Only one of the firms of 1857 remains — Amos P. Tapley & Co. This house dates from 1837. The senior partner, still active (1892), has transacted business fifty-five years, and always paid a hundred cents on the dollar. In 1865, at the close of the Civil War, there were the same number of jobbers as in 1857 — nineteen. They sold $7,800,000 in that year. Prices were at least fifty per cent. higher than they are now, and on some kinds much higher. Women's grain shoes that sell for 85c. and $1 now, were jobbed for $2 in 1865. In 1880 there were twenty-two houses; sales, $9,000,000. In 1891 there were twenty-seven, three of them dealing in rubbers exclusively. Their sales were $20,000,000, by far the largest shoe jobbing business done in any city in the United States. 41 322 SUFFOLK COUNTY Batchelder & Lincoln is the title of one of the largest houses in the world doing an exclusive jobbing business in shoes. It was established in 1852. Mr. Batchelder is not living. Joseph B. Lincoln is the prin cipal of the house. His connection with the trade dates from boyhood. He was first a clerk for, and afterward a partner with, George A. Mansfield & Co. , in Dock square. His career has been one of uninter rupted success. The store, Nos. 94 to 98 Federal street, Boston, occu pied by the firm, has seven floors, with 4,500 square feet of space on each floor. A passenger and two freight elevators are run. Every thing is systematized. The office clerks, receiver's stock clerks, order clerks, salesmen, porters and shippers, all have their allotted work. The whole is under the supervision of Mr. Lincoln. Mr. Lincoln's method is to market the entire product of manufacturers whose shoes are of acknowledged superiority. There are several in Lynn, all of whose goods he disposes of. It is the same course pursued in regard to men's fine shoes. Nearly a dozen of the best known makers on the South Shore turn in their product to the firm. All the goods are war ranted as represented. They have so large an assortment in stock — almost a million dollars' worth — that they can keep retailers constantly " sized up " with any width, size, style or variety of shoes. This is a great object to dealers; it enables them to do a safer, closer business. Mr. Lincoln says: " It is of little importance which house does the largest business, if the lines carried are ready sellers and orders are promptly filled." Winch Brothers also do an immense business. The house was estab lished in 1862 by Joseph R. and John F. Winch, who with George F. Winch and John H. Gibbs now compose the firm. Parker, Holmes & Co. started in 1880; they also do a large business. From 1865 to 1870 shoes were jobbed at net prices. If time was wanted, interest was added. Sales are now made mostly on thirty days. The Boston jobbers usually control the production of various factories. This enables a retailer to stock up entirely from one estab lishment, and renders the jobber a valuable, distributor of New Eng land's largest industrial product. In 1830 the firm of G. W. Thayer & Brothers started in business on Merchants' Row. In 1835 they were on State street, and the style was G. W. & S. T. Thayer. Their principal traffic was in rubbers. These were the old-fashioned, all-rubber shoes that first were brought here from Para in 1823. They were imported rough and had to be lasted WHOLESALE SHOE TRADE. 323 and finished here. The firm hired lofts over the store and employed women and girls to last and prepare the goods for market. After a while they sent out lasts to Para and had the rubbers made over them there. These old rubbers are a very scarce article now. After vulcanization was discovered they were bought up and ground over to furnish rub ber for the new style of goods. The Thayer firm sold leather shoes as well, and became one of the largest in the trade. George L. Thayer, the oldest son of George W. Thayer, succeeded him. James B. Field, Edward P. Thayer, W. W. Whitcomb and Emery H. Munroe have suc cessively been interested in the business. The house was then Field, Thayer & Whitcomb. G. L. Thayer and Mr. Whitcomb retired, and were succeeded by Field, Thayer & Co., now the Field-Thayer Manu facturing Co. They have the books and papers of the firm from the beginning. - Some one of the descendants of George W. Thayer, the founder of the house, has been active in the firm from its inception: They are jobbers and manufacturers. A. W. Clapp & Co. have conducted their business under, the same style, and manufactured at the same place, Weymouth, since 1855. There has been no change in the firm name of J. W. Brigham & Co. since the senior partner commenced business on Pearl street in 185S. He has a factory at Worcester, and was one of the first to make fine goods expressly for the retailers. Charles Hayden formed the firm of Hayden & Downing in 1845. Mr. Hayden bought the business and moved in 1859 to Pearl street, where in 1867, the house was changed to its present style, Hayden, Guardenier & Co. They were on the west side of Pearl street, but immediately after the fire moved to their present location. In 1856 there were in Boston 218 wholesale shoe and leather dealers. Their combined sales were -$61,140,000. Only one firm, T. &¦ E. Batcheller, did a1 business of as much as $1,000,000 a year ; two firms sold ^$800,000;. nine- $500,000, and' thirty $200,000 each. That year there were 44,308,'302 pairs of shoes made in the State; 265 tanners used 2,101,872 hides, principally for upper leather, and 247 curriers finished $6,087,737 worth of leather. When 'the shoe and leather trade reached large proportions the ex pediency of establishing an -exchange or place of meeting for buyers and- sellers began to be considered. The nature of the business seemed to call -for- such an 'institution. Twice, a week — Wednesday and Satur day — the -manufacturers came into Boston • by the hundreds, and here numerous buyers of shoes and sellers of leather waited to receive them. 324 SUFFOLK COUNTY. Aforetime when stage coaches supplied the early transportation, except that some men living not very far off came on their vehicles, "Wildes Hotel " in Elm street was the resort of the shoe and leather men. Wednesdays and Saturdays were known as " shoe days. " Sol Wildes, the popular host, made a large fortune entertaining them. The dealers had stores contiguous to Elm street, being located on North, Blackstone, Fulton, Shoe and Leather, and North and South Market streets. In 1854 Lewis' Rice fitted up the American House on Hanover street, and the shoe men congregated mostly at his hotel. In the vestibule a vast amount of business was transacted. There Putney & Watts and Gardner, Carleton & Co., of Richmond; H. S. Wyche, of Petersburg ; G. W. Dunbar and E. Marqueze, of New Orleans ; D. F. Fleming and Henry Daley, of Charleston ; L. L. Warren and Low & Whitney, of Louisville ; J. H. Henry, of Little Rock ; George R. French, of Wilmington ; with others, bargained for negro brogans, lasting gait ers, long leg calf boots, and other goods suited to the wants of the slaves, or of their owners, of both sexes and all ages. Their purchases were sent South in packet ships, and in those days the ships carried the American flag at the masthead. There also came Oliver Bennett, or his successors, Fiske, Knight & Co., W. H. Comstock, Samuel C. Davis, John R. Lionberger, and Follenstein & Gauss, of St. Louis. Most of these men went from Massachusetts originally, and up to about 1845 the shoes they bought were sent to New Orleans and thence up the Mississippi, a long voyage. Their credit was A 1. It was told by Amasa Walker that in the dark days of 1837 a merchant from St. Louis came into his store and wanted to buy some shoes. The following col loquy ensued: " How many shoes will you take home this trip? " " As many as I took last year, or more. " " But, why do you buy so freely in these hard times?" " Because my customers want the goods, and can pay for them." " How can the Missouri trade pay for shoes when all the rest of the country is bankrupt? " " I don't know, unless it is because we have got no banks." Amasa Walker, after that, was known as an "anti-bank" man. Most of the western banks were " wild-cat " institutions in those days. The pioneers of the Northwest were popular visitors to the Ameri can House. Bradley & Metcalf, who went out from Spofford & Tiles- ton, of New York, to Milwaukee in 1843. The firm still exists, but W. WHOLESALE SHOE TRADE. 325 H. Metcalf died in April, 1892. Its members are millionaires. Mer chants from Detroit — giants in those days — came also. Zach Chandler bought dry goods and shoes as early as 1834. A. C. McGraw, whose continuous career in the shoe trade extends over sixty years. H. P. Baldwin, afterwards governor of Michigan and senator in Congress. Milton Tootle established in St. Joseph, Mo., in 1849. He built the St. Jo Opera House. C. Gotzian, St. Paul. L. L. Warren, of Louis ville, who went from Boston about 1835. For many years he- did the largest shoe business in the South. He biiilt the Warren Memorial Church in that city at a cost of $60,000. W. E. Doggett and M. D. Wells came from Chicago. O. A. Childs, of Cleveland, and J. R. Cum- mings, of Toledo, were buyers from the West. From Cincinnati, Will iam F. Thorne, John Gates and John Simpkinson. Their purchases, as well as those of H. Childs and H. S. Albree, of Pittsburgh, were sent over the Alleghany Mountains and to Pittsburgh by wagon. The buy ers from Ohio River towns received their quota by flat boats or steam ers. Haddock, Hazeltine & Co., J. H. Hendry, and M. M. Paul, of Philadelphia. Chauncey Brooks, James Carey, T. J. Magruder, and others of Baltimore got their shoes by sailing vessels. These were the strong houses of the olden time. Their buyers visited the market once — in the fall — sometimes again in the spring. These parties congregated in the American House rotunda until 1859. Then, as the hegira to Pearl street was making progress, the owners of real estate at the north end took the alarm and tried to ar rest the movement. The Codman building, adjoining the American House, had just been erected and the second floor was fitted up as an exchange. It was opened with considerable /fclat. Governor Nathaniel P. Banks made a speech. The opposition of Pearl street dealers, how ever, proved too strong for the movement. The room was cut up and used for offices. It still bears the name of the " Shoe and Leather Ex change," but it is only that in name. There was no regular place of meeting for ten years after this, ex cept at the American House. That place of rendezvous was incon venient. Most of the dealers were located in Pearl, High and Congress streets. Buyers began to stop at the Revere, Parker's and the Adams House. In 1869 a plan for the "Boston Union Merchants' Exchange " was formulated. Different mercantile bodies were interested and the board was incorporated. It was proposed to erect an exchange to accommo- 326 SUFFOLK COUNTY. date all the wholesale merchants of the city, irrespective of the class of goods they dealt in. It was also proposed to build on the spot where the " Old State House " stands, but the project was never carried out. On the evening of July 3, 1869, a number of members of the trade met at a dinner at the Revere House. As stated in the invitations, it was an initiatory movement towards forming a " Board of Trade," or other similar organization. Francis F. Emery, presided. He forcibly urged the object proposed. Charles A. Grinnell, George W. Merritt, Warren Sawyer, S. R. Spaulding, Eben S. Poor, B. E. Cole, and other merchants spoke in favor of an organization. A committee was appointed to " devise a plan for the formation of an association." The committee reported at a meeting held at No. 98 Pearl street, December 15, 1869. S. R. Spaulding was chairman. They decided to organize, and nominated the following officers: President, William B. Spooner; vice-presidents, William Claflin, Newton; John Cummings, Woburn; A. C. Mayhew, Milford; Francis Dane, Boston; J. H. Walker, Wor cester; treasurer, Warren Sawyer. Fifty directors were chosen, and the name New England Shoe and Leather Manufacturers' Association adopted. The first meeting after organization was held at the store of William Claflin & Co., December 29, 1869, at which, on motion of John Cummings, a committee of three was appointed to ' ' nominate a com mittee of credits, to consist of seven members." Mr. Cummings stated the object " to be to establish a bureau of information as to the commercial standing and solvency of shoe and leather buyers." This was the commencement of the Bureau of Credits. The name of the organization was altered in February, 1870, by the omission of the word "Manufacturers." Rooms were taken on the first, second and third floor of No. 107 Pearl street, corner of High. There were five hundred members enrolled. Edward P. Bond was the first secretary. On Saturday, May 14, 1870, the new rooms were opened. There was a banquet in which over four hundred members of the trade par ticipated. William B. Spooner presided. Addresses were made by prominent merchants. When the association got into working order the great fire of Novem ber, 1872, occurred. Temporary quarters were secured at No. 91 State street. -Meetings were held there until 1874, when the association re moved to 124 Federal street. In 1876 the rooms corner of Summer and Bedford streets were rented and occupied till 1883, WHOLESALE SHOE TRADE. 327 Charles S. Ingalls, formerly in the leather trade, had, in the mean time, been appointed secretary of the association and manager of the Bureau of Credits. In 1883 the association rented spacious rooms on the south side of Bedford, near Kingston street. They remained there until 1890. Steps were then taken to erect a building. A building committee, with ex- Governor William Claflin as chairman, was appointed and the follow ing Act of Legislature was ratified by an unanimous vote : The New England Shoe and Leather Association may hold real and personal estate to an amount not exceeding $500,000, and the income thereof shall be devoted exclusively to the purposes of said corporation. The building is of light-colored brick, with terra cotta trimmings. It occupies a lot of 12,000 feet, with a frontage of 147 feet on Bedford and 64 feet on Kingston street. It is six stories high. The Associ ation Hall occupies a large central space fronting on Bedford street. The area is about 4,000 feet, and there are telegraph office, electric lights, lavatories, and all the modern conveniences. There are two, wide entrances on Bedford and one on Kingston street. The hall on the ground floor is used for the exchange. The building is eligible in respect of light, heat and ventilation. There are three elevators for freight, and two for passengers. The second, third and fourth floors are for offices. The fifth floor is the Bureau of Credits. There is a large and convenient main room, consultation rooms, and directors' room. On the sixth floor are the parlors and dining room of the Bos ton Trade Club. The following gentlemen have been presidents of the New England Shoe and Leather Association : William B. Spooner, 1869 to 1871. Mr. Spooner began in the leather business about 1833 as clerk for Josiah M. Jones. He bore a high character as a merchant, accumulated riches, and was owner of some fine blocks of stores on Congress street. Mr. Spooner was for many years president of the Massachusetts Temperance Society. He died October 28, 1880, aged seventy-four years. John Cummings, 1872 to 1873. He was and is a tanner and leather dealer, doing business in Woburn and Boston. Mr. Cummings was commissioner from Massachusetts to the Centennial Exposition at Philadelphia, and one of the jury in the shoe and leather department. He was also president of the Board of Trade. He is president of the Shawmut Bank. 328 SUFFOLK COUNTY. Thomas E. Proctor, 1874 to 1875. Mr. Proctor is now president of the Thos. E. Proctor Leather Company. They own ten or more tan neries in Massachusetts and Pennsylvania. His father, Abel Proctor, came to Boston and embarked in the leather trade in 1842. Thomas E. Proctor has been connected as partner and overseer of the business since 1852. He has erected and occupied three of the largest leather stores in Boston at various periods since 1872. The stock company of which Mr. Proctor is president was formed in 1887. Charles A. Grinnell, 1876 to 1879. Mr. Grinnell was formerly a Baltimore shoe merchant, and for many years thereafter a member of the firm of J. F. Dane, Grinnell & Co. Augustus P. Martin, 1880 to 1885. General Martin has been identi fied with the shoe trade many years. He was born in Abbott, Piscat- aqua county, Me. , November 23, 1835. His father was Pearl Martin, a merchant of Boston. When seven years old, A. P. Martin came to Boston and entered the public school, and later attended a private school at Melrose. He went with Fay & Stone, shoe dealers on Pearl street, as a clerk, about 1854. That year he joined " Cobb's Battery," and was a member in 1861 when he enlisted for three months in the Civil War. In November he re-enlisted; was first lieutenant in the Third Massachusetts Battery, captain in 1862, and was made Chief of Artillery, 1st Division, 5th Corps. In 1863 he was named commander of the brigade formed from the 5th Corps. He fought in thirteen battles, and at Gettysburg held "Little Round Top" against all hostile forces sent to capture the position. He was made colonel by brevet March, 1865. He returned at the close of the war, and was for about four years in the house of Francis Dane & Co. In 1871 he formed the firm of Martin & Skinner, afterwards Martin, Skinner & Fay, and is now the senior of the house of A. P. Martin & Co. , with a factory at Hudson. In 1878 Mr. Martin was captain of the Ancient and Honorable Artillery Company of Boston. In 1882 Governor Long commissioned him as brigadier-general on his staff, and in 1883 he was elected mayor of Boston. William Claflin, 1886 to 1892, Ex-Governor Claflin is one of the most prominent citizens of this Commonwealth. He was born in Mil ford in 1818. His father, Lee Claflin, was a tanner. William Claflin began to manufacture shoes when eighteen years of age. In 1838 he went to St. Louis and engaged in the hide and leather trade with John How, who had gone there from Massachusetts, Mr. WHOLESALE SHOE TRADE. 323 How afterwards became mayor of St. Louis.' In 1851 Mr. Claflin sev ered this connection and formed the shoe jobbing house of Claflin, Allen & Co. He withdrew from business in St. Louis in 1888. In ad dition to his St. Louis connection, William Claflin became a partner with his father in the shoe business, in Fulton street, in 1841. With some changes that house continued until 1891, being the oldest shoe house in the city. William Claflin, Coburn & Co. was its recent style. N. P. Coburn, one of the partners, had been with Mr. Claflin since 1843. James A. Woolson entered the house, a boy, in 1846, and be came a partner in 1857. Of the political career of William Claflin it is superfluous to speak. It was honorable and useful to the highest degree He was represent ative from 1849 to 1852; State senator 1860 and 1861, the latter year president of the Senate; lieutenant-governor four years, 1866 to 1869; governor of Massachusetts three years, 1870 to 1872 ; member of con gress four years, 1879 to 1883 ; and four years chairman of the National Republican Committee. He is still connected with the shoe trade, as a partner in the house of Gregory, Shaw & Co. Francis W. Breed, one of the largest shoe manufacturers in the United States, has extensive factories at Lynn. A more extended notice of him appears in the biographical department. In addition to the New England Association, that embraces all the manufacturers in these States, there are the following local Boston clubs : The Narragansett Shoe and Leather Club is a convivial coterie. They go down to Narragansett Bay every summer for a pleasure ex cursion. In 1891 they celebrated their fifteenth anniversary. The Leather Manufacturers' Association dates from 1886. The ophilus King was the first president. The Boston Shoe Associates was founded in 1886. Franklin Adams was the first president. The club is restricted to fifty members. At the death of one of the associates, each member pays $10, and the gross amount is presented to the wife or nearest relative of the deceased. The Boston Boot and Shoe Travelers' League dates from 1884. The Sheepskin Club of Boston, as its name imports, is an organiza tion of members of the sheepskin trade. A meeting and banquet is held in January of each year. The club dates from 1879. In 1888 the Boston Boot and Shoe Club held its first meeting. Seven banquets occur during the year, at which topics of trade or gen- 42 330 SUFFOLK COUNTY eral interest are chosen for discussion. A "Ladies' Night" is held yearly, at which addresses are made by women. John J. Henry was the first president of the club. He was succeeded by Francis F. Em ery. F. H. Nazro was elected president in 1891. The Boston Trade Club was formed in 1888. Thomas E.' Proctor was the first president. He declined the office the next year. Horace W. Wadleigh was elected, with Frank B. Converse as treasurer. Mr. Converse is president for 1892. The objects of the Trade Club are social. In the fine dining room in the Association building visitors connected with the trade are entertained, and most of the members dine there regularly. The Boston Leather Associates organized in 1885, with Gordon Plum- mer of the Boston Leather Company as president. Notes given for the sales of shoes, or to raise money for purchases, have been bought and sold ever since the shoe business has become an important industry. The earliest dealer was Gilbert Dean, who had an office under the "Old State House." There was a law at that time against all interest above six per cent. , but it was evaded by adding an extra charge made for exchange. Tisdale & Hewins, who kept a leather store on Long Wharf, were dealers in shoe notes. Mr. Tisdale was a director in the New England Bank, and a great deal of such paper went through that institution. John Cushing was a well known note broker thirty or forty years ago, and W. F. Lawrence still later. During the war the government issued certificates to pay contractors for furnishing shoes and other equipage. These certificates were numbered and re deemed in regular order. By far the greater portion of the shoe con tracts were placed in Massachusetts and note brokers did a good busi ness in loaning money on them. They were taken for security for a note for about ten per cent, less than their face value and two per cent. a month charged for doing the business. Before the war shoes were sold on eight months' credit. From 1861 to 1867 the terms were gen erally cash, thirty days. Gradually more time was given and notes were again taken — as in ante-bellum times — "payable to our own or der," and on six months' time. These could be sold, if necessary, "without recourse." At the commencement of the season brokers notified their customers at what rate and how much of their paper they could sell. These oiie name notes of shoe and leather promisors can always be placed on favorable terms. Note brokers keep lists of paper they have, and the buying or selling rate. Manufacturers can secure WHOLESALE SHOE TRADE. 331 themselves against loss by disposing of such notes as they may take in this way. The note brokers disposed of $50,000,000 of such obligations in 1880, and $65,000,000 in 1890. CHAPTER V. Trade Statistics — The Great Fire — Labor Organizations — The Shoe District of Boston — Shoe Towns. In 1860 Essex county produced shoes to the value of $14,500,000 ; Wor cester, $9,500,000; and Plymouth, $9,250,000. In the State, $46,440,- 209 worth; of these, $4.867,399 -were made in Lynn, and $4,130,500 in Haverhill. The largest production of any one establishment was at North Brookfield, $750,000. It is estimated that the cost of making shoes by machinery is less than three-fifths as much as by hand work. The labor is only about fifty per cent. Use of buildings and machinery, say ten per cent., makes sixty per cent. , or three-fifths. This estimate varies in different localities. The saving on cheap shoes is ordinarily more than on other grades. An elucidation of the relative advantages in using machines is fully set forth in the following statistics of Massachusetts shoe industry at different periods for half a century. . In 1845 there were made in this Commonwealth 20,896,312 pairs of shoes; value, $14,799,140; hands employed,- 45,877. This was one and fifty-two-hundredths pairs per capita for each working day. No ma chinery of any kind was used. In 1855 there were manufactured 45,066,828 pairs of shoes; value, $37,501,727 ; hands employed, 77,827. Each person produced 579 pairs that year, an average of one and ninety-three-hundredths pairs daily. Sewing machines for stitching had recently been introduced. These were used for fitting the uppers and stitching the linings. In 1865 there were made 31,870,381 pairs of shoes; value, $56,113,- 987; hands employed, 52,821. This was the year the war closed and business was badly disarranged. The product was small. The value per pair greater than it ever was before, or has ever been since that time. Two pairs a day was the product of each person. Some ma- 332 SUFFOLK COUNTY. chinery was used, but work-people were not proficient in its applica tion. In 1875 there were manufactured 59,762,866 pairs of shoes ; value, $89,375,972; hands employed, 48,090. Full sets of machinery were used. The average yearly product of each employee was 1,242^ a year, or 6-J- pairs daily. Almost twice as many shoes were made in 1875 as. in 1865, while 4,731 less persons were employed. The United States census of 1870 gave the following statistics for Massachusetts shoe trade: Number of factories, 2,392; hands employed, 54,831; wages paid, $27,265,283; value of product, $88,399,583. The total was 78,512,194 pairs of boots, shoes and slippers made that year. Massachusetts produced 57^ per cent., and New England 67TV per cent, of all the boots and shoes made in the United States that year. In 1885 there were made in the State 92, 485, 400 pairs of shoes; value, $119,079,000; hands employed, 64,858. Each employee made 1,426 pairs, an average of 4f pairs daily. Lynn and Haverhill turned out that year 37,124,320 pairs with 17,500 workpeople, an average of 2,121^ pairs yearly, or seven pairs a day for each worker. The wages paid averaged $7. 75 a week for each employee. The United States census for 1880 furnishes these statistics for the Massachusetts shoe trade for that year: Boots and Shoes (Factory Industry). Number of factories 982 Value of all materials 159,906,773 Capital ___ $21,098,133 Pairs boots made, including women's Hands employed ..61,651 and children's lace and button Wages paid $24,875,106 -- 23,018,813 Sides sole leather used. .3,852,455 Pairs of shoes made 55,493,381 Sides upper used ..11,754,766 Total value of product .195,900,510 Other leather, pounds 22,632,639 The report of the Massachusetts Bureau of Statistics of Labor for 1891 contains table of cost of production as follows: Percentage of Cost in Pair of Shoes. Stock ..69.29 Taxes _ _ 16 Wages 27.65 Repairs 15 Salaries 1.23 New equipment .08 Freight... _. .58 Other expenses 08 Rent _ 56 Insurance _. .22 Per cent _ 100 WHOLESALE SHOE TRADE. 333 A comparative table of the shoe industry for each decade, from 1845 to 1885, was: Classification. 1845 1855 1865 1875 1885 Number of establishments 45,877 $I4,799.T4° 77.827 $37,501,725 206 $6,574,904 $23,196,717 52,821 $35,7+1,393 2,638 $17,398,629$49,086,164 48,090 $17,580,410 4,630 $83,153,755 2,366 $34,3*3,421$70,178,677 64,858 $26,916,608 io,435>SJ $114,729,533 Motive power (horse power _.. The value of all machinery in shoe factories in 1885 was $4,513,370. In rubber factories $1,695,523. Wages ranged at $10 to $20 for males and $6 to $12 a week for females, but 2,305 males and 151 females made more than $20 a week. Ten hours was an average day's labor. At the commencement of the war, in 1861, a great many manufac turers failed. Collections South were stopped. Francis Dane was. a prominent manufacturer whose indebtedness was principally in that section. He went through the panic unscathed. Mr. Dane had great faith in his customers, and they proved themselves men of probity. At the time war was declared, Gardner, Carlton & Co. , of Richmond, Va. , tried to remit to him a payment for a lot of shoes, and for that purpose purchased a bill of exchange on London for ^200. This was sent by mail, but communication being suddenly cut off, the letter went to the western section of the Confederacy, and was returned ter them after the lapse of more than a year. They were, however, deter mined to forward it, and in 1863, upon the occasion of the coming North of Mr. Chamberlain, one of the partners, the bill of exchange was sewed in his overcoat. He got it safely through, although he was thoroughly searched by the Confederate and Union officials. When he gave it into the hands of Mr. Dane, its value had increased nearly threefold, from rise in premium on gold. The extra amount placed to the credit of the senders was of great advantage to them after the close of the war. In April, 1865, a great outdoor meeting was held in Pearl street. Several members of the Southern shoe trade addressed the assemblage. Amicable relations had been restored, and they were again in the shoe district as customers. Great efforts had been made to cancel the in debtedness. A few had saved some cotton; others possessed gold hoarded for four years. A good proportion of Southern shoe merchants paid a dividend ; some settled in full. A majority of the jobbers were 334 SUFFOLK COUNTY. in a position to continue business. At the meeting referred to, a few of them created a sensation by telling how they had sent their boys north at the commencement of the struggle, and that "not one of 'them ever fired on the old flag." On the night of November 9 (Saturday), 1872, the "great fire" in Boston occurred. The entire business portion was burned. Massive granite and marble warehouses, with the greater portion of their con tents were destroyed. The fire broke out at the corner of Summer and Kingston streets, burned over the territory to Broad, and north to Milk street, where the open site of the post-office, then being erected, stayed its progress. The losses of the shoe and leather trade were about as follows : Leather. _. S 5,650,000 Boots and shoes 3,800,000 Boots and shoes, rubber 950,009 Findings 600,000 Total $11,000,000 Buildings owned by members of the trade S 1,250,000 About half of this amount was recovered from the insurance com panies. The comparatively small loss of the findings dealers was due to the fact that one large house had recently moved to Hanover street, and all the others were at the head of Pearl or in Milk street, and had ample time to get goods away before the conflagration reached them. Every team and wagon in the city was pressed into the service to save merchandise in the district. A great many shoe goods were stored in Quiney Block, at the foot of State street. A fire broke out there a few days later, but fortunately did not do much damage. Some of the buildings burned belonged to members of the trade. E. B. Phillips, a dealer in tanner's oils, lost twenty-two stores. B. G. Boardman, hide and leather dealer, owned a fine block. Frederick Jones and his brother Josiah M. owned several stores. Thomas E. Proctor, William B. Spooner, Henry Poor, William Claflin, were among the property owners. They rebuilt immediately, putting up much finer structures than before. Frank L. Fay was the first to build on High street. Stephen Dow put up a fine block a little further down the street. David L. and John G. Webster erected their spacious store. The streets in the burned district were straightened and widened. Ninety acres of flats were filled in and built upon at the foot of Con gress street. WHOLESALE SHOE TRADE. 335 The second great fire in the shoe and leather district occurred in 1893. At 4.25 p.m. on Friday, March 10, of that year, an alarm was rung in from the ill-fated box, No. 52, corner of Summer and Lincoln streets, Boston. On the arrival of the firemen a brisk blaze was in progress in the magnificent Ames building, corner of Lincoln and Essex streets. The fire broke out in the second floor, occupied by Horace Partridge & Co., dealers in toys, notions and small wares, and so rapidly did it spread that in less than ten minutes the entire struc ture was enveloped in a sheet of flame, and in an incredibly short time was a mass of ruins, and the walls had fallen into the street. In less than ten minutes after the flames broke out, the Farlow building, on the opposite side of Lincoln street, took fire, and a second and third alarm was sounded, calling the entire department, and also summoning aid from Newton, Cambridge, Salem, Lynn, Somerville and other places. The Farlow building was completely destroyed, and the fire communicated with the adjoining block, which was soon reduced to ruins. Such was the intensity of the heat, and so rapid the spread of the fire, that none of the occupants of the buildings were enabled to save anything. When the fire reached the fourth floor of the Ames building, occupied by the Redpath Bros. Manufacturing Co., shoe manufacturers, E. W. Redpath and his brother, Leonidas H. Redpath, had no chance to escape by the stairway, and were compelled to jump from the windows. E. W. Redpath escaped with some bruises, but his brother received injuries which proved fatal a few minutes afterward. Two or three others were killed, and a large number of men and girls who were compelled to jump from the windows were seriously injured. Many of them were at once conveyed to the Emergency Hospital, but before their injuries could be attended to, the hospital took fire and all the patients were hastily removed. The elegant new building adjoining the Woonsocket Co., on Essex street, occupied by Brown, Durrell & Co. , small wares, was totally de stroyed, and the Emergency, Hospital rendered untenantable. All the parties burned out were obliged to make such hasty exit that they could not even save their personal effects. The front walls of all the build ings fell into Lincoln street, filling it completely with debris. The United States Hotel took fire and only by almost superhuman efforts on the part of the fireman was it saved. There were three hundred guests in the hotel. The utmost excitement prevailed, and it looked at one time as if a large section in that vicinity would be destroyed, The loss by this fire was $4,500,000. 336 SUFFOLK COUNTY. The domain now appropriated to the shoe and leather business in Boston is the finest and most extensive of any used for a similar purpose in the world. The buildings are ample in size, ornamental in appearance, and erected and arranged for the special requirements of the trade. Before the fire the business was cooped up within narrow bounds, and in buildings mostly erected for other purposes. It is now in a compact area, and each street is devoted to a particular branch of the business. The rapid growth of the trade has created a necessity for just such buildings as now adorn the district. In 1856, when the merchants began to move into Pearl street, that thoroughfare was occupied in part by residences of the oldest Boston families. The Quiney estate and Governor Gore's mansion were there. Daniel Webster studied law there. James and Thomas H. Perkins lived in this street. James Perkins gave to the city the Blind Asylum in South Boston, or rather, he gave his Pearl street mansion for such use, and it was afterwards exchanged for the present building. Gilbert Stuart and Washington Allston, the great painters, during the early part of the last century had studios there. John G. Spurzheim, the phrenologist, lived at the corner of Pearl and Milk streets. The "Old Pearl Street House," on the opposite corner, was for many years ahead- quarters for young men in the trade. Harrison Gray Otis was born in Pearl street. Near the foot of this thoroughfare, between that and Congress street, is an old wharf, and a sign reads: "From this wharf the tea was thrown overboard." Dry goods firms occupied stores on the west side of the street previous to the time the shoe trade began to tend in that direction. The dry goods men moved to Franklin street, and Pearl street was noted all over the country as the great mart for shoes when the conflagration occurred. After the burned district be gan to be rebuilt the streets were all widened and straightened, but on account of the want of a spirit of accommodation on the part of one of the property owners, the trade was attracted in a westerly direction. There are, however, a few shoe houses there yet. Purchase street originally ran along the border of the water. Fort Hill was on one side. That eminence, one of those that gave Boston the title of " Tri- Mountain," was leveled many years ago. Purchase street is now chiefly occupied by the hide trade. High street, with its irregular shape, is occupied principally by deal ers in morocco, sheepskins and light leather. Congress and Federal street are occupied by shoe jobbers in part. WHOLESALE SHOE TRADE. 337 Summer street was formerly lined on both sides by fine residences. Now the shoe manufacturers have the main portion of the street built over with their stately warehouses. Edward Everett and his father-in- law, Peter C. Brooks, lived on Summer street. Daniel Webster lived here on the site now numbered 136. A tablet on the building com memorates the fact. .Devonshire street runs north from Summer, and several stores on it are used by the shoe trade. South street is chiefly occupied by the sole leather dealers. The Boston and Western, and Old Colony railway depots are on this street. The upper leather dealers, are mostly on Lincoln street. The rubber shoe trade and some prominent firms who sell shoe goods are there also. In this district about thirteen hundred firms and individuals carry on the shoe and leather business. . While the shoe manufacturers have enjoyed a measurable degree of prosperity for thirty years, they have suffered periodically from the inter ference of labor organizations. These associations began to be formid able when machinery was introduced. Lynn was an objective point of these disturbers and has suffered considerably by their machinations. A general strike was started in 1859. The women favored it because they objected to sewing machines. The men joined in without stating any specific grievance. There were processions, music and speeches for a few weeks, but the machines held their place. They couldn't be starved out, but the operatives were very nearly, and ultimately went back to work. There was another outbreak in 1872. The Knights of St. Cris pin—organized in 1865 — were very strong in Lynn and measurably dom inated the manufacturers for years. Then came the Knights of Labor. This order was far more powerful than the "Crispins," as in its ranks were marshaled all industrial classes. They brought about a strike in 1878, and walking delegates were appointed to visit the factories and take note of complaints of the workpeople. They also instigated the ."boycott " in this country. Then the manufacturers were induced to move out of town to preserve their self respect and their business. Of late years the tendency has been to organize unions of employees in dif ferent departments. The " Lasters' Union" is the strongest ever known in the shoe trade. It was thought shoes could never be lasted by machinery. Inventive genius worked steadily on the problem, and now it is solved. The union lasters " stumbled in their path," for, of course, skilled labor was wanted on the machines. By order of their 43 338 SUFFOLK COUNTY. leaders they put every obstacle in the way of their introduction, and new men were, in most instances, taught to run them. The lasters found, too late, that inventive genius was too powerful for them. In the spring of 1892 the tanners of sole leather held a meeting and agreed not to work on hides for sixty days. The object they had in view was to prevent overstocking the market and get more price for their leather. Both these objects were attained. In the spring of 1893 they undertook to form a combination to control the manufacture and sale of leather and the purchase of hides. This plan culminated in the formation of the United States Leather Association with a capital of $120,000,000. A truly gigantic corporation. Thomas E. Proctor, of Boston, is president of the organization. They control most of the tan neries, and the bark lands in the Eastern and Middle States. It is dif ficult at this early day to forecast the effect of this combination on the trade. They claim to be able to greatly reduce the expenses of con ducting the leather business. The hide and leather trade of Boston has assumed great proportions. The number of hides received at this port for 1891 and 1892 was: 1892. 1891. Foreign __ 1,221,053 1,187,588 Domestic ..'. 761,782 981,827 Total _ 1,982,835 2,169,415 The receipts of leather in Boston for 1892 were: Rolls 427,153 Cases 13,949 Bdls 202, 469 Sides 14, 528 Bales 57,838 Cars 58 Sides 2,020,357 Hemlock sides 4,704,145 Bellies, bdls 58,197 Union sides 2,653,092 Oak sides 70,063 js 99, 547 Packages 693 Bundles 95,984 Crates _ _ _ 372 Bales _\ 42,194 Boxes , 312 Pieces 27,714 Casks 73 Sacks 18,295 Trusses 48 Barrels 8,934 Cars 46 Cases 7,572 WHOLESALE SHOE TRADE. 339 Shoe manufacturing has not been carried on to any great extent in Boston, although a majority of the goods made in New England are sold here. The shoe production of the city, however, is now increas ing, and three million dollars' worth were made in 1891 in ten factories. The grades range from the poorest to the highest price. The city affords good facilities for obtaining labor and power, and the workshops are convenient for buyers to visit. The Brookfields have been famous shoe towns for almost a century. Otis Ward made "sole shoes " in North Brookfield in 1810. Tyler and Ezra Batcheller worked for him; they were brothers. In 1819 they began for themselves making shoes, which at first they consigned to Enoch Train of Boston, who had a line of packets running to Havana. He also shipped the shoes South. It was a profitable business. The goods were low cut, sewed and pegged, and packed in barrels for ship ment. In 1824 the brothers built a shop, two stories high. It was enlarged in 1825, and at regular periods thereafter, until it was one of the largest in the State. Tyler Batcheller went to Boston and opened a store ; Ezra Batcheller superintended the factory at North Brookfield. Both were in an appropriate position, and the business took a front rank. From 1830 to 1834 the house was T. & E: Batcheller & Walker; T. & E. Batcheller to 1852, after which time Chas. Adams, jr., Alfred H. Batcheller, Wm. C. King and George E. Batcheller were in turn admitted, and the firm was T. & E. Batcheller & Co. up to about 1862, when Ezra and his two sons, Alfred H. and Geo. E. Batcheller, formed the firm of E. & A. H. Batcheller & Co. It is a corporation now under the same name. Chas. Adams, jr., was with the house. He was a representative in 1850-1-2 ; State senator 1865-68 ; treasurer and receiver of the Com monwealth 1865 to 1868 inclusive. Aaron Kimball began manufacturing shoes in Brookfield in 1821. In 1830 John P. Robinson came with him. They made boots and brogans. In 1852 they had a store in Fulton street. Afterwards they went to Hanover street, and, Chas. S. Kimball being admitted, the house became Kimball, Robinson & Co. Mr. Kimball retired in 1864 ; died in Brookfield, 1866. John P. Robinson was a direct descendant of Rev. John Robinson, the well known pastor of the Pilgrim Church. Mr. Robinson came to Boston in 1852. About 1865 he formed a part nership with Jas. Longley, jr., who married his daughter Julia. This firm was Robinson & Longley. They were succeeded in 1867 by 340 SUFFOLK COUNTY. Loring & Reynolds, but had special capital in the firm. Mr. Robinson sold out his shoe interests and retired in 1881; He died at North Con way, August 5, 1882. The census of 1890 gives the following report of Brockton : SHOE AND LEATHER MANUFACTURES OW BROCKTON 1890. Boot and Shoe Cut Stock. Boot and Shoe Findings $116,929 $227,418 84,25031,640 3,300 5,059 23,290 ",737 525 1,000 10,212 78,99210,025 15,480 111,528 27,39619,419 53,487 64,713 $43,875 81 $58,562 "5 71 5 7213 5 30 $195,998 195,448 512 $220,430 J64i37i 1,724 37 54,335 $13,587 $16,992 1,797 423388386 500 3,3i8 6,775 5,oi61,244 314. 1,3652,84s 310 5,8g8 $275,255 241,574 $37i,942 301,433 33,68i 70,509 Boots and hoes-Factor Product. Establishments '. Capital employed— Aggregate '. Hired Property — Total Plant— Total - Land _ Buildings Machinery, tools and implements.... Live Assets — Total Raw materials Stock in process and finished product Cash, bills and accounts receivable, and all sundries not elsewhere reported ' Wages paid— Aggregate _ Average number of hands employed during the year.. Males above 16 years ' > Females' above 15 years Children . Pieceworkers Materials used— Aggregate cost Principal materials __._._ Fuel.. _ _ Mill supplies All other materials Miscellaneous expenses— Aggregate Amount paid for contract work Rent— _ Power and heat -__ Taxes .. Insurance Repairs, ordinary, of buildings and machinery Interest on cash used in the business All sundries not elsewhere reported Goods manufactured— Aggregate value. , Principal product All other products, including receipts from custom work and repairing $6,180,188 750,100 z»i 86,637 I82,975344,766658,896 4.243,451 799.875 683.492 2.760,084 $4,916,936 8,1202,925 689 52 4,454 $8,844,474 8,044,603 •33,857 43 765,97! $904,326 14.9*252.428 9,666 22,98031,815 57,20054,687 660,629 $16,171,624 I6,i34,4S2 It is just about eighty years ago that Micah Faxon began shoe man ufacturing in Brockton. The name was North Bridgewater then. It was changed in 1873. The Old Colony Railway has two stations: Brockton, and one in the village of Campello. There are in both these places sixty-four shoe factories. Men's and boys' calf, split and buff shoes are made. David Howard and his son, of the same name, fol lowed Faxon early. There have since been many Howards, and the WHOLESALE SHOE TRADE. 341 Packards also are numerous. The Keiths were great operators. Thirty years ago Martin L. Keith was quoted on Pearl street as an un commonly large producer: he made " a thousand pair a day." There are others of his name in Brockton now who make four or five times as many. In 1865 the town's product was $1,112,756; in 1875, $3,585,103; and in 1885, $11,035,338. One of the largest industries in Brockton is that of the " Hub Gore Makers," otherwise the Herbert & Rapp Company, who produce goring for congress shoes. ¦ They employ several hundred operatives. Beverly, sixteen miles from Boston on the line of the Boston and Maine Railway, has been a shoe manufacturing site for half a century. Slippers and fine shoes are produced there. Seth Norwood '& Co. is the oldest house, established in 1850. B. E. Cole, D. Lefavour & Co. — now Davis & Morgan — and Woodbury Bros, are old houses. There are thirty-one manufacturers in the town. Danvers was mentioned in the United States census of 1810 as a town in which shoes were largely manufactured. Caleb Oakes and Moses Putnam were among the first who engaged in the business. Col. Gilbert Tapley and John Fowler made up a lot of shoes and took them to Baltimore by teams in 1814. Upon reaching there the English were about bombarding the place. Col. Tapley put the teams at serv ice, carrying, troops and ammunition to North Point, while Mr. Fowler sold the shoes. During that war the soldiers in our army were supplied extensively with shoes made in Danvers. Heavy goods for men's wear were formerly the product of Danvers shops; now men's and women's pegged and sewed shoes are made. There are twenty-two factories in the town. E. & A. Mudge date from 1837. Grafton, Worcester county, is an old shoe town. J. W. Slocomb was the first to make shoes there in 1813. There are three manufacturers in the place now. The Grafton Flax Mills produce shoe thread there, and William Paton, porpoise; J. R. Leeson & Co., Boston, are the agents of both concerns. J. W. Slocomb & Co. were the first. Samuel Warren tanned card leather there in 1800. •Hudson is thirty-four miles west of Boston, perched on the crest of the tall hills that separate Worcester from Middlesex county. There are eight large factories; women's polkas, grain, buff and split are the main product. Men's heavy "bals" are also made. The oldest firm is F. Brigham & Co., dating from 1834 without change in style. Mr. 342 SUFFOLK COUNTY Brigham adopted sewing machines in 1854 and pegging machines in 1857. The firm, of which he is the head, have four factories and two miles of waterways that furnish power. L. T. Jefts began manufacturing shoes here with a capital of about $500 in 1859. He is now one of the largest manufacturers in the town. He served, as a State representative in the Legislature in 1883, and as senator in 1886 and 1887. In the Senate he was chairman of the Com mittee on Manufactures and on the liquor law. He is president of the Hudson National Bank, also of the New England Conservatory of Music and the Boston University. General A. P. Martin, ex-mayor of Boston, has a factory there. About 5,000,000 pairs of shoes are made in the place yearly. Haverhill is the largest slipper manufacturing town in the world. That is the specialty of the place, although a good many button boots are made. The business was established about 1800. Moses and James Atwood were in the vanguard of shoe producers. Moses At- wood went to Philadelphia in 1812 with a wagon load of shoes, which he sold. That led to and founded a wholesale shoe house in that city. David How was a large shoe manufacturer during and before the last war with England. The material he used was roan skins ; there were no goat skins in those days, and roan sounded better than sham, though it was the same thing. He is credited with having made and sold as much as $100,000 worth yearly at that early period. His son, Moses How, succeeded him. Paul Spofford manufactured shoes here in 1811-14. The firm was Hatch & Spofford. He went to New York with Thomas Tileston, a printer in Plaverhill, and formed the house of Spofford & Tileston, shoes. This was about 1815. About 1820 turn shoes were made; morocco began to be tanned in the town. For many years all shoes were transported from Haverhill in large covered wagons drawn by oxen or horses. In 1836, 26,955 cases were carried to Boston that way. In 1832 there were twenty-eight shoe manufacturers in Haverhill; ninety-eight in 1860; one hundred and fifty-two in 1876 ; and one hundred and sixty-five in 1892. There are about seventy dealers in leather and slioe stock. In 1876 there were 5,821,267 pairs of shoes made in the town; in 1885 13,551,905. WHOLESALE SHOE TRADE. 343 The census of 1890 gives the following report of Haverhill industry: SHOE AND LEATHER MANUFACTURERS OF HAVERHILL, i?9o. Boot and Shoe Cut Stock. Boot and Shoe Findings Boots and Shoes — Factory Product. Slippers — Factory Product. Establishments... _ ._. Capital employed— Aggregate Hired property — Total Plant— Total Land Buildings.. Machinery, tools and implements Lwe Assets — Total Raw materials Stock in process and finished product Cash, bills, and accounts receivable, and all sun dries not elsewhere reported Wages paid — Aggregate 'Average number of hands employed during the year Males above 16 years Females above 15 years Children ._ Pieceworkers Materials used — Aggregate cost Principal materials Fuel Mill supplies _ All other materials . Miscellaneous expensed— Aggregate Amount paid for contract work Rent— Power and heat ?. Taxes _ Insurance Repairs, ordinary, of buildings and machinery Interest on cash used in the business All sundries not elsewhere reported Goods Manufactured— Aggregate value.. Principal product All other products, including receipts from cus tom work and repairing... $1,525,865 395,600 81,327 81,327 1,048,938 109,827 438,957500,154 $402,962 799484 8 307 $3,109,686 3,104,261 3,257 2,168 $92,014 300 27,480 7,7504,59* 8,923 2,460 8,118 32,392 $3,854,043 3,854,043 Ji77,35i 50,000 22,515 104,836 50,461 3,675 50,700 $64,308 429 58 160 $261,852 261,705 97 50 $10,979 3i734 1,080 568 1,392 62754o 3,038 $347,688 347,588 $5,926,222 1,450,000 673,184 37,6oo72,200 563,384 3,803,038 835,742627,886 2,339,4io $4,445,164 9,803 •1,833 395 1 7,574 $7,339,8i5 6,782,227 12,669 544,9'9 $1,167,455 781,350 101,449 34,415 15,88130,12422,46227,917 153,862 $14,963,642 14,875,192 $440,353 134,500 28,875 28,875 276,978 48,410 53,«94 "74,874 $342,252 1,007 134 39 834 $612,914 563,203 631 49,080 $168,139 134,100 9,4832,224 1,4392,7911,485 1,025 15-592 $',273,710 1,261,210 Thomas White was born in Holbrook (then East Randolph), April 30, 1816. His father was a shoe manufacturer there in 1810, and when Thomas White left school he went into his shop. In 1839 he com menced business for himself. In 1843 he took a partner, Samuel Whitcomb, but the firm of White & Whitcomb was soon after dissolved by the death of the latter. He married in 1842, Miss Harriet E. Keith, a sister of F. H. Keith, who was his partner in the village store, and afterwards a prominent dealer in shoe machinery in Philadelphia. Mr. White, however, conducted the shoe business alone. He passed 344 , SUFFOLK COUNTY. through the panic of 1857 unscathed; lost heavily in the South in 1861, but made that good and met all his liabilities. He made a great many army boot's during the war period. The business was lucrative. In 1866 he took in his brother, and the firm became T. & E. White. They opened a store on Pearl street, and purchased a large factory in Hol- brook. They took a front rank in the trade and were known as among the largest manufacturers. In 1871 Edmund White withdrew and T. Edgar and Henry M.White, sons of Thomas White, were admitted. The house became and is now Thomas White & Co. They lost largely by the great fire in 1872, when their Pearl street store, full of goods, was burned. In 1880 they built a factory at Great Falls, N. H., where they can turn out 1,500 pair of shoes daily. They gave this up, and now manufacture in Brockton and Holbrook. Mr. White lives in Holbrook, and is one of the most liberal and public spirited citizens of the town. He has held many town of fices and been its representative in the Legislature. Holbrook is a very prosperous place, made up of pretty and comfort able-looking houses ; and almost every one of them is owned by its oc cupant. The valuation of the town is nearly $1,000 for every man, woman and child living in it. Holbrook was known as East Randolph until 1872, when Elisha Niles Holbrook, a millionaire shoe manufact urer, who had already built a church there, left a legacy of $50,000 for a town hall, conditional upon the name being changed. Randolph ob jected to the separation, which caused a spirited contest in the Legis lature. Elisha Niles Holbrook was born in that town October 31, 1800. At the age of twenty years he began manufacturing shoes. He continued the business alone, and with uniform success up to 1870, when he took his son, E. Everett Holbrook, as partner. Mr. Holbrook died Febru ary 5, 1872. He left a great fortune, and was throughout his life a lib eral, charitable man. A brother, Caleb S. Holbrook, was a shoe manu facturer and a great pomologist. Lynn has held prestige as the foremost shoe town in the world for more than a century. In fact it was the cradle of the shoe manu facture. The first Lynn shoemaker was Philip Kertland. Little is known of him save that he came here from Buckinghamshire, Eng., in 1635, and made shoes for Boston, Salem and Lynn people. He served as a sol dier in King Philip's (the Wampanoag) war. In 1638 ten acres of land WHOLESALE SHOE TRADE. 345 were allotted to him by the town. He also purchased an estate of Na thaniel Tyler in 1652. He left this property by will to his wife, to gether with ,£10 to each of his four daughters, Mary, Sarah, Hannah and Susanna Kertland. He had two sons, Phiiip and Nathaniel. He died in 1686, aged seventy years. His widow afterward married Evan Thomas, of Boston. John Thornton Kertland, president of Harvard College, and Rev. S. K. Lothrop, of Boston, are mentioned as among his descendants. Rev. Samuel Kertland, who by request of the Pro vincial Congress labored to induce the Six Nations of Indians in North ern New York to espouse the American cause and was to a considerable extent successful, especially with the Oneidas, was a direct descendant from Philip Kertland. Kertland street is named after the first Lynn shoemaker. It is a tradition that John Adams Dagyr, a Welshman, gave a great impulse to the business. He came to Lynn in 1750. The trade of a shoemaker was then quite popular in Great Britain. The most artistic workers were to be found in London, where Dagyr undoubtedly worked, if he did not serve his time there. He knew how to fashion the shoes of white tawed leather, of " calamink, " a fine sort of woolen stuff woven in tasteful figures, the morocco, which had then just begun to be used, or the still finer .English kid skins, colored, of all hues, and imprinted with beautiful figures. These stuffs were very fashionable ; the toes of these shoes were sharp pointed, the heels high, made of wood and cov ered with the same material as the shoe. Mr. Dagyr is said to have imported English shoes and taken them apart to see how they were made. Philip Kertland did the same thing a hundred years earlier. It is done to-day. Mr. Dagyr became famous, and the Boston Gazette, of October 21, 1764, said: "It is certain that women's shoes made at Lynn, by the celebrated shoemaker of Essex, do now exceed those usually imported, in strength and beauty, but not in price. Surely, then, it is expected the public-spirited ladies of the town and province will turn their immediate attention to this branch of manufacture." Although Dagyr was an excellent shoemaker, he was slovenly in dress and his habits were bad. He was a hard drinker. He married Susanna Newhall, whose father and grandfather both bore the name of Moses Newhall, and were shoemakers. , His shop was in Boston street, near where Carnes street comes in. He had a son, Joseph, and a grandson, Thomas Dagyr, who worked for Benjamin F. Newhall in 1840. Mr. 44 346 SUFFOLK COUNTY Dagyr became poor and besotted, and died in the Lynn almhouse in 1808. The name is extinct in Lynn. There were only three shoemakers in Lynn, in 1750, who employed journeymen. William Gray was one of these. His son, Abraham Gray, who followed in the footsteps of his father, extended the trade to Salem and went there every week, supplying the rich families and some tradesmen with shoes. Salem was at that time larger and more impor tant commercially than Boston. The house where Abraham Gray re sided in Lynn is still standing on Marion, near Boston street. Abraham Gray had a son, born in 1750, and named William, after his grandfather. When he grew up his father undertook to teach him the trade, but confinement at the bench was unfavorable to his health. The family had, meantime, moved to Salem, and young Gray was taken in the counting room of Richard Derby, an eminent merchant. He made several voyages as supercargo, taking ventures of his own, as was the custom at that time. By so doing he accumulated money sufficient to engage in business for himself. From the time Mr. Gray entered upon a mercantile career he prospered exceedingly. He moved to Boston in 1808, and was then considered the richest man in New England. He always maintained business relations with Lynn manufacturers. For more than forty years he supplied them with Russia sheeting, which was used for shoe linings. He built Gray's Wharf, in Boston, at the North End, and did business there. Mr. Gray was elected lieutenant- governor of the'State twice (1810-12). He died in Boston in 1825. His grandson, Horace Gray, is an associate chief justice of the United States Supreme Court. John Mansfield, of this trio of " shoe bosses," lived in Boston street, at Mansfield's End. Pie was a descendant of Joseph Mansfield, brother of Andrew Mansfield, for many years the town recorder. John Mans field inherited a good property, and was able to employ journeymen or apprentices, as was the custom of that day. His fame, however, rests mainly on the fact that he was colonel of the Lynn regiment which was stationed at Cambridge, and marched out to take part in the battle of Bunker Hill, but didn't get to the scene of the conflict. He was after ward cashiered, but he claimed that orders were transmitted to him that prevented his marching to the battle. Prominent Lynn manufacturers of the early days were: Isaiah Breed, who began an apprenticeship at shoemaking when he was fourteen years old (1800), and began manufacturing on his own ac- WHOLESALE SHOE TRADE. 347 count when he was eighteen years old (1804) ; in 1820 was one of three of the names who were classed as manufacturers. The others were William B. and Nathan Breed. For more than fifty years Isaiah Breed was in business here and he was uniformly successful. He was one of the eight who passed unscathed through the panic of 1837. At twenty- two he had a large business for those days. He took shoes to Boston in saddlebags- on horseback. Mr. Breed was elected a director in the Lynn Mechanics' Bank (now First National) in 182-3. This bank was incorporated March 24, 1814; it was located at the head of the Common, opposite the present city Hall. For several terms Mr. Breed was are presentative in the Legis lature, and he was elected a senator in 1839. His services as a trust worthy and industrious working member were highly appreciated. In person he was commanding, and in manners dignified. One of his daughters married George W. Keene, the present members of the firm of Keene Brothers, being grandsons of Mr. Breed. Mr. Breed built a fine residence at the northeast corner of Broad and Exchange streets, and died there May 23, 1859. Micajah C. Pratt was one of the most prominent of the early manu facturers in Lynn. It was his birthplace. From 1812 till he died, in 1866, he made shoes. He was a member of the Society of Friends. In 1830 Mr. Pratt began to send shoes to Maine to be made, and families worked for him for a quarter of a century and sent their children up to Lynn to work for him there. He used to do a large business, making some 250,000 pairs yearly. Mr. Pratt was president of the First Na tional Bank, and Lynn Fire and Marine Insurance Company for several years. He lived and died in the large house No. 116 Broad street. C. A. Coffin & Co. succeeded to the business. M. P. Clough, of this firm, is his grandson. Benjamin F. Doak was born in Lynn, 1826 ; died there, 1876. He began to make shoes about 1853, and was soon rated as one of the fore most business men. He bequeathed to the city $10,000 to be invested and the income expended for the benefit of the city poor. It is called the "Doak Fund." Nathan Breed, born 1794, died 1872, was a manufacturer during all his business life. He was for thirty-six years a director in the Lynn Mechanics' Bank and trustee of the Institution for Savings. In his will he left $50,000 to found a school and asylum for destitute children. 348 SUFFOLK COUNTY. Abner S. Moore, at one time a partner with John B. Alley, went to Baltimore in 1865 and established the first shoe factory, for machine work, in that city. His firm was Crane,' Moore & Co. , afterward Moore, Larrabee & Co. , in Baltimore. Mr. Moore furnished the stock sewed on the McKay machine at its first trial in 1858-9. Mr. Moore did busi ness about four years in Baltimore, then returned and died in Lynn in 1871. Philip A. Chase began making shoes in 1856. At that time Italian cloth was in use as a shoe material. Mr. Chase was one of the first to introduce lasting shoes. These had a great run for the next ten years, and he acquired a fortune. Francis W. Breed was a partner from 1867, but Mr. Chase sold out to him in 1875, leaving $5 0,000 as a special capital. It didn't take Mr. Breed long to pay that out. Mr. Chase was trustee of the Lynn Institution for Savings from 1868, and elected presi dent in 1874. He still holds the office, and has been president of the Central National Bank since 1875. He was on the School Board three years and its chairman two years. He is a native of Lynn. "Lynn Woods " is a memorial of his usefulness. He was park commissioner 1889 to 1893. George W. Keene was born in Lynn in 1816. His father, Josiah Keene, owned a farm where Willow and Oxford streets now run. His mother, Avis Keene, was a preacher of the Friends Society. She was a graceful and influential speaker, amiable, charitable and endeared to an extensive circle of friends. She died in 1867, aged eighty-seven years. George W. Keene manufactured shoes on Exchange street, nearly opposite where the site of the depot is. He owned the " farm " on Willow street. The family own it yet. Mr. Keene married a daugh ter of the Hon. Isaiah Breed. He was an enterprising, far-seeing busi ness man, and did his full share in elevating the shoe trade to a posi tion of commanding importance. He died suddenly in the St, Nicholas Hotel, in New York, January 27, 1874. His two sons, W. G. S. and Frank Keene, succeeded to his business, which is now conducted under the style of Keene Brothers. Benj. Franklin Spinney was born in Taunton, Mass., September 1, 1832. His father and grandfather were in the shoe trade. In 1858 Mr. Spinney came to Lynn, and with his cousin formed the firm of B. F. & G. W. Spinney. In 1869 they dissolved; the house of B. F. Spinney & Co. was formed, and has continued with different partners since that time. In 1873 they built a factory at Norway, Me. The firm WHOLESALE SHOE TRADE. 349 is among the largest in the trade. W. S. Spinney, of Faunce & Spinney, is a son of B. F. Spinney, and carries the shoe business into the fourth generation. John Wooldredge was a man that did a good deal for Lynn. He was the first to introduce steam as a motive power. It was used to run a machine for making heels. This was in 1858. He also brought the first sewing machine to the city ; it was a Singer. The operator held the work under the needle with one hand and ran the machine by turn ing a crank with the other hand. Mr. Wooldredge manufactured in 1852 at No. 41 Market street, and lived in Marblehead. His father was the first man to manufacture shoes in that town. Lynn's Present and Future. From the State census of 1885 the following figures are derived: shoe manufacturers. Number of firms 174 Value of product $30,946,867 employees 10,708 Gross product 18,097,296 Capital invested 14,263,250 Interest and expenses. _ $2,350,482 Wages $4,931,530 Net profit $746,814 Stockused ..$12,918,221 Average earn' gs of employees $461 'Of the employees, 72 per cent, were men; 28 per cent, women. Lynn shoes find their way into every market, and the demand for them increases year by year. That is conclusive proof that they are such as the country demands. If buyers give Lynn the preference, the inference is natural that they do so because they can make purchases to better advantage there than elsewhere. Lynn has concentrated business far more than most other cities, and concentration is feasible on account of advantageous circumstances and facilities for economical production. The city has also the prestige of long experience. Its record runs back a hundred and fifty years. Much of the material used in its specialty — women's shoes — is made at its doors, enabling Lynn manufacturers to buy on the most advantageous terms. As a rule, the factories produce shoes of medium grades. But there are manufacturers there who turn out the finest qualities, equal in style, finish and excellence to anything in the market. They make what is called for. They are constantly on the lookout for methods for en hancing the value of their wares. Lynn shoes are worth fully fifty per cent, more in point of quality and style than those made there ten 350 SUFFOLK COUNTY years ago, yet they are sold for considerably less money. The latest improved machinery is used, as most of that of earlier date was burned up in the great fire of 1889. The United States census of 1890 gives the following report of the industry in Lynn : SHOE AND LEATHER MANUFACTURES OF LYNN, 1890. Boots and Shoes — Factory Product. Leather. Morocco. Establishments. Capital employed— Aggregate. Hired Property— -Total- Plant— Total _ __ Land Buildings Machinery, tools and implements Live Assets — T,otal Raw materials Stock in process and finished product Cash, bills and accounts receivable, and all sundries not elsewhere re ported Wages paid— Aggregate __ Average number of hands employed during the year- Males above 16 years Females above 15 years Children _ Pieceworkers. Materials used — Aggregate cost- Principal materials Fuel Mill supplies All other materials Miscellaneous expenses— Aggregate _ Amount paid for contract work. Rent _ Power and heat Taxes Insurance Repairs, ordinary, of buildings and machinery.. Interest on cash used in the business All sundries not elsewhere reported __ Goods manufactured— Aggregate value.. Principal product ¦___ All other products, including receipts from custom work and repairing. £10,569,470 2,815,000',750,930 111,245 259.836 1,379,849 6,003,540 1,288,007 i,43I,i0S 3,284.3386,832,938 12,816 2-373 652 61 9,730 14,757,38913,586,903 19,785 742 1,149,962 1,188,446 197,038 102,974 38,779 54,243 42,543 52,206 700,663 25,850,005 25,502,019 347,986 $1,868,276 241,720419,807 87,000 129,635 203,172 1,206,749 274,399 485,837446,513748,829 1,210 984 5 52,009,529 1,947,854 20,355 157,724 18,129 6,045 5,95i 13,721 14,005 48,10551,768 3,343,533 907,623 2,435,910 Marblehead has been a manufacturing town since 1830, when John Wooldredge, formerly a sea captain, commenced making children's shoes here. He had two sons who afterwards became prominent manufacturers in Lynn. Joseph Harris & Son, established in 1845, rank among the largest producers in the town. W. P. Orne perpet uates an old name in the business. As far back as 1707 an Orne made Van Slyck L Co Bosi WHOLESALE SHOE TRADE. 351 shoes here. Samuel Sparhawk left following the sea, and made shoes in 1850. He died recently aged ninety years. There are fifty-one manufacturers in the town. Marlboro' is a busy thriving shoe town. It has 14,000 inhabitants (1892). In 1890 it was made a city. Samuel and Joseph Boyd were the first shoe manufacturers there. They date from 1836. S. Herbert Howe has three factories, in which he made 2,128,000 in 1890. Rice & Hutchins have two, where the output was $1,200,000 the same year. They own nine such factories in the State. Men's and women's split, kip and calf shoes are made in Marlboro'. The entire product for 1885 was $5,831,004. Milford was famous for producing boots fifty years or more ago. Benjamin D. Godfrey was one of the first to make long legged boots for the California miners. He sent them around the Horn and across the Plains in 1850 and thereafter. Aaron Claflin was born in Milford, and although he afterwards became a great shoe merchant in New York, was always identified with her business interests. He had a .farm there, also a boot factory, afterwards run by his son and son-in- law under the style of Claflin & Thayer. Oresen Underwood, Samuel Walker, A. C. Mayhew acquired renown as boot manufacturers. Lee Claflin, father of ex-Governor William Claflin, was born in Mil ford. He engaged in business in 1815; moved to Hopkinton about 1840, and established the manufacture of boots;- he was also a leather dealer and banker. He led a busy life and accumulated a great for tune. He represented Milford in the General Court in 1835 and was State senator in 1838. Horace B. Claflin, the great New York dry goods merchant, was born in Milford. He was Aaron Claflin's brother. There are five large shoe factories in Milford now. Natick brogans have been known all over the country. Edward Walcott, John B. Walcott and Isaac Felch made shoes there about 1830-5. Henry Wilson was the most distinguished shoe manufacturer the town produced. He was in after years a senator, and held the office of vice-president of the United States when he died. Men's and boy's brogans, plough shoes and Dom Pedros are made in Natick now. Cochituate, Felchville, and South Natick are contiguous towns in which shoes are produced. Quiney was one of the earliest of New England towns to develop the shoemaking industry. There is one example here of an uncommon character in business circles, at least in this county. 352 SUFFOLK COUNTY. Noah Curtis commenced shoemaking in June, 1790, at Penn's Hill in Quiney. His shop was at first a small one, but he did good work and soon had to enlarge, and in a few years he began to make sale shoes of a finer character than were elsewhere produced in the State. He started out a two-horse team to sell his goods, and venturing into the Southern States he soon built up a good trade in Virginia, the Caro linas, and Georgia. He found a class of merchants and planters who wanted a certain style of "turned pump" or leg boots, with high heels, fancy shanks, and uppers made from the finest calfskin. Up to about 1825 Mr, Curtis made regular trips from Quiney, starting out with a wagon loaded with 800 to 1,000 pairs of pumps, and never turn ing back until he had reached his southern destination and disposed of his entire load. He sold these shoes for twelve dollars a pair, and be came so favorably known that rich planters gave him their measures and ordered shoes ahead. It is said that even to this day old planters are found in Carolina or Lower Georgia who speak in warm praise of the boots they wore when young men, and which were made by Noah Curtis, the Yankee shoemaker. Mr. Curtis once carried Daniel Webster in his covered wagon all the distance from Boston to Washington, and the statesman very much en joyed the opportunity thus afforded to study the character and habits of the people on the route. After giving up his trips south, Mr. Curtis continued in business' up to 1840, when he retired with a competency. Previous to 1833 his sign had read "Noah Curtis." In that year, being sixty-three years of age, he took his son Benjamin as partner; the sign was only changed by adding "and Ben, too," underneath, which illustrated the quiet humor of the old gentleman. Benjamin, Curtis took the business in 1840, conducted it alone to 1859, when he admitted his two sons, Benjamin F. and Noah Curtis 2d and his brother, Thomas, as partners. Noah Curtis is now the head of the firm, with his son, Walter B. Curtis, as partner, thus making four generations en gaged in the same firm and same line of industry, the manufacture of men's fine boots, shoes and slippers. A more extended biographical sketch of this well-known family ap pears in the biographical department of this volume. In Rockland, formerly East Abington, there are about $4,000,000 of shoes produced annually. The precursor here was Jenkins Lane, who commenced in 1825. He had a very large factory for his time, and was the first in Plymouth county to introduce steam power. Randolph is WHOLESALE SHOE TRADE. 353 fifteen miles south of Boston. For nearly half a century men's and boys' calf boots and shoes have been made in the town. Alexander Strong was one of the early ones. He was the son of a clergyman of Randolph. James O'Brien made boots for Australia forty years ago. His son was consul there. In 1865 there were $1,585,000 worth, and in 1885 more than $4,000,000 worth made here. In Stoughton, eighteen miles west of Boston, the main industry is shoemaking. There are twelve factories in the place. The oldest firm, Samuel Savels & Son, has been in business half a century. Spencer, sixty-two miles west of Boston, was known as a "boot town, " until recently ; shoes as well are now made. J. Green & Co. were the first to manufacture. They date from 1811. Josiah Green, the founder of the house, made up a "horse load " of men's sewed boots, the only kind known at that day, and took them to Boston. They were offered at public auction on North Market street and brought $2. 30 a pair. In 1814 he made boots for the army at $2.27 a pair. Isaac Prouty & Co. was established in 1820. They are the largest manufacturers of men's and women's staple lines of boots and shoes in the world. In 1885 the shoe product of Spencer was $2,617,736. Elias Howe, the inventor of the sewing machine, was born in Spencer. Stoneham is one of the oldest shoe towns in the State. Hand sewed shoes were made before the Revolution. The leather at that day was brought from tanners in Charlestown and Maiden. Stoneham shoe makers took active part in the battles of Lexington, Concord and Bunker Hill. Shoes were made there for the army during the Revolution and the second war with England. The factories were small but numer ous. Forty years ago the town was fourth in value of product in the Commonwealth. This rank is lost, presumably on account of lack of railway facilities. Stcneham has taken a fresh start in the last dec ade. There are now twenty-three manufacturers in the town. They produce 1,200 to 1,500 cases weekly. Weymouth is a busy industrial town fifteen miles southeast from Boston. There are four villages, North, East and South Weymouth and Weymouth. In these are twenty-four large shoe manufacturers. All of "the Weymouths " are known as places where reliable shoes, only, are made. There are in East Weymouth several large concerns. Some of them are among the oldest in the State doing business without change of style. N. D. Canterbury & Co. were established in 1836, M. C. Dizer & Co. in 1843. In South Weymouth James Albert and Minot 45 354 SUFFOLK COUNTY. Tirrell amassed great fortunes making calf boots for the New Orleans trade. This was the main business of the town fifty years or more ago. Patent leather boots were very fashionable about 1845, and a large part of the output of the Weymouths at that time was in patent and wax calf long leg boots for the South. Now it is all congress and lace boots. John S. Fogg was for many years a prominent manufact urer in Weymouth, and afterwards a banker in Boston. An extended sketch of Mr. Fogg appears in the biographical part of this volume. James, Minot and Albert Tirrell were three brothers who did much towards giving the South Shore a high position in shoe manufacturing in early times. They were born in Weymouth early in the century. In 1831 they formed a partnership for manufacturing shoes in South Weymouth. James attended to making the goods ; Minot and Albert went to New Orleans to sell them. This business they conducted suc cessfully for more than forty years. They were in the hide trade and controlled it, as far as New Orleans was concerned, for many years. They sent shoes into Texas and took hides in exchange. They built, about 1860, three residences, which were the finest in their native town. Their firm name was J. & A. Tirrell & Co. Minot Tirrell, jr., son of one of these brothers, owned a large property in West Lynn. He got the Thomson-Houston Co. to locate there. This has resulted in building up a business there that gives employment to many thou sand workpeople. Marshall C. Dizer was born in Weymouth, September 23, 1822. His father followed the occupation of shoemaking for sixty years. The son commenced manufacturing in East Weymouth when he was twenty years old. He had thirty-five dollars, which he had earned^ for capital. He built up a substantial business and rapidly acquired wealth. In 1861 he built a factory, which has been enlarged half a dozen times, and is now the largest in the world for the class of goods he makes. His two sons, Silas C. and Walter M. Dizer, are his partners. They tan most all the upper stock used in their shoes. No other firm in this country does this on any extended scale. The firm of M. C. Dizer & Co. celebrated the fiftieth anniversary of their going into business in 1893. The style has never changed in that time, and the firm has always paid a hundred cents on the dollar. Elias S. Beals was for many years a prominent shoe manufacturer on the South Shore. He was born in Weymouth, October 20, 1814. He always did business in that town. In 1838 he went by sea with a cargo WHOLESALE SHOE TRADE. 355 of shoes to Charleston and Savannah. This venture was moderately successful. He built a factory at " Torrey's Corners" when he re turned. In 1849 he became connected with a New Orleans jobbing house, but retired from that branch of the business two years later. He then built a large factory in Weymouth and made shoes for south ern markets. He purchased the first sewing machine ever used in North Weymouth. He soon after bought another and found that they saved him the first year one thousand dollars in diminished expense and increased production. As his trade was all in the South, the out break of the Civil War broke up his business, and he closed manufac turing in 1861. Mr. Beals was appointed internal revenue assessor for his district in 1861, and in 1863 a second commission was given him by President Lincoln. He was in office until it was abolished in 1868. A son of Mr. Beals went to Milwaukee in 1868 and established the whole sale shoe house of Beals, Torrey & Co. The partners were Frank Beals, Alexis Torrey, and James L. Beals. They have built up a large and successful business. Worcester has been styled the." Heart of the Commonwealth." It is a great manufacturing city, and in it are produced annually large quantities of boots and shoes. The first name to appear in the business was Captain Palmer Goulding, who tanned leather and made shoes in 1668. His son, grandson and great-grandson successively entered the trade and continued up to the time of the Revolution. The first to . make " sale shoes " were John Dollins and Foster Newell. This was in 1813. It was sewed work. In 1818 Earle & Chase dressed black kid and made shoes. In 1824 B. B. Otis commenced. He continued alone up to 1850, when the house of Fitch & Otis was formed, afterward merged in C. H. Fitch & Co. In 1828 Scott & Smith made women's " double prunella shoes and pumps." In 1834 Chas. Wolcot and Thos. Howe & Co. began making shoes, and they contracted to furnish boots for the U. S. Military Academy at West Point. Timothy S. Stone began making boots here in 1835 in Washington Square. He took Samuel Brown as partner in 1864 ; A. G. Walker in 1868 ; and event ually, sold out to them. They founded the house of Walker & Brown. In 1843 Joseph Walker came in from Hopkinton. He manufactured alone to 1852, when his son, Joseph Henry Walker, joined him. They dissolved in 1862, and went out of the trade ten or fifteen years later. Levi A. Dowley made brogans here in 1847. He was a Boston leather merchant after that. R. Wesson, jr., commenced in 1849. His son, 356 SUFFOLK COUNTY. J. E. Wesson, has greatly enlarged the business, and the J. E. Wesson Shoe Co. still continues it. In 1853 C. C. Houghton started making boots in Lincoln Square. His firm now occupies " Houghton Block," and have another factory in New Hampshire. Luther Stowe began to manufacture in 1855. His son, of the same name, now owns the busi ness. H. B. Jenks and H. B. Fay were large producers from 1860 to about 1880, but went out of the trade. J. U. Green, another of the old manufacturers, retired from business about 1885. J. W. Brigham and D. Cummings & Co., dating from about 1863, are large manufacturers. Bigelow & Trask, who built a factory here in 1864, are merged in the Bay State Shoe and Leather Company. Jonathan Munyan made boots here in 1847. He joined the Bay State Company, was vice-president and agent, and is now president of the Goodyear Shoe Machinery Com pany of Boston. E. H. Stark & Co. have continued without change since 1863. S. R. Heywood, who began in 1867, built a large factory in 1880, and four years later organized the Heywood Boot and Shoe Co. In 1866 the house of Rawson & Linnell was formed. This was changed to D. G. Rawson & Co. , and is now known as Goddard, Stone & Co. They doubled the capacity of their factory in 1887, and it is now the largest in the city. Whitcomb, Dodman & Stowe commenced in 1870 ; this is now Whitcomb & Miles, and they have two factories on Shrewsbury street. Up to 1868 all boots were hand made; machinery is now generally introduced. Before that time most any shoemaker was able to take the sides of leather and produce an entire boot or shoe. Now there is a division of labor, and few persons are skilled in any but their particular part. Most of the workmen are permanent residents, and many own their houses. There have been only two strikes in the history of the trade : one in 1867, another in 1887. Like in all such outbreaks, the wage earners were the sufferers. A good, substantial article of men's and boys' boots and shoes are made in Worcester. In 1875 the value of product was $2,558,517; in 1885, $4,051,384. Hon. J. H. Walker, of Worcester, is one of the prominent men in the trade. He is the son and grandson of a shoe manufacturer. His firm, J. H. & G. M. Walker, was for many years one of the largest in the State. During the war Mr. Walker paid the highest income tax of any manufacturer in Massachusetts. He invented the sole cutter bear. ing his name, and the "saddle seam" boot. In 1865 he invested capital in tanning in Chicago. The firm there was Walker, Oakley & Co. Mr. Walker is serving his second term in Congress. WHOLESALE SHOE TRADE. 357 The census of 1890 gives the following report of Worcester: SHOE AND LEATHER MANUFACTURES OF WORCESTER, 1890. Establishments _ ___ Capital employed— Aggregate ___ Hired Property — Total Plant— Total _ Land Buildings _ _ __". Machinery, tools and implements _ _ Live Assets — Total Raw materials Stock in process and finished product Cash, bills and accounts receivable, and all sundries not elsewhere re ported Wages paid— Aggregate _ Average number of hands employed during the year . Males above 16 years Females above 15 years Children , Pieceworkers Materials used — Aggregate cost _ Principal materials _ __ Fuel— ^ _ All other materials : Miscellaneous expenses— Aggregate Rent.,. Power and heat _ Taxes _ Insurance Repairs, ordinary, of buildings and machinery Interest on cash used in the business All sundries not elsewhere reported Goods Manufactured— Aggregate value - Principal product All other products, including receipts from custom work and repairing,. Belting Boots and and Slioes — Hose- Factory- Leather. Product. 3 22 $500,563 $2,042,743 60,030 325,130 :4,665 309,801 65,700 96,759 14,665 147,342 425,898 1,407,812 79.523 252,425 140,814 275,682 205,561 879.7°5 54,393 927,084 79 1.975 77 711 2 250 26 988 $649,372 $2,125,358 642,990 2,052,226 925 ,9.539 5.457 . °3,593 23,342 200,962 3.9°° I9,5c8 600 4,200 2,661 11,389 3,339 11,418 876 7,293 6,966 37,19! 5,000 109,963 757.633 3,503,877 757.633 3,417,568 86,309 358 SUFFOLK COUNTY. CHAPTER VI. Labor Disturbances — Rubber Manufacture — Mortuary of a Decade — Trade Methods — List of Shoe Machinery. — Conclusion. In 1878 there were in Massachusetts 159 strikes and lock-outs in the shoe trade; 118 of them ^originated in demands for higher or protest against lower wages. Almost all of them failed of the object aimed at, though they were sustained by contributions from the organizations. From 1860 to 1878 there was an increase of 2AT4T per cent, in wages. The cost of living never has been as low as it is now. In Lynn wages were advanced fifty-six per cent., in other shoe towns from ten to twenty per cent. Fashion has dictated that shoes worn now shall be made of light ma terial, consequently rubbers are worn in the wet and cold seasons. The greatest rubber shoe works in this country, or in the world for that matter, are at Maiden. They are owned by the Boston Rubber Shoe Company. These produce about 45,000 pairs daily in more than a thousand styles. In Rhode Island that of the Woonsocket Rubber Com pany is about as extensive. The trade amounts to $10, 000, 000 to $25,- 000,000 a year. Charles Goodyear discovered the secret of vulcaniza tion. This rendered it impervious to heat or cold and made its use possible in shoes or clothing. Mr. Goodyear spent many years in ex perimenting fruitlessly. At last he gained the knowledge he was in search of accidentally! He was standing in hjs shop in Woburn, in 1839, explaining his views to a couple of friends, and holding rubber and sulphur mixed in his hands. The mass dropped on a red hot stove and on being recovered it was found that it had not melted or been burned in the least. The inference was plain. Intense heat was the thing he required. Mr. Goodyear obtained the great council medal at the London exhibition in 1851, and the cross of the legion of honor at Paris in 1855. He died in 1860. Elisha S. Converse is rounding out half a century of experience in the rubber business. The Edgeworth Rubber Company built a factory in Maiden in 1850. In 1853 it merged in the. Maiden Manufacturing Company. They were chartered by the Legislature with $200,000 WHOLESALE SHOE TRADE. 359 capital. Among the first directors were John Bertram, an importer of hides, rubber, etc., of Salem; T. C. Wales, one of the first to sell rub bers, and later the inventor and patentee of the Arctic overshoe ; Na thaniel Hay ward, who with Charles Goodyear was a discoverer of vul canization, and E. C. Converse, a shoe and leather dealer of Boston. Mr. Converse was made treasurer and still holds the office. Mr. Con verse was born in Needham, January 28, 1820. In 1844 he went in busi ness as a clerk for his elder brother's firm, known at that time as Field & Converse. He soon began for himself, having Benjamin Poland as a partner. The firm of Poland & Converse did business on North Market street up to 1853, when they dissolved. Mr. Converse on tak ing hold of the affairs of the Maiden company proceeded to reorganize it, and in 1855 the Boston Rubber Shoe Company was chartered; capi tal $375,000, increased in 1860 to $500,000. Their product was 260,000 pairs in 1857, 1,800,000 pairs in 1874, and now they make, in the season, more than 40,000 pairs daily. The company has two factories, one at Maiden and the other at Middlesex Fells. On November 29, 1875, a fire burned all their buildings; they were rebuilt and opened the next year. The Boston fire of 1872 destroyed their store. Mr. Converse is one of the most charitable citizens of Maiden. He has presented the town with a library, a church, a park, and has built up an industry in which more than three thousand persons find employment. The Woonsocket Rub ber Company has factories in Massachusetts and Rhode Island. Their main selling agency is in Boston, but they have stores also in New York, Baltimore, Philadelphia and Chicago. They produce 30, 000 pairs of rubber boots and shoes daily. Joseph Banigan, president of this ' company, began the rubber business at Jamaica Plain more than forty years ago. They have a house at Para and import their own stock. Mr. Banigan at a cost to himself of $250,000 built and endowed a build ing at Providence, R. I. , for the Little Sisters of the Poor. The value of product of rubber shoes and manufactures of rubber for each decade since the commencement of the business is as follows : Classification. 1855 1865 1875 1885 Number of establishments . Capital invested - Value of stock used Persons employed Wages paid Motive power (horse power) Value of goods made 5 $438,000 462 $968,000 16 $1,032,484$1,277,747 1,062 $1,808,936 33 $4,655,988$2,816,709 2,195 $406,554 1,570 $6,508,096 41 $10,893,079 $7,873,240 6,469 $2,285,165 4,265 $12,638,741 360 SUFFOLK COUNTY. The business portion of Haverhill was destroyed by fire February 17, 1882. Most of the shoe factories were burned. One year from that day the manufacturers met at a banquet to celebrate the rebuilding of of the town. November 26, 1889, a great fire occurred in Lynn; sixty per cent, of the shoe factories were burned, and many millions of dollars' worth of shoes and leather destroyed. The loss on buildings alone footed up $1,009,460; that in merchandise was much greater. The total insu rance was $3,607,835. More than 7,000 persons were thrown out of employment. A fire broke out in the Exchange Building, 69 to 81 Bedford street, Boston, November 28, 1889, badly damaging several buildings and burning stocks of shoes and leather. The loss was $4,500,000; insu rance, $3,737,525. The fireproof material, of which the building of the Shoe and Leather Association directly opposite was composed, stopped the conflagration. Within fifteen years the following prominent members of the shoe trade have died. Some were residents of towns in the vicinity, but all did business at one period in Boston : Cheever Newhall, April 8, 1878, aged ninety. He began business in 1802, and from 1822 to 1826 had as partner, Joseph Eveleth, afterwards high sheriff of Suffolk county. He was a charter member of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, 1840, a founder and first presi dent of the Agricultural Club. Ebenezer Vose, February, 1877, in wholesale shoe business 1810, retired 1850. A. C. Mayhew, Milford, Sep tember, 1880. He served several terms in both branches of the Legis lature and was a member of the council of Governor Banks in 1859. Charles D. Bigelow, May, 1883. He commenced manufacturing in Framingham in 1843 ; went to New York 1851 ; was the first to make pegged brogans there ; first to use pegging machines, 1852 ; first to employ prison labor, contracts for which he held at Providence, Sing Sing, N.Y. , Brooklyn, N.Y., and Trenton, N. J. In 1855 he intro duced the system of division of labor in shoe factories; 1866 built the Bay State Shoe Factory at Worcester. His son, Charles E. Bigelow, succeeded him as president of the Bay State Shoe and Leather Co. Alexander Strong, June, 1881; manufactured in. Randolph from 1840 to 1868. He retired 1868, succeeded by E. A. Strong & Burt, now George H. Burt & Co. Jasper S. Nelson died October, 1884; manu factured at Grafton from 1844 to the time of his decease. Aaron Claf- WHOLESALE SHOE TRADE. 361 lin, January 7, 1890, aged eighty-three years. He had a store in New York, and before and during the war had jobbing houses in ten cities. Horace B. Claflin, the great New York dry goods merchant, was his brother. George Hussey Chase, Lynn, a shoe manufacturer from 1848 to 1860; then postmaster eight years, and collector of the port for a similar period. He was a cousin of John G. Whittier, the poet, who was himself a shoemaker in early life. Lewis W. Nute went to Boston in 1841, and from humble beginnings accumulated a large fortune. He built a fine building and presented it, with a library, to Milton, N.H., his native town. In August, 1881, the first exposition of the New England Manufac turers' and Mechanics' Institute Fair opened at their building on Hunt ington avenue. The structure covers 300,000 square feet. There was a large exhibit of shoe machinery, and an entire shoe factory shown in operation. At the exhibition of 1882, Edison's electric light and power display was very interesting. Shoe machinery was run by electric motor. The law to regulate trade-marks was passed March, 1881. Many shoes are now trade-marked and price-marked. Fee for trade-mark, $25. The bankrupt law was repealed 1880. One of the difficulties which shoe venders are subject to is the prac tice of "dating ahead." The manufacturers take orders for shoes, and deliver them, say in January and February. They date the bill four months from April 1. Or they take orders and deliver the shoes in June, dating the bills October 1, so at least eight months must elapse between the time of parting with the goods and realizing the proceeds. The New England Shoe and Leather Association in 1891 recommended the following basis of a system on which shoes should be sold : First : That the date of bills shall be that of the date of the shipment of goods. Second: That settlement of bills shall be made by notes or cash within thirty days, or within other reasonable time, subsequent to the date of bills. Third : That the maximum time given be such that one season's bills shall not overlap the bills of the succeeding "season. The propensity to repudiate contracts and to demand reclamation for goods on the pretext that they are not of the prescribed quality, is more prevalent than it ought to be. It is a subject of deprecatory re- 46 362 SUFFOLK COUNTY mark at every convention of the trade. About ten years ago some manufacturers in Massachusetts, who had previously sold only to jobbers, began to sell to the retail trade. It was claimed that they secured both the manufacturer's and jobber's compensation by so doing. However this may be, the profits were soon cut down by com petition, and it was found that to distribute shoes over a wide extent of country, the services of jobbers were indispensable. The following table of shipments of shoes from Boston shows the growth of the industry in thirty years : I860.-. 682,165 cases. 1880 2,265,360 cases. 1865 710,162 " 1885 2,717,795 " 1870 1,231,369 " 1891 3,417,343 " 1875 1,440,073 " Shoes are almost always sold by sample. Manufacturers make up samples twice a year. Every season they' make additional improve ments in the styles. The samples are carried all over the country by travelers. They take orders for goods to correspond with them, and the work is all done in fulfillment of these contracts. Few goods are made up except on orders. This, of course, does not refer to jobbers' stocks. The article mostly in vogue at present for women's outdoor wear are button boots. The material in the upper is kid or cloth ; the sole, oak, union or hemlock tanned. There are fully fifty workpeople who have something to do in the production of a pair of shoes. The use of ma chinery has cheapened them fully one half. Improvements in the art of tanning contributed to this change, and now the consumer has all the benefit, getting a better shoe for three dollars now than those were for which he paid six dollars or more twenty years ago. In a factory where medium grade shoes are made for women's wear, the following machines are used : For preparing sole leather, stripping, rolling, splitting, sole cutting, dieing-out, rounding-up, moulding, channeling, shanking, thinning edges and skiving stiff enings; for fit- ring the uppers: machines for closing, stitching and binding, and for stamping, scalloping, punching, eyeletting, staying, rubbing down, rolling and bobbin winding. In the making room, machines are used for lasting, sole sewing, pegging, beating-out, edge setting, heeling, heel grinding and burnishing are required. The bottoms are finished with sanding and brushing machines. The trade-mark, or other device, is stamped on the sole by a monogram machine. The shoes are then WHOLESALE SHOE TRADE. 363 buttoned or laced up by the trimmers, and laid away in a pasteboard carton ready for market. Fine shoes are made eight widths to each size, and any normally developed foot can be fitted. A "set" of machinery for a modern shoe factory is expensive. Some manufacturers run four or five complete sets. For machine work, they are as follows, and we add approximate prices : STOCK FITTING DEPARTMENT. Roller _ $100 to 275 Feather edger $ 30 Splitter 65tol00 Molder_-_._ 100 Dieing out 125 Channel flap turner 40 to 60 With sometimes a Hartford or Smith Veneer press (on cheap lines) 25 rounder 300 Counter skiver 20 McKay channeler__ _ 30 BOTTOMING ROOM. Sole tacker .$ 75 Breaster $ 25 Lasting machines, royalty \c. per Twin burnisher 850 pair $100, $250 or 300 Electric finish 50 McKay sewing machine 320 Heel header ¦ 25 Beating-out machine 300 Steam dryer _ _ _ 14 Shankbuffer 65 Buffer 65 Nailer (National or McKay) McKay Naumkeag cleaner 100 royalty \a. per pair ___ 500 Brush shaft 15 Smith shaver 150 Monogram.. ' _ 15 Busell trimmer 65 Extra trimmer for spring heels 65 Union edge setter 150 GOODYEAR. Full set of welt machines $675 Do. with turn channeler and molder.$725 Do. with molder for turns 687 Turn set alone 350 Shoes made by the Goodyear system are subject to a royalty of l-|-c. for children's, 2c. for misses', 3c. for women's, and 4c. for men's shoes. A line of shafting, pulleys, belts, etc., $380. A good many firms hire power at about $300 a year for each line. The Singer, Wheeler & Wilson, Union Special, and Standard Ma chine Companies fit a room entire. There are used in the stitching room: bench, with shellacked plank top; shaft suspended from the floor and fitted for single or double bank lines. Devices for transmitting power are fastened to the under side of the bench by different methods. The Wheeler & Wilson No. 12, and all 364 SUFFOLK COUNTY. Singer machines, are made with different modifications, so as to do all parts of the stitching. Standard Sewing Machine Co., Cleveland, O. , with offices in many large cities, fit up with power transmitters : Large arm single-needle leather machines, style 10. Medium arm single-needle leather machines, style 9. Two-needle leather machines — one thread below. Three-needle leather machines — one thread below. Leather trimming machines. Wheel feed leather machines. Zig-zag machines, with stop motion. The various operations on kid or cloth uppers are performed as fol lows: Wheeler & Wilson Co. Outfit. Skiving by Amazeen machines. Folding by Lufkin machines. Closing seams, No. 12, chain or lock stitch. Making linings, No. 12, chain or lock stitch. Fancy stitch on top facings, various designs. Staying seams by two-needle machines. Closing on the lining by machines with seam trimmer attachment. Top stitching, No, 12. Buttonholes, working, finishing and barring by machines invented for the purpose. Cording buttonholes, No. 12. Vamping by No. 12 double or single needle. Sewing on buttons by machine or hand. The Singer Manufacturing Company Outfit. Closing, by automatic chain stitcher _ $25 Welt staying (California stay), A.C.S welt attachment and central bobbin cutting attachment _ _ 38 Lining, by automatic chain stitcher _ 25 Amazeen Skiver and Lufkin folder _.,. 160 Tape stay, Singer, A.C.S. , two-needle 50 Fancy stitch on linings, long and short throw _._ 75 Also new fancy stitch just introduced 75 Staying, stay stitch, two needle or I. M. two shuttle 75 Closing on I.M.C.B., C.A _ _ 36 Top stitching, I.M.C.B __ 26 Buttonholes, I. B. H. , with barring attachment _ 120 WHOLESALE SHOE TRADE. 365 Also LB. H. DeC. for cloth _ ... _ 120 Buttonhole finishing overseaming machine 50 Buttonhole cording, I. M. central bobbin 26 Vamping I. M. two shuttle or I. F. diagonal and F. U. A. cylinder, two needle . _ 75 After vamping come button machines, Morley or Standard __ 150 Toe linings, A.C.S ___ .__ 25 Barring button flies, by the Philadelphia barring machine To fit up for 600 pairs a day three sets of machines are required and the cost, including tables, counters, shafting, etc., would be from $1,500 to $1,800. The Singer Company makes 118 different kinds of machines. The process of making women's shoes is, in most factories, about as follows : The soles come from the sole cutters blocked in sizes ; the molded counters and built heels are purchased from the makers ; the innersole leather is cut in shape by dies ; the outer soles are put in a tank of water, when, after being properly tempered, they are dried and then rounded by machine ; the channels are cut by a channeler, which grooves the sole at the same time and allows the stitches to lie and makes a perfectly smooth surface beneath the channel lip ; the outer sole is then put through a Bresnahan moulding machine so it will take the proper form for the last, and, as this presses the channel down, it goes to another machine where the channel is turned up ; then the outer sole is ready for lasting. The uppers and linings are cut by hand. A cutter has said: " Until a machine is invented that has brains the cutting of shoes must be done by manual labor." This is because the patterns have to be laid on the skin in a way that shall avoid imperfections and cut to the best advantage. The several sizes are kept separate. They are then taken to the stitching room, where the operators are mostly women who work on different machines and tasks. One sews seams, others perform the different operations of gumming the linings, blind stitching, turning, making buttonholes, sewing on buttons. The special machines all do their part, and when the upper is completed, the top of the lining is covered with a ' ' hood holder," or otherwise, to keep the lining clean, and the uppers are sent to the stock room. The stock is " assembled "—that is, the upper, outer and inner soles, heels, counters, etc. , are put together and sent to the lasting or making room. Here the process is continued either by hand, in old fashion, or by the various lasting machines ; then the last is pulled out and the shoe put on the rack. 366 SUFFOLK COUNTY. This is for the McKay machine, by which the sole is sewed to the upper. By the Goodyear system, as now adopted, there is in use a machine for sewing welts, an outsole stitcher for stitching the sole to the welt, a machine for beating out the welt, and channeling machines. The shoes are bottomed without removing the lasts. They are leveled by the Acme leveler, and the last is taken out to nail on the heel by machine, and finish it. Shanks are buffed, edges trimmed, blacked and set, and bottoms cleaned by machinery. Hard finish and black is ap plied by hand and the shanks burnished with a hot iron, uppers cleaned by machine, monogramed, and the goods are ready to be put in cartons for shipment. These are the processes that have supplanted the old shoe bench of half a century ago, and render it possible for well organ ized factories to turn out anywhere from 1,000 to 5,000, and even 10,- 000 pairs a day. In Eastern Massachusetts block soles are used. In sections where manufacturers cut their own soles, large beam sole cutters cut a whole side at a time. A factory where 1,000 pairs daily are made will require fully 3,000 pairs of lasts. Patterns are needed according to the number of styles produced. The manufacture of dressing blackings and burnishing inks for fin ishing shoes is quite an important adjunct to the industry. One of the earliest beginners in this line was Charles L. Hauthaway, of North Bridgewater, now Brockton. He commenced in 1852, and drove through the shoe towns supplying his trade from a wagon. He built two great factories later. His business is continued by his sons. B. F. Brown & Co. began making blacking in 1855. Mr. Brown was a prac tical chemist. Boston manufacturers now supply Europe with these goods. There are 4,000,000 shoe boxes used in New England yearly. They are mostly purchased ready made. The prices are for a boot case thirty-five cents ; brogan, sixty pair, sixty cents ; plough shoe, thirty- six pair, forty-two cents; same, twelve pair, twenty-six cents; sixty pair slipper case fifty cents. A large amount of lumber is used in their construction. Then there are pasteboard cartons in which every pair of fine shoes is packed. These cost with labels about three cents each. They are furnished free to buyers. Competition is making it necessary to use constant effort to hold the business in New England. The rivalry is intense and comes from all WHOLESALE SHOE TRADE. 367 sections. Citizens of towns east and west are continually bidding for shoe factories. They offer exemption from taxation, loans or gifts of money and numerous other inducements to parties with a view to in duce them to come and make shoes in their towns. Their efforts have multiplied factories so much that there is no sale for the goods and only employment a portion of the time for the hands, but Massachusetts holds her supremacy as a shoe producing State, and New England keeps equal pace in the march of progress. Like all other staple commodities shoes are produced in great abund ance and sold at very small profits. The manufacturer of the present day in order to succeed must be a master of his art, keen of perception, and prompt to see and seize all opportunities that come in his way. He must constantly progress. It is not enough that there should be no retrogression, he cannot standstill, however far in the advanced column he has reached. Unless he moves forward he is in danger of being passed. That there are so few that falter and fall back is the strongest evidence that can be adduced of the ability of the leaders in this vast industry. THE HIDE AND LEATHER TRADE OF SUF FOLK COUNTY. BY Frank W. Norcross. OF THE "SHOE AND LEATHER REPORTER." CHAPTER I. Tanning among the Puritans — Ample Supply of Deer and Cattle Skins — Sumptuary Laws for Regulating Trade — Tanning in the Eighteenth Century — Personal Sketches of Old Tanners. The hide and leather business in Massachusetts has kept pace with that of shoes and grown with its growth. Of late years the production of heavy leather has decreased, owing to difficulty in obtaining bark, but the capital of Boston merchants has been invested in tanneries in Maine, New York and Pennsylvania. The hides are now mostly taken to the bark and the finished product brought to Boston for sale. ¦ Light leather, morocco, kid and sheepskins are made in the vicinity of Boston and marketed here. Something like one-quarter of the hides the tanners use are imported into Boston and New York. Bos ton merchants have a large La Plata, African and Calcutta trade, and most of the hides from these countries naturally come to this port. The upper leather hides imported are almost all of them tanned in Massa chusetts. A history of the hide and leather business is coeval with the first settlement of this country. The manufacture of leather and its conversion into numerous articles of elegance and utility, has attained a front rank as a branch of industry in this country. Boston has for more than a hundred years been the emporium of the trade. Tanning was one of the first occupations that HIDE AND LEATHER TRADE. 369 found a foothold in this State. It is the first trade of which any record is preserved in history. On the tombs of Thebes, painted four thou sand years ago, are pictures of tanners at their work. Some of the currying tools delineated there are similar to those used now. Leather tanned with acacia bark and alum has been found in the mummy cases. Bronze leather cutters and scrapers have been found in Mexico among relics of a civilization older than the Aztecs, which denote a knowledge of tanning long before this country was discovered by Europeans. The first neat cattle were brought into Massachusetts Colony by Ed ward Winslow in 1624. In the next six years over two hundred head were brought over from England " besides horses, sheep and goats. " Mr. Higginson, of Salem, mentions the extraordinary increase of cat tle in 1630 and speaks of " stores of sumack and other trees good for dyeing and tanning of leather." The first white settlers of Lynn were Edmund Ingalls, a brewer, and his brother, Francis Ingalls, a tanner. There was plenty of raw ma terial. Besides neat cattle introduced by Winslow, there were deer and moose in plenty, and, indeed, buckskin was the principal wear of the early colonists. Francis Ingalls put down his tannery on what is now Burrill street, on " Humfry's brook." This location is in Swampscott now. The vats were there until 1825, when they were taken up. Francis Ingalls Was born in England in 1601. He lived in Swampscott, then a part of Lynn. Probably his establishing a tannery gave an early impetus to the shoe business. The leather being made here, it was natural enough to turn attention to means for directly applying it to the common necessities of life. Another tanner of the early days was George Keyser. He dated from 1630. His tannery was in Lynn. An old record (1665) says: " Thomas Newhall's child was drowned in a pitt George Keyser digged. Hee had a tanfatt in the pitt, and George Keyser did take upp his fatt and leave the pitt open. " Mr. Keyser is also mentioned in old annals as a miller. He probably followed both occupations. His wife was a daughter of Edward Holyoke, a man of note in the colony, who owned and settled the town that bears his name in Western Massachusetts. Mr. Keyser tanned in Lynn until he moved to Salem in 1680, where his two sons first established the business. The Burrill tannery was put down in or about 1631, and kept in oper ation almost two hundred years. The Burrills were held in such rev erence that they were called ' ' the Royal family of Lynn. " Lieut. John 47 370 SUFFOLK COUNTY Burrill started the yard. It was on Boston street. His house stood opposite. The premises are now covered by the morocco factory of John T. Moulton. John Burrill was for twenty-one years a member and ten years speaker of the House of Representatives of Massachusetts, and Governor Hutchinson, in his history, compares him to William Pitt, or to Sir Arthur Onslow, an accomplished speaker of the House of Commons. He was a member of the Board of his Majesty's Council for the Colonies. Mr. Burrill died in 1721, and left the tannery to his son, Theophilus. That gentleman, in his will, left it to his grandson, Samuel Lewis, who sold -it in 1782 to Daniel Newhall and Nathaniel Sargent. They dissolved, and Mr. Sargent carried it on until his death, in 1798. Then Joseph Watson owned it until 1844. It is now a mo rocco factory. Two curriers of Lynn — Hope Allen and Nathaniel Bishop — petitioned the General Court (1664) to forbid tanners and "shewmakers " exercis ing the trade of curriers. The request was denied, but later the court enacted (1698) that "no person exercising the mystery of a currier or shewmaker shall exercise the feat of a tanner on pain of forfeiture of 6s. 8d. for any hide tanned ; also no tanner to exercise the trade of shew maker or that of a currier, and no shewmaker should use leather made of horse hides for the innersoles on pain of forfeiture of the shoes." One piece of legislation was commendable. A fine of twelve pence was exacted from any butcher who cut hides in flaying. Leather has always been deemed a necessity in war, and we find in the Colonial Records (1704) that Capt. Benjamin Church, who com manded the expedition in the French and Indian war, ordered that ' ' 500 pairs of shoes be made in Lynn, also good store of cow hides tanned to make more, also hemp and wax to make thread, and a good store of awls furnished." Searchers and sealers of leather were appointed by the General Court of Massachusetts in 1642. A law was passed that no butcher should exercise the trade of a tanner, and soon after ' ' that no leather should be over-limed, or not sufficiently tanned;" also forbidding any currier to use any "deceitful or subtle mixture," or burn or scald leather under pain of forfeiture. There were several tanneries put down in Boston previous to the Revolution. William Billings owned a tannery on Frog Lane (now Boylston), near Eliot street, in 1760. He published the "New Eng land Psalm Singer" in 1770, and other musical books. He pursued the ' HIDE AND LEA THER TRADE. 371 tanning vocation all his life ; he also taught church music and composed anthems that were popular long after the Revolution. There was a tannery on Hanover street, nearly opposite the American House, an other on Milk, near Pearl, and George Robert Twelves Hewes, one of the "Boston Tea Party," had a tannery on Congress street. About 1770 his brother, Shubael Hewes, was a butcher at the corner of Wash ington street and Harvard Place during the Revolution. About the year 1790 Adam Colson was a tanner on Boylston street. He set out the trees, still standing, on the Mall from Park to West street. His name appears among those who threw the tea overboard ; so does that of Matthew Loring, a shoemaker. The manufacture of leather was confined to the maritime counties for a century and more after the settlement of Boston. Experience Mitchell, a tanner, came over in the third ship from England that landed passengers in Boston. He began to tan leather in East Bridge- water. The stone on which he ground the oak bark is still preserved there. His descendants continued the business, and in 1820 this tan nery was dismantled after running continuously for one hundred and seventy years. One of the family went out to Hampshire county in 1790 and established the Cummington tannery. Gideon Lee & Co., of New York, sold the leather. Soon after the commencement of this century hides began to be im ported from South America. In 1810 it was estimated that one-third of the hides tanned in this country came from there. They were dry and cost 5)4 cents a pound. In 1809 the Hampshire Leather Manufacturing Company, capital $100,000, was incorporated by the Legislature. They purchased the tanneries erected by Col. William Edwards, near Northampton. Two Boston and two New York capitalists were stockholders. Ebenezer Francis, of Pemberton square, was one. The capacity of this tannery, 16,000 hides a year, was the greatest in the country at that time. The bark-mill had just been patented. Colonel Edwards invented a hide- mill, copper cylinders for applying heat to extract the tannin, and rolling-mills, the rollers to run by power. Before his time all the sides of leather were smoothed by running a roller loaded with stones over them. This leather was sold in Boston and New York, and when the smooth, shiny sides came into the market they caused great excite ment. Jacob Lorillard, a rich leather dealer, made the long journey to Northampton to see the new machine work. As he stood by and 372 SUFFOLK COUNTY. witnessed the operation, he said: "It covers a multitude of sins." All these inventions of Colonel Edwards are in common use in the tanneries of the present day. In 1815 hemlock bark began to grow scarce in that region, so the works were closed and the machinery transferred to Greene county, N. Y., in the vicinity of the Catskill Mountains. This was .the first tannery of any note in New England. It was considered of sufficient consequence to be mentioned in the United States census of 1810 — the first one taken — as being "the most important enterprise of the kind in this country." The gains made in this tannery ranged from 16 to 25 per cent, on dry hides. The sides of leather were trimmed and shaved down, but about 1825 the tanners omitted the "skiving," and thereafter made heavier leather and greater gains. In 1835 they began to sweat hides instead of liming them to unhair in making sole leather, thus perfect ing a great improvement in tanning. Tufts College, in Somerville, was built with money left for that pur pose by Nathan Tufts, a tanner of Charlestown. He did business from 1810 to about 1840. When he sold leather he delivered it in Boston, but never unloaded it from his team until the bill was paid. In 1837 the first statistical tables of the industry of Massachusetts were prepared by John P. Bigelow, secretary of the Commonwealth, The product of leather, including morocco, was stated to be $3,254,416 ; of shoes, $14,642,520. Samuel Philbrick had a leather store on Long Wharf in 1810. The New York dealers came to Boston and bought sole leather, tanned by the Southwicks and others, of him. Gideon Lee & Co. were among his customers. Afterwards they had their first account with the Cum- mington tannery. Gideon Lee, afterwards mayor of New York, and member of Congress, was a native of Cummington, HIDE AND LEA THER TRADE. 373 CHAPTER II. Introduction of the Morocco Manufacture — The Pioneers, Lord Timothy Dexter, Elisha Mead, Wm. Rose, Joseph Moulton, P. P. Tapley, the Pevear Brothers, Thomas Dowse, the "Learned Leather Dresser." In 1784, when the manufacture of morocco was introduced into this country, the art began to flourish in Massachusetts. This leather has been for more than a hundred and fifty years a favorite material for fine shoes. Felt, in his "Customs of New England," notices that morocco shoes were charged in the import account of a Boston house in 1740. The chief seat of morocco manufacture a hundred years ago was in Charlestown and Maiden. A famous tanner was " Lord " Tim othy Dexter, who . finished sheepskins in Maiden in 1763. He was known far and wide in New England for his fortunate speculations and eccentricities. He left the business soon after the war, and went to Newburyport, where he became a merchant. Elisha Mead was the. first morocco dresser in Charlestown. He began in 1790 to make "black, white and colored" stock, which he marketed in Boston. His son, Isaac Mead, afterwards founded the firm of Mead & Van Voorhis, who did business up to 1840. In 1810 the morocco workers of Lynn, Charlestown and Philadelphia tanned 44,053 dozen goatskins. Phineas Dow, of Boston, patented a leather splitting machine in 1810. Petitions were presented to Congress in 1811 by morocco manufac turers of Charlestown and Lynn for additional duties on imported leather, or its prohibition. The petitioners stated that 800,000 skins were annually manufactured in the United States, of which number 150,000 were made in Charlestown, and half as many in Lynn. The duty on leather was put at five per cent, in 1815. In 1842 it was raised to 6c. on sole and 8c. a pound on upper, with goatskins $2. 50 a dozen. William Rose came to Lynn in 1800, from England, attracted, no doubt, by the fame the town had attained in the shoe manufacture, and introduced what he called the art and mystery of morocco dressing in 374 SUFFOLK COUNTY. Lynn. He had such immediate success that customers were compelled to leave their orders weeks in advance. Mr. Rose brought over Eng lish workmen to do the fine 'portions of the finishing. He bought an estate and built a house and factory on South Common street. Most of the shoe factories of the town were at that time in the vicinity, while many of the proprietors lived opposite on North Common street. Mr. Rose held a great monopoly, and had every opportunity to make a fortune, but his habits were such that he lost the confidence of the community and failed. He had, as he thought, retrieved his fortunes by marrying the widow of a son of Lord Timothy Dexter, a beneficiary under his will, but found when too late that her income was cut off in the event of a second marriage. Then Rose left Lynn and worked as a journeyman in towns in the western part of the State until his death. When Mr. Rose left Lynn his place was taken by others ; they were as unsuccessful as he had been. Joshua R. Gore tried morocco manu facturing, and soon removed to New Haven. Francis Moore, a pre ceptor of Lynn Academy, quit teaching and went in with Henry Healy, who had learned the trade with Rose. His experience with "kids" didn't help him ; he lost his money. William B. and Joshua Whitney tried the business and retired insolvent. Carter & Tarbell ventured in and came out bankrupt. Samuel Mulliken, mentioned elsewhere, be came interested in it with Major Daniel R. De Witt, but they abandoned it. Lovejoy & Stockwell went at the business in 1816 and were suc cessful. John Lovejoy, of this firm, died in Lynn in 1876, aged eighty- seven- years. He had been for fifty years a director in the First Na tional Bank, and trustee of the Institution for Savings. He was one of the first captains of the Lynn Artillery. Rufus Brackett accumulated a fair estate ; so did his brother, Newell, also George Brackett. Breed & Damon, Nathan Reed, Peter Hay, Samuel Viall, the Newhalls, Levi Robinson, William Gilson, Edward Carroll (father-in-law of P. P. Tap- ley) were successful in the occupation in early times. In 1809 Jacob Perkins, of Boston, invented a machine for polish ing and graining morocco. This was an important aid in its manu facture. During the " embargo " of 1812-15 no merchant vessels arrived at or sailed from the ports of Boston and Salem, and goatskins were hard to obtain. Sheepskins were substituted, and the character of the material was sometimes disguised by classifying the goods made from them as " roan shoes," and those for children were called " roan batts. " HIDE AND LEATHER TRADE. 375 Morocco was mostly tanned with sumac. Gambier was also used, and another process was the alum tannage. The methods have been changed and greatly improved in our time, but until within ten years there was very little alteration for eighty years, except in the use of machines for handling the stock in the process of tanning. One of the Lynn pioneers was Joseph Moulton. He worked as an apprentice in the shop with William Rose. Mr. Moulton' began for himself in 1835. Soon after he was chosen by Michael Shepherd and John Bertram, of Salem, to assort and classify all the goatskins they imported. He was a very competent expert. Philip P. Tapley manufactured in ,1843, and was the first in the coun try to introduce steam in a factory. This was in 1850.. He was at that time a partner with John B. Alley and A. S. Mower. They made shoes as well as morocco. The firm was Alley, Tapley & Co. Mr.- Tapley was, more recently, interested in the introduction of a leather measur ing machine. The two brothers, George K. and Henry A. Pevear, are the oldest morocco manufacturers in Massachusetts. Their father, Burnham Pevear, learned the business in Exeter, N. H., and came to Lynn with his family in 1838. The sons learned of him, but G. K. Pevear served apprenticeship with Kelty & Tapley. In 1847 G. K. Pevear went into business and was soon joined by his brother. The firm was originally Roberts, Pevear & Co. ; Thomas "Roberts withdrew and the house of Pevear & Co. succeeded. Their factory was on Monroe street. They soon took the leading position in the trade they have since held. In 1858 they opened a store at Nos. 67 and 69 Kilby street, Boston, the first morocco house to do so. In 1859 they employed thirty-two hands, but had a good many skins finished in other shops. They manufact ured that year 103,000 goatskins. Their sales in Boston, including sumac and patent leather, were $96,000. About the time of the war they began to import South American goatskins, especially paytas. Their operations rapidly rose to the million dollar mark, and when in comes were assessed during the war, they paid to the government the largest personal tax collected in the morocco trade in Massachusetts. In 1864 they built a large factory on Boston street. In 1883 they dis solved and formed two firms as follows : Pevear & Co. have the old factory, the store in Boston, No. 83 High street, and the South American business. The firm is G. K. Pevear and his sons, G. Irving, who attends to the Boston business, and Waldo 376 SUFFOLK COUNTY. L. Pevear, who is the manufacturer. They tan in Lynn 250 dozen skins daily, combination tannage, and have a tannery in Philadelphia, where, in connection with J. P. Mathieu, they produce 200 dozen a day of the celebrated " Surpass " chrome kid. H. A. Pevear & Sons built a factory on Boston street 50 by 200, five stories, of brick and wood, with coloring house, engine and store rooms separate. They took possession when the firm dissolved, July 1, 1883. This building is fitted up with the best machinery, automatic sprink lers, fire alarm, etc. The firm is H. A. Pevear and his sons, Frederick S. and William A. Pevear. This factory stands on the spot where George Gray, the celebrated Lynn hermit, lived and died. To com memorate this, and preserve the landmark, they named their product " Hermit kid." The capacity is 200 dozen a day, and they are rapidly carrying the production of their new process kid up to that amount. Their Boston store is at No. 61 High street. G. K. and H. A. Pevear have always retained the land at the corner of Munroe and Washington streets, where they built their first factory. In 1892 they built on it the largest block, so far, erected in Essex county. It is a five-story structure, thoroughly fitted with all_ the modern conveniences. There are 100,000 feet of floor space in this building. Henry A. Pevear has been president of the Thomson- Houston Com pany since its inception. The morocco manufacture is conducted by his sons. Frederick S. Pevear attends to the Boston business. Will iam A. Pevear is the manufacturer. Blaney Brothers succeeded to the business of their father. J. W. Blaney, founded in 1848. He was the first to finish skivers and make fancy colors in Lynn. Augustus B. Martin was born in Charlestown, and learned his trade from James M. Wait. Mr. Martin's father, Newhall Martin, was in the shoe business there for about sixty years. Augustus B. Martin came to Lynn and commenced business in 1855 in company with Moses Norris. In 1858 they dissolved ; each continued alone. Both had been journeymen, working at nine dollars a week, and for a long time after going into business they lived on that sum. Mr. Martin is now one of the richest manufacturers in the country. The year after he dissolved with Mr. Norris he did a business of $30,000, employed eighteen hands and manufactured 50,000 goatskins. He continued alone until 1879, adding regularly to the capacity of his factory. He then associated HIDE AND LEA THER TRADE. 377 with him his two brothers, James P. and Edward F. Martin ; both re tired within ten years. In 1886 his son, A. B. Martin, jr. , was admitted. He died in 1891. Since that time Mr. Martin has done business alone. His factory is 375 by 47, five and six stories. There are 250 hands em ployed. The beam-house machinery was all made by Hemingway Brothers, of Lynn. There is an ample supply of seasoning, glazing and staking machines. There is a large salesroom at the factory. The Boston store is at No. 76 High street. The chrome and combination processes are used in about equal parts. Patnas are employed for the former, South American skins for the latter. Mr. Martin imports most of his skins direct. The factory output is 250 dozen a day. Mr. Martin has been a member of the City Council and Board of Aldermen ; is vice-president of the Lynn National Bank ; a director in the Safe Deposit Company; proprietor of the Bay State Dredging Company, and owns a large block of Thomson-Houston stock. P. Lennox & Co. are of high standing in the mercantile world. In addition to the morocco industry they have carried out, and have in hand, extensive building operations in Lynn, at Market and Broad streets and Harrison court. A shoe factory of 60,000 square feet is now being erected on Harrison court; another is projected for Broad street. A large factory was a few ¦ years ago erected on Market street next to the Lennox block, which was then looked upon as one of the most beautiful structures in the city. It is now nearly all occupied for shoe manufacturing by Corcoran, Callahan & Co. and D. A. Donovan & Co. P. Lennox & Co. date from 1853. In 1859 there were 1,041,000 skins .tanned in Lynn; 340 hands were employed, and the value of morocco produced was $695,000. The largest manufacturer that year tanned 225, 000 skins, and the amount of his business was nearly $100,000. Lynn was then, as now, sec ond in amount of morocco manufactured in the country, the first being Philadelphia. „ A noted morocco manufacturer was Thomas Dowse, of Cambridge- port. He was born in Charlestown in 1773, and remembered distinctly all his life the time when he iled, with his parents, from their humble home when the town was burned by the British on the 17th of June, 1775. He returned after the war closed, and at the proper age was apprenticed to learn the tanner's trade. He worked as a journeyman in the shop bf Abel Wait, at Roxbury, at twelve dollars a month. He remained there ten years, to 1803, and the highest wages he received 48 378 SUFFOLK COUNTY. was twenty-five dollars a month. When he was thirty years old he commenced business for himself in Cambridgeport, and his house and factory still stand on the Main street. His sign was a lamb, carved full size. Some Harvard College students sawed the head off one night, and it remained in that condition as long as he did business. He died in 1856. The trade was profitable ; the skins he finished were in request for shoe manufacturers and bookbinders ; his gains were steady and frugally husbanded, and he became a rich man. His library, which he presented to the Massachusetts Historical Society at his death, was valued at $40,000; it consisted of five thousand volumes of choice and rare books. In 1820 Mr. Dowse bought three tickets in a lottery in London. The two highest prizes, a collection of rare water colors and copies of engraving's and paintings of the old masters, he was fortun ate enough to draw. The first intimation he had of this was when the collection came to Boston by packet ship, and he was called on to pay about a thousand dollars for duties and freight. This collection was at the time placed on exhibition at Doggett & Co.'s rooms at North Market street, and attracted much attention. Gilbert Stuart and Washington Allston, then residents of Boston, said: " This gallery embodied in the aggregate richer treasures of art than were at that time to be found in the whole United States." This collection he left at his decease to the Boston Athenaeum ; it embraces the chief gems of the fine galleries of that association at their building on Beacon street. Mr. Dowse was a very busy man all his life. He suffered from lame ness, due to an accident when a child, but he worked regularly at his trade nearly every day, and even after he was seventy years old went to Boston twice a week, delivering leather and transacting business with his customers. When he died the members of the Historical So ciety were summoned to attend at their rooms. Hon. Robert C. Win throp stated the object of the meeting and introduced the orator, Hon. Edward Everett, who delivered an eloquent eulogy on one who was called, during his lifetime, " the learned leather dresser," HIDE AND LEATHER TRADE. 379 CHAPTER III. Early Hide Importers — Salem and Boston Merchants — "Billy'' Gray — "King" Derby — Statistics of the Leather Trade — Different Kinds of Leather and How Pre pared — Export Trade — Machinery. In the early years of the present century Salem was the great seat of the hide importing business. John Bertram, David Pingree, R. W. Ropes arid E. Haskett Derby, "King Derby," as he was called, were the largest merchants in the trade. Their vessels went to Africa. Leonard B. Harrington, afterwards a renowned tanner, made, when a young man, several voyages to that continent. John Bertram continued the business until his death a few years ago. William Gray was a son of Abraham and grandson of William Gray, shoemakers in Lynn. He was born in 1750. When he grew up his father undertook to teach him the trade, but confinement at the bench was unfavorable to his health. The family had, meantime, moved to Salem, and young Gray was taken in the counting room of Richard Derby, an eminent merchant. He made several voyages as supercargo, taking ventures of his own, as was the custom at that time. By so doing he accumulated money sufficient to engage in business for him self. From the time Mr. Gray entered upon a mercantile career he prospered exceedingly. He moved to Boston in 1808, and was then considered the richest man in New England. He was known familiarly as " Billy Gray," He always maintained business relations with Lynn manufacturers. For more than forty years he supplied them with Russia sheeting, which was used for shoe linings. He built Gray's Wharf in Boston, at the North End, and did business there. Mr. Gray was elected lieutenant-governor of the State twice (1810-1812). He died in Boston in 1825. His grandson, Horace Gray, is an associate chief justice of the United States Supreme Court. Salem gradually lost this trade, and the great hide importing houses have, since 1830, been located at Boston and New York. In 1835 Bryant & Sturgis, of Long Wharf, sent vessels to California for hides. Richard H. Dana, jr., went as a sailor in one of the early voyages, and 380 SUFFOLK COUNTY. printed his experience in " Two Years Before the Mast." At that time it took eighteen months to pick up a cargo of 40,000 hides on that coast, and they were sold in Boston for twelve and one-half cents a pound. • James Packer was one of the oldest morocco manufacturers in the State in active business when he died. He was apprenticed to Guy Carleton & Co., in 1819; commenced business for himself in 1837, and occupied a factory on Tremont street for thirty-five 3rears. He died in 1889, aged eighty-seven years. His brother, Charles Packer, did busi ness in Boston and Lynn for sixty years, and died in 1890, aged eighty- five years. The following table shows the number of tanning and currying establishments in Massachusetts, and the growth of the industry in forty-five years : leather. 1845 1855 1865 1875 772 2,691 $4,259,451 851 $4,744,933 4,808 $13,790,107 667 $3,720,067$6,430,272 5,3=1 $12,062,046 „ c 529 $7,690,245 $14,382,897 6,620 $3,383,054 5,45o $21,899,262 1885 Number of establishments- Capital invested Value of stock used Persons employed Wages paid Motive power (horse power) Value of goods made 699 $12,258,831$19,713,559 9,228 $4,3J3,674 9,i77 $28,008,851 It is estimated that the cost of production of leather at present is about as follows: stock, 78.95 per cent. ; wages and salaries, 17.80 per cent. ; rent, taxes, etc. , 3. 25 per cent. ; total, 100. The bark used in tanning in Massachusetts, and indeed all the northern section of the country, is hemlock. Oak grows at so great a distance that it is unavailable, on account of the expense of transport ation. Hemlock leather is well adapted for plain, substantial shoes, but for the more tasteful and expensive kinds, oak is used. Formerly all the oak leather the shoemaker cut up was brought East from Phila delphia and Baltimore, in which cities it was tanned somewhat exten sively. About 1845, A. I. Schultz, the father of Jackson S. Schultz, of New York, conceived the idea of producing leather having the com plexion and general appearance of oak leather, but tanned partially with hemlock and partially with oak bark, the former greatly predom inating. This was called union leather, and after it had been in use a short time in New York city factories, it was adopted in Lynn and Haverhill. It is trimmed differently from hemlock. It is crapped; HIDE AND LEATHER TRADE. 381 the best part of the hide is detached and tanned separately from the offal portions. The leather is limed, which renders it soft, suitable for working under the machines, and susceptible of a fine finish. Fully 2,500,000 of these backs are tanned yearly. Scoured oak backs are in use for bottoms of the finest shoes. They are made from green salted hides. When tanned, or partially tanned, they are trimmed and scoured on the grain. The backs of whole hides are tanned and trimmed for belting. In 1850-2 Perry Newhall, of Lynn, began to cut soles for the trade. He was for some time the only person engaged in the business ; now the cut sole trade is one of the largest industries. David Knox, of Lynn, invented a machine for cutting these soles in 1857. Others fol lowed, and millions of pairs of soles are prepared for the trade by the use of machinery. About 1865 grain leather began to be used in shoes. Cow hides are the raw material. These are split when partially tanned and then finished on the grain side in imitation of goat or seal skin. This leather was sold at first for high prices, but machinery was introduced and other methods that cheapened it so as to admit of its use in low grade shoes. Buff leather is a substitute for calfskins, and a good imitation. It is finished on the grain side, and the top cuticle of the grain is then buffed off, so as to give a perfectly smooth surface. Calfskins have been used ever since shoes were made. There is usually a pretty plentiful supply of, calfskins, and they are finished by various methods. Wax-calf is stuffed with tallow and blackened, patent calf is finished with a varnish. Ooze calf is prepared by secret process and finished over an emery wheel. Calf kid is tanned with alum and softened by staking. All these are used in shoes. About the year 1867 Col. Charles F. Harrington, at that time of the house of Johnson & Thompson, of Boston, went to England with sam ples of buff, grain and splits. He showed them in London and Leeds, but shoe manufacturers said the leather wasn't suited to the class of shoes they made. He left the samples with a London factor. The London factor could find no buyer for them, so he gave them away. However the seed thus sown bore fruit. These fabrics are now used in most every part of Europe. Almost all of it is shipped from Bos ton. 382 SUFFOLK COUNTY. The following table shows the value of our upper leather exports for nine fiscal years : Year. Value. Year. Value. 1884____ $2,062,651 1889.. 13,143,699 1885 2,578,991 1890 4,249,110 1886 2,405,456 1891 ... 5,161,211 1887 3,073,833 1892 3,880,475 1888. _ _ 2,849,208 Exports of sole leather for eight years were : Year. Pounds. Value Year. Pounds. Value. 1884 22,421,293 $4,613,106 1888 28,713,473 $4,959,363 1885 27,313,766 5,416,830 1889 35,558,945 5,890,509 1886 24,256,880 4,825,615 1890 39,595,219 6,420,134 1887 30,530,488 5,695,151 1891____ .37.501,278 6,168,362 Hides that come from the Argentine Republic and Uruguay are the best dry hides we have. They are known in the trade as " straight," while most all others that are imported are termed "common." Some of the tanners import hides. The heavier weights are sent to tanneries in the Middle States, Pennsylvania principally, where the forests abound with hemlock. The thin, or light hides are tanned into upper leather. Much of this is done in Woburn, Winchester, Salem and Peabody. Boston merchants have been in the Calcutta trade during most of this century. They import hides and goatskins from the East Indies. The Calcutta buffalo hides make sole leather of a coarse grade. The cow hides are used for mill and lace leather, and patna butts for upper leather. The leather splitter was an important invention. Alvah Richardson and Luke Brooks, of Boston, made the first one about 1829. In 1863 an endless knife splitting machine for whole hides was introduced. HIDE AND LEATHER TRADE. 383 CHAPTER IV. Leather Machinery — A Roster of Prominent Tanners — Salem — Woburn — Peabody — Hide and Leather Statistics — Cut Soles and Scrap Leather. Within a quarter of a century valuable labor saving machinery has been introduced in every department of leather finishing. Scouring, whitening, fleshing and unhairing processes can now be done bymachines. A leather measuring machine came in use in 1878. Upper leather is mostly sold by the foot. It was formerly measured by a frame, with strings set in to indicate squares of a foot in size. Many disputes arose over the correctness of these measurements. By these machines all this is done away with. E. D. Brooks & Co. are the oldest house in this country dealing in leather machinery. In 1825 Luke Brooks went to Boston and com menced trading in leather. In 1826 he formed a copartnership with Josiah M. Jones. They did business on India Wharf up to 1837, at which date Luke Brooks, Moses Hunt and Edward T. Noble formed the firm of Moses Hunt & Co. They made and sold the Richardson splitting machine. Eugene D. , a son of Luke Brooks, came into the house in 1859. The firm was Noble & Brooks from that date until 1872, when the present style was assumed. The Southwick family embraces many tanners. The name has been associated with the industry for 150 years. They descended from Law rence and Cassandra Southwick, who, with their son, Josiah, and daugh ter, Mary, were whipped, imprisoned and banished from Massachusetts in 1659 for the crime of being Quakers. A son of Joseph Southwick became a tanner. His great-grandson, Philip R. Southwick, was the largest tanner in the State in 1835. He was connected with David Pingree and Robert Upton, of Salem. In 1850 Mr. Southwick became a hide broker in Boston, He retired -in 1875, and died soon after. In 1859 William E. Plummer became connected with Mr. Southwick in the hide brokerage business. During the Civil War he induced the upper leather tanners to use bark extract, and formed a company to manufacture it in Canada under the Miller patents. Bark was scarce, 384 SUFFOLK COUNTY. owing to a dearth of men to peel it. The use of extracts enabled tan ners to fill their contracts. He became interested as superintendent with the United States Patents Company, owning scouring, whitening and other labor saving machines. Some of these have been generally adopted. Mr. Plummer was superintendent of the Shoe and Leather Building at the Centennial Exposition at Philadelphia. Benjamin G. Boardman was, in his day, a dashing operator in hides and leather. He dated from 1831. He accumulated a fortune ; he re tired in 1879 and invested his money in real estate. The Ropes brothers, five of them, were importers of hides for years in Salem. They had houses in Boston and in New York. They did an extensive business with the River Plata. The last two of them died in Brooklyn in the summer of 1890, Ripley Ropes and Reuben W. Ropes, both men of sterling worth. Solomon R. Spaulding was in the leather business fifty years. He was the first to establish a leather store on Pearl street. Mr. Spauld ing was the first president of the Merchants' and Miners' Transporta tion Company, and was a vice-president of the Board of Trade. He died September 1, 1874, aged sixty-nine years. Major Alexander Vining, a prominent leather and calfskin dealer, died January, 1886. He was proprietor of the Mansion House at Hull. His daughter, Floretta Vining, is an authoress and lecturer and one of the large real estate owners at Hull. Henry Poor died January 19, 1878, aged seventy-nine years. His family had been tanners for a hundred and twenty-five years. He established himself in business in South Danvers in 1830. He moved to Boston in 1845. Alexander Moseley was a partner from 1845 to 1851. Since then the firm has been Henry Poor & Son. Mr. Poor served terms in both bodies of the General Court, and his eldest son, Eben S. Poor, who died in 1874, was a State senator and member of the Gov ernor's Council. John O. and Charles C. Poor constitute the present firm. Henry Poor was one of the most estimable and beloved of men. Jacob Putnam was born in Danvers in 1782; died in Salem, January, 1866. When thirteen years old he was apprenticed to Mr. Endicott, a tanner. In 1805 he made a voyage to Calcutta. In 1810 he went into the tanning business, and in 1830 he imported hides from Para and the East Indies. In 1844 he built a large currying shop on Boston street in Salem. He introduced steam power in 1856, one of the first Massa chusetts tanners to do this, His son, George F. Putnam, born in Salem \jC4Printing Press of those few we know of in Amer ica was lost ; a loss not presently to be repaired. " It gives an account of the capture of St. Christopher from the French, and of the landing of King William in Ireland with 140,000 foot and horse, as well as 400 SUFFOLK COUNTY. other veritable occurrences in Europe and America. It is to all in tents and purposes a newspaper, and, as such, the first of its kind in America. Harris, at the date of the above publication, kept a bookstore in Bos ton at the London Coffee House in King street, but removed two or three years after to Cornhill, where he engaged in printing chiefly for booksellers. He had a commission from Governor Phipps, in 1692, to print the laws. He was from London, where he had been a printer and bookseller, and as Dunton, the eccentric English bookseller, who was at this time in Boston, states, had, ' ' as brisk asserter of English liber ties, " incurred by his publication the displeasure of the authorities in such a form as to induce him to travel to New England, " where he followed bookselling, and then coffee selling, and then printing, but continued Ben Harris still, and is now both bookseller and printer in Grace Church street, as we find by his London Post; so that his con versation is general (but not pertinent) and his will pliable to all in vention. " Bartholomew Green, another son of the Cambridge printer, com menced printing in Boston in 1690, after the death of his brother Samuel, who died in the small-pox epidemic of that year. B. Green was for about forty years printer for the government, and the leading publisher in Boston. He was assisted by John Allen, another London printer, who commenced about the same time, and in 1707 established an independent business. In 1704 Green commenced the printing of The Boston News-Letter, the first successful attempt to establish a periodical in the colonies. It was printed weekly and published ' ' by authority " for John Campbell, postmaster, who was the proprietor. It became the property of Green eighteen years later, during fifteen of which it was the only one in the colonies. From 1707 to 1711 it was printed by Allen, whose premises being burned in the great fire, it was again printed by Green. The publication continued in the Green family until the year 1766. James Franklin, an elder brother of Benjamin Franklin, was another of the early printers of Boston. He had learned the art in England, and in 1713-14 brought thence a press and types, with which he printed for a time the Boston Gazette. It was in this office that Benjamin Franklin learned the first elements of the printing art. About the year 1752 an edition of the English Scriptures was pri vately carried through the press at Boston. It was printed by Knee- INDUSTRIAL HISTORY. 401 land Green. This first American edition of the Bible in the English language was chiefly made for Daniel Henchman, of Boston, the most enterprising bookseller of British America before the Revolution. His place of business was on Cornhill, at the corner of King street, where he furnished much employment to the Boston printers and even those of London. He built also the first paper mill in New England. Down to 1740 more printing was annually executed in Massachusetts than in all the other colonies. Massachusetts continued to lead in the publication of books for about twenty-five years longer. In 1769 the publishing business of Philadelphia had become nearly equal to that of Boston, and this equality was maintained until about the beginning of the War of the Revolution. To these two cities belongs the credit of having led the enterprise of the country in one of the most important of the arts, and they also divide the honor of -having produced the greatest ornament, of the profession in this or any other country — Benjamin Franklin. Born in Boston, where the earliest years of his life were passed, and where he acquired his first knowledge of his craft, he later conferred upon Philadelphia the benefits of his industry, in ventive talent, and maturer wisdom. At the beginning of the War of the Revolution there were seven papers published in Massachusetts, of which five were at Boston, one at Salem, and one at Newburyport. During the progress of the Revo lution the press shared in the general insecurity and depression which interrupted nearly every form of industry. It did its full share in arousing the spirit of resistance in the hearts of the colonists, and in sustaining the fire of patriotism throughout the struggle. ' ' Writers and printers, " says Dr. Ramsey, " followed in the rear of the preach ers, and next to them had the greatest hand in animating their coun trymen." The first paper mill in Massachusetts was projected by men of Bos ton in 1728. On the 13th of September of that year the General Court of Massachusetts granted, for the encouragement of a paper mill, to Daniel Henchman, Gillam Phillips, Benjamin Faneuil, Thomas Han cock, and Henry Dering, a privilege in the nature of a patent for ten years. The mill was erected at Milton, seven miles south of Boston, on the Neponset River. The proprietors employed an Englishman, named Henry Woodman, as their foreman. They furnished the Legis lature a sample of their manufacture in 1731, and the mill was prob ably built early in the previous year. Henchman, who was the princi- 51 402 SUFFOLK COUNTY. pal projector, was the leading bookseller and publisher in Boston at that time, and was a man of considerable wealth. Another bookseller of Boston concerned in the enterprise was Richard Fly. The Milton mill, after having been conducted a few years by the original managers, suspended operations. It was afterwards sold to Jeremiah Smith, who was unable to obtain workmen to carry on the business. During 1760 it was operated for a short time by James Boies, of Boston. It then fell into the hands of Richard Clarke, an Englishman from New York, who was said to have had superior knowledge of the business, and successfully conducted it for some time. He was succeeded by his son, George Clarke, In 1796 the town of Milton had three paper mills, and there were six on the same river and twenty in the State. The manufacture of paper hangings was not introduced into the colonies until about the middle of the last century, and was not a well established branch of home industry until after the War of the Revolu tion. At that time there were several manufactories of the article in Boston. Three years after the war closed Boston produced annually twenty-four thousand pieces of paper hangings, not only sufficient to supply the State, but furnished considerable to other States. The distilling of New England rum was at one time quite extensively carried on in Boston. In 1738 Burke makes the following reference to this business : ' ' The quantity of spirits which they distil in Boston from the molasses they bring in from all parts of the West Indies is as sur prising as the cheap rate at which they vend it, which is under two shillings a gallon ; with this they supply almost all the consumption of our colonies in North America, the Indian trade there, the vast amount of their own and Newfoundland fisheries, and, in great measure, those of the African trade, but they are more famous for the quantity and cheapness than for the excellency of their rum." On Price's Plan there are eight still-houses indicated, divided between the mill-pond and the wharves near the foot of Essex street. Drake, in his "Old Landmarks of Boston" says: "The oldest one is that now, and for some time in possession of the French family, which appears to have been improved for that purpose as early as 1714 by Henry Hill, distil ler, and by Thomas Hill after him. Besides this there were Avery's and Haskins'." That the making of hats had early become quite an industry in Bos ton is evidenced from the fact that a company of feltmakers, in Lon don, petitioned Parliament in February, 1731, to prohibit the importa- INDUSTRIAL HISTORY. 403 tion of hats from the American colonies, representing that foreign mar kets were almost altogether supplied from thence, and not a few sent to Great Britain. The petition was referred to a special committee, which reported that in New York and New England, beaver hats were manufactured to the number, it was estimated, of ten thousand yearly. In Boston there were sixteen hatters, one of whom was stated to have commonly furnished forty hats a week. The exports were to the southern plantations, the West Indies, and Ireland. In consequence of this evidence, and that furnished by the Board of Trade in the same session, an act was passed that " no hats or felt, dyed or undyed, fin ished or unfinished, shall be put on board any vessel in any place with in any of the British plantations ; nor be laden upon any horse or other carriage to the intent to be imported from thence to any other planta tions, or to any other place whatever, upon forfeiture thereof, and the offender shall likewise pay ,£500 for every such offense." It was a Boston merchant, Colonel Josiah Quiney, who was the orig inator of glass manufacture in this neighborhood. He joined with Joseph Palmer, an Englishman, and with the aid of some German glassblowers, started the manufacture of glass at the point in the har bor to this day called Germantown, near the site of the Sailors' Snug Harbor, in Quiney, Shortly after one of the Boston Bowdoins was concerned in another glass house, as appears by his name to a petition in 1749 asking a legislative grant of wood land in aid of the enterprise. In 1768 a type foundry was commenced in Boston by a Mr. Michel- son from Scotland, who produced type which were said to be equal to . any imported from Great Britain. But he did not succeed in establish ing a permanent business. This was twenty-eight years after the first foundry was established in Philadelphia, and only five after the first attempt was made in New York to manufacture movable type. The brewing of beer was among the earliest products of industry during the Colonial period of our country. The business was com menced here soon after the settlement of Boston. As early as 1637 it had become an established industry, as the General Court of that year ordered that "No person shall brewe any beare, or malt, or other drinke, or sell in gross or by retaile, but only such as shall be licensed by this Courte, on paine of £100; and whereas Capt. Sedgwick hath before this time set up a brewe house at his greate charge, and very comodious for this part of the countrey, hee is freely licensed to brewe beare to sell according to the size before licensed dureing the pleasure 404 SUFFOLK COUNTY. of the Courte." The "size" mentioned refers to the strength of the brew, which was not to be stronger than could be sold at eight shillings the barrel. This is the earliest mention of a brew-house in the colonies. Ten years later, however, a number of breweries had been established in Massachusetts. Hops were the principal ingredient used in the man ufacture of beer during the earliest period of the colonies, several years elapsing before barley was raised in sufficient quantities for the home production of malt and beer. A considerable quantity of malt was therefore annually imported. This in Massachusetts was subject to a duty, which the principal importers and merchants of Boston in 1655 petitioned the Assembly to repeal, as "piuditiall to this Commonwealth and also a discorridgm't to Marchants. " One of the petitions of the early Boston advocates of free trade, written by Thomas Broughton and signed by him and Robert Pateshall, represents that ' ' the well known advantage accruing by freedome of ports and hindrance of trade proportionally according to largeness of customs imposed, that this seeming good may not bring upon this countrey a reall evell, and from customs upon one grow to customs on another, till step by step, under specious pretences, we are insensiblie brought under taxes for every thing, as the woful experience of other nations well known unto us showeth;" therefore, "for the good of the present, and to prevent this evell in future ages, we are become your humble petitioners to remove the customs upon malt, that after ages may remind you as fathers of their freedome, and the present may bow before you for their experience of your care of theire welfare," etc. At what date the manufacture of cloth for clothing was begun at Boston it is impossible to learn. Flax, hemp and cotton had been wrought into cloth as early as 1639 in Rowley, Mass., and in 1642 the author of " New England First Fruits," writing at Boston, September 26, 1642, speaks of their providential help, among other things, "in prospering hemp and flax so well that it is frequently sown, spun, and woven into linen cloth (and in short time may serve for cordage) ; so cotton wooll (which we may have at reasonable rates from the islands) and our linen yarne, we can make dimittees and fustians for our sum mer clothing; and having a matter of 1,000 sheep, which prosper well to begin withal, in a competent time, we hope to have woollen cloth there made. And great and small cattel being now very frequently killed for food, their skins will afford us leather for boots and shoes and other uses ; so that God is leading us by the hand into a way of INDUSTRIAL HISTORY 405 clothing." In 1722 the General Court offered a premium for sail duck and linen made in Massachusetts of domestic material. Four years later John Powell, of Boston, presented a memorial to the same body, representing that he had found the flax and hemp of the country as well adapted to the manufacture of sail cloth as that of Great Britain or Ireland. He engaged, if suitably encouraged, to have twenty looms at work within fifteen or eighteen months, and to send home by the first ship for workmen and utensils, which would require an outlay of £500 for each loom, to produce fifty pieces of duck per annum from each. A committee was appointed to consider the proposition, and reported in June, recommending a bounty of twenty shillings to be paid out of the public treasury for each piece of . duck or canvas of ' ' thirty-six yards long and thirty inches wide, a good even thread, well drawn, and of a good bright color, being wrought wholly of good strong water- rotted hemp or flax of the growth of New England, and that shall weigh between forty and fifty pounds each batt, and for fourteen years, as is usual in Great Britain and elsewhere, and the memorialist be allowed £3,000, he being given such security as your court may ap- ' point, £2,000 in hand, and the other one thousand when he has per fected five hundred pieces of canvas, that shall pass the survey." The manufacture of linen was largely accelerated in Boston at this time by the influx of a number of Scotch-Irish settlers, most of whom had engaged in the work in their old homes. Their superior knowledge of the art and the improved machinery which they came provided with, gave an impulse to the business-, and the flax wheel became a familiar sight in nearly every household. The stimulus thus given to this industry led to a public effort in Boston to establish a linen manu factory. A public meeting was called, at which Judge Sewell pre sided, and a committee of seven was appointed to report on the propriety of establishing " a spinning school or schools for the instruc tion of the children of the town." It resulted in the erection on the east side of Long Acre street, now Tremont street, near Hamilton Place, of a large, handsome brick building, called the " Manufactory House," having on its front wall the figure of a woman holding a dis taff as emblematic of its future use. General enthusiasm prevailed at its opening. An immense concourse assembled, and the women of Boston, rich and poor, appeared on the Common with their spinning wheels, and vied with each other in the use of the instrument. Sub scriptions were raised for the support of the project, and an Act of the 406 SUFFOLK COUNTY. Assembly was obtained in 1737, laying a tax on carriages and other luxuries for the maintenance of the institution. At each recurring anniversary (it continued for three or four years) the trustees and company attended public worship, when a sermon was delivered suited to the occasion. The spirit under which it was undertaken, however, was too violent to secure permanent success, and the project was finally abandoned. The building, which stood until after the Revolution, was afterward used as a manufactory for worsted hose, metal buttons, etc. The Hon. Daniel Oliver, a merchant of Boston, also erected about the same time, at an expense of £600, a " Spinning School " for the em ployment of the poor, which at his death he bequeathed for the educa tion of the children of that class. In consequence of the interest which had for several years been taken in the subject in Boston, Daniel Henchman, already referred to in connection with the paper interest, about the year 1735, reprinted a work published in Dublin, entitled: ' ' Instructions for the Cultivating and Raising of Flax and Hemp, in a better manner than generally practiced in Ireland, by Lionel Slator, Flax and Hemp Dresser." So general was the cultivation of these articles, that two years after they were ordered to be taken at the pub lic treasury in payment of taxes. The tax on carriages was in 1753 removed in Massachusetts for the support of spinning schools, and each town was allowed to send at least one person to be instructed in the art free of expense. In 1762 public notice was given that the spinning school in the Manufactory House of Boston was again opened, where any one who felt disposed might learn to spin gratis, and after the first three months be paid for their spinning. A premium of £18 was at the same time offered to the four best spinners. About the year, 1748 a society was formed in Boston for promoting industry and frugality, and was probably the forerunner of those associations which a few years later became the favorite mode through out the country of sustaining resistance to the pressure of ministerial authority. To favor this design the Assembly purchased the Manu factory House, and granted four townships of land for the use of foreign Protestants, and the use of the Provincial frigate for their transporta tion. At the anniversary of the society in 1753, great enthusiasm was exhibited. About 300 young female spinners appeared on the Com mon, seated at their wheels arranged in three rows. The weavers also assembled, neatly dressed in cloth of their own manufacture, and one working at a loom upon a platform was carried on the shoulders of INDUSTRIAL HISTORY. 407 men, accompanied by music. A large assemblage was addressed by Rev. Dr. Samuel Cooper. At about this period the restrictions placed upon the growth of the industrial interest of the colonies by Great Britain had become espe cially oppressive. The home government had from the beginning dis countenanced every attempt to build up industries here that would either render the colonists independent of home manufactures or rivals in trade. The means by which this was sought to be done had, how ever, an entirely different result. The repeal of the Stamp Act in 1766 was but a temporary lull in the system of unjust restrictions placed upon the colonies by Parliament. The year 1767 witnessed the imposition of a duty on sugar, glass, painters' colors and tea, providing for the quartering of soldiers in the colonies, and for the more effectual enforcement of the revenue system by the establishment of a custom house. This system of taxation was violently opposed by the colonists. Boston in town meeting commenced the system of retaliation and redress employed against the famous Stamp Act, by declaring that ' ' the excessive use of foreign superfluities is the chief cause of the present distressed state of this town, as it is thereby, drained of its money ; which misfortune is likely to be increased by means of the late additional burdens and impositions on the trade of the province, which threaten the country with poverty and ruin." Resolutions were adopted to abstain from the use, after 1st of December, of such foreign articles as ' ' loaf sugar, cordage, anchors, coaches, chaises and carriages of all sorts, house furniture, men's and women's hats, men's and women's apparel ready-made, household furniture, gloves, men's and women's shoes, sole leather, sheeting and deck nails, gold, silver and thread lace of all sorts, gold and silver buttons, wrought plate of all sorts, diamonds, stone and paste ware, snuff, mustard, clocks and watches, silversmiths' and jewelers' ware, broadcloths that cost above 10.?. per yard, muffs, furs and tippets, and all sorts of millinery ware, starch, women's and children's stays, fire engines, china ware, silk and cotton velvets, gauze, pewterer's hollow ware, linseed oil, glue, lawns, cambrics, silks of all kinds for garments, malt liquors, and cheese." At the same time it was resolved ' ' by all prudent ways and means to encourage the manufactures of British America, and more especially of this province." Retrenchment in the use of new or superfluous cloth ing and mourning apparel was pledged. The Assembly addressed a petition to the king, and later addressed a letter to the assemblies of 408 SUFFOLK COUNTY. sister Provinces, stating what had been done and asking co-operation in their plan to obtain redress of grievances. Parliament in striving to replenish its treasury had done, without intending it, all that was necessary to facilitate the progress of our industries. The outspoken determination to use only home manufactured products was the only way to avoid the unjust burdens Great Britain was seeking to place upon her colonists in America. The effect of the new Parliamentary act, therefore, only tended to foster and encourage home industries. After the passage of the act, an attempt was made to revive the linen factory in Boston, which had been discontinued. At the town meeting in Boston in March, 1767, a committee was appointed to frame a vote of thanks to John Dickinson, the author, of the " Letters of a Pennsylvania Farmer," which so ably indicated the rights of American subjects. A large committee on manufactures was at the same time appointed to procure subscriptions to aid a manufactory of duck lately established in the town by John Bennett. They reported in May that only one-half the required sum (£300) had been subscribed, and were directed to renew their efforts. Many efforts were- made by merchants and others to excite an interest in the subject of manufactures. In August following the arrival of the Royal Commissioner of Customs, and after the seizure of the sloop Liberty had taken place for violating the revenue laws, the Boston merchants again entered into an agree ment not to import any British goods from January 1, 1769, to January 1, 1770, except salt, coal, fish hooks and' lines, hemp, duck, bar lead and shot, wool cards and card ware. A refractory merchant, not abid ing by this agreement, was waited upon by a committee and informed that 1,000 men were waiting for his answer. The newspapers soon published that he had voluntarily ceased importing. Goods were even reshipped from Boston. Committees of superintendence were employed who were vigilant in preventing any violation of the agreements. The effect of the non-importation system is exhibited in the returns of the British Custom House, which gives the value of articles exported from England to New England as being only £223,696 for 1769, while for 1768 it amounted to £430,807. The consequent loss of trade in Great Britain caused widespread distress among the merchants there, and a general demand for the repeal of the imports was made. This was acceded to by Parliament by removing the duty upon all articles except tea. This concession, however, did not cause the people to abandon their policy of non-importation, because the right to tax them INDUSTRIAL HISTORY. 409 was still asserted, and the system was therefore continued in the hope of forcing an entire surrender of the right to tax them at all. This de termination was strengthened in Boston by the conflicts which took place between the British soldiers and its citizens in 1770. An increased attention to several branches of domestic industry was among the salutary results of the non-importation covenants. " To the good effects of these resolutions, "says Bishop in his "History of Ameri can Manufactures, " ' ' was ascribed the encouraging facts that at the com mencement exercises held in Cambridge, in the year 1770, the graduat ing class appeared in black cloth entirely of New England manufact ure. " In March of the same year a memorial was presented to the General Court by William Molineaux and others, who, in consideration of the increasing- number and expense of the poor, had caused a large number of spinning wheels to be made, and engaged rooms for em ploying young females, from eight years old and upward, in earning their own support. In aid of these spinning schools, where children were instructed for two years free of cost, they had asked and received from the General Court a loan of £500, without interest. The peti tioners state that at least 300 women and children had already been thoroughly instructed in the art of spinning, and to whom a large amount had been paid in wages. They had then on hand about forty thousand " scanes of fine yarn, fit to make any kind of women's wear. " The example of Mr. Molineaux produced great activity in spinning throughout the community, and Boston shared in the benefits it be stowed. Its good effect extended to every branch of industry. The manufacture of cotton and wool cards was carried on extensively. The making of pot and pearl ashes was still an important industry, although it had begun to decline on account of the scarcity of wood. This in dustry had been carried on in Boston at this time for at least a quarter of a century. William Frobisher, of Boston, had contributed to the reputation and manufacture of American potash, by investigating the principles of the process, and by demonstrating its superiority for soap making. Dr. Townsend had also published a pamphlet on the manu facture and inspection of pot and pearl ashes. Rope making, which had formed an important part in the industrial pursuits of the town from the early days of the colony, had grown to considerable propor- ' tions. Part of Governor Hutchinson's estate on Pearl, formerly called Hutchinson street, having been confiscated and sold by the Common wealth, was converted into rope walks. There were also extensive 52 410' SUFFOLK COUNTY. rope walks at the West End, others at the North End, and at the bot tom of the Common. The bloody affray of 1770 has rendered John Gray's walk, on Atkinson street, historical. Brewing and the distilling of New England rum, which had grown to large proportions, gave em ployment to many. The making of morocco leather, which had been begun in Charlestown, in 1770, by the afterward famous Lord Timothy Dexter, and others, was in a flourishing condition. The printing and making of books was now largely carried on, and perhaps no place in the colonies furnished employment to a larger number of persons in this branch of industry, with the possible exception of Philadelphia. At this time there were ninety-two booksellers in the town, and more than a third of them made the binding and making of books a part of their business. Ship building was the leading industry, and gave em ployment to large numbers, while the making of hats, soap and candles, and the common trades furnished the remaining avenues of employ ment. The foregoing represents the main industrial enterprises of Boston at the beginning of the sanguinary struggle for independence. The energies of the people now became absorbed in sustaining the conflict, and commerce as well as the useful arts made but little progress. " The infant manufactures of the country," says Bishop, " did not escape the baleful influences which a state of warfare always exerts upon industry. Many young and feeble enterprises were entirely ruined. But the mechanical genius of the country did not slumber, and the exigency of the occasion created some new branches and stimulated others, while it developed unusual examples of ingenuity and enterprise in the arts, as it did remarkable talents in the field and in the council." The condition of affairs which followed the war was alike unfavor able to the trade and manufacture of the country. With a public debt of forty million dollars, exhausted in resources, and no public revenue system, private confidence fell in the wreck of the public faith. A flood of European manufactures poured in to supply the exhausted ware houses, and all possibility of success in manufactures was for a time excluded by the superabundance of foreign goods, some of which sold twenty-five per cent, cheaper than in London. During the Revo lution much of the limited capital of the country had been employed in those branches of manufacture which were immediately subservient to the war. Not much beyond the household industry of the country had been preserved, A period of hard times was the natural result. An industrial problem of great magnitude for the weakened condition of INDUSTRIAL HISTORY 411 the country confronted the people. Our political independence had been sanctioned by treaty, but we were still largely industrially depend ent upon Great Britain. The mechanics of Boston were by no means silent under the distressing condition of affairs. The Boston Gazette, in 1788, voiced the feeling of the people in this matter in the follow ing: "Until we manufacture more it is absurd to celebrate the Fourth of July as the birth-day of our independence. We are still a dependent people ; and what is worse, after the blood and treasure we have ex pended, we are actually taxed by Great Britain. Our imports help to fill her revenue and pay the interest of a debt contracted in an attempt to enslave us." Arguments such as these could not fail to have their effect upon a people who had so dearly purchased the liberty they possessed. In 1784 the manufacturers of Boston petitioned the General Court for legisla tion to protect their products. To Governor Bowdoin and the manu facturers of Boston also belong the credit of first agitating the question of calling a convention of delegates from all the States for the purpose of deliberating upon the state of trade and manufactures. This con vention grew out of the industrial condition of Boston, and out of this convention grew the one which framed the new constitution. The petition of the Boston manufacturers to the General Court resulted in the passage of various laws imposing a tax upon certain imported arti cles. These laws were consolidated and amended by extending . the list, by an Act passed July 2, 1785, by which an import duty was laid upon most of the goods made at this time in and around Boston. The articles named were as follows : Wrought pewter, leather, books, nails, boots and shoes, plated ware, soap, candles, glue, carriages, harness, whip canes, carriage trimming, copper plate, furniture, umbrellas, muffs, tippets, combs, beer, ale, porter, clothing (excepting leather), woolen cloth, linen cloth, stockings, anchors, carpenters' tools, knives, bits for boring of pumps, carriage hoops and tire, mill saws, scale beams, steelyards, spades and shovels, hoes, wrought iron handirons, cast iron ware, shovels and tongs, crows, picks, tackle, hooks, thimbles, scrapers, marline-spikes, pumps and whaling-gear, wrought copper, worms for stills, hats, loaf sugar, cordage, cables, yarns, wrought iron and silver, cotton cards, buckskin breeches, leather breeches, leather gloves, wash leather, painters' colors, playing cards, tobacco (manufac tured), paper hangings^ clocks, house jacks, spirits, wines, watches, gold and silver, jewelry and paste work, gauzes and lawns, cambrics^ 412 SUFFOLK COUNTY. muslins, silks, hose, mitts, gloves, handkerchiefs, velvet flowers, feath ers, shawls, ribbons, sarcenet, wigs, and hair work, tinware, starch, hair powder, toys, marble and china tile, linseeed oil. The articles mentioned will give a fair index to the manufactured products of Boston in 1785. Manufacturing, however, revived slowly after the war. The new constitution which had been submitted to the people contained provisions for the regulations of commerce. The representative manufacturers of Boston, in 1788, believing that the industrial interest of the country should be protected by the imposition of duty on imported -goods, issued the following circular letter, which not only clearly illustrates the spirit of the time, but the condition of manufacturing in Boston at this early period: Boston, August 20, 1788. Gentlemen, — We being appointed by an. association of tradesmen and manufac turers of Boston to write to our brethren throughout the several States, do now ad dress you on the very important and interesting subject of our own manufactures. The late system of commerce pursued since the pea'ce of importing such articles as can be manufactured among ourselves, tends to discourage the whole body of our tradesmen and manufacturers of these States, who depend for the support of them selves and families on their various occupations, and this practice, unless speedily checked by the prudent exertions of those who are more particulary interested, must eventually prove ruinous to every mechanical branch in America. Impressed with these sentiments, and finding the evils daily increasing, the trades men and manufacturers of the town of Boston, awakened by the sense of danger which threatened them, assembled to deliberate on measures to relieve themselves from the destructive tendency of such importations. An association was accordingly formed, consisting of a representation from each branch, and in this body the whole manufacturing interest of this town becomes an object of general attention. The first measure adopted by this association was to pass resolves respecting the importation of certain articles from Europe by our merchants and numbers of Brit ish agents residing among us ; but knowing that nothing could be effected to any radical purpose unless we had the authority of the laws, we petitioned the Legisla ture of this State, praying that duties might be laid on the several articles enumerated in our petition. In consequence of which application our Legislature complied in a great measure with our request, by enacting laws for the encouragement of industry and for promoting our own manufactures. However, as we are sensible that our present situation requires an extensive co operation to complete the purposes we wish, we take this method to bring forward a confederated exertion and doubt not from a union of sentiment, the most permanent benefits may arise. We, therefore, apply to you, gentlemen, to lend us your assistance; and like a baud of brothers whose interests are connected, we beg you to join in such measures to advance the general good as your conscience shall suggest and your wisdom dictate. «y< by A /Ltxteltu. INDUSTRIAL HISTORY 413 We would, with submission, recommend an association of your tradesmen and manufacturers, formed upon the most extensive basis and supported upon the most liberal principles ; we may then hope the manufacturers of this country will flourish, when each man becomes interested not only in his own branch, but in those of his brethren. Encouraged by such extensive patronage, each individual will be ani mated to pursue his business with alacrity, knowing that he acts in concert with those on whose friendship he can with confidence rely. An association being established in your State, we shall be happy to correspond with, and we flatter ourselves from this social intercourse a general harmony will prevail throughout the whole manufacturing interest of this country. As we hope to experience the good effects of the late acts of our General Court, we should recommend a petition for a similar purpose to your legislature ; and from the known disposition of your State to promote the welfare of America, we doubt not some plan will be devised by your General Assembly to prevent the importation of such species of articles as are commonly manufactured in America. We need not urge the necessity of some measures being immediately taken by the whole Confederacy. The embarrassments of our navigation, the large debts con tracted in Britain, and the remittances of our currency — all serve to put every real friend to his country upon serious attention ; and any mode that can be adopted to remedy these evils, we are convinced' no American will be backward in espousing, but will join heart and hand to promote the desirable purposes. The means we propose, we conceive, are calculated to put each State upon delib erating on a subject highly important to the manufacturing interests ; and we cannot but hope that some lasting benefits will accrue from the united voice of the tradesmen and manufacturers of America. The States are so extensive in their boundaries, so various in their climate, and so connected in their national interests, that if a plan should be adopted throughout the Confederation for the exchange of the produce and manufactures of each State, we conceive it would serve to cement a general union, and prove a means to promote the interest of the whole. The Northern States might furnish many articles of manufacture which are now imported from Europe, and in return might receive those supplies peculiar to the growth and climate of the Southern. An association formed throughout the States upon so liberal a plan, would estab lish many extensive branches of manufactures ; and if prosecuted with spirit would put this country above the humiliating state of lavishing her stores of wealth to pro-: mote the manufactures of Europe. We wish to communicate this letter to such towns of your State as you shall think proper. We are, gentlemen, with every sentiment of respect, Your most obedient servants, John Gray, Gibbins Sharp, Benjamin Austin, jr., Sarson Belcher, William Hawes, Joshua Withele. 414 SUFFOLK COUNTY. This appeal on behalf of Boston men did not fail to arouse the atten tion of the merchants and manufacturers throughout the country, and upon the assembling of the first Congress under the new Constitution, in 1798, the protection of American manufactures was among the first questions considered. Indeed, the second act passed by Congress was one relating to the levying of a duty on " goods, wares and merchan dises imported into the United States." For a. decade after the Revolution there was a natural decline in manufactures. It was not barren, however, of industrial enterprises and Undertakings which gave life and impetus to affairs.. In the con struction and adaptation of those labor saving methods and instruments by which iron and other materials are wrought up with facility into the varied forms which now employ so much of the industry of the State, rapid progress was made after the Revolution. Boston men especially at this period contributed their, full share to the reputation for inge nuity, dexterity and versatility in the mechanical arts which is charac teristic of the American artisan. The city had quite a body of skillful mechanics, who in 1785 were united in an association of tradesmen and manufacturers. Among examples of the practical skill of this class, involving the uses of metals, may be mentioned the following : At a fire as early as 1765 a fire engine of home construction was used and " found to perform extremely well." It was made by David Wheeler, a blacksmith in Newbury street, who announced his intention to man ufacture fire engines as good as any imported. Wheeler at the same time prepared to ' ' make and fix iron rods with points upon houses and other eminences for prevention from the effects of lightning. " This was probably the first practical application in his native town of the grand theoretical and practical discoveries of Franklin. Dr. William King, of Boston, is said to have introduced, many years after, the use of rods with many points along them. Some improvements in the forcing-pump and its adaptation to the hydraulic mechanism of the fire engine, were made and patented some years after by Benjamin Dear- borne, of Boston, the inventor of the patent balance, and numerous improvements in other articles. In 1768 Garven Browne, also a native of Boston, exhibited the frame and principal movements of a new and curious town clock, which he had manufactured. The two great wheels, it was said, "took near 90 lbs. weight of cast brass. It was calculated for eight days and to show the hours and minutes ; to have three dials and a mechanical lever to preserve the motion during the INDUSTRIAL HISTORY. 415 winding up ; the pendulum wheel and plate to perform the dead beat ; its ' mathematical pendulum ' was so contrived that it could be altered the 35-10Oth part of an inch while the clock was going." In the second volume of the Memoirs of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences is also a description of the orrery or planetarium constructed by Joseph Pope, an ingenious clockmaker of Boston, made without previous acquaintance with such a machine, and pronounced by Dr. Wright to be, except in size and durability, "probably inferior to none in the world." It was purchased by the State for Harvard University. The inventor was also the author of an ingenious theory of gravitation, and the kiventor of a threshing-machine, patented in 1802, and also an im proved windmill. As early as 1735, Howland Houghton, a merchant of Boston, was the inventor of an instrument for surveying land, which he called " The New Theodolite." He obtained exclusive privileges for seven years for making and selling it, by an act of the General Court, which declared that ' ' land could be surveyed with greater ease and despatch than by any surveying instrument heretofore projected Or made within this Province." After the peace, at Paul Revere's foundry on Lynn street, previously mentioned, cannon and balls were made. Neat brass cannon were cast at this foundry, and many iron articles, such as cabooses, stoves, clothier's plates, chimney hearths, anvils, and forge hammers. The manufacture of wool cards by hand was commenced in Boston before the Revolution. In 1788 Giles Richards formed a company to carry on the business by newly invented and improved machinery of American invention, which it is very probable was mainly that invented several years before by Oliver Evans for cutting and binding card teeth and piercing the leathers. A factory was established near Windmill Bridge, where the card boards were cut by wind power, one man at a machine being able to cut and bend in twelve hours sufficient wire for twenty dozen cards, at a saving of one-half of the labor of any previous method. This factory was visited in the following year by General Washington, who was informed that about 900 hands were employed in itand 63,000 pairs >of cards (of all kinds) had been made in ayear. They undersold the imported and had even been smuggled into England. The business was also carried on by Mark Richards & Co., near Faneuil Hall market, in 1797, and the manufacture then employed about 1,200 persons (chiefly women and children) in sticking the teeth. Four- fifths of the cards used in the State were made by these factories, and they were largely imported into the Southern States, 416 SUFFOLK COUNTY. In 1797 Amos Whittemore, an ingenious gunsmith, who, with his brother William, had been connected with Giles Richards & Co. , and the previous year had taken out three patents, including one for cutting nails, received letters patent for his card cutting machinery. Previous to this the Whittemores had established a third card factory in Boston, in which the old machinery was employed. The three factories at this time manufactured about 12,000 dozen of cotton and wool cards, which consumed nearly 200 casks of wire, averaging $130 per cask, 35,000 tanned sheep and calf skins, and employed nearly 2,000 children and 60 men. There were three smaller factories in Boston, and 2,000 to 3,000 dozen cards were made yearly in other parts of the State. »The wire consumed by them was made at Dedham, where a wire mill was erected at considerable expense for the use of the card and fish-hook makers of Boston. The wonderful piece of mechanism invented by Amos Whittemore created a complete revolution in the business in Eng land and America. An important enterprise undertaken in 1787 was the building of the Charles River bridge. Its successful carrying out forms an index not only of the spirit and resources of the town, but throws a strong light upon the advance made in the mechanic arts. It was considered at the time one of the greatest enterprises ever undertaken in the country. It was 1,503 feet long, 42 feet wide, and had a 30 feet draw. Its cost was $50,000. It was undertaken by a private corporation, of which John Hancock was a leading member. In 1787 a spirited effort was made in Boston to revive the manufact ure of glass. A company was formed, and in July, 1787, received a charter from the Legislature of the State with the exclusive right of manufacturing glass for fifteen years. A penalty of .£500 was attached to any infringment of their rights by making glass in the town, to be levied for each offense. The capital stock was exempted from taxes for five years, and the workmen employed were exempt from all military duties. A pyramidal factory of brick was erected on a large scale at the foot of Essex street. Being found illy adapted to the purpose, it was afterwards taken down and a wooden one lined with brick differ ently constructed was put up in its place. Its dimensions were 100 feet in length and 60 feet in width. On account of difficulties in procuring workmen and other embarrassments, operations were not fully com menced until November, 1792. The corporation commenced with the manufacture of crown window glass, which they produced of a quality INDUSTRIAL HISTORY 417 equal or superior to any imported. Materials were found to be abun dant, and some six years later they produced about 900 sheets per week, worth $1.75 per sheet, or $76,000 per annum. The manufacture of paper-hangings grew to be quite an extensive industry in Boston after the close of the war of the Revolution. Before the war large importation-s of the article were made from England, and after the war from France, so much so from the latter country that, in 1787, the French government removed the export duty upon paper- hangings, on account of the great consumption of its manufacture in the United States. The great cost of the imported article led to the establishment of several American factories, one of which was in Bos ton. This was soon followed by others, and when the first secretary of the treasury made his report,, was among the well established branches of home production. Three years later, the manufactories of stained paper in Boston were sufficient not only to supply the State, but furnished considerable quantities to other States. Boston at this period produced annually twenty-four thousand pieces of paper-hang ings. In 17.89 a large manufactory of sail duck was established in Boston in Frog Lane, where a building, one hundred and eighty feet long and two stories high, was erected for the purpose. The company was in- . corporated by the General Court and encouraged by a bounty upon its manufactures. The duck made at the establishment was said to be the best ever seen in America and sold lower than imported sail cloth. In 1790 the ship Massachusetts had her sails and cordage made wholly of Boston manufacture. The factory in 1792 produced two thousand yards of duck weekly and employed" four hundred hands. Its annual produc tion for a number of years after was between two and three thousand batts of forty yards each. This factory affords an early instance of a workmen's union for mutual protection and improvement. The weavers and spinners were formed into a society with a system of laws for its guidance. Quarrels, profanity or other misconduct were im mediately adjudged on the spot by a jury of the weavers, and a fine, deducted from the wages of the offenders, went into a common fund for the relief of sick members. Careless workmanship was punished in the same manner, and goods, if unsalable, were to be made good. The spinners admitted none into their company except by vote, and through the measures adopted to promote industry and self-government, were highly successful. President Washington visited the duck factory 53 418 SUFFOLK COUNTY. at Boston, and under the date of October, 1789, thus speaks of it: " They have 28 looms at work and 14 girls spinning with both hands (the flax being fastened to the waist). Children (girls) turn the wheels for them, and with this assistance each spinner can turn out 14 pounds of thread per day, when they stick to it ; but as they are paid by the piece, or work they do, there is no other restraint upon them but to come at eight o'clock in the morning and return at 6 in the evening. They are daughters of decayed families and are girls of character; none others are admitted." From the duck factory Presi dent Washington made a visit to the card factory, where he was in formed 900 hands were employed. Of this industry he observes : ' ' All kinds of cards are made ; and there are machines for executing every part of the work in a new and expeditous manner, especially the cutting and bending of teeth, which is done at one stroke. They have made 63,000 pairs of cards in a year, and can undersell the imported cards — nay, cards of this manufactory have been smuggled into England." At this time there were three quite extensive manufactories of cotton and wool cards in Boston. In 1793 Arthur Scholfield, with John Scholfield and his family, ar rived in Boston from England. They settled in Charlestown. Here they built a hand loom, a spinning jenny of forty spindles and a card machine. The latter was the first carding machine for wool made in the United States, and upon this machine were made the first spinning rolls carded by machinery. It was afterward set up in the factory es tablished by the Scholfield brothers at Newburyport, Conn. The following account of the industrial condition of Boston, published in 1794, in a work entitled "A Typographical and Historical Descrip tion of Boston," and reprinted by the Massachusetts Historical Society, gives a fair idea of the extent and character of the manufacturing interest of the city at that time : Boston, although denominated a commercial town, has a variety of manufactures carried on within its limits, among which are the following: Soap, candles, rum, loaf sugar, cordage, duck, twine and lines, cards, fish hooks, combs, stained paper, stoneware, chocolate, glass, etc. In some of these great improvements have been made since the Revolution, not only in the quality of the articles, but also in the facility of making them. Soap, hard and soft, has been manufactured here for a number of years, and tallow candles. By newly invented American machiues the work is greatly expedited in the latter manufacture, and great savings made in the article of cotton. Spermaceti candles are made here of a, superior quality as to clearness and whiteness. Large quantities INDUSTRIAL HISTORY. 419 have been exported. This business is now carried on at four manufactories in the town. There are upwards of thirty distill houses in the town, at which New England rum has been made. Twenty-seven of them were occupied in 1792, but they turned out on an average two-thirds less quantities of gallons than they did before the disturb ances in the French West Indies, and the excise levied by Congress. The revenue, according to our information, arising from New Englandrumatthe above mentioned period, may be computed at the rate of one thousand dollars on an average quarterly from each distillery, from which, if we deduct one-third part for drawback, it will leave a very large sum net revenue. At present eighteen distill houses are at work. These distill not one-half so much as they could. The causes hinted at above, to gether with the demand for New England rum for -exportation being lessened, have occasioned the decline of this business. The latter cause probably arises from the large quantities of fruit and grain spirit distilled in the Southern States. In the town of Boston are seven sugar refining houses. At five of them the busi ness is now carried on ; they can manufacture annually, on an average, one hundred thousand weight. A large duty on clayed sugars of the second quality, as well as the new excise law on loaf sugar, operates against this manufacture. Cordage is made at fourteen rope walks. The largest are at West Boston ; one of them one hundred and sixty fathoms long, and can turn out a cable of about one hundred and forty fathoms in length. Hemp and yarns used in making ropes are by far the greater part imported from Europe. It is hoped that the bounty on hemp raised in this Commonwealth, and continued for two years by an Act of the General Court at their session in June last, though the sum is reduced from twelve pounds to nine per ton, will not operate to discourage the culture of this useful article, but that the present bounty, together with the communications and encouragements held out by the Agricultural Society, will stimulate the husbandman to pursue and increase its cultivation. Twine and lines. For manufacturing these a company erected a large wooden fac tory. Various sizes of twines and lines from a mackerel to a codline were made and approved. More than forty persons were employed in it in 1792, and some score tons of hemp worked up. The sail makers were supplied from this factory. It might probably have answered the demand of the cod fishery, and the lines made at it equalled, if not surpassed in quality, the noted Bridport codlines imported from England. The bounty at first granted having ceased, the proprietors of the building contemplete employing it some other way. Twine and lines are now made at some of the ropewalks. The -duck manufacture was set up by a company in buildings which they erected in Frog lane, near the Common. They were incorporated by an act of the General Court. The sail cloth made here has obtained great credit. Certificates from mer chants and sail makers testify its quality to be superior to the canvas imported from Europe. It will last longer, is not subject to mildew, and is sold at a lower rate than imported duck. This manufacture employs a number of females in spinning, and was encouraged hy a bounty from the government. In 1792 four hundred hands were employed by it, and turned out not less than fifty pieces a week. Cards of the various kinds used in other manufactures are made in this town in large quantities, and with great dispatch. The manufacture of cards was begun here 420 SUFFOLK COUNTY. before the Revolution, but the improvements made in it since, have discouraged, and operated to exclude importation of this article into this Commonwealth, and in great measure into the Southern States, they being supplied with a large proportion of what is made at the manufacture in this town by Mr. Giles Richards, who was first named in a company that began this business, in 1788, by newly invented and im proved machines, the effects of American genius. The principal manufactory is at Windmill Walk, contiguous to the grist mill at the mill bridge. The card boards are cut by the operation of a wind mill. One man working at the machine used for cut ting and bending the wire, and pricking the leathers, can prepare a sufficient quan tity of wires in twelve hours to stick upwards of twenty dozen pairs of cards. One- half the number of men skillful in using these machines can perform the same work, in the same given time, which can be done by any other method yet discovered. Between six and seven thousand dozen have been made annually, and, as hinted above, exported southward. Not less than twelve hundred persons, chiefly women and children, have found employment in sticking the cards; and as the manufacture advances in credit, the demand for cards will probably increase and furnish employ ment for a much larger number. This is a valuable manufacture, not as it employs women and children, but also a great number of others in the Commonwealth, in manufacturing the sheep skins, and making the tacks, etc. Four-fifths of the cards manufactured in the Commonwealth are made in the town of Boston. The new in ventions in cutting the wires and boards, not only diminish the toil of labor and expedite the work, but also occasion the price of the cards to be used. Mark Rich ards & Co. also carry on this business in its various branches in a brick building near Faneuil Hall market. Fish hooks are made by Mr. J. Mead, who is esteemed a good workman. The cod hooks of his make are approved of by the fisherman, being equal if not superior to the imported P. P. cod hooks formerly preferred. As the fisheries are encouraged, so this manufacture will be proportionally encouraged, and the fishermen supplied with hooks and lines, the manufacture of their own country. Combs of various sorts are made at Graham's Comb Manufactory in Charter street, the workmanship well executed. The importations in this line have greatly decreased since the peace of 1783, and will probably entirely cease, at least into this Common wealth. Large quantities of stained paper were imported into this country from England previous to the Revolution ; but at the manufactories in Boston sufficient is now made not only to supply their State, but also for importation to the others. At the stone pottery lately put up in Lynn street, by Mr. Fenton from New Haven, all kinds of stone vessels are made after the manner of the imported Liverpool ware, and are sold at a lower rate. The clay for this manufacture is brought from Perth Amboy in New Jersey. Cannon are made and balls now cast at the foundry in Lynn street, under the superintendence of Colonel Revere, the present proprietor. Till lately we have been obliged to foreigners for cannon and balls; but may now have them of American make. Some very neat brass cannon have been made at this foundry, and approved by competent judges. A variety of articles in the iron way are made at these works, viz. : cabooses, stoves, clothier's plates, chimney hearths, anvils, forge hammers, etc. INDUSTRIAL HISTORY. ' 421 Any article of iron manufacture, out of the common, may also be made here by leav ing a pattern. Chocolate has for many years been made in this town from the large quantities of cocoa brought into it from time to time ; but the process is greatly expedited by late inventions. At the chocolate mills, contiguous to the northernmost grist mill, Mr. Welch can turn out upwards of twenty-five hundred weight in a day. Calico printing has been undertaken in this town. The plain cottons brought here from India afford an opportunity for printing them. A duty on printed ones im ported, and a bounty on such as are printed here would be encouraging. Specimens that have been given evince the skillfulness of some persons among us in stamping or printing plain cottons ; and as emigrants are constantly arriving here, there can be no doubt some understand this art. If some public spirited wealthy, citizen would provide materials and a building for this purpose, it might be carried on advantage ously. The probability is that the proprietors would be well paid for the monies they might advance, the artists or workmen receive a handsome support, and the pur chasers or customers make a saving of ten to fifteen per cent, between the American and English stamped cloths, in favor of the former. Since the peace, calico has be come the general fashion of our countrymen, at all seasons of the year, both in town and country. Large quantities of printed calicoes are annually imported into this town, and large sums of money drawn from it for payment to Great Britain. As we are not restricted in our commerce, we can import the plain cotton cloths on good terms from a quarter we could not formerly. Let us avail ourselves of this advan tage, and make the most we can of it. Pot and pearl ashes are put among the manufactures of Boston, as they were begun here, particularly the former, about forty or fifty years ago, and have been made in it since the Revolution. They have now ceased in this town. The price of wood will not permit of their being carried on to advantage in the capital. They are made in many of the inland towns of the Commonwealth and brought to the capital for sale. . Many tons are annually exported, the quality of which is ascertained by an inspector, chosen for the purpose by the government, that none but merchantable should be shipped off. Mr. Wm. Frobisher, of this town, claims the merit of being the first manufacturer of potash, who thoroughly investigated the process now in use, and communicated it, and demonstrated the superiority of American potash to that of Russia in making soap. Great improvements have been and are making in the manufacture of potash. The present inspector, Dr. Townsend, appears to have an intimate knowledge of the subject. Under his inspection it may increase its credit. We anticipate the period when it shall rival that of every foreign country. The manufacture of glass in Boston was undertaken by an incorporated company of adventurers, to whom the General Court, in the month of July, 1787, granted an exclusive right to manufacture for a term of fifteen years. The stock to be employed for this purpose to be exempted from all taxes for five years ; and the workmen em ployed, from all military duty. If any person manufactured this article in the town without consent of the company, a penalty was laid on him of five hundred pounds for each offence. This corporation erected a brick building in the form of a cone, at the bottom of Essex street, but not being sufficiently commodious, it was taken down and a wooden building lined with bricks, of a different construction, was put up in 422 SUFFOLK COUNTY. its place. The present house is in length one hundred feet, and upwards of sixty feet in breadth. Many embarrassments attended this business at first setting out, but these being overcome, and suitable workmen arriving, they began to blow in the new house the 11th November, 1793. Their first trial was on window glass, which was much improved, and discovered the skill of the manufacturers, and gives a fair prospect of success in this undertaking. A variety of other manufactures are carried on in the town ; but having given an account of the principal of them, it will be needless to mention the others. We would not, however, omit particular notice of the manufacture of hats of various sorts in this town. It is a very considerable branch of business here. The fine beaver hats are preferable to those made in England. If we extend our view of domestic manufactures, we shall find that many are carried on in the country towns of this Commonwealth. A great variety of articles are made in the neighborhood of the capital, and are disposed of in this market, or shipped hence to some other. Paper has for many years been made at Milton, and we are told that there are not less than twelve paper mills in this Commonwealth. Saltpetre is made in almost every town. The following articles, with some others, are made a few miles from Boston, viz. . tow cloth, cotton and linen sheeting, threads, checks, bedticks, striped flannels, cotton and worsted hose, gloves and mitts, cotton and woolen coverlids. These articles are brought to Boston for sale. During the last decade of the preceding century Boston made rapid strides in material development. Improvements both of a public and private nature were carried on. The town was growing in size and importance ; wooden buildings were being replaced by imposing stone and brick structures ; mechanics of all kinds found ready employment at remunerative wages, and the press of competition was so great that it was difficult to hold apprentices to their agreement with their mas ters. To remedy this state of affairs the master mechanics formed an association known as the Boston Association of Mechanics, Col. Paul Revere being chosen president and Edward Tuckerman vice-president. The association rapidly increased in numbers, resources and usefulness, and within a few months the title of ' ' The Association of Mechanics of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts" was assumed. Subsequently (1806), it was incorporated as the "Massachusetts Charitable Mechanics' Association," an organization which is still in a flourishing condition and which has been eminently useful in promoting ingenuity and good workmanship in the mechanical branches. The ship-building industry, which had flourished quite extensively in Boston many years before the Revolution, was almost entirely sus pended during the progress of the war. The most interesting features of the ship-building industry at Boston during the last decade of the INDUSTRIAL HISTORY. 423 preceding century was in connection with the building of the two ships of war, Constitution and Boston, both of which were built in Edmund Hart's shipyard, which occupied the site now covered by the Constitu tion Wharf. The keel of the Constitution was laid March 27, 1794. She was .designed by Joshua Humphreys, of Philadelphia, and con structed under the superintendence of Col. George Clagborne, of New Bedford. John T. Morgan, a master shipwright, Mr. Hartley, Gen. Henry. Jackson and Major Gibbs, of Boston, assisted in her construc tion, while Edmund Hart was the master carpenter. Paul Revere furnished the copper bolts and spikes, drawn from malleable copper by a process then new. Ephraim Thayer, who had a shop at the South End, made her gun carriages. Her sails were made in the Old Gra nary building at the corner of Park and Tremont streets. The duck for the sails was made by an incorporated company in Boston, in the factory on the corner of Tremont and Boylston streets. She was launched Oc tober 21, 1797, having cost, when ready for sea, $302,718. The subse quent history of this noted war vessel is well known and invests with more than ordinary interest the place where she was built. The frigate Boston, the second ship of war built in Hart's yard, was designed by Mr. Hart and built under his superintendence. The build ing of this ship was undertaken and carried through with money pro vided by the citizens of Boston. At this time the commerce -of our country had been subjected to much annoyance by the British and French ships of war. To aid in measures of defence the ladies of Charleston, S. C, built the John Adams, and presented her to the government ; the inhabitants of Newburyport built and presented the Merrimac, and the merchants of Salem built and presented the frigate Essex. The merchants of Boston thereupon set about doing likewise, and in the Columbia Sentinel, of June 27, 1798, caused the following notice to be inserted : ' ' Notice — A subscription will be opened this day for the raising of a fund to purchase or build one or more ships of war to be loaned to this government for the service of the United States. Those who would wish to join in this testimonial of public spirit are requested to meet in the chamber over Taylor's insurance office, at 1 o'clock precisely, to affix their signatures and make the necessary arrangements." The next issue of the paper, June 30, 1798, shows that $115,250 had been subscribed. Among the subscribers were William Phillips, $10,000; David Sears, Stephen Higginson, Eben Parsons, John Codman, Joseph Coolidge & Son, Theodore Lyman, Boott & Pratt, 424 SUFFOLK COUNTY. Thomas Dickinson, $3, 000 each ; Samuel Parkman and Samuel Eliot, $4,000 each; Benjamin Joy, James & T. H. Perkins, Thomas Walley, John Parker, Stephen Higginson, jr. , Abiel Smith, Thomas C. Amory, $1,500 each; St. Andrews Lodge, $1,000; Benjamin and Nathan God dard and Josiah Quiney, $500 each. Less than two months later the keel of the six-gun frigate Boston was laid. She was launched in May, 1799, and cost, when completed, $137,900. The Sentinel declared she was " one of the handsomest modeled ships in the world." Her sub sequent capture of Le Berceau and several French privateers are parts of our naval history. The successful construction of these two ships at Boston had not a little influence in the establishment of the Navy Yard at Charlestown. The agitation of this subject in the closing years of the preceding century gave quite an impetus to business generally, and especially the building trades. It was a project which naturally stimulated the spirit of the industrial classes, and came at a time when manufacturing enterprises of all kinds were beset by many difficulties. The first vessel built at the new navy yard was the sloop-of-war Frolic (in 1813), whose broadsides made mournful music for many a British craft. In 1815 the three-decked Independence was launched. In 1826 the Warren was built, and soon after sailed to the far East, where she did memo rable service against the Greek pirates in the ^Egean sea. The next year the sloop-of-war Falmouth was launched. Among other war ves sels built at Charlestown were the Cyane, Porpoise, Plymouth, Marion, Alligator, Boxer, Bainbridge, Erie, Princeton, and the line of battle ship Vermont. At this yard were built in 1842 and 1854 respectively the famous war ships Cumberland and Merrimac. During the war of the Rebellion many famous vessels were built at the navy yard, in cluding the ironclad Monadnock, Nahant, Nausett, Nantucket, Canoni- cus, Casco, Chimo, Shawnee, Squando and Suncook. Of the thirty other frigates built here during the same period, and, as it were, born in Boston harbor, the most notable were the Wachusett, which captured the rebel gunboat Florida; the Huron, whose fatal wreck is well re membered; the Tallapoosa, Winooski, Ashuelot and Housatonic. Thirty steamers and numerous sailing vessels were also refitted here for naval ' purposes. Most of them were prizes captured by the blockading squadrons off the Southern ports. Among them was the formidable rebel ram Atlanta. INDUSTRIAL HISTORY. 425 About the year 1800 Thatcher Magoun located his well known ship yard in Medford, a few miles from Boston, and in 1803 launched the Mt. Etna. He was followed by many other ship-builders, among them Turner, Lapham, Sprague, James, Fuller, Stetson, Waterman & Ewell, Curtis, Foster, Hayden & Cudworth, and others. Mr. Magoun alone built at his yard one hundred and eighty- five vessels, mostly of the largest size, among them the Herald of the Morning, which proved a remarkably fast ship. Ship-building began in East Boston in 1834, and from that time until several years after the discovery of gold in California, which greatly stimulated this industry, it assumed considerable magnitude. In 1835 a merchant vessel of four hundred and sixty tons was launched from the yard of Brown, Bates & Delano. She was named the Niagara. In 1839 Samuel Hall, who had previously been engaged in ship-build ing in Marshfield and Duxbury, removed to East Boston and estab lished the enterprise on a large scale. Within the following twenty years he built over eighty vessels, some of them, says Sumner, in his History of East Boston, were the ' ' largest, fastest and best ships that ever ' skimmed the seas. ' " It was not until after 1840 that the building of the magnificent fleet of Boston freighting ships commenced, a fleet that for twenty years challenged the admiration of the commercial world. Up to 1840 a ship of five hundred tons was considered large, and trading ships were the rule, freighting ships the exception. The ships St. Petersburg and Governor Davis, built by Enoch Train, and the Hope, built by Weston, followed by the Chaos, Nonanton and Atlas, may be quoted as inaugu rating the fleet of large Boston ships. After this it was a mere ques tion of rivalry as to who should launch the largest ship. Among the boldest innovators was Donald McKay, who was a natural mechanic. He commenced business in Newburyport with Mr. Currier, and after ward with Mr. Picket, and with them built several vessels for New York firms. Enoch Train, of the extensive ship-owners, Enoch Train & Co. , of Boston, had seen some of the vessels built by McKay, and gave him the contract to build the ship Joshua Bates, as the pioneer of the famous line of Train packets between Boston and Liverpool. Her success for speed and carrying was complete. At Mr. Train's sugges tion, Mr. McKay removed to East Boston, and there built for the same line the ships Washington Irving, Anglo Saxon, Star of Empire, Staf fordshire, Ocean Monarch, and others, all remarkable for their fine 5t 426 SUFFOLK COUNTY. sailing qualities. In the mean time he also built the New World, Cor nelius Grinnell, Jenny Lind, the bark Sultana, and several smaller vessels. His first great clipper ship was the Staghound, of one thou sand five hundred and fifty tons, which made the first passage from Boston to San Francisco via Valparaiso in one hundred and twelve days; then the Flying Cloud, of one thousand seven hundred tons, which made her first passage from New York to San Francisco in eighty-nine days and eighteen hours, and her next in eighty-nine days and twelve hours ; then the Flying Fish, of one thousand six hundred tons; the Bald Eagle, of the same tonnage; the Empress of the Seas, of two thousand two hundred and fifty tons ; the Westward Ho, of one thousand seven hundred tons ; the Str affords hire, of one thousand nine hundred tons; and the Sovereign of the Seas, of two thousand four hundred tons. The ship Great Republic, which Mr. McKay built in 1853, was four thousand, five hundred and fifty-five tons, and proved to be one of the swiftest vessels in the world. She made several successful trips to California, and afterwards was employed by the French government in the Crimean War. For English houses Mr. McKay built several fine vessels, among them the Lightning, the James Baines, the Champion of tlie Seas, the Japan, the Commodore Perry, and many others. In all he built over one hundred and twenty sail of all classes from the Great Re public of four thousand tons to oyster clippers of one hundred and ten tons. No one did more to give the highest character to the vessels built at Boston than Mr. McKay. Other eminent shipbuilders kept up the credit of Boston for speed. Samuel Hall, who built the Surprise, Game Cock, Florence, and many more, ranked high as a successful shipbuilder. . The quickest time ever made from San Francisco to Boston was made by the ship Northern Light, built by E. & H. O. Briggs at South Boston, making the pas sage in seventy-five days. Among other notable passages made by Boston built ships may be mentioned that of the ship Midnight, from Hong Kong to New York in eighty-two days ; the James Baines, from Liverpool to Melbourne in sixty- two days; the Charger, from Calcutta to Boston in seventy-nine days; the North American, built by P-aul Curtis, made the passage from New York to Melbourne, San Francisco and Liverpool, being two hundred and sixteen days at sea, and averag ing eight miles an hour during the entire time ; the same ship from San £* hlCWilham, WraKY INDUSTRIAL HISTORY. 427 Francisco to Cork was ninety-three days, making a record never ex ceeded by a sailing vessel. Paul Curtis, James E. Simpson, Robert E. Jackson, Andrew Burn- ham, C. F. & H. D. Gardiner, G. & T. Boole, William Hall, Pratt & Osgood, Samuel Hall, jr., Joseph Burke, William Kelly, Burkett & Tyler, and Otis Tufts, were also at different periods engaged in ship building at East Boston between 1840 and 1860. The discovery of gold in California gave a wonderful impetus to the ship building interest of East Boston, and for several years thereafter a large force of workmen was engaged in the various branches of the industry. At East Bos ton was built the iron steamship Le Voyageur de la Mer, which was launched in February, 1857. She was the first instance in this country of the application of American iron to the construction of a first class vessel. This vessel was built for the Pacha of Egypt by Geo. A. Stone, of Boston. The model and details of the ship were furnished by Sam uel H. Pook. From 1834 to 1858 over two hundred vessels were built at East Boston. Among the eminent men who labored long and zealously for the de velopment of shipping, Captain R. B. Forbes occupies a prominent place. For nearly half a century he was largely interested in ship building. Among many vessels he had built were the steamship of war Meteor, the Paul Jones, Samoset, Farwell, Raduga, Hoaghly, and La- conia; the R. B. Forbes, the first iron steamboat built here, the auxiliary steamship Massachusetts, and many others. Captain Forbes invented many improvements in the rig of vessels and for the saving of life. Captain Frederick Howes, who invented the present mode of double top-sail yards, is also worthy of honorable mention. Jairus Pratt was another well-known ship builder of East Boston. He was born in Cohasset in 1793. As one of the firm of Pratt & Gush ing he established a marine railway at the North End, and did an ex tensive business in repairing vessels. Later on he established himself in East Boston, where he carried on business several years. He died in 1869. George W. Brown was one of the shipbuilders of Boston, who was extensively engaged in this industry. He was born in Scituate, Mass., 1815. When a lad he came to Boston and learned the trade of shipwright. He soon began on his own account, but for more than thirty years was a member of the firm of Brown & Lovell. In 1847 they bought a wharf in East Boston, where for many years they carried on a thriving busi- 428 SUFFOLK COUNTY ness. During the war they built steamers for the government. After retiring from business, soon after the war, he removed to Scituate, where he died January 21, 1888. Salt was made at the " Salt Pans " in the early days of the settlement of Roxbury, near the town landing. Not far from this place Gen. Joseph Palmer erected salt works which were in successful operation when his sudden death, which occurred in 1788, brought the enterprise to a premature close. General Palmer was one of the most prominent characters in the Revolutionary annals of the State. He was a native of England, and came to America in 1746, and settled in that part of Braintree called Germantown, where he became a leading and influ ential citizen and acquired considerable property. He was conspicuous among the patriotic members of the Provincial Congresses of 1774 and 1775, and of the Committee of Safety, and as a brigadier-general of the State forces took part in the expedition to Rhode Island in 1778. He lost all his property in the war. Roxbury was early famous for its manufactures. Here a fulling-mill was established by John Pierpont on Stony River, near the site of Day's cordage factory, in 1658. The manufacture of leather was for a long time the principal one in Roxbury. Early in the present century John Doggett founded the well known looking-glass and carpet works on Roxbury street. The Willafds, celebrated clock and watch makers for over a century, established themselves here in 1773. In 1792 there were near the town landing-place, at Parker street, several establish ments, one of them owned by Ralph Smith, for the packing of provisions and the manufacture of soap and candles. Thelarge establishments of the brothers Aaron and Charles Davis, for packing provisions, and their distillery and tannery, were near the town wharf, now the junction of Albany and Northampton streets. In 1845 the value of Roxbury manu factures, in which 1,668 persons were employed, was $2,247,684. The largest items embraced were four cordage manufactories, sixteen tan neries, three rolling, slitting, and nail mills, one carpet factory, three chemical works, three starch mills, one distillery, and one lead manu factory. - At the beginning of the present century the making of pot and pearl ashes, rum, ships and leather in all its branches, was carried on in Charles town, as well as articles of silver, tin, brass and pewter. There were three rope walks recently built. Eight years later the printed statistics of Timothy Thompson, jr., showed that the annual value of the man- INDUSTRIAL HISTORY. 429 factures was $1,231,663, a little more than one-half of which consisted of bricks. Morocco was the next article in amount, and cordage third, while soap and candles to the value of $89,000, and common weaving amounting in value to $2,113 were named. The first few years of the present century was an experimental era in the history of Boston's industrial progress. Among the new enter prises, not before mentioned, which properly -belong to this period, was that of the chemical works of Dix & Brinley, at South Boston, which had, however, been established prior to 1800. Their establishment was on the shore near where the Boston Wharf was afterwards built. An other important enterprise completed in 1804, which ultimately became of great importance in the development of the cotton industry, was the Middlesex Canal, connecting Boston Harbor with Concord River. It was built by a company incorporated in 1789, and was the first great work of its kind finished in the United States. The distance was about twenty-seven miles, and the cost upwards of $550,000. Colonel Re- vere's sons at this time were carrying on their copper works at Canton, but their business headquarters were at Boston. This was the only sheet copper works in the country at the time. In 1805 John Bannock of Boston, was granted a patent for a planing machine, and two years later Jesse Reed, who had made several inventions in the manufacture of nails, received an important patent for a machine for cutting and heading nails by one operation. J Patents were also granted to Elisha Callender, in 1808, for lightning-rods, the first in the United States, and, in 1810, to Phineas Dow for a leather splitting machine. In 1808 petitions were laid before Congress by Paul and J. W. Re vere, of Boston, praying for a duty of seventeen and a half per cent. on sheet copper, in which they professed to be able to supply the United States. This was, however, not granted, no duty being placed on copper till 1842. During the same year, 1808, the twine and line manufacturers of Boston, Charlestown, Plymouth, Salem and Beverly petitioned Congress for an increased duty upon these articles, with which they also claimed to supply the United States, stating that they manufactured annually from hemp 46,000 dozen of lines and 27,500 lbs. of twine. During 1809 the first cotton sail duck made in New England, if not in the world, was made in Boston. It was from the factory of a 1 His machine came into extensive use. Previous to 1809 twenty-two of Reed's patents were put in operation at Maiden, five miles from Boston , by Thomas Odiorne and associates, who purchased the patent. The machine was afterwards adapted to cutting tacks. 430 SUFFOLK COUNTY. Mr. Bemis, established this year near Boston. It was made of Sea Island cotton. This grew to be an important industry, especially during the war of 1812, when an extra amount was required by pri vateers and merchant vessels. A capital of $100,000 was employed at this time at Roxbury in the manufacture of soap and candles, where 370,000 lbs. of the latter and 380,000 lbs. of brown soap, 50,000 lbs. of Windsor and fancy soap were made. The manufacture of hats was largely carried on in Boston. Establishments for the manufacture of tin, japanned and plated ware also existed. The Boston Crown Glass Company, commenced in 1789 and incorporated in 1809, was now making crown glass equal to any imported. In 1810 a patent was granted John B. Lawin and J. B. Wait for a circular printing press. In the same year a printing press on a new plan and designed to secure, by means of a lever without a screw, greater power and speed, was completed, but not patented, by Benjamin Dearborn, of Boston, who had invented a wheel press about twenty-five years before. To Jacob Perkins, of Boston, was also granted a patent for a mode of preventing counterfeiting. The forging of bank bills, which this invention was designed to counteract, was very rife at this time, and was rendered easy by the rudeness of the art. The stereotype check plate, first pat ented by Perkins in 1799, was thought to render it nearly impossible, and the Legislature of Massachusetts required all bank notes to be im pressed by his process. His mode of transferring engravings from one plate to another by means of steel roller dies, upon which he and Mur ray soon after jointly patented an improvement, was in 1808 applied to calico printing, and his method of engraving bank notes was sub sequently introduced in England. The first United States census which included inquiries relative to manufactures was taken in 1810. It indicates the lines in which the people of Boston were engaged, but it is far from a reliable index of the extent of its industrial interests at that time. The total product of manufactures of Boston at this period is given as $2,478,391, probably not more than one-third of the total value. The principal items of the census were: fur hats, $56,000; clocks and watches, $21,000; gold and silver work, $95,000; copper and brass goods, $21,000; buttons, $20,- 000; tallow candles, $40,000; soap, $30,600; boots, shoes and slippers, $131,225; saddlery, $90,400; spirits, $764,400; beer, $57,800; metals, mixed, $151,481; cabinet work, $115,000; sugar, refined, $64,000; glass, $36,000; cordage, $545,000; musical instruments, $17,200; spectacles, INDUSTRIAL HISTORY. 431 $10,000. It will be noticed that the distillery of spirits and cordage were the two leading industries. At this time the interruption of com merce with the Baltic had given a great impetus to the cultivation and manufacture of hemp. The morocco manufacturers of Charlestown, about this time, petitioned the government for further protection. At Charlestown 150,000 skins were annually manufactured, nearly one- fifth of the entire product of the United States. From the close of the first decade of the present century to the end of the second war with Great Britain was a period of great industrial prosperity. The interference with commerce, caused by the restrictive measures growing out of the war, induced an advance in the price of all necessaries. There was great demand for all manufactured prod ucts, especially woolen and cotton. New industries of all kinds arose, and invention was stimulated in every direction, the most important being, however, in the direction of cotton and woolen machinery, which is fully treated of in the portion of this work devoted to the textile industry. Wood engraving was introduced in Boston in 1811 by Nathaniel Dearborn, who three years later also introduced a new process of print ing in colors. In 1811 Mr. Dearborn and John Fairbanks, respectively president and secretary of the Massachusetts Association, for the En couragement of Useful Inventions, presented a petition to Congress praying for such a revision of the patent laws as should secure invent ors more fully against infractions of their patent rights. During this year patents were granted Cyrus Alger, of Boston, for a mode of cast ing large iron rollers for rolling iron ; to Perkins Nichols for a rimming augur, and to Benjamin Bell upon sulphuric acid. In 1814 patents were granted to James Harrison, of Boston, on the time-piece of a clock, and to Moses L. Morse for a process for manufacturing pins of wire at one operation. This machine is said to have shown much me chanical genius, and was used to some extent, but being too delicate and intricate, and remaining unimproved in other hands, fell into dis use, or was superseded by other machines. Cyrus Alger was a most active and prominent figure in the industrial progress of South Boston, where he began the foundry business in 1809 with General Winslow. He was of a high order of inventive genius, and was one of the best metallurgists of his day. He discovered a method of purifying cast iron, which gave it more than triple strength over ordinary castings, and which proved of immense value in the 432 SUFFOLK COUNTY. manufacture of ordnance, in which he was for many years engaged. During the war of 1812 he supplied the government with large num bers of cannon balls. In 1817, not long after the Dorchester peninsula became a part of Boston, he established the South Boston Iron Works, a concern which has had a long and in many respects a remarkable his tory. At these works the mortar gun " Columbiad," at that time the largest gun of cast iron ever cast in America, was made under Mr. Alger's personal supervision. He also first introduced at these works the method of making cast-iron chilled rolls. In 1836 he manufactured the first malleable iron guns made in this country, and supplied the gov ernment with quite a number. The first gun ever rifled in America was done at his works in 1834. He manufactured the first perfect bronze cannon for the United States and for the State of Massachusetts. Mr. Alger died in 1856. His son, Francis Alger, who died soon after the close of the War of the Rebellion, succeeded him in the manage ment of the South Boston Iron Works. He brought to the business a thorough training and taste for the work in which he was engaged. He achieved considerable eminence as a scientific man, and was the author of "Alger's Philip's Mineralogy." He inherited his father's inventive genius, and obtained patents for inventions relating to heavy ammuni tions. He was frequently called to Washington during the late Civil War and consulted by the government engineers in matters relating to the ordnance department of the army. Under his supervision large orders for projectiles of every description were furnished to the govern ment, particularly the rifled shot and shell and for the " Schenke pro jectile." The South Boston Iron Works were kept at work day and night by the United States government during the late Civil War, and their guns and projectiles formed an important factor in defending the Union and bringing hostilities to a successful close. Their guns sank the Merri- mac and the A labama, and played a conspicuous part all along the coast from Norfolk to New Orleans. From March, 1863, to February, 1874, these works furnished the United States Ordnance Department with 580 guns (190 of them being fifteen inch guns and weighing twenty- five tons each), and also a large number to the navy department. In 1880 they built the first all steel gun made in this country, and were constantly in the "advance guard " in all experiments looking to the betterment of our defenses in case of war. They have furnished am munition in large quantities to Chili, Peru, and the Argentine Repub- INDUSTRIAL HISTORY. 433 lie. In 1863 they shipped to Chili three cargoes of shot and shell with in six months. In 1892 the South Boston Iron Works were removed to Middleborough, Kentucky. In the same year the Hunt-Spiller Manufacturing Com pany, with W. P. Hunt as president, was incorporated for the purpose of continuing at the old plant the manufacture of a pneumatic disap pearing gun carriage, the invention of Henry A. Spiller. It is the first of its kind made in this country. Several of the European countries had made experiments with similar contrivances, but so far without success. Mr. Spiller 's invention has been tested at the old fortification at Sandy Hook by distinguished experts, and has been found to work in a highly satisfactory manner. The first test was made December 4, 1891, when a powder charge of 170 pounds was used in the gun. An other trial, equally satisfactory as the first, was made in March follow ing, when nearly the maximum charge of 250 pounds was reached. The carriage is made of steel, and its operation is automatic throughout, the great gun appearing to come to firing position with as little trouble as a soldier brings his rifle to his shoulder. After firing the recoil is checked so easily that the gun settles down behind the ramparts for re loading without the slightest shock. The carriage weighs complete fifty-four tons. Compressed air is supplied to the cylinder from a re ceiver, with the gun lowered at a pressure of 1,100 pounds to the square inch. In raising the gun the pressure is reduced to 325 pounds to the square inch, the air being again compressed when the gun falls back after recoil. This acts as a cushion to take off the force of the recoil. A valve, operated by a hand wheel, admits the air to the under part of the piston when the gun is to be raised, and side buffers assist in sup porting the gun when it comes down. A small reversible air engine, used for training, raising and depressing the gun, is placed in a pro tected position beneath it. The gun is loaded by compressed air, and when it is being loaded it is concealed behind the parapet. As soon as the order is given to "cover," the big gun, weighing more than thirty tons, is silently and instantly raised 'above the wall, and ready to fire. The recoil which immediately follows the discharge is so extremely easy that when it settles upon its buffers there is hardly a shock. It is estimated that the gun can be loaded, hoisted, fired, and lowered in twelve minutes. Seth Fuller was the first person in Boston to make an entirely distinct business of hanging mechanical bells and speaking tubes, founding the 55 434 SUFFOLK COUNTY. business in 1809. His son, Seth W. Fuller, who succeeded to the busi ness in 1835, while continuing it along the same lines, was the pioneer of the electrical business in Boston, if not in the United States, having begun to instal electric bells about 1867. At that time he was obliged to import annunciators, wire, batteries, and even the ordinary wood push button from Paris, but at the present time not an article used by those who succeeded Mr. Fuller is imported, Mr. Fuller continued at the head of the business until his death a few years ago, since which his son, Frank Fuller, has conducted it, the latter representing the third generation of the family in the same line of employment. In 1811 the first successful attempt in this portion of the country to manufacture flint glass was made by Thomas Cains. At this time the proprietors of the Essex Street Glass Works, in South Boston, enlarged their works and sent to England for workmen. Among those who came was Mr. Cains, who possessed the art of mixing the material to make flint glass. He prevailed upon the proprietors to put up a small flint glass furnace. The manufacture of stained glass was introduced in Boston in 1830, but the workmanship was poor and the designs crude. In 1840 James M. Cook commenced the business, and by employing the best articles in the country, produced work of considerable excellence. After the protection afforded by the war of 1812 was withdrawn, large importations of foreign goods were made to the United States. The effect upon the home industries was in every way disastrous. Many branches were yet new and imperfectly established, and few of the more recent enterprises had yet reimbursed the heavy expenses in cidental to first undertakings on a large scale. But few branches of home industries were sufficiently strong to successfully compete with those abroad. During the first three-quarters of the year 1815 foreign goods to the amount of $83,000,000 were imported, and in 1816 the value of foreign importations reached the sum of $155,250,000. The evident desire of the English manufacturers to break down the formid able rivalry of growing but immature manufactures by the means of heavy consignments of goods, regardless of financial consequences to themselves, was made plain by the speech of Mr. Brougham in Parlia ment, when he declared, in reference to the loss sustained by English manufacturers in these transactions, that it " was even worth while to incur a loss upon the first importations, in order by the glut to stifle in the cradle those rising manufacturers in the United States, which the war had forced into existence, contrary to the natural course of INDUSTRIAL HISTORY. 435 things." The results of this policy were soon felt; many manufactur ers were compelled to close their factories, others who ventured to continue became in the end hopelessly bankrupt; large numbers of workmen were thrown out of employment and compelled to seek new avenues of labor to support their families. The only remedy for the evils which affected the country was through protective legislation Petitions poured in upon Congress from manufacturers all over the country, praying for increased tariff, but before the remedy could be applied the most widespread distress prevailed ; correction of the evils was slow. Indeed the conditions were not favorable to a proper prose cution of American industries, except in a few avenues, until the pro tective tariff of 1824 went into operation, and the more important act of 1828. Still the period covering several years after the war of 1812 was not entirely barren of progress in the industrial arts in Boston. In the manufacture of cotton was seen the most remarkable and important re sults, which will be shown in succeeding pages. The mechanical in genuity of the people was shown in many other directions. In 1816 John Adamson was granted a patent for a floating dry dock. In 1817 John L. Sullivan was granted a patent for propelling boats by condensed air, and in 1818 Aaron M. Peasely received a patent for an organ at tachment. In 1819 Robert Graves was rewarded a patent for cordage. This patent cordage, for which two others were granted in the follow ing years, was extensively manufactured in Boston by Winslow, Lewis & Co., who used Graves's machinery, worked by horses, and in 1821 employed one hundred men and boys. In 1820 the manufacture of chain cables was begun at Boston by Cot ton & Hill, who for thirty years were the only successful manufacturers of cables in the United States. They were, however, ultimately com pelled to abandon the business, on account of the low price of the im ported English chains, but they resumed it in 1856. The manufacture of lead paint had also been commenced in Boston, while in Lechmere Point, in Cambridge, which in 1822 contained a population of more than one thousand persons, was a glass factory which employed one hundred and fifty workmen ; 22, 400 pounds of glass vessels were made per week, many of which were beautifully cut and sent to Boston for sale. At the same place one hundred and fifty men were employed in making bricks, the greater part of which were used in Boston. 436 SUFFOLK COUNTY. Boston can justly lay claim to being the birthplace of American piano manufacturing. John Osborn, the first to engage in the business here, was between 1815 and 1835 one of the leading piano manufacturers of the United States. It was with Mr. Osborn that Jonas Chickering, the founder of the firm of Chickering & Sons, first secured employment in an industry he was subsequently to virtually revolutionize in the New World. The career and achievements of Mr. Chickering are so note worthy and so much a part of the industrial history of Boston, that no apology is necessary for the following extended notice of his personal history and the business which he inaugurated. Jonas Chickering was born in New Ipswich, N. H., April 5, 1799. At the age of seventeen he left home to learn the art of cabinet mak ing. It was while engaged at his trade that he first saw a piano. It was owned by a Mr. Barrett, who had temporarily quitted Boston dur ing the war of 1812 for fear of a bombardment by the British. The in strument had been imported from England. ' ' It was shown to Mr. Chickering," says one historian, " by Mrs. Barrett, who entered into a pleasant conversation with him, drawn toward him by his modest, genial character, associated with a calm, self-trustful manner of speak ing. After a prolonged and minute examination of the instrument he remarked in a very quiet way, ' I think I can make one, ' of course very much to the astonishment of the lady, who was utterly incredulous of any such latent powers, or of any such remote possibility of result. ' Why, young man, ' she said, ' this was brought way across the ocean from Europe. ' ' Still, ' he quietly replied, ' I think I could make one. ' She afterward heard he had made one, and since then the whole world on both sides of that great ocean has heard that he made several, com pared with which that little, modest instrument, would hide itself and blush, if it were a sensate thing, unless the knowledge of the service it had performed in awakening the latent powers of that young man made it swell with pride." In 1818 young Chickering came to Boston, then the Mecca of all young New Englanders, where he obtained employment at his trade. One year later, together with Timothy Gilbert, he secured employment in the workshop of John Osborn, from whom he first acquired a prac tical knowledge of piano-making. He continued with Mr. Osborn for three years, giving attention to every detail of the manufacture and acquiring a thorough knowledge of the business. Mr. Osborn, soon after Mr. Chickering entered his employ, formed a copartnership with INDUSTRIAL HISTORY. 437 James Stewart, a Scotchman, who had been induced to give up his business in New York, where he had the reputation of making the best pianos in the country. In a year or two the men quarreled and sepa rated. Stewart, who had perceived that Mr. Chickering was a quick and intelligent workman, succeeded in persuading him to join him in the business of making pianos in his workshop on Tremont street, where the Historical Society's building is now located. Their pianos quickly met with favor, and were considered superior to any made in Boston. They remained together for two years, when Mr. Stewart retired, and Mr. Chickering continued the business alone with great success. In February, 1830, Mr. Chickering became associated with Captain John Mackay, a gentleman of considerable means, who had previously carried on the business of piano-making with Alpheus Babcock, who had invented several valuable patents connected with the pianoforte. The firm of Chickering & Mackay, which lasted until 1841, conducted their operations at the factory on Washington street. During this period Mr. Chickering became known as the most experienced and per fect piano manufacturer in the United States. Mr. Mackay was the business man of the house and Mr. Chickering devoted himself entirely to the technical department. This harmonious employment of their energies was broken in 1841, when Mr. Mackay sailed for South America for the purpose of procuring large quantities of wood to be used in the firm's business and was never afterwards heard of. Mr. Chickering then became the sole proprietor of the business, and con tinued it alone with marked success until his sons, Thomas E., C. Frank, and George H. were old enough to lend him their assistance ; all three, after having served a systematic apprenticeship at the busi ness, being admitted to partnership with their father in 1852, under the firm name of Chickering & Sons. To Jonas Chickering can justly be ascribed the honor of founding the piano industry in the United States on the basis of equality with foreign makers. Others had preceded him in making pianos in America, but they were of an inferior grade of workmanship. Mr. Chickering began experimenting in 1822, and offered his first piano for sale in 1823. Six years later he had made in a single year 717 pianos. His fame rests largely upon his inventions of the square metal frame, with improved damper attachment, patented in 1840, having in 1837, however, made the first successful application of an entire iron . frame to a square piano ; the plate for grands, made in one solid cast- 438 SUFFOLK COUNTY. ing, patented in 1843; the upright piano, with full iron frame and over-strung bass, made in 1850, and the circular scale, produced in 1853. " This first iron frame, as all the musical world is aware, with the introduction of the circular scale, " says one writer, "marked the commencement of the most important epoch in the history of piano- making. - All the marvelous developments which have taken place in the construction of pianos during the past forty or fifty years were made possible by these inventions." At the very threshold of his triumphs and of his well earned pros perity, Mr. Chickering passed from the scenes of his labors on Decem ber 8, 1853, leaving to his sons a name famous in the annals of musical mechanism, and a business which his genius and skill had increased from fifteen instruments, made by him the first year, to thirteen hun dred per year. He was a genial, courteous, unassuming, kindly man. Notwithstanding the exacting nature and character of his labors, he found time to interest himself in the progress, of art in Boston and in other useful work. In 1834 he was elected vice-president of the old Handel and Haydn Society, and afterwards was chosen president. For a number of years he was also president of the Massachusetts Charitable Association. An excellent authority has said of him: " His superior intelligence, his inventive genius, and his great moral force of character and purpose not only made him first and foremost as a manufacturer, but also helped materially to give our city (Boston) its pre-eminence as a musical center. When we think of our wonderful musicians who have brought to the ears so vividly the marvelous works of the piano forte composers, let us not forget the maker of the instrument which has made this possible. " Prior to Mr. Chickering's death, the old factory of Chickering & Sons, on Washington street, was burned December 1, 1852, involving a loss of $250,000. Undisheartened by this disaster, he laid plans for the erection of a new factory on Tremont street, but his death occurring be fore they were carried out, the work was completed by his sons. Mr. Chickering's sons possessed in a very eminent degree the quali ties which shone so brilliantly in the. character and career of their hon ored father. They have not only maintained the high character of the business as conducted by their father, but in the wonderful progress made in the manufacture of pianos since his death, have kept the name of Chickering & Sons in the front rank of the piano manufacture of the world. Col. Thomas E. Chickering, the eldest son of Jonas Chicker- INDUSTRIAL HISTORY. 43.9 ing,. was born in Boston, October 22, 1824, and acquired under his fath er's direction a most thorough knowledge of the process of manufactur ing every part of the piano. With his two younger brothers he was admitted to partnership with his father in 1852, and quickly gained recognition on account of the ability he displayed in conducting the commercial department of the business. He entered the service of his country in 1861 as colonel of the Forty-first Massachusetts, a regiment remarkable for the success and brilliancy of its operations. In recog nition of his efficient military service he was, in 1865, brevetted briga dier-general. To the regret of everybody who knew him he died sud denly in February, 1871. He was devoted to music, literature and art, and held a deservedly high place in the business community. C. Frank Chickering, the second son, was born in Boston on January 20, 1827. At the age of seventeen, his health having temporarily given way, he took a voyage to India, where he sold several Chickering pianos, which excited great interest among the European residents. In 1851 he superintended the exhibit of the Chickering pianos at the great exhibition in London, where they attracted great attention and were universally commended by musical critics. After the death of his father he assumed the direction of the technical and mechanical department of the business, for which he had shown the highest order of natural aptitude. Iu scale drawing he especially excelled, no scales having been used by the Chickering & Sons for the last thirty-six years that he had not drawn, with the exception of a few made by Col. Thomas E. Chickering. Numerous and valuable inventions pertaining to the piano were patented by him. In 1854 he produced a high develop ment of the " circular scale " in two scales. About the same time he accomplished over-stringing in an upright piano. He was animated by an intense love for musical art, and this furnished the incentive for all of his exertions. The results of his endeavors are seen in the numer ous letter-patents granted to Chickering & Sons during the last quarter of a century. These include an improvement in square pianos ; means of applying the circular scale to upright pianos, patented in 1871 ; the famous Chickering upright actipn, patented in 1872 ; an improvement for insuring the grand piano frame against string tension, patented in 1876 ; various improvements in piano acoustics and in relation to metal lic string frames, patented in 1877 ; a skeleton metal frame, patented October, 1881, and the improvement in stringing and plate bracing conditions, patented in 1886. The above are but a few of the evidences 440 SUFFOLK COUNTY which might be given of Mr. Chickering's genius. The tone and musical character of the piano owes, indeed, much to the patient labors of this enthusiastic lover of music and art, whose death on the 23d of March, 1891, was a severe loss to the musical world. ' ' He maintained, " says one writer, ' ' almost to the last, his energy and clearness of intel lect, and might be found in Chickering Hall, New York, compasses in hand, bending over a drawing board, brain and fingers busy in the effort to approach a little nearer to the great ideal of his life — the evo lution of a scale that should be as nearly perfect as human intellect could make it. Near by was an old-fashioned piano-maker's work bench, the bench at which his eminent father had stood more than half a century before, and on which the latter constructed the models of some of his most important improvements in piano manufacture." George H. Chickering, the only surviving son of Jonas Chickering, was born in Boston in 1830. Like his brothers, he was thoroughly trained in all departments of practical piano-making. He and his father for many years fashioned every piano hammer and voiced every grand piano themselves. In more recent years the hammers in grand pianos, used by Gottschalk, Thalberg, Herz, Von Bulow, Joseffy, Dr. Pachman, and many other distinguished artists, were made by the hands of George H. Chickering. During a period of nearly half a century he has conducted the great Chickering factory in Boston. He has a posi tive genius for organization, and every detail of this large establish ment receives his close personal attention. Like his deceased brothers, he has always evinced a keen interest in all matters pertaining to art. For thirty-four years he has been connected with the Handel and Haydn Society of Boston, as president, vice-president, librarian, and director, having held the vice-presidency for twenty-nine years. He was also for many years an active member of the Apollo Club of Bos ton, and is still vice-president of that organization. He possesses, like his honored father and brothers, in a marked degree, a genius for piano mechanics, united to great executive ability, such as is required to manage a vast commercial establishment. He is in the forefront of every movement to advance the interest of true art, and is a worthy representative of a family which has done so much to extend around the world the name and fame of American skill and genius. The superiority of the instruments made by Chickering & Sons has been attested on both sides of the Atlantic. Of their earlier triumphs the crowning one was achieved in 1867 at the International Exhibition -7:ysi'!/ji:B,miiissotisl. QL *.%835 150 3>400 423,000 3,265,000 3i7°° 18,400 77,000 857,600 122,650 3o3i 7 57 1,000 ¦6,000 132,700 318,785 850,000 4,100,000 76,000 495*728 47,000 117,000 31865,350 15,186,833 70,250 606,850 254,050 584,800 19,500 53i865 310,000 1,267,120 526,750 *!355i6°o 88,750 422,391 3Si°oo 110,500 417,900 1,187,890 I7°i350 599.95o 40,000 150,000 i37i3QO 533,300 25,000 68,000 125,200 768,724 82,000 222,000 212,372 793.49s 32,000 90,000 100,000 53i«6 79,200 126,800 30,100 60,878 126,575 327,070 29,500 32,000 28,800 102.800 22,000 117,500 5,000 15,000 25,400 56,700 13,800 50,000 42,350 170,0. 0 30,000 100,000 10,000 20,000 1,498,625 1,042,695 82,550 735.93o 160,000 235,000 315,000 734,825 7,000 140,000 31,000 305,000 2,000 4i5oo 22,300 48,750 73,200 206,000 156,850 681,739 101,000 201,000 102,500 152,000 225,000 995,000 5i5oo 11,000 568 SUFFOLK COUNTY. The introduction of steam heating apparatus for warming buildings, now so widely used, had its origin in Boston through the agency of James J. Walworth and Joseph Nason. The history of this undertak ing, which began in 1841, is told in the sketch of J. J. Walworth, which appears elsewhere in this volume. For eight years Mr. Walworth and Mr. Nason were associated together under the firm name of Walworth & Nason, when they dissolved, Mr. Walworth, with his brother, C. C. Walworth, continuing the business alone in Boston for some time and Mr. Nason removing to New York. Some years later Mr. Walworth, associating with himself as partner his brother, C. C. Walworth, and Marshall S. Scudder, formed the firm of J. J. Walworth & Co. In 1872 the corporation of the Walworth Manufacturing 'Company was formed with a capital of $400,000, of which J. J. Walworth, the founder of the business, remained president until about two years ago, since which C. C. Walworth has been president. The factory of the com pany was originally at 18 Devonshire street. In 1852 it was moved to Blake Court. Several years ago the works were moved to Cambridge- port, where they remained until the completion of their extensive plant in South Boston in 1882, where 800 hands are employed. Many im portant inventions and contrivances necessary to the development of their business originated with this concern, among them being the introduction of the fan system of ventilation, the establishment of a scale of sizes and weights of valves and fittings, a machine for tapping six fittings at once, the introduction of the present die-plate design, the Stanwood pipe cutter, the Stillson wrench, the Walworth bench. vice, the Walworth pipe taps and reamers, and the Hall tapping ma chine, all of which are labor-saving devices of well recognized merit. Of late years the construction of gas machines, manufacture of supplies for steam, gas and water users, iron and steel poles for the purpose of supporting and carrying the trolley wires for street railways have formed an important part of the business of the Walworth Manufactur ing Company. The value of their production now reaches the sum of $2,000,000 annually. The advance made by the company during the past fifty years can be best illustrated by the fact that while in 1842 a small stock of pipe, at the utmost, 5,000 feet, was bought with consider able hesitation, and was considered a large transaction at that time, in 1892 between four and five million feet of pipe was handled by this company. INDUSTRIAL HISTORY. 469 The American Net and Twine Company has had an existence since 1842. During the half century of its existence it has introduced many new features in the manufacture of nets, seines, lines, and twine, and has done much to extend this branch of enterprise. The company, which has a capital of $350,000, has an extensive netting factory in Boston, and a gilling factory at East Haddam, Conn.' The excellence of their wares has been often attested by numerous highest awards wherever exhibited. I. W. Adams is president of the company, and Edward L. Grenby, treasurer. Joseph Milner Wightman deserves prominent mention in any chron icle of the industrial progress of Boston. His interest in scientific subjects date from his early boyhood, and his interest and participation in public affairs covered a period of about forty years. He was born in Eliot street, Boston, in 1812, his parents being of English descent. At fourteen he became apprenticed to a machinist, and four years later, when the Mechanics' Lyceum was formed, he was made secretary. In the following year he delivered a scientific lecture before this body, illustrated by apparatus of his own construction. The year following he, with others, established the Boston Mechanics' Magazine, of which he was associate editor. At the close of his apprenticeship he com menced the manufacture of philosophical instruments, giving much attention to the work of simplifying their construction and bringing their cost within the means of those who could not afford the expensive instruments made in Europe. This work he followed for many years with great success, having a part of the time as a partner Timothy Claxton, an Englishman of ability in this specialty. During this period he furnished the schools and colleges of the country a large amount of scientific apparatus, and so perfect were his instruments, and so correct was his judgment in regard to the needs of the students, that the man agers of educational institutions came to regard him as an authority. Previous to the war of the Rebellion his business was one of the largest of its kind in this country, but owing to the disturbances of that period, the demand was greatly lessened, and his attention being now engrossed by public affairs, he relinquished this business, which he had followed for nearly a generation. For five years he had lectured occasionally on scientific subjects in this and other cities of New England, and in 1841-43 assisted Professor Silliman, of Harvard College, in his cele brated lectures before the Lowell Institute. When the Morse telegraph was brought before the public, ]Ar. Wightman delivered an illustrated 470 SUFFOLK COUNTY. lecture in explanation of its principles and working, which, by request, was repeated in other places. In 1845 he was elected a member of the School Committee, on which he served for ten years. The Franklin and City medals were designed by him. From the first agitation of the question of the introduction of pure water in Boston, Mr. Wight- man was one of the foremost advocates, and to him the citizens of Bos ton are largely indebted for his services in that important work. He was one of the earliest and most efficient advocates of the introduction of the telegraphic fire alarm and the steam fire engine into Boston. He served as a member of the State Legislature, and for three years was a member of the Board of Aldermen, and one year its chairman. He was active in his advocacy of the bill relating to the Back Bay and the Public Garden, for which service he was presented by his fellow citizens with a bronze statue of Daniel Webster, and which he, at his death, bequeathed to the Public Library. In 1860 he was elected mayor of Boston, and served two years. It was during his administra tion that he laid the corner stone of the present city hall. He died in 1885 ; and the latter years of his life was engaged in the practice of the law, having been admitted to the bar in 1871. The first machine shop in Roxbury was established by J. C. Pratt, who, in 1847, was succeeded by the firm of Chubbuck & Campbell, by whom the first tubular boiler made in the vicinity of Boston was con structed. Charles Whittier learned the machinist trade with Chubbuck & Campbell. In 1859 he was admitted to partnership, when Mr. Chubbuck retired, and the name of the firm was changed to Campbell, Whittier & Co. In 1874 this firm was succeeded by the Whittier Ma chine Company, which was incorporated under the laws of Massachu setts, with a capital of $300,000. The works for many years were in Roxbury, but are now on first and Granite streets, South Boston. This company is largely engaged in the ¦ manufacture of steam, hydraulic and electric elevators for freight and passengers. Their electric ele vators represent the highest development thus far attained by electrical science and mechanical art. A large number of improvements, in creasing the safety, speed and comfort realized in the use of elevators, have been introduced by this company. These improvements are pro tected by numerous patents, many of which are of Mr. Whittier's own invention. Their elevators are in use in many of the principal buildings of Boston, New York and other large cities in every part of the United States. INDUSTRIAL HISTORY. 471 The United States census of 1870 contains the following report relat ive to the industries of Suffolk county, and while perhaps the product of that year is undervalued, it is the most reliable census return up to that date : No. of Hands Value of Kind of Manufactures. Establishments. Employed. Capital. Products. Awnings and tents 4 24 7,000 39.000 Bags — * 1 46 100,000 92,000 Baking Powder __ 2 24 12,500 1511054 Banners', flags and regalia 2 13 4,000 22,776 Bells 2 13 7,000 20,000 Belting and hose (leather) 3 16 38,000 135,000 Billiard and bagatelle tables, etc, - 3 44 77,200 130,000 Blacking 4 19 28,000 100,806 Bleaching and Dyeing 10 156 35,700 265,200 Blueing 1 14 10,000 40,000 Bookbinding 39 68g 292,800 860,300 Boot and shoe findings __ 10 181 79,700 337,500 Boots and shoes _ 34 T,3Z7 567,100 2,379,118 Bottling 1 4 5,000 15,000 Boxes, packing 1 4 5,000 15,000 Boxes, paper 5 39 16,500 77,500 Brass founding and finishing 12 103 51,800 215,080 Bread and other bakery products -„ 49 340 225,750 888,784 Brick _ 7 725 641,900 573,688 Bridge building 1 34 32,000 50,000 Bronze castings 1 9 15,000 35,ooo Brooms and wisp brushes __ 2 6 3,300 15,900 Brushes 5 292 5g,ooo 372,000 Cards -- --- -- 3 36 75»5oo. 182,500 Carpets, other than rag ___ , 2 461 620,000 1,028,300 Carriages and sleds, children's 2 41 43,000 90,000 Wagons .' — _- 29 392 265,500 671,205 Cars, freight and passenger _ 2 225 850,000 362,535 Chocolate. 3 135 250,000 681,250 Chromos and lithographs _ 5 147 117.800 286,000 Clocks 2 10 35,000 90,000 Clothing, men's _ ---227 7-569 7,438,090 17,578,057 Clothing, women's 62 672 139,995 ' 1,268,214 Coal oil, rectified 4 122 315,000 1,141,888 Coffee and spices, ground.. 10 99 360,500 549,142 Coffins 8 36 30,800 82,235 Collars and cuffs, paper 4 102 360,000 552,000 Confectionery- - 31 315 153,000 1,025,600 Cooperage— __ 13 113 47,7°o 186,851 Copper smithing _._ 6 80 80,000 225,000 Cordage and twine 3 70 28,000 101,900 Cordials and syrups___ _ 3 29 103,000 279,000 Cork cutting 3 17 12,000 43,500 Cosmetics 5 12 10,200 41,100 Croquet sets --- - 2 23 18,000 60,500 Cutlery 1 22 10,000 25,000 Cutlery and edge tools _ 4 27 13,800 30,037 Drugs and chemicals _ __ 6 103 345,300 819,179 Dye extracts - 2 41 3S,0oo 116,000 Engraving - 18 67 8,035 85,500 472 SUFFOLK COUNTY. No. of Kind of Manufactures. Establishments. Engraving and stencil cutting 16 Fertilizers t ~ Files _ 5 Fire-arms, small arms 2 Flouring mill products 1 Frames, mirrors and pictures 33 Furniture (not specified)-- 82 Furniture, chairs.. 2 Furniture, refrigerators 2 Furs, dressed 12 Gas __ 6 Gas and lamp fixtures 4 Gas and retorts 1 Gilding 7 Glass, cut 8 Glassware 5 Gold leaf and foil 7 Hair work 20 Hardware 28 Hardware, saddlery 1 Hats and caps 28 Hat and cap materials 1 Heating apparatus 3 Hoop skirts and corsets.- ___ 4 Hosiery 1 Hubs and wagon materials 4 India rubber and elastic goods--'. 3 Ink, printing 1 Ink, writing 2 Instruments (professional) r7 Iron bolts, nuts, washers, etc 1 Iron castings (not specified) : Q Iron stoves, heaters, etc- 2 Iron nails and spikes, cut, etc 2 Iron, forged and rolled 5 Iron pipe, wrought __ 2 Japanned ware 4 Jewelry _ 2I Kindling wood 2 Lamps and lanterns 2 Lasts .— _ ___ 2 Lead pipe 1 Leather, tanned _ t Leather, curried 23 Leather, patent and enameled 4 Liquor, distilled _ __. x Liqudr, malt 10 Looking-glasses ! Lumber, planed. ___ 2% Lumber, staves, shooks, etc 1 Machinery (not specified ) ._ 52 Machinery, cotton and woolen z Machinery, railroad repairing t Machinery, engines and boilers I2 Marble and stone work (not specified) 52 Marble, tombstones _ g Hands Value of Employed. Capital. Products. 48 25,575 7x»5°o 3 1,300 29,500 9° 41,000 i32i5°o M 70,000 10,000 8 50,000 313,000 322 280,800 995,888 1,498 1,569,700 3,724,898 35 28,000 41,500 20 23,000 99,400 I36 255,000 376,710 647 2,742,000 2,004.905 2l8 153,000 462,580 12 30,000 30,000 35 3,700 39i7*5 104 50,500 171,000 153 102,000 146,200 62 28,100 163,560 114 98,800 196,600 293 199,100 616,850 13 1,000 13,300 447 251,000 782,^00 6 2,500 14,000 93 8o,coo 225,000 462 155,000 467,000 4 2,000 ¦ 13.5°° 37 36,000 111,000 226 615,000 610,377 9 12,000 25,000 4 110,000 75,000 85 556 5°o 152,000 30 100.000 3,000 461 587,000 931,263 255 290,000 578,000 235 575,000 466,600 894 735,ooo 2,643,200 178 300,000 1,000,000 15 9,700 10,000 288 127,700 338,100 25 5,200 24,000 22 21,000 42,000 27 11,500 26,000 J4 310,000 616,650 21 70,000 420,000 45i 678,000 2,993,084 108 100,000 800,000 10 50,000 80,000 192 883,000 i,394,5oo 32 25,000 100,000 737 1,071,500 3,617,35° 18 20,000 50,000 972 1,162,000 2,032,203 16 20,000 30.000 337 l65,OO0 720,000 659 I,OI3,8oo 1,462,202 972 748,500 i,353.zSo 92 I64,5C0 310,200 INDUSTRIAL HISTORY. 473 Kind of Manufactures. Establishments. Masonry, brick and stone _ n Matches " T Meat, cured and packed (not specified). _ i Meat, packed, pork _ _ 2 Meters x Millinery ___ ___ 4I Millstones __ i Mineral and soda waters _ n Molasses and sugars, refined 3 Mucilage and paste ___ i Musical instruments (not specified) 4 Musical instruments, organs 6 Musical instruments, pianos.. 15 Needles 1 Nets, fish and seine.. 1 Oil, animal 2 Oil, fish _ _ 2 Oil, vegetable, linseed 2 Oil (not specified) 4 Paints (not specified) ___ 2 Paints, lead and zinc 5 Patent medicines 18 Patterns and models 12 Plated ware 18 Pocket books 2 Preserves and sauces 3 Printing, cotton goods r Printing and publishing (not specified 7 Printing, books 1 Printing, newspapers 31 Printing, job 62 Pumps 4 Putty ___ 2 Roofing materials 12 Saddlery and harness 42 Safes, doors, vaults (fireproof)-- _ 5 Sails _ _ -__ _ _ 15 Salt, ground 3 Sash, doors and blinds 20 Scales and balances _ __ _ 2 Sewing machine fixtures 2 Sewing machines 2 Shipbuilding, repairing, etc 3g Show cases 4 Silk goods _ _ 1 Silverware 6 Soap and candles 6 Soap stone goods 5 Soda water apparatus 5 Starch 2 Stationery 1 Steel springs 3 Stereotying and electrotyping 6 Stone and earthen ware 3 Tin, copper and sheet iron ware 67 Tobacco (not cigars) and snuff 3 60 Hands Employed. Capital. Value of Products. 209 21,900 287,500 .9o 40,000 500,000 127 100,000 40o,nco 16 65,000 339<2i5 T-l 18,000 80 , 000 389 143,025 568.489 42 50,000 100,000 134 96,500 294,048 380 I ^700,000 5,414,270 3 8,000 20,000 56 569 37,100 589,000 97, ico 1,070,114 9" 1,994,711 2,369,505 12 3,000 15,000 , u 15,000 23,000 6 10,000 38,000 12 69 102,500 200,000 544- 9°° 1,003,610 21 6l,500 140,976 7 3,500 36,000 136 88 89. J32 375,000 220,150 36,300 84,1 50 1,147,500 568,900 J3o,5oo 181,500 12 7,5 0 41,000 "3 150,000 545,000 15 7,000 75,000 118 335.3oo 1,072,000 56 18,000 55«ooo 783 875 40 16 2,402,900 1,438,800 28,80026,600 3,452,7601,153,400 83,40068,350 131 252,500 408,208 294 344,700 561,663 '5i 188,000 350000 87 49,200 203,805 33 357 95,000 286,800 I23i5oo 923,790 1726 12,00018,200 i5,5oo6r,ooo 586 66S 2,004,000 926,200 977,060 ^363,947 67 32,000 250,000 12 4,000 15,000 67 61,000 154,533 5° 39i5oo 137,25o 26 2,500 140,100 78 149,000 389,575 II 50,000 152,000 8 1,000 10,000 8 89 2,900 27,800 11,500 141,919 37 128,000 51,000 503 425,375 665,404 5i 46,500 92,573 474 SUFFOLK COUNTY. No. of Hands Value of Kind of Manufactures. Establishments. Employed. Capital. Products. Tobacco, cigars - ____.. 32 19= 64,400 276,981 Trunks, valises and satchels --.. '-- 12 158 132,200 381,900 Trusses, bandages, supporters 4 82 42,000 120,000 Type founding — - 4 «4 ^5,000 252,000 Umbrellas and canes-- -- 2 36 26,000 6s,ooo Upholstery - 57 805 905,150 2,251,070 ^ Varnish-— 7 35 94,5oo 497,687 Veneering -— - 1 U 150,000 125,000 Ventilators, crystal 1 6 2,500 14,000 Washing machines, etc 4 37 54,3oo 169,250 Watch cases-- 2 35 6,o°o 69,o8° Watches — 1 13 30,000 40,000 Whalebone and rattan, prepared 2 31 2,500 152,000 Wire work- - — '5 201 44,160 139,500 Wood brackets, moulding, etc 2 65 18,000 75,ooo Wood, turned and carved — 24 132 47,700 200,000 Wood work, miscellaneous 2 20 51,000 80,000 Wool carding and cloth dressing 2 21 10,800 20,000 Woolen goods - 2 94 85,000 210,000 Worsted goods - 3 931 105,000 510,000 2,546 43,550 $47,311,906 $1x1,380,840 The making of brushes has for many years been quite an industry in Boston. Harvey A. and Ezra Burton began the business in 1844, which is now conducted by A. & E. Burton & Co. The firm of John L. Whiting & Co. was established in 1864, and is now one of the lead ing firms in this line in the United States, having an extensive factory near Rowe Wharf. The business of Charles A. Austin & Co. was in augurated, in 1865, by Worcester & Austin. In 1848 Francis McLaugh lin embarked in the business, and in 1869 was succeeded by the present firm of Murphy, Leavins & Co. J. C. Pushee & Sons have been en gaged in the business in Boston since 1880. The Globe Works, for many years an important industrial enterprise in- Boston, were founded by John Souther, who commenced business as a locomotive builder near the site of the old works on Foundry street in 1846. For a short time he was associated with J. Lyman, whose in terest he afterward purchased. Mr. Souther had previously been em ployed at the Boston Locomotive Works, and had made all or a greater part of their first models and patterns. In June, 1854, the Globe Works Company was incorporated, with John Souther as president, and D. A. Pickering, treasurer. For several years the building of locomotives was a prominent feature of their business, from twenty to thirty having been made annually. Since 1860, however, when the works were de stroyed by fire, the building of locomotives has not constituted an im portant branch of their manufacture. This company quite early be- INDUSTRIAL HISTORY 475 came well known, for the excellent work accomplished by their steam shovel or excavator, which was used in the construction of most of the railroads in this country and Europe. During the late war this company was largely engaged upon work for the United States government. They constructed the United States steamship Housatonic, the hull and machinery for one of the monitors, and also the machinery for a sloop- of-war and two side-wheel war steamers. The earlier efforts in the development of the modern sewing machine were made in Boston. Elias Howe, jr., was a resident of Cambridge when, in 1846, he brought out the first sewing machine. It was far from perfect, and other inventors aided in remedying its defects. Among his colaborers was John Batchelder, of Boston, who, in 1849, 'invented an automatic feeding device. During the same year Blodgett & Lerow, also of Boston, invented a rotary shuttle for use in making the lock stitch. In 1851 Grover & Baker, of Boston, invented a sewing machine, which for several years was the most successful machine in use. A new principle was embodied in its construction, a double lock stitch be ing made by means of a rotary needle. For a time I. M. Singer, who invented a sewing machine in 1850, had a manufactory in Harvard Place, but finally moved to New York. The City Point Works of Boston has attained a national reputation. The founder of these works, Harrison Loring, was born in Duxbury, Mass., and served an apprenticeship with Jabez Coney, of Boston. He commenced business for himself in 1847. For several years thereafter his business was principally confined to the building of stationary and marine engines and boilers. He was among the first to foresee the great demand which was eventually to come for iron sea-going steam ships. He began to lay his plans to carry on this branch of industry, in 1857, by the purchase from the city of Boston of the House of In dustry estate then unoccupied. On this property, consisting of seven acres of upland and a million feet of flats, he erected such new build ings as the business required. This was the first iron shipbuilding es tablishment which had been permanently located in New England, and the enterprise was looked upon with considerable distrust. Mr. Loring, with all the energy and steadfastness of purpose which have character ized his career, began building steamers for foreign markets. Even in the years 1857 and 1858, when almost all kinds of industry were sus pended, he kept his establishment 'in full operation on vessels ordered from India. His first work of importance for an American company was 476 SUFFOLK COUNTY. the building of two vessels of 1, 150 tons each, the South Carolina and the Massachusetts, for the Boston and Southern Steamship Company. They were afterwards sold to the United States government, and proved among the most successful vessels in the blockading squadron on the southern coast. He afterwards built for the Union Steamship Com pany of Boston two iron screw steamships, the Mississippi and the Merrimack of 2,000 tons each. After the manifest success of the Moni tor over the rebel iron clad Merrimac, Mr. Loring was called by the government to build as many monitors as could be completed within a short time, and he immediately commenced on one named the Nahant, which was the first monitor ever built in New England. He afterward built the Canonicus, a vessel embodying all the improvements of the Nahant, but with double her propelling power, and more able to resist the projectiles then in use. After the war the building of vessels in and around Boston practically ceased. It was revived at the City Point Works by the building of the cruiser Marblehead, which was launched in August, 1892. The first German brewery established in Boston was, doubtless, that of Michael Ludwig, who began to brew small or table beer in a small wooden building on the corner of Washington and Plymouth (now Henneman) streets in 1846. One year later he sold out to Matthias Kramer and Charles Roessle, father of John Roessle, one of the lead ing brewers of Boston at the present time. After a short continuance in the old place, Kramer & Roessle removed to Lowell (now Pynchon) street, fitting up an old building on an island, in what was known as Smith's Pond, a small body of water fed by Stony Brook. Here they continued making small beer until January, 1848. Shortly thereafter they engaged the services of Gottlieb F. Burkhardt, an experienced brewer, who had lately arrived from Germany. Burkhardt made the first lager beer ever brewed in this vicinity. In 1849 Roessle bought out Kramer, and about the same time Burkhardt started in business on his own account on Northampton street, near Harrison avenue, where he continued brewing small beer until 1853, when he began to brew lager beer. In 1856 Burkhardt, who had in the mean time built a brewery on the corner of Parker and Steuben streets, Roxbury, sold out his place in Northampton street to William Baker. In the mean time, Charles Roessle had begun brewing lager beer on the island in Smith Pond in 1851, and Joseph Hechenger had started a small brewery on what is now Texas Place, off Tremont street, where, subsequent to INDUSTRIAL HISTORY. 477 1853, he had also began to brew lager beer. H. & J. Pfaff began busi ness in 1858 on Pynchon street, near Cedar street, which has been con tinued up to the present time. These were the pioneer lager beer breweries of Boston, whose number has increased until now a large area of the country in the Roxbury district is covered with their solid brick buildings, yards and vaults. In 1847 Bowers & Pratt established a foundry for the manufacture -of stoves. They continued it until 1862, when the firm became Pratt & Wentworth, who conducted the business until 1876, when the High land Foundry Company was organized to take charge of the business. The company's foundries are located on Pynchon street, Boston High lands, where stoves, ranges, and furnaces are manufactured, and which have become widely known for their excellence. The officers of the company are W. J. Towne, president, and George W. Elliott, treasurer. According to the State census of 1875 there were 5,649 manufacturing establishments in Boston, in which was invested a capital of $55,201,- 960. The value of goods manufactured was $121,367,414. Chelsea had 169 establishments, representing an invested capital of $2,391,442, and value of goods made $4,308,261. Revere had five establishments, in which was invested a capital of $10,800, and which produced a pro duct valued at $10,625, while the town of Winthrop had six establish ments, in which was invested a capital of $12,500, and which produced $36,786 worth of manufactured product. Among the principal industries reported for Boston in this census may be enumerated the following : No. of Capital Value of Est. Invested. Goods made. Alcohol i $250,000 $600,000 Billiard tables 4 155,000 207,000 Boots and shoes 72 422,168 1,730,811 Boxes, paper 11 90,000 278,311 Bakeries- - 110 313,593 1,646,471 Building materials, fire-proof 5 44,000 105,175 Carpets 6 700,000 1,800,000 Carriages, wagons, coaches 39 466,755 515,784 Chromos and lithographs - _ 10 373,500 616,000 Clothing _ - 334 4,476,174 15,831,509 Confectionery ___ 37 370,910 1,411,408 Dyes, paints and chemicals 7 580,000 1,028,000 Fertilizers, glue and tallow 3 179,000 308,000 Flour 1 250,000 510,000 Fur goods 16 238,200 430,700 Furniture - 99 1,567,315 3,394,289 Gas 4 4,040,000 2,180,994 Horse shoe nails 1 350,000 350,000 Iron castings 9 435,000 723,875 478 SUFFOLK COUNTY. No. of Capital Value of Est. Invested. Goods made. Iron steamships, marine and stationary engines i 400,000 '360,000 Jewelry 20 169,650 398,350 Kerosene and lubricating oils 2 230,000 750,000 Lead 1 500,000 950,000 Leather 33 705,900 2,116,378 Linseed oil and cake 1 130,000 665,000 Linseed oil and cotton bagging 1 600,000 360,000 . Machines and machinery _ ^__ 40 2,310,500 2,066,490 Malt and malt liquors 16 1,584,000 2,892,924 Organs, church and cabinet 7 442,000 902,000 Paper and wood hangings _ 3 320,500 352,031 Pianos 13 2,004,000 2,146,102 Rope 2 175,000 450,000 Rubber goods 8 1,095,000 11,718,000 Rum 3 345,000 1,208,000 Sails and awninjis 36 91,450 364,408 Sewing machines 3 210,000 850,000 Soap and candles 9 98,900 285,727 Stoves, furnaces and ranges— 16 183,250 325,600 Sugar and syrup, refining 5 2,975,000 14,902,000 Tin, sheet iron, copper and zinc ware _ 39 23,645 X526,324 Trunks, valises and bags 16 174,000 700,300 Twine, cordage, nets, etc 10 772,975 1,535,476 Vessels 8 185 000 1,772,000 The successful manufacturing of watches by machinery was first ac complished through the enterprise and skill of Edward Howard and Aaron L. Dennison. In 1850 Mr. Howard, of the firm of Howard & Davis, pupils of the celebrated Williards, manufacturers of fine clocks and gold standard balances, determined to test the practicability of making watches by machinery. Associating with himself David P. Davis, Aaron L. Dennison and Samuel Curtis, under' the style of the Warren Manu facturing Company, he built a- factory at Roxbury, where the first complete American watches were made. This enterprise in its infancy encountered many difficulties, not only for want of suitable tools and workmen, but through the prejudice of dealers and opposition of im porters. The name of the Warren Manufacturing Company was adopted with the view of concealing the kind of business the company was intending to do until the business had so far advanced as to be able to show some of its productions. As soon as watches were put into the market, the name of the company was changed to the Boston Watch Company. In 1854 this company erected a large factory at Waltham, but by incurring an outlay, in so doing, greater than their capital would warrant, it was overcome by pecuniary embarrassments, and in 1857 the property passed into the hands of Appleton, Tracy & Co., who carried on the business for some two years or more, when it INDUSTRIAL HISTORY. 479 was finally incorporated under the name of the American Watch Com pany. Mr. Howard, after the failure of the Waltham enterprise, returned to the original factory in Roxbury, and, abandoning the manufacture of the cheaper kind of watches and clocks, devoted himself exclusively to the higher grades. Although beset by many difficulties at first, he persevered until he achieved a high degree of success, the Howard watch gaining a reputation, ever since maintained, as among the best made. Mr. Howard for many years was the controlling spirit in the concern. In 1881 the company was incorporated under the style of the E. Howard Watch and Clock Company, with a capital of $250,000, which was increased in 1892 to $500,000. The company in 1873 erected another factory on Eustis street, Roxbury. The manufacture of watches is carried on in the old factory, while the new factory is devoted exclusively to the manufacture of clocks, which include, be sides clocks for residences, town clocks of superior construction, astro nomical clocks, and fine regulators for watchmakers. Several hundred skilled workmen are employed. Samuel Little is president of the company, Arthur M. Little, treasurer, and Rufus B. Carr, general manager. Boston capital started the watch industry at Waltham, where it is still largely employed in what has since grown to be a very important industry. The American Tube Works, with an extensive plant at Somerville, where 600 operatives are employed, was established in 1851. Seamless drawn brass and copper tubes for locomotives, marine and stationary boilers are the principal product. This company, after repeated trials, succeeded in producing seamless copper tubes identical, with exception of the metal, with their seamless brass tubes (the latter being protected by English patent), and now own the only patents under which a tube is drawn from a cylindrical casting of pure copper. E. S. Buckingham is president of the company, and William C. Cotton treasurer. The leading marine industry at East Boston is that conducted by the Atlantic Works, which were incorporated in 1853. Up to the present time marine work has been the sole business, but in 1892 the Robinson Boiler Works was consolidated with the Atlantic Works, and prepara tions are now in progress for the manufacture of all kinds of plate iron work, including stationary boilers and tanks. Since the war the At lantic Works have fitted about 100 vessels with engines and boilers, 480 SUFFOLK COUNTY • including the steamer Enterprise, steamer William Lazvrence, five lake steamers for freight traffic, the sloops of war Adams and Essex, the revenue cutters Richard Rush and Samuel Dexter, a number of ferry, tug and fire boats, coal, lighter and wrecking steamers, and steam yachts. The present officers of the Atlantic Works are: I. N. Lothrop, president, and Alfred E. Cox, treasurer and general manager. Oliver Edwards, for many years president of the works, was born in Buxton, Me., in 1808. When a boy he came to Boston and learned the machin ist trade. Soon after attaining his majority, he commenced business in company with a Mr. Thayer, and later was one of the firm of Ed wards, Holman & Fernald, manufacturers of fire-proof safes. After the retirement of Mr. Holman, the firm was Edwards, Fernald & Ker shaw, and their establishment on Green street will be remembered by those familiar with that section more than forty years ago. In 1853 he was one of the originators of the Atlantic Works, and was president of that corporation from its organization until his death in 1876. When a young journeyman he made the first safe which was manufactured in the shop which later was celebrated for its manufactures in that line. Gilman Joslin, also for several years president of the Atlantic Works, was born in Stoddard, N. H., in 1804. When a lad of thirteen he came to Massachusetts. After acquiring a fair education, he turned his attention to mechanical appliances, in which he afterwards excelled to a wonderful degree. When of age he went to Nashua, and for two years worked in a cotton factory ; after which he returned to Boston and engaged as a wood turner and maker of looking-glasses and picture frames. In this calling he was brought into contact with artists and men of some scientific attainments, who were impressed by his ability and fine workmanship. Among these was Josiah Loring, a bookbinder by trade, whose business in part was the selling of school globes im ported from England. About the year 1830, being satisfied that young Joslin could make equally good globes, he set him to work, and his ex pectations being realized, their manufacture was continued for several years, until the business was purchased by Mr. Joslin and continued by him for a number of years, until given up to his sons. His invent ive faculty was constantly at work on some new idea. When the first account was published that Daguerre, in France, had discovered a pro cess of making pictures by sunlight, young Joslin, although possessed of little practical knowledge of chemistry, did not wait to see a speci men of the process worked out by another, but applied himself at once, INDUSTRIAL HISTORY. 481 and actually produced the first daguerreotype ever made in Boston. In 1853 he was one of the organizers of the Atlantic Works of East Bos ton ; became one of the directors, and from that time until his death was unremitting in his labors to perfect the work turned out at that famous establishment. During the late civil war a number of the iron monitors, and many of the most important and difficult works required for our war vessels, were built at this establishment. In all these operations the intuitive knowledge, genius, and strong common sense of Mr. Joslin were conspicuous. Besides the presidency of these works, he was also president of the Coffer Dam Company, which he had assisted in organizing for the purpose of affording the facilities to re pair large ocean steamers without the necessity of going into a dry dock. Perhaps the crowning work of his life in this direction was the designing and erection of the immense iron shears, now standing on the wharf at the works in East Boston, which are conceded to be the finest apparatus of the kind in the world, being one hundred and thirty feet in height, and capable of handling with celerity the largest masses of iron work now manufactured. He died in Boston, April 28, 1886. The Cunningham Iron Works Company was founded in 1852 by Thomas Cunningham. In 1871 his two sons, J. H. and T. Cunning ham, were admitted as partners, the business at that time being con ducted under the firm style of Thomas Cunningham & Sons. The father dying in 1881, the sons succeeded to the entire control of the business, when they adopted the title of the Cunningham Iron Works. In 1885 the business was incorporated under its present title with a capital of $100,000. This company have works at Charlestown and East Boston. Steam boilers, iron pipes and fittings are the main articles of manufacture, in which some two hundred men are employed. In 1852 Solomon A. Woods and Solomon S. Gray, under the firm name of Gray & Woods, began in Boston the manufacture of wood- planing machines, originally invented by Mr. Gray, but greatly improved and rendered more practical by Mr. Woods's inventions. This copartnership lasted for five years, during which period valuable improvements were patented. In 1865 Mr. Woods added to his busi ness the manufacture of the Woodworth planes, with the Woodbury patented improvements, of which he was the sole licensee. To meet the demands of this extensive business he commenced the erection of manufacturing works at South Boston, and established branch houses at New York and Chicago. In 1873 a corporation was formed, with a 61 482 SUFFOLK COUNTY. capital of $300,000, under the name qf the S. A. Woods Machine Com pany, of which Mr. Woods became president, which position he still holds. To the successive firms of Gray & Woods, S. A. Woods and the S. A. Woods Machine Company, have been issued more than fifty patents for devices and improvements in machines for planing wood and making mouldings. They have received nearly one hundred gold, silver and bronze medals from the Massachusetts Charitable Mechanics' Association and numerous other similar institutions. Mr. Woods was the organizer and leader in the successful defence of the manufacturers of wood-working machines in the celebrated suit brought, in 1875, by the Woodbury Patent Planing Machine Company against the users of planing and moulding machines, the expense of the litigation on both sides aggregating nearly one hundred thousand dollars. The modern passenger elevator, now so generally used in all large buildings, was originally invented by Otis Tufts, of Boston. Not only in this connection but in many other directions, Mr. Tufts's inventive genius was exercised with beneficent results. His ideas were in ad vance of the mechanical practices of the time, and he was constantly devising new ways to accomplish familiar processes, or inventing some devices to supersede them. He was born in Cambridge in 1804. He became a machinist, and first devoted his energies to the perfection and manufacture of printing presses. The " Tufts Press " was a familiar object in many printing offices more than half a century ago. In 1837 he perfected the first steam power printing press ever run in this coun try. He originated that style of steam engine which embraces the en tire mechanism and boiler on a single bed. In 1845 he engaged in the enterprise of constructing iron steamships, and was the first to intro duce the feature of making them with double hulls, braced and trussed together. He built and launched, in East Boston, the first vessel con structed wholly of iron, ever built in the United States. This was the tow-boat R. B. Forbes, the plans for the vessel and machinery being drawn by John Ericsson, afterward so famous as the designer of the celebrated Monitor. He also built the first steam pile-driver. The circumstances leading to this invention are these : Mr. Tufts was pass ing the site of the Boston Custom House when they were laboriously driving the piles for the foundation with a pile-driver operated by hand, and he suggested to the foreman that at that rate the building would be finished about the year 2000. The foreman knew Mr. Tufts, and alluding to the reputation of his printing press, asked if he thought he INDUSTRIAL HISTORY. 483 could build a custom house as well. Mr. Tufts said he would tell him the next day. True to his word he called and showed the foreman the draft of a steam pile-driver which he had meanwhile thought out and put on paper. A machine was built at once, according to the design, and was soon in successful operation. Mr. Tufts took no steps toward securing a patent on his invention, which superseded the old fashioned hand machine everywhere. He also first applied steam to the cutting of marble. His invention, however, which has commanded the widest attention, was the steam elevator. The first one was actuated by a screw, and was called a "vertical railway," being placed in the Fifth Avenue Hotel in New York in 1859. This elevator excited widespread attention and universal admiration. He was also the inventor of the practice now universal of providing elevators with lifting ropes so ar ranged by levers as to equalize the strain, and also of adding others as extras to carry the load in case of breakage. The first one of this kind was put into the American House in Boston in 1868. His mind turned toward mathematics and mechanical sciences. His engines were considered perfect specimens of American mechanical and scien tific skill, and were used not only by our government, but were also in demand abroad. He was an estimable citizen, a man of strict integrity, devoted to his business, always bent on making some needed improve ment. He possessed great constructive ability, was genial, social and affable, and a great favorite among his acquaintances. Like many other inventors and benefactors, he planted the seed while others have gathered the harvest. He died at the age of sixty-five years, leaving two daughters and a son, Otis Tufts, jr., who succeeded his father in business. The latter died September 29, 1885. Like his father, he' possessed rare inventive and mechanical ability. Moore & Wyman suceeded to the business established by Otis Tufts. In 1884 the Moore & Wyman Elevator and Machine Works were incor porated. The plant of the company is located at the corner of Granite and Richards streets, where are manufactured steam, hydraulic, electric and belt elevators for passenger and freight service. The officers of the company are C. E. Moore, president; C. E. Wyman, treasurer. In 1851 Richard F. Bond, of Dorchester, was awarded the "Grand Council Medal " at the World's Fair held in London for his invention for recording astronomical observations. He was born in Dorchester, in 1827, and was a son of the celebrated watch and chronometer maker, William Cranch Bond, from whom he learned the same business. At 484 SUFFOLK COUNTY the, age of twenty-one he was taken into the firm, and afterwards be came sole proprietor by purchasing the interest of his father and brother. He died in 1866. William Lincoln, of Boston, was the second man in the United States to engage in the manufacture of coal oil in this country. Soon after the discovery of petroleum, he, with William D. Philbrook, built a re finery in East Boston. Later a refinery was built in East Cambridge. Here the business was conducted on a large scale, requiring the equip ment of a line of schooners to ply between Philadelphia and Boston for the transportation of the petroleum. The factory was destroyed by fire in 1872, after which the business was not resumed. In Chelsea are located the extensive foundry and workshops of the Magee Furnace Company, which were established in 1856, and incor porated under present title in 1867. The product of these works in cludes stoves, ranges, furnaces and heating apparatus of many descrip tions, in the manufacture of which 400 workmen are employed. Their goods are not only largely used in > this country, but in considerable quantities are exported to foreign countries. John Magee, president of the company, is the inventor of the Magee stoves and furnaces.. In 1858 Benjamin F. Sturtevant, elsewhere referred to in connection with inventions relating to shoe machinery, turned his attention to other inventions, and developed the blower or exhaust fan, which he extensively manufactured at Jamaica Plain until his death. In July, 1890, the B. F. Sturtevant Company was incorporated with a capital of $500,000. The factory at Jamaica Plain consists of several brick build ings, constituting the largest exclusive blower and exhaust fan works in the world, and where 500 workmen are employed. The adoption of the Sturtevant blower for producing increased draught in marine boil ers has revolutionized the ocean traffic and made possible the record- breaking trips of our transatlantic liners. Such vessels as the City of Paris, City of New York, and City of Berlin, have numbers of these fans on board, forcing the air through the boiler furnaces. On the City of Paris alone there are blowers delivering in the aggregate a volume of not less than 18,000,000 cubic feet per hour, almost doubling the steaming capacities of the boilers over what could be obtained without the use of the blowers. The United States navy early realized the im mense advantages of forced draught, and all the vessels of the ' ' new navy " have, with scarcely an exception, been fitted out with large numbers of the Sturtevant fans. INDUSTRIAL HISTORY. 485 Mr. Sturtevant, the founder of this company, was born in Maine, in 1833, and early became well known through his invention for pegging boots and shoes. Besides the blower or exhaust fan he was the inven tor of a projectile which was used by the government during the War of the Rebellion. He was a liberal patron of religious institutions, and built Sturtevant Hall at the Newton Theological Institution, and gave freely to many others. He died at his home in Jamaica Plain, April 17, 1890. "Among the industrial enterprises in Boston which have been con spicuously successful is that represented by the Boston Button Com pany, which was inaugurated on a small scale, in 1868, by Metcalf & McCleery. The business rapidly expanded, and now gives employment to 500 workmen. The present factory on A street, near the Congress street bridge, was erected in 1890. It is a spacious modern seven story building, and entirely utilized for manufacturing purposes. The pro ductions consist of all kinds of covered buttons, covered tacks and nails, which find a ready market all over the United States, Canada, and in foreign countries. Branch offices and warerooms are maintained in New York, Chicago, San Francisco, Cincinnati, Montreal and Toronto. The original founders of the business are still sole proprietors. At Cambridgeport is located the manufacturing plant of The Damon Safe and Iron Works Company, which succeeded to the business estab lished by George L. Damon in 1874, the present company being incor porated in 1885. George L. Damon, the president and treasurer of the company, has been granted several valuable patents relating to safes, the most important relating to gravity automatic bolt work. This system is in use in the United States treasury vault at Washington, where the sum of $90,000,000 in silver coin was stored in 1891. This great vault, which was built under Mr. Damon's direction in 1886, measures 55 by 35 feet and is 10 feet high. The great vault of the sub-treasury in New-York, built in 1876, 48 by 28 by 12 feet, and the sub-treasuries at Boston, Philadelphia, Chicago, Baltimore, Cincinnati, St. Louis, New Orleans and San Francisco are all the work of this company, also the vaults in use in the mints at Philadelphia, San Francisco and New Or leans.. During the last fifteen years this company has furnished to banking institutions in Philadelphia work exceeding in value half a million, dollars,, and in Boston and Massachusetts they have furnished work for the Boston Safe Deposit and Trust Company, Springfield Safe Deposit and Trust Company, American Loan and Trust Company, New 486 SUFFOLK COUNTY England Trust Company, Bay State Deposit and Trust Company, Old Colony Trust Company, Massachusetts Hospital Life Insurance, and Trust Company, First National Bank, Worcester Safe Deposit and Trust Company, and the State Street Safe Deposit Vault, built in 1891 at a cost of $150,000, the largest and most expensive iron vault in the United States, its capacity being 18,000 boxes. Of late years Boston capital has been largely invested in the manu facture of clothing. Among the representative manufacturers in this line more than a half a century ago were Simeon Palmer, Carney & Sleeper, and Gove & Locke. John Simmons, of Quiney Market Hall, and George W. Simmons, of Oak Hall, advanced the character and re spectability of ready-made clothing up to a mercantile standard. They were followed by Milton & Slocomb, and others, until at the present time the manufacture of clothing has become the largest single industry of the city. In 1880 there were 311 clothing manufactories giving em ployment to 12,661 hands, who earned $4,206,768. In the department of men's clothing the product was valued at more than $16,000,000. while the total product reached the sum almost of $20,000,000. In the manufacture of furniture Boston has long held the leading position among eastern cities. Within the city limits there are one hundred factories employing from fifteen to one hundred workmen. The capital invested in this industry, according to recent statistics, .amounts to $3,581,000; Wages paid $1,405,258; value of materials used $1,981,674; value of product $4,193,000; hands employed 2,249. The industrial condition of Suffolk county according to the United States census for 1880 was as follows: Kind of Industries. No. Est. Artificial flowers 4 Awning and tents 4 Baking and yeast powder 4 Belting and hose, leather 3 Billiard table and materials 4 Blacking 6 Blacksmithing.— 154 Bookbinding _ 46 Boot and shoe cut stock 13 Boot and shoe findings n Boots and shoes 83 Boxes, fancy and paper 18 Boxes, wooden, packing 5 Brass castings 26 Bread, crackers, and other bakery products.— 113 Bridges 9 Brooms and brushes 16 Average No, Value of hands emp. Capital. Product. 178 20,000 124,900 52 16,000 77,150 46 254,000 305,230 28 40,000 204,000 43 47,000 88,300 82 63,500 324,400 569 188,275 657,285 1,019 410,000 986,416 266 62,500 352,200 175 117,700 389,883 1,321 348,775 1,928,740 522 139,900 380,062 46 18,500 80,900 246 222,400 410,553 6l2 292,950 1,471,582 138 53,000 325,500 413 290,300 828,290 INDUSTRIAL HISTORY. 487 Average No. Kind of Industries. No. Est. hands emp. Carpentering 305 2,419 Carriage and wagon materials—- __ 3 23 Carriages and wagons 23 420 Clothing, men's 222 9,270 Clothing, women's 24 1,976 Coffee and spices, roasted and ground 12 121 Coffins and burial cases, and undertakers' goods 9 32 Confectionery _ _ 33 525 Cooperage _-_ 21 119 Coppersmithing . 8 141 Cordage and twine _ 7 467 Cork cutting 4 56 Corsets... 5 271 Cotton goods 5 289 Cutlery and edge tools 11 42 Drugs and chemicals _ n 115 Dyeing and cleaning 20 215 Electrical apparatus and supplies 9 88 Electroplating 19 97 Engraving and die-sinking... 22 174 Engraving, steel -- __ 5 116 Engraving, wood 11 64 Fancy articles 6 55 Fertilizers..- 5 254 Files 7 .68 Flavoring extract 6 54 Flouring and grist mill products _ 8 69 Fruits and vegetables canned and preserved- .8 316 Furnishing goods, men's 15 182 Furniture 123 2,365 Furniture, chairs. _... 7 104 Furs, dressed 13 n7 Glass, cut, stained and ornamented 10 92 Gold and silver leaf and foil 5 52 Grease and tallow 4 100 Hair work 13 74 Hand stamps — 5 12 Hardware... _ n 51 Hardware, saddlery 3 42 Hats and caps 27 402 House furnishing goods 5 39 Hosiery and knit goods 9 i,4i7 Instruments, professional and scientific 12 103 Iron and steel 5 1,120 Iron bolts, nuts, washers and rivets 3 39 Iron castings 20 650 Iron forgings 3 246 Japanning - - 6 29 Jewelry — 29 403 Kindling wood 3 58 Labels and tags 5 I32 Lapidary wbrk__ 4 39 Lasts 3 14 Leather, curried 20 542 Leather, dressed _ 8 202 Lithographing g 686 Value of Capital. Product. 818,605 3.748,358 52,000 110,358 375,000 6^2,085 4,200,193 16,157,892 319,900 180,820 289,000 ¦1 ,448,869 27.300 52,950 251,475 1,606,214 79i46"7 188,560 107,200 249,100 706,55° 1,124,400 32,434 106,125 45looo 226,600 243,000 550,000 34,000 58,500 200,500 450,961 41,300 135,371 162,500 119,289 "3,45o 147,550 53,i5o 224,031 7,600 18,700 20,135 83,975 17,500 48,200 568,000 1,231,170 57,200 57,i33 65,500 266,500 510.000 1,101,000 242,700 681,188 690,900 377,925 1,388,875 3,867,917 70,000 257,238 64,547 263,250 55,650 114,340 19,300 96,175 392,000 . 564,868 28,600 73,400 9i5oo 20,356 111,850 79,900 26,000 36,300 106,200 441,276 20,700 46,200 156,800 484,183 81,000 123,540 1,624,408 2,189,987 30,000 51,000 589,000 894,500 420,000 502,970 4,600 25,000 208,100 516,722 19,000 58,687 288,000 450,325 39,000 102,200 10,500 18,100 420,800 2,520,792 315,500 579i350 487,550 989,020 488 SUFFOLK COUNTY. Kind of Industries. No. Est. Lock and gun smithing 20 Looking-glass and picture frames 45 Lumber, planed 10 Machinery : 114 Marble and stone work 43 Masonry, brick and stone work 85 Mattresses and spring beds 19 Meat packing 21 Millinery and lace goods 4 Mineral and soda water 8 Models and patterns 22 Musical instrum'ts and materials(not specified) 6 Musical instruments, organs and materials-— 8 Musical instruments, pianos and materials 23 Oils, illuminating __ 3 Painting and paper hanging 229 Paints _ 6 Patent medicines and compounds 21 Perfumery and cosmetics 7 Photographing 41 Pickles, preserves and sauces 4 Plastering 16 Plumbing and gas fitting ^u7 Pocket books 3 Printing and publishing 145 Printing materials __ 4 Refrigerators 5 Roofing and roofing materials 41 Rubber and elastic goods 10 Saddlery and harness 69 Sash, doors and blinds 12 Scales and balances 3 Sewing machines and materials 3 Skirts 7 Show cases 5 Silk and silk goods r 9 Silvers mithing _ 5 Soap and candles „ n Soda water apparatus 3 Spectacles and eye-glasses _ 7 Sporting goods 4 Springs, steel, car and carriage 5 Stationery goods _ _._ 10 Steam fitting and heating apparatus g Stencil and brands 12 Stereotyping and electrotyping 5 Stone and earthen ware 5 Straw goods 3 Sugar and molasses, refined _ 4 Surgical appliances 5 Taxidermy _ 3 Tin, copper and sheet iron ware 94 Tobacco, cigars __ 88 Trunks and valises 20 Type founding _ ___ 3 Umbrellas and canes ,___ 3 Average No. Valve of hands emp. Capital. Product. 51 29,000 66,560 288 123,700 533,097 178 282,500 360,810 3.195 4.235,833 5,340,266 1,033 696,600 1,442,861 1,096 270,925 1,299,551 3M 181,597 677,792 211 918,000 7,096,777 144 38,500 317,000 91 74,600 239 644 87 24,850 88,455 40 28,200 36,000 520 445,366 904.732 1,121 1,673,000 2,166,966 11 90,000 345,000 1,096 248,828 1,199,781 73 241,500 390,900 I25 179,650 771,631 40 21,500 126,006 186 103,900 23!,935 21 12,500 78,000 82 13,800 92,680 589 232,550 973,588 7 2,400 7,000 2,876 2,496,535 5,469,5l8 15 15,300 28,050 64 52,350 87,700 238 173,625 465,567 923 1,095,000 2,095,460 433 723,300 570,014 93 73,800 I95,045 44 49,000 51,613 41 243,000 102,700 196 69,300 32g.8oo 18 10,800 2g,g8o 380 132,800 443,425 13 4,250 16,235 73 161,400 208,633 200 95,000 487,306 21 8,200 25,730 71 58,000 133,800 '3 4.450 18,509 87 48,800 207,050 203 269,500 398,780 35 28,500 53,200 ,8 38,000 "5,630 82 163 58,000 97,900 41,000 220,295 395 1,629,500 16,518,760 51 3°, 500 106,000 9 1,800 , 14,000 559 322,280 1,055,472 443 135,556 524,283 104,500 400,700 136 72,200 162,000 22 17,600 50,640 INDUSTRIAL HISTORY. 489 Average No. Value of Kind of Industries. No. Est. hands emp. Capital. Product. Upholstering „ 41 227 122,757 390,840 Varnish 3 16 65,000 235,000 Watch and clock repairing 6 12 6,700 12,000 Watch cases 5 122 65,000 427,371 Whalebone 4 54 24,500 69,417 Wheelwrighting . 56 218 90,225 232,965 Window blinds and shades .12 57 19,250 76,345 Wire work 15 134 69,400 214,567 Wooden ware 3 21 6,000 35,500 Wood, turned and carved ' 44 450 327,960 79I,355 "Miscellaneous industries 117 3,585 4,230,030 8,094,542 Totals 2,521 36,813 42,750,134 123,366,137 The State census of 1885 gives the number of manufacturing estab lishments in Suffolk county as 5,472, in which was invested a capital of $32,315,974, and the value of the manufactured product as $149,281,- 727. Boots, shoes and slippers made represented a value of $2,774,146; building, building material and stonework, $14,160,065; clothing and straw goods, $24,275,235; findings and trimmings, $265,175; food prep arations, $39,959,785; iron goods, $7,209,539; other metallic goods, $7,789,726; leather, $1,680,733; paints, colors, oil and chemicals, $1,- 890,970; paper and paper goods, $1,328,181; printing and publishing, $11,244,422; textiles, $4,000,065 ; wood and metal goods, $6,413,435. Employment was furnished to 45,579 persons, of whom all but 4,913 were males. At the present time Suffolk county presents a more diversified variety of manufactured products than any other county in the Commonwealth, and gives employment to more persons. In 1870 the manufactures of Suffolk county exceeded any other county by more than $40,000,000. * The 117 establishments classed as miscellaneous industries are grouped in order that the busi ness of individual establishments may not be disclosed to the public. In this group are embraced agricultural implements ; artificial limbs ; bags, other than paper ; bags, paper ; basket, rattan, and willow ware ; belting and hose, linen ; boot and shoe uppers ; boxes, cigar ; brick and tile ; build ing materials ; buttons ; carpets, rag ; carpets, wood ; carriages and sleds, children's ; cars, rail road, street, and repairs ; cement ; cheese and butter ; chocolate ; cleaning and polishing prepara tions ; clocks ; cloth finishing ; collars and cuffs, paper ; cordials and syrups ; cotton ties .; drain and sewer pipe ; dye woods, stuffs^and extracts : engraving materials ; explosives and fireworks ; fire arms ; food preparations ; foundry supplies ; gas and lamp fixtures ; gas machines and meters ; glass ; glue ; graphite ; grindstones ; hat and cap materials : hones and whetstones ; ink ; iron, doors and shutters ; iron, nails and spikes, cut and wrought ; iron work, architectural and orna mental ; jewelry and instrument cases ; lamps and reflectors ; lard, refined ; lead, pipe, sheet and shot ; leather goods ; lime ; lumber, sawed ; malt ; matches ; metal refining ; millstones ; mirrors ; needles and pins ; oilcloth, floor ; oleomargerine ; pens, gold ; photographic apparatus ; plated and britannia ware; regalias and society banners and emblems ; rules, ivory and wood ; safes, doors and vaults, fire-proof ; saws; shoddy; silverware; starch ; telegraph and telephone apparatus; terra cotta ware ; tobacco, chewing, smoking and snuff ; toys and games ; tools ; veneering ; vinegar ; washing machines and clothes wringers ; watches ; and woolen goods. 62 490 SUFFOLK COUNTY. In 1875 there were employed 46,977 persons in manufacturing in Bos ton, and in 1880 the number was 59,213. In 1890, 90,198 persons were employed. The earnings of the help employed in Boston have been conspicuously greater than in any other sections of the State. In 1880 the average in Boston was $420.93, and in 1890 $605.62. In 1870 the manufactured products of Boston amounted to $106,000,000, in 1880 $130,531,993, and in 1890 $208,104,683. The final statistics of manufactures for Boston for the year 1890 have not yet been issued. From preliminary reports from the census de partments the following facts are obtained, which, however, may be subject to modification in final reports. Number of industries reported 252 Number of establishments __ 7,915 Hands employed ... 90, 198 Wages paid... _ $54,636,695 Cost of materials used 1104,631,879 Value of product _ __ $208,104,683 Detailed statement by important industries : No, estab- Capital Value of Wages No. hands ments. employed. product. paid. employed. Clothing 191 $15,792,768 $19,672,404 $3,311,837 6,528 Coffee and spices, roasting and grinding 15 1,724,425 3.345.49s 161,355 228 Confectionery 85 2,746,029 3,555,831 621,885 i,5I9 Cordage and twine 7 3,488,419 5,290,335 610,498 1,755 Foundry and machine shop pro ducts 179 9,060,211 8,536,272 3,315,242 4,723 Furniture 96 3,602,009 4,193,301 1,405,258 2,249 Musical instruments 29 3,581,714 3,947,948 1,479,337 i,97° Printing and publishing 387 12,663,647 13,053,118 4,130,175 5,801 Rubber and elastic goods;. .15 1,473,085 1,784,781 331,957 980 Steam heating and heating ap paratus 15 1,139,709 1,955,765 612,522 950 BOSTON'S RELATION TO THE TEXTILE INDUSTRY. From the very beginning of the present factory system, as under stood in its application to the textile industry, Boston men have been inseparably connected with every stage of its evolution, and from their capital, energy and brains its greatest benefits have been derived. Indeed, to eliminate the part Boston has thus played in the develop ment of this industry, would be to leave out a vital element in its suc cessful progress for fully three-quarters of a century. It has been the seat from which has radiated an influence far reaching in its effects upon the manufacturing interest of New England, and no record of the industrial progress of the city would be complete without giving prominence to this well recognized fact. Outside of its various twine and cordage manufactures, this city has, it is true, no mills of great importance within its borders, but as a distributing center and in the furnishing of capital it leads every city in New England. The location which the settlers of Boston chose for the site of a city was almost entirely devoid of water power. To be sure, ¦ that portion of the Charles River flats which was separated from the rest by the mill dam furnished power for three tide mills, but this power was in adequate for any great manufactures. So as the city grew, and the demands of the people for clothing materials outgrew the facilities of supply by means of the hand looms and spinning wheels, in the use of which every housewife was proficient, some other source of supply be came imperative. In another portion of this work is recounted the story of how the ladies of Boston used to hold spinning bees on the Common, ' ' vieing with one another in their dexterity in the use of the spinning wheel. " But this soon became a thing of the past. It was in 1803 that the manufacturers of the city first took the step from which has grown the present system of textile manufacturing in 492 SUFFOLK COUNTY. the large towns and cities1 in the interior of the State. The nearest bountiful supply of water power to Boston was at Watertown, where the Charles makes its last rapid run to the level of the sea. It was at this point that, in the year mentioned, the first weaving mill was built. It was by Boston money and by Boston ability entirely that this was done, so that this enterprise must fairly be classed as a Boston under taking. As the city grew and the population of the State increased, more tex tile mills became a necessity, and in later years Boston capital and Boston men were to be found pushing out into the rest of the then large territory in search of streams and falls under which they might set their wheels. From these small beginnings on the banks of Mas sachusetts rivers have grown large and thrifty towns and cities, the offsprings of Boston as truly as though they had been settled by men from Boston entirely. Here the mill population, which the suburbs of Boston could never have economically supported from the natural in crease in the cost of living in a large city, has made comfortable homes for itself. And almost all these are tributary to the parent city. Before recounting more specifically the important part performed by Boston men in successfully laying the foundation of the textile indus tries of Massachusetts, it may be proper to give a brief account of the rise of the cotton mills of New England. The beginning of the modern cotton factory may be said to date from the successful experiments of Samuel Slater at Pawtucket, R. I., in 1790. Previous to this date, however, cotton spinning, further than the hand card, and one thread wheel, was carried on at Beverly, Mass., where in 1787 the Beverly Company was formed, and built a small brick factory on Bass River. John Cabot and Joshua Fisher were the founders of the enterprise. General Washington, in his diary of his trip through New England in 1789, thus writes of his visit to this factory: In this manufactory they have the new invented spinning and carding machines. One of the first supplies the warp, and four of the latter, one of which spins eighty- four threads at a time by one person. The cotton is prepared for these machines by being first (lightly) drawn to a thread on the common wheel. There is also another machine for doubling and twisting the threads for particular cloths ; this also does many at a time. For winding the cotton from the spindles and preparing it for the warp there is a reel which expedites the work greatly. A number of looms (fifteen or sixteen) were at work with spring shuttles, which do more than double work. In short, the whole seemed perfect and the cotton stuffs which they turn out excellent of their kind ; warp and filling both cotton. BOSTON AND THE TEXTILE INDUSTRY. 493 The enterprise at Beverly, however, was not a financial success;. The expense attending the operation of the factory was far greater than was warranted by the small price obtained for the coarse fabric pro duced by the rude machinery. In 1787, and again in 1790, the man agers appealed to the Legislature for aid. A grant of £1,000 was made, but the Beverly Company failed to make a success of this enter prise. The imperfect machinery employed failed to turn out goods of the finish and beauty which the English factories could show, because of superior workmen and improved machinery. " Such," says George Rich in his history of the cotton industry in New England, published in the New England Magazine, 1890, "was the situation when Samuel Slater arrived in this country at the close of 1789. Slater was fresh from the center of the industry in England. Born in Derbyshire in 1798, he was early apprenticed to Jedediah Strutt, a Milford cotton manufacturer, and a partner of Sir Richard Arkwright, in the spinning business. The latter circumstance was. a most important one. It gave young Slater every opportunity to mas ter the details of the construction of the best cotton ' machinery then in use. During the last years of his apprenticeship he was a general overseer, not only in making machinery, but in the manufacturing de partment of Strutt's factory. But Slater was a pushing, energetic young fellow, and was not content with the position even of overseer. He chanced upon a copy of an American newspaper and there learned of the general interest that was being taken by this country in cotton manufacturing, and the generous bounties promised those who should build satisfactory machinery. This determined him to emigrate hither. But he knew he could carry with him neither models nor drawings. He was blessed with a mathematical mind and a retentive memory. These, fortified by his long experience, gave him an equipment that no custom officials could seize. He landed in New York in November, 1789, and after some delay in that city pushed on to Providence, R. I. There Almy & Brown were trying to operate the card jennies which they had brought from the old 'home spun cloth ' company. Slater looked them over and pronounced the whole lot utterly worthless. Moses Brown, the head of the firm, a worthy Friend, was rather astonished at the wholesale condemnation of his plant. He recovered, however, sufficiently to reply : ' But thee, hast said thee canst make the Ark wright machines; why not doit?' The result was that the young mechanic there contracted with Almy & Brown to produce a ' perpetual 494 SUFFOLK COUNTY card and spinning system ' for them. . . One can hardly appreciate the difficulties of the task. All the plans had to be made from memory. Skilled machinists and modern tools for working wood and iron were wanting. Secrecy, furthermore, was necessary, lest some rival should get hold of and anticipate the plans. Sylvanus Brown was hired to do the wood work, and David Wilkinson the metallic. These, with Slater and an old colored man, constituted the force. Behind closed doors and barred windows this quartette worked for nearly a year before any of the machinery was ready for trial. On December 20, however, three cards, drawing and roving, together with seventy-two spindles, were complete. These were then taken to an old fulling-mill and a test of them made." The experiment was in every way satisfactory and justifies the claim made for Slater as " the founder of American textile machinery." His machines were all constructed on the Arkwright ¦ principle, a fact of peculiar significance, which Edward Atkinson thus emphasizes: In the whole treatment of cotton, as it is now practiced in the finest factories of modern kind, there is but one original invention ; all else is but a change or modifi cation of prehistoric methods. That invention was one which Sir Richard Arkwright borrowed from a previous inventor and put in use about a century ago ; namely, the extension of the strand prior to the twisting of the spindles. This was accom plished by the use of several pairs of rollers, one placed in front of the other, and those in front working at a, higher speed than those behind. At this time nothing but spinning was done. The yarn was sent out among the farmers to be woven into cloth. " The spinning system," says Mr. Rich, "once established, its extension was rapid. At the close of the Revolution there sprang up all over the countrv societies for the promotion of various objects, such as agricultural, the arts and trades. It was the fashion for gentlemen of leisure to take an active part in some such movement. The result was that a knowledge of the new inventions and improvements was quickly and widely spread. American cotton was then of a very poor quality. The picker was a thing of the future, and the staple had to be sent into the country to be whipped and cleaned. The work was of necessity imperfectly done. Slater declined to use the home cotton when' he began his operations, insisting on that imported from the West Indies. Finally the war of 1812 shut off the stream of importation from Great Britain and forced the people of this country to depend upon themselves. Commerce was unnaturally checked. Thousands who had been employed in ship- ..: "g BOSTON AND THE TEXTILE INDUSTRY. 495 building or the fisheries had then to turn to the various manufacturing industries. Factories and mills sprang up throughout New England. The whirr of the spinning jenny became a common sound. The men who had received their training under Slater took this chance to branch out for themselves. " Factories were started at Fitchburg and Water- town in 1807, and at Amoskeag Falls, N. H., in 1810. In the same year the first Maine (then a province of Massachusetts) factory was started at Brunswick. By the close of 1810 factories were distributed throughout New Eng land. The census reports of 1810 show that Massachusetts had 54 mills, New Hampshire 12, Vermont 1, Rhode Island 28, and Connecti cut 14. In New York there were 26 factories, in New Jersey 4, in Delaware 3, in Maryland 11, Kentucky 15, Tennessee 4, Ohio 2, and Pennsylvania 64. Under the impetus given the manufacture by the war, the capital invested in it, in 1815, was . estimated at $40,000,000, and the operators numbered 34,000 men and 66,000 women. But the greatest revolution in the industry was yet to come. This was wrought by the introduction of the power loom. Francis C. Lowell, of Boston, was the principal agent in this change, and from this time can be dated the beginning of the important part performed by Boston men in the development of this great industry. In 1811 Mr. Lowell made a visit to England for the purpose of in specting its factories, and inspired by the patriotic idea of securing for his own country the inestimable advantage of being the manufacturer of its own fabrics. While abroad he conceived the idea that the cotton manufacture, then almost monopolized by Gretet Britain, might be ad vantageously prosecuted here. The use of machinery was daily super seding the former manual operations, and it was known that power looms had recently been introduced, though the mode of constructing them had been kept secret. The cheapness of labor and abundance of capital were advantages in favor of the English manufacturer. On the other hand they were burdened with the taxes of a prolonged war. We could obtain the raw material cheaper, and had a great superiority in the abundant water power, then practically unemployed in every part of New England. It was also the belief of Mr. Lowell that the charac ter of our population, educated, moral and enterprising as it was, could not fail to secure success, when brought into competition with their European rivals. It was while in Edinburgh that Mr. Lowell met Hon. Nathan Appleton, of Boston, who, even at that day, was a man of large 496 SUFFOLK COUNTY means. To Mr. Appleton he communicated his plans and purposes, and from the meeting of these two men may be dated the identification of Boston with the development of the cotton manufacture in America. Mr. Appleton in his "Introduction of the Power Loom " thus refers to this incident: "My identification with the cotton manufacture takes date from the year 1811, when I met my friend, Mr. Francis C. Lowell, at Edinburgh, where he had been passing some time with his family. We had frequent conversations on the subject of cotton manufacture, and he informed me that he had determined before his return to Amer ica, to visit Manchester for the purpose of obtaining all possible in formation on the subject, with a view to the introduction of the im proved manufacture in the United States. I urged him to do so, and promised him my co-operation." In 1813 Mr. Lowell returned to this country, bringing, without doubt, a better knowledge of the manufacturing operations of Great Britain than possessed by any other person in the United States. He at once en tered enthusiastically upon the work of doing in America what he had seen accomplished in the Old World in cotton manufacturing. So con fident was he in his calculations that he thought he could in no way so effectually assist the fortunes of his brother-in-law, Patrick T. Jackson, of Boston, whose mercantile business had been seriously affected by the war, than" by offering him a share in the enterprise. No more fortunate selection of associate could have been made. Mr. Jackson's was not a spirit to be appalled by obstacles. He entered at once into the project, and from that time until his death, many years later, no one did more than he in the development of the ideas first suggested by Mr. Lowell. Great were. the difficulties that beset the new undertaking. The state of war prevented any communication with England. Not even books and designs, much less models, could be procured. The structure of the machinery, the materials to be used in the construction, the very tools of the machine shop, the arrangement of the mill, the size of its various departments — all these were to be as it were, reinvented. The first object to be accomplished was to procure a power loom, not one having yet been used in America. To obtain one from England was impracticable; and although there were many patents for such ma chines in the United States patent office, not one had yet exhibited suf ficient merit to be adopted into use. Under these circumstances but one resource remained— to invent one themselves; and this these earn est men at once set about. Unacquainted as they were with machinery, BOSTON AND THE TEXTILE INDUSTRY. > 497 in practice, they dared nevertheless to attempt the solution of a prob lem that had baffled the most ingenious machinists. The experiments were begun in a store on Broad street, Boston. It was found necessary to procure the assistance of a practical mechanic, and they were fortunate to secure the services of Paul Moody, of whom Edward Everett has said : ' ' To the efforts of his self-taught mind, the early prosperity, of the great manufacturing establishments at Waltham and Lowell in no small degree is due." Mr. Lowell, with a frame already wasted by disease, was the inspiring spirit of his associates ; fertile in suggesting expedients, and sublimely confident of a successful result, he devoted all of his time and energies to the task, regardless of his strength or health. After months of experimenting their first loom was ready for trial, and with what satisfaction its successful operation was regarded, can be gained from Mr. Appleton's account of his first examination of the machine. Mr. Lowell had told his friend, Mr. Ap pleton, that he did not wish him to see the machine until it was com pleted, of which he would give him notice. "At length," says Mr. Appleton, "the time arrived. He invited me to go out with him and see the loom operate. I well recollect the state of admiration and satis faction with which we sat by the hour watching the beautiful move ment of this new and wonderful machine, destined as it evidently was to change the character of all textile industry. This was in the autumn of 1814." Previous to this, however, Mr. Lowell and Mr. Jackson had secured the incorporation of the Boston Manufacturing Company; had pur chased a water power in Waltham (Bemis's Paper Mill), and built a factory. The capital authorized by the charter was $400,000, but it was agreed to raise only $100,000 until the experiment should be fairly tried. Of this sum Mr. Lowell and Mr. Jackson and his brother sub scribed the greater part, and Nathan Appleton $5,000. It was not until after the building at Waltham was completed and other machin ery was running that the first loom was ready for trial. Mr. Lowell's loom was different in several particulars from the English loom, which was afterwards made public. The principal movement was by a cam, revolving with an eccentric motion, which later gave place to the crank motion. As might naturally be expected, many defects were found in this first model loom, but these were gradually remedied. The project heretofore had been exclusively for a weaving mill, to do by power what had before been done by hand looms. But it was 63 498 SUFFOLK COUNTY. ascertained that it would be more economical to spin the twist rather than to buy it, and so some 17,000 spindles were introduced in the mill, thus comprising within one establishment all the processes necessary to convert raw cotton into cloth. This made the Waltham mill with7 out doubt the first complete factory in the world. The former mills in this country — Slater's, for example, in Rhode Island — were spinning mills, only; and in England, though the power loom had been intro duced, it was used in separate establishments by persons who bought, as the hand weavers had always done, their twist of the spinners. Spinning on throstle spindles and the spinning of filling directly on the cops without the process of winding was also introduced. Of this latter improvement a pleasant anecdote is told. It is given in Nathan Apple- ton's language : ' ' Mr. Shepard, of Taunton, had a patent for a wind ing machine which was considered the best extant. Mr. Lowell was chaffing with him about purchasing the right of using them on a large scale at some discount from the price asked. Mr. Shepard refused, saying, ' You must have them ; you cannot do without them, as you know, Mr. Moody.' Mr. Moody replied: 'I am just thinking I can spin the cops direct from the bobbin. ' ' You be hanged ! ' said Mr. Shepard; 'well, I accept your offer.' 'No,' said Mr. Lowell, 'it is too late.' A new born thought had sprung forth from Mr. Moody's inventive mind, and he had no more use for Mr. Shepard's winding machine. " Great difficulty was at first experienced at Waltham for the want of a proper preparation (sizing) of the warp. The Waltham proprietors procured from England a drawing of Horrock's dressing machine, which, with some essential improvements, they adopted. No method was, however, indicated in this drawing for winding the threads from the bobbin on to the beam ; and to supply this deficiency, Mr. Moody invented an ingenious machine called the warper. Having obtained these, there was no further difficulty in weaving by power looms. A deficiency, however, remained in the preparation for spinning. A de scription was obtained from England of what was then called a bobbin and fly, or jack-frame, for spinning roving. From this Mr. Moody and Lowell produced a machine called a double speeder. The motion of the machine was very complicated, and required nice mathematical calculations. Without them, Mr. Moody's ingenuity, great as it was, would have been at fault. These were supplied by Mr. Lowell. Many years after the death of Mr. Lowell, when the patent for the speeder BOSTON AND THE TEXTILE INDUSTRY. 499 had been infringed, Dr. Nathaniel Bowditch was requested to examine them that he might appear as a witness at the trial. He afterward ex pressed his admiration of the mathematical power they e.vinced, adding that there were some corrections introduced that he had not supposed any man in America familiar with but himself. It will be seen how much there was at this early period to be done by the projectors of the Waltham mill, and how well it was accom plished. The machines first introduced there are practically those still in use in New England, brought, of course, to greater perfection in detail, and attaining a much higher rate of speed. Mr. Lowell died in 1817, at the early age of forty-two, satisfied that he had succeeded in his object, and that the extension of the cotton manufacture would form a permanent basis of the .prosperity of New England. He had been mainly instrumental in procuring from Con gress, in 1816, the establishment of the minimum duty on cotton cloth, an idea which originated with him, and one of great value, not only as offering a certain and easily collected revenue, but as preventing the exaction of a higher and higher duty, just as the advance in the cost abroad rendered it more difficult for the consumer to procure his neces sary supplies. Although the first suggestions and many of the early plans for the new business had been furnished by Mr. Lowell, Mr. Jackson devoted the most time and labor in conducting it. He spent much of his time in the early years at Waltham, separated from his family. It gradu ally engrossed his whole thoughts, and abandoning his mercantile business, in 1815, he gave himself up to that of the company. At the erection of each successive mill, many prudent men, even among the proprietors, had feared that the business would be overdone — that no demand would be found .for such increased quantities of the same fabric. Mr. Jackson, with the spirit and sagacity that so emi nently distinguished him, took a different view of the matter. He not only maintained that cotton cloth was so much cheaper than any other material that it must gradually establish itself in universal consumption at home, but entertained the bolder idea that the time would come when the improvements in machinery, and the increase of skill and capital, would enable us successfully to compete with Great Britain in the supply of foreign markets. Whether he ever anticipated the rapid ity and extent of the developments which he lived to witness, may, perhaps, be doubted. It is certain, however, that his expectations 500 SUFFOLK COUNTY. were, at that time, thought visionary by many of the most sagacious of his friends. The perfect working of the power-loom at Waltham set at rest all doubtful conjectures, and became an agency by which was ultimately averted in large measure the injurious effect of the fierce competition American manufacturers were subjected to by the peace of 1815. Dur ing the war of 1812, when British manufacturers were excluded from our market, the manufacture of cotton had greatly increased, especially in Rhode Island, but in a very imperfect manner. The manufactur ers of this State were clamorous for a high tariff after the peace of 1815 was declared, claiming that British importation would ruin their in dustries. Mr. Lowell, however, realizing what could be done by the power-loom, had more moderate views on the tariff, and in 1816, when a new tariff was to be made, went to Washington, and through his efforts induced Mr. Lowndes and Mr. Calhoun to support the minimum tariff of Q% cents on the square yard, which was carried. For a time the cotton manufacturers were disposed to look upon this low tariff as ruinous to their business, and many suspended operations. By degrees, however, they woke up to the fact that the power-loom was an instru ment that changed the whole character of the manufacture, and that by its adoption the tariff was sufficiently protective. Little did they think, however, that the same goods of cotton cloth which was then sold for thirty cents a yard could be sold in 1843 at a profit for six cents ; but such was the revolution in this industry caused by the power-loom. The success of the Boston Manufacturing Company at Waltham made its proprietors anxious to extend their interest in the same direction. Nathan Appleton, in his Introduction of the Power-Loom and the Origin of Lowell, published in 1858, thus gives an account of the rise of the great industrial enterprises of Lowell, in which Boston men and capital so largely figure : I was of opinion that the time had arrived when the manufacture and printing of calicoes might be successfully introduced in this country. In this opinion, Mr. Jack son coincided ; and we set about discovering a water-power. At the suggestion of Mr. Charles H. Atherton, of Amherst, New Hampshire, we met him at a fall of the Souhegan River, about six miles from its entrance into the Merrimack ; but the power was insufficient for our purpose. This was in the summer of 1821. In returning, we passed the Nashua River, without being aware of the existence of the fall which has since been made the source of so much power by the Nashua Company. We saw a small grist-mill standing in the meadow near the road, with a dam of some six or seven feet. Soon after our return, I was at Waltham one day; when I was informed BOSTON AND THE TEXTILE INDUSTRY. 501 that Mr. Moody had lately been at Salisbury, where Mr. Worthen, his old partner, said to him: " I hear Messrs. Jackson and Appleton are looking out for water-power: why don't they buy up the Pawtucket Canal? That would give them the whole power of the Merrimack, with a fall of thirty feet." On the strength of this, Mr. Moody had returned that way, and was satisfied with the extent of the power, and that Mr. Jackson was making inquiries ou the subject. Mr. Jackson soon after called on me, and informed me that he had had a correspondence with Mr. Clark, of Newburyport, the agent of the Pawtucket Company, and had ascertained that the stock of that company, and the lands necessary for using the water-power, could be purchased ; and asked me what I thought of taking hold of it. He stated that his engagements at Waltham would not permit him to take the management of a new concern ; but he mentioned Mr. Kirk Boott as having expressed a wish to take the management of an active manufacturing establishment, and that he had confidence in his possessing the proper talent for it. After a discussion it was agreed that he should consult Mr. Boott ; and that, if he should join us, we would go on with it. He went at once to see Mr. Boott, and soon returned to inform me that Mr. Boott entered heartily into the project; and we set about making the purchases without delay. Until these were male it was necessary to confine all knowledge of the project to our own three bosoms. Mr. Clark was employed to purchase the necessary lands, and such shares in the canal as were within his reach ; whilst Mr. Henry Andrews was employed in purchasing up the shares owned in Boston. I recollect the first interview with Mr. Clark, at which he exhibited a rough sketch of the canal and adjoining lands, with prices which he had ascertained they could be purchased for ; and he was directed to go on and complete the purchases, taking the deeds in his own name, in order to prevent the project taking wind prematurely. The purchases were made accordingly for our equal joint account ; each of us furnishing funds as required to Mr. Boott, who kept the accounts. Formal articles of association were then drawn up. They bear date December 1. 1821; and are recorded in the records of the Merrimack Man ufacturing Company, of which they form the germ. The six hundred shares were thus described: Kirk Boott and J. W. Boott •_ 180 N. Appleton 180 P. T. Jackson _ — _ _ _ 180 Paul Moody 60 600 The Act of Incorporation of the Merrimack Manufacturing Company bears date 5th of February, 1822 ; reorganizing the original association as the basis of the com pany. Our first visit to the spot was in the month of November, 1821, when a slight snow covered the ground. The party consisted of P. T. Jackson, Kirk Boott, War ren Dutton, Paul Moody, John W. Boott, and myself. We perambulated the grounds, and scanned the capabilities of the place ; and the remark was made, that some of us might live to see the place contain twenty thousand inhabitants. On our first organization, we allowed Mr. Moody to be interested to the extent of ten per cent. , or sixty out of six hundred shares. We soon after made an arrange ment with the Waltham Company making a mutual interest between the two com panies. The canal was a work of great labor. The first water-wheel of the Mer- 502 SUFFOLK COUNTY. rimack Manufacturing Company was set in motion on the 1st of September, 1823. The business of printing calicoes was wholly new in this country. It is true that, after it was known that this concern was going into operation for that purpose, two other companies wTere got up, — one at Dover, New Hampshire; the other at Taun ton, — in both of which goods were probably printed before they were by the Merri mack Company. The bringing the business of printing to any degree of perfection was a matter of difficulty and time. Mr. Allen Pollock thought himself competent to manage it, and was employed for some time. Through the good offices of Mr. Timothy Wiggin, Mr. Prince, of Manchester, was induced to come out, with his family ; and has re mained at the head of the establishment up to the present period (1855). The engraving of cylinders was a most important part of the process ; and Mr. Boott made one voyage to England solely for the purpose of engaging engravers. It was then kept a very close mystery. Mr. Dana was employed as chemist. Through the superior skill and talent of Messrs. Boott, Prince, and Dana, the company was brought to the highest degree of success. In the mean time, Mr. Moody was trans ferred from Waltham to this place, having charge of the manufacture of machinery. Mr. Worthen had been employed at an early day. He was a man of superior me chanical genius, and his death was deeply regretted. The capital of the Merrimack Company was gradually increased, a division of the property betwixt that company and the Proprietors of the Locks and Canals was made, new companies were estab lished, until the new creation became a city, by the name of Lowell. I may, perhaps, claim having given it the name. Several names had been suggested, but nothing fixed on. On meeting Mr. Boott one day. he said to me that the committee were ready to report the bill (in the Legislature). It only remained to fill the blank with the name. He said he considered it narrowed down to two, — Lowell or Derby. I said to him: "Then Lowell, by all means ;" and Lowell it was. There was a particular propriety in giving it that name, not only from Mr. Francis C. Lowell, who established the system which gave birth to the place, but also from the interest taken by the family. His son of the same name was for some time treasurer of the Merrimack Company. Mr. John A. Lowell, his nephew, succeeded Mr. Jackson as treasurer of the Waltham Company, and was for many years treas urer of the Boott and Massachusetts mills ; was largely interested and a director in several other companies. There is no man whose beneficial influence in establishing salutary regulations in relation to this manufacture was exceeded by that of Mr. John A. Lowell. The name Derby was suggested by Mr. Boott, probably from his family- associations with that place, it being also in the immediate vicinity of one of the earliest seats of the cotton manufacturers. Such was the beginning of Lowell, a city which these enterprising Boston capitalists lived to see completed. If all honor is to be paid to the enterprise and sagacity of men who in later days, with the advan tage of great capital and longer experience, bid a new city spring up from the forest on the border of the same stream, accomplishing almost in a day what in the course of nature is the slow growth of centuries, what shall we say of the forecast and energy of the founders of Lowell BOSTON AND THE TEXTILE INDUSTRY 503 who could contemplate and' execute the same gigantic task at that early period ? A very cursory glance at the history of these men will suffice to show that they were eminently qualified for the task they had under taken of founding a new town. Francis Cabot Lowell is said to have been a descendant- of one of two brothers, Richard and Percival Lowell, who came to Newbury, Mass., from Bristol, England, in 1639. His grandfather was Rev. John Lowell, who in the first half of the preceding century was for forty-two years pastor of the First Church in Newburyport. His father was John Lowell, LL.D., judge of the United States Court of Massa chusetts. He was born in Newburyport, April 7, 1775, and graduated from Harvard College in 1793. He became a merchant, but was driven from his business by the embargo, the non-intercourse and the war. He went to Europe for his health in 1810, and his sojourn there of three years was pregnant with results of the highest importance to the manufacturing interests of our country. He died August 10, 1817, at the age of forty-two years. It was his son, John Lowell, who gave $240,000 to found the Lowell Institute at Boston. Nathan Appleton, in his "Origin of Lowell," bears the following testimony to the part performed by Mr. Lowell in the introduction of the power loom in America : Mr. Lowell adopted an entirely new arrangement in order to save labor, in passing from one process to another, and he is unquestionably entitled to the credit of being the first person who arranged all the processes for the conversion of cotton into cloth within the walls of the same building. It is remarkable how few changes have been made from the arrangements established by him in the first mill built at Waltham. It is also remarkable how accurate were his calculations as to the expense at which goods could be made. He used to say that the only circumstance which made him distrust his own calculation was that he could bring them to no other result but one which was too favorable to be credible. His calculations, however, did not lead him so far as to imagine that the same goods which were then selling at thirty cents a yard would ever be sold at six cents, and without a loss to the. manufacturer, as has since been done in 1843, when cotton was about five or six cents per pound. His care was especially devoted to the arrangements for the moral character of the operatives employed. He died in 1817, at the .early age of 42, beloved and respected by all who knew him. He is entitled to the credit of having introduced the new system in the cotton manufacture, under which it has grown up so rapidly. For, although Messrs. Jackson and Moody were men of unsurpassed talent and energy in their way, it was Mr. Lowell who was the informing soul which gave direction and form to the whole proceeding. 504 SUFFOLK COUNTY. Nathan Appleton was born in New Ipswich, N. H., October 6, 1779, and was a son of Isaac Appleton. He entered Dartmouth College in 1794, but soon after left to engage in business in Boston with his brother Samuel. When he became of age he was admitted into partnership, and the firm was known as S. & N. Appleton. This was at a time when the commerce of the United States, under the genial influence of the Federal Constitution, began to revive from the paral ysis caused by the old confederation. Several years of great prosperity followed, during which Mr. Appleton laid the foundation of his fortune. The restrictive system which commenced in 1807 crippled the trade of the country and gradually forced the thoughts of enterprising men toward manufactures. How Mr. Appleton was led to embark into cotton manufacture, and the great success which attended the venture has been told. He was elected to the State Legislature in 1815, and was re-elected one of the Boston representatives in 1816, 1821, 1823, 1824 and 1827. In 1830 he was elected a member of the House of Representatives of the United States, after one of the most exciting and closely contested political struggles which Boston has ever wit nessed. Declining a re-election in 1832, he was induced to resume the Boston seat in Congress for a few months in 1842. During his con gressional career he took an active part in shaping the tariff legislation, delivering three speeches on the subject. His attention was also largely devoted to the banking system of Massachusetts, and to the currency of the United States, publishing several essays on currency and bank ing which attracted wide attention. "There was, I suppose," said Edward Everett, in a speech at a meeting of the merchants of Boston, held shortly after the death of Mr. Appleton, "no person iii the com munity who understood the subjects of banking and currency better than Mr. Appleton ; few as well. Mr. Webster once, in a conversation with me, after mentioning other distinguished financiers, added, ' But Mr. Appleton, on these subjects, is our most astute and profound thinker. ' Sooner than most men he discovered the false system and dangerous principles on which the Bank of the United States was pro ceeding, and foretold the crash which afterwards took place." During the last years of his life, Mr. Appleton had been withdrawn from active participation in business, beyond what was necessary for the care of his large property, of which he made a liberal use as a patron of every meritorious charity and public spirited enterprise. His death occurred July 14, 1861. BOSTON AND THE TEXTILE INDUSTRY. 505 In the Memoir of Nathan Appleton, prepared by Robert C. Winthrop, his character is thus admirably portrayed : Neither the employment of his time, his faculties, nor his fortune had been that of a mere maker or hoarder or lover of money; and no such character could ever have been attached to him by the community in which he lived. The very investment of so large a part of his property in domestic manufactures had many of the best ele ments of charity ; and the satisfaction which he derived from the success by which he was himself enriched, was not a little enhanced by the consideration that he had been the means of affording employment to so great a number of operatives of both sexes, who might otherwise have failed to obtain work and wages. But his mind was one of the last which could have contented itself with merely poring over his own day-book and ledger, much as he may have prized the virtues of the trial bal ance. He was a person of large reading, diligent study, careful reflection, varied acquisition, whose published writings would alone be sufficient to show how little of his time and thought could have been taken up with any private pecuniary ends of his own. Harvard University recognized his claim to the distinction of literature by the honorary degree of Master of Arts in 1844, and of Doctor of Laws in 1855. The American Academy of Arts and Sciences, the American Antiquarian Society, and other kindred associations enrolled him among their domestic members; and the Archasological Institute of Suffolk county, in Old England, placed his name on its foreign honorary list. He had, indeed, accumulated a great estate, but it had brought with it no canker of pride or avarice. He was a liberal, public spirited gentleman , whose charity began at home, but did not end there ; who made handsome provision for a hospitable household and a numerous family, without limiting his benevolence within the range of domestic obligations or personal ties. He was not ostentatious of his bounty, either in life or death; nor did he seek celebrity for his name by any single and signal endowment ; but he never looked with indifference on the humane and philanthropic enterprises of the day, nor declined to unite in sustaining those institutions of education and science which are the glory of his time. . . His own name will be cherished among those which have most adorned our rolls [Massa chusetts Historical Society], and will henceforth have a conspicuous place in that list of illustrious merchants whose enterprise, integrity and public spirit have made up so large a part of the best history of Boston. The name of Patrick Tracy Jackson is associated in the minds of all acquainted with the history of Boston with public enterprise, purity of purpose, vigor of resolution and kindliness of feeling. He was born at Newburyport on the 14th of August, 1780, and was the youngest son of Jonathan Jackson, a member of the Continental Congress in 1782, marshal of the District of Massachusetts under Washington, first inspector and afterwards supervisor of the internal revenue, treasurer of the Commonwealth for five years, and at the time of his death treas urer of Harvard College ; a man distinguished among the old fashioned gentlemen of that day for the dignity and grace of his deportment, but 64 50(i SUFFOLK COUNTY. much more so for his intelligence, and the fearless, almost Roman in flexibility of his principles. His maternal grandfather, from whom he derived his name, was Patrick Tracy, an opulent merchant of Newbury port — an Irishman by birth, who, coming to this country at an early age; poor and friendless, had raised himself, by his own exertions, to a position which his character enabled him adequately to sustain. Young Jackson received his education at the public schools of his native town, and afterwards at Dunmore Academy. When about fif teen years old he was apprenticed to William Bartlett, then the most enterprising and richest merchant of Newburyport, and well known for his munificent endowment of the institution at Andover. He soon se cured the esteem and confidence of Mr. Bartlett, who entrusted to him, when under twenty years of age, a cargo of merchandise for St. Thomas, with authority to take the command of the vessel from the captain, if he should see occasion. It was during the opening years of the present century when Mr. Jackson commenced his career in the business world on his own ac count. He had previously made many voyages in merchant ships, and had acquired a thorough knowledge of navigation and of seamanship. He had taken charge of a ship and cargo on four successive voyages to India, when, in 1808, having established his reputation and acquired some capital, he relinquished the sea and entered into commercial pur suits in Boston. His acquaintance with the India trade eminently fitted him for that branch of business, and he had the support and invaluable counsels of his brother-in-law, Francis C. Lowell. He entered largely into this business both as an importer and speculator. The same re markable union of boldness and sound judgment, which characterized him in later days, contributed to his success, and his credit soon became unbounded. In 1811, at a moment when his engagements were very large, and when the state of the country was such, in its foreign rela tions, as to call for the greatest circumspection, a sudden check was given to his credit, by the failure of a house in the same branch of busi ness with which he was known to be extensively connected. His credit ors became alarmed, but Mr. Jackson acted under this emergency with his usual promptness and resolution. Calling upon some of his princi pal creditors, he made a lucid statement of his affairs, and so completely did he show himself to be master of his business, that he was allowed to go on unmolested, and the event justified the confidence reposed in him. In the end he gained reputation and public confidence by the ^ BOSTON AND THE TEXTILE INDUSTRY. 507 circumstances that had threatened to destroy him. Within a year all the embarrassments that had menaced him had passed away, and he continued largely engaged in the India and Havana trade till the break ing out of the war of 1812. At this period circumstances led him into cotton manufacture with results already stated. After succeeding in establishing the cotton manufacture on a perma nent basis, and possessed of a fortune quite adequate to his wants, Mr. Jackson determined to retire from the ^bor and responsibility of busi ness. With this end in view, he resigned the agency of the factory at Waltham, still remaining a director both in that company and the new one at Lowell, and personally consulted on every occasion of doubt or difficulty. This life of comparative leisure was not of long duration. His spirit was too active to allow him to be happy in retirement, and he soon plunged once more into the cares and perplexities of business. Mr. Moody had recently introduced some important improvements in machinery, and was satisfied that great saving might be made, and a higher rate of speed advantageously adopted. Mr. Jackson proposed to establish' a company at Lowell, to be called the Appleton Com pany, and adopt the new machinery. The stock was soon subscribed, and Mr. Jackson appointed the treasurer and agent. Two large mills were built and conducted by him for several years, till success had fully justified his anticipations. Meanwhile his presence at Lowell was of great advantage to the new city. All men there, as among the stock holders of Boston, looked up to him as the founder and guardian genius of the place;- and were ready to receive from him advice or rebuke, and to refer to him all questions of doubt or controversy. As new com panies were formed, and claims became conflicting, the advantages be came more apparent of having a man of such sound judgment, im partial integrity, and nice discrimination to appeal to, and who occupied a historical position to which no one else could pretend. In 1830 the interests of Lowell induced Mr. Jackson to enter a busi ness, new to himself and others. This was the building of the Boston and Lowell Railroad. For .some years the practicability of constructing roads, in which the friction should be materially lessened by laying down iron bars or trams, had engaged the attention of practical en gineers in England. At first it was contemplated that the service of such -roads should be performed by horses ; and it was not until the brilliant experiments of Mr. Stephenson, on the Liverpool and Man chester Railroad, that the possibility of using locomotive engines was 508 SUFFOLK COUNTY fully established. The necessity of a better communication between Boston and Lowell had been the subject of frequent conversations between Mr. Boott and Mr. Jackson. Estimates had been made and a line surveyed for a macadamized road. The travel between the two places was rapidly increasing, and the transportation of merchan dise, slowly performed in summer by the Middlesex Canal, was done at great cost, and over bad roads in winter by wagons. At this moment the success of Mr. Stephenson's experiments decided ' Mr. Jackson.' He saw at once the prodigious revolution that the intro duction of steam would make in the business of internal communica tion. Men were, as yet, incredulous. The cost and danger attending the use of the new machines were exaggerated, and even if feasible in England, with a city of one hundred and fifty thousand souls at each of the termini, such a project, it was argued, was Quixotical here, with our more limited means and sparser population. Mr. Jackson took a different view of the matter, and, when after much delay and difficulty, the stock of the road was subscribed for, he undertook to superintend its construction with the especial object that it might be in every way adopted to the use of steam power, and to that increase of travel and transportation which others like him had the sagacity to anticipate. Full of confidence in his own energy he entered on the task, so new to every one in this country, with the same boldness that he had evinced twenty years before in the erection of the first weaving mill. He was not accustomed to waste time iu any of his undertakings. But there were, however, many points to be attended to, and many preliminary steps were to be taken. A charter was to be obtained, and, as yet, no charter for a railroad had been granted in New England. With respect to the road itself, nearly everything was to be learned. Mr. Jackson established a correspond ence with the most distinguished engineers of this country and of Europe; and it was not until he had deliberately and satisfactorily solved all the doubts that arose in his own mind, or were suggested by others, that he would allow any steps to be decided on. In this way, although more time was consumed than on other roads, a more satisfac tory result was obtained. The road was graded for a double track ; the grades reduced to a level of ten feet to the mile ; all curves, but those of very large radius, avoided; and every part constructed with a degree of strength nowhere else, at that time, considered necessary. A distingushed engineer, Mr. Charles Chevalier, spoke of the completed BOS TON A ND THE TEXTILE IND US TR Y. 509 work as truly "Cyclopean." Every measure adopted showed con clusively how clearly Mr. Jackson foresaw the extension and capabil ities' of the railroad. It required no small degree of moral firmness to conceive and carry out these plans. Few persons realized the difficulties of the undertak ing, or the magnitude of the results. The shareholders were restless under increased assessments and delayed income. It is not too much to say that no one but Mr. Jackson could, at that time, have commanded the confidence necessary to enable him to pursue his work so deliber-; ately and so thoroughly. ;The road was opened for travel in 1835, and experience soon justified the wisdom of his anticipation. Its completion and successful opera tion was a great relief to Mr. Jackson. For several years it had en grossed his time and, attention, and at times deprived him of sleep. He felt it to be a public trust, the responsibility of which was of a nature quite different from that which had attended his previous enterprises. .One difficulty that he had encountered in the prosecution of this work led him into a new undertaking, the completion of which occupied him a year or two longer. He felt the great advantage of making the terminus of the road in Boston, and not, as was done in other instances, on the other side of the river. The obstacles appeared at first sight insurmountable. No land was to be procured in that populated part of the city, except at very high prices ; and it was not then the public policy to allow the passage of trains through the streets. A mere site for a passenger depot could, indeed, be obtained; and this seemed to most persons all that was essential. Such narrow policy did not suit Mr. Jackson's ideas. It occurred to him that by an extensive purchase of flats, then unoccupied, a site could be obtained. The excavations made by the railroad at Winter Hill, and elsewhere, within a few miles of Boston, much exceeded the embankments, and would supply the gravel to fill up these flats. Such a speculation not being within the powers of the corporation, a new company was created for the purpose. The land was made, to the extent of about ten acres ; and what was not needed for depots, was sold at advantageous prices. It was found, a few years later, that even the large provision made by Mr. Jackson was inadequate to the daily increasing business of the railroad. Mr. Jackson was now fifty-seven years of age. Released once more from his engagements, in which he would be followed by the respect of the community, and the gratitude of many families that owed their wel- 510 SUFFOLK COUNTY. fare to his exertions. But a cloud had come over his private fortunes. While laboring for others he had allowed himself to be involved in some speculations, to which he had not leisure to devote his personal attention. The unfortunate issue of these deprived him of a large por tion of his property. Uniformly prosperous hitherto, the touchstone of adversity was want ing to elicit, perhaps even create, some of the most admirable traits in his character. He had long been affluent, and with his generous and hospitable nature, had adopted a style of living fully commensurate with his position. The cheerful dignity with which he met his reverses ; the promptness with which he accommodated his expenses to his altered circumstances ; and the almost youthful alacrity with which he once more put on the harness, were themes of daily comment to his friends, and afforded to the. world an example of the truest philosophy. He had always been highly respected ; the respect was now blended with love and admiration. The death of his friend, Mr. Boott, in the spring of 1837, had proved a severe blow to the prosperity of Lowell. At the head of the Locks and Canals Company, which controlled the land and water power, and manufactured all the machinery used in the mills, the position he had occupied led him into daily intercourse with the managers of the sev eral companies. The supervision he had exercised, and the influence of his example, had been felt in all the ramifications of the complicated business of the place. The Locks and Canals Company being under his immediate charge, was, of course, the first to suffer. This property rapidly declined both intrinsically and in public estimation. The shares, which for many years had been worth $1,000 each, were sold for $700 and even less. -No one appeared so able to apply the remedy as Mr. Jackson. Familiar, from the first, with the history of the company, of which he had always been a director, and the confidential adviser of Mr. Boott, he alone, perhaps, was fully capable of supplying that gen tleman's place. He was solicited to accept the office, and tempted by the offer of a higher salary than had, perhaps, up to that time ever been offered in this country, he assumed the trust. During the seven years of his management the proprietors had every reason to congratulate themselves upon the wisdom of their choice. The property was brought into the best condition, extensive and lucrative contracts were made and executed ; the annual dividends were large ; and when at last it was BOSTON AND THE TEXTILE INDUSTRY. 511 thought expedient to close the affairs of the corporation, the stockhold ers received of capital nearly $1,600 a share. The brilliant issue of this business enhanced Mr. Jackson's reputa tion. He was constantly solicited to aid, by advice, by service and counsel, wherever doubt or intricacy existed. No public enterprises were brought forward till they had received the sanction of his opinion. During the last years of his life he was the treasurer and agent of the Great Falls Manufacturing Company at Somersworth, a corporation that had been doing an unprofitable business at a great expense of capital. He made radical changes in management, and practically re built and reconstructed the entire property. The results from his management were highly satisfactory, and the company became very prosperous. His fortune had, in the mean time, been restored to a point that relieved him from anxiety, and he was not ambitious of in creasing it. For some time after he assumed the duties of the agency at Somers worth, the labor and responsibility attending it were very severe, yet he seemed to his friends to have all the vigor and elasticity of middle age. It may be, however, that the exertion was beyond his physical strength ; certainly after a year or two he began to exhibit symptoms of gradual prostration, and when attacked by illness, in the summer of 1847j his constitution had no longer the power of resistance, and he sank rapidly until his death occurred in the following September, at his sea-side residence at B'everly. It had not been generally known in Boston that he was unwell. . The news of his death was received as a public calamity. The expressions that spontaneously burst forth from every mouth were a most touching testimonial to his virtues as much as to his ability. Paul Moody was born in Newbury, Mass., May 23, 1779. His father was a man of much influence in the town, and was known as Captain Paul Moody. He early showed himself to be the possessor of remark able talent in the direction of mechanical invention. By degrees his talents became so well known that his aid was sought in positions of high responsibility. In such positions he had been employed in the Wool and Cotton Manufacturing Company in Amesbury, previous to his connection with the Boston Manufacturing Company at Waltham. He gained a distinguished name as the inventor of machinery for the manufacture of cotton. He invented the winding-frame, a new dress ing machine, the substitution of soapstone rollers for iron rollers, the 512 SUFFOLK COUNTY. method of spinning yarn for filling directly on the bobbin for the shuttle, the filling frame, the double speeder, a new governor, the use of the dead spindle, and various other devices which gave speed and completeness to the work of manufacturing cotton. His inventive genius was the animating spirit of the cotton mill. He died in July, 1831, at the age of fifty-two years. Of this event, Dr. Edson, in the funeral sermon delivered at Lowell, July 10, 1831, says: " His death produced a greater sensation than any event that has transpired in this town. He died in full strength of body, in the very vigor of age and constitution." Kirk Boott was born in Boston, October 20, 1790. His father, Kirk Boott, came to Boston in 1783, and became a wholesale dry goods mer chant. He was the builder of the Revere House. The son received his early education in Boston. Subsequently he studied at the Rugby School in England, and entered the class of 1809 in Harvard College. Having a taste for military life, he left the college before completing his course, and went to England, where he qualified himself to enter the English army as a civil engineer. At the age of twenty-one years he received a commission in the English army, and was subsequently made lieutenant in the Eighty-fifth Light Infantry, and with this regi ment took part in the peninsular campaign under Wellington, landing in Spain in August, 1813. At the close of the wars of Napoleon, the Eighty-fifth Regiment was ordered to America to take part in the war of 1812, but Mr. Boott, being by birth an American, refused to bear arms against his native land. He then came home, but later on re turned to England and completed his engineering studies at the Mili tary Academy at Sandhurst, before finally resigning his commission. After his marriage to an English lady he returned to Boston and en gaged with his two brothers in mercantile pursuits. In 1822 he accepted the position of agent of the Merrimack Mills. In this position he found a field congenial to his great executive abilities. ' ' Up to this time," says one biographer of his life, " manufactures in America had been carried on in small, detached establishments, managed by the owners of the property ; but now the great experiment was to be tried of so managing the affairs of great stock companies, so as to yield to the owners a satisfactory profit. To do this demanded a man of original commanding intellect, of indomitable courage and iron will. Such a man was Mr. Boott. For such a position his natural ability and his military experience had admirably qualified him. He entered upon his BOSTON AND THE TEXTILE INDUSTRY. 513 task with resolute courage and conscientious devotion to duty. His pen and pencil were busy upon drawings and plans for new structures. He was arbiter in a thousand transactions." So intense was his ap plication to his tasks that his health became affected, and to his over exertion can be mainly attributed his death, April 11, 1837, in the forty-seventh year of his age, and after fifteen years of most valuable service, during the most critical period of the Merrimack Mills. It was at Lowell that many of the most important improvements in the manufacture of textile fabrics were inaugurated. There the print ing of calico was first profitably introduced. The bringing of the busi ness, however, to any degree of perfection proved a work of difficulty and time ; many of the auxiliary arts, such as that of engraving the printing cylinders, being then kept prof oundly secret in England, while all exportation of machinery from that country was prohibited. Even under the stimulus afforded by the protective duties, the manufacture was hardly successful before 1825. The highest success was finally attained, with gradually reduced prices to consumers for many succeed ing years, decreasing in price from 23.07 cents per yard in 1825 to 9.15 cents per yard in 1855. It was during the protective period, extending from 1824 to 1834, that the most material changes in the texture of American cotton fabrics were made — changes so marked as to have become of national importance. The Hamilton brown drillings, of a twilled texture, were first made in Lowell in 1827. Before, this fabric and that of jeans was first made here by power, no cotton cloth, except of a perfectly plain texture, were made by power in England, although similar fabrics had been made on hand looms. When the drillings were first introduced, the question was generally asked: "What can be done with them?" But this fabric being stronger, thicker, more serviceable, and at the same time cheaper, than anything that could be imported, supplied a universal want of consumers of cotton, and in a few years many of the mills began its manufacture, and to-day it is one of the staples of American manufacture. During the same year (1827) was commenced at the Hamilton Mills the manufacture of a twilled article, blue and white, since known as shirting stripe, which was found to be more serviceable and suitable for the hard service of sailors than the thinner and lighter article they had been accustomed to wear, known as the blue and white check, which was mostly imported from England. 65 514 SUFFOLK COUNTY. Soon this fabric came into general use among the sailors and there was great demand for export. The early founders of Lowell— all Boston men— not only of large means, but of great enterprise, energy and intelligence, soon put the business of the Merrimack Manufacturing Company on a firm and profitable basis. Capital was speedily attracted to this new and prom ising field. New corporations were organized, new factories were built. So rapid was the growth of the town that, in 1836, it was incorporated as a city. To-day it is one of the leading cities of Massachusetts, with a population of fully 80,000, while the assessors' books for 1890 place the city's valuation at more than $62,000,000. The capital of the Merrimack Company has been several times in creased, until now it is $2,200,000. Howard Stockton, of Boston, is treasurer of the company. With 158,976 spindles, 4,483 looms and twenty-one printing machines, this company is able to produce 1,000,- 000 yards of dyed and printed cloth per week. Following the Merri mack, the Hamilton Manufacturing Company, incorporated in 1825, was the next concern to begin operations on a large scale at Lowell. In the organization of this company, as in the Merrimack, Boston men and capital figured. It now has a capital of $1,800,000. With 111,064 spindles and 3,131 looms the weekly capacity of the mills is 720,000 yards, the productions consisting of prints, ticks, stripes, drills and cot ton flannels. The Appleton Company was incorporated in 1828, and has a capital of $600,000. With 45,564 spindles and 1,224 looms, its productive capacity is 350,000 yards per week, consisting of drillings, sheetings and shirtings. The Lawrence Manufacturing Company be gan operations in 1833, with a capital of $1,200,000, which has since been increased to $1,500,000. L. M. Sargent is treasurer and John Kilburn agent. With about 150,000 spindles, the weekly capacity is 700,000 yards, consisting of hosiery, shirting, sheeting, denims and cot ton flannels. The Boott Cotton Mills commenced operations in 1836, and has a capital of $1,200,000. With 151,292 spindles and 4,215 looms, 775,000 yards of drillings, sheetings and shortings are produced weekly. Eliot C. Clark is treasurer, and A. G. Cummack agent. The Suffolk Manufacturing Company was incorporated in 1831, with a capital of $600,000, and the Tremont Mill during the same year with a like capi tal. These two companies were consolidated in 1871, under the name of the Tremont and Suffolk Mills. The capital is $1,500,000. With 120,000 spindles and 4,000 looms, the weekly producing capacity is BOSTON AND THE TEXTILE INDUSTRY. 515 about 600,000 yards of sheeting, shirtings, drills, cotton flannels and colored goods. A. S. Covell is treasurer, and E. W. Thomas agent. The Massachusetts Cotton Mills began operations in 1840. The capital is $1,800,000. With 125,000 spindles and 4,061 looms, 90,000 yards of sheetings, shirtings, drillings and cotton flannels are produced weekly. Chas. L. Lovering is treasurer, and S. Sotithworth agent. These seven cotton mills of Lowell, with a combined capital of $10,600,000, have their main offices in Boston, where resides a large proportion of the stockholders and officers of the various companies. The Lowell Manufacturing Company, which is one of the oldest car pet mills in the country, was largely a Boston enterprise. It was in corporated in 1828, with a capital of $900,000, which has since been in creased to $2,000,000. Among its corporators were Frederic Cabot, William Whitney and Richard C. Cabot. This company was the first to use for weaving carpets the power looms invented by E. B. Bigelow, 1 an invention so wonderful that it seems almost endowed with intellect. The company originally commenced operations with a single mill four stories in height and about 200 feet in length, with a few necessary buildings for storing raw materials and manufactured goods, sorting wool and dyeing. About two-thirds of this space was occupied for the manufacture of coarse cotton cloth, called Osnaburgs, or Negro cloth, which was largely sold in the South for plantation wear. The remain ing space was utilized for the production of carpeting on hand looms, the weaving being done in the fourth stor)'. It was in one corner of this weave room, partitioned off for the purpose, that the Bigelow power loom, which was destined to work such a revolution in carpet weaving, was built and perfected in 1842, or about that time. In 1848, when it was evident that Bigelow's invention could be profitably em ployed, a mill of one story in height and covering nearly an acre of 1 Erastus B. Bigelow was born in West Boylston, Mass., in 1814. At an early age he began in venting various machines, the first being for making piping cord, followed by looms for weaving suspender webbing, knitting counterpanes, weaving coach lace, ginghams^ and finally carpets, which, with various appliances to the machinery, made the number of patents taken out by him about fifty. He saw the carpet industry of the world revolutionized by his processes, and had the satisfaction of having his carpet looms rights for Great Britain bought by the great house of Crossly & Sons, of England, who, until then, had led the world in that manufacture. He was the author of many publications on topics connected with the manufacturing industries. He was one of the incorporators of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, was a trustee of the Museum of Fine Arts, a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, of the Massachusetts His torical Society, and of the London Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufacture, and Com merce. The town of Clinton was founded by the industries based on his inventions. He was president of the Bigelow Carpet Company and the Clinton Wire Cloth Company. He died in 1879. 516 SUFFOLK COUNTY. ground, was erected, and furnished with 260 of these looms for the manufacture of carpets. About 1883 another spacious mill, three stories high, was erected for the manufacture of Brussels carpets, and furnished with a Hartford automatic engine of 500 horse power. The works of this company now occupy about ten acres of ground. Ingrain, Brussels and Milton carpets are manufactured. The treasurers of the company in order of service have been as follows : Frederic Cabot, George W. Lyman, Nathaniel W. Appleton, William C. Appleton, J. Thomas Ste venson, Israel Whitney, Charles L. Harding, David B. Jewell, Samuel Fay, George C. Richardson and Arthur T. Lyman. George F. Rich ardson is president of the company, and Alvin S. Lynn agent. The Middlesex Company, which manufactures beavers, yacht cloths, coatings, cassimeres and shawls is another Lowell enterprise which owes its origin to Boston men and capital. It was incorporated in 1830 with a capital of $500,000, which has since been increased to $750,000. Among its incorporators were Samuel Lawrence and William W. Stone. This company has suffered far more than any other in Lowell from the mismanagement of the men whom it had entrusted with office. In 1858, the entire capital having been lost by its officers, the 'company was reorganized with new managers and new subscriptions to stock. Since the reorganization it has had very gratifying success. This com pany has been a pioneer in the successful manufacture in America of goods which had heretofore been imported from Europe. Samuel Lawrence, for several years treasurer of the company, upon this point says: When the Middlesex Company started, in 1886, most of the woolen goods consumed here were from England, imported by men from Yorkshire, who for many years evaded paying the full amount of duties by undervaluation . . One of the difficulties in the early production of woolens here was a defect in dyeing. This com pany was most fortunate in early discovering that this evil arose from the simplest cause— the imperfect cleansing of the wool. Mr. Compton, of Taunton, Mass., be came employed by the Middlesex Company to adopt his principle to their looms to produce a fabric like the Sedan, and was entirely successful. Thus commenced in this country the manufacture of fancy cassimeres. The shawl manufacture by the Middlesex Company was commenced in 1847. Up to that time the fringes were twisted by hand, and the success depended upon its being done by machinery. At that time Mr. Milton D. Whipple was in the employment of the company perfecting a felting machine, and he was empoyed to produce a twisting machine for fringes, in which he succeeded perfectly, and thus gave this branch of industry to this country. BOSTON AND THE TEXTILE INDUSTRY. 517 During recent years this company has enjoyed a high degree of pros perity. G. Z. Silsbee is president, and O. H. Perry, agent. The city of Lawrence, which belongs to a much later period than Lowell, but, like the latter city, its establishment was almost wholly due to Boston men and capital. It owes its rise to the organization of the Essex Manufacturing Company and its name to Abbott and Samuel Lawrence. In his valuable Memoir of Abbott Lawrence, published a few years ago, Hamilton A. Hill gives the following interesting account of the rise of Lawrence and the founding of the Pacific Mills : The rapid waters of the Merrimack, Whittier's "mountain-born" river, al ready made to serve the purposes of human industry at many a point in their course towards the ocean, were to be arrested yet once again for further service before they should reach the sea. The precise spot had been determined on, and a large pur chase of 'land had been made provisionally by the Merrimack Water Power Associa tion, of which a younger brother of the Lawrence family, Mr. Samuel Lawrence, afterwards the first president of the Boston Board of Trade, was president and treas urer. In the winter of 1844-45, an act was asked for, and obtained, from the Massa chusetts Legislature, incorporating the Essex Company. On the morning after the final passage of the bill, the gentlemen named in it as corporators and their associates assembled at the State House in Boston, and were present when Governor Briggs attached his signature to it and made it a law. The same hour they started on an excursion to the site of the future city, proceeding by rail to North Andover, and thence by carriages to the Falls. This company of business men, upon whose de cision and action such vast interests depended, consisted of Messrs. Abbott Law rence, William Lawrence, Samuel Lawrence, Francis C. Lowell, John A. Lowell, George W. Lyman, Theodore Lyman, Nathan Appleton, Patrick T. Jackson, William Sturgis, John Nesmith, Jonathan Tyler, James B, Francis, and Charles S, Storrow. An account of the day's proceedings is given in the History of Essex County, re cently published, which says: " After a careful examination of the neighborhood, and the discussion of various plans upotf"the spot, the party drove to Lowell, and sat down to a late dinner at the Merrimack House. Lord Stowell used to say : ' A dinner lubricates business ;' and in the instance before us we have a memorable illustration of the fact." We quote again from the History of Essex County: ' Tn that after-dinner hour was taken the first decisive step leading to permanent or ganization and effective work. Mr. Abbott Lawrence and Mr. John A. Lowell re tired for a few minutes for consultation, and, returning, offered the Water Power Association, as a fair equivalent for all its acquired rights and interests, the sum of $30,000, in addition to the reimbursements of all expenses previously incurred; as suming also to carry out all agreements made by the associates for the purchase of lands and flowage rights already secured by bond, and to lead off in the organization of the Essex Company by large subscription to its stock. * * * A proposition so definite, promising immediate organization of a powerful company, and commence- 518 SUFFOLK COUNTY. ment of active operations with efficient leaders, was promptly acpepted. Thus on the day the act was signed, before set of sun, steps had been taken by parties who har bored no fear of failure and took no backward course, which resulted in immediate operation, as vigorous and unremitting as the inception was energetic and novel. The excursionists returned home, hardly realizing that a city had been born which would force products upon the world's markets, call laborers from all civilized northern races, and work materials supplied from every quarter of the globe." All this happened on the 20th of March, 1845. Two years later the subscription paper of the Essex Company was drawn up. Mr. Lawrence was the first and largest subscriber, taking one thousand shares at one hundred dollars each. This invest ment of one hundred thousand dollars he never disturbed, and the shares, we be lieve, are still held in the family. He took the presidency of the company, and un der his direction contracts were at once made, and in the month of June following, work was commenced. The new town of Lawrence — there could be no question as to what its name should be — was incorporated April 17, 1847 ; the dam was completed September 19, 1848 ; and the first cotton arrived January 12, 1849, consigned to the Atlantic Cotton Mills, of which Mr. Lawrence was also president and one of the large stockholders. The town became a city, by charter granted March 21, 1853. It now has a population of about forty thousand, and a taxable valuation of twenty-five mil lion dollars. Most justly has it been said: "The broad, comprehensive, unwavering faith, and large capacity of Abbott Lawrence, should never be forgotton by dwellers in the city that bears his name." In 1853 the Pacific Mills were incorporated with a capital of two million dollars, and with Mr. Lawrence for president. Amos and Abbott Lawrence, who figure so prominently in the found ing and subsequent history of Lawrence, were Boston men of especial prominence. A lengthy biography of Abbott Lawrence appears in the preceding volume of this work. Amos Lawrence was born in Groton, Mass., April 22, 1786. He began his business career as a clerk in Dunstable, Mass. In 1807 he came to Boston and began business on his own account as a dry goods merchant. . In 1814 he en tered into partnership with his brother, Abbott Lawrence, under the firm name of A. & A. Lawrence, which continued until his death. They were highly successful in business, and both had accumulated large fortunes, when, in 1830, they became identified with cotton manufact uring at Lowell. After a serious illness in 1831, Amos retired from active business and devoted the remainder of his life to acts of benevo lence. He expended over $600,000 for charitable purposes. Among the institutions he generously assisted were Williams College, the acad emy at Groton, the title of which in recognition of his beneficence being changed in 1843 to Lawrence Academy ; Wabash College ; Kenyon Col lege; the Theological Seminary at Bangor, Me., and several others. The Childs Infirmary at Boston, and Bunker Hill monument were also BOSTON AND THE TEXTILE INDUSTRY. 519 objects of his beneficence, while his private benefactions were innumer able. He died at Boston, December 31, 1852. John Amory Lowell, another Boston man who figured prominently in the founding of Lawrence, was a son of John Lowell, and grandson of Judge Lowell, of the United States Circuit Court. He graduated from Harvard College in 1815, at the age of sixteen, and commenced his business career with the house of Kirk Boott & Sons, to whose busi ness he subsequently succeeded. In 1827 he was treasurer of the Bos ton Manufacturing Company at Waltham, succeeding Patrick T. Jack son, and held that position until 1844. In 1835 he built the Boott Mill at Lowell, and was treasurer of that company for thirteen years, and afterwards president and director until his death. In 1839 he built the Massachusetts Mills, of which he was also treasurer till 1848, and a di rector through life. He was also director in the Lake Company and the Lowell Machine shop. With Abbott Lawrence and others he was associated in the creation of the Essex Company at Lawrence, and a di rector of the Pacific Mills until age compelled him to relinquish some of his cares. For fifty-nine years he was a director of the Suffolk Bank of Boston, and one of the originators of the system of redemption of country bank notes, serving on the committee of foreign money for many years. He was also one of the fellows of Harvard College for forty years, and for a longer period a trustee of the Lowell Institute. He was an accomplished classical scholar, an eminent mathematican, an able botanist and a rare linguist. Generous in his impulses, he delighted in giving aid to younger men, and was always ready to contribute to any cause which appealed to his generosity. Such a union of business capacity, literary and scientific attainments, unsullied integrity and un ostentatious generosity,, formed a rare combination, and enabled him in a long life of untiring industry to do much for the advancement of his generation, and to add, a lustre to the honored name he bore. Born November 11, 1788, he died October 31, 1881.— From "Records of Old Residents' Association," Lowell. The Pacific Mills are the largest in Lawrence. They commenced operation in 1852. They contain 180,000 spindles and 4,078 looms. The productions consist of prints and fancy cotton. The capital is $2,500,000. The Atlantic Mills, started at an earlier date, 1846, are next in importance with a capital of $1,000,000. Sheetings and shirt ings are their specialty. The Everett and the Pemberton are the other large corporations. The latter has a capital of $450,000. The fall of 520 SUFFOLK COUNTY the Pemberton Mills in January, 1860, was the saddest calamity in the factory life of Lawrence. One hundred and fourteen persons were killed and more than 400 injured. The Arlington Mills and the Wash ington Mills are woolen mills. The former was established in 1865, and the latter in 1886. The capital of each is $2,000,000. The textile industries of Lowell and Lawrence by no means include all the localities in which Boston capital is largely interested. They are merely the two centers where Boston men have been conspicuous fac tors in the development of the textile industry. In many other locali ties in Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and other New England States, Boston men and capital are largely interested. There are in Boston to day no less than 145 offices of textile manufacturers, 100 of which repre sent firms in this State. The remainder are proportioned among New England and other States. Boston is the distributing center of the raw material as well as the 1 manufactured product of the textile mills of New England. The wool and cotton trade of Boston during late years has grown to immense pro portions, in the former of which it is the first in the United States. Probably in no branch of commercial activity has Boston assumed a higher place than in that connected with the handling of foreign and domestic wool. It is not alone in New England that Boston wool is shipped, but also south to many of the large textile manufacturing dis tricts of Pennsylvania. So great is the volume of the wool business in Boston that the sales in this market are excelled only by those of the English market in London. The chief markets of this country rank as follows in respect to sales : Domestic. Foreign. Total. Boston_ $115,827,159 $42,328,300 §158,155,459 NewYork 20,770,300 27,760,000 47,081,200 Philadelphia ._ 35,962,326 19,343,300 55,305,626 St. Louis : 18,000,000 18,000,000 Chicago 19,000,000 19,000,000 It will be seen that Boston sells three times as much domestic wool as her nearest competitor, and more than the four other markets of prominence combined. The supremacy as a foreign wool market was wrested from New York in 1890. MASSACHUSETTS CHARITABLE MECHANIC ASSOCIATION. The Massachusetts Charitable Mechanic Association has had a most wholesome effect in stimulating and advancing the industrial arts, not only in this State, but throughout New England. It has had a contin uous existence since the year 1795. It is composed of master mechan ics, manufacturers, and persons practiced in the arts, who, at the time of their admission, were residents of this State,- and engaged in business on their own account. But few existing organizations have so remote an origin. The first meeting of the tradesmen, mechanics and manu facturers, which resulted in the formation of the association, was held at the Green Dragon Tavern (on southerly side of Union, west of and near Hanover street), in Boston, the first Tuesday in January, 1795. The notice of this meeting was prepared for publication, without sig nature, by Henry Plunkett, a cooper by trade, and one of the most respectable of the citizens of the town. Col. Paul Revere was elected to preside on this occasion, and acted as chairman at all subsequent preliminary meetings. He was chosen president of the association at the first election of officers, April 16, 1795. The object of the meeting was stated to be to consult on measures for petitioning the General Court to revise and amend the law respecting apprentices ; but before the full organization of the association, some nobler purposes were considered, viz. : "To create and sustain a friendly feeling among its associates ; to extend the circle of individual usefulness ; to encourage industry, and promote inventions and improvements in the mechanic arts; to provide for the instruction of apprentices, and assist young mechanics with loans of money ; to help the aged and unfortunate of the associates, and the widows of deceased members in poverty and suffering ; and to provide for the burial of its deceased members by gifts deemed sufficient to defray the expenses of an unostentatious 66 522 SUFFOLK COUNTY. ceremony." These were among the considerations which led to the formation of the association, and have tended to its long continued ex istence. It will be found by those who may study the full history of the society that the promises of its early day of usefulness, benevolence and influence in our community have been sensibly realized, and that the views of its founders were not altogether visionary. The associa tion began its career during the infancy of our republic, in the ' ' day of small things," when extensive manufacturing establishments did not exist, and the use of machinery to lighten labor and increase produc tion was little known; when industry, prudence, and the kindred homely virtues, were requisite and the only reliable means to win suc cess in life. The influence of mechanics has often been relied on to assist in moulding public sentiment and forwarding enterprises deemed essential to the general welfare, and no portion of our people have more often been selected to fill places of responsibility and trust, to enact laws and grant privileges than they. The first constitution, adopted in March, 1795, gives the title of the society as the Associated Mechanics and Manufacturers of the Com monwealth of Massachusetts. The first engraved certificate of mem bership, and also the first certificate prepared to be presented to apprentices who had fulfilled their engagements to the satisfaction of their employers, give the title Massachusetts Mechanics Association. At the first annual meeting, held December 10, 1795, it was voted to alter the appellation of the society, and instead of its former name that it be styled the Association of Mechanics of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. The earliest written record is headed with the words : Boston Mechanic Association. But this name did not appear to have ever been formally adopted; probably the recording officer did not deem it requisite that the whole intent of the organization need be stated while the constitution -and by-laws supplied the information. When the act of incorporation was granted by the General Court, in 1806, the word "Charitable" was added to the title, and from that time the association has been known by its corporate name — Massa chusetts Charitable Mechanic Association. Formerly the association on all public occasions wore a badge of green ribbon, and carried a banner made of green silk. There is no record when or why this particular color was adopted as the badge of the society. At one of the triennial festivals, held some years ago, a guest, and an honorary member, who had worn the emblematic ribbon MECHA NIC A SSOCIA TION. 523 for the day, and seemed honored by being permitted to do so, explained that it was the middle ray of the prismatic colors, and typified the social position of the mechanic — neither the highest or lowest. Of late years, however, the association has not appeared as much in public procession as fomerly, and the green badge has been but little worn. It was for many years the custom of the Board of Government to hold monthly meetings, and after the transaction of business a supper usually succeeded, and many gentlemen, prominent at the time, and friends of the association were often present as guests. It is interest ing to recall the various places at which the association met till it established a home of its own in 1860. These are some of them: Con cert Hall, Latin School-house, Green Dragon Tavern, Mareau's Hall, Old State House, Faneuil Hall, Court House, Association Hall, Cen tral School-house, Exchange Coffee House, Forsters's Hotel, Marlboro's Hotel, Library Room, Julian Hall, Athenaeum Hall, Tremont House, Supreme Court Room, Masonic Temple, Swedenborgian Chapel, Tre mont Temple, Quiney Hall, Boott Mansion, Hall of the Provident In stitution for Savings, and the hall in Ballard's Building in Bromfield street. Beneficence was one of the objects in view in the formation of the association, and though it was never expected a full support would be furnished to any family or member in need, yet aid in sickness and a timely relief when calamity or old age overtook a brother, or those dependent upon him, has always been as liberally bestowed as the re sources of the society would permit. From the year 1813 there has annually been chosen a Committee of Relief, whose duty it is to seek out and relieve such indigent members, or their families, as may be objects of charity, and to receive and act on all petitions for relief. This committee reports quarterly to the Board of Government and annually to the association. Before the organization of the Committee of Relief, occasional donations were made from the funds, and from Voluntary collections, in aid of unfortunate members. The books of the Committee of Relief show a total of nearly two hundred thousand dollars distributed up to the present time. For several years the an nual appropriation has been five thousand dollars, which has been expended upon about fifty recipients, principally the widows of deceased members. In the course of a series of years a number of these recipients have been paid sums varying from one to two thousand dollars. The long continued and systematic work of charity carried on 524 SUFFOLK COUNTY. by the association has given it an excellent reputation in the commu nity and has contributed materially to its influence and success. The social element seems to have been a prominent feature in the early days of the association, and the good fellowship, which the organ ization was intended to promote, was often encouraged by festive gatherings. The first constitution required a public festival at the time of the annual meeting in December, and for seven consecutive years these celebrations were held — generally in Faneuil Hall. The first, in 1798, was at the Green Dragon Tavern. "At two o'clock p.m., with twenty-nine members present, the society sat down to a well provided table, and fared sumptuously, the toasts which were read being so completely adapted to the occasion, they were received with eclat and interspersed with songs." These festivals were important occasions in the infancy of the society, and large committees were ap pointed to make full arrangements for the regular anniversary feasts, at which were entertained many eminent men of the time. They had their value, also, in bringing the association before the public, in en abling the body to extend courtesies to the prominent men of the day, and in uniting the members in a feeling of brotherhood. Since the year 1809 the festivals have been held once in three years ; the later constitution made it imperative to hold triennial festivals, on which occasions an address must be delivered by a member. It was the usual custom for the members of the association and invited guests to meet at some convenient place in the morning of the day selected, form a procession, and move to some church or hall, where an address, with other exercises, would occupy about two hours ; from thence proceed to Faneuil Hall to partake of a dinner, followed by sentiment, ad dresses, and music. The addresses delivered at these festivals were mostly of a high order of merit. They were published in pamphlet form, and now form a feature of the association library well worth the careful attention and perusal of its members. At the celebrations for some years wines and liquors were served, but in time a change in the sentiment of members resulted in excluding all intoxicating beverages from the table. In 1848 the ladies were invited for the first time to participate, and thereafter added essentially to the pleasures of the occasion. The interest felt in scientific subjects by the members induced the in quiry as early as 1819, whether it was not possible for the association to inaugurate courses of lecture for the benefit of the members and the MECHANIC ASSOCIATION. 525 good of the community. The subject was discussed, but no appropria tion seems to have been made until 1828, when the sum of $200 was appropriated, and a course of twelve lectures was given. They proved to be very interesting and popular, and the practice was continued in succeeding years, the number of lectures and the expense varying ac cording to circumstances. Men especially qualified for the task were engaged for this service ; the courses consisted generally of twelve lect ures, and were frequently illustrated. In 1829, long before railroads were understood and hardly adopted in either hemisphere, William Jackson delivered a lecture powerfully advocating the railway system as it is known to-day. Such was its effect that he was invited to repeat it to the Legislature and other influential persons. This he did, and it had much to do with the formation of the course of proceedings in re gard to these great works of inter-state communication in our country. In 1855, under the auspices of the association, Mr. Latta, of Cincinnati, was invited to deliver a lecture on the application of steam to machin ery, which he accepted, illustrating his theme by the steam fire engine, which led to the introduction of the Miles Greenwood engine of that year, soon to be superseded by the more efficient engines from the Hunneman and Amoskeag shops, and which have revolutionized our whole system of fire suppression. As the practice grew of having lect ures delivered elsewhere under the auspices of other societies and asso ciations, the interest in these lectures decreased, and they were not con tinued after 1856. _ The association is in possession of a library of miscellaneous books, probably numbering about three thousand, many of which were pre sented by members, the largest donor being C. C. Nichols, who gave a valuable collection of books, which formed the nucleus of the library. The Public Library of the city, however, with its wealth of literature and daily attention to the wants of readers, has, however, made the maintenance of an association library comparatively unnecessary, and for many years it has been little used and no attempt to add to it. In 1820 a communication was received from William Wood, a retired mer chant of Boston, in which he expressed a wish to give five hundred books as a nucleus of a library for the use of the apprentices who were members of the association, and asking the association to accept them for that purpose. To these were added contributions from other citi zens, and a library was started containing fifteen hundred volumes, the custody of which was intrusted to a committee of the society. The 526 SUFFOLK COUNTY. time and labor involved in the care and direction of the library, how ever, was so great that after a few years the entire management was given into the hands of the apprentices themselves, who for that pur pose formed the Mechanics' Library Association, having full control of the library, subject only to the supervision of the Massachusetts Me chanic Association. It is claimed that this was the first library ever organized in the world exclusively for benefit of apprentices. The subject of the establishment of a scheme in which apprentices could pursue studies especially adapted to their needs, was early con sidered, and in 1828 an appropriation of $200 was made for that pur pose. The school opened with nearly a hundred pupils, and the suc cess attained was very gratifying. Annual appropriations for the sup port of schools were made, gradually increasing in amount. In 1833 the visiting committee, in their report to the association, say: "The disposition of a considerable portion of our income within the last few years to purposes of improvement in intellectual and scientific pursuits by-means of lectures and a school for apprentices, has given to the as sociation a degree of popularity, and demanded of the public a consid eration and respect for the individuals of which it is composed, which would not, probably, have ever been derived from its operations as a charitable institution only. In 1846 a drawing school was opened at an annual cost of about $600. This is believed to haveheen the first school opened in Boston for the instruction of beginners in drawing from ob jects. In time, however, the number of scholars decreased, and it was considered advisable to pay for the tuition of apprentices in other schools. In 1859 the association expended nearly $1,000 for the purpose. The gradual decline of the apprenticeship system, the improved methods adopted in the public schools, and the establishment of the Lowell School of Design, led to the final abandonment of this work. The last donation in this direction was made in 1876, when $4,000 was given to assist the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, the institute agreeinc in consideration of the gift to admit two pupils, free of expense, recom mended by the association. In 1889 the corporation of the Massachu setts Institute of Technology discontinued the School of Mechanic Arts and returned to the association the $4, 000 advanced, and since that time the society has considered the expediency of establishing trades schools, but as yet has agreed upon no definite plans. This venerable association has often been a participant in patriotic demonstrations, and public attention has always been directed toward MECHANIC ASSOCIATION. 527 it on occasions necessitating the prompt co-operation of the people in carrying out movements designed to interest and benefit the commu nity. In 1800 the selectmen of Boston requested the association to join in celebrating the funeral obsequies of George Washington, who had died December 14, 1799. The officers of the association at once ex tended an invitation to all the mechanics in the town to join in the pro cession. The response was general, and forty-five delegations, repre senting as many different trades and occupations, took part in the imposing ceremonies, which occurred on the 9th of January. A similar observance took place February 22, 1800, the president of the United States having issued a proclamation recommending the day to be observed as a day of "mourning and humiliation" in memory of Washington. The procession was formed in State street, and escorted a large body of prominent officials to the South Church, where appro priate services were held, including an oration by Rev. Joseph Tucker- man, a son of the first vice-president of the association. The entire services were of a high order of merit, and were extensively and favor ably noticed in'the newspapers of that day. In 1818 the association took part in the ceremonies attending the laying of the corner-stone of the Massachusetts General Hospital. In June, 1825, they gave a pub lic dinner, in honor of General Lafayette, at the Marlboro' Hotel, while on his last visit to this country. It was an occasion of great public interest. Among the invited guests were most of the prominent per sonages in the Commonwealth, including the governor, members of Congress, Daniel Webster, an honorary member of the association, among the number, the secretary of war, and many other distinguished officials. The president of the association, Samuel Perkins, welcomed Lafayette to the city in well chosen words, to which the illustrious guest made an appropriate response. Toasts were given, to which re sponses were made by the eminent men present. Ex-President John Adams, being detained at home by ill health, sent a letter expressing regret at his enforced absence, and enclosing the sentiment : ' ' The Massachusetts Charitable Mechanic Association: 'Tis theirs to teach an art beyond the rules of art — charity." It was the last illness of this eminent statesman, and he died fourteen days later. In 1827 the citi zens of Boston rebuilt the monument, erected by Benjamin Franklin, over the graves of his parents in the Granary burial ground, which had become dilapidated by time. The corner-stone was laid by Hon. Charles Wells, president of the association, in the presence of the gov- 528 SUFFOLK COUNTY. ernor, and city, State and national officials. The address was delivered by Gen. H. A. S. Dearborn. In 1832 the association assisted in cele brating the centennial of Washington's birthday. In 1834 they con ducted the ceremonial observances of Lafayette. In 1848 they attended the public funeral observances of John Quiney Adams, and in 1852 those of Daniel Webster. The connection of the association with the erection of the commem orative monument on Bunker Hill furnishes additional evidence of the patriotic sentiment which exists among the members. The monument was commenced in 1825 by a body of patriotic and public spirited citi zens. The work was carried on until 1828, when the original funds, created by subscriptions, became exhausted, and the work was neces sarily suspended. The structure had been raised about thirty- five feet above the massive foundations. In the month of May, 1833, Amos Lawrence, by letter, proposed that the association should endeavor to procure by subscription a sum of money sufficient to complete the monu ment. This the association undertook, and by the expenditure of much time and efforts, they were so successful that in conjunction with the amount realized from a fair held in Quiney Hall under the auspices of the ladies of the Commonwealth, the monument was completed. At the ceremonies in honor of its completion, which took place June 17, 1843, the association attended in a body, forming a conspicuous feature in the grand procession. The oration on this occasion was delivered by Daniel Webster. In acknowledgment of the efficient service rendered in this undertaking, the Monument Association constituted the society's president, at the time their first vice-president, and ex-President Frederic W. Lincoln has been a trustee continuously since 1854, and president since 1890. The Franklin statue, which for more than a generation has been a conspicuous object in front of the City Hall on School street, was really one of the offsprings of the association. The first suggestion came from an honorary member, Hon. Robert C. Winthrop, in a lecture de livered before the association in November, 1853. The society took up the subject, and with the co-operation of a committee of the citizens of Boston, raised the necessary funds and carried the work to a successful conclusion. On the 17th of September, 1856, the anniversary of the settlement of Boston, the statue was inaugurated with elaborate cere monies, the Hon. Robert C. Winthrop delivering the inaugural address, President Frederic W. Lincoln, of the association, delivering an ap propriate and elegant presentation address MECHANIC ASSOCIATION. 529 . During the War of the Rebellion the association fervently sustained the Union cause. On April 17, 1861, it was voted to raise the national flag on the Mechanic building at once. With cheers by the people as sembled and a short speech by Vice-President Stimpson, the flag was raised to the breeze 'from the roof. The association joined in a public parade and patriotic meeting of the citizens on Boston Common on the afternoon of Wednesday, August 27, 1862; and also in a procession on the 29th to welcome Brig. -Gen. Michael Corcoran, of the volunteer army, and other distinguished citizens of New York. About two hun dred and fifty of the members were in line. On the 27th of October, 1862, it was voted to tender an escort to Col, Thomas E. Chickering and the Forty-first Regiment on the occasion of their departure for the seat of war. On the 6th of November following, the association, under the leadership of Nathaniel J. Bradlee, assembled and formed a proces sion for this duty. The National Lancers and the Roxbury Reserve Guards were also participants in the ceremonies. It is in connection with exhibitions of industry, skill and art that the association is, perhaps, most widely known. The idea of holding ex hibitions, however, does not seem to have been entertained until many years after the organization of the association, and even then the sub ject was brought to the attention of the members incidentally. In June, 1818, the president received an anonymous letter, enclosing the sum of $35, with the request that the same be given under the auspices of the association in prizes to coopers' apprentices for the best casks to be made by their own hands. The trust was accepted, due notice given, the exhibition took place, and the prizes were awarded on Boston Common on the following Fourth of July. Ten casks were exhibited, and the money was given in three prizes : $20 to the best cask, $10 to the second best, and $5 to the third. The remaining seven casks were sold at auction on the spot, and brought good prices. The experiment was a complete success, and was repeated the following year, when $80 — given by the former patron, who proved to be William Wood, a well-known Boston merchant of that period — was awarded in prizes for casks and hats. As before, the articles exhibited were disposed of at auction. In 1820 a much more elaborate display was made, this time at the Washington Gardens, when $60 in money and three silver medals were awarded for eleven exhibits, consisting of harnesses, doors, wheels, ships' blocks, boots and barrels. The year following a larger sum of money was raised by subscription, and the time changed to October, 67 530 SUFFOLK COUNTY the exhibition, like its predecessors, being a success. No further ex hibitions of this kind were held, but the subject of holding them an nually on a much larger scale was advocated. Several years passed, however, without any action being taken, and in 1832 the subject was referred to a committee, but nothing was accomplished until the close of 1836, when a committee reported strongly recommending immediate action. This was at once carried into execution, the association at the meeting in January, 1837, making an appropriation for that purpose. The Board of Government and twelve members of the association were constituted an Executive Committee, of which Stephen Fairbanks, the president, was chairman, under whose direction arrangements were perfected, and the exhibition successfully inaugurated. It was held in the second stories of Faneuil Hall and Quiney Market, which for the purpose were connected by a temporary bridge, and which in various forms was repeated at subsequent exhibitions. The opening was cele brated by an address by Edward Everett, then governor of the Com monwealth. The exhibition proved in all respects a gratifying success. "The city and country poured forth their populations," says one chronicler, ' ' to see the wonderful display. People were surprised at . every step with some new contrivance, and puzzled and bewildered in contemplation of the whole, but manifested unqualified pleasure and exaltation." The experiment was so successful that the managers recommended an early preparation for a similar exhibition the next year. All doubts of the usefulness of these exhibitions in bringing to public notice the latest mechanical inventions and improvements, their power to educate the public taste, and stimulate to further triumphs in changing rude materials into forms of beauty and utility were dispelled. Those who coldly received the first advances of the enthusiasts in favor of the experiment were compelled to join in the general expression of satisfaction with the splendid result. The second exhibition was held in the autumn of the year 1839, with results quite as satisfactory to all, as the first had been. William Washburn was superintendent. In number, variety and quality the exhibits were remarkable, the Execu tive Committee awarding twenty-four gold and thirty-three silver medals, and 254 diplomas. From this time periodical exhibitions seem to have been fully accepted as an established enterprise of the society, permitted by its charter, in keeping with the character of its organiza tion, and promising from their pecuniary results to aid in forwarding the other objects embraced in the charter of the association. The third MECHANIC ASSOCIA TION. 531 exhibition occurred in 1841, the fourth in 1844, at which the association made a net gain of more than $7,000. The fifth took place in 1847, Joseph M. Wightman being superintendent. The sixth was held in 1850, the seventh in 1853. These were all financially successful. The eighth occurred in 1856, the ninth in 1860, the tenth in 1865, the eleventh in 1869, and the twelfth in 1874. These had all been held in Faneuil Hall and Quiney Market. The thirteenth, which occurred in 1878, however, was held in a building especially constructed for the purpose on Columbus avenue, Park Square and Pleasant street, with an art gallery on Columbus avenue, connected by a short bridge over Church street. The location was a favorable one for the convenience of exhibitors and visitors, and the whole enterprise was an abundant success. The fourteenth exhibition was held in 1881, the fifteenth in 1884, the sixteenth in 1886, the seventeenth in 1890, and the last one, the eighteenth, in 1892. The last five exhibitions have been held in the association's building on Huntington avenue. The gain in num bers and quality of exhibits has been fairly uniform from the begin ning. These latter exhibitions have been open to the goods and com petition of the whole country, and the awards have been widely distributed among the skillful and industrious people of all the States of the Union. The desire to own a building themselves, that the association might have a permanent home and a suitable place for meetings, seems to have been entertained by the leading members almost from the start, and as early as 1798 a committee was appointed to make inquiries in regard to a location. In 1802 another committee submitted plans for a building, and recommended the purchase of a vacant lot on Bowdoin Square. Their funds, however, necessarily small, did not warrant the undertaking, and the subject was postponed. But the idea was by no means abandoned. Frequently in the following years it was made the subject of investigations and reports by committees, and with the gratifying increase in the funds of the association the desire to possess a hall correspondingly increased. In 1843 negotiations were com menced which finally resulted in the purchase of the Boott estate in Bowdoin Square, and singularly enough was the identical lot that had been recommended for purchase nearly fifty years before. It contained nearly seventeen thousand feet of land, on which stood a mansion house and stable. At the time of purchase it was expected that building operations would be begun without delay. The mayor of the city and 532 SUFFOLK COUNTY. prominent citizens interested themselves in the movement, anticipat ing that an imposing structure, creditable alike to the association and city, would be erected. But on making a closer estimate on the cost of such a building it was found that a heavy mortgage would be inevit able, and the conservative management hesitated to proceed. Mean while overtures were made by responsible parties to lease the property for hotel purposes, at a rental which would make it a profitable invest ment for the association, if the building then standing was enlarged and properly arranged for the purpose. This was finally done, in con junction with owners of the adjoining property, and the whole, when completed, was named the Revere House, in honor of Paul Revere, the first president of the association. It was opened to the public May 1, 1847. From the beginning it was a success, and the income derived from the property was large and permanent. The first landlord was Paran Stevens, who kept it many years, and made it one of the most popular houses in the country. As the ownership was divided, how ever, causing some difficulty in the financial management, after consid erable negotiation, the entire property was transferred to a joint stock company, the association receiving shares to represent the proportional interest. This amounted to $124,000, represented by 1,240 shares. The board of directors of the hotel company consisted of five persons of whom four were members of the association. The stock returned the association good dividends. But this movement, successful as it was in one direction, did not fulfill the desire of the members for a build ing of their own, and the subject was not allowed to slumber. In 1856, under the administration of President Frederic W. Lincoln, a lot of land at the corner of Bedford and Chauncey streets, the garden of Judge Charles Jackson, was purchased at a cost of $31,000. Upon this lot was erected a building designed by Hammatt Billings, and formally dedi cated March 27, 1860. It cost over $85,000. The completion of this hall, so long contemplated and so long delayed, was a cause of sincere gratification. In 1869 an annex to the building, on the corner of Avon and Chauncey streets, was built by the association at a cost for land and building of about $88,000. With the impetus given to the business of the city by the Civil War, but more particularly by the great fire of 1872, which required new localities for traffic, while the burnt district was being reconstructed, the board of government in December, 1872, was once again forced to consider the problem of suitable and cen tral apartments. The necessity of having a building of sufficient capac- MECHANIC ASSOCIATION. 533 ity to accommodate the triennial exhibitions had also been felt for years. The twelfth exhibition, the last held in Faneuil and Quiney halls in 1874, showed plainly that if the association was to hold its posi tion in regard to these displays, it must secure proper accommodation. Much discussion of the subject followed. In February, 1879, a commit tee, composed of Charles W. Slack, Nathaniel J. Bradlee, J. F. Paul, Nathaniel Adams, Charles Whittier, Edward Atkinson and Nathaniel Cummings, was appointed to which was referred the matters of provid ing for a permanent exhibition building. This committee gave much time to the consideration of the subject, and in March, 1880, reported in the favor of purchasing the plot of land fronting on Huntington avenue and West Newton street. This was concurred in by the asso ciation, and the land was purchased at a cost of $113,510. In Decem ber, 1880, work was begun on the building, the corner-stone of which was laid in March, 1881, and in the fall of 1882 the fourteenth exhibi tion was held in the building, but it was not fully completed until Jan uary, 1884, at which time nearly $378,000 had been expended upon it. For some years after its construction the association had something of a struggle for existence. The second exhibition held within its walls failed to meet expenses. The establishment of a rival organization was a most unfortunate occurrence. But the association, having the ad vantage of a long and favorable record, the unquestioned favor of the public and a large fund, was able to weather the storm which wrecked its competitor. During late years it has enjoyed a high degree of pros perity. The officers of the association from its organization have been as follows : Presidents. Paul Revere 1795-1798 James Clark.. 1843-1844 Jonathan Hunnewell _ , 1798-1807 George G. Smith 1845-1847 Benj amin Russell 1809-1821 Henry N. Hooper 1848-1850 John Cotton 1822-1824 Jonas Chickering 1851-1853 Samuel Perkins 1825-1826 Frederic W. Lincoln 1854-1856 Charles Wells 1827 Joseph M. Wightman 1857-1859 Samuel T. Armstrong 1828-1829 Pelham Bonney 1860-1861 Daniel Messenger 1830-1831 Frederick H. Stimpson 1862-1863 Joseph T. Buckingham 1832-1834 Joseph T. Bailey _ . 1864-1866 Stephen Fairbanks 1835-1837 Jonas Fitch . _ 1867-1869 George Darracott 1838-1839 Albert J. Wright 1870-1872 Joseph Lewis 1840-1842 Nathaniel Adams 1873-1875 534 SUFFOLK COUNTY. Joseph F. Paul _ 1876-1878 Charles W. Slack 1879-1881 Nathaniel J. Bradlee 1882-1883 Charles R. McLean (part) 1884 Thomas J Widden (part) 1884 Newton Talbot 1885-1887 James G. Haynes 1888-1890 Oliver M. Wentworth 1881-1892 E. Noyes Whitcomb 1892- Vice-Presidents. Edward Tuckerman 1795-1798 Benjamin Russell 1799-1807 Daniel Messenger 1808-1812 John Cotton 1813-1821 John Doggett 1822 Thomas W. Summer 1823 Samuel Perkins 1824 Joseph Jenkins 1825-1826 David. Francis - .1827 George W. Otis 1828-1829 Joseph T. Buckingham _ 1830-1831 Ezra Dyer 1832-1834 John Rayner 1835-1837 Joseph Lewis 1838-1839 Charles Leighton 1840-1841 Charles A. Wells 1842 Jonas Chickering 1843 William Eaton 1844-1846 Henry N. Hooper 1847 Billings Briggs 1848-1850 William C. Bond 1851-1852 Frederic W. Lincoln, jr 1853 Joseph M. Wightman 1854-1856 L. Miles Standish 1857-1859 Frederick H. Simpson 1860-1861 Thacher Beal 1862-1863 Jonas Fitch 1864-1866 Albert J. Wright 1867-1869 Nathaniel Adams 1870-1872 Charles E. Jenkins 1873-1875 Joseph F. Paul (9 months) 1875 Charles W. Slack 1876-1878 Nathaniel J. Bradlee 1879-1881 Charles R. McLean 1882-1883 Thomas J. Whidden (part) 1884 Thomas Gogin (part) 1884 James G. Haynes 1886-1887 Oliver M. Wentworth 1888-1890 E. Noyes Whitcomb 1891-1892 Horace H. Watson 1892- Treasurers. Samuel Gore _ 1795-1798 David West.. __ 1799-1800 Francis Wright 1801-1807 Joseph Lovering 1808-1827 John Cotton 1827-1832 Uriel Crocker 1833-1841 Osymn Brewster 1842-1880 Frederic W. Lincoln 1880-1887 Newton Talbot 1888- Secretaries. John W. Folsom 1795-1799 James Phillips 1800-1801 John Cotton 1802 William Adrews 1803 John B. Hammatt ; 1804 Samuel Gilbert 1805 Thomas Wells 1806-1811 Edward Renouf 1812 Joseph T. Buckingham. 1813-1816 David Francis 1817-1826 Charles C. Nichols 1827 Joseph Lewis 1828-1836 John G. Rogers 1837-1839 H. W. Dutton. 1840-1844 John G. Rogers 1845-1846 John Kuhn 1847-1850 Frederick H. Stimpson 1851-1853 Joseph L. Bates 1854-1884 Alfred Bicknel 1885- MECHANIC ASSOCIA TION. 535 Trustees. Edwin Adams 1878-1880 Isaac Adams 1858-1859 Nathaniel Adams 1858-1860 Samuel Adams _ 1850-1851 William Adams 1835-1837 William Alexander 1804-1806 Jacob Amee 1833-1835 Frank M. Ames 1886-1888 John Andrews _ .1818-1820 Samuel T. Armstrong. 1823-1824 Samuel Aspinwall 1834-1836 Isaiah Atkins 1814-1816 Chas. F.Austin 1867-1869 Jno. F. Bacon. 1880-1882 Robert Bacon 1831-1833 Erastus B. Badger 1889-1891 Joseph T. Bailey 1859-1861 George Baird 1866-1868 David Baker ._ ...1819-1821 Ruel Baker. 1842-1844 Jonathan Balch 1800-1801 Samuel Bangs 1795 James Barry 1806-1808 Jonas S. Bass 1801-1803 Jos. L. Bates .1847-1849 Martin Bates 1 1830-1832 Samuel D. Bates 1856-1858 Benjamin Beal 1839-1841 Thacher Beal 1856-1858 Ivory Bean 1867-1869 Richard Beeching ... 1886-1888 Asher Benjamin 1808-1810 Matthew Binney 1850-1852 John S. Blair 1874-1876 William Blake _ 1852-1854 John Bolles .1844-1846 Charles Bond 1846-1848 Pelham Bonney 1853-1855 John Borrowscale _ . 1861-1863 Hiram Bos worth 1850-1852 Alexander Boyd 1876-1878 Benjamin Bradley 1855-1857 J. Putnam Bradlee 1868-1870 Nathaniel J. Bradlee _ . 1859-1861 John Bray 1799 Billings Briggs 1843-1845 Albert G. Browne 1853-1855 Jos. T. Buckingham 1827-1829 Theophilus Burr, sr 1856-1858 Theophilus Burr, jr 1867-1869 George L. Burt 1888-1890 Abraham Call 1828-1830 Benjamin Callender 1795-1796 Cyrus Carpenter 1872-1874 Geo. O. Carpenter 1885-1887 Wiliam Carpenter 1881-1883 Alpheus Cary 1828 Isaac Cary 1847-1849 David Chamberlin 1869-1871 Simeon G. Cheever 1856-1858 Jonas Chickering 1838-1840 Geo. H. Chickering 1867 Thos. E. Chickering 1859-1861 Alfred A. Childs 1865-1867 William W. Clapp 1863-1865 Benjamin Clark 1811-1813 Cyrus T. Clark 1876-1878 Edward D. Clark 1829-1830 Humphrey Clark 1798-1800 James Clark 1834-1836 Charles Clement 1805-1807 Thomas Clement. 1795-1797 George A. Clough 1885-1888 David Cobb 1805-1807 Benjamin Comey 1818-1820 John Cotton 1801 and 1806-1808 John Cowdin .1851-1853 Leonard F. Creesy 1880-1882 Uriel Crocker. 1830-1832 Jno. Cummings, jr 1875-1877 Nathaniel Cummings 1877-1879 William Cumston _ _ .1865-1867 Samuel Curtis 1809-1811 Samuel Curtis (2d) 1833-1835 Roland Cushing 1842-1844 Geo. L. Damon 1892 * Benjamin Darling 1820-1822 Geo. Darracott 1821-1823 536 SUFFOLK COUNTY. Daniel Davies 1852-1855 Geo. H. Davis 1863-1865 Isaac Davis 1831-1833 James Davis 1833-1834 James Dawson 1804-1806 Thomas Dean 1808-1810 Sylvanus A. Denio 1864-1866 Henry B. Dennison 1888 Benjamin F. Dewing 1888-1890 Oliver Ditson 1862-1864 John Doggett. 1813-1815 George Domett. 1823-1825 Joseph L. Drew 1862-1864 Henry D.Dupee 1892 * Henry W. Dutton 1838-1839 Ezra Dyer 1827-1829 William Eaton 1839-1841 Moses Eayres 1799-1800 Thomas Edmands 1834-1836 Samuel Emmons 1796-1799 James Eunson 1797-1798 Gerry Fairbanks 1812-1814 Stephen Fairbanks 1820-1821 Nathaniel Faxon . . 1821-1823 Richard Faxon 1795-1797 William N. Fisher 1838-1840 Jonas Fitch 1859-1861 Alonzo W. Folsom 1881-1883 Charles J. Fox 1866-1868 David Francis .1814-1816 Nathaniel Francis 1848-1850 James H. Freeland 1886-1888 Walter Frost.... 1837-1838 Jeremiah Gardner 1808-1810 Lemuel Gardner 1803-1805 Kimball Gibson 1841-1843 Elias W. Goddard 1851-1853 Thomas Gogin 1883-1884 Mark Googins 1871-1873 Stephen Gore. 1795-1797 Edward Gray.. 1816-1818 John Green, jr 1845-1847 Gardner Greenleaf 1836-1837 Lemuel M. Ham 1881-1883 Nathaniel Hammond 1835 Henry K. Hancock 1842-1844 Ephraim Harrington 1825-1827 Jonathan Harrington. ...1812-1814 Isaac Harris 1815-1817 William Harris 1814-1816 Edmund Hart 1795-1797 Caleb Hartshorn 1817-1819 Calvin W. Haven 1853-1855 Thomas Haviland 1840-1842 Ezra Hawkes 1836 Charles J. Hayden 1887-1888 James G. Haynes 1880-1882 Isaac H. Hazelton 1855-1857 Leopold Herman 1847-1849 Francis C. Hersey 1886-1888 IraG. Hersey 1892 * Samuel Hichborn 1812-1814 Samuel D. Hicks . 1869-1871 Samuel F. Hicks 1892 * Zachanah Hicks 1798-1800 Joseph W. Hill 1880-1882 Holmes Hinckley 1855-1857 Enoch Hobart 1825 James L. Homer 1836-1838 Henry N. Hooper 1841-1843 J. Day Howard 1806-1807 Thomas Howe, 1809 John C. Hubbard 1860-1862 Thomas Hughes 1820-1822 J onathan Hunnewell 1795-1 798 Joab Hunt 1817-1819 Henry C. Hunt 1873-1875 Moses Hunt 1856-1858 Alfred A. Hunting 1892 * Lynde A. Huntington 1869 Henry Hutchinson 1810-1811 Henry Hutchinson (2d) 1854-1856 Francis Jackson 1822-1823 William Jackson 1819-1821 David H. Jacobs ...1870-1872 Horace Jenkins 1863-1865 Joseph Jenkins 1822-1823 Ebenezer Johnson 1859-1861 Oliver Johonnot 1801-1803 Edward C. Jones 1889-1891 ' Now in office. MECHANIC ASSOCIATION. 537 Ezekiel R. Jones 1890-1892 Joseph Jones 1815-1817 Peter C. Jones 1849-1850 Jonathan Kilham 1807-1809 Jonathan Kilton 1801-1802 Charles G. King 1851-1853 Gedney King 1811-1813 Elias Kingsley 1838-1889 James R. Knott 1884-1886 John Kuhn. 1829-1831 Frederick Lane .1826-1828 John M.Lane .1802-1803 Ebenezer Larkin 1799-1800 Henry L. Leach 1876-1878 Thomas Leavitt 1879-1881 William Leavitt 1869-1871 Charles Leighton '_ 1833-1835 Joseph Lewis 1837 Winslow Lewis. . _ 1815-1817 Frederic W. Lincoln, jr 1850-1852 Ebenezer H. Little 1852-1854 Benjamin Loring 1828-1829 Jonathan Loring 1810-1812 Jonathan Loring (2d) _ 1838 Samuel H. Loring _ 1866-1868 Ansel Lothrop 1860-1862 Augustus Lothrop 1891 * Loyal Lovejoy 1846-1848 Joseph Lovering 1801-1802 Nathaniel M. Lowe... 1883-1885 Henry A. Lyf ord 1868-1870 Thomas Lyf ord 1857-1859 John E. Lynch 1892 * John Mack .1877-1879 William Mackenzie 1884-1886 William Marble _ _ 1864-1866 Ephraim Marsh 1821-1823 Robert Marsh 1849-1851 James B. Marston 1&13-1815 Theophilus R. Marvin 1850-1852 Jesse Mayo :. ..1811-1813 James McAllaster 1829-1830 Charles R. McLean . 1874-1876 John J. McNutt 1870-1872 Elijah Mears 1816-1818 * Now in office. 68 Granville Mears 1850-1852 Daniel Messinger 1801-1804 Joseph Milner 1816-1818 Edmund Monroe 1832-1834 Andrew J. Morse 1868-1870 Alfred J. Neal 1892 * Samuel Neal.. 1862-1864 Samuel H. Newman 1857-1859 Charles C. Nichols. _ 1819-1821 Cushing Nichols 1826-1828 Edward T. Nichols 1891-1892 George Nowell 1877-1879 John P. Ober 1848-1850 Peter Osgood 1807-1809 George W. Otis 1825-1827 John S. Paine 1889-1891 Charles S. Parker 1871-1873 Charles W. Parker 1882-1884 Thomas Patten 1798 Joseph F. Paul 1862-1865 William H. Pearson 1883-1885 Samuel Perkins __ 1 803-1805 Samuel S. Perkins.. 1872-1874 James Phillips 1802-1804 John Pierce 1809-1811 Jonathan Pierce 1857-1859 Albert A. Pope 1892 * George W. Pope 1878-1880 Jonathan Preston 1844-1845 Henry Purkitt 1800 George C. Rand _ 1861-1863 John Rayner 1825-1827 Joseph S. Read 1824-1826 Giles Richards 1795-1797 J. Avery Richards... 1874-1876 Enos Ricker 1882-1884 John G. Roberts 1841-1843 J. Milton Roberts 1873-1875 John A. Robertson 1870-1872 William Robinson 1889-1891 Horace T. Rockwell. .1879 and 1883-1885 John Gorham Rogers 1840-1842 George Ross 1868-1870 William M. Rumery 1879 Benjamin Russell, 1795-98 and 1822-1824 538 SUFFOLK COUNTY. Amos C. Sanborn 1858-1860 Henry N. Sawyer 1884-1887 William Say ward 1877-1879 William H. Say ward 1887 Thomas J. Shelton 1837-1839 George S. Shepard 1881-1883 Seth Simmons 1845-1847 John K. Simpson 1832-1834 Charles W. Slack 1873-1875 Albert W. Smith 1862-1864 Charles A. Smith 1871-1873 Christopher Smith _ _ _ _ .1808-1809 Franklin Smith 1872-1874 George W. Smith 1868-1870 Stephen Smith 1862-1864 Enoch H. Snelling 1840-1842 J osiah Snelling 1803-1805 George ,K. Snow 1884-1885 Francis Southac 1823-1825 Gershom Spear 1801-1802 James Spear.. _ 1831 James Standish 1871-1873 L. Miles Standish 1854-1856 William Stearns 1844-1846 Sidney A. Stetson 1883-1885 George W. Stevens 1891 * Frederick H. Stimpson, 1848-50 and 1854 William P. Stone, jr 1892 * Caleb , Stowell .1861-1863 Ezekiel B. Studley.... ...1880-1882 Samuel F. Summers 1871-1873 Thomas W. Summer 1802-1804 Seth Thaxter 1827-1829 Ephraim Thayer 1807-1808 Chauncey Thomas. . _ 1889 John Thompson 1874-1876 John H. Thorndike 1853-1855 John P. Thorndike 1824-1825 Joseph Tilden 1837 David Tillson 1846-1848 Jacob Todd 1828-1830 Samuel Todd 1805-1807 William Todd 1800-1801 James Tolman 1860-1861 Samuel P. Tolman 1865-1867 Charles Torrey 1864-1866 * Now in office. Everett Torrey : 1877-1879 Isaac N. Tucker... ...1891 * James C. Tucker. ...1879-1881 John Tuckerman 1813-1815 Otis Tufts.... 1855-1857 Henry A. Turner.... ...1880-1882 Job Turner 1843-1845 Job A. Turner 1865-1867 Daniel Turtle 1804-1806 Samuel Tuttle'. 1810-1812 Turrell Tuttle, jr . 1824-1827 Edmund B. Vannevar 1884-1886 John Wade 1839-1840 George W. Walker 1886 Paul D. Wallis 1876-1878 Theodore Washburn 1839-1841 Horace H. Watson . _ 1889-1891 John H. Webster. 1886-1888 Benjamin T. Wells. _ .1817-1819 Charles Wells.... 1826 Charles Allen Wells 1831-1833 John B.Wells 1827 James Wentworth 1845-1847 Oliver M. Wentworth 1887 David M. Weston 1889-1890 Joel Wheeler 1849-1851 William W. Wheildon 1858-1860 Thomas J. Whidden 1873-1875 Benjamin D. Whitcomb 1878-1880 E. Noyes Whitcomb 1890 Lyman White 1870-1872 John L. Whiting 1885-1887 Thomas Whitmarsh 1830-1832 Jonathan Whitney 1810-1812 Charles Whittier ' 1875-1877 Joseph M. Wightman 1850-1853 Simon Wilkinson 1824-1826 Levi L. Willcutt 1875-1877 Charles ^Williams, jr. 1889 Samuel S. Williams 1830-1831 William Williams 1798-1800 Henry W. Wilson .1866-1868 John B. Wilson 1874-1876 James I. Wingate 1883-1885 John Winship 1825-1826 Francis B. Winter 1854-1856 MECHANIC ASSOCIATION. 539 Charles Woodbury 186()-1862 Albert J. Wright 1865-1866 Albert J. Wright (2d) 1888-1890 Committee of Relief. George Yendell 1852-1854 William N. Young 1889-1891 Erastus B. Badger.. 1874-1876, 1882-1884 Amasa W. Bailey 1885-1887 Job F. Bailey 1866-1868 George Baird 1861-1863 Ruel Baker 1838-1840 Henry H. Barton 1831-1834 Charles Bates 1844-1845 Levi Bates.: 1856 Nathaniel N. Bates 1850-1854 Benjamin Beal 1834-1836 Thacher Beal 1855 Ivory Bean 1883-1884 James Berry 1830-1832 Abraham O. Bigelow 1855-1856 Matthew Binney 1869-1871 Levi Bolles 1839-1841 and 1857 John Borrowscale 1856-1858 Thomas A. Branigan 1875-1877 Samuel R. Brintnall 1876-1879 James Brown.... 1829-1830 Walter Bryant 1846-1848 Lewis Burckes 1833-1835 Gershom T. Burnham 1877-1879 Theophilus Burr 1860-1862 Randall G. Burrell 1884-1886 William R. Carries 1846-1848 AlpheusCary ..1827 Isaac Cary 1841-1843 Edmund D. Cassell 1859-1860 Simon G. Cheever 1851-1854 William F. Chester 1874-1876 Alfred A. Childs 1880-1882 Benjamin Clapp ..1890 John C. Clapp.... 1891 * Benj amin Clark _ 1816-1828 James Clark 1832-1833 John Cotton __ --1813-1822 Nathaniel Cotton 1857-1859 C. W. Cummings : . - 1845-1847 H. B. Crooker 1847-1849 •Now in office. Perez Cushing 1867-1869 Roland Cushing 1850-1853 George Darracott 1830-1833 Jonathan Davis 1840-1842 Louis Dennis 1837-1839 John N. Devereaux, 1873-75 and 1877-79 Benjamin F. Dewing 1881-1883 William Dillaway 1834-1837 Peter E. Dolliver-._ 1885 George Domett _ _ 1825-1828 Job Drew '. 1814-1818 Charles Dupee 1843-1845 William Dutemple 1883-1885 Henry W. Dutton 1837 Ezra Dyer 1831 Isaac Easterbrook 1875-1877 William J. Ellis 1883-1885 Gerry Fairbanks 1813-1814 Jonas Fitch 1858-1860 Alonzo W. Folsom 1878-1880 David Francis 1829-1830 Walter Frost 1835-1836 Kimball Gibson 1839-1840 E. W. Goddard, 1861-62, '64-66, '68-70, '72-74, '77-78 Thomas Gogin 1879-1881 Enoch Goodwin 1865-1867 Isaiah Goodwin . . : 1879-1881-1883 William F. Goodwin .1856-1858 Mark Googins 1867-1869 John Green, jr 1833-1836 Henry Guild 1892 * Josiah M. Harding 1840-1842 Ivory Harmon 1875-1877 Jonathan Harrington 1820-1825 Isaac Harris 1819-1829 John Hatchman 1870-1872 Calvin W. Haven.. 1844-1846 Willard Hawes 1849 James G. Haynes 1872-1874 540 SUFFOLK COUNTY Leopold Herman 1842-1844 IraG. Hersey 1891 * Samuel D. Hicks, ..1871 Samuel F." Hicks .1890 * E. H. Hitchings, 1857-1859 and 1878-1880 Peter Hobart, jr 1861-1863 Albert Homer. 1868-1870 JohnC. Hubbbard 1856-1859 John Hunt 1841-1843 Henry Hutchinson 1850-1853 Francis Jackson 1824 J. Arthur Jacobs 1887-1889 David H. Jacobs 1868-1870 Oliver Johonnot 1816-1827 Edward C. Jones 1886-1888 Gilman Joslin 1884 Richard F. Keough 1849-1850 Charles G. King 1840-1850 Gedney King 1813-1815 Elias Kingsley 1847-1849 James R. Knott 1876-1879 Frederick Lane 1829-1831 William Leavitt 1865-1867 Charles Leighton 1832-1833 Edwin P. Longley 1889-1891 Abner B. Loring 1871-1873 James Loring 1865-1866 Samuel H. Loring 1864-1866 Ansel Lothrop 1859-1861 Loyal Lovejoy 1842-1844 Nathaniel M. Lowe 1880-1882 Slade Luther 1842-1844 Thomas Lyford 1854-1856 John E. Lynch .1886-1888 Thomas J. Lyons 1890 * William Marble 1863-1865 A. M. McPhail, jr 1882 Daniel Messinger 1819-1829 George N. Miller 1888-1890 William Mitchell 1846-1848 Thos. D. Morris .1871-1874 Thomas Moulton 1843-1845 Samuel Neal 1859-1860 S. H. Newman 1863-1865 Chas. C. Nichols 1831-1833 Edward T. Nichols .1887-1890 * Now in office. George Nowell 1880-1882 Charles E. Noyes 1 859-1861 William B. Oliver 1848-1850 George W. Otis 1827-1830 Charles S. Parker 1867-1869 Wm. S. Pendleton 1834-1837 James D. Percival 1892 * Lorin Peterson 1878-1880 John H. Pitman 1845-1847 CalebS. Pratt 1849-1850 John Rayner 1830-1832 Joseph S. Read 1833-1835 Stephen Rhoades 1843-1845 George L. Richardson 1869-1871 Thomas Richardson 1850-1851 Robert Ripley 1850-1855 John A. Robertson 1861-1863 William Robinson 1883-1885 Henry A. Root 1891 * Horace C. Rose 1873 George Ross 1866-1868 Zephamah Sampson . 1823-1828 G. C. Sanborn 1846-1849 Stephen Shelton 1851-1854 Thomas J. Shelton 1832-1835 JohnSikes 1844-1846 Robert Slade 1870-1872 Amasa G. Smith 1836-1838 Christopher Smith 1814-1817 George S. Smith 1838 William B. Smith 1888-1891 Zenas E. Smith _. __ 1885-1886 Enoch H. Snelling 1836-1838 James Standish _ _ 1859. 1861 George M. Starbird _ 1876-1879 William Stearns 1839-1841 George W. Stevens 1885-1887 Charles Stimpson 1837-1839 William P. Stone, jr 1889-1891 Samuel F. Summers. .1874-75, 1880-1882 Asa Swallow 1837-1839 James S. Sweet 1854-1858 William A. Swift 1862-1864 Job Taber _ 1841-1843 Fred'k H. Tarbox. _ 1888-1890 Dolphin D. Taylor 1874.1876 MECHANIC ASSOCIATION. 541 Adam W. Thaxter (3d). .... ... 1863 Ephraim Thayer 1818 James Tolman 1852-1855 Samuel P. Tolman 1862-1864 John Tuckerman 1815 Job Turner ....1834-1836 Job A. Turner 1865-1866 John Turner 1886-1887 Nathaniel W. Turner 1873-1875 Ottomar Wallburg 1892 * Paul D. Wallis 1880-1882 Jeremiah Washburn 1839-1841 Theo. Washburn 1836-1838 William Waters, jr 1892 * Aaron D. Webber 1845-1847 Charles Wells .1829-1831 JohnB. Wells 1829-1832 Oliver S. Wells 1871-1873 James Wentworth 1840-1842 ¦ Robert Wharton 1.865-1 867 Benjamin D. Whitcomb 1883-1884 Lyman White 1867-1869 Ebed Whiton 1856-1858 Abel C. Whittier 1886-1888 Simon Wilkinson 1826-1829 John B. Wilson 1871-1873 Swain Winkley 1855-1858 Charles Woodbury 1863-1865 Solomon A. Woods 1888-1890 Albert J. Wright 1862-1864 Albert J. Wright (2d) 1883-1885 George Yendell. 1850-1851 William N. Young 1886-1 888 Honorary Members. Elected. John Adams 1820 John Brooks 1820 William Gray 1820 Christopher Gore 1820 William Phillips ...1820 John Coffin Jones 1822 James Lloyd 1822 James Perkins .1822 John Phillips 1822 Marquis de Lafayette 1824 Benjamin Dearborn 1827 Levi Lincoln 1827 Harrison Gray Otis 1827 Josiah Quiney 1827 Charles Sprague 1827 Thomas L. Winthrop 1827 Nathaniel Bowditch 1828 William H. Eliot : ...1829 Edward Everett 1830 William Sturgis...'. .1830 William Sullivan... ..1830 Daniel Webster 1833 John Davis 1835 Theodore Lyman 1835 Abbott Lawrence. 1836 Elected. James T. Austin 1839 Thomas H. Perkins 1839 Joseph Story. . _ 1839 James Tallmadge 1839 George N. Briggs 1844 Marshall P. Wilder... 1852 William Appleton _ _ 1854 George R. Russell _•_ 1854 George S. Hillard. 1855 John A. Andrew 1864 Alexander H. Bullock 1865 Charles Summer. _ 1865 Samuel H. Walley 1865 Emory Washburn 1865 Henry Wilson 1865 Louis Agassiz 1866 William B. Rogers 1866 William Perkins 1868 Robert B. Forbes 1870 Peter Cooper 1872 Henry P. Kidder _ 1878 Amos A. Lawrence 1881 George C. Richardson 1881 Charles Devens . _ _ 1889 The above deceased prior to January 1, 1892. • Now in office. 542 SUFFOLK COUNTY. Elected. Robert C. Winthrop 1850 Nathaniel P. Banks 1858 Alexander H. Rice 1861 Henry L. Pierce 1878 Frederick O. Prince 1882 John D. Long 1882 Francis A. Walker 1883 , Elected. George D. Robinson.. 1884 Augustus P. Martin 1884 John D. Runkle 1884 Theodore Lyman 1885 Carroll D> Wright .1886 George F. Hoar 1889 Benjamin A. Gould 1889 Augustus Lowell 1883 Charles W. Eliot 1889 BIOGRAPHIES. THE CURTIS FAMILY. The Curtis family of Quiney, Mass. , occupies a unique place among the shoe manufacturers of New England. The history of this family in this industry began more than one hundred years ago, and furnishes the rare business phenomenon of a continued business enterprise in volving the successful participation in it of four generations of men. The founder of the business, Noah Curtis, was born in Quiney in 1772. In June, 1790, then but eighteen years of age, he opened a shop for shoemaking on Penn's Hill. For three years previous to this he had served an apprenticeship to an Englishman named Ripley. The shop was a small one in which Noah Curtis essayed to make a name and a living on his own account, but skill and industry, and an ambition to excel in doing good work, soon brought him so much custom that he had to enlarge, and in a few years he had an establishment which was not only capable of supplying the local demand, but of turning out a considerable surplus for those days. Here the Yankee enterprise of young Curtis began to manifest itself. Taking a large number of men's footwear he started out with a two-horse team to dispose of them to farmers or men living in the seaboard towns and cities southwest of Boston. His first peddling expedition proving successful, he gradually extended his trips beyond the James and Roanoke Rivers in Virginia, and early in the present century he made his first trip across the lower section of the Carolinas and into Georgia as far as Savannah. In Charleston and Savannah, especially, Mr. Curtis established a good trade. He there, as elsewhere south, found the planters and merchants demanding a certain style of shoe, known as the turned pump, with high heels, fancy shank, and with uppers made of the finest and best calf skin that could be obtained. For many years — in fact up to about 1825 — Mr. Curtis made regular trips to the southern country, starting 544 SUFFOLK COUNTY. from Quiney with a two-horse covered wagon filled with from 800 to 1,000 pairs of pumps, and never turning back until he had reached his southern destination and had disposed of his entire stock on the way, or when he reached there. The character of his work was so excellent that he became so favorably known at the South that the rich planters there gave him their measure and ordered shoes ahead ; that is, for de livery on his next semi-annual visit. In this way he established a very large and prosperous business, as can be inferred from the circumstance that the shoes he made were wholesaled by him to dealers for twelve dollars per pair — a large price for those days. After disposing of his shoes Mr. Curtis made his return trip, also one of profit, by laying in a stock of hardware and other manufactured articles imported by the merchants of Charleston, which he disposed of at a good profit on his way homeward. Thus we see the earlier manufacturers of Massachu setts had not only to make their leather, thread, wax, and shoes, but they had to find a market for them as well, doing a wholesale and retail business from a moving store on four wheels. The peddling expeditions of Mr. Curtis must have been rich in adven ture, though we have but few records of what they were. It is stated that Daniel Webster, at a time when his fame was becoming national, availed himself of Mr. Curtis's conveyance as far as Washington rather than take the stage-coach lines. In this connection it may be said that Noah Curtis, in his day, among the people jiorth and south with whom he became acquainted, was like Webster himself, an almost national character. With his blue coat and brass buttons, and his well known face and figure, he was to be found frequently at Wilde's Hotel, on Elm street, in Boston, and was, in fact, to be found among the latest of his contemporaries who made that hotel their stopping place in this city. After giving up his trips to the South, Mr. Curtis continued in busi ness up to 1840, when he retired with a competence. Previous to 1833, or for a period of forty-three years, the style of the firm was Noah Curtis. At this time, being sixty-one years of age, he took into part nership his son Benjamin, who had learned the trade and been associ ated with him in business for some years. Before this time the sign had read " Noah Curtis, Boot Manufacturer," but when the son became a partner the sign was changed by adding a line underneath, and "Ben, too," which illustrated the quaint humor which existed in the elder Curtis, and used to cause many a broad smile on the faces of BIOGRAPHIES. 515 strangers, whose amusement was probably much enjoyed by the senior proprietor. When Benjamin Curtis & Co. took the business in 1840, this sign came down and a new and conventional one succeeded it. At this time Benjamin Curtis was thirty years of age, and he conducted the business alone until 1859, when he admitted his two sons, Benja min F. Curtis and Noah Curtis 2d, and his brother, Thomas Curtis, into partnership. The new firm was organized to do a wholesale and retail business in Boston, as well as the manufacturing business in Quiney. The former branch of the business was established at 108 Hanover street, by buying out C. T. P. Appleton, a well known retailer of boots and shoes, whose store was reputed to be the finest of any in. the country at that time. The two sons, Benjamin F. Curtis and Noah Curtis, managed this store, and the father, Benjamin Curtis, and his brother Thomas, conducted the Quiney shop. Business increased in both branches, and a new and larger factory was built at the corner of Summer and Gay streets, Quiney. About 1865 the Boston wholesale business assumed such proportions that it was deemed best to sell the retail business at 108 Hanover street and remove the wholesale branch to more commodious quarters, which were secured at 62 Milk street. The trade of the Boston store at this time was principally with New England retailers, although there were a good many customers scattered through the western and southern sections of the country. The present Noah Curtis was the traveler of the house, and was remarkably successful as a salesman. In 1872 the Boston branch of the firm was burned out by the great fire of that year which swept so many millions of dollars out of Boston's accumulated wealth and ruined so many firms. The house of Curtis & Co. was not seriously crippled by this disaster, however, and soon re newed the wholesale business at 147 Federal street, where it prospered under the same management and firm name until 1876, when Noah Curtis, the head of the present house of N. Curtis & Co., bought the entire business, and his father, Benjamin Curtis, retired at the age of sixty-six years. Benjamin F. Curtis, the other son, also withdrew to engage in the lumber business, and Thomas Curtis, uncle of the pur chasing partner, started a shop in Quiney to manufacture boots and shoes on his own account. The business of manufacturing at Quiney and the wholesaling branch in Boston, were now under the sole charge of Noah Curtis, grandson of the founder of the business. Mr. Curtis 546 SUFFOLK COUNTY.' continued the business alone from 1876 up to 1884, when Walter B. Curtis, his son, was admitted as partner, and the firm name became N. Curtis & Co. , thus completing the succession of that somewhat rare ex perience in business in this country of four generations engaged in the same firm and same line of industry, and what is more remarkable still, is that the experience of this Massachusetts firm covers in itself the en tire history of shoemaking in this country from its crudest and smallest beginnings to its present advanced condition of development through improved labor saving machinery, which represents to-day in Massa chusetts alone an annual value of over $100,000,000. The Boston house of N. Curtis & Co. is now located at 171 Congress street, where it was removed in 1887, having a few years previously occupied the premises 74 Federal street, which proved inadequate, and were relinquished for the present quarters. The record of the business of this house is remarkable, not only for its having been for more than one hundred years handed down from-father to son, but equally note worthy in the fact that never since the grandfather of the present Noah Curtis began business has there been a business obligation unfulfilled, or a single smirch upon the integrity of those who have managed its affairs. Its history has been one of industry, enterprise, ability and honesty. It is not therefore strange that the business has prospered under such management, or that the name of Curtis in the shoe trade is a synonym of the best in boots and shoes. The following additional facts concerning the personal history of the men who have been prominently identified with the business during the last one hundred years will not be without interest to the general reader. Noah Curtis, the founder of the house, died in Quiney, Dec. 2, 1856. He was twice married and had eleven children, eight sons and three daughters. He was for many years a selectman of Quiney. Besides his son Benjamin, who was his partner in the business, he had five other sons in the shoe manufacturing business. Adam and Samuel, under the name of Adam Curtis & Co., were among the most prominent manufact urers of shoes of their time. Charles and Lewis were also prominent shoe manufacturers, and Thomas was of the firm of Benjamin Curtis & Co., of Quiney, and T. Curtis & Co., shoe jobbers in Boston. Benjamin Curtis, the father of the present senior member of the firm of N. Curtis & Co., died at Quiney, July 18, 1889. The Boston Post shortly after his death paid the following 'tribute to his memory: " In BIOGRAPHIES. 547 the death of Mr. Benjamin Curtis, which took place oh Thursday, the city of Quiney is deprived of one of its best known citizens — a native and continuous resident — -a shoe manufacturer for nearly half a century, and a business man whose word was never questioned, and-who leaves a record for honesty and integrity that is beyond price. Mr. Curtis in early life identified himself with the Democratic party, and for many years served as town treasurer. He was one of the earliest patrons of the Post, and enjoyed the personal friendship of Colonel Greene, its founder, for many years. He retired from active business in 1876, be ing succeeded by his son, Noah Curtis. He leaves a widow and two sons. His age was seventy-nine years and three months." Noah Curtis, the senior of the present firm, was born in Quiney, in 1839. He was the first of his family to go into business outside of Quiney, and relates with relish the fact that when his father proposed sending him to Boston with his brother to take charge of the Boston store, he overheard one of his uncles remonstrating with his father upon such a course as being exceedingly foolish and prophesying that the end would be disastrous to the boys and to the business. The result has hardly justified the prophecy. As a business man Mr. Curtis has been highly successful, and possesses the qualities essential to the man agement of large and diversified interests. While closely watching the details of his business and intelligently directing its operations, he does not forget to cultivate his social side as well as his commercial faculties. He is naturally of a genial, social nature, and easily makes and holds his friends. His fiftieth birthday was celebrated by a reception at the Suffolk Club, one of Boston's oldest and most select clubs, of which he has long been a popular member, Mr. Curtis has always been promi nently and actively identified with sports and out-of-door life. He is a member of several yacht clubs, was one of the organizers of. the Men- key Island Sporting Club of North Carolina, and is one of the most act ive members of the Castle Harmony Club of Harmony, Me., in the Moosehead Lake region. This is a fishing club, and its premises are said to be the best equipped of any in the country. He is also a mem ber of several social clubs of Boston. Mr. Curtis lived in Quiney, his native town, until 1874, since which he has resided in Boston. He was married in 1862 to Miss M. Annie Bailey, of Scituate. Walter B. Curtis, the junior partner of N. Curtis &Co., and only son of Noah Curtis, was born in Quiney, May 8, 1863, and is a graduate of Rice School, Boston. After leaving school he entered the employ of a 548 SUFFOLK COUNTY. well known retail shoe dealer of Boston. At the age of sixteen he be came a partner with his father, and is now actively in charge of the sale department of the business. He has had a careful training in the busi ness and can be safely trusted to perpetuate the good name and pros perity of the house which his great-grandfather founded more than one hundred years ago. GEORGE A. MANSFIELD. George A. Mansfield was born in Warren, Mass., December 24, 1824. He was the son of Jacob Mansfield, a lawyer, and his mother was a daughter of Major General Cutler of Revolutionary fame. He was also a nephew of the late Chief Justice Pliny Merick and Judge Moir. A cousin of his sat on the bench of the Supreme Court of the United States. His father dying when he was quite young, the boys were forced to earn all they could, farming and doing odd chores. Suffering from an injured arm, at fourteen years of age, he started for Boston to get better surgical aid, and to satisfy his growing ambition. For some time he met with little success, but finally found an opening in a wholesale boot and shoe store on Blackstone street. Subsequently he bought out a similar concern on Faneuil Hall Square, and commenced business for himself. Like many other Boston merchants, he began at the foot of the ladder and climbed to the top by industry, uprightness and genuine ability. Steadily expanding and increasing his business, he found it advisable to take in as partners two young and active business men, Joseph B. Lincoln arid E. E. Batchelder. The firm of Geo. A. Mans field & Co. was then formed. At the age of forty-five poor health drove him from his business, and he sold out to his partners, the business ever since having been con tinued under the well known name of Batchelder & Lincoln. Mr. Mansfield was married in 1853 to Ellen A. White, daughter of Josiah G. White, a wealthy and much beloved citizen of Methuen, Mass. He had five children, three sons and two daughters. Mr. Mansfield was a resident of Melrose, Mass. , for over thirty years, and during this time was held in the highest esteem by his fellow citizens, who repeatedly charged him with important public trusts. He served the town as selectman, and was on the School Board when the present BIOGRAPHIES. 549 High School was built. He was one of the committee appointed by the town to superintend the building of the magnificent Town Hall. He was the original mover in establishing the Melrose Savings Bank. He was the first treasurer, and held the position for several succeeding years. Mr. Mansfield was a self-made man in every sense of the word. No one appreciated more thoroughly than he the real worth in man. He admired energy, pluck and honesty. One ambition influenced him, as he saw his family growing up about him, and that was that they should be educated and equipped for the work of life as thoroughly as he could make them ; and it was his good fortune to live long enough to see this ambition fulfilled in a large way. Among the originators of religious work Mr. Mansfield was promi nent, and although for many years a member of the orthodox church at the Centre, he was for the few years preceding his death connected with the church at the Highlands. So long as his strength permitted, he attended the meetings constantly, and many felt indebted to him for his thoughtful and hopeful words. His mind was of a rather high order, and the spiritual side of Christianity found in him a sympathetic believer. E. E. BATCHELDER. Edward Everett Batchelder was born in Wenham, Mass., Oc tober 7, 1835, and was a son of Captain Edmund and Lydia (Kimball) Batchelder. His early education was received in the schools of his native town, and completed at Atkinson. In 1855 he came to Boston and became a clerk in the boot and shoe store of James Perkins, with whom he remained until 1866, when he became associated in business with George A. Mansfield, of Faneuil Hall Square, with whom, in con nection with Joseph B. Lincoln, was formed the partnership of George A. Mansfield & Co., which, continued until 1869. He then, with Joseph B. Lincoln, formed the firm of Batchelder & Lincoln, with which he was identified until his death, and to his great industry, energy and excellent business capacity, the prominent position which this house early gained was largely due. He was not only a man of great exec utive ability and keen business foresight, but possessed that rare qual ity of make-up which inspires confidence -and is inseparable from the 550 SUFFOLK COUNTY. highest personal success. Although he died in comparative early man hood, he had already achieved notable business success which gave promise of a career of great usefulness. Although absorbed in busi ness, he took a deep interest in city and national affairs. He was a Republican in political faith, and was a member of the Common Coun cil for the years 1867, 1868 and 1869, serving on important committees, where his advice was much sought and prized. He early became a member of Revere Lodge of Masons, and was also a member of St. Andrew's Chapter. About a year and a half preceding his death Mr. Batchelder's health began to fail, and he spent the summer of 1877 in Europe, hoping to restore it. On his return, finding himself unimproved, he went South in January, whence he returned home four days before his death, which occurred May i, 1878. He was buried in the old cemetery of his native town, where his ancestors have been buried for nearly two hundred and fifty years. He died when seemingly his life's work had been but fairly begun, but the results of his labors were far reaching, and testify most strongly to the native ability and strong character of the man. No one had more loyal or devoted friends. He was social in nature, intelligent, warm-hearted and generous, incapable of meanness, and of the strictest integrity. In all the relations of life he was true to every duty, and his memory will be cherished by all who ever came within the radius of his vigorous personality. Mr. Batchelder was married in 1869 to Miss Hattie L., daughter of Mr. S. C. Whitcher, of Concord, N. H. , who still survives her hus band. JOSEPH B. LINCOLN. Joseph Bates Lincoln, sole proprietor of the widely known shoe jobbing house of Batchelder & Lincoln, was born in North Cohasset, Mass., July 3, 1836, and is a son of Ephraim and Betsey (Bates) Lin coln. His father was a farmer, and the youth of our subject was spent on a farm, his life during this period being similar in experience with that of the average New England farmer's sons. At the age of seven teen he graduated at the Cohasset High School, and for three months thereafter attended Comer's Commercial College in Boston. In June, 1854, he came to Boston to seek his fortune. Here he began his busi- '¦WMCWtrrullBniW BIOGRAPHIES. 551 ness career as a clerk in the retail boot and shoe store of D. F. Carle ton. Later on he entered the employ of J. A. Esterbrook, who was engaged in a similar line of trade on Merchants' Row. In 1859, with George C. Richards, he succeeded Mr. Esterbrook, under the firm name of Richards & Lincoln. During the same year he was married to Miss Anne Preston, of Boston. About three years later Mr. Lincoln purchased his partner's interest and conducted the business alone until July, 1866, when, with George A. Mansfield, E. E. Batchelder and him self as equal partners, was formed the shoe jobbing house of George A. Mansfield & Co. In 1869 Mr. Mansfield retired from the firm, when Mr. Lincoln and Mr. Batchelder became proprietors, under the firm name of Batchelder & Lincoln. Mr. Batchelder, whose sketch appears elsewhere, died in May, 1878, after which Mr. Lincoln purchased his deceased partner's interest, and from that time to the present has been sole proprietor, but has continued to retain the name of Batchelder & Lincoln, which to-day represents a house unexcelled in the extent of its business transactions by any concern in its line in. the United States, and probably in the world. Indeed, the history of the progress of the shoe jobbing trade of this country shows no more substantial growth than that of Batchelder & Lincoln. Beginning with limited capital and against well organized and strong competition, a constantly increasing business has been done during every year of its existence, but it is dur ing the years that Mr. Lincoln has been sole proprietor and manager that the most remarkable strides have been made, the extent of its business operations for 1892 reaching the large sum of over $4,500,000, a record unequaled by any similar business concern. Such an achieve ment in any line of legitimate trade of necessity must be based on sound business principles, and represents not only vigorous and untir ing personal efforts, but rare business judgment and sagacity. It is a fact generally known, throughout the trade, at least, that there is probably no business of equal magnitude in New England that so thoroughly represents the work of one man as does this concern reflect the individual exertions of Mr. Lincoln. What it is to-day, he has made it. The methods which have largely been responsible for its success have originated and been carried through by him. One of the distinctive features of the house has been strict adherence to cer tain conditions of trade, well known among shoe jobbers as the New England method, and several years ago only confined to the territory of New England. The West and other portions of the country for a 552 SUFFOLK COUNTY. long time refused to be governed by the conditions required in this part of the country. Many New England jobbers, induced by hopes of greater profits, but incurring thereby greater risks, were led to relax the rules here in force in catering to outside trade in the West and other parts of the country, which eventually, in many cases, brought about great losses, if not failures. Mr. Lincoln, however, preferred to do business according to sound business principles, such as prevailed in New England, and his house became what it has since continued to be, a distinctive New England house. Close adherence to this principle has resulted in building up a trade secure and firm, and which has constantly increased the confidence in which this house is held. To day the methods for which he has unswervingly contended have been adopted throughout the country, and so firmly is he entrenched in his own field that at least two-thirds of his immense business comes from New England, although in every part of the United States his trade is constantly growing, this being especially true of New York, Pennsyl vania, Ohio and Maryland. Mr. Lincoln began his present line of business at 36 Faneuil Hall Square, his house being among the few jobbing concerns not destroyed in the great fire of 1872. The constantly increasing magnitude of the business after this memorable event demanded larger quarters, and in 1874 a removal was made to the present quarters, Nos. 94, 96 and 98 Federal street. Here six floors are occupied, and two floors of the ad joining building, giving a floor space of 50,000 square feet, every por tion of which is required for the carrying of their immense stock, averaging a value of $500,000, and for the transaction of business. These quarters during business hours are a very bee-hive of industry. The various departments are under the most rigid system, and the whole business, necessitating the^ employment of one hundred and thirty-eight persons, moves with clock-like regularity. So systematic are the arrangements, and such is the discipline maintained, that even in the extreme rush of business everything is done with regularity and precision, making comparatively easy the handling— as has been done in one day— of nine hundred cases and two hundred bundles. Mr. Lincoln, by his liberality of treatment, has surrounded himself with a corps of assistants not only especially reliable and of marked ability in their special departments, but who- are in lively sympathy with the head of the house, and thoroughly devoted to his interests. Some of his most valued assistants have been for years in his employ. Mr. BIOGRAPHIES. 553 Lincoln is quick to perceive the strong points of those in his employ and in a substantial way to show a proper appreciation of their services. He knows how to handle a large force of employees, and by just and considerate treatment creates feelings of mutual interest and regard. The personality of a man who during the last few years has devel oped a business of such magnitude as Mr. Lincoln's, must be of a strong and vigorous type. It is needless to say that he has been a hard worker; such results as have crowned his efforts do not come by chance. He has the happy faculty of being popular without the sacri fice of independence or the possession of pleasing but negative qual ities. No man is more firm when, after due and careful deliberation, he determines upon a course of action, or is less apt to be influenced by doings of others. He maintains the most careful supervision over all the details of his business, few concerns of equal importance reflecting so thoroughly the purposes and plans of its chief. He is liberal in his treatment of customers, is eminently fair in all of his transactions with them, and retains their trade despite strong competition, and even under conditions which others believed would loosen his hold upon the trade, it on the contrary steadily increased year by year, a result surprising even to his friends. While strict in his requirements of those in his employ, he is so fair in his treatment of them that the strongest bond of sympathy and good-will exists between them. Na turally a man of generous impulses, his sympathies are easily aroused and never appealed to without ready response, every year devoting large sums to charitable and philanthropic objects. He is social in nature, and finds his chief enjoyment in intercourse with congenial friends, among whom he is always a welcome guest. Mainly through Mr. Lincoln's efforts was inaugurated in 1888 the Boot and Shoe Club, which has had a very successful career, and has had a highly beneficial effect upon the interest it represents. Mr. Lincoln is often referred to as the father of the club, and upon its organization was strongly urged to accept the position of president. He refused this honor, however, but accepted the position of first chairman of the executive committee, and has always borne an active part in the management of the club. He has been president of the Narragansett Boot and Shoe Club, and is now its vice-president. He is also one of the executive board of the New England Shoe and Leather Association, and was a member of the World's Fair Committee. 70 554 SUFFOLK COUNTY. Politically, Mr. Lincoln has always been a Democrat, but never sought or desired political position, the demands of his business being such as to preclude active participation in political affairs, even had he inclination in that direction. Two years ago, however, upon the urgent solicitation of his friends, he accepted the Democratic nomination for representative to the Legislature of Massachusetts in the Fourth Plym outh District, a strongly Republican district, and, although defeated, received a most flattering vote. In 1892 he was again a candidate, and was elected, being the first Democrat ever elected in the district. Upon the organization of the House, he was placed on the Mercantile Committee, a very complimentary appointment for a new member, and the only position he desired or felt he could give the time to properly attend to. Outside of the time and attention his great business inter ests demand, Mr. Lincoln has found but little opportunity to devote to other enterprises. Although often urged to go upon the directory of large enterprises, he has refused to do so, not wishing to accept a posi tion for the mere honor it would bestow if he could not render the service it would demand. He has, however, been a director, since its organization, of the Dennison Land and Investment Compaq. He has been quite an extensive traveler, and, chiefly for needed recreation, has made four trips to Europe. Socially, Mr. Lincoln is very popular, and his character for integrity is above reproach. ELISHA S. CONVERSE. Elisha Slade Converse was born in Needham, Mass., July 28, 1820, and is the youngest child of Elisha and Betsey (Wheaton) Converse. He is of the eighth generation removed from ' Deacon Ed ward Convers, who, with his wife, came to America in 1630 and settled in Charlestown. This American progenitor of the family was a man of considerable influence, of great strength and energy of character, and a rigid Puritan. He figures largely in the colonial records of Charlestown and Woburn. In 1631 he established the first ferry be tween Charlestown and Boston. As early as 1634 he was chosen select man of Charlestown and annually re-elected until 1640. In the latter year, with a small company, he founded the town of Woburn, and was intimately connected with its early religious and material progress. BIOGRAPHIES. 555 He erected the first dwelling-house in Woburn and was one of the first Board of Selectmen, being annually elected until his death in 1663. A record of the descendants of Edward Convers has been carefully com piled by William G. Hill, of Maiden, and it forms an interesting ad dition to the genealogical history of New England. The conspicuous traits of this family have been strong religious convictions, unflinching integrity, and clear-headed business sagacity. Four years after the birth of our subject his parents removed to Woodstock, Conn., where he remained until he was twelve years of age, . when he came to Boston, where for a short time he lived with an elder brother, James W. Converse, and attended the McLean School. He subsequently entered the employ of Aaron Butler, who was carrying on a general store business in dry goods and boots and shoes, attending school at the same time. He remained with Mr. Butler for nearly three years, when he returned to his parents in Woodstock, Conn., where he attended school and worked on a farm until he was seventeen. He then went to Thompson and engaged with Albert G. Whipple to learn the clothier's trade. Before he had served his time, at the age of nine teen he became a partner with Mr. Whipple. They continued to con duct the business together until Mr. Converse was twenty-two years of age, when he purchased Mr. Whipple's interest and continued the busi ness on his own account. In September, 1844, he again removed to Boston and engaged in the wholesale shoe and leather business with Benjamin Poland under the firm name of Poland & Converse." In 1847 he removed his place of residence to Stoneham, Mass. , at a point then known as "Red Mills," near where he and his partner had a branch business of grinding and preparing drugs, spices, dye-stuffs, etc. Two years later the partnership was dissolved and Mr. Converse formed a new copartnership with John Robson under the firm name of Converse & Robson. In 1850 Mr. Converse removed his residence to Maiden, Mass., which has ever since been his home. The following year the Maiden Bank was organized, when he became one of its directors. In 1856 he was elected president of this bank, to which office he has been annually re-elected to the present time. During the year 1853 he was elected treasurer of the Boston Rubber Shoe Company, and with this extensive corporation, elsewhere full)' described in this volume, as its treasurer and general manager, he has been most actively and success fully engaged ever since. Besides his important position in the man agement of this great business, Mr. Converse is a director of the 556 SUFFOLK COUNTY. National Exchange Bank of Boston ; president of the Rubber Manu facturers' Mutiial Insurance Company, and one of the trustees of the Boston Five Cents Savings Bank. He is also a trustee of Wellesley College. Early selecting Maiden as his place of residence, Mr. Con verse has ever since been a most prominent factor in its religious, social and material development. In 1878 and 1879 he represented Maiden and Everett in the lower branch of the State Legislature, and in 1880 and 1881 he was elected as their representative in the Senate. In 1882, when Maiden had been incorporated a city, Mr. Converse was elected, by an almost unanimous vote, as its first mayor, the honor being conferred upon him in recognition of his untiring efforts to in crease the attractiveness and promote the prosperity of the town. Mr. Converse was married, September 4, 1843, to Mary Diana Ed- mands. Four children have been born to them, Frank E., Mary Ida, Harry E., and Francis Eugene Converse. Their eldest son, Frank E., who died December 15, 1863, was at the time assistant cashier of the Maiden Bank, and was murdered by E. W. Green, postmaster of Mai den, Green's motive being robbery of the bank. In memorj' of this son, Mr. and Mrs. Converse built and presented to the city of Maiden, in 1885. a large building of great architectural beauty and finish, to be known as the Converse Memorial, to be devoted to uses of a free public library and works of art. Their second son, Harry Elisha, fills an im portant position in his father's business, where he is a valuable assistant. At the "age of twelve years Mr. Converse united with the Baptist church and ever since has been a consistent member of this denomina tion, and for many years held the office of deacon in the Maiden Bap tist Church. Mr. Converse has long been a force for good in the community where most of the years of his life have been passed. His influence has always been on the side of progress and prosperity. Of unquestioned integrity and superior business qualifications great suc cess has attended him in every direction. Generous and public spirited, he has been a useful citizen in promoting every cause which appealed to him as being worthy of support. Mr. Converse is now seventy-two years of age, and has been actively engaged in business for more than fifty-three years. BIOGRAPHIES. 557 CHARLES NEWTON PROUTY. Charles Newton Prouty, born in Spencer, Mass., October 6, 1842, comes from a family for many years prominent in New England, and for nearly three quarters of a century identified with the boot and shoe industry. The first of the family in America was Richard Prouty, who lived in Scituate, Mass., in 1667, and from whom Charles N. is removed five generations. His father, Isaac Prouty, was born December 9, 1798, and was the founder of the great boot and shoe industry of Isaac Prouty & Co. , with the later development of which the son has been so closely identified. It therefore seems appropriate, in order to impart a true idea of the growth and progress of this industrial enterprise, to give a brief sketch of its founder. Isaac Prouty began the occupation of making boots to order from measure in a small room in his own dwelling-house in North Spencer, in 1820. His work increased to such an extent that he found it neces sary to employ help to meet the demands for his goods, and was soon forced to build a small one and a half story building in which he could extend his facilities for manufacturing. This building, together with a barn and other store houses, served his purpose until 1855. This year he purchased the homestead of Rev, Levi Packard in the center of the town and built a factory on the westerly part of the lot. In 1856 he moved his business into the new building and made the dwelling his residence. For those days such a factory was a large one, being thirty by sixty feet, with three stories and a basement. The system and man agement was now thoroughly reorganized and a partnership formed with two of his sons, Lewis W. and George P. , under the firm na.me of Isaac Prouty & Co. The machinery, which they now introduced, enabled them advantageously to do away with much hand labor. This was really the first aggressive step taken by Mr. Prouty, looking towards an extension of business, and the success which in the following six years attended the undertaking proved its wisdom. His aim was to build up and develop a large manufacturing enterprise, and in this effort he was heartily secbnded by Lewis W., who, under his father's direction, had become superintendent and business manager. In 1862 the increased business required a larger manufacturing capac ity. To meet this demand they purchased the " Mason Property " and erected a building forty-two by one hundred and four feet, four stories high, adding at the same time an engine and boiler to furnish power and 558 SUFFOLK COUNTY. heat. This new factory was first occupied in January, 1864. By these improvements and with the addition of valuable room and machinery adapted to power, they made a radical change both in mode and facility of doing business. The firm early became convinced that machinery was eventually to be an important factor not only in cheapening the cost of manufactured goods, but also in enabling the manufacturer to produce a greater quantity in a given time, and they were foremost to introduce such machines as promised good work and quick results. The father lived to see the enterprise outgrow these accommodations and to plan for further enlargement of the factory. But while in the midst of these improvements he was taken sick with pneumonia, and died after an illness of seven days. Five days later his son, Lewis W. , died also of the same disease. Isaac Prouty was rated as a careful and shrewd business man. He gave to his entire business his individual attention, watching closely every detail, and scanning as closely the economy of the various depart ments. He believed in the old maxim " economy is wealth," and his practice of it was one of the important distinguishing features of his life, as well as the corner-stone of the business which he planned with such care. His customs and habits were those of the New Englander of an earlier date, and although he clung tenaciously to the social and domes tic habits formed in early life, in his business he was decidedly modern and progressive. He died at the age of seventy-three years, but re mained vigorous and attentive to the demands of business up to the be ginning of his last illness. By the death of his father and brother Charles N. Prouty was sud denly confronted by great business responsibilities. He had, however, been carefully trained for the work, and was well prepared successfully to carry it forward. During his boyhood he lived at home attending the public schools and working about home and in the factory. At the age of seventeen he was employed for a year as a clerk in the country store of Grout, Prouty & Co. , and the experience he gained by the con tact with people and matters pertaining to business he has always re garded as a favorable one. From eighteen to twenty years of age he attended school at Wesleyan Academy, Wilbraham, Mass. At the close of his last school year, 1862, he returned home, and in January, 1864, was made a partner in the firm of Isaac Prouty & Co. For four years previous to the death of his father and brother, which occurred early in 1872, he acted as superintendent of the labor department of the factory, BIOGRAPHIES. 559 employing the help and having the general charge of the manufactur ing interests. The death of these two members of the firm following so closely upon each other, were events of extraordinary importance to the surviving partners, and how to meet the situation and overcome it was their first care and thought. It is true that each had ably filled a position in the prosecution of the business thus far, but to the knowl edge of the markets for buying and selling, the financial management, and relationship between manufacturer and customer, they were stran gers, as these duties had been exclusively under the attention of the father and older brother. A new partnership, composed of George P., Charles N. and Jason W., a younger brother, was at once formed, retaining, however, the old firm name of Isaac Prouty & Co. Each' entered upon his duties full of confidence and hope, and each took a position in the manage ment of the business where he thought he could best promote the in terest of the firm. Many of the important details were assumed by George P. and Jason W. , while, by common consent, the general man agement fell to the lot of Charles N. Under the circumstances this was a difficult task for him to perform, but as time passed on, and he . became more familiar with the new duties, he gave evidence by his management that he was abundantly able to assume the trust so sud denly imposed upon him. The business received a fresh impetus under the new order, and in a short time it became necessary to increase the facilities by additions and extensions, both in buildings and motive power. These have been made from time to time, until at present the building containing the boot and shoe departments measures 615 feet in length by 42 feet in width, and is six stories high. There are also two large brick storehouses for leather and other materials and for manufactured goods, and still another one, of brick, used for the manufacture of boot and shoe, boxes, paper cartons, lasts, etc. The main building is divided into four fire proof .sections, and the whole establishment is provided with the latest improvements for protection against fire, by being thoroughly fitted with automatic sprinklers and two good supplies of water, also a one thousand gallon underwriters' steam fire pump, run by a quick steam ing boiler of one hundred and fifty horse-power. These are required by the Mutual Insurance Company, who demand that the buildings shall be self-protecting from fire. The factory is lighted by incandes cent electric lights, and the motive power for the whole establishment 560 SUFFOLK COUNTY. is supplied by a three hundred horse-power engine and four one hun dred horse-power boilers. In 1872 the firm manufactured 20,000 cases of boots, valued at $500,000; in 1886 the combined value of the boots and shoes was more than $2,000,000; while in 1892 the product amounted to 125,000 cases, or 1,500,000 pairs of boots and shoes, valued at $2,250,000. Mr. Prouty married, May 25, 1864, Jennie A., daughter of Selby Richardson, of Spencer. They have three sons and two daughters. The sons are being educated with the idea in view of aiding in main taining this vast industry, which fully sustains the claim of being the largest and most complete boot and shoe industry in the world. W. H. WHITE. Among the manufacturers of leather, William Henry White holds a unique place. His personal efforts in this important industry have been largely along original lines, and the success he has achieved has given him deserved prominence. He was born in Woburn, Mass., Oc tober 26, 1829, and is a son of the late Col. Samuel B. White, of that town. His ancestry on both sides was of the pure New England type, and possessed in a marked degree the energy, courage and inflexible principles that characterized the earlier settlers of this country. His father was the first treasurer of the town of Winchester, and also took a prominent part in establishing a public library in that town. He was the first commander of the Woburn Mechanics' Phalanx, a military organization of prominence for the past sixty years. He was a man of strong character, and from him our subject inherited many of the traits which have made his life a success. Mr. White was educated in the public schools and the Academy of Woburn. Upon leaving school, at the age of sixteen, he entered the employ of Joel Whitney, and served an apprenticeship of four years at the machinist trade. After thoroughly mastering his trade he secured a position in the locomotive shops of the Boston and Lowell Railroad at East Cambridge, and was soon after promoted to engineer, running an engine between Boston and Lowell. Later on he was made over seer of the locomotive repair shops of the Western Division of the New York and Erie Railroad at Hornellsville, N. Y, At the age of twenty- BIOGRAPHIES. 561 two he was appointed to the responsible position of assistant master mechanic of the same road> at Dunkirk, N. Y. While in this position he was induced to return to Woburn (now Winchester) to engage in the manufacture of mahogany and other fancy woods, which was then a thriving and profitable business in that town. He accepted a part nership in an established concern, and for three years did a profitable trade, at the end of which time his mill was destroyed by fire, entailing a heavy loss. In 1855 Mr. White turned his attention to the work of tanning and manufacturing of leather. He built a tannery at Winchester, but had barely gotten his enterprise under successful way when the financial crisis of 1857 forced him to suspend operations. The following year he went to Montreal, Canada, where he planned and constructed large leather works for a Boston firm, and for some years served as principal manager of this enterprise: Preferring, however, to reside and edu cate his family in New England, he gave up his position and returned to Lowell in 1863. He was at this period of his busy life still a young man, full of resources and with a valuable experience in the line in which he was later on to achieve such a high degree of success. For several years he had made the manufacture of glove leather a careful study, and upon his return to Lowell he embarked in this line of work, and speedily gained an enviable reputation for the quality of his pro duction. He later on increased his business by manufacturing gloves from leather prepared by himself. Up to this time Mr. White_ had conducted the business alone, but in 1867 his brother became associated with him as partner, and later on a Mr. Kilburn joined the firm, which then became known as the White Bros. & Kilburn. The gloves manu factured were of the highest quality, and coming into the market at a time when, in a measure, imported goods of this character had been cut off by the civil war, a large business was established. The quality of their product not only took the highest rank with the best New England trade, but was considered the best grade of goods manufac tured in the country. After eight years of successful operation in manufacturing gloves this line of work was relinquished and the man ufacture of fancy leather was undertaken, at which time the firm was reconstructed as White Brothers & Sons. This style continued until 1887, when the firm was again reorganized, this time under the name of White Brothers & Co. , which included the senior partner and his three sons, Edward L. , Henry Kirke, and William T. White. Edward 71 562 SUFFOLK COUNTY. L., the eldest son, had already been a partner in the old concern. He, as well as the other sons, has had practical experience in every part of the business, and all three not only understand every detail of the business, but are men of superior business qualifications and ably sup plement their father in carrying on the business. The goods they manufacture are of extraordinary delicacy of finish, and are made in various grades and colors under a process known only to their house. They have introduced several specialties which originated with, them selves which have opened a wide field for the use of leather in direc tions never before applied. They have established agencies in the leading centers of Europe, viz. : London, Northampton, Paris, Frank fort, Vienna, and in Sydney and Melbourne, Australia. At home their productions are in demand, not only for boots and shoes, but for pocket-books, piano and organ manufacturers, upholsterers, decorators, and are adapted to many of the art industries. This firm was the largest producers in this country of alligator and lizard skins at the time when these skins were popular, and among their latest novelties has been their ooze leather, produced in various colors and finish, much resembling silk plush or velvet. The success which has been attained with their various productions has been remarkable. It can, however, be easily accounted for. From the start only the best has been -made, quality, not quantity, has been the motto of the house, and to-day their productions are unsurpassed by any concern of its kind in the world. They have two factories in Lowell, the old factory, known as the Bellevue Factory, and one recently completed, known as the Fort Hill Factory. The latter is, beyond a doubt, in appointments and construc tion, the most complete factory of its kind in the world. It is a brick structure, 400 by 125 in dimensions, and five and six stories in height. Large sums were expended in procuring an unrivaled supply of water of the best quality for the purposes required, and no expense was spared in every other direction to make it a model factory. In ventilation, in means for protection from fire, and in convenience for handling pro ducts and material, it is unsurpassed. The construction of this factory was largely carried out on plans outlined by Mr. White, and all the details of the work was closely supervised by him, a work for which he was admirably qualified, both by experience and natural mechanical abilities. Their two factories cover an area of eight acres, giving facilities for handling five thousand skins per day, the manufacture of which necessitating the employment of 600 hands. The sale of their BIOGRAPHIES. 563 product extends all over the civilized world and is constantly increas ing. That they are not only the largest producers in their special lines in the United States, but practically without rivals in the peculiar quality and high finish of their goods, is freely acknowledged. Mr. White, the creator and founder of this now extensive business, is still the vigorous head of the house. He has always enjoyed remarkable good health and has the appearance of a man much younger than his years. He has led a very busy life, but it has made but little inroad upon a naturally robust constitution, and he has every promise of many years of active usefulness. He possesses in a marked degree inventive genius and has decided tastes for work requiring constructive ability and original investigation. He is of a mechanical turn of mind, and the specialties of the firm were largely the result'of his own inventions. He is of retiring, modest disposition, but a man of refined and cultured tastes and. of generous and philanthropic spirit. He has little fondness for public life or for positions which would bring him prominently be fore the public, and outside of having served as a member of the Lowell city government, has held no political position. He commands and enjoys the good will and esteem of his townsmen, and finds his chief pleasures in the retirement of home and the felicities of domestic life. Mr. White was married in 1855 to Miss Maria Theresa Towle, of Winchester, a woman of the highest graces of heart and mind, who died in 1883. She was the mother of Mr. White's three sons, already men tioned, and one daughter, Maria Theresa White. In 1888 Mr. White married Mrs. Maria C. Lyon, daughter of the late Judge Nathan Cros by, of Lowell. Their home, formerly owned and occupied by Judge Crosby, is located upon the hillside over-looking the city, and is one of the most delightful residences of Lowell. WINCH BROTHERS. There is probably no commercial concern in New England which for the last thirty years has been so uniformly successful as the boot and shoe jobbing house of Winch Brothers. Starting with limited capital against strong and active competition, its trade has steadily in creased from year to year until, at the present time, its annual sales equal in volume that of any establishment in the same line in the 504 SUFFOLK COUNTY. United States, if not in the world. It is truly a representative house of a business which has grown to large proportions in New England. The founder of the house was Joseph R. Winch, who is still the senior member of the firm. He came to Boston in 1858, having pre viously served an apprenticeship in the making of boots and shoes, and had thus acquired an experience of great value in his later business career. Upon his arrival in Boston he entered the employ of Henry Damon, a boot and shoe jobber, with whom he remained until 1862, when, with George Hosmer, he started in business for himself, under the firm name of Hosmer & Winch. Of the two partners, Mr. Winch alone had practical knowledge of the business, and the real work of the firm devolved solely upon him, and to his efforts the' early success of the enterprise was alone due. He earnestly applied himself to the task, and, practically without assistance did a business of $192,000 dur ing the first year, a result, under the circumstances, highly creditable for the new concern. The success of the enterprise thus auspiciously inaugurated has been continued with constantly increasing degree of success from that time to the present. In 1868 the firm was strengthened by the addition of Mr. Winch's brother, John F. Winch, who had already achieved marked success in the same line, and was well equipped both by experience and great natural business qualifications to advance the interests of the firm. The firm name at this time was changed to Hosmer & Winch Brothers. The first year after the reorganization of the firm the sales amounted to $865,000, an increase of nearly $600,000 over the preceding year, and the largest up to that time ever done by a jobbing house in the same line in Boston. From this time on the growth of the business was substantial and rapid. In 1875 Mr. 'Hosmer retired, when the present firm name of Winch Brothers was adopted. The two brothers conducted the business alone until January, 1889, when George F. Winch and John H. Gibbs, both of whom had held important positions with the firm, were admitted as partners, the firm name, however, re maining as adopted in 1875. The business was first located at No. 68 Milk street, where the post- office is now located. In 1866 it was removed to 47 Federal street, and two years later their quarters were enlarged by the addition of the store and basement 49 Federal street. Here they were located at the time of the great fire of 1872, which totally destroyed their store and its contents, incurring a heavy loss, as the greater part of their insur- BIOGRAPHIES. 565 ance had been placed with Boston companies, which were so seriously affected by the fire that most of them were unable to meet their losses, and in consequence Winch Brothers received only one-third of their total insurance. Immediately after the fire they rented the old Boston Lancers' Armory, on Sudbury street, which was quickly converted into suitable quarters, and where they were ready for business and doing their usual trade on Thursday of the week following the fire. Here they remained until November, 1874, when they hired two stores, 130 and 134 Federal street. The rapid growth of their business soon re quired enlargement of their quarters, and in 1878 the adjoining store, 136 Federal street, was secured. From time to time, as business re quired, additional room was secured by renting the floors over these stores, until, in 1892, the entire six floors and basement were secured. Each floor contains 8,400 square feet, giving them a total floor space of more than an acre and a quarter, every portion of which is required for the storage of stock and transaction of their immense business. . The success of the firm has been sure and gradual from the first. The business has been pushed with tremendous energy and rare sagac ity, every year showing a gratifying increase of business over the pre ceding year. The prosperity of the house has indeed been phenomenal ; from a sale of $192,000 in 1862, it has increased to more than $4,000,- 000 in 1892. From a business force practically represented by Mr. Joseph R. Winch alone in 1862, the business now gives employment to ninetyrfive persons, and is represented by five traveling salesmen. The goods handled, consisting of all grades of boots and shoes and all the leading lines of rubbers, are sold in every part of trie United States and Canada, and, in fact, shipments are made to nearly every portion of the civilized globe. It is a remarkable fact that since this house has been in existence it has witnessed the birth or death of every Boston contemporary, not one being now in business that has not failed that was in existence when it began. During the thirty years of successful effort, this firm has effected many changes in the methods of trade which have since been widely adopted. It was the first house to intro duce the individual carton, which revolutionized the jobbing trade. What might be termed the boot and shoe mart of Boston was formerly on Pearl street. After the great fire of 1872 this firm was the first to again utilize the peculiar advantages of Federal street as a location fpr business, in which they have been followed by other firms, so that Federal street has now become the recognized centre of the jobbing 566 SUFFOLK COUNTY. trade in boots and shoes. In this and in other directions -this house has been a leader rather than a follower, and its present position as among the first houses in its line in the United States has thus been justly earned. Its affairs have been managed with marked administrative and executive ability. While it has gained a widespread and sound reputation as be ing aggressive and progressive, it at the same time is recognized as one of the most conservative and reliable houses in the trade. Its financial record is noteworthily creditable ; its name has never been questioned, through war and panics it has promptly met every obligation, and to-day, with resources of the strongest character, it is admirably equipped to maintain the high position it holds in the jobbing trade of the world. Joseph R. Winch, the founder of the house, was born in Princeton, Mass. , April 14, 1825, and is the second oldest child in a family of three sons and four daughters of John and Mary (Russell) Winch. The father was a farmer and the son's early years were passed under the thrifty and healthful influence of a New England farmer's home. His education was acquired in the district school. At the age of twenty- one he left home and went to Wayland, Mass., where he engaged in farming, and also served an apprenticeship in the boot and shoe mak ing trade, securing thereby an experience of great benefit to him in his later business career. Possessing natural musical talent he largely devoted his time during this period of his life to teaching vocal music, following this avocation with success in different parts of Middlesex county, where there are still many residing who will recall with pleas ure his work in this connection. His career in Boston has been related in the foregoing pages devoted to the history and progress of the great business interest with which he has been so prominently identified from the beginning. Such has been his devotion to its interest that he has had little to do with outside enterprises, his regular duties in connection with his own business affairs demanding all his time and attention. He has always, however, taken a deep interest in the prosperity of the city and has ever been ready to do his full share in contributing to the welfare of its citizens. During his residence in Boston he has always been active in church music, and his voice has been heard most accept ably in the choirs of the different churches. He was one of the charter members of the Apollo Club and has always been active in its behalf. He was married, September 13, 1846, to Miss Carver, of Wayland, BIOGRAPHIES. 567 Mass. Their only child, Mary Ella, was married, September 13, 1870, to George Fred Winch. John F. Winch was born in Acton, November 27, 1838, whence his father had removed in 1837. His early life was passed on a farm, but at the age of sixteen he commenced his business training in a general country store at Wayland, where work began early in the morning and continued until late at night. After a year spent in this way, not without its value, he returned home, and after another term at school he went to Concord, Mass. , and for three years was employed in a dry goods store in that city. In 1863 he came to Boston and entered the employ of Henry Damon, the proprietor of the wholesale boot and shoe house, in which his brother had begun his Boston career. Young, vigorous and ambitious, and with a diversified commercial training, he soon manifested marked aptitude for the business, and in 1866, through personal worth, was admitted as partner with Mr. Damon, under the firm name of Henry Damon & Co. Two years later, in 1868, having been highly successful, he retired from the firm and joined his brother in business, and from that time to the present has been an important factor in achieving the high degree of success the firm has attained. He has had experience in every department of the business and is thoroughly conversant with all of its details. He is a man of great executive ability, and in the management of the financial affairs of the house, to which he has given special attention, he has been particularly successful. As a vocalist Mr. Winch is well known, not only in this part of the country, but in many parts of the United States, having, with marked success, taken part in concerts in many of the leading cities of the country. He has a remarkably rich baritone voice, and his services in church choirs and concerts have been in eager demand and always highly appreciated. For twenty-three years he sang in Dr. Hale's church, and during his connection with the choir it was ac knowledged by musical experts to have had no superior in New Eng land. Mr. Winch's ability as a vocalist has given him deserved prominence in musical circles, but his efforts have been mainly a pleas ing diversion in an active business career; had he devoted himself solely to its cultivation he would have taken high rank. He was also a charter member of the Apollo Club and is still an active member of the society. He was married, June 7, 1869, to Miss Kate Rametti, and has one daughter, Miss Mabel Winch. 568 SUFFOLK COUNTY. The two junior partners in the house of Winch Brothers, although their partnership interest has been of comparatively recent date, had been for several years in the employ of the firm. George Fred Winch, the son-in-law of Joseph R. Winch, entered into the service of the house in 1877. He had formerly been very successfully engaged in the grocery business, conducting at the time he relinquished the business to become connected with Winch Brothers, four stores in Boston. He is naturally a progressive, energetic man, and he soon became a valu able assistant in the business. Under his supervision many important changes have been made, in 1889 perfecting the present admirable ar rangement of the stores, whereby the handling of their immense busi ness has been greatly facilitated. John H. Gibbs, the fourth of the quartette of partners, also entered the employ of the house in 1877, and by his ability and close applica tion to business has since risen by degrees to his present position. He is thoroughly familiar with every department of the business, and a man of excellent business qualifications. GENERAL ABIJAH THOMPSON. Not many men have lived in Woburn more favorably, known and respected in the world of honorable and successful enterprise than the man whose once familiar name is at the head of this sketch. Descended from the. emigrant James Thompson, who, in 1630, came' in Win throp's choice company to the new world and settled, first in Charles town, and, in 1642, became one of the first settlers and magistrates in the newly incorporated town of Woburn, General Abijah Thompson could trace his line of descent back through six generations of men, all of whom lived and died in that part of the town now known as North Woburn. His father was Major Abijah Thompson, in whose large home, formerly a public-house, but now owned and occupied by the heirs of the late Oliver Fisher, the subject of this sketch was born, May 20, 1793. In 1800 Major Abijah Thompson built a house a few rods north of the old homestead. In this new house, now owned and occu pied by Henry Thompson, he reared his young family and had his home until his death in 1820. Besides his business as a mechanic he kept in a part of his house a country store. But though highly respect- BIOGRAPHIES. 509. able and comfortable in circumstances he could afford to give his sons only the very limited opportunities, common at the time, for educational culture. The wide world was before them as they grew to manhood, and they had to find their way through it. At the very early age of seventeen Abijah, the eldest of the children, embarked, without ex perience and wholly unaided from without, upon the tumultuous, and to him unknown, sea of business life. In a loose paper, discovered after his death, was found, in his own handwriting, the following con densed account of what followed this first step in his career: " In 1810 I left home at the age of seventeen to become an apprentice in the business of tanning and currying leather, and served four years. At the age of twenty-one I commenced business for myself, buying leather in the rough and dressing it with my own hands in Medford. I began with two dollars capital, selling in small lots, from one to six sides, to shoemakers from adjoining towns, for one year. I then left and built a small tannery with sixteen vats in the west part of Woburn, grinding my bark with a horse and stone, and tanning what few hides I could find among the farmers, from one hundred to one hundred and fifty a year. ' ' I had two apprentices. Buying leather from the tanneries in the county, and dressing it, I then took my horse and went to Reading, Stoneham, Maiden and adjoining towns, where I sold to shoemakers from four to five sides each about every other week. At the same time I picked up the hides among the farmers as they killed their animals in the fall of the year. Thus I increased my business, as capital increased, for about ten years. I then bought a tract of fifteen acres of land, with a small water privilege, near the center of the town. It was a very rough place, but I commenced clearing it up, built a dam, and erecting a building, put down twenty vats, enlarging by degrees my business as .1 gained in capital, and each year putting down more vats. In 1835, finding my water power not sufficient for the business, I put in steam power and other machinery, and, in 1836, I took in Stephen Dow as a partner." This short account involves details which a stranger to the business would not even suspect. From these small beginnings General Thomp son's business went on increasing in its extent and importance until he was one of the largest and most successful manufacturers of leather in the United States ; and by all who knew him he was ever regarded as no less honorable than he was successful, and when, in 1866, he retired 72 570 SUFFOLK COUNTY. from active participation in the business, though tanning and finishing leather at the rate of fifty thousand sides per annum, and having a large leather store in Boston, not one unpleasant word and not one suspicious look had ever occasioned a jar between him and his partner, or between him and any man with whom he was concerned. No suspicion of trick, or unworthy resort to any species of sham, ever rested upon him for a single day. He well knew what "the day of small things" meant; and he had his trials, sometimes numerous and severe, but whatever else he sacrificed, he never sacrificed a principle nor had a principle for sale. Immense as his business finally became, and great as the burden of care and responsibility resting upon him, no man was ever further re moved from bluster or noisy pretense than General Thompson. With wonderful equanimity, he always seemed calm, self-contained and un pretending. His speech never betrayed a loss of balance or self-respect. Seeing and deploring the evils of intemperance and low and profane talk around him, he, for years, made it a law of his establishment that no intoxicating liquors and no profane language should be used by men in his employ. Those who were addicted to either and unwilling to abandon the bad habits need not apply for employment. Yet the law was made and enforced so wisely and so kindly that there was never any "strike" and never any serious difficulty. To some of his work men the measure was the means of permanent reformation and very manifest benefit. Though General Thompson was one of those men who never sought and apparently never desired office, offices from all quarters sought him. He had ah inherited fondness for military life and early joined a company of artillery in Lexington. From the office of sergeant in 1824 he rose, in 1826, to that of captain, in 1828 to that of major, and in 1835 to that of brigadier-general — the last mentioned commission being given by Governor Armstrong and the two former by Governor Lincoln. In the town he served for several years on the Board of Selectmen. He was for many years president of the Woburn Bank ; one of the original directors of Faneuil Hall Bank of Boston ; a director of a bank in Charlestown, and for many years one of the active managers of the Middlesex Insurance Company in Concord. General Thompson was unquestionably one of the most public-spirited men ever resident in Woburn. No great and important enterprise failed to enlist his sympathy and aid. He was among the first, if not BIOGRAPHIES. 571 the first, to move in the effort to secure the Woburn Branch Railroad, the Woburn Gas Company, and the bank of which he was long the presi dent. In his relations to the parish and church of his choice, he was also ever ready to help on every good work. And always regretting his own early lack of educational advantages, he evinced a like interest in the schools, and especially the academy of his native town, of which he was a trustee and the treasurer, and to which he left, in his will, a considerable sum of money, as he did also to the First Congregational Church, of which from his early manhood he had been a member. Of his large fortune, accumulated by his own honest industry and enter prise, it is pleasant to know that a large number of worthy objects re ceived a share. In his domestic relations' General Thompson was peculiarly happy. On the 29th of April, 1814, when he was not quite twenty-one years of age, he married Celinde, daughter of Captain William and Arethusa (Munroe) Fox, of Woburn. The mutual experiences of joy and sorrow, of adversity and prosperity, continued through more than fifty years of married life, proved that she was one of the best of wives and mothers, and he one of the best of husbands and fathers. Of their "golden wedding," observed April 29, 1864, the local papers gave a deeply in teresting account. After various appropriate exercises, including music, addresses from Rev. Jonathan Edwards, a former pastor of the family, and Rev. Dr. J. C. Bodwell, the pastor at the time of the festival — -the latter read a poem suited to the occasion and subsequently published. General Thompson survived his wife nearly two years, she dying September 11, 1866, and he June 7, 1868. They had four children: 1, Celinde, born February 13, 1816, married Stephen Dow, May 24, 1836, and had seven children; 2, Abijah, born June 13, 1818, died September 11, 1826 ; 3, Julia Ann, born September 16, 1827, married J. B. Doyle, June 1, 1854, and died in 1867, had two children ; 4, Abijah Franklin, born September 17, 1829, married Mary E. Wyman, May 15, 1851, and died August 5, 1861, leaving one child, Arthur Abijah, now of Brooklyn, N. Y. Of the business firm of which General Thompson was the founder, it is proper to add that it is still in existence, but since 1871 has been car ried on under the firm name of Stephen Dow & Co. , and is still vigor ously prosecuting its appropriate enterprise, its later history being de tailed in the biographical notice of Stephen Dow, published elsewhere in this volume. 572 SUFFOLK COUNTY TYLER BATCHELLER. The subject of this sketch, Tyler Batcheller, may be truly called the founder of the now large and flourishing village of North Brookfield, Mass. He was born in the town of Sutton, December 20, 1793, and came from there to North Brookfield, with his father and family, in April, 1802 ; the town, however, being called at that time the North Parish or " Second Precinct in Brookfield." At an early age, probably in his fifteenth year, he went to Grafton and learned the trade of shoemaking with Nathan Johnson. At the close of his apprenticeship there he returned to North Brookfield, and was employed in the establishment of Oliver Ward, who, in 1810, had commenced in the town the manufacture of " sale shoes," the first and only manufactory of the kind in the State west of Grafton. In 1819 he commenced business on his own account. At first his en tire business consisted only of the shoes he could make with his own hands. Soon, however, he took into his service one or two appren tices and his brother Ezra, who had already learned the trade of Mr. Ward. The first shoes he made were chiefly of a low-priced quality, specially adapted to the Southern trade. These he packed in empty flour barrels and consigned to Enoch Train, who in those days ran a line of sail ing packets between Boston and Havana. On these small consignments a large profit was realized. In 1824, having previously taken into his service several additional employees, he built a small two-story shop, which is now a part of the immense structure known far and wide as the " Big Shop," into which, January 1, 1825, he removed his business, and at the same date took into partnership his brother Ezra, continuing the business, now some what enlarged, under the firm name of T. & E. Batcheller. From this time forward the two brothers were associated as partners ; through all the changes in the business, and in giving a history of it, their names cannot be dissociated. Tyler, the senior, attended to the purchase of stock and to all other business abroad ; while Ezra was the efficient and popular superintendent, giving direction to all matters per taining to the manufactory. Harmonious in all their business relations, as well as in all measures devised for the public weal, the act of one was the act of both, and in BIOGRAPHIES. 573 most matters their names were usually coupled, and they were familiarly spoken of as " The Deacon and Ezra." They then added to their business the manufacture of " Batcheller's Retail Brogan," an article adapted to the New England trade; their main business, however, being the making of goods for the Southern and Western States. January 1, 1830, by the admission of Freeman Walker, the firm name was changed to " T. & E. Batcheller & Walker. " The factory was then enlarged to three times its original size. In 1831 they introduced the manufacture of russet brogans specially for the trade of the Southern States — the first that were made in Mas sachusetts. They soon became a leading article in the shoe trade, and continued to be so for many years. Mr.. Walker, retired from the firm in 1834, which resumed its former style of " T. & E. Batcheller." A large part of the work at this time was put out and done by workmen in their small shops in North Brook field, and the towns in the vicinity, in some instances the stock being carried ^distance of twenty to thirty miles. On June 10, 1852, Charles Adams, jr., Alfred H. Batcheller, William C. King and Hervey J. Batcheller were admitted to the firm, and its style changed to T. & E. Batcheller & Co. All of these partners, with the exception of A. H. Batcheller, retired within a few years. Mean while a store had been opened in Boston for the sale of the goods, and Tyler Batcheller had removed his residence to that city the latter part of 1848. In April, 1861, the Southern rebellion broke out, and the business of the firm being very largely in the Southern States, and their losses proportionately heavy, a suspension was inevitable. An arrangement was soon made, however, and they were enabled to pay their indebted ness, principal and interest; but Tyler Batcheller, the founder and efficient senior partner of the firm from its beginning, did not live to see that fortunate consummation; after a brief confinement to his house and bed, and without any clearly defined disease, he died October 8, 1862, nearly sixty-nine years of age, apparently of mere exhaustion of the vital powers, accelerated by care and anxiety. Thus ended a life distinguished for industry, energy, perseverance, integrity and use fulness. He united with the First Congregational Church in North Brookfield June 8, 1817.. In the spring of 1818 he assisted in organizing and 574 SUFFOLK COUNTY. superintended the first Sabbath-school in town. September 15, 1820, he was elected a deacon, at the age of twenty-seven, and continued in that office until he removed his residence to Boston. He was married April 6, 1819, to Miss Nancy Jenks, who died in 1828, leaving three daughters and one son. October 8, 1829, he mar ried Miss Abigail Jones Lane, who died in Boston, March 10, 1877. After his removal to Boston, Deacon Batcheller and his wife united with Park Street Church, November, 1850, and in September, 1857, he was elected a deacon of that church, of which he remained an active and devoted officer to the close of his life. Mr. Batcheller was an original member of the Boston Board of Trade; was chosen a member of its Committee of Arbitration, and served on other important committees. Ezra Batcheller, the junior member of the original firm, was, equally with his brother, an efficient and essential factor in the growth and prosperity of the manufacturing establishment and of the town. He was a large-hearted, public-spirited man, of earnest piety, and his memory is fragrant of good deeds and an honorable and useful life ; he died in 1870, aged sixty-nine years. Alfred H. Batcheller, the son of Ezra Batcheller, was admitted to the firm in 1852, and after the death of Tyler Batcheller, took his place as manager of the Boston part of the business, which included all that was done outside the factory in North Brookfield, his father continuing in charge of the latter, as he- had always done. In 1866 George E. Batcheller became a member of the firm, and continued to be so until his death, in November, 1876, aged thirty- eight years. Alfred H. Batcheller remained for some years alone in the business until, in 1882, he admitted to the firm his son, Francis Batcheller. In 1889 the firm of E. & A. H. Batcheller & Company became the E. & A. H. Batcheller Company. Alfred H. Batcheller died in December, 1891, aged sixty-one years. JAMES W. CONVERSE. James W. Converse was born in Thompson, Conn., January 11, 1808, and is a descendant in the eighth generation of Edward Convers, who **»«(,,*«! BIOGRAPHIES. 575 came to America from England in 1630. This progenitor of the family in America was a man of strong personality, and figures largely in the colonial history of New England. He first settled in Charlestown, where he established the first ferry between that point and Boston, and from 1634 until his removal to Woburn, in 1640, was one of the selectmen of Charlestown. He was one of the founders of Woburn, where he built the first dwelling-house, and took a prominent part in its religious and material advancement. At the time of the organiza tion of the town government, he, was chosen a selectman, and continued to serve in that capacity Until his death, in 1663. He was a man of intense religious conviction, of restless energy, and a rigid Puritan. Our subject is the first child of Elisha and Betsey (Wheaton) Con verse. When he was six years old his parents removed from Thompson to Woodstock, Conn., and two years later to Dover, Mass., and thence to Needham. In 1821, while yet but a lad of thirteen years, he left his home to begin life's battles for himself, and at this early age was commenced a career which from that period to the present has been in every sense worthy of emulation. He came to Boston and obtained employment with his uncles, Joseph and Benjamin Converse. In 1828 his uncles assisted him to commence business in the Boylston Market. Four years later, on January 1, 1832, he formed a copartnership with William Hardwick, under the firm name of Hardwick & Converse, in the boot, shoe and leather business, at the corner of Milk and Broad streets. On January 1, 1833, he became associated as partner with Isaac Field, in the hide and leather business, under the firm name of Field & Converse. In 1838 Mr. Field retired from the firm, and his brother, John Field, took his place. The firm of Field & Converse be came one of the leading concerns of its kind in New England, and en joyed an extended trade not only in this but in foreign lands. During all the panics which occurred throughout its long existence, its credit was never shaken. On January 1, 1870, Mr. Converse retired from this firm and also from the business. Since that time Mr. Converse has been very busy looking after his railroad, banking, real estate and other interests. He was one of the organizers of the Old Mechanics' Bank of Boston in 1836, and was elected one of its first board of direc tors, and continued to act in that capacity for fifty years. In 1847 he was elected president of the bank, and continued in the same office for a number of years. He has also been president of the Boston Rubber Shoe Company for several years. This company has large factories at 576 SUFFOLK COUNTY. Maiden and Melrose, and the extent of its annual output is the largest of any similar concern in the world. Mr. Converse has been an active force in religious work, not only in his immediate home but in many parts of the country. In October, 1821, he united with the Charles Street Baptist Church of Boston. He was one of the original members of the Federal Street Baptist Church, which was organized in 1827. In 1845, when he removed his residence to Jamaica Plain, he united with the Baptist Church at that place. For some years he was a member of the Tremont Temple Baptist Church, later uniting with the Shawmut Avenue Baptist Church, which is now known as the First Baptist Church of Boston. For more than fifty years Mr. Converse has served in various churches as deacon, being first elected in 1837, by the Federal Street Church. During all these years he has been an earnest church worker, and many churches, not only in the vicinity of his home, but in various parts of the country, have cause to remember him with gratitude. Mr. Converse was married in Boston on September 5, 1833, to Eme- line, daughter of Nathan and Nabby (Shepard) Coolidge. They have had three children: James W. Converse, jr., born January 9, 1844; Costello Coolidge Converse, born September 22, 1848; and Emma Maria Converse, born March 28, 1851. Their eldest son, James W. Converse, jr., served with distinguished credit during the war of the Rebellion. He was a man of excellent business ability, and had achieved a high degree of success at the time of his death, after a short illness, in May, 1876. Costello C. Converse is already distinguished for business and financial abilities, and is associated with his father and other gentlemen in enterprises of far-reaching importance. Mr. Con verse's daughter was married in 1877 to Isaac W. Chick, of Boston. The Rev. William Howe, D.D., for many years so well known in Boston through his earnest Christian work, in a very interesting ac count of his personal connection with Mr. Converse, bears the follow ing testimony to the striking traits of his character : ' ' His Christian character, early formed, and supplemented by correct business prin ciples and enterprise, has led to a prosperous life and ultimate affluence. He has been content to patiently work his way to the goal. Without aspirations for civil, political or religious distinction, he has frequently been called to occupy positions of honor, trust and great responsibility, which he has ever filled to the satisfaction of his friends and great credit to himself, His influence, like the silent, unseen forces- of BIOGRAPHIES. 577 nature, has been wide-spread, beneficent, and rich in results; like an unseen hand, lifting the weak and fainting, and helping the perplexed in business crises over the dark chasm which seemed ready to engulf them. United with this private sympathy and aid are his charities, known only to himself and his Lord, and his public gifts, widely known and appreciated. He has been connected with several churches, and all have largely shared in his generous aid and support. Several church edifices have arisen wholly or in part by his munificence. . . . During nearly threescore years of commercial life, with all its pressing cares, perplexing responsibilities, and unforeseen disasters, I have not heard even a whisper of suspicion against his honor or integrity. In a life so long and useful, it is obvious that the service of God gives keen enjoyment and value to living." JOHN S. FOGG. John S. Fogg, well known as a boot and shoe manufacturer, and also as a prominent banker in Boston, was born in Meredith, N. H., April 16, 1817. He was the son of Josiah and Mary (Roberts) Fogg. His ancestors came originally from the south of England, where large es tates are now held by Sir Charles Fogg. Younger brothers of this fam ily came to America about the middle of the seventeenth century, and were among the early settlers of Exeter, N. H. Their progeny went westward, and were pioneers in the settlement of the territory about Meredith. Mr. Fogg's parents removed to Stanstead, Canada, when he was a year and a half old. They were poor, and the only opportunities afforded him for an education were the very limited advantages of the public schools. The winters in that climate being long and severe, prevented a regular attendance during the winter months, and in summers the necessities of the family compelled him to be placed at labor as soon as he was old enough for his services to be of any value. The death of his mother when he was only nine years old added to the disadvantages under which he was placed, and this was followed, when in his fourteenth year, by the death of his father, leaving a family of five children, of whom John S. was the elder. The children were now compelled to separate and find homes in different families. Mr. Fogg remained in Canada until his nineteenth year, when he came to Mere- 73 578 SUFFOLK COUNTY. dith, his native place, and attended school that and the following win ter, working on a farm the intermediate summer. On the first day of April, 1836, he started by stage-coach alone for the city of Boston to seek his fortune. At Lowell he saw his first railroad train, boarded it, and that (Monday) afternoon he stepped from the cars in the city of Boston, with scant means in his pocket, with not an ac quaintance in the entire city, with no definite plan or object in view save that he was determined to do something to earn a living and if pos sible to win his way to fortune. - He procured cheap lodgings and board, and proceeded during the following week to cast about for something to do. In this he was unsuccessful, and the following Saturday found him penniless and sadly discouraged. On the afternoon of that day, while standing at a place called the "loafer's stand,"1 near the place where he boarded, ruminating as to what should be his next move, he was approached by Martin S. Stetson, of Stetson & Blake, East Abing- ton, boot and shoe manufacturers, and offered a job " treeing" shoes. He continued with them a few months, until the business became slack, when he accepted a like position with Daniel Blanchard. Here he worked very hard for a year, when this firm likewise failed, and Mr. Fogg lost more than half his wages. In the mean time Stetson man aged to get under way again, and Mr. Fogg returned to his employ, where he continued until 1840 treeing and crimping boots. In April of this year he began business for himself as a boot and shoe crimper at South Weymouth, Mass. About the first of the year 1841 he bought stock and made a few cases of best quality boots, brought them to Bos ton and sold them to retailers. With the funds thus acquired he re plenished his stock, paid his hands, and thus embarked in the boot and shoe manufacturing business. He soon built up quite a trade, and in 1842 he built his first factory at Columbian Square, South Weymouth. In 1856 he built a large factory at the same place. This was the first large factory in that town ; was heated by steam, and was looked upon by Mr. Fogg's more conservative neighbors as rather a risky and ex travagant venture. After having met with some losses, through fail ures among his customers, he confined himself exclusively to the sup plying of the wholesale houses. His first deal with a wholesale house was with Alexander Strong, one of Boston's leading dealers. Mr. iThis was a place where men out of employment and who desired to obtain work were in the habit of congregating, and where employers used to come to seek help when they desired to in crease their forces. BIOGRAPHIES. 579 Fogg's goods were the best that could be made, and he experienced no trouble in finding customers among the best dealers, such as Atherton, Stetson & Co., Joseph Whitten & Co., and other prominent houses. On January 1, 1850, he formed a copartnership with Wilman Bur- bank, who was also a partner with Alexander Strong, and they estab lished a boot and shoe store on Central street, Boston. In July of the following year, 1851, Mr. Burbank died, Mr. Fogg then associated with himself William S. Houghton. They removed their store to Pearl street, and under the firm natne of Fogg & Houghton did a large and rapidly-increasing business. About 1861 Albert L. Coolidge was ad mitted as a partner, and the firm became Fogg, Houghton & Coolidge. In the mean time, about 1859, they began to secure quite a trade in California; they manufactured a class of goods especially adapted to that trade, and their sales in this market continued to increase so rapidly that in 1866 they did a business of more than a million dollars, and were at that time quoted as the largest boot and shoe manufacturers in the United States. In* 1878 Mr. Fogg withdrew from this firm, but still continued manufacturing at Weymouth. In the mean time, in 1867, his brother, Parker S. Fogg, returned from California with a cash capital of nearly a hundred thousand dollars, which he had amassed in the boot and shoe trade, and for which he sought investment. John S. placed an equal amount with him, and together they established themselves as' bankers, at No. 20 Congress street, Boston, with Parker S. Fogg as active business manager. John S. continued to give per sonal attention to his manufacturing interests at Weymouth until June 1, 1871, when his brother died, and he then assumed the management of the bank, and to this interest he devoted his chief attention up to the time of his death. Upon the dissolution of the firm of Fogg, Houghton & Co., 1878, Mr. Fogg formed a copartnership with N. B. Thayer, who had been foreman of the Weymouth Factory and who had' shown good business qualities, and under the firm name of N. B. Thayer & Co. , the manufacturing at Weymouth was continued until March, 1882, when the firm of Fogg, Shaw, Thayer & Co. was formed, with factories at South Weymouth, Westboro', and Marblehead, Mass. , and Farmington, N. H. 1 In their banking operations Messrs. Fogg Brothers & Co. made a specialty of dealing in western commercial 1 At the death of Mr. Shaw, January 10, 1888, Mr. Fogg formed a copartnership under the firm name of John S. Fogg & Co., his son, John A. Fogg, being a partner, which was continued until the time of his death. 580 SUFFOLK COUNTY. paper, and in this connection one remarkable fact may be mentioned — during the last five years they handled over one hundred million dol lars of western paper and never lost a dollar. In 1865 the First Na tional Bank of South Weymouth was incorporated, and Mr. Fogg was chosen president, which position he held until his death. In this same year Mr. Fogg was elected president of the Agricultural Industrial Society. After acting in this capacity eleven years he resigned. In 1879 he was elected president of the Putnam Horseshoe Nail Corpora tion, in which concern he was a large shareholder, and held the position until his death. Mr. Fogg was a Republican in politics, but had never taken an active interest in political affairs and never was an aspirant for political honors. His business career had been a phenomenally successful one, and through all his various and multitudinous dealings and interests he always paid dollar for dollar, and never asked an ex tension. He was a man of fine personal appearance, splendid physique, and, when in perfect health, weighed something over two hundred pounds. His personal manners were easy, address and manner of speaking kindly and sympathetic. He was noted among a very wide circle of business and other acquaintances for his perfect self-control under even the most exasperating circumstances. Seldom angry, he was never known to exhibit other than the most composed external bearing. The habitual " ruling of his own spirit " always gave him great influence over his many employees, and preserved between him and them an unusual degree of harmony. He was candid and frank in his natural disposition, and had an especial sympathy for struggling young men of merit who were evidently trying to help themselves. More than one such received from him substantial tokens of his sym pathy. His early advantages in the way of education were scanty, but by diligence and persistence he largely surmounted these difficulties. Mr. Fogg was highly esteemed in the community where he so long resided and was best known. He was a man of decided religious convictions and character, though never obtrusive, always quietly firm whenever occasion arose for a declaration of his principles in this regard. He was, besides a giver to many good causes, a generous supporter of the Union Congregational Church, of which he was for so many years a valued and influential member, and to which, by his will, he left a legacy of $25,000. He also bequeathed $50,000 to found a library in wards Four and Six of South Weymouth. His donations to other BIOGRAPHIES. 581 charitable and religious objects were numerous, the full amount of his bequests by his will aggregating the large sum of $200,000. Mr. Fogg enjoyed remarkably good health all his life till within a few weeks of his decease. He died May 17, 1892, being seventy-five years and one month old. But a short time previous he had been at tending to his usual business duties, and for only three days had been confined to his bed. It was literally true of him that he died "in the harness." To the last he was active, interested in passing events, and pursued the even tenor of his Way with the same urbanity and geniality of nature so characteristic of him. The death of no citizen of Wey mouth was more universally mourned, the entire community uniting to do honor to his memory, his funeral being attended by hundreds of citizens, who listened to a highly impressive funeral discourse by Rev. W. H. Bolster, who for several years officiated in the Union Congre gational Church, of which Mr. Fogg had been a member since 1850. Mr. Fogg was married on October 28, 1838, at Hanover, Mass., to Lydia Loring Bailey, daughter of Gad and Thankful (Loring) Bailey, descendants of the Pilgrims, and whose ancestors were prominent in the settlement of the colony of Massachusetts. Mrs. Fogg died in May, 1887. They had five children, three of whom died in infancy. Their only daughter, Jane L. Fogg, who married Edward E. Poole, died in Boston in 1888, leaving no children. John A. Fogg, the only son of John S. and Lydia (Bailey) Fogg, was married, March 28, 1871, to Ida Sprague, of Weymouth, daughter of Jesse and Nancy (Bates) Sprague. They have one son, named after his grandfather, John S. Fogg. About two years after the death of his first wife, Mr. Fogg married Jane L. Bouton, of Concord, who still survives. STEPHEN DOW. For nearly forty years there were few men in New England better known in connection with the manufacture of leather than Stephen Dow. He was born in Weare, N. H., January 13, 1809. His grand father, Jonathan Dow, settled in Weare about 1769. He was born No vember 27, 1739, and married Keziah Roberts, who was born January 27, 1739. He served as selectman and representative of Weare, and died September 30, 1813. His wife died November 27, 1826. They 582 SUFFOLK COUNTY. had four children, one son and three daughters. Their only son, Ste phen Dow, the father of our subject, was born in Weare, March 27, 1764. He married Lydia Grove and lived on the family homestead. He was one of the earliest tanners of Weare and carried on the tanning business and farm till about 1841, when he moved to Woburn, where he died the following year. His wife died in 1832. They had eleven chil dren, six sons and five daughters, of whom our subject was the sixth child in order of birth. The latter's education was received in the dis trict school of Weare. As soon as he reached the age to be of assist ance to his father he entered the tannery and learned the trade of a tan ner, and eventually succeeded his father in business. In 1835 he left his home, and for a short time thereafter engaged in the leather busi ness with his brother Alfred in Portland, Me. In 1836 he settled in Woburn, Mass., and became associated as partner with his father-in- law, Gen. Abijah Thompson, in the business of tanning and currying, which General Thompson had established some years previously, and which at this early date had assumed considerable magnitude. With his practical experience in this line of industry, and possessed of excel lent business judgment, Mr. Dow took hold of the work with character istic energy and achieved deserved success. General Thompson had already become firmly established, and with Mr. Dow's assistance the business of the firm steadily increased in magnitude until it became one of the largest of its kind in the United States. In 1866 Mr. Dow pur chased General Thompson's interest in the business and for a few years successfully conducted it alone It is proper to state that during the thirty years he was associated with General' Thompson their relations were characterized by perfect harmony and mutual good will and es teem, their business connection being especially noteworthy in this re gard. After General Thompson's retirement from the business Mr. Dow carried on the business alone under the old firm name until 1871, when, on account of similarity of names with another leather concern, the firm style was changed to Stephen Dow & Co. , and has so continued through the various changes in its composition until the present time. At the time of changing the firm name Alfred Abijah Dow, oldest son of Stephen Dow, and George C. Nichols were admitted to the firm as partners, the latter, however, retiring in 1875. During the last named year S. Henry Dow, another son of Stephen Dow, was admitted as partner. To his two sons Mr. Dow relinquished the business in 1876, and they continued to carry it on with success. BIOGRAPHIES. 583 It was during Mr. Dow's management of the business that a leather store was opened in Boston, in the early forties, which has ever since been maintained. Here he built in 1869 a brick business block at Nos. 2 to 12, inclusive, on High street, adjoining the site of the old Webster homestead. It was one of the best business structures in this part of the city at the time, and after its destruction in the great fire of 1872, was replaced by the present building, which is still owned by members of the family. Upon retiring from business, Mr. Dow divided his time largely be tween traveling and in the pursuit of 'horticulture, for which he had great love. He built upon his estate in Woburn several conservatories, upon which he lavished large sums, and where he loved to spend many hours of the day during the latter years of his life. He also gave a great deal of attention to the breeding of horses, contributing largely to maintaining and improving the well known Morgan strain. The direction and management of his large business interests during his active career gave him little opportunity to engage in outside enter prises or in public affairs. He was, however, a member of the Board of Selectmen for W°burn in 1857, and also served as a director in the Woburn Five Cents Savings Bank, the Woburn Gas Light Company, and the Faneuil Hall National Bank of Boston. He joined the Me chanic Charitable Association in 1845, and was a life member of this organization. After a long life of conspicuous rectitude, Mr. Dow died very sud denly in Boston, January 4, 1887. His death was widely mourned, especially by his business associates and friends. His active business career had covered nearly half a century, and few were better known in his special line of industry or more sincerely respected for sterling integrity of character. He was a shrewd, successful business man, but the very soul of honor in all of his transactions. No one who ever knew him doubted for a moment the honesty or integrity of his motives. His word was unquestioned, and every action had the impress of sin cerity. He lived and acted on a high plane, and his career commanded the respect and esteem of all, while, in addition, he possessed those admirable traits of mind and heart which in private life made him be loved by his family and all brought within the circle of his near and intimate associates. Mr. Dow was married May 24, 1836, to Miss Celinde Thompson, eldest daughter of Gen. Abijah Thompson. They had seven children, 584 SUFFOLK COUNTY. in order of birth as follows: Ellen Thompson, born May 28, 1838 Alfred Abijah, born April 6, 1841 ; H. Josephine, born March 28, 1843 James H., born February 4, 1845; Julia Thompson, born May 2, 1847 S. Henry, born September 12, 1848; Edward A., born September 29, 1857. The business with which Mr. Dow was for so many years connected was carried on by his sons Alfred A. and S. Henry Dow from 1876 to 1879, when the latter died, and the former continued it alone until 1885, when Edward A. Dow, the youngest son of Stephen Dow, was admitted as partner. No change occurred until 1891, when, upon the death of Alfred A. Dow, the firm was reorganized, Edward A. Dow, William A. Dow, oldest son of Alfred A., and Frank F. Dodge form ing a partnership, .under the old firm name, and so continued to-day. The business has ever since its foundation remained in the control of the family, and has always been managed by a representative of the family, Edward A. Dow, head of the present firm, being the repre sentative of the third, and one of his partners, William A. Dow, of the fourth generation, in continuous business at the same location. All of the partners are residents of Woburn, Edward A. Dow living in the same house occupied by General Thompson for many years of his life. JOHN FIELD. John Field, for many years at the head of the widely known hide and leather business of Field & Converse, was born in Peterborough, N. H., November 22, 1810. His grandfather, John Field, was born in Braintree (now Quiney), April 16, 1752, and went to Peterborough, in company with Christopher Thayer, May 8, 1786. He was a tanner by trade, and settled just north of the farm of William Smith, where some vats had been made and some tanning had been done by Robert Smith, father of William Smith. These vats are now in a perfect state of preservation, having been made not far from 1760. He married Ruth Thayer, November 11, 1775, who was born July 2, 1752. He died January 8, 1826, while his wife died August 7, 1846, at the advanced age of ninety-four years. They had eight children, five sons and three daughters, the eldest of whom, also named John, was the father of our subject. He was born in Braintree, October 27, 1777, and was nine BIOGRAPHIES. 585 years of age when his father moved to Peterborough. At the latter place, when he arrived at the proper age, he followed the occupation of his father, and for many years extensively carried on the business of tanning at the same place his father began. He was twice married. His first wife, Beulah Reed was a native of Lempster, and was the mother of his thirteen children. She died July 30, 1835, aged fifty- seven years. His second wife was Tabitha Colburn, whom he married April 5, 1838. She died October 7, 1848, aged fifty-two years. Of the thirteen children of John Field, four sons and nine daughters, the subject of this sketch was the sixth child in order of birth. He came to Boston in 1831 and entered the employ of his brother, Isaac Field, who for some years had been engaged in the hide and leather business in this city, and who, in 1833, founded the firm of Field & Converse. Upon the retirement of Isaac Field from this firm in 1838 our subject succeeded him. This firm became widely known not only in New England but in foreign lands. During all the panics and finan cial disasters which occurred during its long existence its credit was never shaken. By his excellent business ability and industry Mr. Field became eminently successful, and acquired wealth sufficient to be able to retire practically from active pursuits in 1863. From that time until his death, July 31, 1876, his life was largely devoted to philanthropic and religious work. " In all of his business relations," says one writer, "he was an honorable and upright man, never yielding principle, in any instance, to expediency. He was a good citizen, a sincere Christian and a true man, and his life abounded with active benevolence, kind works and good deeds." He was a director in the State National Bank of Boston ; also a director of the American Peace Society ; a corporate member of the American Board of Foreign Missions, and for many years an officer in the Orthodox Congregational Church at Arlington. He was twice married. His first wife was Sarah E. Worcester, a grands daughter of the distinguished divine Noah Worcester, D. D. , whom he married May 2, 1836. She died June 20, 1839, having borne two chil dren, Henry M. and John Worcester Field. The former graduated from Harvard College in 1859 ; received a medical degree at the College of Physicians and Surgeons in New York city, and in 1871 was ap pointed professor of materia medica and therapeutics in the Dartmouth Medical College at Hanover. The second son, in 1862, entered upon a business career in the same line in which his father had gained con spicuous success. He was until lately the senior member of the leather 74 586 SUFFOLK COUNTY. firm of Field, Bullivant & Field, and is now the head of the firm of John W. Field & Co. Mr. Field's second wife was Sarah A. Baldwin, of Brighton, Mass., whom he married October 13, 1840. Five children were born to them, their names in order of birth being as follows : Sarah Ann B. , William Evarts, Arthur D. , George A. , and Lilla Frances Field. All the sons of this marriage identified themselves with the leather trade. The eldest, William Evarts Field, was a member of the firm of Allen, Field & Lawrence. The sudden death of this gentleman while on his way to Europe in March, 1892, was a great sorrow to his associates in the trade. Modest and unassuming in manner, but able and efficient in business, his genial disposition and strict integrity won the love and respect of all who knew him. At the time of his death he was treasurer of the New England Shoe and Leather Association, for which he felt a deep interest. His sud den death deprived the business with which he was connected of one of its brightest ornaments, and his friends of one whose memory will be cherished with the deepest affection. GORDON McKAY. The method of boot and shoe making, practically universal in the United States and rapidly extending in foreign countries, is distinctive ly American and essentially the outgrowth of the last twenty-five or thirty years. The man who was first to broadly conceive it and to per fect, introduce and exercise the inventions which made it inevitable was Gordon McKay, now of Newport, R. I. Mr. McKay was born in Pittsfield, Mass., in 1820. His father, Samuel M. McKay, was a cotton manufacturer, an amateur farmer, and a politician of prominence in the western part of the State. His mother was a daughter of Samuel Dexter, of Boston, an eminent lawyer, who, about the beginning of the century, was United States senator, secretary of war, and secretary of the treasury. Samuel M. McKay was the son of Samuel, at one time captain in the English army, afterwards professor in Williams College. Samuel mar ried the daughter of the Marquis de Lotbiniere, a Canadian gentleman, who had, on the St. Lawrence, an estate still known by his name. BIOGRAPHIES. 587 Gordon McKay, the only survivor of his father's family, being in youth in delicate health, studied engineering with a view to out-of- door occupation. At the age of sixteen he began field-work on the Boston and Albany Railroad, and was afterwards employed on the en largement of the Erie Canal. In 1845 he built and successfully man aged a machine shop in Pittsfield. In 1852 he became manager of the Lawrence Machine Shop at Lawrence, Mass., where he remained until 1857. The next year he, with others, purchased of Lyman R. Blake the latter's patent for the crude mechanism and method which, perfected by years of laborious and costly experiment, and embodied in the fam ous McKay Sewing Machine, revolutionized the art of shoemaking, put better shoes upon the feet of the poor and millions of dollars into the pockets of the patent owners. At the date of Blake's patent, the mechanisms that had appeared in the manufacture of shoes were mainly the simple contrivances that mark the infancy of an art, although the pegging machine had already reached an advanced stage of development. All shoes of the better grades were then made by hand — the large manufacturers cutting their stock and distributing it in small shops, or, during their off seasons, among farmers, fishermen and others, to be made into boots and shoes. The process was slow, the product as variable as the skill of the workmen, and the general work unsatisfactory for want of expert su pervision and control. At this time McKay, in easy circumstances, an accomplished ma chinist, a man of exceptional executive ability and of great energy, saw the Blake machine, the situation and its possibilities, and promptly seized his opportunity. Blake had invented: 1, A sewed shoe having the thread passed from the outside, through the outer sole, the upper and the inner sole, to the inside of the shoe ; 2, a process of lasting a shoe and then withdrawing the last so as to admit of the operation of mechanism within the shoe ; and 3, a stationary horn having a thread-carrying and looping device, and shaped to enter all parts of the shoe, combined with a sewing mechanism. The inventions were fundamentally new and ingenious, and they held the germ of a great possibility, but they were crude, imperfect, and until improved, commercially unimportant. McKay, associating with himself Robert Mathies, a young mechanic of remarkable ability, re- 588 SUFFOLK COUNTY. constructed the machine, supplied it with means to automatically adapt the stroke of the needle to the varying thickness of sole and to the mechanical movements involved in tightening the stitch — means for revolving the horn and for revolving the looping contrivance upon it, and means for progressively presenting or feeding the shoe by devices operating in the channel. The precise forms in which these various inventions and improvements found final expression in the perfected machine were mainly the contrivances of Mathies, who, with McKay, was compelled to undergo the pains and labor which usually attend the birth of great inventions. The work — long, weary and exacting — exhausted McKay's fortune and impaired his health, and it left Mathies so shattered that he ended his own life before reaping the fruits of his toil. McKay first demonstrated the value of his machine in the manufac ture of army shoes, adapting it, after the war, to the general use which has proved it, to both continents, a beneficent factor in the material growth and comfort of the last quarter of a century. When the man who, by hand, could make but one or two pairs of shoes in a day, at an expense of seventy-five cents per pair, found that, with the McKay machine, he could make three hundred pairs, at a cost of three cents per pair, the factory was already conceived and had only to be reared and equipped. This fact, once discovered, an army of inventors undertook the work, which has gradually produced the model factory of to-day, with such admirable organization and arrangement of ingenious contrivances for shoe construction and embellishment as makes it one of the most interesting and important of the hives of human industry. McKay's contribution to this result did not end with the construction of his machine. He early found that, with constant use in the hands of inexperienced operators, the machine got out of repair, did imper fect work, and required, at short intervals, the examination of skilled inspectors and the frequent renewal of worn and imperfect parts. He, therefore, devised a scheme for leasing his machine, at a small rental or royalty, prepared and kept constantly on hand a supply of accurately made duplicate parts, a catalogue of which, duly numbered and illus trated with cuts, he furnished to each lessee to enable him instantly to order by number, from any part of the country, a needed piece, and then placed upon the road a corps of trained men to set up the ma chines, to teach operators how to use them and to visit them often BIOGRAPHIES. 589 enough to secure their uninterrupted working condition and the efficiency of the men employed upon them. In all this work he re ceived efficient aid from Mr. Blake. The invention of this system proved hardly less valuable than that of the machine itself, for without it the machine, in spite of its excel lence, would have been a failure. With this provision for its needs, the McKay sewing machine became, at once, indispensable to manufac turers, and McKay's plan was immediately appropriated and employed by subsequent inventors in other departments of shoe machinery. McKay's original success, his recognized business sagacity, and the prestige of his name, soon made his co-operation desirable, and many inventions were offered for his consideration. Among them were crude contrivances for preparing and assembling the lifts of shoe heels and for moulding them, punching them with nail holes, supplying them with nails, attaching them to shoes and trimming them to the desired shapes upon the shoes. The best of these he; in company with others, acquired and organized the McKay Heeling Machine Association for their development and introduction. In 1875 this association combined with another, and has since been known as the McKay & Bigelow Heeling Machine Association. McKay and his associates had the good fortune to secure at the outset, in connection with this machinery, the services of Charles W. Glidden, of Lynn, whose exceptional inventive skill brought their inventions into the high repute which secured them the place they still hold in all the leading factories of both hemispheres. Before the expiration of the Blake and Mathies patents, there appeared machines for attaching soles to boots and shoes by metallic fastenings, the most notable of them being the celebrated ' ' Standard Screw Machine," made by Louis Goddu, of Winchester, Mass., a man of the very first order of inventive ability. This machine, carrying a long coil of screw-threaded wire, screws the sole to the shoe, automa tically adapting the length of the screws to the varying thickness of different soles and of different parts of the same sole, and working with nearly the rapidity of the sewing machine. This and other machines employing different forms of the fastenings used in the manufacture of shoes, were acquired by McKay and others, and the McKay Metallic Fastening Association was organized, upon the plan described, for their introduction and use. It is enough to say of the first-named machine that, in the shoe manufacture of this country alone, it already consumes yearly 1,250,000 lbs. of threaded wire. 590 SUFFOLK COUNTY Another prominent association of the same character in which Mc Kay and others, during the same period, acquired ownership of the best inventioris relating to the art of lasting boots and shoes, was formed under the name of the McKay Lasting Machine Association, and its machines, like the others, have gone into extensive and increas ing use. In all of these McKay became the leading spirit and the largest owner, and with them all he still retains connection. He was not the inventor of any of the remarkable machines with which his name is associated, but he may fairly be regarded as the inventor of their success, and must be considered the foremost practical contributor to the shoemaking department of the industrial art of his time. THE GOODYEAR MANUFACTURING COMPANY. Charles Goodyear, whose name is associated with the Goodyear system of shoe machinery, is the son of Charles Goodyear, the discov erer of the vulcanization of india rubber. He was born in German- town, Penn., January 1, 1833, his father at that time being engaged in the manufacture of domestic hardware in Philadelphia, being a pioneer in this industry, most of the goods of this nature being then imported. His mother was a daughter of Daniel Beecher, of Naugatuck, Conn. During his early boyhood young Goodyear attended school in New Haven, but the exigencies of his father's business occasioned frequent interruptions. As he grew to manhood he was much engaged in assist ing his father in his experiments with india rubber and in applying that material to many of the uses to which it has since become a matter of public necessity. In 1857 or 1858 he became interested in the manufacture of shoe ma chinery, and at the beginning of the late Civil War was president of the American Shoe Tip Company, a very successful concern, which gave him an extensive acquaintance among shoe manufacturers and parties connected with the shoe business. About the year 1864 Mr. Goodyear's attention was called to the in vention of Auguste Destuoy, who in 1862 had secured United States patents on a machine for sewing boots and shoes. The object sought BIOGRAPHIES. 591 by the inventor of this machine was to make boots and shoes of all de scriptions as nearly as possible by the same process as had already been employed in sewing them by hand, but his machine was so crude and unsatisfactory that it presented only a suggestion of the idea of the pos sibility of a circular curved awl and needle working in a small radius, the details of which had subsequently to be worked out and developed. Although Destuoy had not produced in any sense a satisfactory ma chine, Mr. Goodyear thought he saw in it the elements of a practical invention, and bought an interest in the patent, little realizing at the time, however, the hard work required to bring it to a practical work ing condition. With that same patience and persistent spirit which so distinguished his father, he undertook the task. Later on, having bought Destuoy's entire interest in the patent, he sold a half interest to Frederick Renaud, Henry T. Close, and Francis Du Bois, of New York. Associating with himself men of practical mechanical ability, he continued his experiments, under many discouragements, until a machine was produced capable of sewing both welts and stitching on the outsoles of shoes. He then went to England for the purpose of in troducing the invention there, and where he finally sold the foreign patent to a company organized there by an uncle of Mr. Goodyear. . On his return to the United States in 1871, the Goodyear Shoe Sewing Ma chine Company was organized, at which time, besides his original as sociates, Mr. Renaud and Mr. Close, the following representative shoe manufacturers became associated with Mr. Goodyear in the enterprise : Charles D. Bigelow, Edwin C. Burt, H. S. Chase, and George Good year. Of this company Mr. Goodyear became president, and in which he subsequently invested all of his available means, finally becoming heavily encumbered. in his struggle to achieve success. Although the welt machine was from the first the chief object to be attained and perfected, it was deemed best to confine the efforts of the company to the perfection and introduction of the machine for sewing " turns," which required but one sewing machine, whereas the manu facture of welted shoes required both a welt sewing machine and an outsole stitcher. Before the turn machine was perfected a competing machine was put on the market. This machine had points of similarity to the Goodyear machine, and to avoid possible entanglements the Goodyear Company purchased the patents on the competing invention. It will, however, be unnecessary to go into details to make clear the many trials, discouragements and difficulties which beset the path of 592 SUFFOLK COUNTY the Goodyear Company in its earlier efforts. There were many un necessary complications in the original machine which it took years of experiment with the best practical mechanical skill to overcome. A history of this invention would not be complete without reference to a law suit which was brought against the Goodyear Company by the McKay Sewing Machine Association for alleged infringement by the Goodyear Shoe Sewing Machine Company in the'year 1876. This suit was never brought to trial, overtures were made by disinterested par ties which resulted in a compromise settlement of the legal questions, and a new organization was formed, called " The Goodyear and McKay Association," to which the McKay Association assigned all of its patents relating to "turned " shoes, and the Goodyear Company assigned all of its patents relating both to turned shoes and to welted shoes. The stock in the new association was divided, giving one-third to the McKay Association and two-thirds to the original stockholders in the Goodyear Company. Eventually the McKay Association sold their in terest to the present shareholders in the Goodyear Shoe Machinery Company, and the name of McKay ceased to be a part of the title of the company. Throughout the long struggle to perfect and introduce the machines, Mr. Goodyear labored arduously, and he has had the satisfaction since, through and by the assistance of those interested with him, of seeing introduced to the world a series of the most practical and useful inven tions known in shoe machinery. In 1882, at a time when the Goodyear machines had just begun to be recognized as valuable, but as yet were little known and only a comparatively few were in use, S. V A. Hunter became identified with the company, and from that time to the present has been an im portant factor in its success. The machines of the company had been proved an unqualified success, but to overcome the prejudice against machine sewed shoes and to secure their introduction among manu facturers, was a most difficult task. It required a high order of ability, a knowledge of men gained by long experience, quick perception, and rare business generalship. These qualities Mr. Hunter possessed, and, quickly comprehending what was required, he soon placed the company on the road to its present commanding position of success. He was born in New York city in 1834. At the age of seventeen he entered as clerk in the employ of the well known firm of Spofford, Tileston & Company, of that city, with whom he remained for the succeeding BIOGRAPHIES. 593 twenty-eight years, advancing finally to be confidential clerk, salesman and general outside manager for all consignments received both from the South and from Cuba in the shape of cotton, sugar, hides, rice, and general southern products. This long experience with one of the largest commission houses in the United States, gave him an excep tionally fine general business education, which was taken advantage of by his friends in New York who were stockholders in the Goodyear Company, and when the old firm to which he had been attached for so many years went out of business, he was induced to come to Boston to take charge of the financial interests of the company, in the capacity of secretary and treasurer. In December, 1882, he was chosen general manager. Entering this new field, concerning which he had had but little previous knowledge, he brought to bear upon it the business ex perience gained in his former work. By personal solicitation he brought the various machines of the company to the attention of the manufacturers throughout the United States, and by his well directed efforts succeeded in overcoming the unjust prejudice that existed against them to such an extent that finally the machines were intro duced' in some of the largest factories of the country, where their suc cessful operation set at rest all doubtful conjectures. He was also a very efficient factor in encouraging new inventions and improvements on the original machines, and in a general way so regulated the busi ness of the company as to establish it financially on its present success ful basis. When he came into the company it had about three hundred machines out on lease, and the net earnings were quite inconsiderable compared with its present condition, which is that of a company paying twelve per cent, on a capital of $3,000,000. Mr. Hunter is a man of great energy, of strong will, and not easily discouraged in any task which he undertakes, however great the difficulties he may encounter. That he has been an invaluable factor in placing the company in its present strong position is freely acknowledged by all conversant with its history. His arduous labors and persistent efforts have been crowned with well merited success, and his ambition to make the Goodyear Company the largest shoe machinery company in the world has been fully realized. Charles Goodyear continued as president of the company until 1888, when he was succeeded by Jonathan Munyan, who had become a stock holder in the year 1880, through helping Mr. Goodyear in the time of his greatest need on an appeal made to him by Mr, Goodyear for 75 . 594 SUFFOLK COUNTY. financial aid to prevent his being sold out for money he had borrowed of his associate directors in the company. All his stock was hypothe cated, with certain foreign patents he owned, and when the day for settlement came, the parties holding the collateral pressed him very hard and insisted upon settlement in full. The amount borrowed amounted to a large sum. Mr. Munyan foresaw the value of the in vention, and, although a comparative stranger to Mr. Goodyear, he, with other friends of Mr. Goodyear, raised the money for him and saved his stock. In the year 1881 these former directors referred to, who had been foiled in their effort to get possession of the company, made another attempt by crying down the stock and trying to buy it in from other parties, but failed in that also, as Mr. Goodyear and his friends suc ceeded in holding the controlling interest, whereupon these directors sold out their stock and retired from the company. Mr. Munyan con tinued an active director — later on becoming its president — in all these years when the company was struggling for recognition among the manufacturers. All of his life from early manhood Mr. Munyan has been connected with the leather and shoe business, and for many years was a director and stockholder in the Bay State Shoe and Leather Company of Wor cester, Mass., and Brooklyn, N. Y., the factory at Worcester being under his personal supervision. This company was one of the first to adopt the Goodyear machines, and the first to make them a decided success, it being done almost solely through the earnest solicitation of Mr. Munyan, who had the foresight to see the great value of the sys tem. Shortly after his election as president of the Goodyear Company he gave up his connection with the Bay State Company, and has since devoted all of his time and attention to the furtherance of the interests of the Goodyear Company. All of his valuable experience gained in his long connection with the important companies with which he had been connected was brought to bear in his new field of labor, and his safe advice, honesty and integrity, have been a bulwark upon which the directors have relied in all the struggles of the company. When the foreign company was established, Mr. Munyan was also made president of this corporation, and has taken an active interest in it, visiting the agencies in England and France each year, and rendering valuable assistance in the fight against the prejudice of manufacturers abroad in regard to using royalty-paying machines. Mr. Munyan was BIOGRAPHIES. 595 born in Thompson, Conn., in 1823, and for over forty years has been prominently identified with the development and interested in the. com mercial importance of Boston. At the present time the Goodyear Company has 2,200 machines leased to about 850 lessees, the royalty from which is sufficient to realize the income previously mentioned. The company has a large shop in Boston in which the machines are manufactured, where 200 men are employed. There are ten agencies located in different cities, conducted by men in the employ of the company, these cities being shoe centers of the districts in which they are located. Fifty men are constantly employed as operators, whose business it is to visit the dif ferent lessees, teach operators, keep the machines in repair, and in a general way to look after the interests of the company. A European company has been established, with offices in England and France, and in these countries a number of machines are in use, their success ful operation opening a wide field for future work. CHRISTIAN DANCEL. No account of the now widely known Goodyear shoe machinery would be complete which failed to give prominent mention of the part per formed in its development by Christian Dancel, whose practical me chanical ingenuity has been manifested in every stage of its growth. Mr. Dancel was born in Cassell, Germany, February 14, 1847. After studying mechanical engineering for three years and a half at the Poly technic School in that place he came to New York in 1865 and worked as practical machinist in different machines shops in the United States. He finally connected himself with one Stein, who held a patent for a sewing machine, and for him he invented and built the first practical shoe sewing machine ever put on the market. This patent was after wards bought by the Goodyear Shoe Sewing Machine Company, in the employ of which Mr. Dancel then entered, and by his improvements upon his own inventions and those of others he was enabled to bring out the first machines which were a practical success, and was engaged by the company, at once, as superintendent. The machines thus far had been made simply for sewing turned shoes. He was then asked to turn his attention to making a machine with 596 SUFFOLK COUNTY, which to sew on welts, and also to invent, if possible, a machine to stitch the out soles on shoes. He undertook to do this at once and al tered over one of the machines then in use into a stitcher, of which the company made fifty, and sold them immediately to different manufact urers. He then took one of the same machines referred to, and by adding a welt guide, produced in 1874 a machine which would sew not only turns but welts. This machine was accepted by the company in 1875, patented by Mr. Dancel and assigned to it, and is in use at the present time with a few alterations. By this time Mr. Dancel had become very proficient in the knowledge of shoe sewing machinery. His various improvements and patents were adopted by the company, his assistance becoming of the utmost value in defending it against the suits brought by other companies, and enabling it to establish itself on a firm foundation for future work. In 1876 Mr. Dancel went into business for himself as machinist and inventor, and invented a number of small machines used in the finish ing of shoes, very valuable to the trade. Soon after this he was called upon by the Goodyear Company to build another machine for it, which he did with great success, building and perfecting one machine after another until he produced the one which has given the greatest meas ure of success to the company. This machine is for stitching the outer sole to the upper with a curved needle and a lock-stitch while the shoe is on the last. This machine was delivered to the company in 1885. This was followed by building a straight-needle machine which would also stitch on the outer sole while the shoe is on the last, and this was finished and delivered in 1892. His last achievement for the company is to build a curved needle machine to sew welts upon the shoe with a lock-stitch while the shoe is on the last. In all these inventions Mr. Dancel takes a just pride, as being the inventor who has furnished to the companies working under the Goodyear name all their principal ma chines upon which they now rely, and with which they have become so highly successful. MELLEN BRAY. Mellen Bray, whose name is associated with several inventions of great practical utility and value, was born in the town of Turner, An droscoggin county, Me., January 12, 1829, and is a son of William B. BIOGRAPHIES. 597 and Nancy (Bradford) Bray. On the paternal side he is a descendant in the seventh generation of one of four brothers who came from Nor mandy, France. The progenitor of the family in America settled at Falmouth, Mass. The grandfather and father of our subject were for many years engaged in mercantile and milling pursuits at Turner. They were both men of strong character, and in the community where they lived exerted marked influence. His father was born in 1800, and after many years of successful business life at Turner removed in 1858 to Oshkosh, Wis., where he purchased large tracts of timber land. Here he died in 1869. He was twice married, his first wife, Nancy Bradford, who died in 1834, being a descendant in the sixth generation of Governor William Bradford, one of the famous characters in the colonial period of New England. She was the mother of six children, of whom William, Mellen and Nancy (wife of A. M. Smith) are living; two died in infancy and Philip, the youngest, died in 1884. Mr. Bray's second wife was Ann Maria Sawtell, who died in 1875. Of the latter union four children were born, of whom two are living, Madison B. and Elizabeth Johnson Bray (wife of C. C. Paige). The youth of Mellen Bray was passed at Turner, where he received the educational advantages of the public school. A more liberal edu cation was at his disposal had he so desired, but early evincing a de cided taste for business, and more especially a genuine fondness for machinery, he at the age of seventeen went to work in the carding mill conducted by his father, and later in the linseed oil mill also owned and operated by his father. In this service he was highly successful, it be ing a field in which his natural mechanical abilities found congenial employment. In 1849, with his older brother, William, he purchased the store at Turner with which his father had long been connected. The brothers conducted the business under the firm name of Mellen Bray & Co. until 1854, when they disposed of their interest. The varied business experience of these five years in a general country store, with a large volume of miscellaneous trade, was of great value, and did much to give him an insight into and knowledge of many branches of business. It was during his mercantile career at Turner that Mr. Bray's naturally enquiring mind was directed into an inventive channel. Among his customers were many shoe factory workmen, one of whom, a Mr. Wells, had conceived a crude idea of a machine for pegging boots and shoes. Mr. Wells easily interested Mr. Bray in the project, and for two years the young merchant was patiently engaged in [he develop- 598 SUFFOLK COUNTY. ment of an invention for ¦ that purpose. A series of mishaps attended his progress, but in no sense abated his ardor. He had fairly gotten his invention under way in one of his father's mills, when a fire com pelled the removal of the machine to vSaccareppa, Me. At this place a second fire caused the experiments to be continued at Lewiston. Again a similar accident drove Mr. Bray back to Turner, where the machine was finally perfected, and although it did not prove a practical success, it furnishes an example of that indomitable will and persistence in the face of adverse circumstances which later in his career led Mr. Bray to well merited success. The experiments with the pegging machine were also valuable in that they were the means of directing Mr. Bray's inventive genius toward boot and shoe machinery, at that time of the simplest nature, but later a field in which the most marvelous develop ments were to be attained. The pegging machine was followed by a rounding up shoe sole machine, upon which Mr. Bray obtained a patent in 1858. In the fall of 1859 Mr. Bray introduced and obtained a patent in Canada on the copper toe plate for boots and shoes. He located at Montreal, where for some years he successfully engaged in the manu facture of boots and shoes provided with this device. In 1862 he sold his Canadian patent, and in January of the following year came to Boston. Up to this period of his career he had been more than ordi narily successful for a young man. He had accumulated a modest fortune from his business ventures, but full of ambition and courage. and possessed of vigorous health and strength, he was naturally, at his age, inclined to be aggressive and to lavish his full energies upon any enterprise in which he might embark. Upon his arrival in Boston, Mr. Bray leased a general machine shop, and a few months later purchased the entire establishment. Engaged in a branch of industry in which he found abundant scope for his me chanical ingenuity, his mind naturally turned to practical inventions. In 1864 he secured by assignment the original patent on an augur for boring a square hole, which he perfected and finally sold. In 1865 he was granted a patent on a machine for punching and shaping metals. By the latter invention was produced the first seamless metal boxes. Mr. Bray invented the seamless headed blacking boxes, which speedily came into general use, millions of them being now used yearly. The importance of this invention can be fully realized from the fact that prior to the time when Mr. Bray gave this machine to the world, all BIOGRAPHIES. 599 metal boxes, pail and can covers were made of two or more pieces, either soldered or locked. To produce them by a single operation Mr. Bray was compelled to make a most careful study of the drawing of metals, and was obliged to overcome many difficulties. The full value of this invention, however, was lost to Mr. Bray by a trivial omission in his application for a patent. Had his application contained the term, " a seamless, beaded box," he would have been enabled to have controlled the entire manufacture of boxes by this process. An im mense fortune was thus lost by merely a slight oversight. This single invention would have been sufficient to have given Mr. Bray promi nence among inventors, but his claims for recognition by no means rest on any one invention. The range of his inventive genius has been wide, the patent office reports showing that to him have been granted no less than one hundred and sixty patents. By no means have all of them been financially successful, nor all even of practical utility, but they bear evidence of the wide scope of his mind and how great a toiler he has been in the field of mechanical ingenuity. Mr. Bray's most successful inventions have been in connection with appliances used principally in boot and shoe making. Soon after his location in Boston his attention was drawn to the desirability of a new method of lacing shoes. The old style of lacing through a common eyelet was slow and bothersome. Discovering the need or necessity for improvement, he was not content until he had devised a way to accom plish it. This was secured by an invention upon which he secured a patent under date of May 2, 1865. This was a shoe lacing with a loop riveted to either side of the upper through which the lacing passed. By a single draft on the lacing the front of the shoe was closed. This simple invention, which he subsequently sold, was in itself valuable, but more especially so from the ideas it suggested, which were success fully carried out by Mr. Bray. From the rivet used for attaching this lacing or loop came to him the idea of the tubular rivet, an invention which is now an important factor in the manufacture of boots, shoes, harness, trunks, saddles, and various other purposes. This was fol lowed by the lacing stud, now so generally used in connection with shoes and gloves. One who looks upon these simple yet so eminently useful .devices can scarcely realize the complicated and ingenious ma chinery required for making and applying them. The machines now employed in their production required years of experiment, and in volved an expenditure of fully $150,000. To one less courageous than 600 SUFFOLK COUNTY. Mr. Bray, the attainment of the object he had in view, through all the discouragements he had to encounter, would hardly have been accom plished. To-day the manufacture of tubular rivets, lacing studs and hooks, in connection with the making of machines for applying them, has become an industry by itself which engages the attention of hun dreds of workmen. The finely equipped manufacturing plant for this purpose is located at Wallaston, Mass., and in many respects forms one of the most interesting industrial enterprises in New England. Here, daily, six tons of metal are worked up into rivets and studs by auto matic machinery of delicate and intricate construction which seem al most human in the precision and regularity of their operation. Here can be seen all the processes of manufacturing, from the plain wire or strips of metal to the finished product ; the different stages of evolution, even to the japanning, being effected by automatic machinery, every portion of which represents the inventive genius of Mr. Bray. To con ceive and bring to the requisite perfection these many mechanical de vices, it is perhaps needless to say, has been the hard work of years, requiring an amount of patience and strength of purpose few men possess. Every step forward involved costly experiments, vexatious delays, and at times the way to a desired end seemed beset with most discouraging results. Even now, when it would seem that Mr. Bray had reached perfection in the machinery required for his purpose, he is constantly at work devising new improvements, so as to be able to meet the demands of the trade as well as to be fortified against possible competition. After the completion of his inventions for producing the tubular rivet and lacing stud, their introduction and the creating of- a demand for their use was a labor of no small magnitude, and called for a high order of business generalship. For some years Mr. Bray conducted a glove manufactory in France for the sole purpose of introducing gloves provided with his lacing stud, which is now so generally used for this purpose. In this, and other ways no less effective, he was forced to adopt means to introduce his products, but which to-day find a ready market in every part of the United States, while large quantities are exported to England, Germany, France, Austria and Mexico. The manufacture of the tubular rivet and lacing stud was for several years successfully conducted by Mr. Bray under two separate organiza tions known as the Tubular Rivet Company and the Lacing Stud Com pany. These two companies were consolidated March 1, 1893, and BIOGRAPHIES. 601 now form a new corporation known as the Tubular Rivet and Stud Company, of which Mr. Bray continues as manager and directing spirit. Mr. Bray possesses, what is rare among men of inventive genius, ex cellent business ability, and while he has devoted himself oftentimes beyond his strength in his labors upon his inventions, he has in no sense failed to admirably manage his business interests. The mental and physical tax upon his powers of endurance has indeed often been greater than he should have borne, and had it not been for an inherited constitution of great strength, he would have been unable to have stood the strain. Few have labored more industriously, and the high degree of success he has attained is in every way richly deserved. Mr. Bray was married in 1850 to Persis Temple Gross, of Turner, Me. They have had four children, three of whom are living : Persis Davis, Mellen Newton, and William Claxton Bray. Both of the sons are associated with their father in his business enterprises, and upon them largely devolves the management of the manufacturing and busi ness details. Mr. Bray's residence is at Newton Centre, where he has continuously resided since 1863. GEORGE H. P. FLAGG. Dr. George H. P. Flagg, who of late years has held a prominent place among the manufacturers of boot and shoe machinery, was born in Needham, now Wellesley, Mass., March 12, 1830, and is a son of Solomon and Eliza (Hall) Flagg. He is of English descent, the first of the family in America being Thomas Flagg, who came from England prior to 1643 and settled at Watertown. He was selectman of that town in 1671, 1674-78, and died in 1697. The great-grandfather of our sub ject, Solomon Flagg, was at the battle of Lexington and served at other points during the War of the Revolution. He held offices in the town of Needham. Solomon Flagg, the father of our subject, was born in Boston, August 24, 1804, but his entire life was practically spent at Needham, whither his parents moved shortly after his birth. He was school teacher in Needham, Dover, Natick and Sherborn for thirty-eight years, and had an extended acquaintance throughout a wide territory. He had much to do in shaping the affairs of his town and village, and perhaps no man 76 602 SUFFOLK COUNTY in Norfolk county, and possibly in the State, held public office so many years in the aggregate as Mr. Flagg. He was selectman of the town of Needham in 1833, 1842, 1843, 1846-49, seven years in all; assessor of Needham, 1832, 1833, 1839, 1845, 1857-59, 1861-64, 1866-74, twenty years in all; member of school committee, 1831, 1845-51, 1857-61, 1864-67, 1870-80, twenty-eight years in all. He was appointed town clerk August 19, 1850, and held the office till the incorporation of Wellesley (1881), over thirty years, and was elected town clerk of Welles ley upon the organization of the town and held it until 1887. He was appointed treasurer of the town of Needham, May 14, 1859, and elected every year until the incorporation of Wellesley, twenty-one years. He was elected as representative to the General Court in 1834 and again in 1861, when he assisted in patriotic preparation for resistance to rebel lion. He thus aggregated one hundred and fourteen years of service in public elective office; a record surely seldom equaled. Mr. Flagg was a man of fixed opinions and beliefs, religious in his bearing and habits, yet very fond of fun and good cheer. No citizen of Needham was more popular or better beloved for his sterling traits of character and natural kindliness of heart. He died in May, 1892, surviving his wife for sev eral years, she having died in 1875. The boyhood of our subject was passed with his parents at Needham, now Wellesley, where his preliminary education was received in the common school. Later on he attended Day's Academy at Prentham, Mass., and after completing the course at this institution he came to Boston, in his twentieth year, and began the study of dentistry in the office of Dr. W. T. G. Morton, the distinguished discoverer of the anes thetic properties of ether. He remained in Dr. Morton's office for about five years, when, in 1855, he formed a partnership with Dr. J. A. Cum mings and began the practice of his profession. Success attended him in his work and he soon secured a profitable practice. In the fall of 1859 he purchased his partner's interest in the business, and for about two years conducted it alone. He then formed a partnership with Dr. H. D. Osgood, which continued until Dr. Flagg retired wholly from professional work. During this period, representing more than a quarter of a cen tury, Dr. Flagg held an enviable reputation in his profession and had a large and lucrative practice, accumulating a competency from his labors. : His achievements, however, in the development and manufacture of boot and shoe machinery have given him such deserved prominence in the industrial history of New England, as to have made his professional BIOGRAPHIES. 603 career,- creditable as it was, seem of secondary importance., His atten tion was first directed in the line of patents about 1862, when with Dr. Cummings he became interested in a process for preparing rubber plate for the insertion of artificial teeth, which eventually resulted in the formation of the Goodyear Dental Vulcanite Company. This proved a very valuable patent and a great financial success. In 1873 he formed a partnership with C. H. Helms, the inventor of the Helms burnishing machine, under the style of C. H. Helms & Co, Shortly thereafter the Tapley Machine Company sued the new firm for infringement of their patents. The case was decided in favor of the defendants. The Tapley Company soon after purchased the en tire interest of C. H. Helms & Co. The success of his undertaking in this line induced Dr. Flagg in 1875 to start a company to manufacture the Union edge setter, which is now entirely owned by him, the merits of which are widely known to the trade. It has been greatly improved since it was first introduced, a Twin setter being the latest production. Soon after the Globe buffer and the Globe heel scourer were added to the business, and the doctor opened an office on Tremont street, Bos ton, but still kept up the practice of dentistry. In connection with the Globe buffer the manufacture of molded sandpaper was undertaken, a branch of the business which has since grown to large proportions. Dr. Flagg, in 1887, laid the foundation for a six story brick building on Lincoln street, corner of Tufts street, and the following year this was completed. This building was destroyed by fire in 1893, since which a new building has been erected on its site. On the removal of the business to this location in 1888, the doctor sold out his interest in the dental establishment and has since applied his entire time and energies to the machinery business. He started with two machinists, and now over one hundred are constantly employed to meet the demand for his various patent appliances for the manufacture of boots and shoes. In 1889 Dr. Flagg became largely interested in the Boston lasting machine, and after a stubborn fight in the shoe factories of Lynn, obtained a foot ing in that city that has never been shaken. The sale of the machine has increased until over thirteen hundred are now in use, a striking exam ple of success. Consecutively have been added to the business the Union cementer, the Rapid inseam trimmer, and the Webster leather cleaning machine, while the Union rounder and three other machines, patents for which have recently been taken out and are under way, will soon be in troduced to the trade. 604 SUFFOLK COUNTY. The growth and development of machinery for the manufacture of boots and shoes shows no example of more rapid rise than has been illustrated in the career of Dr. Flagg. The success he has attained against great odds and strong competition has been in many ways re markable. He is a man of quick perception, and when once convinced of the practicability of an enterprise, possesses the courage to prosecute the undertaking to a conclusion. He naturally inherits mechanical in genuity, and is quick to perceive the merits and possibilities of me chanical appliances. His unerring judgment in this regard, formed often against the advice of experts, has been proven on many occasions, and is best evidenced from the fact that he has not yet scored a failure. Naturally such a man inspires confidence, and to-day he is enabled to enlist men and capital in any enterprise which receives his endorse ment. WILLIAM D. BRACKETT. William D. Brackett, one of the successful boot and shoe manu facturers of New England and the founder of the well known firm of W. D. Brackett & Co. , was born in Londonderry, N. H. , June 9, 1840, and is a son of William D. and Almiria (Brown) Brackett. His father for many years was a successful merchant of Swampscot, Mass. , where the youth and early manhood of our subject was passed. His education was confined to the common school, and at the early age of twelve he began his business career in his father's store. He manifested a natural aptitude for business, and the multitudinous duties which fell to his lot in the conduct of a general country store resulted in a business experience of great value. The responsibilities of the entire management of the business was early shifted to his shoulders, and the young merchant proved in every way equal to the many requirements of the position. When he arrived at the age of twenty his father sold out the business to him and he undertook its management on his own account, assuming at the time quite heavy financial obligations, but with good judgment and business tact he met every obligation and was enabled to accumulate a fair surplus. The war of the Rebellion inter rupted for a time his business plans. In August, 1862, he enlisted in Company E, Forty-fifth Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry and served ~^~ o2v^^6W^, BIOGRAPHIES. 605 for nine months, when his period of -enlistment expired. During this time his father continued the business for him, but upon his return he again assumed its charge, prosecuting it. with constantly increasing success until 1865. Up to this time Mr. Brackett had amassed, through careful and judicious management, quite a capital for a man of his years and comparitively brief business career. Believing he was equal to a wider field of operation, and naturally ambitious, be came to Bos ton, and with J. L. Goldthwait embarked in the boot and shoe busi ness as retailers and jobbers under the firm name of Goldthwait, Brackett & Co., continuing, however, at the same time for a year thereafter his store at Swampscot, when he disposed of his business there to devote his entire time to his boot and shoe interest. Success attended his Boston venture, but two years and a half later Mr. Gold thwait died, and in the fall of 1867 Mr. Brackett formed the copartner ship of Cressy, Brackett & Co. , and commenced the manufacturing and wholesaling of boots and shoes, in which he has since continued with uniform and gratifying success up to the present time. In 1869 E. Mann was admitted as a partner, when the firm became Cressy, Mann & Brackett. In 1870 Mr. Cressy, on account of ill health, sold out his interest, and the business was thereafter continued until 1880 under the firm name of Mann & Brackett. At the latter date Mr. Brackett purchased Mr. Mann's interest, and from that time to the present the business has been conducted under the name of W. D. Brackett & Co. In 1889 Mr. Brackett's son, Forrest G. Brackett, and W. Hobart Emerson were admitted as partners. During the existence of more than a quarter of a century of this firm Mr. Brackett has been unreservedly devoted to its interest and success. With especial capacity for detail, he has been particularly watchful of the manufacturing part of the business, and to his unre mitting endeavors in this line the high standing the house has always enjoyed, has been largely due. He is a thorough-going, practical business man, taking pride and pleasure in his work and pursuing his plans with directness and singleness of purpose. He has always been a hard worker, is a strict disciplinarian, punctilious in all matters of business, and jealous of his commercial standing. The business has shown a healthy and substantial growth from year to year and now reaches the sum of over one million dollars annually. The firm now operates three factories : one at Stoneham, Mass. ; another at Windsor Vt. , and a third factory at Nashua, N. H. , where a large brick factory 606 SUFFOLK COUNTY. building was erected in 1889, and is considered one of the best equipped and most substantial structures of its kind in New England. Since it began operation the firm, however, has operated factories at different times in various localities in Massachusetts, New Hampshire and Ver mont, Mr. Brackett was married in 1865 to Sarah A. Lee, of Lowell. They have two children, a son, Forrest G. , already referred to as a partner in his father's business, and a daughter named Blanche. In 1872 Mr. Brackett removed his residence to Stoneham to be able to more care fully look after his manufacturing interest, where he has since continued to reside and has recently erected a fine home. FRANCIS F. EMERY. Francis Faulkner Emery was born in Boston, March 26, 1830, and is a son of Francis Welch Roberts and Sophronia (Faulkner) Emery. He is a representative of sturdy English ancestry, a descendant of those stout hearted, independent men and women who in the fore part of the seventeenth century came to New England and here founded a commu nity, the influence of which has been so strongly felt in the establishment and maintenance of our free institutions. The genealogy of the family both on the paternal and maternal side has been carefully and authentic ally traced for many generations, but it is only possible in a work such as this to allude but briefly to this interesting field of investiga tion. « The name of Emery figures quite prominently in English history. The name was originally spelled in various ways, as Amery, D'Amerie, D'Amery and Aamery. The first ancestor in England was Gilbert D'Amery, a Norman knight of Tours, who in 1066 fought at Hastings with William the Conqueror, from whom he received large landed es tates. He owned Thackingdon, and held a dozen manors near Oxford, which were retained by his descendants until 1376, when the third Baron D'Amery died. Descendants of Gilbert D'Amery long dwelt at Berkwell Manor, ten miles from Oxford, where still stands the church they built. The first of the family in America was John Emery, from whom our subject is descended in the eighth generation. This progenitor of the BIOGRAPHIES. 607 family in the New World was born in Romsey, in Hampshire (Hauts), England, in 1598. He with his wife, two children, and a younger brother named Anthony, arrived in Charlestown, Mass., June 3, 1635, having made the voyage from Southampton, England, in the ship James. Soon after their arrival they proceeded to Ipswich, and thence to New bury, where John settled in the same month of his arrival in America. Three years later Anthony located in Portsmouth, R. I. , afterwards in Dover, N. H., and again in Kittery, Me. He finally, however, re turned to Portsmouth, where he died. (A large proportion of the Em- erys at present found in Maine and New Hampshire are his descend ants. ) John, upon settling at Newbury, secured a grant of land on the south erly side of the main road leading to the bridge over the river Parker (a short distance above the "lower green " in the old town). He was a carpenter by trade, representatives of which craft were at that time particularly welcome in the New World. His name appears frequently in connection with public enterprises in the earliest annals of Newbury, showing that he was a man of prominence and importance among his fellows. The second grist mill established in Newbury was built by him and Samuel Scullard. • That he was a man of humane instincts and of independent nature and above the bigotry and prejudice of his day is evinced from the record found at the court-house in Salem, dated May 5, 1663, stating that he was fined £i for entertaining Quakers. His offense consisted in granting food and lodging to two men and two women of this religious sect who were traveling through Newbury. At this period one can scarcely depict the commotion caused by such an incident, or appreciate the courage evinced by John Emery in thus rising above the popular prejudice and fanatical bigotry and intoler ance then almost universally entertained toward the Quakers by the men and women of New England. John Emery also figured promi nently in the celebrated ecclesiastical case at Newbury, relating to church discipline, which is mentioned in Johnson's " Wonder Working Providence," and which was finally settled by an appeal to the civil authority. Both John Emery and his son John were members of the Woodman party, led by Edward Woodman, which denied the right of the elders of the church assuming wholly to themselves the power of admitting members, or of imposing church censure, believing that the church in its corporate capacity alone had the right and was under sacred obligation to manage its own affairs. The contest was a bitter 608 SUFFOLK COUNTY. one, beginning prior to 1656, and was finally settled by the court at Ips wich, May 29,- 1677, which decided against the Woodman party, impos ing a fine on most of them, among those thus fined being John Emery and his son. Most of the Woodman party afterwards relented, but Emery always remained firm and defended his position. He died No vember 3, 1683. He was twice married. The name of his first wife is not known. She died in April, 1645. His second wife was Mary (Spats- well) Webster, widow of John Webster, of Ipswich, whom he married October 29, 1650. She died August 28, 1694. There were three chil dren by the first marriage, John, jr. (known as Sargent), Ann and Eben ezer. By the second marriage the issue was one son, Jonathan, born May 13, 1652, the progenitor in a direct line of our subject. Jonathan was engaged in the King Philip's Indian War, and was wounded at the celebrated Narragansett fight, December 19, 1675. His company was the renowned " Flower of Essex," a company of picked men, carefully selected from the most eligible young men of the different towns con stituting Essex county. He was with this company at the sanguinary battle of Bloody Brook at South Deerfield, September 18, 1675, in which all of the company, with the exception of seven or eight men, were killed. He was married, November 29, 1676, to Mary Woodman, daughter of Edward Woodman, jr. They had nine children, seven sons and two daughters. His eldest son, also named Jonathan, was born February 2, 1679, and was twice married, first to Hannah Morse, March 1, 1705, who died October 1, 1732. His second wife was Rebecca Walker, whom he married in 1733. He had eight children, three sons and five daughters. Joshua, the eldest son, born March 21, 1708, was also twice married. He also had a son named Joshua. The latter's son, also named Joshua, was the grandfather of our subject. He was born September 16, 1774, at Atkinson, N. H. He was a house builder and contractor by profession and lived . for several years at Newbury port, where he accumulated a competency which was swept away by the great fire in that city in 1811. He afterwards became the steward of Phillips Andover Theological Seminary, having charge of the common and the farm belonging to the institution, a position he held most ac ceptably for nineteen years. He married Elizabeth Welch, of Plaston, N. H., February 1, 1801. She was a women of remarkable activity, energy and ability. They had six sons, the second of whom, Francis Welch Roberts Emery, was the father of our subject. He was born at Newburyport, May 31, 1806, and came to Boston in 1824, where he BIOGRAPHIES. • 609 served an apprenticeship with Joby Wolcott, a builder and contractor. About 1832 he embarked. in rubber manufacture in Roxbury, and later on conducted a woolen mill near Dudley street in Roxbury. The finan cial crash of 1836 swept away his means, and for a few years thereafter he lived on a farm in Bedford. In 1843 he returned to Boston and re sumed his profession of a house builder and contractor, in which he soon took a leading position. Music Hall and many other prominent and costly public and private buildings, stores and blocks of dwellings were erected by him. He was a man of comprehensive mind, far seeing and sagacious, and of great executive ability. His judgment and. ad vice were much sought and much respected. He was frank and candid in manner, scrupulously honest, careful of the rights of others, and of a sympathetic, generous and genial nature. He was thrice married, first to Sophronia Faulkner, July 2, 1829, who died December 21, 1837; second to Mary Baker Wolcott, March 26, 1839, who died September 6, 1847; and in May, 1848, to Susan Davenport Ward, who died in 1875. Mr. Emery died in Glasgow, Scotland, February 25, I860. On the maternal side our subject is a descendant in the ninth gener ation from Ezekiel Richardson, who came from England and settled in Charlestown in 1630, and is also of the seventh generation removed from Edward Faulkner, who settled in Andover in 1634. Ezekiel Richardson was a man of great respectability and worth, whose name often appears in the colonial records of Charlestown. He was one of the first Board of Selectmen, and was a deputy or representative of the town in the General Court, and in many ways was both a useful and influential citizen. The name of. Edward Faulkner appears ninth in the list of the first settlers of Andover. He was one of ten persons, including the pastor, who founded in 1645 the church in Andover, it being the twenty-fourth church organized in Massachusetts. Both branches of the family on the maternal side were noted for strong, vigorous character, fervent piety and sturdy mental qualities. Descended from such an ancestry it is not strange that the subject of this sketch should have developed those independent, forceful traits of character such as have been conspicuous in his career. His preliminary education was received in the Boston public schools. For six years he attended Phillips Academy at Andover, and subsequently graduated from the Boston High School in 1848. He then entered the employ of J. P. Thorndike, a leather merchant of Boston, as a clerk, with whom he remained one year. In September, 1849, he shipped as supercargo 77 610 • SUFFOLK COUNTY. of the ship Ceathys, having a cargo of building material for the construc tion of houses in San Francisco. Upon his arrival, in February, 1850, he found some defect in the title to the land upon which the houses were to be built, which needed investigation. While this was progress ing he went into the mines, where he remained until the middle of the following August. He then returned to San Francisco and superin tended the erection of forty houses, in which he had one-third interest and from which he realized a profit of $17,000. In 1851 he returned to Boston, and in the spring of 1852 entered the employ of Fred Jones, a boot and shoe manufacturer of Athol, whose business was established in 1824, and whose father had previously been a tanner at the same place. The business, at the time Mr. Emery entered Mr. Jones's em ploy, had grown to considerable magnitude, being one of the largest in New England. As early as 1836 Mr. Jones opened a store in Boston for the sale of his goods, at which time his cousin became associated with him as partner, under the firm name of F. & N. Jones. Several years later they dissolved, and each continued the business on his own account. In 1853 Mr. Emery became a partner with Mr. Jones under the firm name of Fred Jones & Co., at which time the firm was doing a business of from $400,000 to $500,000 annually, which rapidly in creased in volume after Mr. Emery's admission to the firm. In 1857 they had the first factory in New England, where the entire process of boot and shoe making was done by machinery. Before the war of the Rebellion they did a heavy business in the South and West, and their loss, in consequence of the war, was heavy. In anticipation of the war they began, in the winter of '60-61, the manufacture of army shoes for soldiers, and. upon the breaking out of hostilities they had several thousand pairs on hand. Unable, however, to dispose of them to the Massachusetts authorities, although offered on their own terms, they sold them to Pennsylvania troops. Being of superior quality, a great demand was created for their production in this line, and throughout the war they made immense quantities of army shoes, their output, of this quality of goods exceeding that of any concern in New England. Large orders were often filled on short notice by working their factory night and day, in one instance producing 5,000 pairs of boots for cav alry and delivering them in New York within three days, a remarkable feat for that period of comparatively crude machinery facilities. In 1882 the firm of Fred Jones & Co. was dissolved, and from that time until the discontinuance of the business in May, 1891, Mr. Emery BIOGRAPHIES. 611 conducted it alone. During his career as a manufacturer, Mr. Emery operated factories at different times at Athol, Milford, Ashland, Dover, Alton, Southville, Plymouth, Farrington and Ayre. From 1872 till the closing out of the business, however, the principal factory was at Plym outh. Outside of his private business career Mr. Emery has been a forceful factor in many avenues of affairs. A man of great energy and inten sity of purpose, with strong convictions, quick to perceive and resent all forms of injustice, and with courage to combat whatever he believes wrong, without regard to consequences personal to himself, he has upon many occasions prominently figured in movements which have been far-reaching in their effect for good. When he returned from California in 1851 he was instrumental in organizing a committee of fifty or more members, made up from representatives of different churches of Bos ton, who being dissatisfied with the then condition of local political affairs, nominated- Jacob Sleeper for mayor, making the third candi date for this office in the field. Mr. Sleeper received sufficient votes to defeat both of his opponents, and the election resulted in no choice, and a second election terminated the same way. At the third election J. V. C. Smith, the Whig candidate, was elected. The organization, composed chiefly of members of evangelical churches, was kept up after the election, and out of it grew, in 1852, the Young Men's Chris- tain Association, the first society of its kind in the United States, and from a split among the same original committee was formed the Young Men's Christian Union, both of which are to-day strong and vigorous organizations. From this early participation in local political affairs to the present time Mr. Emery has had more or less to do with the city and ward politics, but never as a seeker after office or for personal aggrandizement. In the presidential campaign of 1860 he supported the Bell and Everett ticket, but has since been identified with the Re publican party, although he has always been liberal in his views and independent as far as his political actions were concerned. In the movement to repeal the internal revenue laws after the close of the war, Mr. Emery took a conspicuous and influential part. This system of taxation, made necessary by the exigencies of the govern ment in carrying on a gigantic war, was continued with well nigh ruin ous results to many manufacturing enterprises long after the war closed. Under it abuses of the most flagrant character were engen dered, extortions were practiced by dishonest revenue collectors, and 612 SUFFOLK COUNTY. it became such a burden upon the industrial forces of the country that many manufacturing enterprises were abandoned, and no incentive ex isted to warrant the establishment of new ones. Only a few at first were bold enough to advocate the repeal of this entire system of tax ation, but their efforts were unavailing; so strongly entrenched was the system that its adherents, largely its beneficiaries, easily defeated all efforts to repeal the measure. Concerted action, even among those most directly injured, seemed difficult to secure. Mr. Richardson, of Detroit, one -of the leading match manufacturers of the country, was for a time practically alone in his advocacy of the repeal of this system of taxation. Mr. Emery was among the first in New England to co-operate with Mr. Richardson in the work of arousing the people to a sense of the injustice of the system, and he took up the cause with characteristic energy. He called together the young men engaged in manufacturing, and through his efforts a public meeting was held and the matter thor oughly discussed. In opposition to many, resolutions were adopted demanding the repeal of the system. By appeals and discussions a strong public sentiment was aroused, and later, at the national conven tion of manufacturers, called to discuss the subject, a delegation was sent from New England, composed of representatives from thirty of the leading branches of manufacture. Throughout the long contest which preceded the final repeal of the internal revenue system, Mr. Emery was foremost in the fight, and his intelligent and well directed efforts did much to bring about a result now universally conceded to have been a wise and just move. The import duty on hides was among the burdens which more directly affected New England than any other section of the country, and was among the first after the war closed that the public asked to be relieved from. Such was the strong pres sure brought upon Congress . to revise and reduce import duties, that David A. Wells was appointed by Congress to report upon the subject. At the suggestion of Mr. Wells, Mr. Emery prepared for him careful and exhaustive figures showing the evil effects resulting to the country from the duty imposed upon hides. The results of Mr. Emery's in vestigations were incorporated in Mr. Wells's report to Congress, and had not a little influence in securing a removal of the duty, a timely result which virtually saved the heavy tanning industry of New Eng land. BIOGRAPHIES. 613 The e%iitable condition of freight rates from Boston of to-day is in great measure due to the forces set in motion by Mr. Emery. For a long time New England was practically at the mercy of the Vanderbilt system. So strongly was this state of facts supposed to exist that the managers of the Vanderbilt line in 1872 arbitrarily advanced the freight rates from Boston to St. Louis and Chicago from seventy-five and and eighty cents per hundred to $1.80 per hundred, a tariff practically in favor of the West as against New England. Mr. Emery at once set about inaugurating means to overcome this unjust discrimination. Mainly through his efforts was formed the National Despatch line, which, by the co-operation of the Vermont Central, Grand Trunk, Fitchburg, and a railroad through Canada and Michigan, gave New England a route to the West independent of the Vanderbilt system, and soon, through the loss of patronage, the rate of the latter was re duced to forty cents per hundred. Later the Vanderbilt people, by purchase of two hundred and fifty miles of the route used by the Na tional Despatch line in Michigan, were again masters of the situation. Mr. Emery again proved equal to the emergency of promptly meeting a condition that would have again put New England at the mercy of a single line to the West. He conceived the idea of making the New York and New England Railroad, then unfinished, a through line to the West. A part of the road was then in the hands of a receiver, and to extricate it it was necessary to raise $2,000,000. This Mr. Emery set about doing, and had practically accomplished the task when Van derbilt heard of the movement and at once capitulated. From that time to the present there has been no attempt to largely discriminate against New England, and fair rates have prevailed. In behalf of the boot and shoe industry, with which he was so long and prominently identified, Mr. Emery has in many ways been a help ful factor. His time and services have always been freely given to advance the general good of the industry. At the time of the expira tion of the McKay sewing machine patent, a strong effort was made to secure its renewal, but Mr. Emery, believing that the interest of the manufacturers would be best subserved by a discontinuance of the sys tem of royalties that had prevailed under the old patent, vigorously opposed the granting of a renewal of the patent. He appeared before the committee appointed by the Boston Board of Trade, and later before the Congressional Committee on Patents, and ably and thoroughly stated the reasons why the renewal should not be granted, and largely 614 SUFFOLK COUNTY. v. by his convincing and reasonable arguments the movement' was de feated. The Shoe and Leather Association, one of the best trade organizations, was also the outgrowth largely of Mr. Emery's efforts. At a dinner of boot and shoe manufacturers, held at the Revere House in 1871, at which Mr. Emery presided, he suggested the desirability of such an organization. The idea commended itself to others, and after some discussion, resulted in the appointment of a committee, at the head of which was Mr. 'Emery, with power to draw up a constitution and by-laws and to give form and expression to the plans and purposes of the association. Organization was soon after perfected, and Mr. Emery was placed on the Bureau of Credits, where he did most effect ive work on lines from which have resulted the most valuable part of the association's work. This was the first trade association formed in Boston, and from its organization to the present its influence upon the industry it represents has been in every way most salutary. Mr. Emery has always been actively interested in the work of the associa tion, and from his labors in its behalf much of its success can be largely ascribed. The foregoing few incidents in a busy career form but an outline of the events themselves, and of necessity suggest rather than fully de scribe the part Mr, Emery has performed in them. Enough, however, it is hoped, has been given to make evident a strong and vigorous per sonality. Mr. Emery's leading characteristics can be easily accounted for. They were inherited from ancestors, who, whatever may have been their shortcomings viewed in the light of to-day, were not de ficient in qualities of sterling honesty, of great moral courage, and true independence of character, united to fervent piety, love of home, regard for religion and education and intense patriotism. Mr. Emery has often run counter to the popular view on important questions, but has never hesitated to stand alone when he believed he was right. He is a man of careful, calculating judgment, and always has full command of his resources. He is not easily discouraged in any enterprise in which he may enlist, and possesses the ability to conceive and manage large undertakings. He has always been a great reader, and has managed to keep well informed on a wide range of topics. He excels as a con versationalist, and is a terse and ready speaker upon any subject upon which he has given thought and study. Physically he is a man of large frame, and possesses a vigorous constitution which the exacting cares of large business operations have made but little inroad upon. He is BIOGRAPHIES. 615 a New Englander in all that the name implies, and while justly proud of his section and the men and women who laid the foundation of its greatness, no one is more ardently or broadly proud of his entire coun try. Mr. Emery was married September 18, 1855, to Caroline Sweetser Jones, daughter of Frederick and Maria (Sweetser) Jones, who died in 1890. Their children are Maria Sweetser, Francis Faulkner, jr., and Edward Stanley Emery. Another son, Frederick Jones Emery, died in infancy. The two sons of Mr. Emery were associated with him in the manufacturing business until it was discontinued. They are now living in the new State of Washington. GEORGE A. ALDEN. George Adelbert Alden was born in Hope, Me., April 7, 1830; is a son of Silas and Sarah (Lindley) Alden, and a descendant in the eighth generation of John Alden and Priscilla Molines, of the May flower. Silas Alden, his father, removed with his family to Bangor, Me., when our subject was four years of age, where for many years he was engaged in the drug business, and where. he died January 23, 1891, at the advanced age of eighty-seven years. His wife, who died July 14, 1882, in her seventy-eighth year, was a near relative of John Lind ley, the distinguished English botanist. They had ten children, of whom but three are now living, George A. , Silas Augustus, and Sarah, the wife of Frank N. Lord, of Boston. Our subject was educated in the excellent public schools of Bangor, and after graduating from the High School of that eity for a short time assisted his father in the drug business. In November, 1848, he came to Boston and secured a position in the wholesale and retail drug store of William B. Little & Co. , being placed in charge of the retail department. He remained with this firm until 1851, when he went to Philadelphia, where he remained about two years. Upon again return ing to Boston his services were at once secured by the reorganized firm of George B. Little & Co. as manager, where he continued until Au gust, 1855, when he severed his connection with this house, and began his commercial career. He was successful from the start, and for about two years continued business alone, when he admitted to part- 616 SUFFOLK COUNTY. nership Isaac P. T. Edmands, under the firm name of Alden & Ed mands. They soon ranked among the largest handlers of India rubber and goat skins in the country. In 1874 the firm was dissolved, Mr. Alden retaining the India rubber interest, and Mr. Edmands continuing the goat skin part of the business. Mr. Alden conducted the business alone until 1878, when his son, Adelbert H. Alden, having become of age, was made a partner, under the present firm name of George A. Alden & Co. From that time to the present their dealings in rubber and gutta percha have been conducted on an extensive scale, their operations and interests in these lines exceeding that of any concern in the world. Since Mr. Alden's son has been a member of the firm the business has undergone many changes ; new branches have been created, and their interests have been extended in various ways. In 1880 they took up the shellac business and, under the name of the New York Shellac Co. , they now do nearly one-half of the entire business done in this commodity in the United States. In 1884, for the pur pose of more extensively carrying on the importation of rubber, they organized " The New York Commercial Co., Ltd.," with a capital of $600,000, of which Mr. Alden was president, and his son was secretary and general manager. December 1, 1892, this company was changed to '' The New York Commercial Co.," and capital increased to $2,500,- 000 ; George A. Alden, president ; A. H. Alden, vice-president and general manager. In 1887 the importation of cocoa was added to their various interests. Their operations in this direction have been con stantly increasing, and at the present time they are ranked as the largest importers in the United States. About six years since they further extended their business interests by inaugurating the exporta tion of grain, petroleum, lumber, staves and rubber to Portugal, Spain, the Mediterranean ports generally, and various ports of Russia and Germany, and employ from two to three steamers per month for this purpose. Boston has always' been the financial center of operation of this firm, but the growth of the business during recent years has necessitated close and intimate relations with New York city, where business offices are maintained, and between their headquarters in that city (66 Broad street) and Boston a private telegraph wire has been employed since 1880, and more recently long distance private telephone connection has also been established. During the great Boston fire of 1872 the head quarters of the firm in this city, corner of Milk and Bath streets, were BIOGRAPHIES. 617 destroyed, incurring a loss of about $100, 000. After the fire, quarters were established on Congress street, where they remained until about five years ago, since which the present location, 200 Devonshire street, has been occupied. As a commission merchant Mr. Alden has long been the most prom inent figure in his line in New England, and for many years has been at the head of the largest business of its kind in the United States. It seems unnecessary to expatiate upon the qualities required to accom plish the work he has performed, or to go into details in explaining his success. The best evidence of his business capacity lies in the un adorned statement of what he has accomplished. Against strong com petition, to have maintained and constantly strengthened the position he has so long held in commercial circles ; to have successfully met and been equal to the many changing conditions of trade, exhibit better than words of adulation, however merited, the strength of char acter and forceful nature of the man. Mr. Alden was married in 1856 to Harriet J. Hadley, of Charlestown. They have had two sons, the elder of whom, Adelbert H. Alden, pre viously mentioned, was born in 1857. He early evinced a decided taste for a commercial career, and before he had attained his majority had exhibited unusual business tact and ability. Since becoming associated with his father as partner his connection with the business has been very close and intimate, and its general' management and development during recent years has largely been the result of his superior business acumen. He was one of the leading organizers of the United States Rubber Company, and since 1890 has resided in New York city, the more adequately to look after and superintend the constantly increasing demands of the various interests with which he is prominently indenti- fied. He married Miss Mabel C, the daughter of Charles E. Thayer, of Boston, and has had two sons. Mr. Alden's younger son, George Edwin Alden, is also connected with the business interests of his father, and is president of one of their corporations. Besides his connection with the various interests mentioned, Mr. Alden is president of the Seamless Rubber Co., of New Haven; a director of the National Revere Bank, Revere Rubber Co., Boston Rubber Co., and Boston Rubber Cement Co. He is an original mem ber of the Merchants' Club and of the Boston Athletic Association, and is also a member of the Algonquin Club, Temple Club, Country Club, Pine Tree Club, Trade Club, Exchange Club, and a life member of St. 78 618 SUFFOLK COUNTY. Andrew's Royal Arch Chapter and De Molay Encampment Knights Templar. For twenty-nine years Mr. Alden resided with his family in Cam bridge. During the last four years the family has resided ' during the summer on the famous Baker estate in Wellesley, which comprises 800 acres of land, and in many respects is one of the finest farms in New- England. During the winter Mr. Alden resides with his family at the Hotel Vendome in Boston. HOWES NORRIS. Hon. Howes Norris was born at Vineyard Haven, Martha's Vine yard, Mass., November 2, 1841, and is the youngest of four children. He is the son of Capt. Howes and Elwina Manville (Smith) Norris. His ancestors on his father's side came to Martha's Vineyard from Bristol. He is descended on female lines from many of the families whose names are well known on the island, the Mayhews, Nortons, Butlers, Smiths and others, and from others no longer to be found there, the Harlocks and Shaws; from the Coffins and Starbucks of Nantucket, and from the Chipmans, Skiffs and Presburys of Sandwich. Through Hope Howland, wife of Elder John Chapman, he is descended from John Howland and Elizabeth Tilly, his wife, passengers in the May flower in 1620. His father, Captain Howes Norris, was a ship captain, and was mur dered in 1842, while on a voyage in the Pacific Ocean in the whaleship Sharon of Fairhaven, his ship being attacked and captured by savage natives of one of the King Mills group of islands. His mother, Elwina Manville (Smith) Norris, the daughter of Nathan and Polly (Dunham) Smith, of Tisbury, was killed by lightning, in 1851, in her own home. His brother, Alonzo, was lost by the burning at sea of the ill-fated steamer Austria in 1858. He was married September 16, 1863, to Martha Daggett Luce, daughter of William Cook and Eleonora Daggett (West) Luce, of Vine yard Haven. He has one son, Howes Norris, jr., born March 20, 1867. Mr. Norris has been active all his life in two distinct spheres, public and business affairs. On the death of his mother he was taken home 'uruixU) lA/o (H/Ll^ BIOGRAPHIES. 619 by his uncle, Shaw Norris, who lived on the east shore of Vineyard Haven Harbor (now Cottage City). Here, though not yet ten years old, he quickly became chore boy, farm hand, and boy of all work. Though well treated, this boyhood life was full of rigid features, and, however unrelished, it would be considered good and necessary disci pline for youth. Mr. Norris was educated in the public schools of Martha's Vineyard, with three years at a private boarding school in Middleboro', and a course at Coiner's Commercial College in Boston. In 1861 he sought a subordinate place in the army or navy, but fail ing to obtain it he engaged with a manufacturer of small arms, a rela tive, in Springfield. The business was new and urgent, and being the first clerk employed he had good opportunity for development and ad vancement, and in a short time was the substantial head of a business employing a large force of help, and in volume running into millions each year. Like all business dependent on war, though completely successful, it ended with it. During this period Mr. Norris was fre quently engaged in court cases as an expert in matters involving the production and cost of arms and parts of arms. At the age of twenty- six years he was offered and declined the positions of manager or treasurer of the great arms manufacturing house of the Remingtons at Ilion, N. Y., and a European connection with his employer. Mr. Norris, with a few leading men, organized in Springfield and for several years was treasurer of a thrifty manufacturing plant which still main tains a healthy existence. In November, 1868, he returned to Martha's Vineyard to look after business interests and severed all business connection with Springfield. Here he took sole charge of a shipping business established . by his uncle, which he had been familiar with from boyhood and had owned for several years, that of dealer in ship's supplies. Through this busi ness he became well known in commercial circles throughout the Atlantic ports and British Provinces. During the period between 1868 and 1881 he carried on alone this business at Vineyard Haven Harbor, and found time to perform the many duties hereafter mentioned. Between March, 1869 and 1886, he was the marine news agent of the Associated Press for Martha's Vineyard and vicinity, which point, out side of the great cities, is the most important marine post on the coast. He resigned this position in 1886 to engage in business elsewhere. 620 SUFFOLK COUNTY. In 1879 he became the owner, publisher and editor of the Cottage City Star, a local newspaper then a few months old, started to promote the cause of the divisionists in the struggle to create the town of Cot tage City. The work was successful, and Mr. Norris owned and edited the paper until October, 1885, when he sold it. During the period while in business at the Vineyard he was a notary public and did nearly all the marine notarial work of that section. He was frequently a referee in the settlement of marine cases relative to salvage disputes, collisions, etc. In 1887 Mr. Norris became interested in a new and wholly unde veloped method of rolling seamless steel tubing, known as the Kellogg process. During all the time since he has devoted himself solely and assiduously to this single enterprise as president and executive head of the corporation. Mr. Norris was always interested in public affairs and very early participated in political matters. In 1860, while attending school in Boston, he was a member of Lincoln Guard No. 1, a select corps of the organization known as " Wide Awakes." In Springfield, between 1862 and 1869, he was connected with active political affairs. He was sec retary and active manager of the Lincoln Club in Springfield, formed in 1864, the only Republican club in that city during that campaign. During his residence there he was secretary at nearly all Republican meetings, caucuses and conventions. Before he was twenty-five years old he was invited and urged to accept a nomination to the Legislature which he declined. On his return to Martha's Vineyard he immediately became interested in political affairs. In August, 1869, there was a vacancy in the office of sheriff of Dukes county and Governor Claflin appointed Mr, Norris to the vacancy, and at the ensuing election he was unanimously elected to the office and served therein until 1873. He pioneered the effort to create the town of Cottage City, and though for many years it failed it was finally successful under his leadership in 1880. He was commissioned as notary public and justice of the peace in 1869, and has continued as such ever since. Though prominent in local affairs and in politics he neither sought or held public office until in 1883 he was nominated and elected a senator from the Cape Senatorial District, constituted by the three counties, Barnstable, Dukes and Nantucket. As a member of the Senate of 1884 he served as chairman of the committee on printing and a member of the committees on election laws and mercantile affairs. BIOGRAPHIES. 621 In 1885 he was re-elected, serving as chairman of the committee on mercantile affairs, and a member of the committee on railroads and printing. In 1886 he was again returned to the Senate, serving as chairman of the committee on railroads and a member of the committee on redistricting the State, election laws, and other committees. He was in 1884 and 1885 the Republican "whip" of the Senate, and in 1886 for the Republicans he was chairman of the caucus committee of that body. In the fall of 1886 he was a candidate for the Senate a fourth term in a convention which lasted all day, leading the vote during seventy-two ballots, though finally defeated by a few votes. During most of the years from 1883 to 1892 (when he resigned therefrom) he was member of the Republican State Committee, and he has at different periods for much of the time been a member of nearly all the various Republican committees in his section of the State. He was commissioned a trial justice for Dukes county by Governor Long and resigned after holding the office six months. He was tendered the same office later by Governor Robinson and declined it. He is exceedingly active and restless in politics and always has opinions, and occasionally engages in pioneering some prominent name, urging it upon the party for the party's sake. Mr. Norris is a member of the Middlesex, Norfolk and State Repub lican clubs (all political), and of the Boston Athletic Association. Mr. Norris, though doing business in Boston, maintains his residence in Cottage City. ARTHUR W. POPE. Arthur Wallace Pope was born in Brookline, Mass. , March 9, 1850, and is a son of Charles and Elizabeth (Bogman) Pope. He is of the eighth generation removed from John Pope, who was one of the found ers of Dorchester and was made a freeman in 1634. His great-grand father, Col. Frederick Pope, served with distinguished credit during the Revolutionary War, and for the years 1787, '88, '90, '91, '92, '94 and '96 was a member of the House of Representatives from Stoughton. His grandfather, also named Frederick, was born in Stoughton, in 1772, but early in life settled in Dorchester and was prominently identified with the lumber business, ship building and mercantile pursuits. Charles 622 SUFFOLK COUNTY. Pope, the father of our subject, was born in Dorchester, August 12, 1814, and early in life engaged in the furniture and feather trade. He afterwards carried on the real estate business, but the latter years of his life he engaged in no regular pursuit, devoting his time to the management of his private affairs. He was a highly respected citizen and a man of exemplary character. His wife, Elizabeth Bogman, whom he married August 24, 1834, was a daughter of Captain James and Parley (Nelson) Bogman. She was a woman of strong mental qualities and exercised a wholesome influence upon her children, which is clearly indicated in their careers. She lived to celebrate with her husband their golden wedding in the autumn of 1884. She died Feb ruary 10, 1885. Our subject was educated in the public schools of Brookline. At the age of sixteen he entered the employ of his brother, Col. Albert A. Pope, who at that time was in the wholesale shoe finding business on Pearl street. Five years later, in 1871, he was made junior partner un der the firm name of Albert A. Pope & Co. In 1876, Albert A. Pope retiring from the business, he became the head of the house, the firm name being changed to its present style, Arthur W. Pope& Co. From that time until January, 1893, when William M. Buffon and Edward S. Wheeler, who had had a working interest in the business for some time, were taken in as partners, Mr. Pope had practically conducted the busi ness alone. Under his judicious management the business has steadily increased from year to year, and to-day the firm is one of the best known in the trade. Not only does this concern conduct a large business in boot and shoe manufacturers' goods and leather, but it enters largely into the manufacture of specialties for the trade, operating factories at Hingham, Salem and New Bedford, while it controls the output of several others. Mr. Pope is a man of great energy, and is connected with business enterprises of various kinds, being largely interest ed in the manufacture of bicycles with his brother, Col. Albert A. Pope. He has been remarkably successful in all of his ventures, and has displayed a keenness of business judgment which has gained for him the confidence of all who know him. He is a man of quick busi ness perception, and when he embarks in a project he pursues it with a perseverance and a determination that does not stop until success is gained. Full of resources, of conceded financial ability, and only in the prime of his powers, he has before him a future bright with promises of still greater achievements in the years to come. BIOGRAPHIES. 623 Mr. Pope has traveled extensively both in the New and the Old World, and partly for business and pleasure, he in 1887 made a tour of the globe. On this journey he ascended the famous Mainurina pass in the Himalaya Mountains, eighteen thousand six hundred feet above the level of the sea, also had the exciting pleasure of an elephant hunt in Ceylon, a trip up the Nile, another to the Holy Land, and ended with a visit to Norway and the North Cape. Mr. Pope was married, October 25, 1892, to Miss Lilla M., daughter of Myron H. Whittedge, of Lynn, and resides on the famous Baker estate in Wellesley, which is considered the finest in New England. He is a member of the Algonquin, Athletic, Temple, Exchange, Trade, Commodore, and Boston Merchants' Clubs, and the Boston Merchant Association. He has also taken an active interest in the Masonic Order and is a member of the order of thirty-second degree. FRANCIS W. BREED. The wonderful development in the shoe industry of New England during the last quarter of a century has furnished a field wherein has been displayed many instances of remarkable business success. To those of the right force and energy and not only able to keep abreast of the changing conditions wrought by mechanical ingenuity, but to fore see and appreciate the future possibilities of this great interest, it has afforded many and great opportunities for advancement. Francis W. Breed's career is a striking illustration of these facts. His success has been honestly earned and built upon a most substantial basis. Born in the city of Lynn, in 1846, his life has been coextensive with the develop ment of the modern shoe factory system. The characteristics which have made him a successful business man were developed very early in life. With true independence of spirit he was ambitious to help him self, and from the age of twelve he has made his own way. He was educated in the public schools of Lynn, and at the age of fifteen grad uated from the Lynn High School. His business career commenced one year later as teller in the First National Bank of Lynn. Here he was obliged to work three months without pay, and then was allowed the munificent salary of $50 per year. But his natural business apti tude was soon recognized, and his promotion followed until, at the end 624 SUFFOLK COUNTY. of two years he had gained a position as high as he could reasonably expect for many years to come. Such a condition illy suited his am bitious and energetic nature, and he immediately began to look for a more promising avenue of employment. At the age of eighteen he en tered the employ of William Porter & Co. , shoe manufacturers, as book keeper. He soon made himself so familiar with the business that he was sent out to sell the goods of the firm, in which direction he was at once successful and secured a good line of customers. Three years later, at the age of twenty-one, he entered into partnership with P. A. Chase in the manufacture of shoes, which was successfully continued for eight years. At the end of that time Mr. Breed bought out his partner and has continued his constantly increasing business alone from that time to the present. During the great fire of 1889 his immense Lynn factory was swept away, but almost before the walls of his estab- lishriient had fallen he had secured a vacant factory at Marblehead and was soon turning out shoes with almost the same rapidity as before. He now has three factories, one at Lynn, another at Rochester, N. H., and one at Athol, Mass., their combined output being 8,000 pairs of shoes daily. Mr. Breed is also extensively interested in the leather business, being president of the Breed Leather Company. His success has been remarkable and in every sense deserved. He is a man of great energy, alert and enterprising, and possesses the executive abil ity necessary to the management of extensive business enterprises. He has the keenness and quickness of perception which enable him to grasp the intricacies of large transactions and quickly reach a determination. It is these qualities, with his active, pushing temperament, which have placed him among the foremost manufacturers of the United States, at' a period of life when most men have barely laid the foundation of their careers. It is not strange that one who has achieved so much in his private business affairs should be sought for to participate in public affairs and to take a prominent and leading part in financial institutions and trade associations. He is president of the New England Shoe and Leather Association, a director in the Boston Chamber of Commerce, and mem ber of its Board of Credits, a director in the Boston Merchants' Associ ation, and in the Home Market Club. He is also director in the Eliot National Bank of Boston, and the First National Bank of Lynn, and the Lynn Institution for Savings. BIOGRAPHIES, 625 Mr. Breed has been an extensive traveler. Commencing in a busi ness career which led him to all parts of our country where Lynn shoes are sold; he has supplemented his business trips by journeys for pleas ure, visiting Florida, Colorado, California, Alaska, and is thoroughly familiar with the natural beauties and the principal cities of the United States. He has crossed the Atlantic three times, visiting all the coun tries of Europe, pursuing his travels even to the land of the ' ' Midnight Sun." With a natural and cultivated taste for art, he has made during his travels a fine collection of art objects characteristic of the countries he has visited. During one of his vacations he visited the Exposition at Paris, and made a most careful study of the leading features of that great undertaking. His experience at Paris, and also at the Centennial Exhibition at Philadelphia and the Brussels Exposition, well qualified him as Massachusetts commissioner at the World's Columbian Expo sition at Chicago, to which position he was appointed by President Harrison. He served on the Executive, Electrical and Legislative Committees of the Commission, and appeared before the committee of Congress at Washington to secure funds for the Fair, which were granted. In obtaining a site for the shoe and leather building he rendered great service, visiting Chicago several times for the purpose, also in having the classification arranged to put all the shoe and leather exhibits in this building. In politics Mr. Breed is a Republican, and has been a prominent factor in party councils for several years. To party success he has been a free contributor both of his influence and his means. As a member of the Finance Committee of the Massachusetts Republican Club he bore an important part in the campaign of 1892, his services being highly appreciated. He has never sought political advancement, but his abilities for high political stations are readily conceded, and he has been repeatedly urged to allow his name to be used in con nection with the Republican nomination for lieutenant-governor. He has, however, been so busy in managing the details of his extensive business enterprises that he has had little time for the consideration of propositions looking toward personal political honors. Mr. Breed was married in 1873 to an Illinois lady of fine education and rare intellectual abilities. Their two sons and three daughters complete a most charming family circle. Their elegant home on Ocean street, Lynn, with its fine old mansion, handsome lawn and splendid ocean view, is one of the most attractive places on the north shore. 79 626 SUFFOLK COUNTY. Mr. Breed possesses charming social qualities. He is a member of all the leading clubs, including the Algonquin, Massachusetts, Essex, Middlesex, Norfolk, Oxford, Park, Athletic, Union League of Chicago, and a score of others. His hospitality is proverbial, and his guests have included many of the. most distinguished names in the country. A man of tender feelings and generous impulses, Mr. Breed readily responds to every call upon him in behalf of worthy objects. He is a generous patron of the Lynn Y. M. C. A., and also of the Central Con gregational Church, being a member of the parish committee and of the building committee, which is erecting a new house of worship. The foregoing constitute but a few incidents in a remarkably busy career of one who is an excellent type of the successful American man of business, of one whose success has been conducive to the public good, and whose energies are directed in channels such as make the community in which he lives prosperous and happy.- A. F. SMITH. Aaron F. Smith, one of the best known and most successful shoe manufacturers of Lynn, was born in West Danvers, now West Peabody, Mass. , in 1835, and is a son of John and Elizabeth Smith, who had a family of six sons and four daughters. His early life was spent on a farm, and his educational advantages were -such as fall to the lot of most farmers' sons. At the age of twenty he went to Danvers Centre. Here he bought a stitching machine, then but recently invented, and being of a natural mechanical turn of mind soon learned to operate it. In 1857 he opened a stitching shop in Lynn, commencing with ten operators, and later on fifty were employed in doing the stitching for several large boot and shoe manufacturers. His success in this line of work led him in 1865 to embark in the manufacture of shoes, for that purpose form- ing_a partnership with his brother, J. N. Smith, which continued for some eight years, since which Mr. Smith has conducted the business alone. Business was begun on Spring street, and such was the success attained that later on a factory was built on Oxford street. The latter quarters were eventually outgrown, and in August, 1892, the present factory on Essex street was completed. This is one of the best equipped factories in New England. It is a brick structure 210 by 60 V^TJZ^ ? BIOGRAPHIES. 627 feet in dimensions, four stories in height, and fully supplied with the best and most approved machinery for the manufacture of shoes. Mr. Smith has been remarkably successful in business ; a steady and sub stantial progress has been made from year to year, and at the present time his annual productions reach a value of $800,000, and furnish em ployment to about 400 hands. His goods, which consist exclusively of ladies', misses' and children's shoes, have gained an enviable reputation among the trade, and are in ready demand. In New England they are sold only to jobbers, but in the West they are sold direct to the retail ers. During the last two years Mr. Smith has maintained in Boston a store for the storage of his goods and as a distributing center for local jobbers, a new departure for a manufacturer, which has proven to be a wise innovation. Outside of his . regular shoe manufacturing business Mr. Smith has been very successful as an inventor of shoe machinery. He possesses a high order of mechanical ingenuity, and in 1886 invented the Smith shaving machine, which is now in very general use in all the great shoe manufacturing centers. This machine is made in Boston by the Union Heel Trimming Co., its manufacture furnishing employment to sixty hands. Mr. Smith has improved, by valuable inventions, a number of other machines, notably a machine for moulding counters, and is also interested in the manufacture of several other machines which he assisted to invent. Work in this direction of. activity has been a most congenial field to Mr. Smith, his natural liking for mechan ical work and inventive genius finding wide scope in the modern de mand for labor-saving machinery in the shoe industry. Mr. Smith's business career has been one not only of exceptional success, but one in which he has reason to feel a pardonable pride. For nearly forty years he has been in active business life, and during that long period he has never failed to meet any obligations he assumed. He has passed through trying times, but his business affairs have been so well managed that he has suffered no reverse strong enough to shake for a moment his well established reputation for reliability. He is a man of excellent business judgment, a careful manager, and closely and persistently follows any enterprise in which he may be engaged. He has allowed no allurements of politics to divert his attention from his business, and the main secret of his success lies in the fact that he has unreservedly devoted. himself to his work. He is financially inter ested in many business enterprises, and is a director in the Central 628 SUFFOLK COUNTY. National Bank, but it is his shoe manufacturing interest and the making of shoe machinery that engross almost wholly his time and attention. He is a member of Washington Street Baptist Church in Lynn, and to charity and philanthropic work is a most liberal and cheerful contributor. To all efforts to advance the welfare of the city of his home, or to improve the condition of its people, he lends ready aid. His standing in the community is that of a man of the highest character, and he enjoys to the fullest degree, the respect and confi dence of all who know him. Mr. Smith was married in 1864 to Miss Helen M. Hoyt, of New Hampshire. They have one daughter, Ella F., the wife of Frank T. Moore, the manager of Mr. Smith's factory. V. K. JONES. V. K. Jones was born in Brunswick, Me., October 15, 1846, his paternal ancestors being Quakers. During his boyhood his school advantages were limited to short periods during the summer and win ter months. The intervening time between the terms of school was employed in learning the art of making shoes by hand, such as was in vogue prior to the introduction of the ingenious machinery now so universally employed, which has made the old system of shoemaking by hand practically a thing of the past. After mastering his trade the young shoemaker came to Lynn during the winter of 1863 and obtained work upon the bench, continuing in this employment until October, 1864, when he entered the Union Army. He took part in the battle of Nashville when General Hood made the second attack on the Union forces on December 15 and 16, 1864. In this engagement he was disabled and carried to the hospital, where he passed through a lingering sickness of typhoid fever, from the effect of which he suffered for several years. At the close of the war Mr. Jones returned to Lynn and secured employment at his trade, being thus engaged until November, 1869, when he accepted a position in the Dedham House of Correction as instructor to the prisoners in the art of making shoes. At the end of a year he was promoted to the posi tion of superintendent of the entire works, very acceptably holding this position until December, 1877, when he resigned and again returned to BIOGRAPHIES. 629 Lynn, and with his brother, A. H. Jones, embarked in the manufacture of a fine grade of leather shoes under the firm name of V. K. & A. H. Jones. They were the first to attempt the manufacture of a superior grade of ladies' shoes at a medium price, and from the start the under taking proved a success. In a short time their goods were introduced into the best houses of the country, and the demand for them became greater than they were able to supply. Under Mr. Jones's manage ment the business continued to steadily increase, and by the year 1883 had reached the sum of $1,000,000 per annum, employment being fur nished at this time to from five to six hundred hands. At this com paratively early period of the firm's business they had entirely outgrown their original manufacturing quarters, and in August, 1883, they commenced to build a seven story brick factory on the corner of Broad and Beach streets, and so rapidly was its construction prosecuted that the building was completed in December of the same year. It was the first brick factory built on Broad street. It contained floor space of 42,000 square feet and in appointment and machinery was considered the best equipped factory in the State. The business soon outgrew the facilities of even this large factory, and in 1885 they were operating in connection with their Lynn business two large factories in the State of New Hampshire, one at Strafford and. the other in the old town of Hampton. The Strafford factory was destroyed by fire in De cember, 1887, and on November 26, 1889, their Lynn factory was totally destroyed in the great fire which will ever be memorable in the annals of Lynn for the extent of the loss occasioned by the destruction of valuable business property. The work of rebuilding at Lynn was at once begun, and the factory as it is to-day was completed in December, .1890. From that time to the present Mr. Jones has enjoyed an unin terrupted period of business prosperity. His personal efforts in behalf of the house in which he is the senior member has been unremitting. With practical experience in every part of the business in which he is engaged, he not only intelligently understands all of its requirements, but is withal a man of keen business sagacity, great force of character, and possesses excellent executive ability. His personal supervision of the business is most thorough and painstaking, having done all of the designing and modeling of lasts and patterns that the firm has used since the firm commenced business in 1877. To-day the product of the establishment he founded and has done so much to perfect and advance to its present high position in the trade is found in every part of the 630 SUFFOLK COUNTY. United States, the daily production of the firm averaging 3,000 pairs of shoes per day and furnishing employment to about 500 hands. Credit able as has been Mr. Jones's part in the establishment of this great industry, it by no means represents the limit of his business enterprises. He is financially interested in three boot and shoe factories outside of the house of V. K. & A. H. Jones, and has been associated with several other enterprises, all of which have proven successful. Success, such as he has gained, has been acquired by persistent, well directed efforts, which no reverse could more than temporarily check, and to-day his position in one of the great industries of New England is one of which he has reason to feel a pardonable pride. In the best sense of the term he is a fine example of the self-made men of America, a distinct type of men such as no other country can present. Mr. Jones was married in December, 1868, to Miss Eliza A. Mayhew, daughter of Capt. Vinal Mayhew, of Belfast, Me., who died October 13, 1890, from the effects of a cold received during the great Lynn fire of 1889. She was a model wife and mother and did much to contribute to her husband's success. They had one son, Harry E. Jones, who is associated with his father in business. HOUSE OF B. F. BROWN & CO. Boston is headquarters for several great houses which have acquired celebrity for the superiority of their products A notable instance of this is afforded in the successful career of the firm of B. F. Brown & Co., manufacturers of blacking and dressings for leather. It was founded in 1845 by B. F. Brown, who was born at Hanover, N. H., December 23, 1814. He came to Boston in 1837 and embarked in the wholesale drug business. The knowledge acquired in this branch of business led him to experiment in the preparation of blacking and dressing for leather, and in the year named he produced upon formulas original and exclusive to himself an article which speedily arrested the attention of the trade as far superior to any other in the market. The demands for his productions increased rapidly and a large and profitable business was soon established. Mr. Brown remained at the head of the house until his death, May 17, 1879. For several years prior to Mr, Brown's death Edward Henry Fennessy had been a partner in the business, and wU«c)u4s/i 0. u^u^t^c^-. BIOGRAPHIES. 631 the success of the firm was largely due to his well directed efforts. Mr. Fennessy was born in Dublin, Ireland, December 13, 1833. At the age of eighteen he came to the United States and located in Island Pond, Vt. , where he secured employment in the railroad service, and finally became superintendent of the Grand Trunk Railway. May 1, 1866, he married Miss Ella F. , daughter of B. F. Brown. After his marriage he went to Newburn, N. C. , where for one year he carried on a cotton plantation. He then returned to Island Pond and engaged in mercan tile business until he came to Boston in 1868, and became a partner in the business of B. F. Brown, under the firm name of B. F. Brown & Co. From that time until his death, May 19, 1888, Mr. Fennessy de voted himself almost exclusively to the development of the blacking and leather dressing business of the firm, and under his wise and en ergetic management the business grew to large proportions and the pro ductions gained a world wide reputation. Their productions were hon ored with prizes at the great expositions of the world, at the Centen nial Exposition in Philadelphia in 1876, at Berlin in 1877, at Paris in 1878, where they received the only medal awarded for leather dressings, in Melbourne in 1880, at Frankfort in 1881, at Amsterdam in 1883, and the New Orleans Exposition in 1884 and 1885, also Paris 1889. In 1881 Mr. Fennessy became sole proprietor of the business, and so re mained until his death, but continued operations under the old house B. F. Brown & Co., which is Still retained. He was a man of great business capacity and eminently successful in all of his undertakings. He left a family of six children, two sons and four daughters, all of whom are living. His eldest son, Frank E. Fennessy, who has suc ceeded to his father's business, was born in Island Pond, Vt. , August 31, 1868. He was educated in the public schools of Newton, and at the age of eighteen became connected with B. F. Brown & Co. Soon after the death of his father he became sole proprietor, and has since success fully carried on the business. Besides the manufacturing quarters in Boston this house has a factory in London, England, and another in Montreal, Canada, and at the present time its productions are sold not only in every part of the United States and the Canadian provinces, but throughout Europe and all foreign countries. 632 SUFFOLK COUNTY. JAMES J. WALWORTH. James J. Walworth, son of George and Philura (Jones) Walworth, was born in Canaan, N. H, on November 18, 1808. He received his early education in the public schools of his native town, and in the academies of Thetford, Vt., and Salisbury, N. H. He taught public schools during three successive winters in Dorchester, Concord and Canaan, N. H. At the age of twenty years he came to Boston, and was for ten years engaged in the hardware business. First with Alexander H. Twombly & Co., then with Charles Scudder & Co., and later, as partner,' in the firm of Scudder, Park & Co., and was subsequently appointed agent of Ihe "Canton Hardware (Manufacturing) Company," of Canton, Mass., which position he resigned in the year 1841, in order to enter upon a new enterprise, as will hereafter appear. The business now so widely known as the steam heating business, or the construction of steam apparatus for warming buildings and for other cognate uses, and the kindred business of manufacturing the great variety of special goods of brass and iron related thereto, had its birth in the city of New York in the year 1841, when James J. Walworth, in co-operation with his brother-in-law, Joseph Nason, then in England, purchased a small stock of pipe and fittings of James Russell & Sons, of Wednesbury, England, who were the first manufacturers of wrought iron tube machinery. This small lot. of pipe, with a few crude fittings, had been sent to this country on a venture to be sold on commission by an agent who came with the goods. After an experiment of a year or so, this agent came to the conclusion that the business would not afford him a living. He therefore notified his principals that he must give it up and return to England. Mr. Walworth took possession of this stock in a small store then No. 36 Ann street in the month of June, 1841. A year later Mr. Nason returned to Boston, and proposed to introduce into this country a newly invented hot water apparatus for warming buildings ; an ap paratus with which he had become acquainted while in association with the inventor, Angier M. Perkins, of London. The principal ma terial used in the construction of this apparatus being wrought iron pipe. Boston was thought to be the better field for this business. The re sult was two concerns, one in New York and one in Boston, both to be BIOGRAPHIES. 633 carried . on under the firm name of Walworth & Nason, and as one in terest. The New York concern had thus far been wholly devoted to the sell ing of goods, undertaking no mechanical work, while in Boston the con struction bf apparatus for warming by the hot water system was to be the principal business. It was now but a step, though a colossal one, from this hot water heating, to the radically new movement of using the small wrought iron tubes for heating by steam. This was an entirely new departure from anything that had been at tempted in this country or anywhere else. The practical application of the new system to cotton mills, woolen mills, and other large buildings, quickly demonstrated its superior merits, and. so commended it to public favor that it soon became the _ prevalent type of heating apparatus for all large structures, and so re mains to this day, not only in this country, but in all civilized coun tries. This system of steam heating does not necessarily provide for any special ventilation. It was therefore deemed important that in dealing with public buildings,' such as hospitals, court-houses, school-houses, legislative halls, and other audience halls, a scientific treatment, such as should secure ample and well regulated supplies of fresh air, should be adopted, and this could be satisfactorily accomplished only by the use of mechanical power, and for this purpose the "fan-blower," pro pelled by a steam engine, or some other motor, was obviously and pre eminently the most effective and economical instrument. This fan system of ventilation was therefore introduced into this country, by Walworth & Nason, in 1846, and was, during that year, applied to the United States Custom-house in Boston, at the time of the erection of that edifice. At that time this was the only ventilating fan blower in America. Small machines for smelting iron, blowing blacksmith's fires,- etc. , had been used, but nothing of the character of these large ventilating fans which have ranged from eight to twenty feet in diame ter. Since that time the system has been applied to numerous public buildings in nearly every State in the Union, and is to-day recognized, by the most distinguished engineers, as by far the best system in use. Although Mr. Walworth has been the responsible business head of the concern, yet as engineer in steam heating and ventilating, he has de- 80 634 SUFFOLK COUNTY. signed and constructed many important works in that line in several of the States of the- Union. During the first eight years of the history of this business Walworth & Nason had no rivals, if an embryo effort started in New York by one of the employees of their New York firm be excepted. But about the year 1850 two of the leading workmen, who had received their training in the original concern, started in the business in Boston, and their successors are now doing a prosperous business, under the name of Bra man, Dow & Co. , with the able management of Henry O. Barrett, a son of one of the founders , of the firm. In 1852 the firm of Walworth & Nason was dissolved, Mr. Walworth continuing the business in his own name. At a later period he associ ated with himself, as partners, Marshall S. Scudder, as a business man, and C. Clark Walworth, as a mechanic, neither of whom contributed any capital, and continued the business in the name of J. J. Walworth & Co. for nearly twenty years. In the year 1872 the corporation of the Walworth Manufacturing Company was organized, with a paid up capital of $400,000, all but a small fraction of which came from the old firm. Mr. Walworth was president of this corporation from its organization until a year and a half ago, when he declined a re-election, since which time he has par tially withdrawn from active duties. This company now owns and occupies extensive manufacturing works at South Boston, employing at these works, and elsewhere, a force of upwards of eight hundred workmen and other employees. Their annual sales amount to about two millions of dollars. Their manufactured goods are shipped to all parts of the United States, and to several South American and European countries. Their salesrooms and offices are at Nos. 16 to 28 Oliver street, Boston. From this root, thus planted a half century ago by this pioneer con cern, has grown an industry of immense proportions, represented by numerous establishments in nearly every State in the Union, as well as in many foreign lands, involving an aggregate capital of fifty or sixty millions of dollars, and the employment of more than one hundred thousand workmen in this country alone. Mr. Walworth has been for the last twenty-eight years president of the " Malleable Iron Fittings Company," a corporation carrying on an extensive malleable iron business at Branford, Conn. BIOGRAPHIES. 635 He was a member of the Lower House of the Massachusetts Legis lature in 1870 and 1871. He has been president of the following cor porations and associations: the Wanalancet Iron and Tube Company, the Massachusetts Steam Heating Company, the Canton Debating So ciety, the Alton "Franklin Society" (a literary association), the Edu cational Association of Auburndale, the Union Flax Mills Company, and the Consolidated Gas Company. He was one of the founders of the Lasell Seminary at Auburndale. Mr. Walworth is in direct descent from Sir William Walworth, who was lord mayor of London at the time of the great Wat Tyler rebellion in that city, during the reign of King Richard II, in the year 1381. Tyler, the leader of the rebellion, having been granted an interview with the. king at Smithfield, where were assembled 60,000 of his rebel followers, insulted the king by his insolent language, whereupon Wal worth smote him down with his dagger, and as he fell from his horse, the rebels, seeing their leader dead, became demoralized, and were soon vanquished. In consequence of this brave act Walworth was knighted, and ' ' the King gave the dagger to the Arms of London." A statue of Walworth was erected in Fishmonger's Hall, near London Bridge, where it still stands. Mr. Walworth's first ancestor in this country was William Walworth, who came from the neighborhood of London and settled in Groton, Conn., near the close of the seventeenth century. Mr. Walworth has been twice married. His first wife was Elizabeth Chickering Nason. His present wife was Lydia A. Sawyer, a widow of one of his former partners. He has one son, Arthur Clarence Walworth, who married a daughter of the late Gardner Colby. They have six children, four sons and two daughters. He is now president of the Walworth Construction and Supply Company. In religion Mr. Walworth is a Congregationalist ; in politics, a Republican. E. W. DENNISON. Eliphalet W. Dennison, the founder of the Dennison Manufacturing Company and the creator of practically a new industry, was born in Topsham, then in Kennebeck, now Sagadahoc county, Me., November 636 SUFFOLK COUNTY. 23, 1819. He was one of ten children, three sons and seven daughters, of Col. Andrew Dennison, one of the early pioneers of the Androscoggin region of Maine frontier life. He resided with his father at Topsham until five years of age, when the family removed across the river to Brunswick, with which village he held close and cordial family and busi ness relations up to the time of his death. Col. Dennison, the father, was an old time shoemaker, a thorough master of his trade, a good workman, a noted and influential citizen, and one who left his impress for good on all who came in contact with him. His shop, like many another of its kind in those days, was one of the rendezvous of the village and vicinity where politics and religion, morals and manners, and gossip of the day had active discussion. Country village boot and shoe making in New England finally lost its importance after the rise of the large manufacturing centers, such as Lynn, and the village shoemaker of the period was either forced to re move to these more favored localities for the business, or to seek new avocations. In the year 1844 one of Colonel Dennison's sons, A. L. Dennison, being then in the jewelry business at Boston, conceived the idea of establishing his father in the business of making' paper boxes for jewelers' uses, all such boxes as were then in use being imported in small assortments only and at a heavy expense. In furtherance of his plan he bought a bundle of pasteboard from John and Alexander Priestly, and a ream of assorted papers from David Felt, both of New York, the latter of whom was the only manufacturer of enameled and glazed paper in the country ; took them under his arm, went with them to Brunswick, and set his father at work cutting out boxes. At this time Quiney Tufts, a Boston importer, was the only man from whom the imported boxes could be had, and Mark Worthley was the only paper box maker in Boston. The first lot of boxes made at Brunswick were cut out with a shoe knife and straight edge by Colonol Dennison's own hands, and the nimble fingers of his two daughters put the prepared pieces together, complet ing the boxes in a remarkably neat, work-woman like manner. As the first lot of Dennison boxes were well made and presentable in appear ance, the demand at once exceeded the supply. A. L. Dennison exhibited samples of his Maine boxes in Boston, and took orders from David & Palmer, afterward Palmer, Bachelder & Co. ; Jones, Lows & Ball, now Shreve, Crump & Low ; and Bigelow Brothers, now Bigelow, Kennard & Co. , each of these houses giving liberal orders. Here then BIOGRAPHIES. 637 was a new industry born into a healthy existence, which could almost run alone before its foster parents were fully aware bf the fact that it had a being and a business name and place among men. Two weeks after receiving his first samples Mr. Dennison went once more to Brunswick with a goodly stock and with such heavy orders as to convince him that some portion of the work must be done by ma chinery to enable him to supply the demand for boxes which had al ready come to their hands. To this end, in connection with his father, he .invented and built Dennison's paper box machine, which proved a great labor saving invention, and was so perfect in construction and in its adaptability to the economic wants of paper box making, that it has served its purpose well these many years and is still used in the best ap pointed paper box manufactories. The wholesale jewelry dealers of Boston were the first customers of the Dennison paper boxes, but New York merchants in the same line of business soon found out their merits and put in earnest claims for a supply. The perfection with which the boxes were made gave them great prestige with the trade and a prefer ence over the clumsily made boxes imported by Mr. Tufts. Customers poured in from all directions and the demand became so great that in genious machinery was from time to time added, and the product of the little factory greatly increased. The business of the first year, with a producing force of ten hands, amounted to $3,000, a tremendous busi ness for the day, and the wonder of the times through all the region around Brunswick. At the age of sixteen E. W. Dennison went to Boston as a clerk in a shoe store, where he remained six months, at the end of which time he took a situation in the wholesale dry goods store of Burnham & Dow, on Water street, remaining with that house three years. At the ex piration of this term of service he made an engagement with his brother, A. L. Dennison, then a watchmaker and jeweler on Washing ton street, Boston, to learn the trade of watchmaking, and after re maining a year in this position he was sent by his brother to Bath, Me. , with a stock of goods, and started out for himself by establishing a jewelry store in Bath. The enterprise, however, was not a success, and was abandoned. He then returned home, whence, after remain ing a short time, he came to Boston, in 1839, and secured a position as salesman in a watchmaking business on Washington street, but soon after departed for Bangor, Me., to engage in the watchmaking and jewelry business in that place. After remaining there eight years he 638 SUFFOLK COUNTY. gave up the business, the enterprise proving, as did the one in Bath, unprofitable and unremunerative His next engagement was in the capacity of salesman for his brother in the Boston store, but his restless temperament would not permit of his settling down as a mere sales man. In 1849, on his brother selling out his business with a view to engaging in his favorite scheme for the manufacture of watches upon an improved system, our subject took the agency for the sale of the Brunswick paper boxes, the amount of business of which, starting at $3,000 the first year, grew to $6,000 the second, and to $7,000 the third. He was now in the right channel, and his subsequent career was one of conspicuous success. After he gave his undivided attention to the selling of these goods the business grew rapidly, so much so that early in the year 1855 he established an office in New York for their sale to the wholesale trade, and soon after gave a partnership interest to Henry Hawks, putting him in charge of the New York office, and to his excel lent business qualifications and popular manners is due much of the early growth of the business. A few years before this,, some time in the year 1851, the making of jewelers' cards was added to the box business, Mr. Dennison buying imported Bristol boards and cutting them up in uniform sizes for jewelers' uses, the custom heretofore having been to cut up pieces of paper or card with scissors, by the clerks of the jewelry stores, as occasion required. The latter business led to the use of a large amount of Bristol card board and consequently to a search for a supply at home of something equal in quality to that imported. At this time E. Lamson Perkins had a card board manufactory in Roxbury, Mass. , and was the first to make Bristol boards in this country. So excellent and satisfactory was the product of this establishment for the desired purpose that a busi ness arrangement was made between hirii and Mr. Dennison, which lasted, to the pecuniary advantage of both parties, until 1878 — a period of twenty-eight years — when Mr. Perkins retired with an ample com petency, and sold the card factory and its entire business and good will to the Dennison Manufacturing Company, which has since carried on the business. In 1854 jewelers' cotton was added to the catalogue of paper boxes and tags, previous to which all jewelers' cotton was imported. So popular had the jewelers' cards become that as early as 1857 similar goods were introduced from Germany and offered for sale, and finally contested the American field with the Dennison goods, but their quality BIOGRAPHIES. 639 as compared with the latter was such that competition quickly died out and the field was left to the originator of the idea. In 1857 some imported jewelers' tags were put upon the market, which, however, were so poor in quality as to command only a limited sale. They gave to Mr. Dennison a valuable suggestion. 'He was quick to, see that here was another field from which a good harvest could be reaped if only properly cultivated and cared for. He at once added their manufacture, and soon was established a ready market for them. In their introduction was planted the seed which has eventually grown into the large tag business of the Dennison Manufacturing Com pany, which has doubtless given it more notoriety and a wider name and fame than any half dozen other articles of its manufacture and . sale. The shipping tags and the merchandise tags, at once so common and so useful now, had their birth in much the same manner as the jewel ers' tags. A few years prior to 1863 Victor E. Mauger came from Scotland and established the first manufactory of shipping tags in this country and located in New York. He produced a so-called linen tag (the kind still to be seen on the luggage of the English tourist). Mr. Mauger met with excellent success until the premium on gold made the cost of material so high that other and cheaper material was sought, but none that proved reliable or suitable was found, until cotton shippers complained that their tags became detached, causing much annoyance and risk in consequence of their frequently having to look up lost or strayed goods. This suggested to Mr. Dennison the device patented by him in 1863, and a re-issue of the patent in 1871, by which the acme of strength and economy was attained. It was one of the simplest devices ever patented or invented, and, as afterwards proved, one of the mos.t prominent instances on record of the great value of a very little thing successfully handled in a commercial way. During the first year after its introduction to the public ten millions of ship ping tags were sold, the Dennison Company and Mr. Mauger then being the only makers of tags in this country. It is now thirty years since these shipping tags were first put upon the market, and where 10,000,000 were then called for, probably 300,000,000 are now sold by the different manufactories, which are numerous, but the bulk of the business, from the very nature of things, will doubtless continue to be, as it is now, done by the Dennison Manufacturing Company. 640 SUFFOLK COUNTY. From 1863 the growth and expansion of the business of the Dennison Company was rapid, the constantly increasing output of tags, together with the introduction of other new things, forced them to repeatedly enlarge their facilities for manufacturing. A rehearsal of the details of how all the different articles manufactured by the Dennison Company were first introduced to the public and nursed along their different ways to their present haven of usefulness and prosperity would be but a repetition of what has already been given, both as regards the outgo and outcome of each individual instance. One by one the manufacture of useful articles was undertaken, in many instances some of them comparatively trivial at first thought, but of real every day necessity. In 1878 the company was incorporated under the name of the Dennison Manufacturing Company, with Mr. Dennison as president, which posi tion he held until his death, September 22, 1886. From his connection with the business he was its controlling, animating spirit. Under his excellent management it grew to large proportions, with factories em ploying hundreds of hands at Roxbury, Mass., Brunswick, Me., Brook lyn, N. Y. , and branch houses for the sale and distribution of goods in New York, Chicago, Philadelphia, Cincinnati and St. Louis. Mr. Dennison was a pioneer along original lines. By the application of right business principles and practices properly applied to the detailed manipulation of, in themselves, small and seemingly insignificant things, but of universal convenience, he built up a business of immense proportions, without a peer in its peculiar position before the world, and in many directions without a competitor. Mr. Dennison, in addi tion to his excellent qualifications as a leader and director, had the happy faculty of calling around him, and of retaining an interest with him, capable, faithful and reliable lieutenants. By nature he was one of the most genial and approachable of men, and his judicious and winning manner endeared him to his large force of employees, con tributing, no doubt, largely to the success of the business by their hearty co-operation in carrying out his plans. He was a modest man of the world, thorough-going in business life, a lover of the good and true, and a hater of shams and all that pertained to hypocrisy or sub terfuge. He had an indomitable will, and in any cause he believed right was a good fighter. He was not inclined to public affairs, pre ferring the attractions of business and the comforts and the quiet pleasures of social and society organizations. In works of practical charity he was untiring, and used his ample means to benefit the un- BIOGRAPHIES. 641 fortunate. With strong affections, pure instincts and predilections for the right, he won distinction to himself by the strict integrity of his business conduct and the purity of his domestic life. By his industry and ingenuity he reared, on the foundation laid by his brother and father, a structure that completes a most interesting chapter in the industrial history of our time. After the death of Mr. Dennison his son, Henry B. Dennison, became president of the company, and continued as such until the end of the year 1892, when ill health caused him to resign. He was succeeded by H. K. Dyer. The other officers of the company are Charles S. Denni son, vice-president, and Albert Metcalf, treasurer. Mr. Metcalf is the oldest member of the company, having been admitted as partner in the firm in 1863, after having for ten years previous to that time been intimate with Mr. Dennison and also familiar with his business. Since the company was incorporated he has served as treasurer and has been an important factor in the success attained. About eight years ago the Boston headquarters of the business was removed from 21 Milk street to 26 and 28 Franklin street. Here are found samples of the " thousand and one" articles manufactured or controlled by the com pany, including tags of all descriptions, morocco, velvet and plush jewelry cases, jewelers' cotton, "absorbent" cotton for surgical and medical uses, apothecaries' powder papers, tissue and crepe papers for making artificial flowers and for decorations, hooks, fasteners and card holders, paper and wood boxes of all descriptions, sealing wax and pre pared seals, gummed wafers and papers, and scores of other specimens of stationers' supplies, and numerous other articles which are in every day use in every place of business and households where comfort, con venience and economy are recognized. To the manufacturing centers at Roxbury, and at Brunswick, Me., was added about ten years ago a sealing wax factory on Green avenue, Brooklyn. At these three centers and in the Franklin street headquar ters fully one thousand hands are employed. To this again must he added an industry that surely has no duplicate, which is that of string ing tags by the industrious housewives and children of the Cape Cod cranberry regions, where merchandise tags are sent for stringing in quantities sufficient to call for an expenditure of $15,000 annually to pay for such work there performed ; in some cases entire families gain their entire worldly subsistence in this way. 81 642 SUFFOLK COUNTY. Thus briefly has been chronicled the story of an interesting industrial enterprise which has grown from a bundle of board and a ream of paper carried under one man's arm, to a business which now demands a con sumption of tons of the same material daily; gives employment to hun dreds of hands, and in magnitude of operations stands without a peer in the world. The inception of the enterprise is due to A. L. Dennison, who is well known as the originator of the American system of watch making, and whose sketch appears elsewhere in this volume. The foundation was laid by Col. Andrew Dennison, but the development of the business from the early days of experiment to those of great achievement and final success belongs almost solely to E. W. Denni son. It stands to-day as a monument to his business generalship and will always be laudably associated with his strong and vigorous person ality. AARON L. DENNISON. The genius of American mechanics is displayed in the most conspic uous manner in the development of the watch industry, which in the past forty years has reduced the price of high grade watch movements from $300 to $50 each, in fact as good a watch movement can now be bought for $3 as would have cost $50 forty years ago. In 1850 there were no watches manufactured in this country. In forty-three years the business has developed so that the output of the American watch industry is sixty-five hundred movements per day, and for which an equal number of cases is made. The New England mechanic who proposed the general plan of manu facture and for a long time worked out its details, and was so fully identified with its interests as to earn the title of "the father of the watch industry," is Aaron L. Dennison, whose portrait appears in this volume. Mr. Dennison is a son of Col. Andrew Dennison, of Brunswick, Me. He was born in 1812. He commenced work at a very early age, and claims that he walked 1,500 miles driving cows to pasture, and received seventy-five cents and a packing box mounted on wheels in full payment for this work. He also worked at shoemaking with his father. . When he was eighteen years old he was apprenticed to a watch and clock repairer in Brunswick, Me., where he remained BIOGRAPHIES. 643 until he was twenty-one. He early showed an prganizing and system atizing turn of mind, and made many improvements in the then crude manner of manufacturing clocks. In 1833 he went to Boston and com menced work as a watch repairer. He soon discovered that there was a total lack of system in the manufacture of the English and Swiss watches which were brought into this country, and he conceived the idea of carrying on the manufacture of watches upon what may be termed the American system of manufacture, i. e., the making of watches upon a large scale with such exact work that the various parts of a watch could be assembled without the selection and fitting of each individual part. From 1840 to 1850 this subject engrossed all his spare moments, and he devised a plan of manufacture which he felt sure when successfully carried out would produce fifty watches per day, with 250 employees. In other words, that five operatives could make a watch each and every day. He foresaw that the increased mileage of railroads would create a largely increased demand for watches, consequently he endeavored to interest capital in his projects, and in 1850 he succeeded in forming a partnership with Messrs. Ed ward Howard and D. P. Davis, under firm name of Dennison, Howard & Davis, who were engaged in manufacturing clocks and various other articles in Roxbury. These gentlemen started a factory in Roxbury, in a building opposite the building now used by the E. Howard Watch and Clock Co. , where they made their first watches. They soon discovered that so much travel past their buildings created a great deal of dust, and Mr. Dennison began his explorations into the adjoining country to find a suitable place to which they could remove. One of his excursions extended to Stony Brook Station, in Weston, where he found a site where the romantic scenery and rough surround ings reminded him of the Swiss watchmaking sections, but being un able to make terms with the owner, he returned to Waltham, where a friend suggested the purchase of a site where the present American Waltham Watch Co. is now located. They applied for a special act of incorporation for the manufacture of watches, and on receipt of the charter the buildings were immediately commenced, and the machinery was then moved from Roxbury to Waltham. Mr. Dennison's idea of a proper watch for American use was an 18 size, full plate, four pillared watch, and the wisdom of his selection is proven by the fact that nearly every watch factory that has been started in this country has followed his idea of size and general style. 644 SUFFOLK COUNTY. The result of his labors is shown in the fact that the American Walt ham Watch Co. was the first and only company that has ever attempted to make a complete watch, and has the largest watch factory in the world. Many of what may be termed the foundation principles on which watch manufacture is conducted, originated in Mr. Dennison's mind. So prolific was his ingenious mind in devising ways and means, both mechanical and in general management, that Mr. Robbins, treasurer of the American Waltham Watch Co. , once said : "It would be impos sible for anybody to propose anything in watch manufacture that Mr. Dennison has not at some time suggested." Mr. Dennison remained in charge of the Waltham factory until Jan uary, 1862, when he retired, but soon induced Boston capital to start another factory in Boston, which, was afterwards moved to Melrose. In this factory they did not attempt to make all the parts of a watch. The train and some of the finer material was manufactured in Switzer land, and Mr. Dennison soon found it necessary to go to Switzerland to take charge of that department of the business. This project did not prove a financial success, and most of the machinery in Switzerland and in America was transferred to -Birmingham, England, and formed the nucleus of the present British Watch Co. Mr. Dennison, at the age of eighty-one, is still connected with the watch industry, being the senior partner of a firm in Birmingham, England, that is engaged in the manufacture of watch cases. His even temper and disposition, combined with strictly temperate habits, have conduced to a long and useful life, and he is at the present time as deeply interested in the manufacture of watches as he was at thirty- five, when he was working up the projects which resulted in building up the American watch industry. ALBERT METCALF. Albert Metcalf, of West Newton, Mass., treasurer of the Dennison Manufacturing Company, was born in Wrentham, Mass., November 27, 1824. He is a descendant in the eighth generation of Michael Metcalf, who, to escape religious persecution, sailed from Norwich, England, April 15, 1637, and on his arrival in New England became a BIOGRAPHIES. 645 townsman of Dedham, resident in that part of the town which after wards became Wrentham. Thomas Metcalf, of the sixth generation, was father of eleven children, constituting a family remarkable for its longevity, attaining to the average age of nearly seventy-six years. The ninth of these children was Reuben Grant Metcalf, Albert's father, a highly esteemed citizen of Wrentham, repeatedly representing his fellow citizens in the Legislature and other positions of honor and trust. He owned and tilled one of those many New England farms that afford a livelihood only on condition of the hard work and rigid economy of every member of the. occupant family, and it was under such conditions that the subject of this sketch passed the years of his boyhood. Every day and every hour had their allotted duties, and the opportunities for boyish recreation or amusement were very few. As he approached manhood he sought employment somewhat more varied than constant farm work, but this was by casual engagement only. His education was such as a fairly good district school afforded, supplemented by two winter terms at neighboring academies. His first commercial venture was as proprietor of a country store in Attleboro, in connection with cotton factories operated by H. N. & H. M. Daggett, which business, after about three years, was succeeded by a five years' engagement with H. M. Richards & Co., manufacturers of jewelry, a portion of the time being passed at the factory. After a few years' experience in the New York office, he became Boston resident agent for the firm. He was afterwards engaged in the Boston office of Palmer, Richard son & Co., jewelers, of Newark, N. J., Thomas S. Drowne being the resident partner. He was then for several years partner in a woolen goods jobbing business in Franklin street, Boston. These varied business experiences admirably fitted him for the re sponsible position he was thereafter to occupy. In 1862 he became associated with E. W. Dennison, who had for several years been engaged in the manufacture of tags, tickets, labels, jewelers' paper boxes, and similar goods, and who was then located at the corner of Milk and Congress streets, in the building known as "Julien Hall." The business was then of very moderate dimensions, and Mr. Metcalf became sole salesman, sole bookkeeper and sole general assistant in the Boston office. There was at that time a small New York office at 17 Maiden Lane, in charge of Henry Hawks, whose young assistant was Henry K. Dyer, now president of 646 SUFFOLK COUNTY. the Dennison Manufacturing Company. Four persons thus constituted the entire commercial force of the now great establishment of the Den nison Manufacturing Company, with large stores in Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Chicago, Cincinnati and St. Louis, the commercial corps numbering more than 150, with several factories and a manufacturing force of operatives to be counted by thousands. Among the characteristics of Mr. Dennison's business genius none was more marked than his accurate judgment in selection of his lieu tenants. Seldom have two business associates been more unlike than Mr. Dennison and Mr. Metcalf, and as seldom have two men been better fitted to be commercially helpful to each other; the one over flowing with invention, enthusiasm and energy, the other full of quiet industry, cool judgment, and conservatism without timidity. During thirty years a superb corps of young men have grown up to occupy the many posts of responsibility in the commercial work of the Dennison Manufacturing Company, all of whom regard Albert Metcalf with love and respect, as if he were in truth an elder brother. Mr. Metcalf's life-long religious associations have been with the Universalist church, in whose work he has been a diligent promoter and generous contributor. In philanthropic and educational interests, especially those organically identified with the Universalist church, his benefactions have been bountiful, although always unostentatious. His comfortable home at West Newton is a center of hospitality alike tp rich and poor. He has never held nor sought public office, although, as a citizen, his duty is always recognized and cheerfully performed. Mr. Metcalf was married in 1860 to Mary C. Roulstone, and three children have been born to them. GEORGE THOMAS McLAUTHLIN. George Thomas McLauthlin, son of Martin and Hannah (Reed) McLauthlin, was born in Duxbury, Mass., October 11, 1826. His an cestors on his father's side were Scotch and settled in Pembroke in the early part of the eighteenth century, about two miles from the birthplace of Mr. McLauthlin. The Scotch name was Maglathlin, but after undergoing various changes finally became McLauthlin. BIOGRAPHIES. 647 Mr. McLauthlin's mother was a daughter of Col. Jesse Reed, who was born in 1778. His ancestors settled in Weymouth, Mass., in 1635. Colonel Reed was an inventor of wide reputation. Among his earliest and most noted productions were the nail machine and the develop ment of a line of machinery for making and preparing the nail plates for that machine. The nail machine is used in practically its original form throughout the civilized world, and wherever "cut nails" are made we find the Reed machine. Colonel Reed devoted a long and busy life to inventing and perfecting mechanical devices, many of which were of extensive public benefit and are still in general use. Mr. Mc Lauthlin inherited largely his grandfather's inventive genius. His parents permanently settled in East Bridgewater, leaving Duxbury when George was two years old. His father was a machinist and his two boys, Martin and George, were brought up in the Old Colony style with close economy and under strict industrial training. Through this beneficent parental discipline the boys early became self-supporting, self-reliant, and full of ambition. The public school was their early educator and later they took academic courses, paying by their own earnings their board and other expenses. George began shoemaking, without instruction, at sixteen years of age, and began to employ help the following year. He applied himself nearly fifteen hours a day, between the terms of the schools, in which he was either pupil or teacher. He continued his studies while at his work, the work bench serving the purpose of a school desk for the open books, so that the mental and physical work could progress simultaneously. At the Adelphian Acad emy he mainly paid his board and tuition by shoemaking during early and late hours. At the age of twenty he conceived the plan of running the shoe shop on a system of subdivision of the work, so that each work man taking a certain part might readily become proficient therein, and thus, by the united work of the gang, produce a largely increased re sult. In the execution of this plan he arranged with his schoolmate, James S. Barrell, now an esteemed master of one of the Cambridge schools, to join him. They used the rolling machine, which had just begun to take the place of the lap-stone, and the shoe-jack in place of the knee-strap. These were the only machines then known in the shoe shop. They employed a boy of sixteen years — now the Hon. James S, Allen, of East Bridgewater — and two sons of Rev. Baalis San- ford, Baalis, then thirteen years old, and now an honored business man of Brockton, and William A. , then twelve years old, now in business in 648 SUFFOLK COUNTY. Winchester. These five boys constituted the " gang " which originated the gang system in shoemaking. All soon became experts in their parts and profitably demonstrated the success of the system. The gang of workers was also a gang of students. Occasionally the members introduced themselves in the morning as historic personages, by whose name they were known during that day, and the prominent incidents of the life of each were reviewed. The school, studies were daily re hearsed in an entertaining and instructive manner, and through this notable combination of profit, education and pleasure, toil disappeared. At the age of eighteen Mr. McLauthlin began teaching in the public schools, and taught four winters, the first in Hanson, the next in Pembroke, and the third and fourth in the North Marshfield Graded School. He succeeded in gaining the esteem and good-will of his pupils so fully as to entirely avoid punishment. In the Marshfield School self-government and mutual instruction were so successfully carried out that the teacher could be absent an entire day, assured that the scholars would conduct the school in as orderly a manner as if he were present. He found his inventive genius as valuable in disci plining and teaching as in other matters. He taught his scholars how to learn, how to make study a pleasure, how to help each other, how to make the school self-governing; in short, how to run the school successfully without a master. Mr. McLauthlin's ingenuity and mechanical tastes led him to seek a wider field when he became "of age," and though almost without means he, with his brother, Martin, P., began the manufacture of shoe machinery at Marshfield. At that time this now extensive industry was without a special manufactory, though new machines were here and there offered for use, but shoemakers, as a rule, could not be induced to buy even quite inexpensive machines, although it was certain that they would save their cost in a short time. Therefore the new business proved too limited for both, and George T. bought the interest of his brother. In 1850 Mr. McLauthlin moved to Plymouth and added to his shoe machinery business the manufacture of water-wheels and gen eral machinery. He there became widely known as the "Water-wheel Man." He took his first order for a water-wheel and portable grain mill from Daniel Webster, who in his genial spirit gave the order in the following words: " Give me one of your best Rider Water-wheels and one of your best Harrison Mills, and let me have the best mill in Plym outh Co., and when it is done come down to my house and take some BIOGRAPHIES. 649 of the results of it in the form of baked bread. " Mr. McLauthlin sold his water-wheels in almost every State and Territory of the United States, and also in Canada, Nova Scotia, South America, Turkey and Africa. In 1852 he opened an office at 108 State street, Boston, and in 1854 moved his works to Albany street, Boston. In 1858 he moved to East Boston, leasing the East Boston Iron Company's machine works, the business of which he added to his own. In 1861 his works were destroyed in the great East Boston Fourth of July conflagration, where a fire cracker caused the destruction of some fifteen acres of property. Before the destroyed premises had ceased burning he bought the works of the late William Adams & Company at No. 120 Fulton street, Bos ton, where his works, and since 1864 his office, have been permanently located. Here he added the manufacture of steam engines, elevators and the general business of that well-known house to his previous lines of work. By the earnest advice of his physician Mr. McLauthlin spent the year of 1870 in Europe. In 1878 he bought a considerable portion of the J. C. Hoadley Co. 's stock of portable engines, which were far-famed as superior in economy and durability to any other make. He then secured the assistance of Mr. Hoadley as consulting engineer and became successor to the J. C. Hoadley Co. 's portable engine business. He retained Mr. Hoadley's co-operation as consulting engineer until the death of that gentleman in 1886. Mr. McLauthlin found in his intercourse with Mr. Hoadley ample proof of his high character, his great talent, and his scrupulous integ rity. He esteemed him as a man having the highest sense of honor and a keen appreciation of right : a man who could sit in equitable judgment in cases of difference between himself and others as disinter estedly as any referee. Mr. McLauthlin has always been engaged in inventions, experiments and tests, the most extensive of which was the series of comparative model tests on water-wheels, which undoubtedly excelled anything of that kind which has ever been attempted. From the time he began the water-wheel business he had experimented and tested both on models and on wheels in practical operation. This extensive series of comparative tests began in 1860 and was finished in 1868. For absolute accuracy and reliability of results, and withal the best economy of the 82 650 SUFFOLK COUNTY. work, a testing apparatus was required. With much study and experi ment he perfected an ingenious automatic apparatus which maintained the head of the water at one exact level, recorded the time of the test more accurately than it could be taken by any known method, recorded the pounds of water used for each test to a fraction, and the exact dis tance the weight was raised, and all these during the time only that the wheel was in regular working operation. The operator had only to prepare the wheel, set the apparatus for the test, hoist the gate and, after the test was finished, to close it. He then could take off the automatically noted records, and with a largely reduced amount of mathematical calculations, from that which had formerly been neces sary, determine the result of the test to within one-twentieth of one per cent, of absolute accuracy. Mr. McLauthlin is now engaged on a line of inventions of very remarkable merit. Though with impaired health since 1858, Mr. McLauthlin has from boyhood devoted long days to study and the varied requirements of his business. He has main tained a sound unbroken business record for more than forty-six years, and that he has retained the esteem and confidence of his patrons is proved by his reputation for frank and upright dealing and fidelity to their interests. He has been a director in nearly all of the companies in which he has held interest. Mr. McLauthlin married Clara M. Holden in 1854, daughter of the late Freeman Holden, of Boston. She died in 1882. GEORGE H. HOOD. George Henry Hood, son of Jacob and Sophia (Needham) Hood, was born in Salem, Mass., May 30, 1835. On his father's side he is a descendant of Richard Hood, the first of the family in America, who settled in Nahant in the year 1628. Jacob Hood began his life work as an instructor in Bradford Acad emy, and later was a teacher in the public schools of Salem, where most of his early life was spent. For many years he was the principal of the East School. In 1865 he moved to Lynnfield, Mass., where he became the pastor of the Congregationalist Church. He was active in this work until about 1880, and died in Lynnfield five years later at the advanced age BIOGRAPHIES. 651 of ninety-four years. Sophia Needham, his wife, was the daughter of Daniel Needham, an officer in the Revolution, and later in life the Squire of Lynn and one of the best known and most prominent citizens of Essex county. She outlived Jacob Hood but one year, dying in 1886, at the age of ninety years, after a married life of sixty-eight years. The early life of the youngest boy of a family of six, George Henry Hood, was passed in Salem, where he was educated in the public schools, graduating from the High School in 1851. For three years after leaving school he was in a general store at Beverly, Mass. In 1854 he came to Boston and for five years was a salesman for the clothing house of Whiting, Kehew & Galloupe. In 1859 he first entered the rubber business as salesman for the Rub ber Clothing Company, with a factory at Beverly. Toward the close of the war he engaged in the rubber business for himself until 1873, when, with R. D. Evans as an associate, he became the general man ager of the Eagle Rubber Company, with a factory at Jamaica Plain. Soon outgrowing their little factory, under Mr. Hood's supervision was built for this company, in 1877, a factory in Cambridge. Three years later a part of this was burned, and on its site has since been erected the present factory of the American Rubber Company. In 1878 Mr. Hood severed his connection with the Eagle Rubber Company and started the present Boston Rubber Company, associating with him Eustace C. Fitz and Charles S. Dana. The new company bought an old mill in Chelsea, near the Ferry, and a very few years saw it thoroughly rebuilt and running full. In 1883 Mr. Hood bought out the interest held by Mr. Fitz and Mr. Dana, afterward selling a portion of it to E. S. Converse and George A. Alden. About this time he assumed charge as general manager of the Re vere Rubber Company, retaining as well the principal ownership of the Boston Rubber Company, of which he has since been president and treasurer. In the summer of this year Mr. Hood's plans were rudely broken up one unlucky night by the factory of the Revere Rubber Company burning to the ground. In September it was decided to rebuild, and in December of the same year, only three months later, goods were being delivered, a practically 652 SUFFOLK COUNTY. entirely new factory having been built under Mr. Hood's active super vision. He remained as general manager of the Revere Rubber Company until 1887, when, at the death of his eldest son, George Henry, jr., who had been associated with him in the management of the Boston Rubber Company, he resigned his position as general manager of the Revere Rubber Company, which had become well organized and prosperous, and devoted his entire time and attention to the development of the business of the Boston Rubber Company. In 1888 the Boston Rubber Company purchased a rubber boot and shoe factory in Franklin, Mass. , and began the manufacture of rubber boots and shoes in addition to the business of rubber clothing, rubber carriage cloth, and a large variety of mechanical rubber goods to which the Chelsea factory has always been devoted. Under his able management the business of the Boston Rubber Com pany has steadily increased from year to year ; in fact, all the additions to the plant since the start, in 1878, have been paid for out of the earn ings. Since the acquisition of the Franklin property, the yearly production of the factories amounts to about one million and a half dollars annually. Their products are sold in every part of the United States, and are well known as thoroughly reliable and of the highest class. The establishment of these two industries, their development and their present prosperity are results attained almost solely through the intelligent and well directed efforts of Mr. Hood. His energies have been unreservedly devoted to the task, and to him credit for the high degree of success achieved is freely given. Mr. Hood was married in 1859 to Miss Frances Henrietta Janvrin. Their six children have reached maturity, and all but one, George Henry, jr. , are living. Two of his sons are associated with him in business: Frederic C. is the secretary and assistant treasurer of the Boston Rubber Company ; Arthur N. is general superintendent of their two factories. Richard P. is a student at Harvard College. Miss Helen is well known by her mugicianly works, some of which she has published. One of her latest productions appears in the Columbian Woman. Miss Florence has a decided talent for the violin ; in fact, all of the children inherit musical ability. The demand upon Mr. Hood's time and energies in connection with his manufacturing interests have been so great as to allow him to take BIOGRAPHIES. ' 653 no active part in other enterprises. He was, however, one of the or ganizers of the Rubber Mutual Insurance Company and is still one of its directors. He is also a director of the Winnisimmett National Bank of Chelsea, and other similar enterprises. He is a Republican in political faith, but with the exception of hav ing been a member of the Common Council in Chelsea in 1857, has never held public office. He was one of the constituent members at the organization of the Cary Avenue Baptist Church in Chelsea, in 1860, and has ever since retained his membership. WILLIAM H. MOODY. William H. Moody was born in Claremont, N. H., May 10, 1842. He is a son of Jonathan and Mary C. Moody, both of whose ancestry can be traced back to the colonial days of New England through sturdy Saxon blood. The country schools furnished the training ground of young Moody until his sixteenth year, when he entered the employ of George N. Farwell & Co. , of Claremont, who were among the earlier firms to employ those simpler machines which were first used to sup plement hand work in the manufacture of footwear. In their employ he became thorough master of his trade, and at the age of nineteen came to Boston and for a short time was employed as salesman in the Washington street store of John Wallace. He then entered the em ploy of Tenny, Ballerston & Co. , where he remained for two years, and for three years thereafter held the position of buyer for Sewall Raddin & Son. The last named firm was succeeded by Sewall Raddin & Co., and soon after reorganized as McGibbon, Moody & Raddin. When this partnership expired, the firm of Crane & Leland became Crane, Leland & Moody, and afterwards Crane, Moody & Rising. At this time Mr. Moody's health became impaired, through the unremitting labor he had bestowed upon his business, and for a time he retired from active work. When thoroughly restored he organized the firm of Moody, Esterbrook & Anderson, calling into the new concern former tried and experienced men. He has built in Nashua-, N. H., the largest shoe industry under one roof in the world, Mr, Moody is a director in the Shoe and Leather Bank, and a Republican in politics. He makes 654 • SUFFOLK COUNTY. Boston his winter home, and Claremont his summer residence. His estate there, which is well named "Highland View," is one of the finest in New Hampshire. A beautiful house, six hundred acres of broken upland, a private track, more than a hundred horses, and splen didly appointed barns are its features. To the American trotter he gives special attention. In Claremont he has perpetuated the memory of his mother by means of the Mary Moody parsonage, given to the Baptist Church, of which she was for more than sixty years an honored member. Mr. Moody was married twenty-five years ago to Miss Mary A. Maynard. ROBERT D. EVANS. Robert D. Evans, the founder of the American Rubber Company and one of the best known rubber manufacturers in the United States, was born in Boston, September 30, 1845. After his graduation from the Boston High School he entered the employment of H. A. Hall, who later established the Hall Rubber Company. He subsequently accepted a position with C. M. Clapp, with whom he was engaged until April, 1861, when he enlisted in the Thirteenth Massachusetts Volun teer Infantry and for two years served with this regiment in the army of the Potomac, passing through some of the severest engagements of the war and twice being wounded. After the close of his term of service Mr. Evans returned to Boston and formed a partnership with his former employer, Mr. Clapp, in the rubber business, under the firm name of Clapp, Evans & Co. The new firm had a mill at Jamaica Plain, where they made clothing, carriage cloths and wringer rolls. Mr. Evans owned a part of the Moulton roll, with exclusive right to manufacture it. Suits for infringement were brought against the concern by large New York and Boston manufac turers, and as Mr. Clapp thought the other side had a very strong case, and that there was an infringmement, he wished to discontinue the manufacture, and the firm was dissolved. Mr. Evans then started a small plant in Jamaica Plain, called the Eagle Rubber Company, and kept on making the Moulton rolls, at the same time defending his title. The best legal talent attainable was retained and the suit resulted in favor of the Eagle Company. BIOGRAPHIES. 655 In 1873 the American Rubber Company was started by Mr. Evans strict ly as a jobbing concern. In addition to this the agency of the Myer Rub ber Company was taken by the new concern. A large business was done, the wringer-roll portion being especially profitable. In 1877 the large works at Cambridge were started, the Eagle Rubber Company and-the American Rubber Company being consolidated, and the erec tion of a plant at once begun. At this plant were manufactured cloth ing, carriage cloth, boots and shoes, and wringer- rolls. The business was continued very successfully until December, 1881, when the works were completely destroyed by fire. In the following spring new fac tories were built on the same site and the plant then erected, together with numerous buildings added from time to time as the growth of the business required, constitute the present large manufacturing proper ties of the American Rubber Company. The destruction of the plant by fire was a severe blow. It occurred in December, and was followed by a severe winter, when but little out side work could be done. In addition to this, all of the larger rubber shoe concerns at that time had greatly increased their plants and were looking for additional markets for their goods. The new mills of the old companies served for several years to overstock the market with goods, a state of things the American Company felt seriously. To make the complications even worse the Para Rubber Shoe Company had come into existence and had their mill in operation three months before it was possible for Mr. Evans's new factory to begin work. The superin tendent of the American Rubber Company and the foremen of all the departments, although they had been carried for months on the pay roll while the plant was in ashes, deserted to the Para Company, and took with them nearly all of the skilled help. Left in a position where it was necessary to rely entirely on new and comparatively inexperi enced help, the energetic founder and his lieutenants were confronted with many difficulties. For a time the goods turned out were rather " poor," as the president now confesses, but speedily this condition of affairs was corrected, and in a short time the concern was on a paying basis and declaring dividends. To-day the works have an annual pro ductive capacity of $3,500,000 worth of rubber goods. For the last' ten years the American Rubber Company has been among the most successful rubber concerns in its line in the United States. At the start the capital was $200,000, later it was increased to $500,000, and .656 SUFFOLK COUNTY. again increased to $1,000,000. To-day the capital and surplus are $2,500,000. The phenomenal success of this concern is due to the energy and business ability of Mr. Evans. He has in a rare degree the faculty for securing the best assistance and of surrounding himself with bright and successful young men. He has always been a hard worker. It was his custom for years to spend his forenoons at the factories with his superintendent, and his afternoons at the city offices looking after finances, sales and all the details. There was no part of the business — whether buying supplies, marketing or manufacturing the goods — with which he was not as familiar as his most skilled lieutenant. His devotion to the success of the American Rubber Company has been so absorbing that outside of having served for several years as a director in the Massachusetts National Bank he has declined frequent offers of position in banks or other corporations. Mr. Evans was one of the leading spirits in the consolidation of the leading rubber companies in this country in the corporation known as the United States Rubber Company. This was perfected in April, 1892, and upon election of officers in October following the presidency of this immense company was conferred upon Mr. Evans, an honor en tirely unsought and only assumed upon the urgent solicitation of his associates, who recognized his eminent qualifications for the trust. A remarkable thing about his election to this office was the unanimous expression of the whole rubber trade as to the fitness of the choice. He discharged the duties of the position to the entire satisfaction of his associates until May, 1893, when the state of his health, as well as other business engagements, compelled him to resign, but he is still officially connected with the company, and is a valued factor in the management of its affairs. Mr. Evans is a member of the leading clubs of Boston, although far from being a club man. He is fond of yachting and relies upon that and horseback riding for recreation. He was married in 1868 to a daughter of David Hunt, and resides in-Boston. JOHN P. SQUIRE. John P. Squire, who died January 7, 1893, was a son of Peter and Esther Squire, and was born in the town of Weathersfield, Windsor BIOGRAPHIES. 657 county, Vt., on the 8th day of May, 1819. His father was a farmer. The years of his boyhood were spent at his home, attending the public schools and working on the farm. On the 1st day of May, 1835, he entered the employment of a Mr. Orvis, the village storekeeper, at West Windsor, Vt., and remained with him until the winter of 1837, when he attended the academy at Unity, N. H., of which the Rev. A. A. Miner was then principal. He taught school at Cavendish during a part of the winter of 1837-38. On the 19th of March, 1838, he came to Boston; entered the employ of Nathan Robbins, in Faneuil Hall Market, and continued with him until April 30, 1842, when he formed a co-partnership with Francis Russell, and carried on the provision business at No. 25 Faneuil Hall Market, under the style of Russell & Squire, until the year 1847, when the co partnership was dissolved. . Mr. Squire continued the business alone at the same place until the year 1855, when he formed a new co-partnership with Hiland Lock- wood and Edward Kimball, under the name of John P. Squire & Co. The firm name and business continued until April 30, 1892, when the firm was incorporated under the name of John P. Squire & Company Corporation. The changes in the partners have been as follows : the retirement of Edward D. Kimball in the years 1866 ; the admission of W. W. Kimball in the same year, and his retirement in 1873; the ad mission of Mr. Squire's sons, George W. and Frank O. Squire, in the year 1873; the death of Hiland Lockwood in the year 1874; the retire ment of George W. Squire in the year 1876; the admission of Fred. F. Squire, Mr. Squire's youngest son, January 1, 1884 ; and the death of the founder of the house, leaving the corporation to-day composed of Frank O. and Fred. F. Squire. In 1855 Mr. Squire bought a small tract of land in East Cambridge and built a slaughter house. Since that time the business has grown to such an extent that the corporation of John P. Squire & Co. has to-day one of the largest and best equipped packing houses in the country, and stands third in the list of hog pack ers in the United States, On October 5, 1891, a fire partially destroyed the large refrigerator of this corporation. This necessitated rebuilding. A system of arti ficial refrigeration has been adopted in place of the old method of re frigerating with ice, whereby the capacity of their packing house has been increased about double its capacity before the fire. The melting capacity of the ice machines used is one hundred and fifty tons of ice 83 658 SUFFOLK COUNTY. each per day. A new chimney two hundred and twenty-five feet high, with a flue nine feet across at the base, and with walls' four feet thick, has been built to run the refrigerating machines. With these altera tions and improvements their plant, as far as equipments and conven iences are concerned, is second to none in the country. In the year 1843 Mr. Squire married Kate Green Orvis, daughter of his old employer. Eleven children were born of the marriage, nine of whom are now living, as follows: George W. , Jennie C. , Minnie E., John A., Kate I., Nannie K., Fred. F. , and Bessie E. Squire. One son, Charles, died in infancy, and a daughter, Nellie G., died October 13, 1890. In 1848 he moved to West Cambridge, now called Arlington, where he lived up to the time of his death. Mr. Squire joined the Mercantile Library Association when he first came to Boston, and spent a great deal of his leisure time in reading, of which he was very fond. The high position which he held in com mercial, circles was due to his untiring industry, undaunted courage and marked ability. ORLANDO E. LEWIS. Orlando Ethelbert Lewis was born in Hardin county, O., July 19, 1846. His patents, Richard Kennedy and Elizabeth (Jackson) Lewis, were natives of Ohio. His father, who died in 1848, was a farmer, and the usual experience of the average farmer's son in Western Ohio fell to the lot of our subject during his youth, his education until his four teenth year being confined to the ordinary country school. The war of the Rebellion changed the tenor of his life, although he was but a youth of fourteen when it began. Being large for his age, robust and strong, he enlisted in Company D, Fourth Regiment of Ohio Volun teer Infantry, on June 4, 1861, more than a month before he had at tained his fifteenth birthday, being the youngest member of the regiment. Few, if any, during the war entered the service on the Union side so young in years. He participated with his regiment in all of its engagements from the battle of Rich Mountain — the most im portant contest of the war prior to Bull's Run — until, disabled for service, he was discharged from Harewood Hospital on March 9, 1863. ^M &P hliWtliams bJ3ro$Z BIOGRAPHIES. 659 During nearly three years he was in active service, his regiment during this period forming a part of the Army of the Potomac, and being almost constantly engaged in the vigorous campaign in Western Vir ginia and later in McClellan 's Peninsular campaign. At Rich Mountain, Petersburg, Mechanicsburg Gap, Romney, Winchester, Cedar Creek, Harrison's Landing and Fredericksburg our youthful soldier faced the stern realities of war, performing his part in this memorable period of the nation's life with fidelity and courage equal to that displayed by his older comrades. After his discharge from the service Mr. Lewis resumed his educa tion, which had been interrupted at the time he entered military life. For a time he attended school at Canton, O., later at Alleghany College at Meadville, Penn., and finally completed a course of three months at a commercial school in Cleveland, O. At the age of twenty he began his business career as a commercial traveler for the boot and shoe house of King, Crawford & Co., of Cleveland, O., continuing as such for about a year, when he accepted a similar position with the shoe house of Mead & Townsend, of Broadway, New York. After a successful experience of two years with this firm, he bought out a retail boot and shoe store in Urbana, O. , and for several years did a successful retail business, in the mean time, however, also embarking in the manufac ture of boots and shoes for the wholesale trade. Mr. Lewis was mar ried in 1869 to Miss Eliza M. Seymour, of Hardin county, O. They have one child, a daughter, named Millie. In 1882 he sold out his business in Urbana and located in Columbus, O., where he engaged exclusively in the manufacture of shoes. A year or two later, in con nection with Prof. S. W. Robinson of the Ohio State University, he developed the wife grip fastening machine. In 1885 a company was organized, under the laws of Illinois, at Chicago, for the manufacture of these machines, with C. M.- Henderson as president, and Mr. Lewis as general manager. At this time Mr. Lewis gave up shoe manufacturing and moved to Boston, where he has since remained, devoting his time and energies to the sale and development of shoe machinery. Through the modifications and improvements of their original patent it has de veloped into what is known as the " wire grip slugger," of which there are now over one thousand in use in the United States and Europe. It is considered one of the most practical and valuable inventions which has been brought forth in the wonderful results attained in shoe ma chinery during recent years, and is practically without a rival. In the 660 SUFFOLK COUNTY. mean time Mr. Lewis and Prof. Robinson developed the automatic clinch machine, which has proven a great success as a sole fastener. The manufacture and sale of these two valuable patents have not, how ever, completely engrossed Mr. Lewis's time and attention. He is president of the Shoe Lasting Machine Company of New York, which owns and controls in all foreign countries the Chase Lasting Machine — a leading machine in its line. He is also interested in several other machines well known and generally used in the shoe industry. Mr. Lewis has borne an important and well recognized part in the present advanced condition of the boot and shoe industry caused by mechanical appliances. He is a man of great inventive ingenuity, of excellent business qualifications, and both from a personal standpoint as well as in results beneficent to the interests with which he is so largely identified, has been highly successful. He is a member of the Park Street Church, the Art Club, Congregational Club and Apollo Club of Boston; the Aphelion Club of Winthrop, and the John A. Andrew Post 15, G. A. R. Mr. Lewis resides at Winthrop, where he is chairman of the Board of Selectmen, and has taken an active part in public affairs and the material progress of the town. He is a Republican in politics, but while a strong adherent of his party' s principles and policies, has been too closely devoted to his large and constantly increasing business con nections to take part in political life. M. M. CUNNIFF. Michael Matthew Cunniff, son of Michael and Ellen (Kennedy) Cunniff, was born in Boscommon, Ireland, in 1850, his parents coming to Boston when he was three months old. His elementary education was obtained in the Boston public schools, supplemented by a course of commercial training in the Bryant & Stratton Commercial College, Boston. His business career was commenced in Boston in the wine and spirit trade with his brother Bernard. He subsequently retired from that line to enter a general banking and brokerage business, principally in the handling of gas securities and real estate. He has also been identified with the West End Street Railway, the Charles River Enbankment Company, and other land and railroad improve- BIOGRAPHIES. 661 ments in Boston and vicinity. For many years he has been an active force in State and city political affairs. He was chairman of the Democratic City Committee for two years, chairman of the executive branch of the Democratic State Committee two years, and has been a member of the -State Committee for fifteen years. He was a member of the executive council of Governor Ames in 1888, and was renomi nated, but declined the honor for 1889. He is a director in the Me chanics' National Bank of Boston, having taken a prominent part in its reorganization ; also a trustee in the Union Institution for Savings, Bos ton ; a director in the Bay State Gas Company ; is one of the foremost capitalists in the organization of the Boston Gas Syndicate, and is largely interested in the gas business. He is also a member of several local yacht clubs, always having taken a lively interest in yachting matters ; is a prominent member of the Suffolk Club, and of the Char itable Irish Society of Boston. He was chief ranger in the Independent Order of Foresters and is a member of the Protective Order of Elks, and an honorary member of the Kearsarge Veterans. Mr. Cunniff possesses excellent business qualifications and has been highly successful in all of his undertakings. He is an ardent Demo crat and has been earnest in his support of the principles and candidates of his party. Naturally a leader and organizer, his services are eagerly sought, and the victories of his party in city and State owe much to his skillful generalship. Loyalty to his friends is one of the cardinal traits of his character and the secret of his popularity. Mr. Cunniff was married in Boston, June 30, 1890, to Miss Josephine McLaughlin, daughter of the late Francis McLaughlin, one of Boston's leading mer chants and manufacturers. Two children, Michael M., jr., and Joseph ine, have been born to them. JOHN C. SPOFFORD. John C. Spofford, one of the leading architects of Boston, was born in the town of Webster, Me., November 25, 1854, where his early life was spent on a farm. His father was Phineas M. Spofford, a ship carpenter and farmer of more than local repute. The first rudiments of the carpenter and mason trade, which have been of such incalculable service to him in his extensive building operations since, were obtained 662 .SUFFOLK COUNTY. from his uncle, Calvin Spofford, who still resides in Webster. On the paternal side he is descended from John and Elizabeth (Scott) Spof ford, who came from Yorkshire, England, and in 1638 settled at what is now Georgetown, Mass. On the maternal side he is also connected with the Wentworth family, being a lineal descendant of John Went worth, who held by Queen Anne's appointment the lieutenant-govern orship of the Province of New Hampshire from 1717 to 1730. Captain John Wentworth, the grandson of Governor Wentworth, and great- great-great-grandfather of our subject, fought on the "Plains of Abraham " at the battle of Quebec and was one of those brave men who helped to carry the gallant Wolfe to the rock, beside which he died. Foster Wentworth, the son of Captain Wentworth, entered the Revolutionary Army at the age of seventeen as waiter for his father. He died at the advanced age of ninety-nine years, and is distinctly remembered by Mr. Spofford, who was seven years old at the time of his death. Young Spofford early evinced a taste for the calling in which he is now so successfully engaged. While attending the district school he practiced drawing and attained to quite a degree of proficiency even at this early age. He supplemented the district school with several terms at Monmouth Academy and the Maine Wesleyan Seminary at Kent's Hill. While prosecuting his studies at these institutions he taught in district Schools for several terms, and with such acceptance that he was chosen a member of the School Committee in his native town, where he did valuable service in the cause of education. Later on in 1876-7 he served as principal of Smith's Business College in Lewiston, Me. Having early evinced a liking for architecture, Mr. Spofford in 1879 determined to adopt it as a profession. With this end in view he in the year named entered the office of H. J. Preston, a well known Boston architect, where he began in earnest the practical study of architecture. In February, 1881, he engaged as a draughtsman with Messrs. Sturgis and Brigham, then one of Boston's leading firms of architects. Under his engagement with this firm he had charge of many important public and private buildings. Among the number may be mentioned the beautiful residence of H. H. Rogers, of the Standard Oil Company of New York city, and the Massachusetts Hospital Life Insurance Company's building, State street, Boston. In 1887 he entered into co partnership with Willard M. Bacon, under the firm name of Spofford & Bacon, but the partnership only extended one year, when Mr. Spofford BIOGRAPHIES. 663 united with Charles' Brigham, his former employer, and formed the firm of Brigham & Spofford. While this copartnership continued, Mr. Spofford obtained many large and valuable contracts for the firm, among them being the alteration and enlargement of the Capitol buildings of Maine and Massachusetts. The contest for the former work was a most bitter one. A large number of architects were banded together to defeat the enterprising young man who proposed to rebuild the Capi tol in his native State, but he showed the committee such a comprehen sive, simple and practical plan for the work in hand, at such a low fig ure, that they decided in spite, of outside pressure to award him the contract. He is entitled to no little credit for the part he bore in this memorable struggle and for the victory he won against great odds. The conflict for the Maine State House only sharpened his zeal to win the contract on the Massachusetts Capitol. Here he met the same opposi tion, but was armed with an unanswerable argument in the shape of the most complete set of plans and specifications for the work shown to the legislative committee, and after long and deliberate consideration his firm again bore off the banner. Of other important work, of which Mr. Spofford had charge during his partnership with Mr. Brigham, might be mentioned the Lewiston City Hall, one of the most beautiful buildings of its kind in New Eng land ; the Memorial Hall of Belfast, Me. ; the beautiful Presbyterian Church at Roxbury, Mass. ; the Asylum for Inebriates and Dipsomaniacs at Foxboro, Mass. ; and the magnificent residence of J. Manchester Haynes (which was recently burned), of Augusta, Me. In February, 1892, Mr. Spofford severed his connection with Mr. Brigham, and the work of completing the building of the Massachusetts State House devolved upon his partner, who now has full charge of the work. Early in the year 1892 Mr. Spofford's health failed him, and in com pany with his physician, Dr. A. Sanford, he took a trip to Europe. While abroad he made the best use of his time, in not only repairing his health, but in glancing over^the finest architectural structures in London, Paris, Liverpool, and other cities which he visited at his lei sure. Returning to his old home in Boston after five months' absence, he opened an elegant suite of offices in the John Hancock building, and commenced business on his own account. He has now in operation the plans for several large buildings. His plans and specifications for the Bangor City Hall were accepted by the city government, and the 664 SUFFOLK COUNTY. building will be erected under his supervision. He has also in hand at present the erection of a Methodist Church at Everett; alterations of a town hall at Tyngsboro; a beautiful residence at Arlington, besides several minor residences. Mr. Spofford takes great interest in social and fraternal organizations. He is a Mason and Odd Fellow, and has been grand protector of Massachusetts in the Knights and Ladies of Honor, not to speak of the dozens of minor fraternal associa tions he is a member of, many of which have honored him with the highest offices in their gift. In 1888 he was elected president of the "Spofford Family Association." At the time he was chosen to this position seven hundred of the members of the Spofford family from all parts of the country assembled to commemorate the two hundred and fiftieth anniversary of the arrival from Yorkshire, England, in this country of John Spofford and Elizabeth Scott. He is also a member of the Massachusetts Historical Genealogical Association, and has served for four years as a member of the School Board of Everett. Mr. Spofford was married, July 7, 1881, to Miss Ella M. Fuller, of Turner, Me., an accomplished and charming lady. Their whole mar ried life has been spent in the town of Everett, where they have a beautiful home. They have one daughter, Mabel Fuller Spofford, now nine years of age. A staunch Republican in political faith, Mr. Spofford has been a con spicuous figure in Everett politics ever since his residence there; is a member of Young Men's Republican Club of that city; of the Republi can Club of Massachusetts, and has been chairman of the Republican Town Committee of Everett. He is a firm friend and a zealous advo cate of any cause he espouses, and socially is popular and highly es teemed. Mr. Spofford belongs to a long lived race, and can look back upon a childhood spent in a home where have dwelt five generations of his own kin. He possesses extraordinary powers of physical endur ance, and to-day, hardly in the prime of his usefulness, he has attained to a position of well deserved prominence, which gives' promise of bril liant achievements in the future. GEORGE A. LITCHFIELD. George A. Litchfield was born in Scituate, Mass. He early mani fested a love for books, and with an unconquerable desire for a liberal BIOGRAPHIES. 665 education fitted for college by studying while at work upon a shoe maker's bench. He studied at Brown. University, after which he entered the ministry. His health breaking down after a settlement of five years in Winchendon, Mass. , he was obliged to discontinue a pro fessional life, and entered upon a business career, which has always been suecessful. For several years he had a large life insurance business in the west ern part of the State, but sold to engage in other enterprises. In 1872 he purchased one-half interest in the well-known firm of Brigham, Whitman & Co., tack manufacturers of Whitman, Mass., and the firm name became Brigham, Litchfield & Vining. For seven years they did a large and successful business. At the expiration of this time they sold the entire plant, making one of the largest sales ever occurring in that town. Mr. Litchfield then became the active promoter of the Massachusetts Benefit Association, which has since, under his management, grown to be the largest Natural Premium Life Company in New England, and one of the largest and most successful in our entire country. Mr. Litchfield is widely and favorably known in insurance circles, and great credit is due him for his conservative and energetic policy in the management of his company, which has brought it to its present pros perous and commanding position. His untiring and whole-hearted attention to business has not, how ever, prevented him from always manifesting a deep interest in all the public affairs that have a claim upon the time and effort of every true citizen. He was for twelve years a member of the School Committee in Winchendon, and also for some time in Whitman, and was promi nent in the management of town affairs. In politics Mr. Litchfield has always been a staunch Republican, un til recently being the president of the Republican Club in Quiney, in which cityr he has resided for thirteen years. But it is not alone Mr. Litchfield's ability that has brought him an enviable reputation. He has other qualities which are equally deserv ing of mention, and these are his never-failing kindness and courtesy of manner — shown impartially to all with whom he has dealings — and, best of all, his incorruptible integrity, which scorns a mean act, and will triumph by fair means, or not at all. The crying need of our age is more men of the stamp of Mr. Litchfield. 81 666 SUFFOLK COUNTY. ADAM WARNOCK, Adam Warnock, supreme secretary of the American Legion of Honor, was born in New York city, December 19, 1846, where he received his education and business training. Early in life he became connected with fraternal organizations and has occupied prominent positions in every society with which he has been identified. He joined the American Legion of Honpr in Brook lyn, and at the organization of the Grand Council of New York he was elected supreme representative, being chosen supreme secretary in 1882, which position he has occupied up to the present time. During his occupancy of the office the society has erected a magnificent build ing for its headquarters at No. 200 Huntington avenue, Boston; has rapidly increased its membership, and has accumulated a reserve fund of $500,000 with which to guarantee its certificates, and stands to-day one of the strongest organizations of its kind in the country. It is principally due to Mr. Warnock's keen business insight, and his careful study of life insurance, that has placed the American Legion of Honor in the advanced financial position it now occupies. He has held many positions of trust in other societies, having been for a number of years representative from the State of New York to the Supreme Lodge Knights of Honor, president of the Knights of Honor Veteran Association, president of the National Fraternal Congress, and grand secretary of the Royal Arcanum, State of New York. He was long a member of Atlas Lodge,, F. & A. M., of New York city, and is now a member of Columbia Lodge of Boston. He is also a member of Corinthian Royal Arch Chapter and Ivanhoe Commandery, Knights Templar. He is connected with the Odd Fellows, Knights of Pythias and several similar societies. His activity in the many societies with which he is connected has made the name of Adam Warnock familiar to thousands throughout the length and breadth of the land, and he is one of the best known and best informed men associated with the busi ness of fraternal insurance. A natural force, strength of character and will power are among his conspicuous characteristics, and he is an orator of no mean ability. Mr. Warnock is a member of the Union Boat Club and Boston Ath letic Association, and takes a keen delight in the better class of athletic sports, being himself a good amateur tennis player and oarsman. Per sonally he is an affable gentlemen, with whom it is a pleasure to be ac- |--v j^6