YALE UNIVERSITY
LIBRARY Gift of
Prof. J.D, Dana
1875

THE

litligiuti fif l|e fiurtlmen ;

RUDOLPH KEYSER,
... <[¦
PROFESSOR OF HISTORY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF NORWAYV
TRANSLATED BY
BAKCLAY PENNOCK.

NEW YORK:
CHARLES B. NORTON, 71 CHAMBERS STREET,
agent for libraries.
1854.

Enteeed according to Act of Congress, in the year 1854,
By OHAELES B. J^'OPwTON,
in the Clerk's office of the District Court for the Southem District of New York.

Baker, Godwin & Co., Peintees,
1 Spruce streel, N. Y.

DANIEL WILLARD FISKE,
OF TIIE
ASTOR LIBRARY,
3E{iia Sjolumt is Sitstitiuli
AS A TRIBUTE
TO A
DETOTED LOTEE OF SOANDINATXAN LOKE,
BY^IS
FRIEND AND FELLOW-TRAVELEK, THE TRANSLATOR.

PREFACE.

The present work on the Eeligion of the North
men is a translation of " Noedm^ndenes Eeligions-
EOEFATNmG I Hedendommen," by the learned Pro
fessor Keyser, of Christiania. It was written by
him in order to give a more extended publicity to a
series of lectures on the Popular Life of the E"orth-
men in Heathendom, which he delivered before the
University of ISTorway, and is properly the first of a
series upon that subject. In his Preface the Pro
fessor says :
" Not only the growing general interest in our
Fatherland's Antiquity, but also the student's
demand for a guide to the early history of the
Northmen in some measure adapted to his wants,
has at length induced me to publish in a wider
circle, what for a series of years I have delivered to
a limited one. I have made a beginning with an
Exposition of the Eeligious System of the North
men in Heathendom, both because this forms the
natural back-ground in the delineation of the popu
lar life of the Northmen in Antiquity, and because
the greatest peculiarities of that popular life are
connected with their heathen Faith, which extended
1*

6 PREFACE.
its influence over the popular character long after
its own fall.
In presenting the dogmas of the heathen Faith I
have been as brief as possible. I have kept to the
more important myths in their natural connection,
in order to give a clear conception of the nature and
principles of the Eeligious System. I have thought
it the more necessary to be brief in this part of the
work, since our literature already possesses a detail
ed exposition of the heathen myths of the Northmen
in Prof. P. A. Munch's excellent work — The My
thologie cmd Seroic Legends ofthe North — which
may serve as a guide to those who wish to study
them in detail, and have not an opportunity to
search them out in the original manuscripts, to
which I have merely referred. The Interpretation
of these myths is naturally adapted to the preced
ing Exposition of them, and is, accordingly, brief.
Eut in the Delineation of the Eeligious Institutions,
such as they appeared in the public and private life
of the Northmen, I have deemed it important to be
more detailed, partly because . a clear and thorough
understanding of them is very important to every
one who would gain a correct knowledge of the
popular life of the Old-Northmen, and partly be
cause this subject has hitherto been less explicitly
and carefully treated of."
In this Translation the original has been faithful
ly followed ; the only deviation from the text has
been in introducing, occasionally, a phrase or a
sentence from the authorities referred to, when it
seemed allowable for the sake of imparting addi-

PREFACE. 7
tional, light or interest to the subject on hand.
Many notes, merely of reference to the Eddas and
Sagas, have been left out of the First and Third
Parts, while the notes to the Second Part have been
materially enlarged and increased in number.
The Introductory Chapters grew up of necessity.
The subject before us and the constant reference to
the Eddas and Sagas — the sources of Scandinavian
Mythology and History — make it desirable, and
•even necessary, to have some knowledge of their
character and their history. Unfortunately there is
not yet, in the English language, any history of the
Old-Icelandic literature and its Eestoration, to
which reference can be made. An Abstract has,
therefore, been here compressed within the limits of
an " Introduction," where it must, of necessity, be
brief. In preparing it, the writer has availed him
self of Nyerup's " Survey of the History of Studies
in Scandinavian Mythology,"* Koeppen's " Literary
Introduction to Northern Mythology,"-)- the publica
tions of the Eoyal Society of Northern Antiquaries,
of Copenhagen, and the works referred to, gen
erally. It is gratifying to know that while the desire of
penetrating further into this field of ancient litera
ture is daily increasing, the facilities for gaining a
knowledge of its rich stores are still more improved.
The student of Scandinavian lore may now rejoice
* Uebersicht der Geschichte des Sfcudiums der Scandlnaviseheii
Mythologie; Copenhagen, 1816.
f Literarische Einleitung in die Nordisclie Mythologie ; Berlin,
1831.

O PREFACE.
at the treasures which are brought within his reach
by the Astor Ldbrart, by which a journey to
Europe is rendered no longer absolutely necessary
in the pursuit of his studies. In the department of
Northern literature the collection of this Library is
probably the fullest now existing out of Scandinavia.
Should this volume, in its presentation of the Life
and Literature and Eeligion of the Old-Northmen,
awaken a desire for a more familiar acquaintance
with the works of their skalds and historians, and
give some assistance to those who are already inte
rested in the subject, it will be a source of heartfelt
gratification to the writer, and an encouragement to
further laboi"s in the field he has entered upon.
B. P.
Kennett Square, Pa., December, 1853.

CONTENTS.

INTRODUCTORY CHAPTERS. PAOE
Chapter- 1. — The Restoration of Icelandic Literature, . 13
" II.— The Eddas and Sagas of Iceland, ... 42
" III. — The Discovery of America by the Northmen, 11
RELIGION OF THE NORTHMEN.
Introduction,  85
PART FIRST.  DOGMAS OF THE ASA-FAITH.
Chapter I.— Origin of the World  89
" II. — Preservation of the World, .... 92
" III.— The Gods and their Abodes, .... 93
" IV. — Propagation of Evil ; Decline and Fall of the
World,  98
v.— The Destruction of the Gods and the World, 101
" VT. — Gimli and NSstrond; Regeneration of the
World,  103
PART SECOND.  EXPOSITION OF THE ASA-DOCTEINE.
Chapter VII. — Of the Interpretation of the Asa-Doctrine in
General,  105
VIIL— Of the Theory of Creation, . . . 110
IX.— Of Yggdrasil],  .117
" X.— Of the Mythic Divisions of the World, . 122
XI.— Of the Gode  126
XIL— Of the Downfall of the World, ... 141
XIIL— Of the State of Being after Death, . 146
" XIV. — Of the Destruction and Regeneration of the
Gods and the -world  161
" XV. — General Vie-sv,  154

to contents.
PAET THIRD.— INFLUENCE OF THE ASA-FAITH ON THE POPU
LAR LIFE AND CUSTOMS OF THE NORTHMEN.
Chapter XVL— Ministers of Religion,  156
" XVIL — The .(Esir as objects of -worship among the
ITorthmen, .... .165
" XVIIL— Inferior Deities as Objects of Worship, . 179
XIX.— Images of the Gods,  196
" XX.— Sacred Edifices,  205
" XXI. — The Divine Service of the Heathens, . 216
' ' XXII. — The Worship of the Dead, and of Natural
Objects,  230
" XXIII. — Oaths; Duels, and Berserksgang ; Ordeals
or Judgments of the Gods, . . . 236
" XXIV— Sorcery, .  263
" XXV.— Exploring the Future ; Di-rination, . . 279
" XXVL— Other Superstitions  297
" XXVII. — Influenoe of the Asa-Faith upon the Na
tional Spirit of the Northmen, . . 308
" XXVIIL— Decline of the Asa-Faith, . . . 318
APPENDIX.
I. — ^Text to various translations from the Older Edda on the
foregoing pages,  . 323
IL — Extract from Egil's Saga, ... . . 328
Index,  .... 335

TABLE

English.

Of the Sounds of some Icelandic letters which occur iu Old-North
ern or Icelandic words iu the following pages :
loELANDIO. a like
o {Qerm. 6 ; Fr. eu) somewhat "
au nearly like 6
a "
se "
e "
ei, ey,
4 (sometimes fe)* ' '
i, y
i, y
o "
6 "
u "
¦u "

l-.H-8t
f, middle or end of a word
except before 1, or n,
g, k, before a weak vowel
except, g preceded by a vowel
11

a

in father

e

in her

ou

iu thou

1

in fire

e

in met

ey

in they

yea

iu yea

i

in hill

ee

in heel

o

in not

o

iu more

u

in cut

00

iu booty

y

in yea

th

in thank

th

in with

v

¦in live

gy. J^y. 3

ddl
nn " ddn
rn nearly like rdn
*»* The final r of proper names, (fee, has been mostly dropped,
it being only a mark of the nom. sing, of masculine nouns which is
lost in the oblique cases. When radical, it is represented by the
modern Icelandic ur, thus : NjorS, Baldur, for NjorSr, Baldr.
* Represented by je in modern Icelandic.
f Th, in this work, is mostly substituted for J), and sometimes d
for S, especially iu words that have become modernized and
partially Anglicized, thus: Odin, Thor, for OSinn, J>6rr. Th re
presents the sound of J>, and d takes the place 'of S iu all the
modern languages — Icelandic excepted — derived from the Old-
Norse.

INTRODUCTORY CHAPTERS

BT

TEE TRANSLATOR.

CHAPTEE I.
THE RESTORATION OF ICELANDIC LITEEATURE.
When the rude spirit of the Northmen was modi
fied by the influence of Christianity and the warlike
deeds of the Vikings gave way to the occupations
of peaceful life, the literature of the people began to
flourish more vigorously. The memories ofthe past
still lingered with them. The deeds of their fathers
had been celebrated in song, and were kept alive in
cherished traditions. These songs and these tradi
tions were full of the bold spirit of the past, and
they inspired the writers of the people. Then the
things which had been said became written, and the
Saga literature of Iceland sprang into being. For a
long time it flourished luxuriantly, but it celebrated
the exploits of heathen wa,rriors and breathed the
2

14 INTRODUCTION.
spirit of the forsaken religion, hence it was doomed
in turn to give way before the presence of that power
which had supplanted the old faith and had softened
the rude life of' their forefathers. The literature of
the Old-Northmen became neglected ; it was suffered
to sink into oblivion. The manuscripts in which it
was preserved, became lost or forgotten, and for a
long period the early history of the people of the
North was but little known to themselves except
through the medium of distorted tradition or the
semi-fabulous accounts of Paulus Diaconus,* Adam
of Bremen,f and Saxo Giammaticus.:]:
Such was the state of literature at the era when
the Eeformation was introduced in the North. "With
the new life whieh was then introduced, the love of
learning, after a slumber of two centuries, was re
vived, and the various branches of science were pur
sued with more or less zeal. In the general progress
of knowledge, the lore of antiquity began to receive
special attention, and the researches of antiquarians
brought to light some old manuscripts which were
found in Iceland. At once a new fountain was
* Paul Warnefridsson, a Longobard who, about the end of the
eighth century, wrote historical sketches of the Longobard heroes,
whieh begin with Scandinavia.
f Acanonof Bremen, in the latter half of the eleventh century, who
wrote a history of the Archbishopric of Hamburg-Bremen, and ap
pended a geographical view of Denmark and the other northern
countries. :|: Saxe Lange, who, from his great learning reeeived the name of
Saxo Grammaticus (the scholar), lived iu the latter half of the
twelfth century. At the instigation of Archbishop Absalon, he
¦wrote thehistory of Denmark from the beginning to the year 1187.

mTEODTTCTION. 15
opened from the mythological and historical learn
ing of the past, and the stream which flowed forth
has become rich and copious. From the depths of
the North — from a remote and unknown island — a
dawning light appeared, the harbinger of a bright
day that was to enlighten the Scandinavian North
for a century to come, and to extend its rays through
other lands and down to later ages.
In the year 1594 was pubhshed "The Chroni
cles of the Danish Kings," a translation from the
Old-Norse into Danish, by Jens Mortensen. The
appearance of this work gave a new importance to
Scandinavian Mythology. The people had been
told of images of the gods that stood ii^ former days
at Upsala, of sacrifices and other religious cere
monies which were there performed ; they had heard
of these gods being present in battle, of their wield
ing an influence over the destinies of men, and in
all places commanding from the people the honors
and worship of divine beings. But of their birth
and descent, — from whence they came, whether
they were ethereal beings and gods by nature, or
whether they were deified men and heroes — of these
things they had but dim and doubtful ideas. Tliis
little work, of which the original author was the
celebrated Icelander, Snorri Sturlason, made its ap
pearance to give a response to all these queries.
This intelligence was followed up by renewed in
vestigations, and a mass of mythological fragments
was found and brought to light from the dark cor
ners and smoky rooms of old habitations in Iceland.
The most active and energetic among those who

16 INTfeODTTCTION.
were engaged in these antiquarian researches, was
Arngrim J6nsson,* who stands at the head of the
Eestorers of Learning in Iceland. He labored inde
fatigably in this field during a long life, and did
much by his publications and his communications to
the learned men of Denmark, to arouse the attention
of northern historians to the importance of Icelandic
literature. In his footsteps followed Brynjulf Sveinsson,-]- who
did important service in the field of Northern My
thology, by his labors in the same direction. The
learned Danes who corresponded with these equally
erudite Icelanders, and whose labors were greatly
enriched by their communications, were Stephanius,
the editor of Saxo, and Olaus "Wormius,:!: the father of
Northern Archaeology. In his department the latter
had the advantage of previous labors in that di
rection, especially of Count Heinrich von Eantzau,
Yedel, Hvitfeld, Lyschander and othel's, but his in
credible activity and energy, and his influence, laid
the first permanent foundations, and first opened the
path to subsequent labors in that field.
Arngrim and Brynjiilf were still pursuing their
labors in Iceland, with unabated zeal. In 1628,
Arngrim discovered the prose Edda and forwarded
it to Wormius, by whom it came to the library of
* Bom 1568, d. 1648. He was a pastor in Iceland, and twice
Eector of the School at Holar.
f Born 1605, d. 1675, as Bishop of Skalholt.
i Ole Worm, b. 1588, d. 1651, as Prof, of Medicine in Copenhagen.
Among his works are "Reg. Danije Series,'' 1642; "Danieorum
Monumentorum,"1643; " Specimen LexieiRunici," 1650; " Danioa
Literatura Antiq." 1651, <fec.

INTEODUCTION. 17
the University at Copenhagen. Other fragments
were found from time to time, and before ten years
had elapsed, Brynjulf had found fragments of both
the prose and the poetic Edda. In the year 1640,
he had found the poetic Ed^da complete. They were
written on parchment, and both came to the Eoyal
Library of Copenhagen. The finding of these manu
scripts was looked upon as a most important and
invaluable discovery- — the crowning labor of their
researclies. It brought to light the Bible of the Old-
Scandinavians, and was as important to the Mythol
ogy of the North as the discovery of the books of
Moses, by Esdras, was to the religious faith of the
Hebrews. The zeal for antiquarian researches continued un
abated, and, when Stephanius and Wormius left the
field of action, Eesenius entered, and after him
Bartholin, who followed in the path their prede
cessors had opened. The same relations were kept
up with Iceland, where Torfseus and Arnas Mag-
nseus extended their researches in the field in which
Arngrim and Brynjulf had labored before them.
In 1665 the first edition of the prose Edda ap
peared, together with two pieces of the poetic Edda
— the Yoluspa and Havamal — published by Eese
nius.* This publication was an important acquisi
tion to antiquarian literature, and the Edda of
Eesenius was long a standard work of reference. In
* "Edda Islandorum, conscripta per Snorrorem Sturlae, Islandice,
Danice et Latine." Ed. P. J. Besenius. Hafnise, 1665, 4to.
" Philosophia Antiquissima Norvego-Danica, dicta Woluspa, &o."
'.' Ethica Odini, pars Eddse Ssemundi, vocata Hdvamdl, <fec."

18 INTRODUCTION.
1689, the royal antiquarian Bartholin published his
"Antiquities," a classic work for the time. It con
tained extracts from twenty-one Eddaic poems,
which gave a more complete idea of the poetic Edda
than could be obtained from the two poems of
Eesenius. In the translation of these and other
fragments, Bartholin had as amanuensis Arnas
Magnseus, and Torfseus had assisted Eesenius in his
translation of the prose Edda.
The government also took an active interest in
these antiquarian researches. In 1662 Frederick
HI. sent Torfseus to Iceland to collect manuscripts,
and in 1685 Christian V. forbade the sale of them
to any foreigner.
While the study of mythologie lore was thus zeal
ously pursued in Denmark, the Swedish scholars
were not idle in this field of learning. They re
ceived manuscripts at Upsala, directly from Iceland,
as well as by the purchase of the Library of
Stephanius. But while they went on collecting the
sources of antiquarian learning, they were not yet so
enriched thereby for want of interpreters. In sup
plying this deficiency they were aided by the for
tunes of war. Jonas Eugman, a learned Icelander,
was captured on his way to Copenhagen, during the
war between Charles Gustavus and Frederick" IH.
in 1658, and carried to Sweden. He was at once
employed to introduce the study of Icelandic, which
he did by teaching the language, and by his labors
in connection with Iceland. He was appointed
Adjunct of the Antiquarian College of Upsala,
where he died in 16T9, Through his agency the

INTEODUCTION. 19
communication with Iceland was facilitated, and
emissaries were retained there with instructions to
procure everything to be found in the shape of old
manuscripts. A large number were thus obtained,
among them the Upsala Codex of the Edda. The
Antiquarian Archives were established at Upsala as
early as 1669, and in 1692 removed to Stockholm.
Their object was the preservation of Eunic monu
ments and Icelandic manuscripts.
The Swedish Antiquarians labored even more
zealously than the Danes in publishing and eluci
dating the Sagas, and though the publications of
that time are not distinguished for correctness of
text nor for faithful Swedish and Latin translations,
and also usually parade a prolix, barren commen
tary or a wonderful medley of mythologie and his
toric erudition, still they were for a long time the
best, and in a great measure the only productions to
be found of their class. Th'e Swedes of the seven
teenth century also produced some independent
mythological works. Of these the most meritorious
undoubtedly was Scheffer's "Upsalia,"* although
Eudbek's " Atlantica"f was by far the most noto
rious. This is a curious work, in which there is a most
* In 1666. It treats of the heathen temple at ancient Upsala,
of the gods and their worship.
f " Olai Rudbeckii Atlantioa sive Manheim, vera Japheti pos-
terorum sedes ao patria, etc., etc." Lat. and Swed. tips. 1676-
1679. " Atlanticse sive Manheimii pars secunda, in qua Solis, Lunae, et
Terrse cultus describitur, omnisq. adeo superstitionis hujusce origo
parti Suenonise septentr. terrse puta Cimmeriorum, viudicatur, ex
qua d^einceps in orbem reliquum divulgata est, etc." Tips. 1689.

20 INTRODUCTION.
ostentatious display of learning, and it contains some
of the most extravagant notions of mythological
history. Its name is derived from the fabulous
Atlantis dreamed of by Plato and the later Greeks,
which he assumes to be Scandinavia in general, or
more especially Sweden. ^ Here he places the primi
tive home of the human family, and he not only
refers the Grecian, legends ofthe Hyperboreans and
Kimmerians, and the uncertain accounts of the
Scythians, Kelts, &c., to Sweden, but thither he
transfers Acheron, the Elysian Fields, Olympus, and
the whole fable-world of Greece. According to him,
the Trojans were of Swedish origin, Hercules a
native Swede, and even Plato and his followers de
rived the chief part of their wisdom from the songs
of the Swedish skalds.
The Atlantica, with all its extravagant fantasies,
was a natural result of the wild speculations which
had crept into the field of Northern Mythology. It
was the whole reduced to a system, if such foolish
ness could be called a system. All that had been
dreamed, or thought, or questioned, concerning the
gods and heroes of the Old-North, was brought
together by Eudbeck in a most fantastic manner,
with that barren erudition and total absence of
criticism which characterized the learning of the
seventeenth century.
This spirit exhausted itself in the Atlantica, and
the researches of the following age become more in
telligible. Hitherto the contents of the Icelandic
books had been received as literally true, and the
Eddas especially had been believed in as immediate

INTEODUCTION. 21
divine revelation. In the fervor of enthusiasm
which those venerable relics of ancient wisdom had
inspired, few had thought of doubting their genuine
ness and truth, and their origin was laid quite in
definitely in the remotest antiquity, even beyond
the period of Hellenic culture. Sometimes, indeed,
a question was raised on the age, origin, or import
ance of a document, but the researches were made
with a simplicity and naivete very far from serious
doubt, and so much were they dazzled by the
gold of the newly-discovered treasures, that all such
doubts were suppressed as heresy.* But this in
genuousness and orthodoxy began to disappear, and
they ventured to doubt, to examine, to judge ;
superficially indeed, but still in the spirit of
true criticism. The Mythology was reduced to
actual chronological history. Mythological systems
were formed in accordance with various interpreta
tions of the Sagas, and interpretation became a new
and important element in antiquarian researches.
Hitherto they had reflected little upon the ancient
gods and heroes. The ^Esir were there, and they
had taken them as they were, without any skeptical
questioning oftheir possibility. But in the eighteenth
century the understanding began to grapple with
the Mythos — the one sober, dry, prosaic — the parent
of all prose and acknowledging no other truth than
the logically possible and the sensually apparent,
the other intrinsically poetic, miraculous, and im
possible, — and in the conflict between two principles
* Thus Peringskjold was fpiTiially prohibited by the Swedish
Court from writing against the foolish fancies of Eudbeck.]]
2*

22 INTRODUCTION.
SO antagonistic, the understanding carried the vic
tory. Then followed the other extreme in which
the Northern Mythos was all to be explained by the
understanding, and the genuine myths, which
existed only in the spirit and the fantasy of the Old-
Northmen, became limited to possible, actual his
tory. The rationalism of the eighteenth century in
this as in everything else when pushed to the extreme,
became unintelligible from pure understanding, and
foolish from excess of wisdom, and it was in the
heathen theology as in the Christian, that fiction be
came falsehood, miracles, unmeaning stupidities,
truth, a dream, and idle dreams became truth,
under the treatment of mere abstract reason.
Early in the century the study of Northern An
tiquities was elevated by the labors of two highly
distinguished Icelanders, Thormod Torfseus and
Arnas Magnseus, each of whom had a great in
fluence in a special direction — the former as critic
in the fleld of Archseology, the latter as restorer and
publisher of Icelandic literature. Arnas Magnasus*
also wrote several keen essays, by which he gained-
the reputation of a learned, circumspect and sober
critic, yet it was less by his writings than by what
he did for the discovery, preservation and publica
tion of the literary monuments of Iceland, that he
rendered his name immortal.
In 1702 he was sent by Frederick TV. to Iceland,
in order' to make, with Paul Yidelin, a thorough
* Arni Magniisson, born 1663, of a distinguished family, studied
in Copenhagen, and died there as Professor of History and Antiqui
ties, in 1730.

INTEODUCTION. 23
search of the island, and on this occasion he collected,
during ten years, all that was to be found of old
manuscripts, with such diligence, that little was left
to be done in this field after him. The greater part
of his collection was unfortunately destroyed in the
great fire of Copenhagen in 1728 ; the remaining
MSS., 1550 in number, he bequeathed to the Uni
versity Library, and set apart a considerable sum of
money for defraying the expenses of their publi
cation.* His design was first carried into execution in the
year 1760, when the Arna-Magnsean Commission
was established and began its labors in the spirit of
its founder. It worked on with indifferent success
in the beginning; its first publication (Knytlinga
Saga) was a failure, and the Institution seemed
likely not to realize the promised results, until 1772,
when Luxdorf, Suhm, Langebek, and Eiriksson were
placed at its head. Under their direction it went for
ward with new life. First appeared " Kristni Saga,"
and others followed at intervals, until finally, in the
year 1787, the long-expected First Part of the Older
Edda was published.f This was an important event
* In 1760, the capital amounted to 13,356 Eix Dalers; in 1794,
to 18,500 Th.
f " Edda Sfemundar hinns FroSa. Edda rythmioa seu antiquor,
vulgo Ssemundina dicta, <fec." Hafn. 1787. Vol. 1, 4to. This first
volume contains the mythological poems (except those published
by Eesenius), with Introduction, Commentary, Translation, and
Glossary, in Latin. The second volume appeared in 1818, the
third, and last, in 1828. The former contains the Epic lays, the
latter, the VoluspA, H-ivam41, and Ei'gsmdl, together with a
Mythological Lexicon, and a Calendar of the Old-Scandinavians
oy Finn Magnusen.

24 INTRODUCTION.
to the antiquarian scholar. It was now possible for
every one who had not access to the manuscripts, to
see the Old-Scandinavian religion in its primitive,
self-created form, and the learned of other lands
were enabled to examine it for themselves. The
Edda of Eesenius, hitherto the mythological canon,
was now thrown in the background. This Institu
tion continued to flourish, and since the latter part
of the last century it has been the central life by
which the multifarious labors in Northern Antiqui
ties and Mythology have been sustained.
Among the contemporary works in this depart
ment, many of which reflect great honor upon the
Danish literati of that time, we may mention Lange-
bek's Collection of Danish Historians, Schoning's
edition of the Heimskringla, and the diversified la
bors of Suhm. The latter not only did much him
self for the restoration of Icelandic literature, but
he encouraged and assisted the labors of others with
princely liberality. A number of Sagas* were pub
lished, either directly by him or through his agency,
and at his expense. In the same fleld and with like
zeal labored Mallet, Thorkelin, Sandvig, the elder
Thorlacius, and others. Mallet was a learned French
man who devoted his attention to Scandinavian
lore, and by his writings contributed to enlarge the
field of mythic studies, and give a more systematic
and tangible form to Northern Mythology. His
co-laborer was a celebrated Icelander named Eiriks
son, to whom he was greatly indebted fo*r the fuU-
* LandnSma-bbk, Orkneyinga Saga, Hervarpr Saga, Eyrby^ia
Saga, and others.

INTEODUCTION. 26
ness and accuracy of his works. His " Monuments
of Celtic and Scandinavian Mythology and Poetry,"*
is a classic work. He began a History of Denmark,
of which, however, he completed only the " Intro
duction," embracing the field of Northern Mythol
ogy. This " Introduction," with the supplementary
" Monuments " was translated into English by Bish
op Percy — compiler of the "Eeliques of Ancient
English Poetry " — and published in London, in 1770,
imder the title of " Northern Antiquities ; or, a
Description of the Manners, Customs, Eeligion, and
Laws of the Ancient Danes and other Northern
Nations, with a Translation of the Edda," &c.
Percy greatly enhanced the value of this book, by a
preface of " Proofs that Teutonic and Celtic Nations
were, ab origine, two distinct People, "f
In the meantime the Icelanders had not been
idle. Silently and diligently they had labored on
from the first, so that the presses of Skalholt and
Holar were kept in constant activity. As early as
1688 the celebrated impression of the Flateyja-bok
was begun : in 1756 appeared Markiisson's Collec
tion of the Sagas.
So much may be said of the department in which
Arnas Magnseus labored. On the other hand, it
was Torfseus:]: who gave the form and method to
* " Monuraens de la Mythologie et de la Poesie des Celts et partic-
uliferement des anciens Scandinaves." Copenhague, 1756. 4to.
f A new edition of this work, revised and enlarged, has ap
peared in a popular form in " Bohn's Antiquarian Library." Lon
don, 1847.
X J)orm6d Torfason, born 1636, in Iceland, died 1719, as Eoyal
Historiographer, in Copenhagep. His principal works are; "Ar

26 INTEODUCTION.
Northern Archseology, especially the Mythology,
which distinguished it in the eighteenth century. It
sras he who first subjected the whole Icelandic litera
ture to a searching criticism, and arranged and sift
ed the confused mass of knowledge which had been
collected in this field before him ; and it was he,
also, who introduced and sanctioned the purely his
torical view of the myths, a view which was after
wards accepted as an axiom, and cultivated by 'his
followers and adorers with unmeamng prolixity and
foolish sagacity to the highest perversion. This
was by no means designed nor expressed by him,
but it was determined by the drift of his writings.
After him it was taken for granted that Odin and
the -iEsir were men, and the mythology only history
in disguise. There was much written during the
century by his followers, but only to dilute his sys
tem ; no new thoughts were presented ; everywhere
the same ideas, the same perversions; only
new hypotheses and new dogmatisms. Thousands
treated on the Northern Mythology during this pe
riod, all driving his system to the extreme. Only.
in the field of criticism some progress was made by
Ihre. It would be impossible to name all the books
of the time in which the ^sir were mishandled.
There is not a history of Denmark, Sweden, or Nor-
tiquitates septemtr. seu Series Regum et Dynastarum Dans" (from
Skjold to Gorm the Old), Hafn. 1702 ; "Historia Rerum Norve-
gicarum" (to the Union of Calmar), Ib. 1711, 4 vols, fol.; a Con
tinuation of the " Series Regum Danite " to Svend ; " Hrolfi Krakii
Historia;" Orkades, Vinlandia Antiqua, Greenlandia Aut., &c.
The publication of " Torfaeana" (a Supplement to the Ser. Eer.
Dan.) was attended to by Suhm, in 1777.

INTEODUCTION. 27
way of that period which does not begin with Odin
and the ^Esir as the introducers of civilization, while
they and all other mythic forms are made into hu
man beings. Such, to take only the most promi
nent examples, was the treatment of the mythos in
the Swedish Histories of Dalin* and Lagerbring,f
and so was it to the highest extreme in the histori
cal writings of Schoning ^ and Suhm.§
The latter was efficient in carrying forward the
labors of Arnas Magnseus and Torfseus, and he con
centrated all the labors of the century in the field
of Northern Archseology, which he carried to the
farthest extreme of systematic representation. Hts
" Odin " is the "Atlantica " ofthe eighteenth century ;
like it the result of all preceding researches ; like it
comprehensive, strange, even nonsensical, yet not
fantastic. This work is the most learned and com-

* "Svea-Eikes Historic," 1747.
f "Svea-Eikes Historic," Stockh., 1769.
J " Om de Norskes, og ended andre nordiske Folks Oprindelse,"
1769. § Pet. Fred. v. Suhm, b. 1728, d. 1799, as Eoyal Danish Historio
grapher and Chamberlain, was an enthusiastic scholar. His works
in this department are unsurpassed for learning and diligent re
search, but in regard to mythology, they contain only the distorted
notions of the age, which he has wrought up iuto the most pom
pous and extravagant caricatures. Besides his " History of Den
mark," and " Critical History of Denmark," his works bearing on
this subject are :
" Forbedringer i den gamle danske og norske Historic,'' Kjo-
benhavn, 1767.
"Om de nordiske Folks seldste Oprindelse," Ib. 1773, 2 vols. ; and
more especially :
"Om Odin og den hedenska Gudelserc," Ac, 177§,

28 mTEODUCTION.
plete system of Northern Mythology of that age,
although it will not bear the test of scientific aud
mythological criticism any more than its predeces
sors. Towards the last quarter of the century, a mass
of antiquarian matter was produced, especially in
the decennium from 1769 to 1779, when " Edda " and
"Odin" and "Northern Mythology" became the
whole order of the day. Eiriksson wrote some small
er works of merit ; Bishop Finn Jonsson treated of
the early inhabitants of Iceland in ani excellent
work, " Historia Ecclesiastica Islandise," in 1772 ;
Ihre published his "Lexicon Sviogothicum " and
" Letters to Lagerbring ;" and amid the mass of writ
ings by which the mythological literature was ma
terially increased, it gained the most, in a scientific
view, from the works of Thorkelin* and Thorlacius.f
Amid all this exuberant growth of dry material in
the mythological field, we find a most beautiful or
nament in "Baldur's Death," by Evald (1774), a
striking evidence of what the myths of the ancients
may become in the hands of the inspired poet ; —
and in the Eector Halfdan Einarsson's " Sciagraphia
Historise Islandicse " (Hafn. 1787), we have a useful
cyclopedia of Icelandic Literature.
By this time the subject had reached other lands
and begun to awaken attention, especiaUy in Ger-
* "Vafthrudnismal, sive Odarum Eddas SjemundiniE una, etc."
Hafnise, 1779.
f "Antiquitat. boreal, observationes Spec. ;" a series of articles
in which the richest treasures of Eddaic lore and Icelandic learn
ing are presented.

INTEODUCTION. 29
many. Hitherto, buf a few Germans had ventured
on the Northern Mythology, as Arnkiel in his
^' Heathen Eeligion of the Cimbrians," in 1691, — a
work prepared with more diligence and zeal than
taste and criticism — Westphalen in his " Monu
ments," 1745, and Schiitz, in several works of a te
dious and diffuse character,* yet containing much
good. An acquaintance with the poems of Ossian, which
began with the year 1760, was an apparent intro
duction to these studies. Ossian seized like a fiash
of lightning upon the fantasy of the German poets,
and as they knew not the distinction between Celt
and German, he passed for an Old-German bard.
Counterparts to these poems were believed to be
found in the Icelandic lays, and the latter were ac
tuaUy studied by many for the sake of drawing from
them explanations of the Ossianic images and
names ; — they were studied, and the Northern My
thology became known and admired in Germany.
The " Edda " of Eesenius and Bartholin's " Antiqui
ties " had been pubUshed ; Mallet's work was trans-
* 1. " Abhandlimg von den Freidenkern unter den alten deutsch
en und nordisohen Volkern." Leipsig, 1748, Svo.
2. " Exercitationum ad Germaniam saeram geutilem faeientium
sylloge." Ib., Svo.
3. " Lehrbegriff der alten deutschen und norcSschen Volker von
dem Zustande der Seelen nach dem Tode." Ib., 1750, Svo.
4. " Schutzsehriften fiir die alten nordischen und deutschen Vol
ker, 2ten Bandes Iste Sammlung." Ib., 1752. This work contains
a chapter of "Proofs that' the Ancient Northern and Germanic
People had far more Eeasonable Principles in their Eeligion than
the Greeks and Eomans."

30 INTEODUCTION.
lated in 1765, and in 1766 Gerstenberg's " Letters on
the Curiosities of Literature" and "Poems of a
Skald " introduced the gods of the Old-North into
German Literature. Then the so-caUed "Bardic
School " took possession of them, and gave to the
literature a new direction, as Klopstock, in his
" Hermannschlacht"(1769), and the "Bardic Odes"
(1791), Denis in " The Songs of Sined the Bard "
(1772), and Kretschmann, as the " Barde Ehin-
gulph." Denis attempted the translation of some
of the Eddaic poems, but Herder first successfuUy
opened the way by his translation of the " Vegtams-
kvi5a"and "Yoluspa," in 1773, and the "Eunic
Chapter," in 1779. After Herder, Grater appeared
as the chief apostle of the Northern Gods, and labored
in their cause with great zeal, but without deep in
sight. On the other hand, there arose a band of
skeptics with Schlozer at their head. He denied
the genuineness of the mythologie sources, declar
ing them to be the productions of later tinies, and
their contents worthless fictions. After him came Ade-
lung, who declared " the whole Old-Scandinavian re
ligion to be an imitation of Christianity, more or less
obscm'ed by monstrous images and unknown aUu-
sions, and decorated with Grecian or Eoman ideas."
But Adelung, though a distinguished philologist for
his time, was iBiexperienced in this field of learning,
and still more so was Delius, who repeated him,
and wrote against the Edda without having read it.
Eiihs stood higher than both, and, besides, did much
to spread the study of Northern literature in Ger
many. In his arguments against it he not only de-

INTEODUCTION. 31
clared the Icelandic poetry and mythology to be
monkish fictions, but traced them in a very positive
manner to the Anglo-Saxons.
As it usually happens in such matters, these ne
gations had a positive effect, and served only to call
attention to the Eddas and other productions of the
Icelanders, and in proportion as the real character
and contents of these works became known, the
apparent evidence against their genuineness disap
peared. The study of Northern Antiquities became
freed from the one-sided views of its commentators
— of the historical believer, the mythic interpreter,
or the skeptic, — and under the impartial spirit of
the Nineteenth century, it rose to importance as an
independent department of learning. It opened a
wide field of research, which the philosophic spirit
of the age haa entered upon and found to be rich
and productive. PhUology was enriched by the
ample materials here presented, and in return the
new progress made in philology threw much light
on the researches of antiquaries. The Old-Norse
language was more thoroughly examined, its nature
and properties became better known, and its rela
tion to the Swedish and Danish, as well as the Ger
manic languages generally, was more critically es
tablished. In this field the name of Eask stands
preeminent. His great learning, his zeal and en
ergy, and the multitude and variety of his labors,
are too well known to be enlarged upon here.
Another means by which these antiquarian stu
dies were enlightened, was a thorough, judicious,
and comprehensive criticism of the sources of

32 INTEODUCTION.
mythic learning, with regard to age and intrinsic
value. The honor of applying a thoroughly histori
cal criticism of this kind to the mythologie and his
toric literature of Iceland belongs to P. E. MiiUer.
By his critical investigations into the origin and
genuineness of the old manuscripts, he decided upon
the antiquity and authenticity of the Eddas, ascer
tained and established the time of writing and the
reliability of the Sagas, some of them vrith irrefuta
ble certainty, some with great probability, and
lastly, he thoroughly examined the sourc^s from
which the two great historical writers drew their
materials, and thus fixed the significance and value
of their works.*
These researches were also greatly' facilitated by
the continued publication, translation, and explana
tion of original matter, which, by means of the philo
sophic agencies above-mentioned, became more cer
tain, speedy, and extensive, and in every respect
more universal. The efforts of antiquaries were
now directed more especiaUy to the publication
of all the sources of Northern Mytiiology, as
well as a complete collection of the Old-Ice
landic literature. In this department the labor
¦was carried forward by Nyerup, Adlerbeth, Wer-
lauff, the younger Thorlacius, and somewhat later
by Eask, AfzeUus, Liljegren, and others. THe
Arna-Magn^an Commission also continued to labor
on successfully, but a new era was begun in this
* In his "Asalrere," "Sagabibliothek," 1817, "Critiske Under-
Bogelse af Danmarks og Norges Sagnhistorie," 1823, (fee, <feo. He
died iu 1834, as Bishop of Sealand.

INTEODUCTION. 33
respect, by the formation of the " Society of North
ern Antiquaries."
The foundation of this Society was laid in 1824,
by a number of the friends of Icelandic literature,
who united together for the purpose of securing the
publication of the yet unprinted manuscripts. The
Society was to publish annually a threefold volume,
namfely: in the original text; in a Latin iranslation,
with critical notes and explanations for the use of
philologists and antiquaries ; and a Danish transla
tion for the common reader. The undertaking met
with general approbation, many learned men pro
mised their cooperation, and bythe 1st of January,
1825, a permanent " Society of Northern Antiqua
ries" (NorrsenaFornfrseSa Felag), consisting of fifty-
nine members, was estabUshed.
The Society undertook, in the first place, a com
plete edition of the Sagas, to be collected under
three different heads, viz. : 1. " Fornmanna Sogur,"
or the Historical Sagas recording events out of Ice
land ; 2. " Islendinga Sogur," or the Sagas record
ing events in Iceland ; and 3. " Fornaldar Sogur,"
containing allthe mythico-historical Sagas record
ing events of the period before the colonization of
Iceland ; the latter to embrace " Fornald. S. Nor5r-
landa," or those relating to the North ; " Fornald. S.
Sji5rlanda," or those relating to Southern lands ; and
" Kappa Sogur ok Eiddara," or Heroic and Chival
ric Legends. At the same time they established
a "Journal of Historical and Philological Trans
actions." This was the most important step that has been

34 INTEODUCTION-.
taken in Northem Archseology. The Society has
continued to flourish, and has accomplished much
by its labors. It is in friendly cooperation with
the Arna-Magnsean Commission, and through their
joint labors all the important literature of the Old-
North will doubtless be brought before the world.
The great success of this Society incarrying for
ward the objects of its formation, especiaUy in the
publication of the old literature in the original text
and in translations, has been mainly owing to the
indefatigable labors of its learned Secretary, Pro
fessor C. C. Eafn, who, with enthusiastic love of
Scandinavian Antiquity, devotes his energies to the
restoration of its Uterary monuments.
In the mean time, as the study of Northern Anti
quities was extended, a countless number and vari
ety of works appeared on the subject, both in Ger
many and in the North. The mythic and heroic
Sagas were treated of and variously explained, nu
merous journals appeared, which were wholly or
partially devoted to subjects of .Aj-chseology, and
the material of the Eddas and Sagas were seized
upon by poets and artistically -wi-ought out into
beautiful and attractive forms. Thus a knowledge
of the heathen gods became impressed upon the
people, and the name of Odin was again heard as
far and as frequently as in former days, when pro
nounced by the lips of his worshipers.
Among the mythological works of this period, we
may mention Creutzer's "SymboUk," Gorres' "My
thic History,"* Kanne's " Pantheon," Mone's " His-
* " Mythengeschichte der alten Welt," 1810.

INTEODUCTION. 35
tory of Heathendom in Northern Europe,"* and
others in Germany and in Denmark. Finn Magnu
sen's great work, " The Eddaic Doctrines and their
Origin,"f wades through a labyrinth of specu
lations in his attempts to explain the Eddaic doc
trines by the phenomena of nature. Tet with all
its extravagances this work displays great research,
and is a great addition to the Ust of mythological
books. Finn Magnusen was a profound scholar,
and he made many valuable contributions to anti
quarian knowledge. An excellent work of that
time, is an "Introduction to the Icelandic Litera
ture and its History in the Middle Ages," by A. O.
Lindfors,:]: a handbook which presents a faithful
view of the whole Icelandic literature. Handbooks
on all subjects began to prevail with the close of
the last century ; and in time handbooks, or com-
pendiums of such, were not wanting on the Mytho
logy of the North. In Denmark appeared Grundt-
vig's " Northern Mythology, "§ which is celebrated
especially for its poetic tinge ; in Sweden, Geijer's
"Primitive History of Sweden,"] which, in its pre
sentation of t^e Mythic Lays, treats the subject in a
learned and dispassionate manner. Nyerup and
Finn Magnusen produced Mythological Lexicons,
* " Geschichte des Heidenthums im nordlichen Europa," 2 vols.,
1822, a work of great research, but which distorts the Eddaic My
thology by its interpretations.
f "Eddalajren og dens Oprindelse," 4 Bd. Kjbnh. 1824-26.
X "Inledningtilllslandska Litteraturen och dess Historia under
Medeltiden," af And. Otto Lindfors. Lund. 1824.
§ "Nordens Mythologi, eller Udsigt over Eddalseren."
II "Svea-Eikes Hafder."

36 INTEODUCTION.
the former a brief summary,* the latter a compre
hensive -Thesaurus.f Nyerup's " Sketch of the
History of Mythological Studies,":!: an Introductory
to his Lexicon, is an excellent guide to that his-
tory.§ The subjects of old Myths and Sagas have
been a prolific theme for the pen of the modem
poets of the North,- but to take note of the numerous
versions of them that have appeared, would carry
us beyond the Umits of a simple sketch of the Ees
toration of the Old-Icelandic literature. We shall
merely refer, in passing, to the names of the two
highest representatives of this department of mod
ern literature, that of Oehlenschlager, in Denmark,
and of Tegner, in Sweden, whose works are an lUus
tration of the rich fruits that have been gathered
by the modern muse from the fields of Mythic His
tory. Through the prolific pen of the one, the " Gods
of the North" have been re-animated, and they
come forth to breathe a new and higher Ufe than
* "Worterbuch der Soandinavisclien Mythologie." Kopenh.
1816. •j- "Priscie veterum Borealium Mythologiie Lexicon." Hafnisei
1828. ;]: "Uebersicht der Geschichte des Studiums der Scandinavisohen
Mythologie." g Innumerable Compendiums appeared iu Germany also, such
as: Scheller's " Mythologie der Nordischen u. a. Deutschen Vol.
ker" Eegensb. 1816; Bergner's "Nord. Mythol. nach d. Quellen,'-
Leipz. 1826; Vulpius' " Handworterbuch der Mythol. der Deutsch.
en u. verwandten Nord. Volker," Lpzg. 1826; Tk^ny's "Deutsche
Mythol. Lexicon." Znaim. 1827; Hachmeister's "Nord. Mythol."
Hannover, 1832, and others.

mTEODUCTION. 37
they knew of old, even as the destinies had foretold
of them in the morning of Time, while thfe other
stands as the High-priest of Baldur at the entrance
of his Sacred Grove, and in his glorious song pours
forth the genial inspiration of the " Beautiful God."
We shall conclude this chapter with a brief sketch
of the movements of the present day in the depart
ment of Northern Antiquities, together with the
names of some of the works accessible to the gene
ral reader. The Antiquarian Society of Copen
hagen has been mentioned, with a brief allusion to
its plans. Similar associations exist in the other
countries of Scandinavia. The Swedish Antiqua
rian Society of Stockholm, under the direction of
Arwidsson, Hylten-Cavallius, Geo. Stevens, Esq.,
and others, bega-n in 1844 the publication of a se
ries of the Middle- age legends in the Old-Swedish
branch of the language, of -which about twenty num
bers have appeared, and in Christiania an associa
tion of learned men, with Professors Munch, Key
ser, and Unger at its head, has produced, within a
few years, some valuable publications, such as the
Edda, the Saga of Olaf the Saint, and others, in the
original text. One of these, the " King's Mirror,"
is interesting as the most important Old-Norse work
written in Norway. An excellent translation of
the Heimskringla has appeared, and many other
works of gi-eat value to the antiquarian and philo
logist. Professor Munch is now engaged on a His
tory of Norway, a work displaying profound ethno
logical research in the numbers already published,
which treat upon the primitive history of the North.

38 INTRODUCTION.
Eeturning to Denmark, we will read a list of the
pubUcations ofthe "Eoyal Society of Northern An
tiquaries," which are a noble monument of the
learning and industry of Professor Eafn.
Fornmanna Sogur, or the Historical Sagas record
ing events out of Iceland, in the original Icelan
dic text ; complete in 12 vols. 8vo., with 6 Fac
similes.
Scripta Historica Islandorum, &c., the same in Latin
by Sveinbiorn EgilssQn. 12 vols. 8vo.
Oldnordiske Sagaer, the same in Modern Danish.
12 vols. Svo.
Fornaldar Sogur NorSrlanda, a complete collection
of the mythico-historical Sagas recording events
assignable to the period anterior to the coloniza
tion of Iceland, in the Old-Norse text, edited by
C. C. Eafn. 3 vols. 8vo.
Nordiske Fortids Sagaer, the same translated into
Modern Danish, by C. C. Eafn. 3 vols. 8vo.
Krakumal, sive Epicedium Eagnaris Lodbroci Ee-
gis Danise ; Ode on the Heroic Deeds and Death
of the Danish King Eagnar LoSbrok in England,
in the original text, and in Modern Danish, Latin,
>and French, with Critical and Explanatory Notes,
edited by C. C. Eafn. 8vo.
Fsereyinga Saga, or the history of the inhabitants
ofthe Faroe Islands, in Icelandic, the Faroe dia
lect, and Danish, with map, edited by C. C. Eafn.
Svo,
The same in German, by G. Monike.
Islendinga Sogur, or the Historical Sagas recording
events in Iceland itself. 2 vols. 8vo., with map
and 10 Fac-similes.

raTRODuctioK. 39
Historiske Fortsellinger om Islsendernes Fserd ; the
Icelandic Sagas translated into Danish by N. M.
Petersen. 4 vols. Svo.
Gronland's Historiske Mindesmserker ; or Green
land's Historical Monuments, a Collection of the
Sagas relating to the Discovery, Settlement, and
History of Greenland, in the original text, with a
Danish translation, introduction, and explanatory
remarks, complete in 3 vols., with 12 plates.
Antiquitates Americanse sive Scriptores Septentrio-
nales Eerum Ante-Columbianarum in America,
opera et studio Caroli C. Eafn, with 14 plates and
4 maps. Imp. 4to. pp. 526.
Tidsskrift for Nordisk Oldkyndighed, Historical and
Philological Transactions. 2 vols. 1 plate.
Nordisk Tidsskrift for Oldkyndighed, Archceological
Transactions. 3 vols. 9 plates.
Annaler for Nordisk Oldkyndighed, Annals of
Northern Archaeology, 1836-53, with numerous
plates.
Annaler for Nordisk Oldkyndighed og Historic,
Annals of Northern ArchoBology and History,
1846 to date, with plates.
Antiquarisk Tidsskrift, Arohceological Review, 1845
to date, with plates.
Memoires de la Soci6te Eoyale du Nord, 1836-47.
3 vols. 30 plates.
Besides "J. Guide to Northern Archaeology'''' in
English and frequent bulletins in Danish, Ger
man, French, and English.
Among the numerous works in Germany, the
weU known works of Grimm are first in importance.

40 INTEODUCTION.
A translation of the Eddas by Karl Simrock,
which was pubUshed in 1851, is the most faithful
and spirited one that has been made. In its form,
in preserving the alliterative rhymes, and in sim
pUcity and spirit, it is the best that has appeared in
any language. In connection with this subject is
a smaU handbook of German Mythology * by J. W.
Wolf, and a Journal devoted to German Mythology
. and the History of Culture,! has just been estab
lished by him in Gottingen, which has the names of
Grimm, Zingerle, Plonnies, &c.^among its contribu
tors. England and France have also produced some
works in this department of Northern Antiquities,
but they are wanting in that depth and originality
which characterize the productions of the German
and Scandinavian -writers.
A small work entitled " Chants Populaires du
Nord," (Paris 1842,) contains a translation of some
of the Eddaic lays, in connection with a few of the
popular legends of other countries of the North.
An excellent work bearing on this subject is "A
Sketch of the Literature of the North in the Middle
Ages," by Eichhoff. i
In England we have Cottle's translation of, the
Edda, § a work of the last century, which entirely
* "Die Deutsche Gotterlehre.'' Gottingen, 1852.
f "Zeitschrift fur Deutsche Mythologie und Sittengeschichte,"
edited by J. W. Wolf. Gottingen.
t "Tableau de la Litterature du Nord au Moyeu Age, en Alle-
magne et eu Angleterre, en Scandinavie et en Sclavonic," par F.
6. Eichhoff. Paris, 1858.
§ " The Edda of S«mund," &o,, by A. S. Cottle. London, 1797.

INTEODUCTION. 41
fails in representing the spirit of the Eddaic poetry,
and Percy's "Mallet's Introduction," which, with
additional chapters by BlackweU, and Sir Walter
Scott's Abstract of the Eyrbyggja Saga, has been
pubUshed in Bohn's "Antiquarian Library," and thus
placed within the reach of every one. The " Sup
plementary Chapters" contain much valuable in
formation respecting the literature and the manners
and customs of the Old-Icelanders, drawn from
Danish authorities, but the author continually be
trays a disposition to frivoUty, as though it was a
subject not worthy of Ms serious investigation, but
one which you found him engaged in by way of
pastime. " A Manual of Scandinavian Mythology ''
by GrenviUe Pigott (London 1839), makes a favora
ble presentation of the subject, in which, however,
the author has not drawn very deeply from original
sources. Hewitt's "Literature and Eomance of
Scandinavia " (London 1852) is a pleasant indicator
to the general literature of the North, in which the
Old-Icelandic is represented by numerous extracts
from the Eddas and some of the Sagas.
In this brief outline much has been necessarily
omitted, in order to bring within our limits a gene
ral view of the Eestoration and Publication of Ice
landic literature; but enough has been said, we
hope, to enkindle a desire in many to extend their
researches into this field, which offers a bountiful
harvest to the Philologist and the Antiquarian, and
is full of interest to the enlightened lover of Utera-
ture.

42 -INTEODUCTION.

CHAPTEE H.
THE EDDAS AND SAGAS OF ICELAND.
The Icelandic poems which Brynjulf Sveinsson
found in 1643, and gave the name of " Edda," were
collected and written down in the latter part of the
twelfth century by Ssemund, a learned Icelander.
They had existed before in the mouths of the peo
ple, and had thus been handed down from genera
tion to generation, perhaps for centuries. They
are evidently the product of various ages in a re
mote antiquity, but nearer than this we can decide
nothing in regard to their origin. These poems dif
fer much, not only in age and value, but also in
their contents. In the latter respect they may be
classed under two heads : the Mythological and the
Epic, although few of them are either purely epic
or mythological. The Ethical poems, only, may be
separated from the mythological, and taken as a
distinct class. The poems of the mythological part
are naturally the most important for us. They are
either general or special in their subject matter,
that is, some embrace a comprehensive view of the
whole field of Northern Mythology, while others
are limited to a single group of legends, or to a sin-

INTEODUCTION. 43
gle- divinity. To the former belong especially the
Cosmogonic and Theogonic lays, as in these the
mythic Universe of the Old-Scandinavians is pre
sented in its unity and completeness. Of these
there are three, as follows :
1. Yoluspa — The Vala's Prophecy — may be re
garded, both from its manner and matter, as one of
the oldest poetic monuments of the North. In ex
treme simpUcity, deep significance, and mythic uni
versaUty, it is comparable to Hesiod's Theogony,
hence it has long held, very justly, the first place
among the Eddaic lays. The Seeress, who is intro
duced speaking, unveils the whole history of the
mythic Universe. Beginning with primeval time,
she goes through every period of its development
down to the The Twilight of the Gods and Baldur's
second birth.
The poem is in many places somewhat obscure,
the changes abrupt, in accordance with the commu
nication of the Yala, and there are also traces of
later Christian interpolations.
2. Grimnismal — Grimnir's Speech or Song — ^be
gins with a preface (formali) in prose, in which it ia
related that Odin, under the name of Grimnir, visit
ed his foster-son GeirroS, and the latter, deceived
by a false representation of Friga, takes him for a
sorcerer, makes him sit between two fires and pine
there without nourishment for eight days, until
Agnar, the King's son, reaches him a drinking horn.
Hereupon Grimnir sings the song which bears his
name. Lamenting his confinement and blessing
Agnar, he goes on to picture in antitheses the twelve

44 INTRODUCTION.
abodes of the Gods and the splendors of YalhaUa,
which he describes at length, then speaks of the
mythic World-Tree YggdrasiU, and adds many
. other cosmological explanations.
3. Y&f^rubnismal—Vafthrudnir^s Song, relates
the contest between Odin and the Jotun Yafthrud-
nir. Many cosmological questions are here pro
pounded. Odin asks concerning the Creation of the
Earth, the Origin of the Sun and Moon, Day and
Night, Summer and Winter, &c., also the Jotuns,
the Yanir, and the things beyond the Twilight of
the Gods.*
The language, the narration, the train of thought,
are extremely simple. The Jotun loses in the con
test, as a matter of course.
In their clothiifg the two latter belong to the
cycle of Odinic Myths, although they are strictly
cosmogonical in their subjects. It is thus with
many of the poems, that they are in some respects
quite independent, yet are in some manner con
nected with others in groups.

¦X-

*^* The poems relating to Baldur's death are of
a general character, for as Baldur is himself " the
Band in the Wreath of YalhaUa," the central Ufe
of all Asgard, so do the lays in which his death is
foretold or lamented, have a direct reference to the
Fall of the Gods and of the mythic Universe. In
them the background is always the TwiUght of the
* The flnal destruction of the world and regeneration of the
Gods and meu in the Old-Norse Mythology is oalled Ragna-rokkr
—the Twilight of the Gods.

INTEODUCTION. 46
Gods; they might therefore be called anti-cosmo-
gonical. They are Ukewise three in number, viz. :
4. Hrafnargalldr OSins — the Raven-Cry of Odin,
which is wild and obscure, the most unintelligible
of the Eddaic poems. Only this much is clear, that
in it is portrayed the unrest and anxiety of the
jEsir at the approaching death of Baldur. Tor
tured by forebodings of evil they vainly seek coun
sel and aid of all Nature and in all Worlds.
6. Yegtams-kvi5a — the Wanderer's Lay, is di
rectly connected with the foregoing, but it is as
simple as that is confused and intricate. The Wan
derer is Odin. In order to arrive at certainty
concerning the portentous future of the Gods, he
descends to Niflheim, goes into the abodes of Hei,
and calls up from the grave a long-departed Yala,
in order to leam from her the fate of Baldur. She
listens to him indignantly, answers his questions
unwillingly, but at last discovers the King of the
Gods, and in anger drives him away.
6. Loka-senna, or Loka-glepsa — Lohi's Quarrel,
or LoTci's. Teeth-gnashing, with a prose introduction
entitled -iEgis-drekka — Mgir's DrinTcvng-Banquet,
a name applicable to the whole poem. Loki re
viles the .^sir, who, after Baldur's death, have
assembled at a banquet with -,:Egir ; he attacks in a
most shameless manner, flrst Bragi, then Iduna,
Gefjon, Odin, Friga, Freyja, Nj6r5, and others,
until Thor at length appears and drives him away.
The prose conclusion (eptirmali) describes his pun
ishment. Loki-senna is a genuine heathen poem;
its undertone is deeply tragic. The .^sir, in the
3*

46 INTEODUCTION.
true mythologie spirit, are far from angelic purity.
They fall rather by their own fault into the flnal
catastrophe, and Loki, -although usuaUy the blas
phemer and liar, here speaks the truth. That
which moves in the " Eaven-Cry of Odin " as a dim
foreboding, now appears distinctly in the conscious
ness of the Gods. Peace has disappeared with Bal
dur, and the fearful distraction which precedes their
downfall has overpowered them. The inimitably
beautiful manner in which all this is portrayed,
renders the poem one of the profoundest and best
finished of the Edda.
*^* Then follow the poems relating to the deeds
of Thor. These appear" to have been a favorite
theme of the Old-Northern poets, as we find in
many poems beside those of the Edda. Among the
latter are the following :
7. H;f mis-kvi8a — the Song of Hymir. The Gods
of Asgard are invited to a banquet with the Sea-
God JEgiY. Thor goes to the Jotun H;^mir for a
huge cauldron in which to brew ale for the occa
sion. He persuades the giant to go with him on a
fishing excursion, in which he fishes up and fights
with the World-Serpent, carries off the cauldron,
and finally slays H^mer and other giants who pur
sue him.
8. |)ryms-kvi5a or Hamars-heimt — Thrym's Lay,
or Bringing the Hammer. This is one of the most
amusing poems of the Edda. The Giant Thrym has
got possession of Thor's hammer, and will not give
it up unless Freyja will consent to become his bride.
The Goddess of Love refuses of course, and Loki

INTEODUCnON. 47
persuades Thor to dress up in Freyja's clothes and
go for it himself. The stratagem succeeds. Thor
regains possession of his hammer, and with it kills
the Giant Thrym and his followers.
9. Harbar5s-lj68 — Har])arh's Lay : a dialogue
between Thor and the ferryman Harbard, who re
fuses to carry him over a stream. This furnishes
an occasion for each of them to recount his exploits.
HarbarS is Odin, and it appears to be the object of
the poem to show the points of contrast between
Thor and Odin, and thereby express more definitely
the peculiar attributes of each. The innate differ
ence between them is implied by the river that
separates them, but is directly expressed in the con
trasted deeds and occupations of the two ; for while
Thor incessantly fights against the Jotuns, HarbarS
(Odin) excites Kings and Eulers to battle, strikes
down warriors and kisses the maidens.
10. Alvis-mal — Speech qf Alvis (the All-Wise).
Alvis, a Dwarf, has come for Thor's daughter as hia
bride. Thor cunningly detains him all night by
asking him questions concerning the various worlds
he has visited. Alvis answers and teaches him the
names by which the most important things in Na
ture are called in the respective languages of dif
ferent worlds, of men, of the ^Esir, Yanir, Jotuns,
Elves, Dwarves, and finally, of the realms of the
dead and of the Supreme Gods. The dwarf, being
one of those mythic creations which cannot endure
the light of day, had to leave without- accompUshing
his object.
These four lays relating to the myths of Thor, are

48 INTRODUCTION.
evidently of later origin than those previously
named. The first two are fiUed with poetic ex
travagances not just adapted to the theme, such as
Thor's great aUmentive capacity ; but Harbar58lj65
and Alvismal are playful and witty, and the latter
is quite learned and philological, more nearly alUed
to the later productions of the genuine Scaldic
poesy. 11. Skirnis-for — Shvmir's Journey, is one of the _
most simple and beautiful of the unconnected my
thological poems. In the form of a dialogue it-
gives the story of Frey and Ger5a, of his love to
her, and his wooing her through the agency of his
faithful attendant, from whom the poem is named.
12. Fjols-vinns-mal — Speeoh of the Much-Know-
er, is a very obscure and unintelligible poem, con
taining the conversation between the hero Svipdag
and the sentinel of Mengl65, his beloved, who for
bids him to enter. The former, in order that he
may not be recognized, calls himself Fjolsvifir;
hence the name of the poem.
13. Hyndlu-ljoS — Hyndla's Song, forms the tran
sition to the epic poems. Freyja gets the giantess
Hyndla to trace the genealogy of Ottar, her favor
ite, in which is given the descent of nearly all the
races of Northern heroes: the Skjoldunga, the
Tlfiinga, the Tnglinga, &c.
14. Hdvamal— the Speech of the High- One {O^it^,
is a coUection of ethical poems. It was once be»
lieved, with all seriousness, that Odin in his own
high person had composed it. The Havamil con
tains precepts for daily life, prudential maxims,

INTEODUCTION. 49
passages of experience, &c., inwoven with mytholo
gical episodes.* The connection of the several
parts is very loose, jet the whole may be divided
into four principal sections.
The^ra^, ofa purely ethical character, embraces
a variety of rules of life, full of patriarchal simpU
city and truth, such as instructions for the host and
traveler (stroph. 1 to 35) and precepts for domestic
life and the household (36-104). The second part
forms an episode relating how Odin obtained the
poetic mead from Suttung (105-111). The third,
L65fafnismal (112-140) appears to be the instruc
tions of a father to his son L65fafnir, whieh mostly
consist of warnings against evil company and vice,
and exhortations to hospitality. The Eunic Chap
ter — Euna Kapituli or Eunatals |)attr 05ins — forms
the conclusion, and contains, as the name implies,
instruction in runic lore.
15. The Eigsmdl is a mythic-ethnologic poem,
which with antique simpUcity gives the origin of
three distinct Castes in Society — the thralls, the
middle classes, and the nobles. The God Heim
dall, the Warder of Heaven, wanders over the
earth, when but a few of the immediate offspring of
the first pair are yet scattered over its surface. He
is hospitably entertained first by an humble pair
caUed Ai and Edda (Great Grandfather and Great
Grandmother); then by Afi and Amma (Grand
father and Grandmother), who are in better circum
stances; and lastly by FaSir and Mo5ir (Father
* See Chap. 27, Infrs, -

60 mTEODucmoN.
and Mother) who live in a splendid mansion. The
Deity infuses a vital energy into his hosts, and af
terward Edda, Amme and MoSir respectively give
birth to a son, the offspring of the God. Edda's
son is f)rsel (Thrall); Amma's, Karl (a vigorous,
free-born man); and MoSir's, Jarl (Noble). They
have each a numerous progeny. The descendants
of Thrsel are unsightly of countenance and deformed
in stature ; they have uncouth names, and are des
tined to toil continually; Karl's descendants are
fair and seemly, and have becoming names; but
the nobles are described in glowing terms as a supe
rior race. This explanatipn of the three castes gives
evidence of the aristocratic spirit which prevailed
in Scandinavia at a very early period.
16. Solar-lj65 — the Sun Song, is usually reckoned
among the Eddaic lays. It is a Christian poem,
adorned with old-mythic images and representa
tions. The Father, Son, and Holy Ghost, Heaven
and Hell, angels and devils, and other Christian
personages and decorations appear in it and suffi
ciently stamp it as not Eddaic; yet it is found
among the collected manuscripts.
In the Epic poems of the Edda, which are mostly
of later origin than the others, the old Heroes
of the North step forth a vigorous and primitive
race, who move in a sphere no less noble than that
of the gods, but less limited and peculiar, as it is ia
a great measure common to the whole Germanic
literature. Of this class there is a series of twenty Heroic
Lays forming a complete Epos, a grand Epic in

mTEODUCTION. 51
twenty cantos, containing the tragic story of the
Yolsunga and Niflunga races. The first three form
a distinct group- — the Songs of Helgi, the great hero
of the Yolsunga race who is peculiar to the North
ern Saga and unknown to the German. In true
Homeric power these lays stand before all other
poetry of the Edda, and in the love between Helgi
and Sigrun there breathes an enduring mildness and
depth of feeling that is scarcely equalled by any.
Helgi brings us to the Yolsungar, whose history
re-appears, although in a much-altered form, in the
German Heroic Songs. The poems in which it ap
pears in connection with the history of the Nifliin-
gar occupy nearly half the Edda. Three heroic
races figure in these poems : — 1. The Yolsungar —
the most celebrated, are the descendants of Yolsung.
His son is Sigmund, and Sigmund's sons are the
famous heroes Sinfjotli, Helgi, Hamdir, and Sigurd
(the Germ. Siegfried). 2. The Niflungar (Nibelun
gen) or Gjukungar, whose ancestor is Gjuki (the
Germ. Gibich). By his consort Grimhild he has
three sons, Gunnar (Gunther), Hogni (Hagen), and
Guttorm (Gemot), and the daughter Gu6run
(Chrymhild). 3. The BuSlungar, chUdren of Bu5U :
Atli (Etzel, Attila), Brynhild and Oddrlin; and
from a branch of these three families appear new
mythic forms, not of the heroic class : HreiSmar
and his sons Fafnir and Eeginn.
Sigurd, the hero of the legend, before entering on
his heroic career, rides to his magic-skilled uncle
Gripir and learns from him all his future destiny
until his death by the Niflungar, Afterward Ke-

52 INTEODUCTION.
ginn comes to Sigurd at the Court of King Hjal
prek (Chilperic), tells him of the treasures which
the /^>ir have given to his father HreiSmar in ex.
piation for a murder, and which his brother Fafnir
lies upon to guard, in the guise of a dragon. He
invites Sigurd to fight with Fafnir and forges for
him a sword. Sigurd slays the dragon after he has
put to death the sons of Hunding.
Sigurd enters into a long conversation with the
dying Fafnir and afterward eats his heart, whereby
he learns the language of birds, and, warned hy
them, he kills the sleeping Eeginn. Then he loads
the fatal gold upon his steed and rides over green
ways to the stronghold of Gjuki. Before his arrival
there he finds Brynhild as a Yalkyrja in a fortress
surrounded by flames. He releases her from her
enchanted sleep, and learns from her the Eunic lore
and other useful knowledge. He then comes to
Gjliki, marries GuSrun, and by artiflce conducts
Brynhild to his brother-in-law, Gunnar, as his bride.
But she discovers the fraud, and at her instigation
the YoMnga hero is murdered by Guttorm, the
youngest Niflunga brother. She then, consumed
by grief, stabs herself with a sword, and in her
dying words she announces to the Niflunga race its
tragic fate. The bodies of BrynhUd and Sigurd
are burned upon one funeral pile. Afterward Bryn
hild rides to the lower regions where she holds con
versation with a sorceress. This forms the subject
of one of the' poems ;— Helrei5 Brynhildar Bu51a-
dottur — the Death-ride of Brynhild the daughter of
Bu51i, in which she briefly relates her history, and

INTEODUCTION. 63
clears herself of the accusations which are made
against her concerning the murder of Sigurd.
At this stage the Niflungar, who had hitherto
played only a secondary part, become the heroes of
the tragedy, and their destinies are celebrated in a
series of touching songs, "which shall endure so
long as the world' stands."
28. GuSrunarkviSa hin fyrsta — ^the First Song of
Guhrun depicts her grief after the death of her
husband, and the vain consolations with which
she was assailed by her kindred, as well as her
journey to Denmark and other events of her widow
hood. 29. Drap Niflunga or Niflunga Lok — ^the Death of
the Nifl-ungar — a prose fragment, tells of the feud
which broke out between Atli and the Gjiikungar,
on account of Brynhild's death, of the reconciUa
tion by which AtU receives GuSrun as his wife, —
her consent, being obtained only by means of a
potion of forgetfulness, and of Atli's treachery in
murdering Gunnar and Hogni.
30. The Second Song of Gu5run relates and be-
waUs her sad fate. After a brief sketch of her
youth, she alludes to Sigurd's death as the begin
ning of her sorrows, then speaks of her stay in Den
mark, and dwells particularly on the fact that she
had been forced by the magic arts of Grimhild to
marry Atli against her inclination. Finally she im
parts some of AtU's ill-boding dreams and her inter
pretations of them, as weU as Atli's declaration that
he could no longer sleep in peace after such dreams-
Si. In the thii-d Song of Gu5run (Gu5ru.nar-

64 INTRODUCTION.
harmr— Gu5run's Sorrows). She opens her griefs
to King Theodoric (|)j65rek), who sympathises with
her. Then she is accused, by AtU's maid, of iUicit
intercom-se with Theodoric, but clears herself by
an ordeal.
32. Oddrunar-gratr — Oddr-iin's Complaint. Od
drun, Atli's sister, relates her history, and especially
her unhappy love to Gumar and his tragical death.
33. Gunnars-slagr — Gunnar's Harp-strohe, comes
here in order. Gunnar, cast into the den of ser
pents by Atli's command, is supposed to attune his
harp and with it soothe all the vipers to sleep ex
cept one — AtU's mother. In this song Atli is ac
cused of unjust enmity and cruelty, and his impend
ing evil fate is foretold.
34. Atla-kvi5a, and 35. Atla-mal, the Songs of
Atli, are two of the most important poems of the
history, especially for the death of the Niflungar.
They relate the murder of Gunnar and Hogni by
Atli, and Gu5run's terrible vengeance, which form
the second chief catastrophe of the great mythic
tragedy. Gu5run's history is continued through
two more poems, which conclude the series. They
are: —
36. Hamdis-mal — the Lay of Hamdir, in which
GuSriin incites her sons Hamdir and Sorli to take
revenge on King Jormunrek (Ermanaricus), who
had kiUed her daughter SvanhUd, and they find
ing him at a festival, take terrible vengeance upon
him and his followers ; and,
37. Gubrunar-hvaut, Guhrun's Summons, contain
ing her call for vengeance upon the cruel murderer

nJTEODUCTION. 65
of Svanhild, and her lamentation over her own sor
rowful fate.
The main features of this mythic history are the
same as the Nibelungen LAed, but the Scandinavian
Epos is of a much earUer date than the German, the
personages are more mythological, and the style is
less pretending, while in grandeur and simplicity it
far surpasses the Nibelungen. '
38. The Yolundar-kviSa is an independent Epic,
narrating the tragic adventures of that skiUful
smith Yolund, who flgures in so many legends of
the Middle Ages. As an appendage to the Epic
poems may be reckoned : —
39. Grou-galldr — Groa's Lncantation, a conversa
tion between the Spirit of Groa and her son, who
has invoked her, in which she communicates magic
blessings to attend him on his way.
40. Grotta-saungr — Grotti' s Song sung by two
Jotun-virgins, Fenja and Menja, whom King Fru5i,
the Peaceful, had bought of Fjolnir in Sweden, and
placed in the magic mill Grotti, to turn the mill
stones. Fortune, Peace, and Gold, they flrst grind
out for him, but afterward, when the covetous man
will not allow them sleep nor rest, the mill brings
forth curses, swords, and a hostUe army, until it
bursts at last, and the virgins obtain rest for them
selves. We have above, a faint outline of the series of
songs and poems forming that venerable relique of
antiquity, which the Icelanders themselves called
by the name of " Grandmother," and which was to
the Old-Scandinavians what the Bible was to the

56 INTRODUCTION.
Hebrews, what Homer and Hesiod together were to
the Greeks. It is, moreover, the only complete col
lection of Icelandic poetry remaining, — the only
one which (except two fragments, some introductory
pieces and interpolated explanations) consists en
tirely of poetry. Whatever else has come down to
us is only fragmentary and inserted in the prose
writings, often as extracts from older poems, now no
longer known, except from these fragments.
The Later Edda is the most important reUc of
Icelandic prose with regard to Mythology, although
it is by no means the oldest monument of the' prose
literature of the North. The reputed author or
compiler was Snorri Sturlason, and it is supposed to
date from the early part of the thirteenth century-
There are three manuscript copies of it extant. One
in the University Library of Copenhagen, which
Arngrim Jonsson found in 1628, and forwarded to
Wormius. This copy is the fuUest, and is probably
from the fifteenth century. The second is in the
Eoyal Library, and was obtained of Brynjulf Sveins
son in 1640. It is older than the other, evidently
from the fourteenth century. The third is in the
University Library at Upsala, and was brought from
Iceland to Sweden by J. Eugman, about the middle
of the seventeenth century. It also appears to be
older than the first-named manuscript.
The contents of this Edda are embraced under
three principal divisions, viz : —
1. Gylfa-ginning— the Delusion of Gylfi, which
consists of fifty -four stories, or chapters, containing
a synopsis of the whole Scandinavian Mythology. It

INTRODUCTION. 67
is clothed in the form ofa dialogue between the mythic
King Gylfi of Sweden and the J^]sir Hdr, Jafnhdr
and Thridji (the High, the Equally High, and the
Third). It is mainly derived from the poetic Edda,
being in reality Uttle else than a paraphrase of the
principal mythic poems of the Edda and some other
lays, joined together and modified by the explana
tions and obscurations of the Editor.
2. Braga-rse5r — Bragi's Speech, a conversation
between the god of Poetry and the Sea-god -^gir,
in which the former relates many things about the
deeds and destinies of the gods, as, the Eape of
Idima, the Origin of Poetry, &c., &c.
3. Kenningar — a coUection of poetic denomina
tion and paraphrases. It begins with Odin and the
poetic Ai't, then follow paraphrases of the .^Esir and
Asynjur, of the World, the Earth, the Sea, the Sun,
the Wind, Fire, Summer, Man, Woman, Gold, &c.,
flnally of War, of Arms, of a Ship, of Christ, the
Emperor, Kings, Eulers, &c. The whole is ar
ranged in questions and answers, and many prose
narrations are given in explanation of particular
passages, such as Thor's Combat with GeirroS, Ot-
tar's expiration for murder, Sigurd's history, &c., as
well as passages of poems, and even whole poems,
such as Thors-drapa, Bjarkamal, &c.
A supplement to the Kenningar, by the name of
Heiti, is found in some of the copies, which consists
of denominations in Scaldic language, without para
phrases. It contains terms for the Scaldic Rrt, the
gods, the heavenly bodies, the earth, various natural

68 INTEODUCTION.
objects, the changes ®f seasons, &c., aU iUustrated
by examples from the lays of the Skalds.
The Skalda, i. e., Poetics, is usually included
among the Eddaic writings, as it was found in the
coUection with them. It is a treatise on Prosody,
Ehetoric, &c., written by Snorri's nephew, Olaf
Thordsson, one of the latest of the Skalds, and con
tains a number of epithets and metaphors used by
the Skalds, iUustrated by specimens of their poetry,
as well as by a poem by Snorri, written in a hundred
different metres. The whole coUection is also called
Hattatal or Hattalykil — ^Enumeration of Metres or
Clavis Metrica.
' Beside these, there is a Preface (formali), which
begins with the Creation of the World, and ends
with the emigration of the Trojans from Asia into
the North, and a Conclusion (eptirmali) after the
mythological part. They were probably written by
Snorri himself, and are an absurd mixture of He
brew, Greek, Eoman, and Scandinavian myths and
legends, thrown together in a confused mass. They
appear to be the attempt of a learned Christian to
give a philosophical and historical foundation to the
-lEsir doctrines, and to bring them into conformity
with the Judaic and heathen traditions.
The " Kenningar " is the most important part .of
the prose Edda, as it gives an insight into the nature
of the poetic spirit and the mythic conceptions of
the Old-Scandinavians, and by its illustrations and
paraphrases it opens the way to an understanding of
the Sagas.
We wiU now turn to the Sagas of Iceland, and

INTRODUCTION. 59
take a hasty glance at the character and contents of
the most prominent among them. We say "of Ice
land," for, although many of them record events
wholly out of Iceland, and they are written in the
language common to the Norsemen before the dis
covery of Iceland, which is therefore properly called
the " Old Norse," stiU they were written by Iceland
ers and preserved on the island, therefore the litera
ture which they embody is properly Lcelandic.
Saga, in its original meaning, was a Saying, a
Spoken narration, and when these " sayings " came
to be written down, they stiU retained the name
which had become established, and Saga came to
signify a written history, a book of traditions or
sayings. The Old-Icelanders did not distinguish very criti
cally between mythic and historic narrative. In the
fresh life of a primitive heathen people, in whom the
imagination is active, and the Actual and the Imagi
nary are not very clearly separated, flction becomes
real, and reality becomes poetical. The ideal world
of Gods and Heroes was not believed in as existing
merely in the poet's fancy, but as an outward,
physical reality, like the human world around them.
Therefore every narration was called a Saga
whether mythical, . poetical, or purely historical, so
that the Sagas embrace every prose narration,
every general,- local, or family history, every bio
graphy of a Skald, a chieftain or a priest, as weU as
the mythic histories of the Yolslingar, the Tnglin-
gar, &c. — in short, the whole historical hterature of

60 INTRODUCTION.
Old-Iceland is, in the broad sense of the term, only
one continuous, unending Saga.
The Sagas may be divided into the Poetic or Fic
titious, and the Historical — the former embracing
the Mythic and the Romantic, the latter including
all general, local and family Histories, and Biogra
phies. Of the Mythic class we have — 1. The Yolsunga-
saga ; 2. The Nomagests-saga, and 3. The Yilkma-
saga, which contain the same story of the Yols^gar
and Niflungar. The two former are mostly drawn
from the Eddaic Lays, although the flrst refers to
other poems now lost, and the second is much dis
guised by arbitrary fiction. The YUkina-saga is the
history of Diedrich of Bern, a coUection of Sagas in
accordance with the German Heldenbuch and
Nibelungen Lied. It has not the stamp of antiquity
which the others possess, being evidently written
about the fourteenth century, and though not a
translation from the German, is wholly written down
from the German stories. 4. Fundinn Noregr — the
Found Norway — ^is a curious attempt at a genea
logical history of Ancient Norway, drawn from
mythologicalj names and genealogies. For a long
time it was regarded as a reliable source of history,
and is the basis of many earlier historical works on
the North.
The following heroic Sagas belong also to the
Mythic class, for, although the heroes are remotely
historical, yet amid the drapery of the Sagas they
step forth as mythic beings : — 1. Hdlfs-saga, which
relates the history of King Alfrek, of H6r5aland,

INTEODUCTION. 61
and of the hero Half and his warriors. It abounds
in quotations from old poems, and dates from about
the thirteenth century. 2. Sagan af Hrolfi Konungi
Kraka ok Koppum hans. The history of King
Hrolf Kraka and his Champions. Hrolf Kraka is
the chief personage of the mythic race of Skjoldun-
gar, with whose name is connected the history of
the most celebrated Old-Danish Heroes, so that we
have rather a complete Book of Heroes than a
single Saga. It is thus divided into sections com
prising the histories of King Fr65i, of Hroar and
Helgi, of Svipdagr and his brothers, of Bodvar
Bjarki and his brothers, of Hjalti the Meek, of
Adils the Upsala-King and the Expedition of Hr&lf
and his Champions into Sweden, of the End of King
Hrolf and his Champions.
These may have been independent Sagas origi
naUy, which were afterward collected from old tra
ditions- by the Saga writer. In their present form
they are not older than the fourteenth century, but
the subjects are far more ancient, .as is seen by the
Bjarka-mal, a poem in it which was known, in the
early p^rt of the eleventh century, as a very ancient
song. 3. Saga af Eagnari Konungi L65br6k ok
Sonum hans — ^The history of King Eagnar LoSbrok
and his sons. Eagnar L65br6k approaches Hrolf
Kraka in mythic glory, but is more historical, as he
was the hero of the sea-roving life of the North
men, especially in the plundering expeditions by
which England was laid waste after the close of the
eighth century. As these expeditions first brought
the North out of its mythic clair-obscurity into his-
4

62 INTEODUCTION, '
torical light, Eagnar is the personage who represents
the transition of the proper Saga into History,
While he appears as a mythic Hero in the Icelandic
songs and narrations, he is a purely historical
character in the Chronicles of the Old Annalists of
England, France, and Germany, There is no cer
tain proof of the existence of the more ancient Tng-
lingar, Skjoldungar, &c., but we may afiirm that
Eagnar LoSbrok lived about the close of the eighth
and beginning of the ninth century. AU the rapa
city and wild adventure which characterized the
early piratical expeditions to England, became con
nected with his name, and he thus gradually be
came a legendary being — a personification of the
Yiking-life. It is that spirit, in its wild and dreadful
reality, that appears in this Saga. It was written
down in the fourteenth century, and contains many
poems of older date, among them the celebrated
"Death Song of Eagnar L65br6k" (L65br6kar-
kviba), which belongs to the Golden Age of Skaldic
literature, i. e., about the tenth century. A short
sketch of Eagnar's Sons (J>attr af Eagnars Sonum),
and another fragment on the Upland Kings (af
Upplendinga Konungum), are connected with this
Saga. 4. Sogubrot — a Historical Fragment of some
of the Old Kings of Denmark and Sweden, which
is regarded by some as a fragment of the lost Slgold-
unga Saga.
There are other Sagas which might be caUed
mythic, as the material of some of them is taken
from heathen traditions, and others are founded
upon ancient songs, but they are so fantastically

INTEODUCTION. 63
adorned, and the genuine legend is so transformed
and variegated by the fictions of the writer, that
they are more properly Romcmtic than Mythic.
In the best Sagas of this class the violation of the
original material was not caused by the caprice of
the individual, so much as by the change which had
been wrought upon the general mind through the
influence of Christianity and the Eomanticism of
the Middle Ages. The views and feelings of the
mass became gradually estranged from heathenism,
and in the fourteenth century (in which the most of
them were written), the Gods, Heroes, Elves, Yalas,
&c., were looked upon by the people only as Kings,
Knights, Sorcerers, Witches, &c.
All the Sagas of this class border on the fabu
lous ; some are pure fable, others are chivalric Eo-
mances. Some are not to be slighted for. richness of
invention, skillful development and graceful repre
sentation, while others are flat stories of goblins and
witches. They have little mythological importance,
except that here and there a pure grain of Mythos
may be picked out from a great mass of rubbish.
The best known among them are Fri8|)jofs-saga
and Hervarar-saga. The former is probably from
the beginning of the fourteenth century, and is full
of most beautiful poetry. The subject is thorough
ly mythic, but the romantic predominates in the
treatment. It is interesting for its representation of
the worship of Baldur and his temple. The latter
contains some very fine poems inwoven among
much fabulous matter. The most celebrated among
them Hervarar-kvi5a — Hervor's conversation with

64 INTEODUCTION.
her father Angantyr, whom she calls out of the
grave in order to obtain from him the magic sword
Tyrfing. The poem is much older than the prose
narration ; it is in true heathen spirit, and possesses
great power.
In this class may also be reckoned the Saga of
Ketil Hseng, of Grim the Bearded (Lo5inkinna),
Orvar Odd's Saga, Saga of An the Archer (Bogs-
veigis, Bow-hender), of Thorstein Yikingsson and a
number more, which we need not enumerate.
There are also many legends translated or drawn
from the mediseval Eomantic literature of other
nations. All of the best productions of the Eomantic
spirit in Southern lands was appropriated with rest
less activity by the Icelanders, especially the num
berless sacred legends of the Middle Ages. All
that was sung or written in Germany, France, Eng
land, Spain, and Belgium, of Charlemagne, of Ar
thur and the Eound Table, of the Holy Grail, &c.,
they collected and translated or related anew. So
are there Icelandic versions of Flores and Blanchi-
flora, of Tristan, of Parcival, and of Lohengrin,
&c., ¦ of the legends of Melusina, Magelona, and
others, in short, of almost all the Epic productions
of the Provencals and the Minnesangers. The
most oi 'these appeared in the early part of the
thirteenth century, in the Golden Age of Icelandic
prose. The Histo7'ical class constitutes by far the most
extensive and valuable department of the Icelahdic
Saga-Uterature. It embraces more than a hundred
Sagas, which throw much light upon the institutions

INTRODUCTION. 66
and government, the manners and customs of the
North. In them we find the family and the com
monwealth minutely and clearly described in their
various relations, while in general history they con
tain rich treasures for the historian and archseolo-
gist, which are even yet comparatively untouched,
and out of the North are almost unknown.
They likewise present a rich field of mythological
research, not so much in mythic memorials — for
of these they contain few, except in the inwoven
Skaldic lays — as in the information they give con
cerning the worship and the entire manifestation of
Northern Heathendom. They lay down a mass of
minute and credible statements in regard to the
temples, festivals, offerings, religious rites, &c.,
which are indispensable in writing a history of the
Idol-worship of Scandinavia.
The love of history was enkindled among the Ice
landers by their intense national feeUngs, and the
interest in public affairs which was required by
their free institutions, as well as by their attach
ment to the Old and the Inherited, and their con
stant longing for their Mother Country. As soon
as the written language was developed they began
to write history, and it is worthy of remark that the
Historical Sagas were almost universally written
before the Mythic and Eomantic ones. Their age
is chiefly the twelfth and beginning of the thirteenth
centuries. The sources of history were the lays of
the Skalds, and the genealogical trees which every
chieftain was careful to preserve.
The historiogi'aphy of Iceland is generally con-

66 INTRODUCTION.
fined to the history of the island itself, and of the
Northern IGngdoms, hence the Sagas of this class
are divided into Icelanders' Histories (Islendinga
Sogur) and the Histories of their Ancestors (Forn
manna Sogur). To the former belong all that
relate to Iceland, usually including those of the
Orkneys, Faroes, and Greenland. The General
Histories are few in number. They are : 1. Islend-
inga-bok, the Icelanders' Book, written by Ari
Fr66i, and usually entitled " Schedse," which is re
garded as the oldest book of the whole Icelandic
literature. It is a dry and meagre sketch of the
most important events of Iceland from the first set
tlement down to about the year 1120.
2. Landnama-bok — Land-taking Book, a detaUed
history of the early settlement and appropriation of
Iceland until toward the end of the tenth century.
It is also rather dry, from the long lists of names and
genealogies, but the details are more interesting
than the " Schedse." It presents a good picture of
the religious ceremonies, and of their connection
with judicial and political affairs. It was written
and continued by various authors, and received its
present form about the end of the thirteenth, or
beginning of the fourteenth century.
3. Kristni-saga, a History of the Introduction of
Christianity into Iceland. It opens with the year
981, closes with 1121, and appears to have been
written in the beginning of the fourteenth century.
It contains much important inforraation respecting
the heathen Ufe and occupations of the Icelanders.
To these may be added the Orkneyinga-saga, a his-

INTRODUCTION. 67
tory of the Orkneian Jarls from the end of the ninth
to the middle of the thirteenth century, and the
Fsereyinga-saga, strictly the biography of the two
chieftains, Thrand and Sigmund Brestason ; but as
they gain authority over the Faroes, it becomes
also a history of the islands themselves. It em
braces the end of the tenth and the beginning of
the eleventh centuries, and appears to have been
written in the twelfth. The events which it relates
still live in the mouths of the Faroe people.
The Local and Family Histories and Biographies
are far more numerous, as well as more entertain
ing and instructive. They give an insight into the
private life of the people, and although they usually
contain events of trifling importance, such as fai^-
ily quarrels, deeds of vengeance, legal trials, jour
neys to Iceland, Norway, England, &c., yet in
vivacity of manner, freshness of delineation, and
simplicity of style they are very attractive. They
are, in effect, Eomances, but Eomances which have
a historical foundation, and, making aUowance for
poetical decorations, are strictly historical in their
minutest details. It is in fact their minute individ-
uaUzation of events, circumstances, and characters,
together with the manner of narration, which gives
them the character of Eomances. The most import
ant among those written in the twelfth century
are : 1. Yiga-Styrs-saga, the history of the chieftain
Agrip, who on account of his quarrelsome disposi
tion and deeds .of blood was called Yiga-Styr, and
was finally slain by Gest, the son of one of his vic
tims. His son Thorhall then pursues Gest for a long

68 INTRODUCTION.
course of years, even to Byzantium, but finally they
are reconcUed. In the meantime, however, one
Snorri Go5i kiUs a kinsman of Yiga-Styr ; which
act, according to the laws of retaliation, calls for
vengeance from the friends of the deceased. 2. In
Hei5arviga-saga, the " Story of the Battle on the
Heath," the friends of the murdered man avenge
themselves by slaying Hall GuSmundsson, a friend
of Snorri's, and the brothers of the latter again re
taliate, after which the parties engage in the " Bat
tle on the Heath," from which the Saga is named.
Peace is finally established by Snorri's ingenuity.
The time of action is in the latter part of the tenth
century, and the beginning ofthe eleventh.
* 3. Nials-saga closes with the year 1017. In rich
ness and variety it is far superior to any of this
class. A mass of occurrences are here brought to
gether and arranged into a well-ordered whole.
The various personages are well delineated, while
their respective characters are maintained through
out, and always presented with dramatic effect.
There are scenes of the most touching pathos, such
as the burning of Nial and his sons, and the narra
tion is often reUeved by a vein of humor. The nu
merous assemblies of the people and legal trials'
which are described, give us a good idea of the ju
dicial and political institutions of Iceland. Making
allowance for the tedium of some of these details,
this Saga will not lose by comparison with the
higher literature of any age. I* contains many
poems, among them the celebrated song of the Yal-
kyrjilr.

rNTRODUCTION. 69
4. Gunlaugs Ormstungu-saga, is the life of the
Skald Gimlaug, the Serpent-Tongued, who traveled
about much in Norway, England, and Sweden, was
loved and caressed for his talents, and hated for his
cutting sarcasm. He was killed in a duel in the
year 1013.
5. Yiga-Glums-saga. History of the chieftan
Glum, who became notorious by his cunning and
impudence in some unimportant quarrels, and who
died in 1003 as a Christian. Although there are
few important or interesting occurrences in this
Saga, it contains valuable contributions to the his
tory of the worship and religious tenets of the Ice
landers. 6. Egils-saga is, perhaps, the most attractive of
the Icelandic Biographies. Egil, a renowned poet
and chieftain, Uved in the tenth century. His life
was most active, wild and adventurous. Under every
variety of circumstances he roved about in the
North-lands, and plundered on the coasts of Fries
land, Saxony and Prussia ; his violent passion, his
quarrelsome and vindictive disposition precipitated
him into the most desperate situations, but cun
ning, physical strength, and his poetic gift, always
rescued him. Wearied at length with this barren,
unstable life, and rich in experience, in renown,
and in treasures, he returned to his distant home,
where he lived to an advanced age, celebrated as a
Skald and feared as a chieftain, and died adven
turously at last;
7. Kormaks-saga. Kormak was scarcely less re
nowned as a poet than Egil, of whom he was a co-
4*

70 INTRODUCTION.
temporary ; but his mildness and affability were in
pleasing contrast with the daring and blood-stained
Egil. His whole life appears under the influence
of one feeling — ^his love to SteingerSa. But this
love was unfortunate through his own fault ; and
Steingerba became affianced to another. Kormak
travels in the vain hope of repose, meets with va
rious adventures in a sea-roving life, and continues
to write verses in praise of Steinger6a to the day of
his death.
8. Yatnsdsela-saga begins in the ninth century,
before the colonization of Ireland, and relates the
fortunes of a Norwegian family which settled in
Yatnsdal, in Northern Iceland. It contains many
mythological allusions, and the God Freyr plays a
prominent role in it.
The Fostbrsebra-saga relates the story of two fos
ter-brothers of the eleventh century, and contains
verses written by one of them ; the Ljosvetninga-
saga relates occurrences of the latter part of the
tenth and the first half of the eleventh century.
Its chief personages, Thorgeir Go5i, GuSmund the
Mighty, and their sons, are elsewhere known and
celebrated. It contains important information con
cerning the institutions of Iceland ; and the Saga of
^isli Sursson has some interesting features of hea
then rites and ceremonies. Passing by many others
attributed to this century, some of which contain
valuable contributions to the history of heathendom
in Iceland, we will notice a few of the most promi
nent Sagas of the thirteenth century.
1. Eyrbyggja-saga, the history of Plrolf, a priest of

INTEODUCTION. 71
Thor, aud his race. He fled from Harald Harfa-
gri, and settled on a large bay in western Iceland,
which he called " Brei5afj6r5," the Broad Firth.
Here he built a large temple to Thor, which he and
his descendants presided over. Of these his great-
grandson Snorri Go5i appears as the prominent per
sonage of the Saga. This Saga gives a clear view
of the Old-Scandinavian worship of Thor, as it was
transplanted to Iceland.
2. Laxdsela-saga, one of the most comprehensive,
and in fullness of material, in the plan and in com
pleteness of narration, perhaps the best. It covers
the period of Olaf Tryggvason's reign, about the
year 1000, and of the introduction of Chi-istianity
into Norway and Iceland. The history of that
time, especially of the transition of the heathen life
ofthe Northmen into the Christian, is finely. repre
sented in this Saga,
3. Sturlunga-saga, or Islendinga-saga hin mikla —
"the Great Saga of the Icelanders," is the most de
taUed of all. It treats of the much-renowned race of
the Sturlungar, and relates their fortunes and their
deeds from the beginning of the twelfth century
until the year 1284, It therefore embraces a period
much later than the times of heathendom, and is
very important in the history of Iceland,
4, Arons-saga Hjorleifssonar is connected with
the above Saga, Aron, the son of Hjorleif, being
one ofthe few chieftains who supported Bishop Gu5-
mund against the Sturlungs. He died in 1250,
6, Grettis-saga is very rich in events, but full of
romantic and fabulous traits. The hero is Grettir

72 INTRODUCTION,
the Strong, an oft-mentioned Skald of the eleventh
century, who somewhat resembles EgU in wild reck
lessness, but is less gifted as a poet.
Many more Sagas of the thirteenth century
may be passed by here, as they, with few excep
tions, are of secondary importance ; and there is
quite a large number from the fourteenth, and even
some from the fifteenth century ; but the later we
eome, the less interest they have for us, and the less
reliable they are. Many of them are wholly sup
posititious, being not mere fictions, but forgeries.
They seem to move upon historical ground, while
they are in reality nothing but silly inventions and
fables, which it would be a misnomer to caUhistori-
cal. The Historical Sagas relating to the other Scan
dinavian countries, are generaUy more finished
works than the preceding, being complete histories
of a whole age or period. The Icelanders felt a
strong attachment to their Mother Country, which
they often visited, and they naturally were famiUar
with its traditions and passing events. They there
fore labored as diligently upon its history as at their
own, and as they had to collect and compare tradi
tions and occurrences which were not living in the
mouths of the people around them, they found it
necessary to generalize and arrange the material—
a work requiring superior learning and talents.
Hence they wrote more general Histories and fewer
local Sagas bearing upon those countries.
On the history of Denmark there are two large
Sagas, which are master-pieces of Icelandic histo^
riography, viz. :

INTEODUCTION. 73
1. Jomsvikinga-saga, the history ofthe renowned
Sea-rovers, who were established at Jomsburg, near
the mouth of the Oder, and who were for a long
time the terror of all the neighboring coasts. It be
gins with an account of the race of Palnatoki, the
founder of Jomsburg, and relates how Sven was
brought up by him, and incited to continual pirati
cal excursions against the lands of his father, Har
ald Blatand, how King Harald fell by Palnatoki,
and the latter, after Sven's ascension to the throne,
was pursued by him, and built a large fortress on
the Yendian coast, in which he formally established
a cominunity of Sea-rovers, and strengthened it by
appropriate laws. In the second part it treats of
the causes which brought about the celebrated ex
pedition of the Jomsburgers against Norway, which
it describes, and paints circumstantially the battle
in which the power of the Sea-rovers was broken
down by Hakon Jarl. This Saga was written in
the eleventh or the beginning of the twelfth century,
from authentic sources, as many Icelanders were in
Hakon Jarl's army at the aforesaid battle. It is
distinguished for the perspicuity with which cir
cumstances and persons are represented, and is
important, not only to Danish history, but also to
Mythology, since the chief personages are the last
representatives of Heathendom in the North, and
consequently heathen sentiments and manners are
everywhere presented,
2, Knytlinga-saga, a history of the Danish Kings
from Harald Blatand to Knut YI., of whom the
successors of Knut the Great were named " Knyt-

74 INTEODUCTION.
Ungar" (Knutides, descendants of Canute). It was
written, partly from older sources, by Olaf Thor-
darsson (died 1259), who composed a fragment of
the Prose Edda, Although the events mostly take
place in Christian times, yet it is not wanting in
poetic beauties, and even the greater part of the
first chapter is taken from the lays 0|f Eirik Jarl
and Sven EstriSson, the Court Skalds of Knut the
Great, Of the Sagas relating to Norway we have :
1. Sagg. Olafs Tryggvasonar, Olaf Tryggvason's
Saga, in two different works, both independent of
Snorri's, and undertaken before it. One is by Monk
Oddur (d, 1200), the other by Monk Gunlaug, a
younger cotemporary of the former. Both were
written in Latin, and of both we have only Icelandic
translations, Olaf Tryggvason was the founder
of Christianity in Norway, and in his history there
are various references to Heathendom, which he
was actively engaged in driving out by force. Both
these works afford a rich mine for the mythologist,
inasmuch as they unfold the decay of heathen life
in . the North, and its transition to Christianity,
Gunlaug's work is also interesting from the great
number of inlaid Skaldic Songs,
2, Saga Olafs bins Helga, the Saga of Olaf the
Saint, This King continued the work of conversion
begun by his predecessor, and hence this Saga has
for us a similar interest to the preceding one, al
though in a less degree. It contains songs of Sig-
hvat, Ottar the Swarthy, and others.

0 INITIODUOTION. 76
3. Heimskringla, the World- Circle,* the Chroni
cles of the Norwegian Kings, by Snorri Sturlason.
Next to the Edda, this is the most celebrated work in
the whole Icelandic literature. It begins as far back
in the mythic times as memory reaches, while the
other Icelandic histories usually begin with Harald
Harfagri, and it comes down to Magnus ErUngsson,
A. D. 1176. It is not a primitive history, drawn
immediately from the traditions and songs of the
people, as was the case with many of the Sagas, but
was constructed by Snorri from materials already
blocked out in previously-existing Sagas. These
Sagas contained a tolerably full history of Norway,
in isolated fragments, which Snorri collected, modi
fied, and combined with remarkable care and judg
ment, into one continuous historical work. This
origin of the Heimskringla is shown in the circum
stance that it is divided into different Sagas, as well
as by certain variations and contradictions that
occur in the different parts.f
Snorri's account has only an incidental interest
for the mythologist where it treats of the later,
purely Christian ages of Norway ; it is more im
portant where the downfall of the heathen life is
* This work has been thus named by the learned from the two
principal words at the beginning: "Svi er sagt a,t kringla heim-
sins." "It is said that the circle ofthe -world, (to." In the MS. it
is called "jEfi Noregs Koniinga," "Life of the Kings of Norway,"
or "Noregs KoniSnga Sogur," "Sagas ofthe Kings of Norway."
f The Introduction begins : " i b6k |>essi let ek rita forna frdsag-
nir." "In this book Ihave caused the ancient narratives to be writ
ten, &a.," as though he had only attended to the editing of it.

76 mTEODUCTION.
represented, and highly interesting in the delinea
tion of the mythic age — in the TngUnga Saga.
This gives an account of the first mythic race of
Kings in Sweden and Norway, the Tnglingar, and
is a kind of Introduction. Snorri wrote it from
Thjodolf 's "fnglinga-tal, and throughout the latter
part of it he inlaid every important transaction with
a strophe of that ancient poem. This portion of the
work is of no historical value, and, in a mythological
point of view, it becomes absurd in the earUer chap
ters, where the attempt is made to establish the
Tnglinga history upon the history of the Gods, and
to connect the two by means of foreign, Grseco-Eo-
man ideas and traditions. The other portions of the
Heimskringla are adorned with fine poems, which
impart a certain mythologie interest to the whole
work. It was continued by various authors, down to the
time of Magnus the Law-mender ; namely, in Sver-
ris-saga, begun by the Abbot Carl Jonsson, and
finished by Styrmir the Learned; and further,
through fom- other Sagas, down to Magnus Laga-
bsetis-Saga, written by Sturla Thordarsson, of which
only a fragment remains. With Snorri's histpry,
the masterpiece of Icelandic Historiography, and
the pieces annexed to it, we conclude this brief
sketch of the Saga literature of Iceland.

INTRODUCTION. 77

CHAPTEE m.

THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA BY THE NORTHMEN.
The restoration of Icelandic hterature has brought
to light some pages of history which are specially
interesting to Americans — they are the accounts of
the discovery of our country by the . Northmen.
The different manuscripts bearing on this subject,
contain accounts which cannot be explained other
wise than by admitting the fact of discovery, and in
many important circumstances they corroborate
each other. They have all been coUected by Prof.
Charles C. Eafn, in the work entitled, " Antiquitates
Americanse, &c.," which was published in 1837, by
him, through the Eoyal Society of Northern Anti
quaries of Copenhagen. TTiese historical facts have
now been several years before the world, and they
are sometimes referred to in connection with the
early history of America, yet in general they are
but imperfectly known, and the references to them
are sometimes incorrect. The following is an ab
stract of the "Antiquitates," by Professor Eafn :
Gardar the Dane, of Swedish origin, was the first
Northman who discovered Iceland, in the year 863.
A few out-places of the country had been visited
previously, about seventy years before, by some

7.8 INTRODUCTION.
Irish hermits. Eleven years afterward, or in 874,
the Norwegian Ingolf began the colonization of the
conntry, which was continued during the space of
sixty years. The colonists, many of whom belonged
to the most illustrious and most civiUzed families in
the North, established in Iceland a flourishing Ee
public. Here, on this distant island-rock, the Old-
Norse language was preserved unchanged for cen
turies, and here in the Eddas were treasured those
Folk-songs and Folk-myths, and in the Sagas those
historical Tales and Legends, which the first settlers
had brought with them from their Scandinavian
mother-lands. Iceland was, therefore, the cradle of
a historical literature of immense value.
The situation of the island and the relationship of
the colony to foreign countries in its earUer period,
compelled its inhabitants to exercise and develop
their hereditary maritime skill and thirst for new
discoveries across the great Ocean. As early as the
year 877, Gunnbjom saw, for the first time, the
mountainous coast of Greenland. But this land was
first visited by Erik the Eed, in 983, who, three
years afterwards, in 986, by means of Icelandic
emigrants, established the first colony on its South
western shore, where afterward, in 1124, the
Bishop's See, of Gardar, was founded, which subsist
ed for upwards of 300 years. The head firths or
bays were named after the chiefs of the expedition.
Erik the Eed settled in Eriks-firth, Einar, Eafn and
Ketil in the firths called after them, and Herjulf on
Herjulfsnes. On a voyage from Iceland to Green
land in this same year (986), Bjarne, the son of the

INTEODUCTION. 79
latter, was driven far out to sea towards the South
west, and, for the first time, beheld the coasts of the
American lands, afterwards visited and named by
his coimtrymen. In order to examine these coun
tries more narrowly, Leif the Fortunate, son of
Erik the Eed, undertook a voyage of discovery
thither in the year 1000. He landed on the shores
described by Bjarne, detailed the character of these
lands more exactly, and gave them names according
to their appearance : Helluland (Newfoundland) was
so called from its fiat stoneS, Markland (Nova
Scotia) from its woods, and Yinland (New England)
from its vines. Here he remained for some time,
and constructed large houses, called after him
LeifsbuSir (Leif's Booths). A German named
Tyrker, who accompanied Leif, on this voyage, was
the man who found the wild- vines, which he recog
nized from having seen them in his native land, and
Leif gave the country its namefrom this circumstance.
Two years afterward Leif's brother Thorvald repair
ed thither, and in 1003 caused an expedition to be
undertaken to the South, along the shore, but he
was kUled in the summer of 1004 on a voyage
northwai-dj in a skirmish with the natives.
The most distinguished, however, of all the first
American discoverers is Thorfinn Karlsefne, an
Icelander, whose genealogy is carried back in the
Old-Northern annals to Danish, Swedish, Norwe
gian, Scottish, and Irish ancestors, some of them of
royal blood. In 1006 this chieftain, on a merchant-
voyage, visited Greenland,* and there married
Gudrid, the widow of Thorstein (son of Erik the

80 INTEODUCTION.
Eed), who had died the year before in an unsuccess
ful expedition to Yinland. Accompanied by his
wife, who encouraged him to this voyage, and by a
crew of 160 men on board three vessels, he repaired
in the spring of 1007 to Yinland, where he remain
ed for three years, and had many communications
with the aborigines. Here his wife Gudrid bore
him a son, Snorri,* who became the founder of an
illustrious family in Iceland, which gave that island
several of its first Bishops. His daughter's son was
the celebrated Bishop Thorlak Eunolfson, who puh
lished the first Christian Code of Iceland. In 1121
Bishop Erik sailed to Yinland from Greenland,
doubtless for the purpose of strengthening his couii-
trygien in their Christian faith.
The notices given by the old Icelandic voyage-
chroniclers respecting the climate^ the soil, and the
productions of this new country, are very character
istic. Nay, we have even a statement of this kind
as old as the eleventh century, from a vrriter not a
Northman, Adam of Bremen; he states, on the
authority of Sven EstriSson, King of Denmark, a
nephew of Canute the Great, that the country got
its name from the vine growing wild there. It is a
remarkable coincidence in this respect, that its Eng
Ush re-discoverers, for the same reason, name the
large island which is "close off the coast Martha's
Vineyard. Spontaneously growing wheat (maize
or Indian com) was also found in this country.
* The celebrated Danish sculptor, Thorvaldsen, was a descend
ant of this Snorri Thorfinnsson, who was born in America, A P,
1008,

INTRODUCTION. 81
In the mean time it is the total result of the nauti
cal, geographical, and astronomical evidences in the
original documents, which places the situation of
the countries discovered beyond all doubt. The
number of days' sail between the several newly-
found lands, the striking description of the coasts,
especially the white sand-banks of Nova Scotia and
the long beaches and downs of a pecuUar appear
ance on Cape Cod (the Kjalarnes and FurSusti'andir
of the Northmen), are not to be mistaken. In addi
tion hereto, we have the astronomical remark that
the shortest day in Yinland was nine hours long,
which fixes the latitude of 41 deg. 24 min. 10 sec,
or uist that of the promontories which limit the
entrance to Mount Hope Bay, where Leif's bos^ths
were built, and in, the district around which the old
Northmen had their head establishment, which was
named by them Hop.
When we refiect that the strongest and most un
deniable evidence has been adduced to prove the
fact of an Icelandic-Norwegian discovery of our
continent in the tenth century, it becomes a matter
both of surprise and regret that some of our most
lauded writers of American history should either
leave the event entirely unnoticed, or dispose of it
in some half-dozen well-rounded and skeptical sen
tences.

EELI&IOI OF THE lORTHMEI.

INTRODUCTION.

The Northmen, before their conversion to Chris
tianity, and as far back in time as History is able to
follow them, were the adherents of a Eeligion usual
ly called the AsorFaith, from the jEsir, the Gods
concerning whom it taught. This Asa-Eeligion in
its pecuUar form may be considered as having
sprung into being with the Germanic race, and as
being, in its fundamental principles, inherited and
propagated by the two branches of that race — the
Norrcena and the German — so that its essential
doctrines were common to both, although in its
farther development, by each of them, it followed a
peculiar direction.
For the elucidation of the Asa-Faith in its Ger
manic form, the resources, even though not wholly
insignificant, are yet difficult to be employed, as
they are widely scattered, and have to be looked
for among much-corrupted popular legends, and in
manuscripts of the middle ages, where they are
occasionally found interpolated, and where we
should least expect to meet with them.* But in its
* Jacob Grimm's diligence and penetration have thrown new
light on this subject in his excellent work, "Deutsche Mythologie."'
5

86 INTRODUCTION.
Norrsena form the Asa-Faith is far better known.
Here we have for our guide not only a number of
religious lays, composed while the Asa-Faith stiU
flourished, but even a complete reUgious system,
written down, it is true, in Christian times, yet,
according to all evidence, without the Christian
ideas having had any especial influence in the
delineation, or having materially corrupted it.
The lays are found in the collection usually called
The Older Edda or Scemum,d's Edda, which latter
name is given to it because it was collected by the
Icelander Ssemund the Learned (b. 1056, d. 1133).
The Eeligious System is foimd in the Later Edda,
also called Snorri's Edda, from the supposed author
or compiler, the renowned Saga-man Snorri Sturla
son (b. 1178, d. 1241).
Upon these manuscripts is based the following
brief sketch of the Eeligious Doctrines of the Asa-
Faith. But a delineation of the Eeligious System
of the Northmen in Heathendom requires not mere
ly a representation of the predominant dogmas of
the Faith ; it must Ukewise embrace an interpreta
tion of them, so far as it can be given with any cer
tainty, and finally a picture of the religion such as
it actuaUy appeared ih life, — in th'e worship of the
gods, in the religious institutions, in the popular
notions concerning the gods, and in the heathen
superstition generally.
In the interpretation of the Asa-myths, very im
portant services have been rendered by many learn
ed men of modem times, and their works have been

mTEODUCTION. 87
constantly referred to in that part of our undertak
ing, although by no means slavishly followed.
The most important modem works, which present
the Asa-myths with their interpretations, are the
following : —
Finn Magnusen : — " Overssettelse af den seldre
Edda," 1821-23, 4 vols, Svo, ; " Edda-Lsere," 1824-
26, 4 vols, Svo, ; " Lexicon Mythologicum," append
ed to the third part of the great Arn a Magnsean
edition of the OlderiEdda,
N, F, S. Grundtvig : — " Nordens Mythologie eller
Sindbilled-Sprog, historisk poetisk udviklet." 2nd
ed. Copenh, 1836,
M, Hammerich : — " Om Eagnaroks Mythen og
dens Betydning i den oldnordiske Eeligion," Cc-
penh, 1836,
N, M. Petersen : — " Danmarks Historic i Heders-
old." Copenh, 1834-37, 3 parts. The Asa-Doc
trine is treated of in the third part,
E, G. Geijer:— "Svea-Eikes Hafder," Stockh,
1825, and his " Svenska Folkets Historia," Orebro,
1832-36, where the Asa-Doctrine is treated of in
the first part,
F, J, Mone : — " Geschichte des Heidenthums im
nordlichen Europa," 1822-23. 2 vols. Svo, The
Asa-Doctrine is presented in the first part,
Jac, Grimm : — " Deutsche Mythologie," Gottin
gen, 1836, 2nd enlarged edition. Gottingen, 1844.
p. A. Munch : — " Nordens Gamle Gude- og Helte-
Sagn," Christiania, 1840,
For a representation of the reUgious life of the
Northmen, our old Norse-Icelandic manuscripts pre-

88 INTEODUCTION,
sent a rich source, which has not yet been fully ex
hausted. It is the Asa-Faith, such as it was understood and
cherished by the Northmen of Norway and Iceland,
which the Old-Norse manuscripts properly present
to us, and from this point of view it shaU be con
sidered here. We have, indeed, no reason to doubt
that the other two branches of the Norrsena family —
the Swedes and Danes- — ^professed in the main points
the same faith, followed the same religious customs,
and had the same religious institutions ; but we do
not know, with certainty, what these were in detail,
forthe reliable inland sources of information- are
wanting ; and although the ancient Norse-Icelandic
manuscripts not unfrequently treat of heathen-reli
gious affairs in Sweden and Denmark, yet it is only
occasional, and is, besides, almost always such that
the conception is evidently Norwegian, and the de
lineation quite too much adapted to the existing in
stitutions of Norway for us to draw from them any
decisive conclusions.
The following Exposition will, therefore, more
especially embrace the Eeligious Institutions of Nor
way aud Iceland during heathen times ; and, as
before hinted, it will be divided into three Parts :
the first containing the Dogmas of the Asa-Faith ;
the second, the Interpretation of the Asa-Dpctrines ;
the third, the Manifestation of the Asa-Faith in the
Popular Life of the Northmen,

I.
DOGMAS OF THE ASA-FAITH.

CHAPTEE I,
ORIGIN OF THE WOELD,
In the beginning of time there were two worlds :
in the South was Muspell, light and fiaming ; over
it rules Surtur, who sits at its boundaries with his
fiaming sword; in the North was Nifiheim, cold
and dark, with the fountain Hvergelmir in its midst,
where the Dragon NiShogg dwells. Between these
worlds was Ginunga-gap — ^the Yawning Chasm —
stUl as the windless air. From Hvergelmir fiowed
forth ice-cold venom-streams. The rime from these
streams met in Ginunga-gap with Muspell's sparks ;
then the rime-drops were quickened by the power
of the heat, and the Jotun Tmir came into being,
who of himself produced a race of evil Jotuns — ^the
Frost-Giants or Mountain-Giants,
With "fmir came to Ufe the cow Au6humla, by
whose milk he was nourished. The cow licked the
salt rime-clumps, and then came forth Buri, a great,
a beautiful, and mighty being. His son was Bor, and

90 EELIGION OF THE NOETHMEN,
Bor's sons, by the Jotun-woman Bestla, Bolthorn's
daughter, were Odin (Obinn), Yili, and Ye, Odin
became the father of the bright and beautiful ^Esir,
the ruling Gods of Heaven and Earth ; therefore
he is called AU-father (AlfaSir).
The sons of Bor slew the giant "^mir, and in his
blood the whole race of Frost-Giants was drowned,
all but one pair who escaped, and from whom new
Jotun-races descended, Bor's sons carried the slain
"f mir out into the middle of Ginunga-gap ; there
they made the earth of his body, the sea of his
blood, the mountains of his bones, and the trees of
his hair ; of his skull they created the sky, which
they arched high above the earth and adorned with
sparks from Muspell ; but the brain they scattered
in the air and it became the gloomy clouds. Around
about the earth's surface they caused the deep sea to
flow, and upon its utmost strand the Jotuns, who had
escaped, took up their abodes in Jotunheim and "O't-
garS. As a protection against them, the bland,
creating powers made fi'om "S'mir's brows a breast
work around the inmost earth — a citadel called
Mi5gar6. From Heaven to Earth they set up the
bridge Bifrost, or the Eainbow.
The black, dark Night (Nott), of Jotun lineage,
became by the .^ir-son DeUing, the mother of
Day (Dagr), who was beautiful as his father, Odin
placed the mother and son in the heavens, and com
manded them to drive every day and night {dogn)
over the earth. Night rides before with the horse
Hrimfaxi (Frost-mane), who every morning bedews
the earth with the foam from his bits. Day foUows

ORIGIN OF THE WOELD. ^ 91
after with the horse Skinfaxi (Shining-mane), whose
mane scatters light over air and earth.
The -iEsir created Sol and Mani (the Sun and
Moon) out of the sparks of MuspeU, but they ap
pointed the children of Mundilfori to drive their
chariots across the heavens. The daughter drives
the chariot of the Sun, but the son drives that of the
Moon, They speed swiftly onward, for two Jotuns
in the guise of wolves pursue Sol and Mani in order
to devour them.
Dwarves (Dvergar) were quickened as maggots
in "fmir's flesh. By the command of the Gods they
received the form and understanding of men ; but
their abode was in the earth and the rocks. Four
Dwarves — Austri, - Yestri, NorSri, and Su5ri — were
appointed by the Gods to bear up the sky. At the
northern extremity sits the Jotun Hrse-svelgur, in
the guise of an eagle; his wing-strokes are the
cause of storms.
There were not yet any human beings upon the
earth, when once, as the three -^ir, Odin, Hsenir,
and LoSurr were walking along the sea-shore,
they there found two trees and created from them
the first human pair — the man Ask, and the woman
Embla. Odin gave them spirit, Hsenir, under
standing, and LoSurr gave blood and fair complex
ion. The newly-created pair received MiSgar5 of
the -^sir for their abode ; and firom Ask and Em
bla is descended the whole human famUy.

92 EELIGION OF THE NORTHMEN.
CHAPTEE H,
PRESERVATION OF THE WOELD,
The asji Tggdrasill is the noblest of aU trees ; its
ever-green branches encompass all the world. It
grows up from three roots. The one is in the foun
tain Hvergelmir in Niflheim, at which the dragon
NiShogg gnaws ; the second root is in Jotunheim ;
the third with the JEsir in heaven. In the top of
the ash sits a very wise eagle ; four harts run among
its branches and bite off the buds ; while up and
down the trunk goes the squirrel Eatatosk, which
bears words of malice between the eagle and NiS-
hogg. Under the root which shoots up from Jotun
heim, is the well of the wise Jotun Mimir, Here is
kept Odin's eye, which he pledged for a drink from
the well ; and every morning Mimir drinks from
his glittering hom the mead which flows over
Odin's pledge. Under the root of the ash which
sprouts from heaven is the sacred Urdar-fount (Ur6-
ar-brunnr), by which the Gods have their judg
ment seat, whither they ride every day over Bifi*6st,
By this fountain the three great Nornir have their
seat: the maidens UrSur, YerSandi, and Skuld.
They nourish the tree by sprinkling over its body
with the purifying waters of the fountain. They
deal out Ufe and rule the fates. Their messengers,
now good, now evil, accompany man from birth till
death, and create his good and evil fate. Nothing
can change the doom of the Norns.

the gods op the noeth. 93
CHAPTEE IIL
THE GODS AND THEIE ABODES.
In heaven is Asgar5,' the abode of the Gods, In
its midst is the Field of Ida (18a-v6llr), the Assem
bling-place of the Gods, and Odin's High-Seat HU5-
skjaU, from whence he looks forth over all the
worlds. But above the heaven of the ..iEsir reaches
a higher heaven, and in the highest stands the im
perishable gold-roofed hall, Gimli, brighter than the
sun,, Odin or AlfaSir is the highest and eldest of the
-i&ir ; his wife is Friga, the daughter of Fjorgyn ;
from them descends the face of -iEsir. Odin's
hall is the great YalhaUa (YalhoU), Spears sup
port its ceiling, with shields it is roofed, and
coats of mail adorn itsi> benches. Thither, and
to Yingolf, the haU of the Goddesses, Odin invites
all men wounded by arms, all in battle fallen ;
therefore he is called Yalfa5ir, the Father of the
Slain; and his invited guests are called Einherjar,
It is their pastime to fight and slay each other every
day; but they revive again before evening, and
ride home reconciled to YalhaUa, where they are
refreshed with the flesh of the boar Ssehrimnir, and
where the Yalkyrjur reach them mead. By the
side of Odin stand two wolves, Geri and Freki;
upon his shoulders sit two ravens, Huginn and Mu-
ninn, which regulariy fly out and return with tidings
5*

94 EELIGION OF THE NOETHMEN,
from the whole world. His horse is the gray eight-
footed Sleipnir. Odin's names are manifold; for
he never calls himself by the same name when he
journeys among the people,
' Thor (|)6rr) is the second of the .^ir, a son of
Odin, and his own daughter J6r5 (Earth). He is
the strongest of the Gods ; his dweUing is Thru5-
vangar or Thru5heim; his hall the immense Bil
skirnir. To him come bondsmen after death. Thor
drives in a car which is drawn by two goats, and is
therefore called Oku-|)6rr — the Driming Thor. He
is also called HlorriSi — the Fire- Charioteer. The
mountains shake and are riven asunder, and
the earth burns beneath his chariot. Fire flashes
from his eyes when he is angry. The Belt of
Strength (megin-gjorS) redoubles his Asa-might,
Unceasingly he fights against the Jotuns, who trem
ble at his hammer Mjolnir, smithied by skiUful
Dwarves. His wife is Sif, with golden hair. The
boy Thjalfi and the girl Koskva, brother and sister,
go with him on his travels.
Baldur is a son of Odin and Friga. He is so
beautiful that all things- are made light by him ; he
is beloved by all and is the Comforter of the unfor
tunate. His wife is Nanna and his dweUlng is
BreiSablik, where nothing impure is found.
Nj6r8 was born in Yanaheim among the wise
Yanir, but was received among the Msiv when the
Yanir, in a treaty with the latter, gave him as a
hostage and received Hsenir in his stead. Nj6r6
rules the course of the winds, stills the sea and fire,
and deals out riches among men. He is invoked in

THE GODS OF THE NORTH. 95
Sea-faring and Fishing. His wife is Ska8i, daugh
ter of the Jotun Thjassi, But Nj6r8 and Skabi
agree not together. NjorS dwells in Noatun, by
the sea; SkaSi keeps to her father's dwelling at
Thrymheim, where she runs upon snow-shoes over
the mountains, and shoots the wild beasts with her
bow. Frey is the son of Nj6r8, and rules over rain
and sunshine and the earth's fruitfulness. He is
invoked for fruitful seasons, for peace and riches.
He is bland and good ; he causes sorrow to no one,
but delivers the bondsmen from their chains. His
dwelUng is Alfheim. He drives with the boar
Gullinbursti (Golden Bristles), or sails in the noble
ship Ski5bla5nir, a work of the Dwarves. In order
to obtain the Jotun-daughter GerSa, whom he loved,
he gave away his good sword, and hence he is
weaponless in the .^sir's last battle.
Tyr, the One-Handed, is the boldest among the
Jllsir ; brave men are to invoke him.
Bragi, with the flowing beard, a son of Odin, is
the God of Poetry. His wife is Iduna, who keeps
the apples of which the Gods partake, that they
may never grow old.
Heimdall, the white God with the golden teeth,
the son of nine Jotun-virgins, is the Watcher of the
Gods, and dwells in Himihbjorg, which stands
where Bifrost's bridge approaches Heaven, He is
inore watchful than a bird, and sees a hundred
miles away. When he blows in his trumpet Gjal-
larhorn it resounds throughout all worlds.
The rest of the .^sir are: the blind, powerful

96 ' RELIGION OF THE NORTHMEN.
HoSur, a son of Odin; YiSarr, with iron shoes,
Odin's son by the Jotun-woman Gri8a, is called the
Silent God. Next to Thor, he is the strongest, and
dwells in the desert Landvibi. AU or YaU, the
sure marksman, is a son of Odin and Einda, born
in the western hall. Ullur, Thor's step-son, the God
of hunting and snow-shoe running, is invoked for
success in the duel ; his dwelling is in Ydalir. For
seti, the son of Baldur, settles all disputes among
gods and men ; he dwells in Glitnir, whose roof of
silver rests on golden columns.
Of the Goddesses (Asynjur, sing. Asynja) Friga
is the highest. She is the daughter of Fjorgyn, and
the wife of Odin, Her dwelling place is in Fen
salir, Next to her is Freyja, Nj orb's daughter, sister of
Frey, the Goddess of Love, Two cats draw her
chariot. Her dweUing is Folkvangar, her haU,
Sessrymnir, When she rides out to battle, . she
shares half the faUen with Odin, Her husband
Cbur travels far away ; Freyja weeps golden tears
of longing after him. She is caUed Yanadis — the
Yanir-goddess, and has many other names besides,
which she received as she wandered about among
unknown tribes, seeking her lost Obur,
Saga dwells in the great Sokkvabekk under the
cool waves ; there she drinks with Odin, every day
from golden vessels.
There are besides these many Goddesses of inferior
<iig°ity, some in Friga's service and some in Frey
ja's. The Yalkyrjur are sent by Odin to every battle.

THE GODS OF THE NORTH. 97
to choose guests for YalhaUa and to turn the vic
tory. Among their number is Skuld, the youngest
ofthe Nornir, Surrounded by Ughtning's glare and
bearing bright spears, they ride in bloody armor
through the air and over the seas. When their
steeds shake their manes, dew falls in the deep val
leys and hail upon the high forests.
The ruler of the sea is .^gir, also called G;f-mir
and Hier. He is a Jotun, though a friend of the
.^ir. When the latter visit him, his hall is illumi
nated with shining gold. His wife is Ean. She has
a net with which she catches seafarers. The daugh
ters of .^gir and Ean are the Waves : they are un
friendly to voyagers and strive to overturn ships.

98 RELIGION OF THE NORTHMEN,

CHAPTEE lY,
PROPAGATION OF EVIL ; DECLINB AND FALL OF THB
WOELD,
In the first ages of the world there was a glorious
time of peace ampng the gods and men. But
Jotun- women came to Asgard, and the .iEsir formed
connections with them. Then happiness was de
stroyed ; the air was poisoned with wickedness, and
strife was begun in heaven and on the earth, to
continue until the destruction of both. The Jotuns
attack the JEsir, now with strength and now with
cunning : nought but the power of Thor is able to
prevail over them.
The auth'or of the greatest misfortunes which
have befallen the gods and men, is Loki or Loptr,
He is of Jotun descent, but was received among the
^sir, and even in the morning of time he was the
foster-brother of Odin, He is of a fair countenance
but evil in disposition. He is caUed the Slanderer
of the Gods, the source of deceitful cunning, a dis
grace among gods and men. He accompanied the
jEsir, and they often made use of his strength and
cunning ; but he still oftener acted in concert with
the Jotuns for the destruction- of the ^Esir.
Loki had three children by the Jotun-woman
Angurboba: the Fenris-wolf, the World-serpent
(Mibgarbs-ormr, also called Jormungandr), and Hei,

PROPAGATION OF EVIL. 99
or Death, The .ii^ir knew that this offspring of
Loki should bring upon them great calamities ;
they therefore bound the wolf on a desert island,
and set a sword within its outstretched jaws ; the
Mibgarb-serpent they cast out into the deep sea,
where it encircles the whole earth's surface and
bites itself in the tail. But Hei was hurled head
long down into Nifiheim, and Al-father commanded
that all who died of sickness and old age should go
to her. Her dwelling, Helheim, is large but fright
ful. She is half pale-blue and half white, grim and
ferocious of aspect.
The greatest grief was brought by Loki into the
whole world, when he by his deceit slew Baldur the
Good, The -iEsir knew that danger was threaten
ing Baldur, and his mother Friga took oath of all
Nature that nothing should harm him. But she
forgot a tender twig, the mistletoe, Loki tore this
up and persuaded the bUnd Hodur to throw it at
his brother Baldur in sport, Loki himself guides
Hodur's hand and Baldur' is killed. The .iEsir are
struck dumb with grief and horror. At last Friga
sends Odin's swain Hermob to Hei, in order to ran
som Baldur. from Helheim, and Hei promises to
release him if aU Nature bewails his death. It is
also done ; men and animals, the earth and even
the soUd rocks shed tears. All but an old Jotun
woman, who will not weep, and therefore Hei keeps
back her prey. But this Jotun woman was the dis
guised Loki, who was the greatest cause of evU
among the -lEsir, Nanna, the wife of Baldur, died
of grief, and was burned upon her husband's funeral

100 RELIGION OF THE NOETHMEN,
pUe ; but Odin's son, YaU, although but one night
old, avenged Baldur's death by slaying Hodur, his
murderer, Loki, purstied by the ^sir, now fled up to a
mountain from which he couM see to aU corners of
the world, and when he saw the -iEsir drawing near
in their search after him, he changed himself into
the likeness of a salmon, and hid himself under a
waterfall. But Odin saw him from Hlibskjalf, and
the JEs,iY caught him. They then bound him with
the intestines of his own son Nari, upon three sharp
rocks in a dark cave, and Skabi fastened a venomous
serpent over his head, whose poison should drip
down into- his face, Sigyn, his faithful wife, stands
beside him and holds a vessel under the venom-
drops ; but when it is full and she goes away to
empty it, the venom drips dovm into Loki's face,
and then he writhes himself so that the whole earth
shakes. Thence come the earthquakes. Thus shall
Loki Ue bound until the end of the world.

DESTRUCTION OF THE WOELD. 101

CHAPTEE Y.
THE DESTRUCTION OF THE GODS AJSD THE WOELD.
Upon a time the world shall be convulsed, and
the -iEsir, destroyed in Eagnarokk, or the Twilight
of the Gods. The growing depravity and strife in
the world proclaim the approach of this great event.
Winters rage without any intervening summer,
with furious storms, with snows and darkness. The
sun and moon are swallowed by the pursuing Jotun-
wolves, and heaven is sprinkled with blood. The
bright stars vanish, the earth shakes, and the moun
tains are hurled together with a crash. Then all
bonds and chains are broken, and the Fenris-wolf
runs loose. The Mibgarb-serpent writhes in Jotun-
rage, and seeks the land across the tumultuous
waves. The ship Naglfar flies and bears over the
sea the Frost-giant's hosts, led on by the Jotun
Hrym, The loosened Loki also comes at the head
of the troops of- Hei, The Fenris-wolf rushes forth
with outstretched jaws, which fill the space between
heaven and earth ; the Mibgarb-serpent on its side
blows out venom over air and sea. In the midst of
this confusion the heavens are rent asunder, and
through the opening the sons of Muspell ride forth
in radiant array. At their head is Surtur, sur
rounded with flames ; his fire-sword flashes brighter

102 EELIGION OF THE NOETHMEN,
than the sun. They all haste on toward the battle
field, the immense plains of Yigrib,
HeimdaU now arises and blows with all his
strength in Gjallar-hom, The gods all assemble
together, Tggdrasill's ash is shaken, and every
thing in heaven and earth is filled with terror. The
-iEsir and Einherjar arm themselves and rush forth
to battle, Odin rides at their head and meets the
Fenris-wolf; Thor fights at his side against the Mib'
garb-serpent, Freyr combats witlf Surtur, but falls,
for he has no sword, Loki and HeimdaU slay each
other, Thor kiUs the Mibgarb-serpent, but it vomits
forth upon him a flood of venom. He gives way
nine steps backwards, but falls dead to the ground.
The Fenris-wolf swallows Odin, but falls in tum
before the strong Yibarr, who spUts its jaws asun
der. Then Surtur slings his fire over the world.
Smoke wreathes up around the aU-nourishing tree,
the high flames play against the heavens, and earth,
consumed, sinks down beneath the sea.

EEGENEEATION OF THB WOELD. 103

CHAPTEE YI.
GIMLI Airo nastrond; EEGENEEATION OF THE WOELD.
The gold-roofed Gimli which shines brighter than
the sun, passes not away in the great world-confla
gration. After Eagnarokk the good shall all be
gathered thither to rejoice for evermore. But the
wicked shaU be hurled down into Nastrond — ^the
Strand of the Dead — ^which lies around Hvergel
mir. Tiiere shall they wade through thick venom-
streams and be tormented by the dragon Nibhogg.
But the world is not destroyed forever. A new
earth, eternally green and fair, shaU shoot forth out
of the sea. Yibarr and YaU, who have lived
through the flre and the flood, are joined by Thor's
sons Mobi and Magni, who have their father's haih-
mer; and Baldur and Hodur retum from the
abodes of Hei, AU assemble and converse together
of former things ; they find the golden tablets which
the .<^sir once possessed, and they adopt their
ancient customs of the plains of Ida, The Sun
before her destruction bore a daughter who, more
beautiful than her mother, wanders in her path
through the renovated world, Lif and Lifthrasir
lay hidden in Hobmimir's wood during the confia-
gration, and had the morning dew for their food ;
from them shall descend a new race of men who

104 RELIGION OF THE NOETHMEN.
shall spread over the whole earth. All evil shall
cease, and no sorrow nor trouble shall any more pre
vail upon the new-bom earth.
Then shaU the Mighty One come from above, he
who rules over all, whose name man dares not to
utter. He comes in his power to the great judg
ment-seat ; he will appease all strife and estabUsh a
holy peace which shaU, endure eternaUy. But the
foul dragon, the venom-spotted Nibhoggr, flies away
over the plains and sinks out of sight, bearing death
upon his wings.

H.
EXPOSITION OF THE ASA DOCTRINE,
CHAPTEE YII,
OF THE INTEEPEETATION OF THE ASA DOCTRINE IN
GENERAL.
Concerning the origin and significance of the Asa
doctrine, there has been, and still is, a great variety
of opinions.
Taken as a whole, some regard it as a monotheis
tic system in the beginning, which degenerated into
polytheism by the extravagant fancies of the human
understanding. They look for its first basis either
in an immediate divine revelation, imparted to man
kind in the beginning, and consequently common to
all nations and all religions ; — or else in a purer re
Ugion, which in a remote antiquity was pecuUar to
the first progenitors of the Iranic or Indo-European
race, and which, under many corruptions and de
teriorations, was transmitted through the various
branches of the race, so that the fundamental prin
ciples are more or less distinctly seen in the reli
gious systems of all ' the heathen tribes descended

106 RELIGION OF THE NOETHMEN.
from them ; but how this purer primitive Iranic re*
ligion originated — whether by immediate revelation
or by the continual development of the human soul
— is not taken into consideration. Others assume
that the Asa doctrine, as an independent whole, was
developed among the Germanic classes from the
very lowest point of polytheism into a religious sys
tem in which polytheism was incUning to yield
before monotheistic ideas, which the clearer heads
among the people had gradually risen up to by their
own strength of mind and by the natural progress
of polytheism.
In regard to the real object of the Asa myths, —
some have sought it in the history ofthe Germanic
race, especiaUy of the Norrsena branch, others
in the general phenomena of Nature, others again
in man's peculiar nature, especially in a moral
point of view. There has thus been developed
a historical, a physical, and an ethical interpre
tation ; but seldom has any interpreter followed one
of these directions exclusively, the greater number
have united them, with one or another of them the
predominant. Finally, in regard to the outer form of the Asa
doctrine, some consider it a complete allegory,
whose images, even in the minutest particulars,
they strive to trace back to reality, while others
seek only to unravel the prominent ideas of the
myths from their poetic dress, beUeving it in vain
to attempt to trace the images through all the mazes
of fantasy.
As to the first theory, we find a certain funda-

rNTEEPEETATION OF THE ASA DOCTRINE, 107
mental idea pervading all the known religious
systems belonging to the people of the Iranic
race, which points towards a common origin
for them. The Asa doctrine of the origin of the
gods and the world, of the strife between Good and
EvU, of the destruction and regeneration of the
world and the gods, if we do not too closely foUow
the figures by which it is expressed, has an unmis
takable similarity to the ancient Indian and Median
myths concerning the same subject, — a similarity
which we cannot well explain satisfactorily except
by their origin in a common source. We may
therefore assume that the Germanic race, when it
separated fi-om kindred races as an independent
whole, had already conceived — although indistinct
ly — those ideas which it afterward expressed and
farther developed in accordance with its peculiar
character, and connected with a mythology built
upon its own notions of the world, which gradually
obscured the monotheistic ideas — at least with the
mass — and set them in the background for poly
theism. The Asa doctrine, in its pecuUarity, seems
thus to have sprung up with the Germanic race
from certain fundamental religious ideas common to
the whole Iranic famUy,
. Conceming the second theory it may be said that
the historical interpretation of the Asa doctrine is
very ancient. The assumption of a historical Odin
and historical JEsir, of an earthly Asgard on the
plains of the Tanais, &c,, had doubtless its first
basis in the efforts of the Northmen and the Ice
landers to impart to the Asa doctrine — which was

108 RELIGION OF THE NORTHMEN.
SO important to their Skaldic minstrelsy — such a
turn that, without offense to Christianity, it might
be kept in remembrance and made use of by the
Skalds. Snorri Sturlason's influence opened the
way for this interpretation among the historians
of the eighteenth century, who did not, however,
content themselves with one historical Odin, but
assumed three or four successive ones, and consider
ed the JEsir sometimes as a tribe of people, some
times as an order of priesthood, who wandered into
the North from the banks of the Tanai's. A stricter
criticism of the sources of our ancient history has,
in latter^ times, revealed these errors and thereby
given a death-blow to the purely historical interpre
tation of the Asa doctrine. In its stead, the physi
cal interpretation of the Asa myths has become the
prevailing one, and it seems indeed to present
itself to every unprejudiced mind. Even the
mythic names point distinctly in this direction.
The Asa doctrine expresses the conception which a
powerful and imaginative, though uncultivated
people formed of divinity through its diversified
activity in Nature, — its conception of the super-
sensual in a bodily and human form.
Finally, as to the third theory.: it seems to lie in
the character of a greater part of the Asa myths,
that they are not allegories representing ideas clear
to the mind which first set them forth, and were
clothed in a dress perceptible to the senses merely
to be made intelligible to the mass ; — consequently
we cannot pursue the figure to the utmost in order
to seek in it a real significance. The figure may

INTERPRETATION OF THE ASA DOCTRINE. 109
here in most cases be assumed as co-existent
with the idea itself, and to be almost as real as
it. It thus went on continually producing of
itself new figure's, often bearing no relation to
the original idea, and to which we may apply
our skill in vain, in the attempt to find a deeper
meaning. On these views of the Asa Faith in general, are
based the following interpretations of its most
prominent myths.

110 EELIGION OF TllE NORTHMEN.

CHAPTEE YHI.

OF THE THEORY OF CEEATION.
The Asa doctrine supposes two primitive worlds ;
the Fire World- — Muspell or Muspelheim* — ^in the
south, which in the Eddas signifies above, and the
dark. Mist- World — Niflheimf — ^in the north, or be
low. In the former sits enthroned the Fire-Being
Surtur ;:]: in the deepest eibjss of the latter, in Hver-
gelmir§— the Ancient Cauldron, dwells the Dragon
Nibhoggl' — the Gloomy H&wer or Gnawer — two
primitive beings, each in his nature corresponding
to the world in which he rules ; the former light and
* Probably derived from mfigr, a crowd; and spell, cognate
with spilla, to destroy ; whence it may signify the Destruction of
the Multitude; in reference to the agency in destroying the human
world. Grimm points out the name in the Old-Oerman under the
forms muspilli, mudspelli, denoting a general conflagration, which
shows that the Germanic race had in the main points the same
views as the Norrjena.
f Mfl, oogn. with the Oerm. KTebel, Lat. nebula ; hence, the
Nebulous Home.
X For Svertir, from sverta, to blacken, from his fire-like, scorch
ing nature. According to Grimm, Surtr is cogn. with svartr;
Sioed. svart; Dan. sort; Ooth. svarts: Oerm. schwarz; Mngl.
swart, swarthy.
§ Hver, a cauldron ; also, a hot spring. Grimm derives gelmir
from galla, to resound ; cogn. with A.-8. giellan ; Engl. yell.
II From hoggva, to hew; and ni5, obscurity, or niC, malignity.

THEORY OF CEEATION. Ill
Ufe-giving, the latter dark and deadly. From the
Mist- World's dripping coolness (Elivagar,* Venom
streams. Hail streams), rise up frost-vapors, ^n the
vast empty space lying between the two worlds, in
Ginunga-gap,f the Yawning Abyss, these vapors
meet the sparks of the FUe- World. The dead, cold
matter is quickened by the power of Fire, and the
huge, shapeless Jotunij; 1rmir§ — ^the Roaring, Foam
ing — ^comes forth, the first, chaotic World-mass.
This Uving mass produces of himself many similar,
frost-cold, stone-like, shapeless beings, the Hrioi-
thursarf and BergrisarT — Frost giants and Moun
tain giants. In all these forms EvU is still predomi
nant. All are more nearly allied to the world of
Cold and Darkness. It is only the lower, th.Q physi
cal world-life which moves in them.
But a better being, although of animal nature —
the Cow Aubhumla** — came into existence with the
first Frost-Jotun, as his nurse. This power, which
* M, a shower, hail shower; vdgr, a stream.
f Gin, a yawning, an abyss ; gina, to gape.
\ Jotunn, iotunn, a giant, cogn. with eta ; A.-B. etan, to eat ;
corresponding Old-Germanic terms : A.-S. ^oten ; L. Oerm. etan ;
H. Oerm. ezan ; Ooth. itans ; Old Engl, etin, ettin ; Scotch, ettyn,
eyttyn. § "f'm, ^mia, to roar ; ymr, a confused sound, as the clang of
metals or the rustling of trees.
II furs, perhaps cogn. with Jurr, dry, barren (Germ, diirr); the
corresponding Anglo-Saxon name was J>yrs ; II. Oerm. durs, or turs ;
Goth. Jaurs.
^ Risi, a giant ; from ris, risa, to rise, tower up.
** Or AuShumbla. Some derive it from auiSr, rich ; and hum,
moisture; othera from au5r, void, vacant (Dan. ode); and hiim,
darkness.

112 RELIGION OF THE NOETHMEN.
nourishes the chaotic World-mass, calls forth at the
same time by its refining agency — by licking the
Eime-clumps — a higher spiritual World-life, which
unfolds itself through several Unks — through Buri
the Bearing, and Burr* the Born — until it has
gained power sufficient to overcome chaotic matter
— to kill "fmir and his offspring.
This high conquering World-life is Divinity itself,
which now goes forth as creative power in a three
fold form — as Spirit, Will or Power, and Holiness —
in the brothers Obinn, Yili, and Ye. The Spirit
quickens, the Will arranges, and Holiness banishes
the Impure and Evil.f It is, however, only in the
creation of the world that these three beings are
represented as cooperating. YiU and Ye are not
mentioned again ; they are blended together again
in the all-embracing World-spirit — ^in Odin, He is
the Essence of the World, the Almighty As ; he
alone is Al-father, from whom all the other supe
rior, world-directing beings, the JEsir, are de
scended.:!: * Buri, burr, bor, derived from bera, to bear, bring forth ; cogn.
with A.-S. beran: whence also the Danish Barn and Scottish
bairn, a child.
f CSiun; .4.-S. Voden; L. (rsrm. W&dan ; H. (?enn. Wuotan ;
Ooth. Vodans ; Fris. W^da. The word is cogn. with ve6, 65, vaOa,
to wade, go through, and with (36r, mind, understanding ; hence de
notes Spirit, the All-pervading (^Deut. Mythol.). Viii signifies "Will ;
Ve, holiness.
X As, phir. jEsir; fem. Asynja, pi. Asynjur. The correspond
ing Germanic names are: A,-S, 6s.pl. es; Ooth. ans. pi. anseis;
cogn. with the Celtic "Es, Esus; Old Etruscan, Ms, Ais, .iEsar;
Pers. Ized. Grimm remarks that a cognate expression was in all

THEORY OF CEEATION, 113
By the creation the Elements are separated —
iTnur's body is parceled out — and organic Ufe begins.
But'the chaotic powers, though conquered, are not
destroyed, — a Jotun escapes, and from him come
forth new Jotun races. Disturbing and deadly in
fluences are perceptible everywhere in Nature,
They are the manifestations of the hostile disposi
tion of the Jotuns toward the .iEsir, and of their
struggles to destroy the work of the latter. The
Jotuns have been forced to fly to the outermost
deserts around the surface of the earth — to ^tgarb,
the Outer Wa/rd or inclosure — and here they have
their proper home — Jotunheim; but they manage
also to sneak in within the barrier which the ..iEsir
made as a defense for the earth, and they get into
Mibgarb.* They dwell here in the rugged moun
tains, in the ice-clad JokuUs, and in the barren des
erts, everywhere where any unfruitfulness prevails.
Their agency is perceptible in the devastating
storms, caused by the wing-strokes of the Jotun-
eagle in the North,f it is felt in winter's cold, in
the Old-Germanic Languages (Deut. M-yth. p. 22). It is probably
cogn. with vesa, au older form of vera, to be, and originally signi
fied Being, as a distinotive appellation of the Gods.
* MiSgarSr, the Middle-Ward ; corresponds with Goth, midjun-
gards; Old Oerm. mittilgart; A.-B. middangeard, middeweard.
The Norse mi5r is cogn. with the Goth, midums, midia; Germ.
mitte, mittel; A.-B. midd, midlen; Engl, middle, middling, mean;
Sansk. madhyam, medhi ; Zend meia9; I^rs. mijan ; Or. jtipos,
&a. Gar, gard, garSr, and cognate woi;'ds in the Indo-European
languages, signified an inclosure, fence ; hence the English words :
girth, to gird, garden, guard, ward, yard, court, &c.
f This Storm-eagle's name Hrsesvelgr, signifies: the Swallower
of the Dead ; from hrse ; A.-B. trajow ; a corpse ; and svelgja ;
Dan. svajlge; A.-S. swelgan;to swallow,, gorge,

114 EELIGION OF THE NORTHMEN,
snow and ice, in all the powers of Natm-e which are
unfriendly to fruitfulness and life.
The living world was also the work of the -iEsir,
The Earth, lying as a round disc in the middle
point, was under their special protection. They
sometimes descend thither from their celestial
abodes, and then the rainbow — ^Bifrost,* the Tremu
lous Way — ^forms their bridge.
The representation of Night as the mother of Day
corresponds with the rest of the theory of the origin
of the world. Darkness is the primeval state in
which "fmir and his progeny moved. Night be
longed therefore to the Jotuns, Day flrst comes forth
with the light .iEsir, as a son of the Jotun-born
Night and the J^]sir-son DeUing, the Dawn.^
The bright heavenly bodies were sparks of Mus
pell, set by the JEsir in the vault of heaven to mea
sure time. These also are hated by the chaotic
powers. The Sun and Moon never have rest in
their course by reason of the pursuing Jotun-wolves,
who try to swallow them.
Within the Earth there were powers moving
which were fragments of the chaotic life — Dwarves:]:
swarmed forth as maggots in "fmir's flesh.
The -iEsir improved them — ^gave them the form
and understanding of men — ^but bound them to the
caverns of the dark Earth, where they are busied
* Formed from bifa (Dan. brove), to tremble ; and rost, anciently
a rest, a measure of distance on a road, and then, a road itself.
f Dellingr, for deglingr, diminutive of dagr, day.
X Dvergr, pi. dvergar ; A.-B. dveorg ; Old Oerm. tuerc ; Ooth.
dvairgs (Deut. Mythol,).

THEORY OF CREATION. 115
with metals and work them. They were imagined
to be dark as their home, and were therefore called
Svartalfar — Dark Elves- — and their dwellings in the
earth, Svartalfaheimr,
The Eddas make no mention of the creation of
animals, which, however, the Asa doctrine con
nected immediately with that of plants, Man is
the last and most perfect work of the creative
power. In the creation of man, as well as of the
world, the Divine power appears in a threefold
form. The three JEsir, Odin, Hsenir, and Loburr,
create the flrst human pair out of two Ash trees,
whence the names Ask and Embla,* and each one
imparts to them a gift corresponding to his own
nature. Odin gives them spirit (ond), the spiritual
Ufe ; he is himself the Spirit of the World, of which
man's is a reflection. Hsenir, Light, gives under
standing (6br), the light of the soul. Loburr, Fi/re,\
gives them the Avarm blood and the blushing color,
together with the burning keenness of the senses.
The .iEsir gave man, their favorite creation, a dwell
ing place in Mid-Earth (in Mibgarb), which was
*Askr; Dan. Ask; Oerm. Esche; A.-S. .iEsc; an ash tree
Embla may have denoted another species of Ash, which the pea
sants still regard as a female tree. Grimm says embla, emla, sig
nifies a busy woman, from amr, ambr, ami, ambl, assiduous labor.
The words possibly bear the same relation to each other as Meshia
and Meshiane, the ancient Persian names for the first man and
woman, who were also formed from trees.
f L65urr is cogn. with the Oerm. lodern, and denotes the blazing
fire. This is without doubt the same being who is elsewhere
called Loki or Loptr. »

116 RELIGION OF THE NORTHMEN,
secured against the Jotuns, Hence it was also
caUed Mannheim, man's home or world.
Herewith is the Creation ended. The Uving
world stands perfect, protected by the bland JEsir,
with whom it came into life ; threatened and at
tacked by the cold, dark Jotuns, who endeavor to
regain their ancient dominion. The conflict be
tween Good and Evil has grown up with the World-
life itself, and ends only in its destruction.

OF YQGDEASILL, 117

CHAPTEE IX,
OF YGGDEASILL,
All living Nature is represented in the figure of
the Ash Tggdrasill, The name is uncertain, but
seems to be best explained by the term Tggs, as
Odin's horse, chariot, or seat.* The Uving world
was regarded as moved and guided by the Divinity,
which had its seat therein, as the Spirit in the body.
The name in this sense fully coincides with the
spirit of the Old-Norse poetry: and the myth of
Yggdrasil! appears to be throughout a poetic alle
gory. The World-tree grows up from three roots. The
one IT^oots from Hvergelmir, the primeval source of
matter in the Abyss ; the second from Jotunheim,
from the depths of the raw material forces of the
world ; the third from the celestial abodes of the
^Esir, from the source of the spiritual World-life.
The figure agrees with the theory of creation. In
the top of the tree sits an eagle, doubtless the sym-
* Yggr, one of Odin's names, signifies : the Terrible, Fear-
inspiring, or also the Meditative ; draeill or drosuU, from draga, to
draw, to bear.
F. Magnusen also has ;^, cogn. with lir, moisture, rain ; whence
yg, ygg, was formed, hence it would signify the bearer of rain, or
the bearer of Odin. 6*

118 RELIGION OF THE NOETHMEN.
bol of Spirit or Life ; at its root in Hvergelmir lies
Nibhogg, the Dragon of Darkness and Death ; but
the squirrel Eatatosk * runs up and down the trunk
bearing malignant words between the Eagle and
the Dragon ; contending powers are active in Na
ture, and deceitful wickedness creeps in with its
slanderous tongue through human life and disturbs
its peace. "The Ash Tggdrasill," says an ancient
poem, "endures more hardships than any one
knows; the harts bite off its branches, its trunk
decays, and Nibhogg gnaws at its root." The liv
ing creation consumes Nature's nourishing power;
its productions dry up and die when their time has
come ; and what is worst of all, the element of evil
gnaws continually at its deepest root. But the
trunk of the tree is sprinkled over with the sacred,
purifying waters of the celestial fountain, and Tgg
drasill, with all its sufferings, stands forever green ;
the life of Nature is sustained and renewed by the
providence of the Celestial Powers. Here again
the main idea is the grand struggle which goes
through the World-life, the struggle between Spirit
and Matter, between Good and Evil, between Life
and Death.
Beneath that root of the World-tree, which shoots
up from the Jotun's home, there is a well, caUed,
after its watcher, Mimir's Well, in which Wisdom,
or rather Ejiowledge, lies concealed. The name
* Probably frora rata, to find the way, to come, to go ; and
taska (Oerm. Tasche), a pocket 9r pouch. The Running Pouch
may express the capacity of a tale-bearer or mischief-maker.

YQGDEASILL. 119
Mimir signifies The Knowing.* The Jotuns, being
older than the ^sir, looked deeper than they into
the darkness- of the Past, They had seen the begin
ning of the JEsir and of the World ; they foresaw
in like manner their downfall. Concerning both
these events the .^sir had to go to them for knowl-
' edge^ — an idea which is expressed in many places
in the old mythic lays, but nowhere more clearly
than in the Yoluspa, where a Yala or prophetess,
fostered among the Jotuns, is represented as rising
up from the deep, and unveiling the Past and the
Future to gods and men. It is the Wisdom of that
deep, therefore, that Mimir keeps in his Well.
Odin lUmself, the God of Heaven, must obtain it
from him ; he goes thither in the night season, when
the sun, the Eye of Heaven, has gone down behind
the borders of the earth, unto the Jotun World.
Then Odin penetrates the secrets of the Deep, and
his eye is pledged for the drink he receives from
the Well of Knowledge. But in the glory of morn
ing dawn, when the sun rises again from the Jotuns'
World, the Watcher of the Well of Knowledge
drinks from his golden horn the clear mead which
flows over Odin's pledge. Heaven and this lower
World impart their wisdom to each other mutually.f
The proper contrast to the fountain Hvergelmir
* Evidently the same word as the A.-S. meomer, skillful, know
ing ; mimerian, to keep in memory ; and cogn. with the Lat. me
mor. The special signification of the word was-doubtless '' Skilled
in the Past."
f From au indistinct and sensual understanding of this myth,
Odin was usually represented as one-eyed.

120 RELIGION OF^ THE NOETHMEN,
in the lowest depths of the abyss, is the Urbar-
fount in Heaven, with whose sacred waters the
Tree of the World is sustained. It is. guarded by
three maidens, three superior beings, whose names
are Urbur, Yerbandi, and Skuld — the Past, the
Present, and the Future* — and takes its name
from the first and highest of them. These beings
are called Nornir.\ They are the Goddesses of
Time and Fate ; the former is distinctly expressed
.by their separate names ; in the latter character no
doubt their general name was given them. Ab
Goddesses of Time they are sustainers of Tggdra
sill. Time and earthly life are considered insepara
ble, therefore the Norns are also the DUectors of
Life and the Dispensers of Fate. For mankind
they are the Goddesses of Birth, and Skuld, the
youngest, as Yalkyrja, is also a Goddess of Death.
Their messengers attend man through life ; they
are said to spin his Thread of Fate at his birth, and
* UrSr and VerSandi, substantive forms of verSa (Germ, wer
den ; A.-S. weorSan), to become. The former corresponds to the
part, past, vorSinn, or orSinn, completed ; the latter to the part.
pres. verSandi, becoming, happening. Skuld, the coming, is from
skuld, the part, past of skulu (Swed. skola; A.-8. seulon); pres.
skal (S-wed. skall; Dan. skal; A.-S. sceal; Engl, shall); past.
skyldi (/SwKii skuUe; Dan. skulde; A.-S. seeolde; Engl, should).
The name signifies also, duty, obligation (Dan. Skyld), and thus
denotes her character as Goddess of Death. The A.-B. Wyrd,
was, like Ur5r, a Fate or Destiny, from whieh is derived the later
English term weird, as "The Weird Sisters.'"
f Some trace a connection between the word jSTorn and snera
or nera, an older form of snua, to twist, to twine ; and thus find
it to express the agency of the !N"ornir, as the beings who spin the
thread of Fate.

YGGDEASILL. 121
to mark out with it the Umits of his sphere of action
in life. " They laid down laws.
They selected life
For the children of Time —
The destinies of men,''
says the Yoluspa of the three great Norns. Their
decrees (log) are inviolable Destiny (orlog), their
dispensations (skop) inevitable Necessity (naubr).
The relation between these beings and the .iEsir
is but obscurely stated in the Asa Mythology. It
appears to represent the Norns as being fostered
among the Jotuns and independent of the JEsir.
The judgment seat of the J^]sir is near the Urbar
fount; hence their decrees are passed under the
supervision of the Norns. The yEsir themselves
must bow before the laws of the Norns ; they were
also Umited by Time, — they were born and were
to die. However, the relation between Time and
Etemity, Divinity and Fate, was to the Asa wor
shipers, as to many other heathen people, only a
dark riddle which they, indeed, dared to ponder
upon, but could not solve. It formed a germ of
self-contradiction in their Mythology which might
weU call far deeper thinkers to look beyond the
perishable JEsir, and betrays, though indistinctly,
the traces of a purer religion which the people had
inherited. The Myth of TggdrasiU, taken as a whole, is one
of the subUmest in the Asa Mythology. It evinces
clear and profound thought, which has seen through
the inmost essence of the .Msir faith, and compressed
its whole doctrine into one grand image.

122 RELIGION OF THE NOETHMEN.

CHAPTEE X.
OF THE MYTHIC DIVISIONS OF THE WOELD.
Heimr in the Old-Norse signifies home, and in a
wider sense, the World as the home or abode of all
living beings. The name has thus a twofold sig
nificance: one comprehensive, embracing all things ;
and one more limited, namely, the abode of a
greater or smaller circle of beings, as the Gods,
Mankind, the Jotuns, &c. In its broader sense the
name was probably not used in heathendom, but
frequently in the more limited one. The concep
tion of a Universe was lost among the Asa worship
ers in the representation of many isolated worlds,
each one of which was considered to be the special
abode of a distinct class of beings.
From many passages in the old Eddaic poems, it
is clear that the Asa Mythology adniitted of nine
such worlds, but how they were designated or how
situated in reference to each other is less certain,
and the notions of the interpreters are much divided
in the matter. The foUowing order appears to be
the most in accordance with the ancient sources :
1. Muspellheimr, the highest Fire-World, the
realm of Surtur. In its highest regions it appears
that Gimli was thought to be situated.
2. Gobheimr, the World of the Gods, or Asgarbr,
the ^sir's Ward, the proper Heaven, which appa-

MYTHIC DIVISIONS OF THE WORLD. 123
rently forms a vault above the Earth. In the midst
of this world is IbavoUr* — the Field of Activity,
the Assembling-place of the .iEsir. Here is Odin's
lofty throne IIlibskjalf,t which towers above the
highest arch of the Heavens.
3. Yanaheimr, the World of the Vanir; the air,
or the space between Heaven and Earth filled only
with clouds.
4. Mannheimr, or Mibgarbr, the World of Man-^
kind, the round disc of the Earth, surrounded by
the great World-Ocean. The name Mibgarbr ap
pears to have been often used as more comprehen
sive, as including the arch of Heaven, or at least its
lower border, which was actually believed to form
a hedge or defense against the Jotuns.
5. Alfheimr, the World of the Light-Elve.s — the
fertile surface of the Earth and the next adjoining
region of the atmosphere.
6. Svartalfaheimr, the World of ths Dark-Elves
or Dwarves — ^the interior of the Earth-disc.
7. Jotunheimr, the World of the Jotuns — the
mountain wastes around the Earth's disc. This
world was believed to slope downward, especially
towards the north. It was occasionally placed
within the World-Ocean, but mostly, and especially
¦* From i6ja, to work ; 15, activity ; vbllr, a field.
f Evidently derived from hli6 (A.-B. hli8), a gate or port ; cogu.
-with Engl. lid. In the 0. Edda (AtlakviSa 14,), liSskjalfar seems
to mean to-wers. Grimm thinks the word may mean a turret-win
dow, or the seat at a portal or window, and that skjdlf thus corre
sponds to the A.-B. scylfe ; Engl, shelf, in the sense of bench.
HliSskjdlf was therefore supposed to be a portal or large window
in Heaven, with its adjoining seat (Dent. Mythol. p. 124).

124 RELIGION OF THE NORTHMEN.
at first, outside of it as a border inclosing it.* It
was thus believed to be separated from Mannheim
by the ocean, as it was from Gobheim by a stream
caUed Ifing,f which was never frozen over.
8. Helheimr, the World of the Dead, the lower
World, the abode for the bodies of the Dead (Halir).
Thither the way from the upper Worlds (Helvegr)
led down by the North through Jotunheim over the
stream GjoU — the Sounding or Shining (Northern
Lights?); the bridge over it, Gjallarbru, was roofed
with shining gold.
9. Niflheimr, the Mist-World. The first and last
of these were primeval worlds, which were thought
to be situated without the proper mundane World-
system, to which the -iEsir belonged.
We may remark, however, that the representa
tions of these different worlds and their mutual
relations, were very obscure and variable, even in
heathen times. We could expect no other of a
¦ people but little enlightened, especially at a time
when the knowledge of Nature was so very limited.
In later times the confusion was increased when the
Learned began to look for these Worlds upon the
Earth, and to rack their brains in finding out proper
regions to refer them \o.\
* Compare the L. Edda: Gylfaginning 51, with the 0. Edda:
HymiskviSa. \ The word if or ef, ordinarily signifies doubt, but the original
meaning appears to have been fiuotuation, unrest.
:j: Magnusen's ideas of these worlds are set forth in his "Edda-
lajre," page \1% etseq. ; Petersen's, in "Danmarks Ilistorie " IIL
pp. 122-124. The above system corresponds with the latter.

OF THE GODS. L25

CHAPTEE XI.

OF THE GODS.

The explanation of the Gods of the Asa Faith
and of the purely mythological legends, is one of
the most difficult tasks in the interpretation of its
dogmas, and here more than anywhere, it is neces
sary to guard against seeking a well-finished alle
gory. It is true the gods are mainly a conception
of the powers of Nature under certain personalities ;
but as a power of Nature could not be conceived
of except in a personification, the latter, in its most
sensual form, often became the Essential. All the
gods of the Asa mythology are clothed in human
form, and represented as thinking, acting, and even
suffering, as men ; but they are idealized in both
physical and mental power, and thought to be less
limited by TimQ and Space than earthly men ; — and
under this human form, and in a measure, human
activity, the agency of Nature was very often
wholly forgotten by the Skalds in their Mythologi
cal legends. They adhered, it is true, to the im
portant distinctive attributes in the personality of
each Divinity, but they introduced many extrava
gances of the imagination into their stories, merely
to make them the more attractive. But this was.

126 RELIGION OF THE NOETHMEN.
indeed, more frequently the case with the more, dif
fuse legends, which we cannot dwell upon* in this
brief exposition of the Asa Mythology.
There are different' grades in the ranks of the
Asa-Gods, as we find by looking over the series at
tentively, that all are not in the same degree essen
tial to build up the religious system as a whole, nor
to complete its internal connection. Some form, as
it were, indispensable main-springs to all the affairs
of the World, while others only step forth at some
one point thereof, and then more as an auxiUary
power which has been brought out and personified
by investigation, for the sake of completing a train
of ideas, than as an independent power which ,of
itself created its own personaUty. To the former
class belong Odin, Friga, Thor, Njorb, Frey, Freyja,
Baldur, Loki, and perhaps also HeimdaU and
Mgiv ; to the latter, Tyr, Hobur, YaU, Yibarr, and
all the remaining host of celestial beings, many of
whom it is evident came into existence only to iUus
trate certain attributes of the more prominent gods,
or their infiuence in certain directions, or else to
form a connecting link in some mythological legend
of importance. The latter class of gods, when the
aUegory is not complete, often presents the greatest
difficulties to the interpreter.
The Gods have various terms in the Asa My
thology : — 1. Gob (sing. Gob), the Gods — a name of
uncertain origin. 2. jEsir (sing. As ; fem. Asynia),
being-s of a peculiar character and significance ; the
term is often limited to the highest class of celestial
beings. 3. Tivar (dng. Tivor, Tivr, Tf r). Glorious

OF THE GODS. 127
Be-mgs (tir signifying glory, honor); another form
of the same name, more rarely occurring, is Diar,
from which is derived Disir (sing. Dis),* Goddesses.
4. Year (sing. Yeorr), Holy Beings ; from ve,f holi
ness. 5. Eegin, Ruling Powers, Deliberating Dei
ties. 6. Bond (plur. of band, a band), the United,
the Co-working. 7. Hopt (plur. of hapt, binding,
restraining), the Moderators. Of these the three
first-mentioned terms are of most general occur
rence. All these names for the gods generaUy de
note, so far as their derivation is known, the attri
butes which were ascribed to them. The last two
are remarkable because they express the idea of the
intimate co-working of the gods in the government
of the world.
The significance of Odin as the Soul of the World
and the God of Heaven, has been already alluded
to. He is named AU-father — Alfabir, Alfobr, — as
the being from whom the Life of Nature and the
Powers revealing themselves through it, the Gods,
were thought to come forth. He is called the
Father of Generations — Aldafabir — with especial
reference to mankind as his creation. Lastly, he is
caUed YaUabir' as the God of War, in which charac-
* Tfvar occurs often in the 0. Edda: Vaf J>riidnm. 40, 42 ; Grim
nism. 5 ; Hamarsheimt, 14, <fee. ; often also the compounds Val-
tlvar. Chosen or Glorious Gods ; Sigtivar, Victorious Gods. Diar
occurs iu no genuine Eddaic poem, for the so-called Hrafngaldr
(35iuB where it is found, is doubtless a production of later times.
f The word ve was used to express a particular god, and the
•plur. ve also denoted sacred places. It is cogn. with the Old
Germ, wih, a grove ; Old Saxon wih, a temple ; Goth, veihan ;
Oe-rm, weihen, to consecrate.

128 RELIGION OF THE NORTHMEN.
ter he was the Father of the Slain, even as the lat
ter were his elected (vah), his Chosen Sons (dskasy-
nir). It was natural for a nation whose greatest
and most glorious avocation was War, to look upon
the Supreme God of the World as preeminently
the God of War, and it is certain that this was the
character especially aflributed to Odin, at least by
the multitude. Tlie War God therefore is denoted
by a greater part of the various names which are
attributed to him (in the Grimnismal there are no
less than fifty-two) ;* although it is true that the
doctrine that Odin " never called himself by the
same name during his wanderings among the peo
ple," more nearly expresses the World-Spirit as a
Being who, by an infinite variety of modes, reveals
himself in Nature. The description of YalhaUa,-|-
as well as of the pastimes of the Einherjar — the
Chosen Heroes, is in accordance mth the attributes
of the War-God. Odin's two Wolves — Geri, the
Greedy; Freki, the Rapacious — distinguish him in
the same capacity. His Eavens, however — Huginn,
the Thinking ; Muninn, the Remembering — which
he sends out over the world, remind us at the same
time, of the highest faculties of the human soul, as
gifts of the Great Soul of the Worid. Yingolf^—
* The 0. Edda; Grimn., 46-54; the L. Edda; Gylf., 3.
f Valholl, from valr; Old Oerm, wal; A.-B. wiel: the Slain in
Battle, cognate with velja, to choose, elect; val, Dan. Valg;
Cej-m. Wahl; choice, election ; and hbll ( Co^/i. haUus; Old Germ.
halla; A.-B. heal, ha:!; Engl, hall); may mean either the Hall of
the Chosen, or the Hall of the Slain.
X Vingolf, the Abode of Friends ; vinr (Dan. Ven), a friend ;
cogn. with imna, to love, to favor; A.-S. unnan, to give, bestow;
golf (Dan. Gulv), a floor, also a hall,

OF THE GODS. 129
the Friendly HaU — the Assembling-place of the
Goddesses, stands beside YalhaUa as the abode of
Odin's Chosen Sons.
Odin's marriage relations, so far as we know of
them, have reference to the reciprocal relations of
Heaven and Earth. Jorb, the Earth* is usuaUy
called Odin's wife, but sometimes also his daughter.
The Earth is often mentioned as a divine Being, as
Fjorgyn, the Life-giving,\ or as Hlobyn, the Wa/rm-
ing ; and as the Fruit-bearing it is speciaUy personi-
fled in Friga.:]: Her abode, Fensalir, the Marshy
Halls,% denotes the deep, moist ear(h. In the rep
resentation of the ..^sir generally as the children of
Odin by the Earth or Friga, the idea is evidently
expressed that the Powers operating in the natural
World, came into being through the influence of
Heaven upon the Earth, of Spirit over Matter.
Thor is the God of Thunder. The name express
es this attribute, as |)6r is a contraction of |)6nr
or |)6nar,| and thus signifies Thunder, or the Thun-
* JorS; Mceso-Ooth. ai^a; Old Germ, erda; A.-B. eorSe; Engl.
the Earth.
f From fjor, life.
X Grimm supposes this word to be derived from fria ; Golh.
frijon; Old High Oerm. frion ; to love; cognate with the Old
Saxon fri ; A. S. freo ; woman. He traces the grammatical affini
ties of the words Friga, Freyja, Freyr, through all the Old-Ger
manic languages, and shows that the original signification is that
of. joyful, glad, imparting gladness, beauteous, lovely (Deut.
Mythol., p. 11, etc.).
§ From fen; A.-B. fen; Engl, fen; which in the Norse may
also signify the watery deep ; and salr ; Old Germ, sal ; Old Sax.
sell; A-S. sele; Z>ii?i. Sal; Oerm.^a,a.\; a Saloon, Hall, Mansion.
II Corresponding Germanic names; .d.-S. f>ur, funor, Junder;
Old S. J>unar ; Ooth, |iunrs.

130 RELIGION OF THE NOETHMEN.
dering. That he should, from this attribute, be re
garded as the strongest of the Gods, was natural.
His abode was therefore caUed the Home or Eealm
of Strength (|)rubheimr, |)rubvangr, from |)rubr,
an older form of |)r6ttr, strength, endurance) ; his
haU, however, from the Ughtnings which rend the
dark clouds, was called the Purifier of Storms
(BUskirnir, from bilr, storm, and skira, to purify,
make clear). By his driving through the clouds
with bleating goats attached to his car, is expressed
the varied sounds of thunder. His surnames and
his whole fire-like being denote the attributes of the
thunder storm, its terrifying, but beneficial in
fluences in nature. He is represented as the
Watcher in Mibgarb against the Jotuns, whose
sworn enemy he is. When Thor is absent in the
East flghting with the Trolls, Mibgarb is sorely
beset by the Jotuns ; but when he comes home and
swings his huge hammer Mjolnir,* they all take
flight in terror. Thunder belongs to Summer,
which is the enemy of Winter, and puts the cold to
flight. Thor's combat with the Jotuns was a favor
ite theme of the Skalds of Antiquity, and many of
the mythological legends of those times had their
real sources in certain local circumstances which it
is difficult to trace out. Thor's personality is al
ways well maintained in these legends; he steps
forth hot-tempered and violent, but also frank and
good-natured in the extreme. His attendants — the
* Mjolnir, probably from molva, to break in pieces ; melja, to
crush, to pound, or mala, to grind; all cogn. with the Oerm. mahlen,
to grind, and Miihle, a mill ; and prob. with Lat. malleus, a mallet.

OF THE GODS. 131
light-footed boy Thjalfi (the Diligent), and the girl
Eoskva (the Quick)*, are expressive of the speed
with which the thunder-storm flies over. His wife
Sif with golden hair, denotes the autumnal Earth,
with its fields of yellow ripening corn and fading
grass. In Norway, even to this day, the corn is
thought to be ripened by the autumnal sheet-light
nings, which are without thunder, and hence they
are called Kornmo.f
The Yanir, in the Asa Mythology, form a pecu
liar class of beings, originally the enemies of the
-iEsir, but afterward connected with them on terms
of the closest intimacy. If we turn our attention
to the gods Njorb and Frey, who are reckoned with
that race, it will be evident that they properly be
long to the Air, and denote its beneficial influence
over the life of Nature. The name Yanir, the
Vacant, Incorporeal (from vanr, empty, void), de- '
notes their aerial nature. In what manner the con
test between the ^sir and the Yanir, which was
laid aside in the World's first existence, and con
cluded by a treaty in which the JEsir gave Hagnir
as a hostage against Njorb, should be most correctly
interpreted, it is not so easy to decide. Some be
lieve the myth to express the idea that the light of
H eaven had to break through thick clouds which
originaUy enveloped the Earth in order to call forth
Fruitfulness, which thus was thought to be an effect
» fjSlfi, from Jjjdlf, assiduous labor; Roskva, from roskr, quick,
lively, active; cogn. with B-wed. and Dan. rask; Oerm. rasch;
Engl. rash.
t Or Kornmori, literally, the Corn-ripener.

132 RELIGION OF THE NOteTIlMEN.
of the united powers of Heaven and the Atmo
sphere.* Others have referred this contest between
the JEsir and the Yanir to a strife between two reli
gious parties, the Fire-worshipers and Water-wor
shipers, which was ended by a blending of both
reUgions; the Water-deities or Yanir, being re
ceived among the Fire-deities or Msir, and wor
shiped side by side with them.f It might be easier
perhaps to imagine a contest between a wandering,
warUke nation and a peaceful, agricultural, and
sea-faring one, which ended in the union of the two.
The reason why the Yanir were frequently repre
sented as wise — visir Vanir, vis regin — is unknown.
Njorb:}: is the God of the Air and the mild Wind,
and as such, the Patron of Sea-faring and Fishing.
His dwelling is by the sea in Noatun — ^the Ship-
meadow.^ His wife is the Jotun-daughter Skabi f —
the Harm-bringing — ^the Goddess of Winter-storms
* Magnusen ; Transl. O. Edda. L, p. 1 14, &a.
f Geijer; Svea-Rikes Hafder, I., pp. 354-366.
X Many derivations of the Word NjorCr are given. Magnusen's
is from nsera (Oerm. nahren) to nourish; our anther thinks it cog
nate with njorva, to bind to^^ether, as NjorS was in a manner the
bond of union between the jEsir and the Vanir. According to
Grimm it may be from norOr, north; the corresponding Ooth.
form, Nairjjus; and in other Germanic dialects, Kirdu, Wird, or
Werd; and the name and divinity identic with the Nerthus of
Tacitus, which he deems the right reading of Hertha. (Deut.
Mythol. pp. 197, 229.)
§ From M"6r, a ship, and tiJn, a meadow, a cultivated or inclosed
field— formerly, a town, as Sigtiin, the Victor's (Odin's) Town, in
Sweden. II From skaSSa (Dan. skade; Germ, schaden), to injure;, cogu.
with A.-S. ecaSian, Engl, scath.

'OF THE GODS. 133
and rough mountain winds. Her favorite abode is
Thrymheim*^ — the Home of Storms— the lofty,
storiD-raging, snow-covered mountain regions where
only the hunter on his snow-shoes finds nourishment.
The compromise between them, to dwell nine nights
in Thrymheim and three nights in Noatun, refers to
the high northern latitudes where rough weather
and wintry storms prevail during the greater part
of the year.
Nj orb's children, Frey and Freyja, are the Deities
of Fruitfulness ; the former with regard to the
Earth, the latter, to Mankind. Their names in the
Old-Norse, as well as in many of the ancient Ger
manic languages, signify Lord or Master, and Lady
or Mistress ; but it is uncertain whether this be the
original meaning, or whether it was not rather
derived from the great veneration in which these
divinities were held at an early age among the Ger
manic races. There is every reason to suppose a
direct affinity between these two names and fror,
peaceable, gentle ; fro, peace, repose ; as well as
friofr, fruitful ; friof, frio, seed ; in the former case
they would denote the gentleness which was attri
buted to these beings, in the latter they would des
ignate them as the Bestowers of Fruitfulness.f
* frymr, uproar; Jrymia, to storm.
f The Gothic name corresponding to Freyr in the sense of Lord
aud Master, is Frdoja ; Old High Germ. Fr6 ; A.-B. Frea. Corre
sponding to Freyja in the sense of Lady or Mistress is the Old
High Oerm. Frouwa, Frowa; A.-B. Freo ; Goth. Frdujo; and mod
ern Dan. Frue ; B-med. Fru ; Oerm. Frau. Comp. Deut. Mythol. pp.
190-200, 2'76-27'7. T

134 RELIGION OF THE NOETHMEN.
Frey drives with his golden-bristled Boar — the
symbol of the productiveness of the fields ; — or he^
sails in his serial ship Skibblabnir,* over the light
clouds. He dwells in Alfheim, and rules over the
Light-Elves (Ljosalfar)— the bland spirits which
hover about the fruitful earth. His love for the
Jotun maiden Gerbaf — the Embracing, Surround
ing — expresses the longing of Fruitfulness to impart
its blessings to the wintry Earth.:]: To gain the
object of his longing he gives away his good sword,
and therefore he alone is weaponless among the
warlike Msir,- — the culture of the earth is an em
ployment of peace ; it thrives only where weapons
are at rest.
Freyja's abode is the People's Fields or Habita
tions (Folkvangar) ;§ in her hall there is room for
many seats.|| The Goddess of Love journeys among
* Ski5, a thin shingle, or a sheath ; cognate with the Daii.
Skede; Germ. Seheide; A.-S. sceaO. Bla6; Dan. Blad; Oerm.
Blatt ; cogn. with Engl, blade. The word denotes the property
of the ship, that although it was so large as to hold all the jEsir
yet it was so skillfully m.ide, that when it was not wanted its leaf
like planks could be folded up like a cloth and the whole affair
carried in the pocket (see L. Edda, Gylf. 43).
¦|- GerOr signifies a girth, inclosure, from girSa, to gird, which
is cognate with garOr (see Chap. 8, Mii5gar8r). Both gerd and gard
are common terminations of female names, as Hildigard, Thorgerd
ta, X Pet. Danm. Hist. IIL, p. lYS.
§ F61k; A.-S. folo; Sw,, Dan, and Engl, folk; Germ. Volk.
A''ingr, pi. vSngar, an inclosure, field; cogn. -with Germ. Woh-
nung, a habitation.
II Sessrymnir, from sess (Dan. Ssede ; Germ. Sitze), a seat, and
r:^ma, to make room — ^literally, the Seat-roomy.

OF THE GODS. 135
mankind and embraces their numerous hosts with
.Jier divine power. She drives with cats — a symbol
of sly fondling and sensual enjoyment. Her hus
band's name, Obur, signifies Sense, Understanding,
but also wild desire. The various names bestowed
upon her when she travels among the people,
denote the various modes by which Love reveals
itself in human life. The other Goddesses named
in the Asa Mythology as Patronesses of Love and
Marriage — Sj6fn,Lofn, and Yar- — were all regarded
as messengers and attendants of Freyja.
The JEsir Baldur, Hobur, and Yali are the most
intimately connected with each other, but their sig
nificance can be best understood in connection with
the myth of Baldur's Death, under which they
shall be mentioned.
Tyr* is the God of warlike boldness, of Bravery ;
Bragi is, as the name itself implies, the God of Poe-
try.f They are both Sons of Odin, aud are in reali
ty only peculiar expressions of Odin's being. As
the God of War he awakens wild- courage, as tho
Sovereign of the Soul he is himself represented as
the Inventor of Poetry.
Iduna, the Eflicacious, perhaps originally signified
Nature's vigorous Summer-life ; to the JEsir she is
the Goddess of Etemal Touth. Her connection
* Tyr corresponds with A.-S. Tir, glory, dominion ; the Banskr.
Djaus, gen. Divas; Or. "Ltvi, gen. Aios; Mceno-Goth. Tius, gen.
Tivis ; Norse Tyr, gen. Tys ; are cognate words signifying God.
(Deut. Mythol, pp. 116, 187.)
f Bragi corresponds with A.-S. Brego, a ruler, prince ; and per
haps with A.-S. brajgen, brain. In the Norse, bragr signifies
poetry.

136 EELIGION OF THE NORTHMEN.
with Bragi refers to the poet's mission of immortal
izing great deeds.
Saga is, as the name directly impUes, the God
dess of History. Her dwelling is Sokkvabekk —
(the sinking, the deep brook) — the stream of Time
and of Events, where Odin (Spirit) visits her and is
gladdened by her instructive discourse.
Heimdall is one of the Gods whose signification is
very obscure. The name may perhaps be traced
from heimr and dallr (in the sense of dsell, agree
able, pleasing), and may denote the pleasures of the
world. The name of his abode Himinbjorg signi
fies Heaven's Mount or Heaven's Salvation. He
was probably regarded as the Deity of the Eain
bow, although the many special attributes and
names bestowed upon him can hardly be explained
by this character alone.
Not less obscure in Yibar's character. The name
seems most easily explained with " The Winner of
Yictory" (being used in the sense of Yinnar, from
vinna to overcome), and in this case refers to his
victory in the last battle of the Gods, He may
thus denote the regenerative power which was
thought to lie in the Earth, Therefore was he a son
of Odin and a Jotun woman — of Spirit and Mat
ter ; therefore was his dwelling-place Landvibi — ^the
wide earth ; therefore was he the sUent, inefficient
god during the existing state of the world. In its
downfall he first steps forth ih his strength, con
quering the powers of Darkness and Desolation, and
he afterward dwells in the rejuvenated world.
In the high northern latitudes Winter, although

OF THE GODS, 137
Nature lies in a state of torpor, is a very important
season for the activity of men, hence it is not won
derful that the heathen Northmen imagined one of
the -iEsir to preside over that season, and to favor
human operations by furnishing good roads and
facilities for traveling, and inventing means for
passing easily over the ice and snow. This Divin
ity is Ullur, whose name signifies the Wool-like or
White, His abode is "5'dalir — the Dale of cool
Dampness, Forseti signifies, according to the name, the Fore-
aeated, the Presider; He presides over Justice, and
is the God of Eighteousness, His dwelling is Glit
nir, the Shining.* He is the son of Baldur — of
spotless Innocence, When Innocence disappeared
from the earth, Eighteousness was left behind to fill
its place.
The name Yalkyrja signifies the Chooser of the
Slain,f The Yalkyrjur served Odin, and were the
Goddesses of Battle and of Death, They are beings
who realize to the senses. Odin's attributes as the
God of War,
The being who is regarded as the God of the Sea
is designated by three names : .iEgir — the Terrible
(segia, to frighten) ; Hier — ^the Shelterer (hie, A.-S.
* Glita, to shine; or glitra, cogu. with A.-S. glitenan, glitnian;
Engl, glitter, glisten. Forseti was worshiped by the Frisians, and
oalled Fosite, (Deut. Myth, pp. 210-212.)
f Valr, Old. Oerm. wal ; A.-B. wasl ; the Slain in battle ; "whence
the Dan. Valplads; Oerm. Wahlplatz; a field of battle: kyrja
from kjora, kj6sa ; A.-B. curon, ceosan ; Old. Germ, kiiren, to
choose. In the A.-S. sueh Latin words as Alecto, Bellona, were
rendered by Wajlcyrige and Waelcyrie.

138 RELIGION OF THE NOETHMEN.
hleo, Dan. Lse, Engl. ,lee) ; and G^mir — the Con
cealing (geyma, A.-S. gyman, Dan. gjemme, to con
ceal, to keep). They express the sea in its uproar,
in its mildness, and as the covering of the Deep,
The name of his wife, Ean^ — ^Eobbery, or the Bob
bing (reena, to plunder), denotes the sea as craving
its sacrifice of human life and of treasures, JEgir
and his family, it is certain, did not belong among
the jEsir, yet they were regarded, Uke them, as
mighty beings, whose friendship was sought by the
-iEsir themselves. The ancient legend that JEgir,
when visited by the JEsir, iUuminated his haU with
shining gold (l;^sigull), refers no doubt to the phos
phorescent light of the sea (marelldr, sea fire, Dan.
Morild), The Northmen imagined twelve of the MAr to be
superior, and, as it were, to form a Council of Gods ;
but which they were is nowhere said with certainty.
In the ancient poem of Grimnismal * there are
twelve celestial abodes enumerated by way of pre
eminence, and in the Later Edda,f twelve names by
which Odin was especially designated. This pref
erence shown in the Mythology for the number
twelve, has appeared to several interpreters to refer
to the divisions of the year among the heathen
Northmen, and their reckoning of the sun's course.
According to their theory, each of the twelve Mm:
was the director of his respective month ; the twelve
¦ names of Odin we're names of the months ; and
the twelve celestial abodes denoted the twelve signs
* The O. Edda : Grimn. 5-17.
-|- The L. Edda: Gylf. 3.

OB THE GODS.

139,

of the zodiac, which the sun passes through annu
aUy.* Magnusen has gone still farther, and re
ferred the fifty-two names of Odin which are enu
merated in the Grimnismal, to the fifty-two weeks
of the year, the seventy-three names of Dwarves
which occur, in the Yoluspa, to another division of
the year into seventy-three Fifths, or sections ?Tf five
days each, and finally, the thirteen names of the
Yalkyijur in the Grimnismal, to the thirteen lunar
changes of the solar year. On this he has built a
complete heathen Calendar, based upon the solar
year.f It is tolerably certain that the heathen
Northmen divided the year into twelve months, and
it is moat Ukely that the number twelve in the .iEsir

* [The following is the order of the twelve celestial abodes in
the Grimnismdl, arranged as "Solar Houses" corresponding to the
signs of the zodiac, by F. Magnusen, in his Eddaliere, Vol. Ill, p.
244:

1. ¦fdalir, the abode

of Ullr

Sagittarius

Nov.

2. Alfheimr, "

Freyr

CaprieornUs

Dee.

8. Valaskjilf,

Vali

Aquarius

Jan.

4. Sokkvabektr, "

Saga

Pisces

Feb.

5. GlaSsheimr, i
or Valholl, y

OtSinn

Aries

Mar.

6. Jirymheimr, "

SkaSi

Taurus

April.

7. Breidablik,

Baldr

Gemini

May.

8. Himinbjorg, "

Heimdallr

Cancer

June.

9. F&lkvangar, "

Freyja

Leo

July.

10. Glitnir,

Forseti

Virgo

Aug.

11. N&atiin,

NjorSr

Libra

Sept.

12. LandviSi,

ViSarr

Scorpio

Oct. 2V.]

-|- See in Magnusen's Transl. of the

0. Edda, Vol. I,

the Inter-

pretation of Grimnismcil ;

and his "Specimen Calendarii Gentilis''

at the conclusion of the

Arna-Magnsean edition of the X). Edda,

Vol. IIL

140 RELIGION OF THE NOETHMEN.
Mythology is in connection with this division ; that
they also made use of a division of time consisting
of five days (fimt) is very probable ; but that they
should have understood hOw to compute the solar
year correctly, and especially that they should have
had distinct ideas of the signs of the zodiac, as the
heatUfen Calendar set up by Magnusen supposes, is
very doubtful.

THE DOWNFALL OF THE WOELD, 141

CHAPTEE XII,
OF THE DOWNFALL OP THE WOELD,
Immediately foUowing the Creation of the World
the Asa doctrine establishes a time of peace among
Gods and Men, But it vanished from Heaven
when the ^sir allowed the Jotuns to creep into
their midst, and even formed connections with them
in order to satisfy their desires, or to employ their
powers to their own advantage ; thus they impaired
their Godlike power, and gave their enemies the
courage to begin the great battle which was to en
dure till the destruction of the World, From the
Earth, also, the time of guiltless peace disappeared
when men became acquainted with the Jotun-power
of gold, and set their minds and their dependence
upon it. Then the Gods were offended, Odin cast
his spear over the people, and strife began upon the
Earth, Such appears to be the meaning of the
somewhat obscure expressions of the Yoluspa on
this subject. Thus excessive cupidity and lust were
regarded as the cause of the degeneration of the
Godlike powers and of the mutual dissensions among
men,* The Asa doctrine represents Loki as the author
* The O. Edda : VoluspA, 25-28.

142 religion of the Northmen.
of Evil among both Gods and men. This being has
evidently a physical and a moral significance, name
ly: Fire, and Sin or Sinful desire. The name
Loki (the Enticer, Dan. Lokker ; cognate with I'okka,
Dan. lokke, to allure,, entice) refers to the latter
meaning, though its affinity to logi, flame, is unmis
takable. To the former meaning his other names
Lodurr and Loptr refer, the one designating hini in
the character of the blazing and heating earthly
fire, the other in that of the unsteady air.* Nothing
was more natural than to conceive of the' being who
ruled over the sometimes enlivening and sometimes
devouring Fire, as a mingled eharacter, hovering
between good and evil powers — between the JEsir
and the Jotuns ; and in this character is again ex
pressed his significance in a moral point of view.
He steps forth in' the ancient mythologie legends as
the wheedling seducer whose beautiful and ani
mated exterior conceals a malignant soul, and whose
smooth tongue is full of lies and slander.
There is, moreover, a distinction made in the
Later Edda between two beings of this name, viz. :
Loki and Utgarba-Loki — the Loki of the Outer-ward
* The name, it is true, comes most directly- from loka or liika,
to lock, to close, to conclude (Dan. lukke; M.-Goth. lukan; A.-B.
luean), aud it ^s remarkable that we find an Evil Spirit mentioned
in the Angla-Saxou poems by the name of Grendel, which is the
same word as grindel, a bolt, bar, or grating. Logi, flame, is cogn.
with the M.-Goth. liuhan, to shiue, and liuhath ; A.-B. leoht;
(Tr'ijrm. Licht ; Engl, light; also Z>iBi. Lue ; (?<?rm. Lohe ; smothered
flame. LtfSurr ia from the older 165, fire (Germ, lodern, to blaze).
Loptr, the Aijrial, from lopt; M.-Ooth. luftus; Oerm. and Dan.
Luft ; A.-S. lyft, the air ; whence the Engl, ioft, lofty, aloft.

THE DOWNFALL OF THE WORLD. 143
or Jotunheim. The latter is represented as a genu
ine Jotun, hideous in his whole being. It would
appear that in him .was meant to be presented phys
ical and moral Evil in all its naked loathsomeness,,
while in Loki, as he makes his appearance among
the .iEsir, it was intended" to represent the saine in
the seductive and seemingly beautiful form under
which it glides about through the world of man
kind. With the Jotun-woman Angrbobi — (the Anguish-
boding),* Loki begets the three most bitter enemies
of the JEsir, Mibgarbsorm, Fenrisulf, and Hel.f
The two former express the disturbing powers in
the Sea and the interior ofthe Earth,- whieh, though
bound for a time by the power of the JEsir, will one
day burst their chains and work together for the
destruction of the world. Hei (Death) is the dis-
tm'bing power in man's being-, which, without satie
ty, calls his bodily part to her abode, a cold, dark
world of shades, full of want and loathsomeness.
* Angr; A.-B. Angfi; vexation, grief, anguish; by5, bj65a; A.
B. beodan ; to invite, offer, command.
-j- Ormr, a serpent (A.-S. wyrm, wurm, worm). Fenrir or Fen-
ris-ulfr, from fen, u, morass, gulf; ulfr, A.-S. wulf, a wolf, hence,
the Monster of the Abyss. Hei, Death, the Goddess of Death.
Some suppose the primary signification of the word to have been
intense cold, cogn. with the Lat, gelii. Grimm derives it from
hilan, to conceal, in the sense of a subterranean cavity (A.-S. hoi,
a cavern, Engl, hole, being probably cognate). At any rate, all
thc Germanic nations when converted to Christianity applied this
name to the place where the souls of the wicked were supposed to
be punished; thns, Mceso- Gothic halja; Old Oerm. hellia, hella;
Oerm, HoUe; A.-S. helle; Engl, hell; Norse, hei viti (prop, the
punishment of death)'. £f«)«(f, helv ete; i)«n. Helvede; &a.

144 EELIGION OF THE NORTHMEN.
Baldur's death is represented in the Asa Mythol
ogy as an important event in the existence of the
Gods and the World. So long as Baldur was in the
midst of the JEsir their dominion stood unmoved,
but by his death they were made conscious of their
declining power ; in it they saw a type of their own
destiny. The whole world was fiUed with grief;
for it felt that from that time forth it was going
down toward inevitable dissolution.
The Myth of Baldur's Death has been usually
explained by the triumph of Winter's darkness over
the bright Summer-time. Baldur the Good is thus
the God of Summer, the blind Hobur becomes win
try Darkness, and Yali (the son of Odin by Eind—
the unfruitful Winter-earth) is Spring, who, in turn,
slays Winter. Loki (fire) is the only being who loses
nothing by the disappearance of summer; he is
therefore thought to be the cause of Baldur's death,
and to prevent his release from Hei.
There is a great deal, howe.ver, against this inter
pretation, and most of all, is the circumstance that
Baldur remains with Hei until the dissolution of the
World, while Summer annually returns, It may
be, indeed, that Baldur had originally a physical
signification, but the Myths concerning him, as well
as those relating to Loki, were very early regarded
from a moral point of view, and it is thus that they
are represented in the Eddas,
The. whole representation of Baldur's existence,
and of his far-shining abode, Breibablik,* where
* From breiSr, broad, wide ; and blika (A.S. bliean), to shine,

THE DOWNFALL OF THE WORLD. 145
nothing imptu-e is found, has reference to the Deity
of Innocence. The name Balldr signifies the Strong,*
and denotes spiritual Power combined with spotless
Innocence, The blind Hobur, in this connection,
denotes physical strength, with its blind earthly
endeavors. The latter, led on by Sin (Loki), unwit
tingly slays Innocence, and with Innocence dies the
desire of good and the active participation in it —
Nanna f dies of a broken heart and is burned on
the funeral pile of her husband BaHur,' The mur
der is avenged by the hastily-aroused reflection —
Hobur is slain by Yali, But Innocence has van
ished from the -world to return no more, although
all Nature mourns its loss. Only in the regenerated
World shall it again prevail.
The -iEsir succeeded in appeasing their thirst for
vengeance upon Loki, and even got him imprisoned
in the Abyss, as they had before imprisoned his
progeny; but the seeds of destruction and death
had already been sown broadcastin the world, and
they grew up vigorously. Thenceforth the Msir
foresaw the impending dissolution of the world and
of themselvesj against which they might, indeed, con
tend, but were not able to avert,
* Balldr, ballr, baldinn, brave, strong, bold; Mceso-Ooth. bal])s,
bold ; A-.S, Bealdor, Baldor (the bolder), a hero, a prince, from^
beald, bald, bbld ; bold, courageous, honorable, are terms cognate
to the name of the God. Grimm believes this a later meaning, and
that the name may be traced to the Lithuanian baltas, which sig
nifies both lohite and good,
f From nenna, to be inclined to, to like.

146 RELIGION OF THE NOETHMEN.

CHAPTEE XIII.
OF THE STATE OF BEING AFTEE DEATH.
The Asa doctrine positively asserts the Immor
tality of the Soul in connectioh with a state of Eetri-
bution beyond the grave; and it ^appears to haye
regarded man as originally created to Immortality,
and the dissolution of the body m death to have its
type in Baldur's death, and like it to be a work of
Loki's malignity.
But although the belief in the immortality of the
soul was firmly established, yet the ideas concern
ing the state of Existence after death were dark and
unsettled. The relation between Odin and Hei, be
tween Godheim and Helheim, presented a difficulty
which -they strove to solve by various modes. In
the Later Edda it is said that they who are slain in
battle go to Odin, in YalhaUa, but those who die of
sickness or old age go to Hei, in Helheim.* Ac
cording to this, in a strict sense, it should be the
kind of death alone that decided the soul's future
state-; only those who faU by weapons ascend to
the glad abodes of Heaven, while all who die of
sickness wander away to the dark world of the
* The L. Edda : Gylfaginning 20 and 34.

the STATE OF BEING AFTEE DEATH. 147
Abyss. But even in heathen times it was hardly
thus understood, except, indeed, by individuals in
whose eyes nothing was praiseworthy except war
like deeds. The Asa doctrine, taken as a compre
hensive whole, presents a different view, which
occurs, in various places in the lays and legends of
heathen times, and whieh may be regarded as really
proper to the Asa- faith.
The spirit (ond) or soul (sal) of man was a gift of
Odin ; the body, bloo~d, and external beauty were a
¦ gift of' Lodurr or Loki ; the former belonged to the
Spirit World or Heaven, the latter to the Material
World — to the Deep. They were joined together
with the earthly life ; at its close they were sepa
rated, and each returned to its-original source. The
soul, with the more refined bodily form in which it
was thought to be enveloped, went to the home of
the Gods, while the body, with the grosser material
life which was conceived to be inseparable from it;
went to the abodes of Hei to become the prey of
Loki's daughter. Man's being was thus divided
between Odin and Hei. Odin, who was also the
God of War, was thought to claim his share chiefly
from those who 'fell in battle; Hei from those who
died of siclvness. ' Deqith by arms came thus to be
considered a happy lot by the zealous followers ¦ of
the Asa-Faith, for it was^ a proof of Odin's favor.
He who fell by arms was called by Odin to himself
before Hei laid claim to her share of his being ; he
was Odin's chosen son, who, with longing, was await
ed in YalhaUa,' that in the Einherjar ranks he might
sustain the ^sir in their last battle. Therefore, the

148 EELIGION OP THE NOETHMEN.
Skald, in a song of praise to the faUen king Eirik
Blood-axe, lets Odin say to Bragi, in answer to the
question why he had bereaved Eirik the Yictorious
who was so brave : " Our lot is uncertain; the gray
wolf gazes on the hosts of the Gods," i. e. we know
not when the Fenris-wolf shaU- come, therefore we
may need the help of heroes. In the same sense
Eyvind Skaldaspillir, in his Hakonarmal, makes
the Yalkyrja say: "Now do the helping hosts of
the Gods grow stronger, when they have, by their
brave bSaids, brought Hakon to their home,"
But because the dead who were slain by arms
were thought to be called to the hosts of the Einher
jar, it was not supposed that Hei was deprived of
all share in their being ; nor yet, onthe other hand,
that the soul of every one who died a natural death
was shut out from Heaven, and forced to follow the
body down into the abodes of Hei. That it was
•virtue, on -the whole, and not bravery alone, which
was to be rewarded in another' Ufe, and that it was
wickedness and vice which were to be punished, is
distinctly shown in the ancient heathen poem Yo
luspa, where it says that in Gimli shall the righteous
hosts' (dyggvar dr6ttir) enjoy gladness forever, while
perjurers, murderers, and they who seduce men's
wives, shall wade through thick venom-streams in
Nastrond. Although the language is here used in
reference to the state of things after Eagnarokkr, it
may be assumed that they had similar ideas con
cerning the preceding middle state of the Dead.
It was certainly believed that the soul of the Yir-
tuous, even though death by arms had not released

THE, STATE OF BEING AFTER DEATH. 149
it from the body and raised it up to the ranks of the
real Einherjar, still found an abode in Heaven — in
YalhaUa, in Yingolf, or in Folkvangar. The hea
then Skald, Thjodolf of Hvin, makes King Yan-
landi go to Odin, although Hei tortured him,* and
the Asa worshiper, Egil SkaUagrimsson, doubts not
that Odin has received his drowned son in God-
heim.f The souls of noble women were also be
lieved to go to Heaven after death ; there they
found an abode with Freyja, and the spirits of maid
ens with Gefjon.- When it is said that Freyja some
times shares the slaii;! with Odin, it is meant, per
haps, that the slain, who in life had loved wives,
were united to them again with Freyja,
On the other hand it was as certainly beUeved
that blasphemy and baseness' might shut out even
the bravest from YalhaUa, Thus the Saga has the
zealous Asa worshiper, Hakon Jarl, to say of the
-bold but wicked Hrapp who had seduced his bene
factor's daughter and burned a temple: "The man
who did this shaU be banished from YalhaUa and
never come thither," :j:
The strict construction of the Asa doctrine ap
pears, therefore, to be this, that although man was
divided between Odin and Hei, yet each one's share
of his being after death was greater or less, accord
ing to the Ufe he had lived. The spirit of the Yir-
tuous and the Brave had the power to bear up to
Heaven with it after death the better part of its
* Snorri : Tnlinga Saga, 16.
-\ Egils Saga, 80,
ifNials Saga,.e*r, ,

160 RELIGION OF THE NORTHMEN,
corporeal being, and Hei obtained only the dust.
But he whose spirit by wickedness and base sensual
lust was drawn away from Heaven, became in all
his being the prey of Hei, His soul was not strong
enough to mount freely up to the celestial abodes
of the Gods, but was drawn down into the abyss by
the dust with which it had ever been clogged. No
doubt the representation of Hei as being half white
and half pale-blue had its real origin in this thought
— that to the Good, Death appeared as ,a bright
Goddess of Deliverance, and to the Wicked, as a
dark and punishing Deity,
When the Drowned were supposed to arrive .it
the haUs of Ean, the Sea-goddess filled the place of
Hei ; Ean claimed the body as her prey, the spirit
ascended to Heaven,
The belief that bondsmen after death should come
to Thor, seems to express the thought that their
spirits had not the power to mount up with freeborn
heroes to the higher celestial abodes, but were com
pelled to linger midway, as it were, among the low,
floating clouds, under the stem dominion of Thor ;
— a thought painful to the feelings of humanity, but
wholly in accordance with the views of the age and
the people.

EEGENEEATION OF THE GODS, 161

CHAPTEE XIY.
OF THE DESTETJCTION" AND EEGENEEATION OF THE GODS
AND THE WOELD.
The disappearance of the Golden Age, Baldur's
Death, and the confinement of Loki, are represented
as events long passed away : the glance toward the
Future meets at once with Eagnarokk * — the Twi
light of the Gods.
The great antagonism which pervades the World-
life shall be removed in a final struggle, in which
the contending powers mutuaUy destroy each other.
This is a fundamental idea of the Asa faith. And
that that great World-struggle was vividly im
pressed upon the spirit of the heathen Northmen, is
attested by the strong colors in which the Yala,
speaking in the Yoluspa, paints it ; and still more
is it attested by the oft-repeated assertion, that every
hero who falls on the field of battle is called by Odin
to the ranks of the Einherjar, to fight with them in
the decisive battle against the Powers of Darkness.
Eagnarokk is an outbreak of all the chaotic pow
ers, a conflict between them and the established
order of Creation, Fire, Water, Darkness and
Death work together to destroy the World. The
* Regin, Divine power, the Gods (Chap. 11), and rbkkr, dark
ness, twilight.

152 EELIGION OF THE NOETHMEN.
.iEsir and their enemies mutuaUy slay each other.
The flames of Surtur, the supreme Fire-God, com
plete the overthrow, and the last remnant of the
consumed Earth sinks into the ocean.
But as the two primeval Worlds, Muspell and
Niflheim, stand unshaken, neither is the terrestrial
worid eternally destroyed in Eagnarokk, When
the great convulsion is finished, the Earth comes
forth out of the ocean, regenerated, and purified
from Evil, as the abode of a new, a vigorous, and a
happy race of men. With the renewed Earth ap
pears a renovated race of JEsir, Yibarr and Yali,
who survive the universal conflagration, join with
their brothers Baldur and Hoburr, now set free
from the dominion of Death, arid in concord they
take possession of the mansions of their common
Father Odin, In Thor's stead step forth his sons
Mobi — the Courage-Giver, and. Magni — ih.e Strength-
Giver,* who have inherited their father's Hammer,
his all-subduing power, Bnt a God, higher than aU
the JEsir, shall then reveal himself to rule over the
World through all etemity. According to his judg
ments shall be the eternal reward and the eternal
punishment of the immortal souls of the departed ;
the Good shall be raised up to the highest realm of
light — to Gimli ;t the Wicked shall follow the
¦* M&5i, from m63r (Swed. mod; Dan. Mod; <renn. Muth), cou
rage; cogn. with ^.-S. m&d; Engl. mood. Magni, from magn,
(.4.-/S. m£cgen) strength; magna, to give strengtlT; cognate . -with
M.-Goth. mahts; Oerm. Macht; A.-B. miiht; Engl.xsa^t; also
with Lat. magnus.
f Cognate with gimr, gimsteinn, a gem, sparkling stone (Aleman-
nie gimme; A.-B. gim, gymstSn; Lat. gemma; Engl, gem), and

REGENERATION OF THE GODS. 163
Dragon of Darkness, who with Death upon his wings
flees away to the abyss, never more to arise from it.
But the doctrine of Eegeneration and the Coming
of -the Supreme God to the great Judgment, was
not so vividly present to the minds of the Asa wor
shipers as was the doctrine of Eagnarokk. What
inight be beyond the great World-conflagration was
to them a dark enigma, which few were bold enough
to fathom. Perhaps in that highest God they had
a dim' conception of that Mighty One from whom
the first spark of the" World-life proceeded, who
dwelt in the Fire-Heaven before the World and the
.iEsir came into being, and who, was to scatter over
them the fire of Devastation in Eagnarokk ; but this
presentiment was joined- with a feeling of fear, and
hence no man should dare to pronounce the name
ofthe Great Judge ofthe Universe.*
thus denoted " The Shining Abode." When Grimm assumes that
Gimli is a dative form of gimill (which. he takes to be the same
as himill, an older form of himinn, heaven), because Gimli is used
only in the AsitiYe i^Deut. Myth. p. ISS), he errs, as Gimli occurs
twice in the nominative form (Gylf. 3 and 1*7).
* The author inclines to Finn Magnusen's opinion that the High
est God whose coming the Voluspfi and HyndluljdS announce, is
Surtur ; although most authorities reject it. (See Grimm, : Deut.
Myth. pp. "784-5; Geijer: Svea-Rikes Hafder Vol. I. p. 836.

154 RELIGION OF THE NORTHMEN.

CHAPTEE XY. .
GENERAL VIEW.
In conclusion, if we take a general view of the
prominent features of the Asa doctrine, we have the
following summary df the whole :
By the reciprocal action of Heat and Cold was
the first unorganised, but powerful World-mass pro
duced, as a shapeless Jotun-form. From this mass,
through a series of developments came forth higher
Powers, which, by the power of Spirit, overcame the
rude Giant-mass and out of it created Heaven and
Earth, the actual World with its inhabitants, inclu
ding mankind.
The Gods or Msir are these ordaining powers of
Nature, clothed in personality. They direct the
world which they created ; but beside them stand
the mighty (jroddesses of Fate, the great Norns, who'
uphold the World-Structure, the all-embracing Tree
.of the World.
The World-Life is a struggle between the good
and light Gods on one side, and the offspring of
chaotic matter, the Jotuns, Nature's disturbing
powers, on the other, Tliis struggle reaches also
into man's being. The spirit wtot forth from the
Gods, the body belongs to the Jotun-world ; the two
powers contend with each other for the dominion.

GENERAL VIEW. 155
Should the Spirit gain the victory through virtue
and bravery, man ascends to Heaven after death in
order to fight in concert with the Gods against the
Powers of Evil ; but if the body triumphs, and links
the spirit to itself by weakness and low desires, he
then sinks down after death to the Jotun-world in
the Abyss, and joins in with the Evil Powers in the
combat against the Gods.
This struggle of the World-Life shall end in a
final battle, in which the contending powers mutu
ally destroy each other, and the World which the
Gods created is involved in 'their destruction. But
it shall come forth again more glorious and purified.
An Eternal God, greater than all .iEsir, shall arise
as its ruler and the austere Judge of departed souls.
Before His power shall Evil dej)art forever.
The whole is a struggle between Light and Dark
ness, Spirit and Matter, Yirtue and Yice, — a strug
gle which shall end in the triumph of Good over
Efil.

III.
INFLUENCE OF THE ASA-FAITH ON
THE POPULAR LIFE AND CUS
TOMS OF THE NORTHMEN.

CHAPTEE XYI.

MINISTERS OF RELIGION.

The belief in Superior Beings who control the
powers of Nature and the destiny of mankind, must
always create in man an effort to make these beings
propitious, and thus give rise to Divine Worship.
The more humanUke the Gods have been conceived
to be, the more sensual has their worship been ; and
it happened with the votaries of the Asa-faith as
with fb many other heathens, that sacrifices,, gifts,
vows, and ceremonies were regarded by the multi
tude to be fully as acceptable to the Gods, as an up
right life. . These sacred performances were always
more or less symboUcal, as they were intended to ex
press a;nd harmonize with the presumed essence and
attributes of the Deity invoked . They should, th,ere-

MINISTERS OF RELIGION. 157
fore, take place according to certain regulations,
but the transgression of these rules, it was believed,
might offend the Divinity, and thus produce an
effect contrary to what was desired. But it was not
always convenient for the common people to be
come thoroughly acquainted with these rules; the
more exact knowledge of them became a concern of
certain individuals better initiated in the religion,
who were to guide the rest of the people, or rather,
on their behalf to perform the sacred offices belong
ing to divine worship. Thus was established a class
of servants of the Gods, or priests, who were thought
to be nearer the Gods than other people, and in a
manner to be mediators between the two.
But the influence of the priests varied according
as the religion under which they ministered was
more or less mysterious in its character.
In many of the heathen religions of antiquity
there were but a few maxims generally known,
while the greater part of them were most carefuUy
veiled in mystery by the priests, who formed a
peculiar order, distinctly separated from the rest of
the people. In those religions the priests them
selves figured as supernatural, mysterious beings,
who were believed to hold the fate of other people
in their hands ; and the more this was the case, so
much the greater was their influence over the rude,
uncultivated masses. This kind of arrangement
shows conclusively that the mythological doctrines
were originally foreign to the people. It denote^ in
spiritual affairs what noble rank, or a strict feudal
system indicates in temporal, namely, the subjuga-
8

168 RELIGION OF Tlli; NORTHMEN.
tion of the aboriginal inhabitants of the country by
in-waifdering strangers.
There were other heathen religions in which no
such preestablished mysteriousness found a place ; the
order of priesthood was not distinctly set apart frorn
the people, and the difference between priest and
layman was in reality only the usual difference be- _
tween the more and the less enUghtened. This
relative .condition generally gives evidence of a
spiritual independence united with temporal free
dom among the whole people.
To the latter class of religions the Asa-faith un-._
questionably belonged. Every religion has its mys
teries, which, in reality, could never become univer
sally comprehensible ; and this was in some degree
the case with the one now under consideration.
But these mysteries, it is certain, were not many, and
therefore no great mysteriousness nor consequent
distinct separation of the Asa priests was recog
nized. Kings and chieftains were at the same time
priests, .of the Gods, and they uniyersally per
formed the rites of divine worship in large pop
ular assembUes, in the most public manner ; — one
proof among many that the Asa-faith was not, as
many have supposed, introduced among the North
men or forced upon them by a colony of foreign
priests long after the people had separated from
kindred races as an independent nation, but that in
its germs it was carried along with the people them
selves from former places of abode, and was after
ward freely develpped among them in their new
honie, •^ Snorri's account, in the first thirteen chapters

MINISTERS OF EELIGION, 169
of the Tnglinga Saga, of the arrival of Odin and
his foUowers in the North, cannot be regarded
otherwise than as a very erroneous interpretation of
the old Eddaic myths, but which is in accordance
with the views of his age. His account of the
twelve Diar or Drotnar, who presided both at the
sacrifices and at the judicial proceedings in the
ancient Asgard, and who afterward accompanied
Odin to the North,* doubtless rests on the same
foundation. The name Diar is evidently the same
as Tivar, which, as above-mentioned,f was an ap
pellation of the Gods, Then, even as Snorri's own
account intimates, the twelve Diar were no other
than the twelve ^sir who were speciaUy worshiped.
As a council of priests they exist only in Snorri's
interpretation of the myths, and as this term, ap
pUed to the priests of the ..iEsir, does not occur
either with the same author afterwards or in any
other reliable poems or ancient Sagas of the North
men, it becomes very doubtful whether it was used
in this sense, at all.
It is otherwise with the term Dr&tnar. The word
drottinn (plu/r. drottnar) is much used in the Old-
Norse in the sense of Lord or Master. In the earU
est ages this name was pecuUar to the highest
rulers of the people, who at the same time presided
at the courts of justice and were high-priests ; but
it gave way at an early period to konungr:]: (king),
* Snorri ; Ynglinga Saga, 2, 6.
t Chap. 11.',
X According to Snorri, twenty agea before Harald; Hdrfagri, or
about the third'century.

160 EELlGlON OF THE NOI^THltfeN.
the title of honor which has been customary since —
a change which some suppose to indicate that thence
forth the temporal dignity became of most import
ance with the rulers of the country, whereas the
spiritual dignity had the ascendency before, or that
the Warrior in them began to crowd out the Priest.*
Thus the term Drottnar appears at one time to have
been applied to the priests of the Asa-faith, al
though it was only in so far as they were also the
supreme rulers of the people ; and it went out of
use long before the time when history flrst sheds
any clear light upon the heathen state of the North
men, which was not, as is weU known, until near its
conclusion. A third name conferred upon the priests is gobar
pr hoigobar. The name gobi can be derived from
gob, God, and signifles a servant of God, a priest ;
hofgobi (hof, a temple) signifies priest or superin
tendent of a temple. The term gobi ¦^as universal
in Iceland. That island was divided into four
Fjorblingar or fourths ; in each Fjorb^ng there were
originaUy three Thingsoknar or judicial districts,
and in each of these again, three chief temples
(hofub-hof ). lie who presided over such a temple
was called Gobi, and was at the same time chieftain
and judge in the district,f and in the former char
acter he was as influential as in that of priest.
His ofiicial dignity, with the influence depending
on it, was caUed in Iceland Goborb,:}: and was en-
* Geijer: Svea-Eikes Hafder. Vol. I, 496.
f Landn4mab6k IV., 1 (fslendinga Sogur, Vol. I, 1843).
X Literally: God-word—or6, word, authority.

MINISTERS OF EELIGION. 161
tered .upon witli a solemn ceremonial in which the
future Gobi slaughtered a ram and dipped his hands
in its blood (at rjoba sik i goba bl6bi, to sprinkle
himself with good blood).* It remained as a tem
poral dignity, after the introduction of Christianity
upon the island, until it, was subjected to the kings
of Norway. That the office and the . name, Uke
most of the reUgious and judicial institutions of
Iceland, were transported thither from Norway, can
not be doubted, although the name Gobi is very
rarely mentioned in the Sagas as being in use in the
latter country. One. of ihe original settlers of Ice
land, Thorhad the Old, had been hofgobi in the
temple of Mseri in Throndheim ;f but in, general,
when those who conducted the sacred ritps of hea
thendom in Norway are mentioned, it is only said
of them that they " attended to the temples "
(varbveittu hof) ;X t^^* ^-^^7 " counseled the most
for the- sacrifices " (rebu mest fyrir blgitum);§ that
they "supported, the sacrifices" (heldu upp blo-
tum) ;|| without any name of dignity being given
them as priests. This was, no doubt, because in Nor
way the Hersir (a baron or ruler of a herab or dis
trict) was always a Gobi at the same time, but was
universally designated by the first-named title, as
the most distin^shed. But in Iceland the name
hersir was not used, wherefor,© -gobi took its places
* Ljosvetninga saga (Isi. S., Vol. H., 1830).
f Landnb. IV., 6.
X Ib. V. 8 ; Eyrb. s, 3.
§ Snorri: Saga HSkonar G6Sa., 19.
II Snor. : S. Olafs Tryggvasonar, Vs.

162 RELIGION OF THE NOETHMEN.
denoting the ruler of a herab, both in his priestly
and temporal calling. As the dignity of Hersir was
properly hereditary in Norway, so was the Goborb
in Iceland to be regarded as the possession of cer
tain families.
Although the barons in Norway were thuSj, as
Gobi, the actual priests of the Asa-faith, there were
also other secular rulers who conducted the public
worship of the Gods. Kings or Jarls often directed
the great sacrificial festivals which were atteuded
by all the inhabitants of greater or smaUer portions
of the country, and they had the chief seats at the
sacrificial banquets connected with them.* It was
believed that the zeal of the kings in the worship
of the Gods brought prosperity to the people, while
negligence in this respect on their part brought ruin
upon the whole country, caused unpropitious sea
sons and famine. For a neglect of this kind king
Olaf Tretelgiaof Yermaland had to atone with his
life ;f while on the other hand, to Hakon Jarl's
zeal in the worship of the -lEsir was attributed the
fruitfulness which, after many years of scarcity, re
turned to Norway when he became the ruler of the
country.:]: Moreover, every one could worship at
his home the Deities which he adored the most
therefore it was not unusual for the rich landsman
to have near his house a temple in which he per
formed the priestly rites for himself §
* Fri8>j&fs a, 9; Snor.: Sag. HSk. G66a, 10, 18.
t Snor. : Yngl. S., 41.
X lb.: Sag. 01. Ti-yggv., 16.
§ Olaf Tryggv. S. in Fornmanna Sogur, 145, 201 ; Droplauga
sonar S. 26.

MINISTERS OF EELIGION. 163
Women also sometimes conducted 'the sacrifice?
and performed other saOred rites belonging to the
Asa worship,* and We even find that in Iceland
they sometimes presided at the temples. Such a
priestess was called Gybia or Hofgybia.
The Gobar, or priests, had charge of the continua
tion and propagation of the religious doctrines,
which in those times took place by oral delivery
from generation to generation. It ' is probable that
they delivered the reUgious tenets pubUcly at the
solemn festivals, and most generally in poetry.
The name Thulr, a speaker, f which occurs in many
places in the poems of the Older Edda, was the ap
peUation of such a teacher, who during his dis
course was accustomed to sit upon a seat of distinc^
tion (f)ularst6U). The religious tenets themselves
are often called, in the ancient poems, riinar or
stafir. The former denotes originaUy speech, the
latter, written characters ; which latter Signifi-cation
the word runar also obtained afterwards. In
ancient times, however, both terms appear to have
been used synonymously of the doctrines which
we're orally delivered and retained in the memory.
Many of the mythologie poems of the Older Edda
are evidently didactic poems which were delivered
before the^ assembled multitude at the sacrificial fes
tivals, as well as in the instruction of the intended
ministers of religion. The continual employment in
the Skaldic minstrelsy of the myths of the Asa
mythology to form its poetic figures, proves that a
* Fri5>. S. 9 ; Kristni. S. 2.
-j- From |)ylia, to recite, speak extempore.

164 RELIGION OF THE NOETHMEN.
knowledge of its doctrines was diffused among the
people; and therefore these embelUshments, bor
rowed from the religious doctrines, could not be pre
served in poetry alone, but must have been intelU
gible to the common people for many centuries after
the downfall of the religion from which they were
borrowed.

THE iESIR AS OBJECTS OF WORSHIP. 165

CHAPTEE XYII.
THE ^Sm AS OBJECTS OF WOESHIi" AMONG THE NOETH
MEN.
All the Gods of the Asa-faith were certainly in
voked and worshiped by the heathen. Northmen, '
although only a few of them are so mentioned in
the ancient historical accounts, that we may know
clearly how their being was understood by the peo
ple, or in what character each one was especially
worshiped. Odin was specially worshiped as the God of War
— as the Dispenser of Yictory ; therefore the first
filled horn at the sacrificial festivals was consecrated
to him for victory.* It was believed that he re
joiced in the battles of men, which brought heroes
to him in YalhaUa ; and hence the blame of a hero's
fall was often laid upon him by the slayer. Thus
Dag Hognason says, in exculpating himself before
his sister Sigrun, who curses him because he has
slain her husband Helgi Hundingsbani :
» Snor. : Sag. U&k. GbSa, 16.
8*

166 RELIGION OF THE NOETHMEN.
" Mad art thou, sister !
And distracted.
That on thy brother
Thou callest do-w-n curses.
Odin alone
All misery brings.
For he bet-ween kinsmen '
The battle-runes bore."*
..Before a battle began the combatants directed
each other to YalhaUa, and the hostile host was con
signed to Odin by casting a spear over it ; a per
formance which undoubtedly had its type in the
myth of Odin, in which he is represented as awaken
ing the first battle in the world by throwing his
spear ainong the people. f Before entering upon a
march, or undertaking a warlike enterprise, they
sought, by offerings, to gain the favor of Odin. Thus,
it is related of Hakon Jarl when he had cast off
Christianity, which had been forced upon him, and,
on his joumey home to Norway from Jutland, was
driven out of his course to the coasts of East Goth
land by a storm, that he landed there and made
preparations for a great sacrifice. During the sac-
rilice two ravens came fiying along and croaked
loudly. By this appearance the Jarl thought he
saw that Odin had accepted the offering and would
grant him success in battle. He therefore burned
all his ships, and, sword in hand, cut his way with
his army through the whole of Gothland back to
Norway.:]: * The 0. Edda: HelgakviSa Hundingsbana, H, 32.
•]¦ Hervarar S. 5; Eyrb. S. 44; .Fornm. S. V. p. 250; Voluspd,
28. X Snor. : 01. Tryggv. S. 28.

THE tESIE as OBJECTS OF WORSHIP. 16T
The fallen warrior rejoiced in his dying hour that
by Odin's invitation' he should go to YalhaUa and
drink ale with the Jilsir ; as the ancient skald makes
Eagnar LobbrOk sing in the den of serpents :
" Home bid me the Disir,
Whom, from the -warrior-halls,
Odin has sent me ;
Glad shall I -with the .disir
Drink ale in the high-seat.
Loathsome are life's hours ;
Laughing shall I die."*
It is often related in the ancient, legends that
Odin would make his appearance before or during, a
battle, either to secure the victory to his favorites, or
to set a limit to their victorious career on earth and
summon thena away to himself.
Odin lent his spear to Dag Hognason that he
might slay with it the hero Helgi Hundingsbani,
whose spirit, therefore, met with the most distin
guished reception in YalhaUa. " Odin," it is stated,
" invited him to share in the rule of all things with
himself."f As an aged one-eyed man with a slouched hat
upon his head., Odin once made his appearance in
King Yolsung's hall and selected Sigmund, the
king's son, as his favorite, by presenting to him a
sword. Siginund became a victorious hero, but
when his "time was come Odin again appeared to
him in the same form, in the midst of a battle, and
held his spear before his sword. The sword broke,
¦* KrikumAl 29.
f The 0. Edda:. Helgakv. ¦Sfundingsb. II. 36, et sup.

168 RELIGION OF THE NORTHMEN.
and ¦ Sigmund was left severely wounded upon
the battle-field. His wife wished to cure him but
he declined her help ; " Odin," said he, "wishes not
that I shall swing my sword again after it is once
broken ; I have fought as long as it was his will."*
The Danish Eing Harald HUdatand was from
his childhood consecrated to Odin, and he was
afterwards throughout his whole Ufe led on by this
God to victory. But in his advanced age Odin in
volved him in a quarrel vrith his nephew, Sigurd
Eing, then with his own hand, under the semblance
of Brun, a mUitary chief, guided the chariot of the
bUnd king at the great battle of BravaUa Heath,
and finaUy, in the tujmUt of battle, slew his favor
ite with his own war-club. f
When Styrbjorn Sviakappi — i. e., Sweden's Cham
pion — attacked his uncle the Swedish king Eirik
SigrsseU, the latter applied to Odin and offered him
self up to him for the sake of victory. Odin ap
peared to him in the form of a large man with
a slouched__hat, reached him a reed and bade him
shoot it over the hosts of Styrbjorn, with the words
" Odin owns you all 1" Eirik did as he was com
manded, and the reed became a spear as it flew
through the air above the enemy. Styrbjorn and
his people were struck with bUndness and buried
beneath a moimtain slide.:]:
Sometimes, also, it was beUeved, Odin would call
his favorites to Mmgelf, when not engaged in battle.
* VolstagaS. 3, 11, 12.
f Saxo Grammaticus 1, 1-8.
X Styrb. f)4ttr, 2.

THE .aiSlE AS OBJEOTS OF WORSHIP. 169%
Yikarr, King of Horbaland, it seems, was consecrated
or given to Odin from his birth.* He became a
mighty and victorious king, but was slain atlast by
his foster-brother Starkab, at the instigation of Odin.
It happened • that Yik-arr . and Starkab, on one of
their Sea-roving expeditions, were delayed by a
head-wind, and when the cause came to be inquired
into, they learned .that Odin required a man from
am(Jng their hosts. Lots were therefore drawn, and
the lot feU upon Yikarr. All were struck with
terror, and it was resolved to reconsider the matter
on the following day. But in the night Odin ap
peared to Starkab in the guise of his foster-brother
Hrosshars-Grani, bade him "send Yikarr to him, and
gave him a spear which seemed to be the stalk of a
reed. On the next day they held a consultation on
the sacrifice of Yikarr, and at the suggestion of
Starkab it was concluded to undertake it for the
sake of appearances. The king mounted the stump
of a tree, and Starkab laid about his neck a piece of
calf-gut, the other end of which was fastened to a
tender fir-twig. Then Starkab touched him with
the reed and saidj " Now do I give thee unto Odin 1"
But in the same instant the stump tumbled away
from under Yikarr's feet, the intestine around his
neck became a withe, the twig, which sprang up
ward with force, swung him up into the tree, and
the reed in Starkab's hand was transformed into a
spear, which pierced through the body of the king.f
According to the Sagas, when Odin revealed
*H41fsS. 1.
f Gautreks S. 1.

110 RELIGION OF THE NOETHMEN.
himself he made his appearance in the form of an
elderly, grave-lpoking, one-eyed man, usually clad
in a green, "blue, or spotted mantle, with a slouched
hft upon his head and a'spear in hand.*
Although Odin is represented in the Asa My
thology as the highest of the Msir, yet it appears
that Thor did not hold an inferior place in the
worship of the people, especiaUy among the inhabi
tants of Norway and Iceland. There is evidence of
this in the circumstance that temples dedicated tp
him alone, or in which he was the chief object of
worship, are so often mentioned in the ancient
Sagas, as well as the firm faith which not merely
individual Northmen but the people of whole
provinces of Norway are said to have placed in
him in preference to any other deity of heathendom.
There were temples dedicated to Thor on the island
of Moster near Horbaland, on Eandsey near Naum-
dal, upon Thorsnes in Iceland, at Hundsthorp in
Gudbrandsdal; he was the principal Divinity
worshiped in the chief-temple at Mseri in Inner-
Throndheim and at many other places in NorwaJ^
The people of Gudbrandsdal put their highest trust
in Thor. When; Thor Oif Mostrarskegg wished to
leave Norway, he consulted Thor in order to learn
whither he should go, and Thor directed him to Ice-
laiid.f By Thor's direction, likewise, the Northman
Kraku Hreibar selected a dweUing-place upon that
* Volsunga S. 3, 11, 13; Norna-Gests S. 6; Hdlfs S. 1; Snor.:
Olaf Tryggv. S. 71 ; 01. Tryggv. 5, in Skalh. 63 ; H6r5s S. 14.
t Eyrbyggja S. 4.

THE JESIR AS OBJECTS OF WORSHIP. ITl
island,* and so did Helgi the Meagre, who went
thither from Subr-eyjar (South Islands).f
Those who trusted more to their own strength in
battle than to the protection of Odin, worshiped
Thor as the Bestovfer of Strength, and at thesacri-
-'ficial festivals consecrated to him the first filled
horn. This was done by making the sign of the
Hammer over the horn, as is seen in the well-known
history of King Hakon Athelsteins-fostri, who during
a,sacrifijoial festival at Hlabi made the sign of the
Cross over the hom consecrated to Odin, an act
which Sigurd Jarl explained by saying that the
king did as all do who trust in their own strength ;
— ^he consecrated the horn to Thor by the sign of
the Hammer.:]: It is not improbable ihat Thor's
Hammer-sign was also employed in the marriage
ceremonies of the Northmen, as a consecration of
the union of man and wife, as well as at their fune
ral ceremonies, of which usage the type was in the
myth of Thoi% who consecrated Baldur's funeral
pile with his Hammer.§ In both cases the sign of
the Hammer was to frighten away evil Jotun-
beings, and prevent them from disturbing the
domestic peace of the married, and the repose of
the dead in the grave.
Thor was also invoked by persons about to en
gage in wrestling. When the Icelander Thoi'd, who
was .a very experienced wrestler, was going to try
* Landnb. IIL, 7.
t lb. L, 12.
X Snor. : Hdk. G&8. S. 18.
§ The L. Edda : Gylf. 40.

172 RELIGION OF THE NOETHMEN.
his strength with his countryman Gunnlaug Ormg-
tunga, he caUed upon Thor beforehand. Gunn
laug, however, tripped him and threw him upon the
groimd, but at the same time wrenched his own foot
out of joint,* But it appears that the Northmen
worshiped Thor especially to secure in him a pro
tector against Trolls and Evil Powers of a Jotun
nature, which were believed to have their abodes in
mountains and wild, desert places. According to
an ancient legend, he had delivered the inhabitants
of Norway from these Powers ; no wonder, therefore,
that he was specially worshiped in that country,f
Thor was beUeved occasionally to reveal himself
to men. In the form of a red-bearded man he
made his ^.ppearance in the camp of the Swedish
hero Styrbjorn, when the latter had invoked his aid
against his uncle Eirik the Yictorious, whom Odin
protected,:]: As a young, red-bearded man of large
stature and a beautiful countenance, strong and. sup
ple in wrestling, he revealed himself to King Olaf
Tryggvason, and related to him how in the Olden
Time, when the Northmen invoked his aid, he had
with his Hammer beaten two Troll-women who tor
mented them.§ Thor's red-beard was, doubtless, to
indicate the fiery nature of the Thunder-God,
That Njorb was an object of the zealous worship
of the Northmen may be readily inferred, as he was
believed to protect Sea-faring, in which our fore-
* Gunnlaugs Ormsttinga S. 10.
t 01 Tr. S. in Fornm. S. 213.
X Styrb. J)Sttr, 2.
§ 01, Tryggv. S. in Fornm. S. 213.

THE ^SIR AS OBJECTS OF WORSHIP. ITS
fathers busied themselves so much, and it is said of
him, in one of the Old Eddaic poems, that " he rules
over temples and places of sacrifice innumer-,
able."* Njorb and his son Frey are named in the
heathen oath-formula of the Northmen ;f they are
caUed upon, in a poem of Egil Skallagrimsson, to
banish Eirik Blood-axe and Queen Gunhilda from
Norway ;:]: they are represented by the same skald,
in his Arinbja/rnar Drapa as "Bestowers of
Eiches,'!§ and the extreniely rich are said to be
" rich as Njorb."
StiU more numerous are the traces in our ancient
Sagas of the widely-extended worship of Frey—
the God of Fruitfulness — among the Northmen, In
Throndheim there was a temple in Olaf Tryggva
son's days, in which Frey was zealously worshiped.
When the King, after he had overthrown the statue
of the God, upbraided the landsmen for their stupid
idolatry, and asked them wherein Frey had evinced
his power, they answered, " Frey often talked with
us, foretold us the future, and granted us good sea
sons and peace,"!
The Norse chieftain Ingemund Thorsteinsson,
who in .the days of Harald Hdrfagri settled at
Yatnsdal in Iceland, built near his homestead a
temple which appears to have been speciaUy dedi
cated to Frey, who had in a manner pointed out a
* The 0. Edda : VafJriiSnismdl, 38.
f Landnmb. IV. 1.
X Egils S. 58, 365.
§ Egils S. 80.
II 01. Tr. S. Skalh. II. 49, 50.

1T4: EELIGION OF THE NORTHMEN.
dwelling-place to him; for in digging a place for
his Ondvegis-sulur, or. pillars of the High-seat,
Ingemund found in the earth an image of Frey
which he had lost in Norway.* The Icelander
Thorgrim of Sjobol was a zealous worshiper of Frey,
and held sacrificial festivals in his honor during the
winter nights. When Thorgrim. was dead and
buried, the snow never settled upon his funeral
mound ; this was believed to be a favor shown by
Frey, for " the God loved him so for the sacrifices
he had made that he would not have it to become
cold between them,"f
' In the vicinity of the estate of Thvera in Eyja-
fjorb in Iceland there was a temple to Frey, and the
place became so holy that no criminal dared to
tarry there ; " Frey did not allow of it," When the
chieftain Thorkel the Tall was expelled from Thvera
by Glum Eyjolfsson, universally known by name of
Yiga-Glum, he led a full-grown ox to Frey's temple
before he left, and said, "Long have I put all my
trust in thee. Oh Freyr! Many gifts hast thou
accepted of me and repaid them well; now do I
give this ox to thee, that thou may one day cause
Glum to leave this Thvera land even as much
against his will as I do now. Do thou give me a
sign that thou acceptest the offering!" At that
moment the ox bellowed loudly and fell dead upon
the ground, Thorkel considered this a good omen,
and moved away with a Ughter heart. Afterward,
* Vatnsd. S. 10, 15.
t Gisl. Surs. S. 15, 18.

THB ^SIR AS OBJECTS OF WORSHIP. 175
Glum, in his old days, became involved in a
dangerous suit for manslaughter, which ended with
his having to relinquish Thvera to the murdered
man's son. On the night before he rode to the
Assembly at which the case was to be decided, he
dreamed that he saw Frey sitting on the banks of
the stream ; his own departed friends were beseech
ing the God that Glum might not be driven away
from Thvera, but Frey answered them short and
angrily, for he now remembered the ox which Thorkel
the Tall had preaented to him. After this dream
and the subsequent forced removal. Glum no longer
honored Frey so much as he had done before,*
In the temple atTJpsala in Sweden, Frey, together
with Odin and Thor, was especially worshiped ;f
and that in some provinces of Sweden the people
put their highest trust in him, and even believed
that he sometimes appeared in human form, is
attested by the story— somewhat embellished, it is
true — ofthe Northman Gunnar Helming, who gave
himself out in Sweden as Frey.:]:
The horse, it appears, was regarded as a favorite
animal of Frey. At his temple ill Throndheim it is
said there were horses belonging to him.§ It is re
lated of the Icelander Eafnkel Freysgobi that he
loved Frey above all other gods, and bestowed upon
him an equal share in all his best possessions. He
* Viga-Gl. S., 5, 9, 19, 2<;.
¦\ Adam of Bremen : de situ Danise, 233. The name Fricco
which here occurs, can hardly refer to any other god than Freyr.
X 01. Ti'. S. in Fornm. S. 173.
§ 01. Tr. S. Skalh. II 49.

176 RELIGION OF THE NOETHMEN.
had a brown horse, called Frey-faxi (Frey's horse),
which he loved so highly that he made a solemn
vow to slay the man who should ride this horse
against his wiU, a vow which he also fulfilled.* An
other Icelander, Brand, had a horse also called
Frey-faxi which he made so much of that he was
said to believe in it as in a Divinity .f
It was the same case with the swine, perhaps, as
with the horse. The Boar Gullinbursti, with which
Frey drove, has been already alluded to ; and the
ktorj of the fabulous king Heibrek, who on Yule-
eve made solemn vows upon the Atonement-Boar
(Sonar-goUtr),:]: sacred to Frey and Freyja, appears
to refer to an actual custom of heathen antiquity ;
for we find also, in one of the prose supplements to
the ancient Eddaic poem of Helgi Hjorvarbsson,
that the Sonar-goUtr is mentioned, as being led out
on Tule-eve, in order that they might, with hands
laid upon it, make solemn vows,§
The worship of Baldur we find spoken of only in
Frithj of 's Saga, which relates that in Baldur's grove, in
Sokn, there was a great temple to many gods, among
whom, however, Baldur was chiefly worshiped. So
great was the sanctity of the place, it is stated, that
not any violence whatever should be done to man
or beast, nor could there be any sexual intercourse
there, I Baldur's worship therefore bore the im-
* pafnk. Freysg. S. pp. 4, 6, 11.
t Vatnsd. S. 34.
X Hervarar S. 14.
§ " Um kveldit 8ru heitstrengingar ; var framleiddr s8narg611tr>
16g5u menu Jar 4 hendr sinar, ok strengBu menn & heit at
bragarfulli." The O. Edda: HelgakviCa HjorvarSs-sonar, 30.
II Fri5>j6fsS. 1.

*HE J;SIE AS OBJECTS O:^ WOESHXP. 177
press of the goodness and innocence of which he
was himself the emblem, ~~
Of the worship of Forseti among the Northmen,
we have, indeed, no very positive information ; but
we find that this god was zealously worshiped Ijy
the Frisians, and that he had a very holy temple on
an island which was called after him Foseteslant,
the Helgoland of the present day,*
To Bragi the heathen Northmen consecrated the
replenished hom, called Bragi's Horn (Bragarfulli),
which was emptied at the great festivals while
solemn vows were made. Bragi, the god of the
Skaldic art, was to hear the vows relating to the
great deeds, whose memory was to be delivered to
posterity through the mouth of the Skald.
Only a few traces of the worship of the Asynjur,
or Goddesses, are to be found in the ancient poems
and Sagas. Concerning a certain Otar, it is stated
in the Eddaic poem Hyndluljob, that he always put
his trust in the Asynjur. The Yalkyrja Sigrdrifa,
when she awakes from her enchanted sleep, salutes
the jEsir andAsynjur.f Borgny, a king's daughter,
caUs upon Friga and Freyja to reward Oddrun, who
had been with her during severe pangs of child
birth and had assisted at her deUvery.:]: When King
Eerer and his wife called upon the Gods for off
spring, Friga and Odin, it is stated, heard their
prayers and presented them with a son.§ Signy,
* J. Grimm : Deut. Myth. pp. 210, 212.
\ The O. Edda: SigrdrifutnJil, 4.
X lb.: Oddrtinargritr, 10.
§ Volsiinga S. 2.

178 RELIGION OF THE NORTHMEN.
the Queen of King Alfrek of Horbaland, invoked
the aid of Freyja when she was going to vie with
the king's other wife, Geirhild, in ale-brewing. It
seems that the king had to get rid of one of them
on account of their irreconcilable enmity toward
each other, so he declared that he would retain the
one who brewed the best ale. Signy, however, was
foiled by her rival, for the latter had called upon
Odin, who revealed himself to her in advance, in
the form of a certain Hott ; and as he gave her his
spittle for yest, Geirhild's ale became the best,*
Friga and Freyja, as the highest among the
Asynjur, were, without doubt, the most especially
worshiped. In a temple in Iceland their statues
are said to have been seated upon a throne opposite
those of Thor and Frey. A¥hen the Icelander
Hjalti Skeggjason, newly converted to Christianity,
wished to express his contempt for the heathen
Gods, he, in a ditty, called Freyja a bitch, and HaU-
fred Yandrsebaskald, in a verse that he made at
Olaf Tiyggvason's request, in order to display his
Christian disposition, names Freyja among the
Gods whom lio. had forsaken for Christ.f
¦* H4lfs s. 1.
i- 01. Tr. S. in Fornm. P. 217, 17o.

INFERIOR DEITIES AS OBJECTS OF WORSHIP. 179

CHAPTEE XYIII.
INFERIOR DEITIES AS OBJECTS OF WORSHIP.
Beside the -iEsir proper, there were also certain
inferior Divinities arising out of the Asa Faith,
which were honored and- adored by th& heathen
Northmen. Of this class of superior beings were
the Disir Landvsettir, and Alfar.
The name Disir (sing. Dis) properly denotes God
desses, but it is used especially of a peculiar kind
of supernatural beings, who also frequently appear
under the appellations: Hamingjur (s?!«^. Hamin-
gja), the Goddesses of Good Fortune, and Fylgjur
(sing. Fylgja), Following, Attending Spirits. They
were nearly related to the Yalkyrjur and Nornir,
especially to the latter, verbose messengers they were
strictly considered to be. They were imagined to
be feminine beings, who, mostly as protective, but
sometimes as persecuting, spirit^, attended the
single individual or ¦whole races, throughout^ this
earthly life. They revealed themselves on import
ant occasions, sometimes to the waking eye, some
times in dreams, and in the latter case they were
also called Dream-wives (Draumkonur).
When the Icelandic chieftain Thorstein Inge-

180 RELIGION OF THE NORTHMEN.
mundsson, of Hof, in Yatnsdal, was invited as a
guest of Groa, a magic-skilled woman who dwelt in
his neighborhood, he dreamed for three successive
nights before the festival, " that the woman who
had been the attendant of him and his family "
showed herself unto him and forbade him to go
thither. He obeyed, and staid at home with his
friends. But on the very day that the festival was
to have been, Groa's house was buried beneath a
mountain slide, which was called forth by her sor
cery.* The renowned and mighty Icelander, Yiga-Glum,
dreamed one night that he stood on his estate
Thvera, and saw a woman coming toward him, who
was so large that her shoulders reached the moun
tain-tops upon both sides of the valley. He inter
preted this dream to signify that his uncle, ¦ the
Norwegian hersir Yigfus, was now d-ead, and the
woman was his Good Fortune (hamingja)^ which
was higher than the mountains, and which now
took up its abode with Glum.f
When Hallfred Yandrsebaskald lay deathly sick
in his ship, a woman was seen to walk along with
it. She was of a goodly aspect and was clad in
armor; she walked over the waves as though it
had been upon firm land. Hallfred looked upon
her and saw that it was his Fylgja-kona (Guardian
Spirit), but as he had embraced Christianity, he
was anxious she should not accompany him in the
realms of death, and he said to her, " I now declare
* Vatnsd. S., 36.
t Viga-61. S., 9.

INFERIOR DEITIES AS OBJECTS OF WORSHIP. 181
myself to be separated from thee ! " " Wilt thou
accept me? " she asked of Thorvald, HalUred's bro
ther. He answered in the negative. Then said
Hallfred the Younger, a son of the skald, "I will
accept thee ! "*
It is said, however, of the hopeful Icelandic youth
Thibrandi Hallsson, that^'he was slain by the Disir of
his family. It was shortly after the introduction of
Christianity into Iceland, that Thibrandi's father
HaU, on a winter night, gave a banquet (no doubt
a sacrificial banquet in honor of the Disir) at his
estate of Hof, on Alpta-fjorb. The soothsayer Thor-
halli, who was among the guests, forbade any one
to go out at night ; for whoever did so would bring
abont some mishap. When all had gone to bed
there were three raps upon the door, but no one
heeded it, except Thibrandi, who lay nearest to the
door. He, beUeving it to be guests who had arriv
ed, sprang up with the third rap and went out with
his sword in hand. As he perceived nothing at first,
he went a little way from the door ; but now he
heard the trampling of horses' feet, and saw nine
women in black ride from the North, bearing drawn
swords, and nine women in light clothing, upon
white horses, ride across the fields from the South.
He now wished to go in ; but the women in black
came in his way and attacked him. He defended
himself bravely, but fell at last. Some time after
ward his father awoke and missed him. They
sought Thibrandi, and soon found him lying sorely
• Magnusen's Eddalsere. Vol. IV. p. 45 : (from Hallfred'a Saga).
9

182 RELIGION OF THE NORTHMEN.
wounded. He related his vision, and died in. the
morning. The wise Thorhalli explained this whole
occurrence to be a warning of a change^ of Faith.
The women had been the Disir of his family ; those
in black had favored the ancient faith, which was
now soon to be forsaken. They had wished to ob
tain a tribute from the family before they left it,
therefore had they slain Thibrandi, whom the light
Disir had sought in vain to defend. But these same
Ught Disir were to protect the race, when they
shoiUd have accepted the new faith.*
The Icelander Gisli Sursson related of himself,
that he had two Draum-konur ; the one was ever
friendly toward him, the other always foretold him
evil. When he roved about outlawed and unfor
tunate, the latter made her appearance the oftenest,
and would sprinkle him with blood ; but occasion
ally the former consoled him, and once she showed
him his place of abode, where she promised him a
happy sojourn after death.f
When a person's good fortune was on the wane,
it was ascribed to the anger or imbecility of _his
Disir ; and then it was also said that his Disir were
dead or had forsaken him. In Hdlf's Saga, in the
poetic altercation between Hdlf's champion Ut-
steinn and the Dane,^ Ulf the Eed, the former says :
" Up should -we rise.
Forth should -sve go,
And loudly make
Our shields resound
» 01. Tr. S. in. Fornm. S. 215.
t Gisli Surs. S. 22, 24, 30, 83.

INFERIOE DEITIES AS OBJECTS OF WORSHIP. 183
I trust that our Disir,
Helmet-covered,
Hither have come
To Denmark."
To which Ulf answers :
"Dead may aU
Your Disir be ;
Fortune has fallen
From Half's champions I "*
In the old Eddaic poem, Grimnismal, Odin says to
King Geirrob, just before the latter falls by his own
sword : " I know life is leaving thee,
Unpropitious are thy DIsir."-|-
In the Altamal, Glaumvor says to her husband
Gunnar, whom, on hearing the recital of his ill-bod
ing dream, she vainly tries to dissuade from the
journey in which he met with his death :
" I fear that thy Dfsii;
Have ajl forsaken thee I "X
When it occurs in the Sagas that a powerful man
gives his Good Luck (hamingja, gipta) to one whom
he sends on a dangerous errand, or to whom he in
any way wishes weU — an expression still used in
Christian times— ^the idea was conveyed originally,
that the, Disir ofthe one, in such cases, took the
other for a time or for ever under their protection.
When the Icelandic Chieftain Hoskuld, on his death
bed, divided, his property among his sons, but was
not ablei. to let his unmarried son Olaf, whom he
* HAlfs S.- 15.
t The 6, Edda: Grima, 53.
i lb.: Atl8m..26.

184 RELIGION OF THE NORTHMEN,
loved the most, share equaUy with the other sons
against their will, he bestowed upon him, besides a
few costly treasures, his own and his kinsmen's
Good Luck feipta) ; he knew very well, he added,
that it had already taken its place with Olaf.*
When the Norwegian King Olaf Haraldsson sent
his chief marshal. Bjorn into Sweden, on a difficult
errand, Bjorn's companion, the Icelander Hjalti
Skeggjason,, though a Christian, begged the king to
bestow upon them his hamingja upon their joumey ;
and the king replied that he would do so if it were
really of any importanccf
The expressions kynfylgja (family attendant) and
settarfylgjur, which sometimes occur in the Sagas in
signification of the cleverness or power which was
peculiar to some family,:]: refer to the belief in at
tendant and guardian spirits as the origin of the
predominating qualities of that family.
The belief in this kind of Disir or protecting God
desses being so universal among the heathen North
men, nothing could be more natural than that they
should endeavor by worship to gain over and
strengthen the favor of these beings. This was
doubtless the object of the so-called Disa-blot or
Disa Sacrifices, which are mentioned in many places
in the sagas, and which appear to have been held
chiefly in autumn upon Winter-night. Of the Kings
Helgi and Halfdan of Sokn, the sons of Bele, it is
stated, that they were gone to attend the Disa-bl6t in
* Laxdsela S. 26.
t Snor.: 01. Hei. S. 68.
X Volsunga S. 4; forS. HreS, S. 8.

INFERIOR DEITIES AS OBJECTS OF WORSHIP, 185
Baldur's temple, when Frithjof brought them the tri
bute from the Orkney Islands ; and as a part of the
same temple is mentioned a distinct edifice under
the name of Disarsalr — the Disa HaU,* King Adils
of TTpsala lost his life by his horse stumbling under
him, when at a Disa-blot he was riding around in the
Disir hallf Alfhild, daughter of King Alf in Alf
heim, was carried off by Starkab, as she was en
gaged in sprinkling blood upon the altar one night at
a great Disa sacrifice which he;" father held one
autumn,:]: The Norse King Eirik Blood-axe and his
Queen Gunhilda held Disa-blot at a royal palace at
Atley, in western Norway,§ and of the Norwegian
hersir Yigfus it is stated, that he held great festivals
and Disa sacrifices on Winter-night, which solem
nities all his people were to remember. ||
There are two beings which may doubtless be
reckoned with this class of Divinities, which are
often mentioned in our ancient Sagas as an object of
worship, although we do not find them named among
the actual Gods : they are the sisters Thorgerd Hor-
gabriid and Yrp, Of Thorgerd, who is the oftenest
named, it is stated that she was a daughter of King
Haulgi (the Holy), after whom Halogaland is said
to have received its name. Both the father and
daughter were worshiped by sacrifices, and Haul-
gi's funeral mound was built up of alternate layers
* Fri6>. S, 6 and 9.
t Snor. : Yngl. S. 83.
X Hervarar S. 1.
§ Egils S. 44.
1 Viga-Gl. S. 6.

186 RELIGION OF THE NOETHMEN,
of gold and silver, and of mold, and stone,* This
account can imply Uttle else than that Thorgerd was
a Divinity peculiar to the Haleygir, or rather, to the
renowned race of Hlaba-Jarls, from Halogaland
descended, and therefore was their Dis or Protect
ing Goddess, She was specially worshiped by the
most famous man of this famUy, Hakon Sigurdsson
Jarl. It is stated that during the battle with the
Jomsvikingar, he sacrificed to her his little son who
was but seven years old, in order to gain her help.
She accordingly made her appearance in a raging
hail-storm from the North, and the enemy beUeved
they saw her and her sister Trp upon the Jarl's ship
amid the storm ; while from every one of their out
stretched fingers an arrow was fiying, and each ar
row became the death of a man.f In Gudbrandsdal
she and Trp, together with Thor, were worshiped
in a temple, which Hakon Jarl and the Chieftain
Gudbrand owned in feUowship;:]: In western Nor
way she had- likewise a temple fitted up in the most
magnificent style, in which this same Hakon Jarl
worshiped her with the highest veneration.§ Even
in Iceland Thorgerd was worshiped with several of
the Gods in a temple at Olvus-vatn, and was regard
ed as a guardian spirit of the Chieftain Grimkel
and his family, who came originally from Orkadal.||
* The L. Edda: Skalda, 44.
t Jomsvikinga S. (Copenh. 1824) Ch. 14 ; Fornm. S. XL p. 134 ;
01. Tr. S. in Fornm. S. 90.
X Nidls S. 89.
§ Fareyinga S. 23.
II SagaafH6r5i, 1, 18.

INFERIOR DEITIES AS OBJECTS OF WORSHIP. 187
Thorgerd's tmiversal surname Horgabrlibr, signifies
the Bride of the Altar or place of sacrifice (from
hbrgr, altar, sacrificial inclosure), and has reference
to her supposed sanctity. She was also called Haul-
gabrubr, which doubtless denotes the Bride or God
dess of the Haleygir.
The appellation Fylgja, which, as already appears,
was synonymous with Dis or Hamingja, was also
used, though mostly of a kind of beings which were
beUeved to attend on mankind under the form of
animals, or rather to go before them. These Fylgjur •
were imagined to be a lower order of spirits than
the proper Disir or Hamingjur, and there are scarce
ly any traces to be found of their having been ob
jects of worship. Every man was believed to have
his Animal-Fylgia, and we usuaUy find that the ani
mal was conceived to be in some degree correspond
ing with the character or standing of the man.
Thus cunning folks were said to have foxes for their
Fylgjur ; wild warriors, wolves ; powerful chieftains,
eagles, oxen, bears, or other strong animals.* The
men who had powerful Fylgjur were more difiicult to
be overcome and more feared than those who had
weak ones. " The brothers have strong Fylgjur
(rammar fylgjur) " said the Icelandic Sorcerer Tho
rolf concerning the sons of Ingemund of Hof, when
he foresaw that they were going to attack him.f
The veteran Yifil said likewise, when it had been
revealed to him in a dream that King Frobi was
* WAls S. 23, 61 ; Vols. S. 34 ; Orvar-Odds S. 4; f orsteiu Vi-
kingssons S. 12, &c., &e,
\ Vatnsd. S. SO.

188 RELIGION OF THE NOETHMEN.
drawing near his dweUing to search for his nephews
Hroar and Helgi, whom Yifil had concealfed from
his attempts: "Great and mighty Fylgjur have
come hither to the island ! "* The wise Icelander
Einar Eyjolfsson dreamed that he saw a noble,
strong-horned ox walking up along Eyja-fjorb until
it came to the estate Mobruvell, when it went to
every house and at last to the High-seat, where it
fell down dead. Einar said that the dream was sig
nificant, and that it was a man's Fylgja which had
made its appearance. On the same day his brother
Gudmund the Mighty came home from a journey to
his estate MobruveU, and died suddenly soon after
he had seated himself in the high-seat.f
The Fylgjur mostly appeared in dreams. In the
Eddaic poem, Atla-mal, where Kostbera relates her
evil-boding dream to her husband Hogni, she says
among other things : " Methought there fiew an
eagle through the house ; it besprinkled us all with
blood ; it seemed by its threatening mien to be the
guise of Atli.":]: When Queen Aub related to her
husband, King Eorek, that she had dreamed of a
Stag which was slain by a Dragon, Eorek said,
" Thou has seen the Fylgjur of Kings."§
The Fylgjur made their appearance more espe
cially as the forerunners of the arrival of those to
whom they belonged, and a sudden irresistible
drowsiness was thought to herald the approach of
* Saga Hr61f3 Kraka, 2.
f Lj&svetninga S. 21.
X The O. Edda: Atlam. 19.
§ Sogubr&t, 2.

DSTFERIOE DETTIES A3 OBJEOTS OF WORSHIP. 189
these beings. Thus it is stated of the TroU-man Svan,
that he yawned greatly and said, "Now come
Osvif's Fylgjur," (nu ssekja at fylgjur Osvifs).*
Sometimes, also, the Fylgjur were seen by per
sons in a waking state, but it was only by those who
were gifted with a supernatural sense. It is related
of the wise Icelander Nial, that he one night would
not Ue down to sleep, but walked out and in contin
uaUy. When asked what was the cause of this, he
answered, " Many things pass before mj eyes ; I
see many grim Fylgjur of Gunnar's enemies." In
the same night his friend Gunnar, of Hlibarendi was
attacked by his enemies.f Once, as the boy Thor
stein, who was afterwards called Ox-foot, ran in
across the floor in his foster-parents' house, and fell
down there, a wise old man named Geiter, who hap
pened to be present, began to laugh. The boy asked
him the reason, and he answered, " I saw what
thou didst not see ; a white bear's cub ran into the
room before thee, and it was over it that thou fell."
By means of this vision the Sage discovered that
Thorstein was of a more distinguished family than
was generally supposed.:]:
What the Disir were for the individual man or
« Widls S. 12.
t Kdl var fessa n6fct i J&rolfsfelli ok mStti ekki sofa, ok gekk
ymist tit eSa inn. J)6rhilldr spurSi Ni^l hvi hann majtti ekki sofa !
" Margt berr mi fyrir augu mir,'' sagSi hann. " Ek se margar fyl
gjur grimmligar tivina Gunnars, ok er nokkut undarliga."" 'Siils S. 70.
X Fornm. S. HI, p. 113, — Concerning Dfair and Fylgjur much ex
ceUent information is given in Magnusen's Eddalsere, Vol. IV, pp.
86-49. 9*

190 RELIGION OF THE NORTHMEN.
family, were the Landvsettir* believed to be for
whole provinces and their inhabitants, but in such
a manner that they were "properly bound to the
place, and not to the people, with whoin they were
connected only in-so-far as they were inhabitants
of a certain district.
It is most probable that the heathen Northmen
beUeved their country to be under the special pro
tection of some one of the -^sir, probably of Thor,
and that it is this Protecting-God which the Skald
Egil SkaUagrimsson means by the Land-.A^ whose
hostility he, in a poem, calls down upon King Eirik
Blood-axe.f The Landvasttir, however, were beings
of less importance, who protected the smaller dis
tricts of the country, and on whose favor the pros
perity of the inhabitants in a great measure de
pended. Hence is derived a provision which occu
pied the flrst place in the heathen laws of Iceland ;
that "no one shall have ships on the sea bearing
figure-heads upon the prow ; but if any one have
such, he shall remove the heads before coming in
sight of land, and not sail toward th6 land with
gaping hea,ds and out-stretching snouts, lest the Pro
tecting Spirits of the Land (Landvsettir) should be
frightened thereby." That a similar belief was pre
valent in Norway is evinced by the proceedings of
Egil SkaUagrimsson when he wished to avenge him
self on King Eirik Blood-axe and Queen Gunhilda.
He went up, it is stated, on an island near the coast
of Norway and set up a hazel-stake in a cleft of the
* Land-guardians, from land, and vrettr or vsett, a genius, spirit,
f Egils S, 68.

INFERIOR DEiriES AS OBJEOTS OF WORSHIP. 191
rocks facing the land, and fastened a horse's head
upon the stake. Thereupon he said, "Here do I
raise up a Nithing-post* and turn the disgrace
against King Eirik and Queen Gunhilda." He
tui'ned the head toward the land and continued, " I
turn this disgrace against the Protecting Deities of
the Land which inhabit this country, so that they
shall all run wildly about, vrithout ever'being able
to find their homes, until they have driven out King
Eirik and Queen Gunhilda from the country."f
The enmity of the Landvsettir was thus believed to
be the cause of King Eirik's later misfortunes, when
with his wife and children he had to fly from
Norway. On the other hand it was believed that the man
who enjoyed the favor of the Landvsettir was pecu
liarly fortunate. Thus it is related of the Icelander
Bjorn, a son of Molda-Gniip, one ofthe original
settlera, that he made a covenant with a- mountain
spirit (bergbui) which appeared to him in a dream,
and from that hour Bjorn's cattle multiplied in
credibly. It was said, moreover, that clairvoyants
(ofreskir menn — men endowed with supernatural
vision, ghost-seers) could see how all the Guardian
Deities of the land accompanied Bjorn when he
* NiSstaung, a stake set up in disgrace of some one, -which it
¦was believed had power to bring harm upon the party it -was
directed against. It is probably derived from niS, infamy, dis
grace; .4.-;S. ui8, -wickedness. The term NiSing, both among the
Northmen and Anglo-Saxons, conveyed ideas of consummate
¦wickedness, baseness, aud contemptibleness, and -was employed as
an expression of the highest degree of infamy and disgrace that
could be heaped upon any one.
t Egils S. 60.

192 RELIGION OF THE NORTHMEN.
rode to the AssembUes, and his brothers when they
went out on fishing excursions.*
The Landvsettir were believed to be of various
forms ; in some places they were great animals, in
others, again, they were giants. When the Danish
King Harald Gormsson had the intention of attack
ing Iceland, he sent put beforehand — so the account
goes — a magic-skilled man, who was to explore the
country. The sorcerer goes forth in the form of a
whale, but he finds ev6ry mountain and promontory
upon the island filled with Landvsettir bOth great
and small. When he came to Yapnafjorb and was
about to go up, there met him from the upper val
ley a great Dragon with many snakes and toads in
its train, which cast forth venom upon the sorcerer
and forced him to fly. When he came to Eyjafjorb
a bird flew against him, which was so large that
its wings reached the mountains upon each side of
the valley, and a crowd of large and small birds
foUowed it. In Breibafjorb he met a great beast
which waded out into the sea and bellowed dread
fully; many Landvsettir accompanied him also.
Finally, at Eeykjanes he saw a mountain-giant with
an iron staif in his hand ; his head towered above
the mountain-tops, and many Jotuns followed him.
IntelUgence concerning the powerful Guardian
Spirits of this island had, it seems, the effect of de
terring King Harald from the intended invasion of
Iceland.f It is quite certain that in Norw^ and Iceland
« Landnmb. IV. 12.
t Snorri : OL Tr. S. SY.

INFERIOR DEITIES AS OBJECTS OF WORSHIP. 193
the Landvsettir were most commonly considered as
belonging to the Jotun race, and as dweUing chiefly
in the mountains. To regard the Jotuns as still
being in a manner the actual owners of the country
vrith reference to inanimate nature, was fully in ac
cordance with the dogmas of the Asa-faith; and
that, although the Jotuns on the whole were recog
nized as evil beings, yet the people stiU endeavored
by a kind of worship to make friends of the few
within whose territory they lived, and whose in
fluence they imagined themselves to feel continual
ly — this was but a natural consequence of the usual
conception which heathens form of supernatural
beings in general, and of their influence on human
Ufe. The third kind of inferior Deities which the
heathen Northmen worshiped was the Elves (Alfr,
a spirit ; plur. Alfar). The beUef in them rests
wholly upon the Asa doctrine* which represents
the Elves as the inhabitants of that region of the
atmosphere nearest to the Earth's surface, and of
the interior of the Earth. The former were called
properly, Light-Elves (Ljosalfar), the latter, Dark-
Elves (Dokkalfar) ;* butthetw:o clashes were blend
ed together at an early period in the popular faith,
and it appears to have been a very general belief
that the Earthly Elves were neither black nor evil.
It was thought that in their whole ¦ nature and ap
pearance they were like men, and that they had
their dweUings in mounds. They showed them
selves occasionally and were thought to have power
* The L, Edda: Gylf. lY.

194r EELIGION OF THE NOETHMEN,
to do both good and evil to the people who Uved in
their vicinity. Therefore men sought to gain their
friendship by sacriflces (Alfablot) and by services,
whenever the Elves might demand them.
•When the Icelander Thorvard Eysteinsson had
been severely wounded in a holmgang with Kormak
Augmundsson, and his wound was very difficult to
heal, he applied to a certain Thordis Spakona for
counsel. She told hirn that at a short distance
there was a mound in which the Elves lived. He
must get the blood of the ox that Kormak, accord
ing to common ugage, had slaughtered as an offer
ing after the duel ; with this blood he must sprinkle
the mound and at the same time give the Elves a
banquet of the flesh ; then he should become
healed. Her advice was followed and Thorvard
speedily recovered his health,* Sighvat, the Skald
of Olaf the Saint, on a journey through Gothland,
stopped at a country house to find shelter for the
night, but the mistress, who was standing in the
door, forbade him, for they were just then engaged
in "Alfablot " or sacrifices to the Elves,t In Hrolf
Ganger's Saga, which in reality is a fiction of the
fourteenth century, but which in single fragments
throws light on the customs and the modes of think
ing of olden times, there are also found traces of the
Elfen-faith, Once, when Hrolf, the hero of the
Saga, has been long in pursuit of a stag which it
had been enjoined upon him to take, he comes
towards evening to a clearing in the woods and there
* Kormaks S. 22.
f Snorri: 01, HcL S. 92.

rCTFEEIOE DEITIES AS OBJECTS OF WOESHTP. 195
he sees a beautiful grass-covered mound. As he
approaches it, the mound opens and an elderly
woman in a blue cloak steps out. She compassion
ates Hrolf for the vain labor he has had, but
promises to procure him the stag, which belongs to
her, if he will go with her into the mound and
assist her daughter, who has been nineteen days in
the pains of child-birth and cannot be delivered
untU she is touched by a living human being
(mennskr mabr). Hrolf followed the Elf-woman
and came into a beautiful apartment. The sick
wpman was delivered when he touched her, and he
received the stag in return, together with a gold
ring.* The Disir were often reckoned among the Elves,
and sometimes also the Landvsettir.
The Elfen-faith has been kept up until the present
time among the people of Norway and Iceland, in
the beUef in the Huldra-folk, or rather Huldu-folk
(the concealed, invisible Folk), and likewise in Den
mark in the belief in Elle-folk (the Elves or Fairies),
* Gaungu-Hr61fs S. 16.

196 EELIGXOK OF THB NOETHMEN.

CHAPTEE XIX.

IMAGES OF THE GODS.

The Northmen, like most other heathen nations,
had images of their Gods. The object of these
images was originaUy to make manifest to the
senses the attributes of the Gods, and thus secure
the devotion of the less enUghtened classes. But in
course of time, at least with the great mass, the
image became confounded with the Divinity by
whom it was thought to be animated, and thus be
came an object of that worship properly due to the
superior being, of which it was only the representa
tive. Thus arose Image- Worship among the North
men as among so many other nations, and became
a productive source of the grossest superstition.
However [rude we may consider the Plastic Art
to have been among our heathen forefathers, in
comparison with what it was among the Greeks and
Eomans, and what it now is among the enUghtened
nations of Europe, still it was sufficiently cultivated
at an early period, for the purpose of making, out of
such material as could be obtained, a likeness of the
bodily form under which they conceived of the
various Gods. These images it appears, were

IMAGES OP THB GODS, 197
usuaUy of wood, sometimes of metal, and but very
seldom of stone. They were called gob (Gods) or
skurbgob (carved Gods) ; although the latter term
may possibly be from- the Christian times, when the
eflbrt was made to cast all possible odium on the
woi'Ship of idols. No images have been preserved
which may be regarded with certainty as relics of
the Asa worship. This is to be attributed partly to
the zeal of the flrst propagators of Christianity in
destroying all idols, partly to the perishable material
of which they were mostly^ made, and partly, no
doubt, to the lack of real beauty in them, for when
the beUef in their sacredness was departed, they
could no longer inspire as mere works of ^irt. It is
therefore from the old written accounts alone, and
especially from our Sagas, that we are able to draw
any information of the precise nature of the idols of
our heathen forefathers.
Whenever these are mentioned they are described
as being in human likeness, sometimes full-sized and
sometimes smaUer, having the appearance and the
attributes corresponding to the presumed essence and
qualities of the God whom they were intended to
represent. The large statues which had their ^lace
in the temples, were often hung with drapery and
costly ornaments, and generally stood upon an ele
vation or pedestal (staUr or hjaUr), which appears at
at the same time to have served as an altar. Some
times also they had images of the Gods on the prow
of their war-ships, perhaps as a kind of figure-head,
SmaUer images were carried about their persons as
amulets.

198 EELIGION OF THE NOETHMEN.
In the ancient temple at Upsala, according to the
testimony of Adam of Bremen, there were statues
erected to Thor, Odin (Wodan), and Frey (Fricco)-
The statue of Thor had the most conspicuous place
in the middle ; the two others stood one upon each
side. Thor was represented with a sceptre (the
Hammer, no doubt) in his hand; Odin, as the God
of War, was in armor ; and Frey, in the character of
the God of Fruitfulness, was delineated as a Pria-
pus.* In general, Odin's statues are not distinctly
mentioned in the Sagas, but Thor's very often. In
the chief-temple of Mseri in Inner Throndheim,
Thor's statue had the principal place. The statue
was -large and richly adorned with gold and silver.
The God was represented sitting in a splendid car,
to which, were attached two goats, ingeniously
wrought of wood. Both the car and the bucks stood
upon wheels, and about the horns of the bucks was
slung a silver chain, by which the whole group was
drawn. It was all so well made that it awakened
the astonishment of Eing Olaf Tryggvason when he
entered the templcf
In a temple at Hundsthorp in Gudbrandsdal stood
a large, much-honored statue of Thor, It was of
wood, hoUow within, and in the Ukeness of a man.
It was adorned with gold and silver, held a hammer
in its hand, and stood upon an elevation (hjallr).
The peasants led this statue forth with great solem
nity to meet Olaf the Saint when he came into Gud
brandsdal to convert them to Christianity ; but St.
* Ad. Brem. : de situ Danise, cap. 233.
t 01. Tr. S. Skalh. IL, 24.

IMAGES OF THB GODS, 199
Olaf caused one of his men to break it in pieces,*
A wooden statue of Thor stood amofig several idols,
aU upon elevations (stallar), in a temple in Thrond
heim owned by a rich landsman, Finn,t In the
temple in Gudbrandsdal, which Hakon Jarl and
Dala-Gudbrand owned together, Thor was repre
sented upon a car and adomed with gold rings. At
the same place was also the statue of Hakon's tute
lary Goddess, Thorgerd Horgabrub, in a sitting pos
ture, as large as a fuU grown person, with afalld (a
kind of head-dress) upon her head and a gold ring
upon her arm. The statue of Trp was also there
and had likewise gold rings upon its arms,:]: In an
other temple owned by Hakon Jarl, the statue of
Thorgerd stood upon a stalVr ; it was splendidly
adorned and had a gold ring upon its arm,§ In the
temple at Baldur's-haug in Sokn, there is said to
have been many idols, among which the statue of
Baldur is expressly mentioned.! Many idols are
also mentioned as being in a temple at Olvusvatn in
Iceland.^" In another templo on the island belong
ing to a certain Bersi, sat Frey and Thor in the
High-Seat, and directly opposite them Friga and
Freyja ; these statues were arrayed in drapery and
ornaments of gold and silver,** Eirik H&onsson
* Snor. : 01. Hei. S. 118, 119; 01. Hei. S. in Fornm. S. IV., 107,
108. t 01. Tr. S. in Fornm. S. 202, 203.
X Mils. S. 89.
§ Fareyinga S. 23 ; 01. Tr. S. in Fornm. S. 184.
II FriS>. S. 9.
i HorSs S. 18.
** Droplauga Sonar S. 26.

200 EELIGION OF THE NOETHMEN,
Jarl, at the beginning of the battle of Svoldr, had
Thor's .statue on the prow of his ship, but he had it
taken down afterwards and a crucifix set up in ita
stead,* The Foster-brothers' Saga mentions a chair,
which had carved upon its arms or side-posts the
image of Thor with his Hammer,f A highly-valued
wooden statue of Frey was found, in a temple in
Throndheim, which King Olaf Tryggvason hewed in
pieces in the presence of the people,:]: Kjotvi the
Eich, King of Agbir, who fought against Harald
Harfagri, had a weight upon which the God Frey
was sculptured in silver. This treasure, which he
held in great veneration, ifeU after the battle into
the hands of King Harald, and he presented it to
his friend, the chieftain Ingemund Thorsteinsson,
who afterwards carried the image in a purse and
held it in very high esteem,§ This last-mentioned
image was probably borne as an amulet, as was
often the case, no doubt, with the gold bracteates
which are found in the burial mounds and in the
earth, having upon them the images of men and
animals, whose signification it is now impossible to
decide, and which are furnished with a clasp for
fastening to a necklace.
Images of clay or dough in human form are also
spoken of, which were privately worshiped even
after the introduction of Christianity.!
* OL Tr. S. in Fornm. S. 252, 253.
•|- FostbrseSra S. 38.
X OL Tr. S. Skalh. IL, 49, 50.
g Vatnsd. S. 9, 10.
II " Matbl6t eSa leirblot gort i mannsliki af leiri e6a af deigi."
Ane, Laws of Norw. I., p. S83.

, IMAGES OF THE GODS. 201
How great the superstition of many of the North
men was in regard to the idols, is attested by many
passages in the Sagas, although it must be confessed ,
that the superstition and blind zeal ofthe first Chris
tian teachers gave rise to divers extravagances in
these accounts. The peasants placed food every day
before a statue of Thor in Gudbrandsdal, and be
lieved that the God consumed it.* Of Thorgerd
Horgabrub's statue it is related that it made known
to Hakon Jarl the Goddess's delight in his offerings,
by bending down its arm so that he was enabled to
draw off the only gold ring which adomed it.f A
statue of Thor at-Eaubsey in Naumdal, is described
as being so strengthened (magnat) by offerings, that
it could speak with its worshiper Eaub, and accom
pany him about the island, that it could call forth
storms by blowing in its beard, and could even play
at the game of drawing hooks over a fire with King
Olaf Tryggvason. In this sport, however, it came
off a loser, fell into the fire and was destroyed.:]:
When Dala-Gudbrand saw his temple burned down
and the statues of his Gods lying out upon the ground
unharmed, he cried out, " Great power is given imto
our Gods, that they of themselves have gone out of
the fire ! " But Hakon Jarl, who was less blinded,
said, " The Gods have not done this ; some person
has burned the temple and carried out the Gods.
But" he continued, "the Gods do not avenge them-

*Snor.; OL HeL S. 118.
t Fareying. S. 23; 01. Tr. S. in Fornm. S. 184.
i 01. Tr. S. in Fornm. S. 145, 150.

202 EELIGION OF THB NOETHMEN.
selves suddenly. May the man who has done this
be driven away from YalhaUa and never come
thither ! " The outrage had been committed by
Hrapp, an Icelander, who had been for a time a
guest with Gudbrand.* It is related of the Icelander
Grimkel that he saw the statues of the Gods in his
temple preparing to move away from their seats, out
of displeasm-e at his son Horb.f Of a statue of Frey,
in Sweden, the peasants had the beUef that it had
connubial intercourse with a woman who attended
it.t Besides the proper idols there was a kind of sacred
images, which was found in heathen times in the
house of every Northman, namely, the so-caUed
Ondvegis-slilur, or Pillars of the High-Seat, some
times also called Setstokkar. These were two high
wooden posts fashioned by hewing, which stood one
upon each side of the High-Seat ofthe Master of the
house, and had the lower end set in the ground.§
These Ondvegis-slilur were looked upon as pecuUarly
sacred, it might almost be said as a kind of Household
Gods. It was a universal custom among the North
men who left their native land to settle in Iceland,
to take with them the Sacred Columns- from their
old homes, and cast them overboard when they first
* |>S t6k GuSbrandr til orSa : " MikiU mSttr er gefinn goSum
vorum, cr ]>au hafa gengit sj41f dr elldinum ! " " Eigi munu goSin
])essu valida," scgir Jarl; "maSr mun brent hafa hofit, en borit
lit goSin. En goS hefna eigi allz Jjegar. Mun s4 maSr braut
rekinu rir VaUhoUu ok }iar aUdri koma, er Jietta hefir gort"
NiSls S. 89.
¦|- HorSs S. 18.
X OL Tr. S. in Fornm. S. lYS.
§ Vatnsd. S. 16.

IMAGES OF THE GODS. 203
came in sight of Iceland ; then they would select
their place of residence on the spot where the col
umns were found drifted to land.
Thus did Ingolf, the first Northman who settled
permanently upon the island.* It is related of Bjorn
Ketilsson from Sokn, one of the fijst settlers," that
when on his arrival he found his sacred pillars drift
ed into a bay, he believed that a home was shown
him there.f Similar directions were followed by his
sister Aub in choosing her abode.:]: The settler
Thord Hrappsson had been living for ten or fifteen
years upon the eastem side of Iceland when he
learned that his sacred columns had been cast upon
the western coast of the island ; thereupon he
straightway sold his estate, in order to remove
thither.§ So also did another of the first settlers,
Lomund the Old, from Yors.|| When Eirik the Eed,
who went from Jabar to Iceland, had loaned his
Setstokkar (Posts of Honor) to another Icelander
named Thorgest, and could not get them back again,
it gave occasion for a quarrel, which cost the lives
of many of the adherents of both parties, and at last
was the cause of Eirik's banishment and settlement
in Greenland.Tf Halstein Thorolfsson, who settled in
the western part of Iceland, offered up his son, and

* Landn4mab6k I, 8.
t Laxd. S. 3.
j: Ib. 5 ; Kormaks S. 2.
§ Landnmb. L, 10.
II Ib. IV., 5.
1 Ib. IL, 14.

204 EELIGION 0? THE NOETHMEN.
gave him to Thor (perhaps devoted him to his ser
vice), in order that the God should furnish him with
sacred columns of the High-Seat ; whereupon, so the
account goes, there shot up on his ground a tree
sixty-three ells high, and two fathoms thick, from
which not only he, but the whole surrounding neigh
borhood was supplied with Ondvegis-s^ur.*
It is probable that the image of some one of the
Gods was often carved upon these^pillars, and that
this contributed something to the veneration in which
they were held. It appears, at least, that this was
the case with the sacred columns which were some
times to be found in the temples. Thus we are told
that Thor's image was carved upon one of the Ond
vegis-sulur, which had stood in a temple of Thor,
on the island Moster in Norway, and which guided
the Icelandic settler Thorolf Mostrarskegg to a place
of abode.f
* Landnmb. IL, 23.
t Eyrbyggja S. 4.

SACRED EDIFICES. 205

CHAPTEE XX.

SACEED EDIFICES.

Of the sacred buildings devoted to the worship of
the Gods, two kinds are spoken of as being jtmiversal,
namely, Horg and Hof
Horg (horgr, plur. horgar) is the oftenest named
in the ancient poems, sagas and laws,* but it is not
particularly described ; it is distinguished, however,
from Hof, which was an appellation for the pfoper
temples.f The Horgar, so far as is known, were
a kind of Stone- Altars or places of sacrifices under
the open sky and surrounded by an inclosure of
stones. They were consecrated to certain Deities ;
sometimes, perhaps, when they consisted of a single
stone, regarded as statues or representatives of the
Gods, and were besmeared with blood at the sacri
fices. Thus it is stated in the Eddaic poem Hynd-
* Landnmb. IL, 16; Orv. Odds S. 29; Older Gula- J>ing Laws,
eap. 29.
t The 0. Edda: Voluspi 1 ; Var>r. 38 ; Helgakv. Hjorv. 4.
10

206 EELIGION OF THE NOETHMEN.
luljOb, where Freyja is introduced speaking to her
favorite Ottar : " A Horg he made me
Built up of stone,
— No'w is the stone
Changed into glass —
He sprinkled it over
With the fresh blood of oxen ;
Ottar trusted ever
To the Asynjur."*
Of Alfhild, a king's daughter, it is said that she
was carried off by Starkab one night while she was
sprinkling the Horg with blood at a sacrifice to the
Disir.f We probably yet see the remains of such
Horgar in many of the stone-settings which are found
in Norway and the neighboring countries. Espe
ciaUy is it likely that the stone-circles, which consist
of large upright stones, somewhat pointed at the top
and placed at moderate intervals from each other,
belonged to this kind of sacrificial places, and per
haps the stones represented the statues of the Gods
there worshiped. The great simplicity of these
places of sacrifice, warrants the presumption that
they are a more ancient arrangement than the
actual temples.
The temples of the heathen Northmen were most
usuaUy caUed hof ; they were also caUed gobahus
(House of the Gods) or blothus (House of Sacrifice).
None of these buUdings are left standing, so far as is
knowji, not even any ruins of them, which might
* The O. Edda: Hyndlulj66 10.
t Hervarar S. 1.

SACEED EDIFICES. 207
afford us some idea of their construction ; for the
first propagators of Christianity were very careful to
have every building of the kind destroyed, or at
least transformed into a Christian church, and under
the transformation the older form was soon no longer
to be recognized. We must, therefore,' be content
with the ancient descriptions, some of which, as they
are found in our Sagas, are tolerably complete.
When the Norse Chieftain Thorolf Mostrarskegg
left Norway in order to settle in Iceland, he tore
down the temple of Thor on the Island Moster,
which he had presided over, and took with him
• most of the timber, together with the earth be
neath the platform on which Thor's statue had been
seated. When he had come to Iceland and had there,
according to Thor's directions — or rather, according
to the directions ofthe Sacred Columns upon which
Thor's image was carved* — selected his place^of
abode at Thorsnes on the southern side of Breiba-
fjord, he built on the spot a large hof of the same
timber and probably in the same form as the torn-
down temple of Moster. The door of this temple
was in the side-wall, near one end ; within the door
stood the sacred columns, and in them there were
nails which were caUed reginnaglar (nails of the
Gods), but of their meaning no information is given.
Within this house there was another, like the choir
in Christian churches, and here, in the middle of the
fioor, stood a platform (stallr), and an altar upon
which lay a ring with the ends unjoined (hringr
t
* See above, Chap. XIX,

208 RELIGION OF THE NORTHMEN.
motlauss) weighing two ounces. By this ring all
oaths were taken, and the ruler was to wear it upon
his arm at all meetings. On the platform stood the
bowl for the sacrificial blood (laut-boUi), in which
was the laut-teinn, a kind of sprinkling-rod with
which they sprinkled the laut, or blood of animals
sacrificed to the Gods. Around about the platform
within the smaller house (af husit), were placed the
statues of the Gods. Near at hand was the Doom-
ring (domhringr), within whicli. human beings were
doomed to sacrifice, and within this ring stood
Thor's Stone, upon which the victims were broken
when about to be offered up. It was believed that
traces of blood were still visible upon this stone
long after the introduction of Christianity.*
The Icelandic chieftain Thorgrim, a son of the
Northman Llelgi Bjola, was a great performer
of sacrifices. On his farm-land (tun) at Kjalarnes,
in southwestern Iceland, he raised a temple one
hundred feet long by sixty wide, in which Thor re
ceived the highest honors. It was built round in
side like a cap (with a vaulted roof), and was all
tented overhead (hung with tapestry). Thor's statue
stood in the middle, the Other Gods upon both sides.
Before Thor stood an elevated place (stallr), made
with great art, and covered on the top with iron.
Upon this burned a fire which was never extin
guished, called the sacred fire ; there lay, also,
upon it a large ring of silver which the hof-gobi
was to wear on his arm at all meetings, and by
which all were to swear. Tliere was, besides, upon
• Eyrb. S. 4, 10; Landnmb. II,, 12.

SACRED EDIFICES. 209
it a large copper bowl, into which they collected the
blood of the animals or men that were given to Thor.
This they called laut or lautbolli, and out of it the
people and cattle were to be sprinkled. The victim
was to be served up at the banquet, but the human
beings that were sacrificed, were thrown, after being
killed, into a swampy pool near the door, which was
called the sacrificial pool (blot-kellda).*
By the former of these descriptions, which is un
doubtedly very credible, it may be seen that in the
heathen temples of the ancient Northmen, there was
sometimes a distinction made between the inner
Most-Holy, where the statues of the Gods were
placed, and the outer part of the temple, doubtless
the most spacious part, in which it may be presumed
the sacrificial banquets were held. It must, there
fore, have been this last-named part of the temple
that is described elsewhere in the Sagas as being so
constructed as to have fires burning along the floor,
with the flesh-pots hanging oA^er them and with seats
upon each side for the accommodation of the guests.f
This outer part of the temple is, doubtless, the same
building which in other places is called the Disar
salr. For instance, in Frithjof's Saga this is de
scribed as being the highest among the buildings
of the temple in Baldur's grove, and constructed for
the festivals with flres along the floor and seats upon
the sides.:]: In the Tnglinga Saga, the Disar hall of
* Kjalnes S. 2.
\ Snor. : HSk. 066. S. 16.
X FriS>. S. 5, 9.

210 RELIGION OF THE NORTHMEN.
the temple at Upsala is described as having been so
large that Eing AdUs rode around inside of it.* It
was necessary, also, that the building in which all
the people of a large district were to assemble at the
sacrificial festivals, should be very capacious. It is,
moreover, possible that this special arrangement was
peculiar to the public temples, which were common
to the inhabitants of a whole district (fylki) or large
portion of the country, while the smaller temples,
which were often to be regarded as only the house-
chapels of private individuals, were constructed in a
different manner and perhaps more in accordance
with the second of the above-mentioned ones.
We also find allusions to high board-fences (skib-
garbar, mod. Nono. Skidgaarde) surrounding the
teniples, and metallic rings, which were in the tem
ple doors, probably for the purpose of drawing them
up. In the door of the temple of Hlabi there was
a ring, which was thought to be of gold, but which
was afterwards discovered to be of copper within.
The temples of Norway, as well as all other build
ings in that country in the earliest times, were built
of wood ; at least, we never find any temple of stone
expressly mentioned, nor is it certain that the North
men out of Norway — in Sweden, Denmark, or other
countries — erected their temples of any more dura
ble material.
When we find in many places in the Sagas, that
the temples, especially the smaller ones, are spoken
of as being tented inside or hung with tapestry,
« Snor. : Ynglinga S. S3.

SACRED EDIFICES. 211
there is nothing improbable therein, for such deco
rations were much used in ^he houses of the Norse
Chieftains of antiquity ; but when it is said of the
temple in which Hakon Jarl worshiped Thorgerd
Horgabrud, that it was inwardly adorned with in-
layings of gold and silver, and furnished with so
many glass windows (glar-gluggar), that there was
nowhere any shadow, it may be received as one of
the embellishments added to the legend by a later
age. Neither can we place implicit confidence in
the glowing descriptions given of the Temple at
Upsala, by Adam of Bremen and his commentator ;
for as the former speaks of it being " all decorated
with gold " (so must we understand totum, ex auro
paratum), and the latter tells of the, ever-green tree
that grew by it, it appears that through ignoranpe
they transferred the myths ofthe "gold-roofed Yal
haUa " and the " ever-green Ash Tggdrasill " to
that last celebrated relic of the heathen worship
of the Northmen.*
The temples were sometimes dedicated to a single
Deity, but much more frequently to several of
them ; there is even an account of one in Gothland
containing one hundred statues of the Gods ;f a
statement, however, which appears to be exaggerated.
But even when there were many Gods worshiped in
a temple, it was mostly but one or two that occupied
the first r'ank ; and it has already been observed that
in Norway and Iceland, Thor usually enjoyed this
honor.:]: * Ad. Brem.: de situ Danije, 133.
t Jomsv. S. in Fornm. S. XL 12.
X Chap. XVIL

212 RELIGION OF THE NOETHMEN,
The temples were looked upon as sacred and
inviolate ; no deed of violence could be committed
with impunity within their walls, nor upon their
grounds. This sacredness was expressed in the an
cient language by the name of Ye ; and whosoever
violated it was called " vargr i veum " — a wolf iri
the sanctuary — and was declared an outlaw to all
persons. We find in the Sagas many traces of the
veneration of the ancient Northmen for their tem
ples. Of the great sanctity which rested upon the
temple in Baldur's grove, in Sokn, we have before
spoken. When the Icelander Hrapp had bumed
the temple in Gudbrandsdal, which Hakon Jarl and
Dala-Gubbrand owned in fellowship, the Jarl de
clared the deed, to be one which should shut out the
perpetrator from YalhaUa, The afore-mentioned
Icelandic settler Thorolf Mostrarskegg, regarded as
sacred the whole promontory of Thorsnes, which re
ceived its name because Thor's image had drifted to
land there, and because the temple of Thor was
erected upon it. The ground should not be defiled
by blood shed in anger (heiptarblob), nor by any of
the baser necessities of nature ; for the latter a rock
along the coast was appointed. There was one iso
lated rocky hill upon the promontory which Tho
rolf held in special veneration. It was named Hel-
gafell — the Holy Eock — and Thorolf beUeved that
an abode was prepared in it for him and his family
after death. It was so very holy that no one could
look upon it before he had washed himself, and it was
a place of refuge for both man and beast. Thorolf
estabUshed a Herabs-J)ing — a district court of jus-

SACEED EDIFICES, 213
tice — ^upon the extremity of the promontory. After
his death, some of those who attended the court
would not take the trouble to go out upon the rocks
to attend to the calls of nature ; thereupon arose a
battle between those refiactory persons and the in
habitants of Thorsnes, The Assembling-place (|)ing-
voUr) became defiled with blood, and this gave oc
casion for it to be removed higher up the promon
tory, for the ground upon which it had been could
not now be considered holier than any other.*
When the Norse chieftain Thorhadd .the Old, who
had been hofgobi at Mseri in Throndheim, went over
to Iceland, he took down the temple beforehand and
carried with him the hof-mold (mold or earth under
the foundations of the temple) together with the
sacred columns. He settled on Stobvar-fjorb, on
the eastern coast of Iceland, whither he transferred
the sacredness of Mseri (Mserina helgi) to the whole
Fjorb, He allowed no living being to be killed
there, except the cattle that he required to be
slaughtered for his household, f
It was not lawful to bear arms into the tem
ples. When King Olaf Tryggvason went into the
temple at Maeri, it is related that those of his men
and the countrymen who followed him were unarm
ed ; the king himself had only a gold-mounted staff
or mace in his hand,:]: The Northman Hrafn had
to give up to the Icelandic chieftain and hof-gobi
Ingemund a splendid sword in forfeiture, because
* Eyrb. S. 4, 9, 10.
f Landnmb. IV. 6.
X OL Tr. S. in Fornm, S. IL 167.
10*

214 EELIGION OF TEB NOETHMEN.
he had, while absorbed in conversation with the
chieftain, heedlessly entered with his sword, in hand
into the temple in Yatnsdal, which the latter pre
sided over. " It is not the custom," said Ingemund to
him, " to bear arms into the temple, and thou wilt
be exposed to the wrath of the Gods if thou do not
make atonement." It would be safest, he added,
for Hrafn to give him the sword, and thus enable
him to appease the wrath of the Gods.*
The temples were supported partly by the income
of landed property which was bestowed upon them,
and partly by the so-called temple-tax (hoftoUr), a
contribution which had to be paid by all who fre
quented a particular templg. Of the first-mentioned
kind the so-called Uppsala-aubr (Upsala property),
in Sweden, appears to have been. It was posses
sions belonging to the temple at Upsala, and its
directors were the kings of that place.f Similar
Temple-lands are spoken of in Iceland ; for instance,
it is related of the gobi Jorund Hrafnsson, who
erected a temple on his estate Svertingstad. in the
East Fjorbung of Iceland, that he appropriated to
himself a large tract of unoccupied land and bestowed
it on the temple.f The temple-tax or contribution
was universal in Iceland, as in all probabUity it was
also in Norway, and is similar to the Tithes, which
in Christian times have been paid to the Church.
The superintendent of the temple — ^hof-gobi or hof
gybia — ^received the contribution and made use of it
* Vatnsd. S. 10.
f Snor. : Yngl. S., 12; compare -with 01. HeL S. 76.
X Landnmb. V. 3,

SACRED EDIFICES. 215
together with the temple possessions, but in return
had to take charge of the temple and keep it in
repair. It may be assumed that many temples in Norway,
even chief-temples, which were attended by the
whole population of a Fylki or Province, were ac
tually the private property of certain chieftains who
had erected them in the first place and presided
over them, and in whose family this supremacy or
priesthood afterward became hereditary. It thus
becomes explicable how such chieftains could have
authority to tear down temples and take them along
when they left the country, as we have above seen
was the case both with the temple of Mseri in
Throndheim, which appears .to have been a Chief-
Temple of the inhabitants of Inner-Throndheim, and
with the temple on Moster,*
* Landnmb, IV., 6 ; Eyrb. S. 3.

216 RELIGION OF THE NORTHkEN,

CHAPTEE XXI,

THE DIVINE SERVICE OF THE HEATHENS,
Sacrifices, or, in the old Norse language, blot,
were considered by the heathen Northmen to be the
most efficacious means of gaining favor with the
Gods and averting their Mrrath, These offerings
were usually bloody, and consisted in the killing or
butchering of living creatures under the observance
of certain solemn ceremonies ; but the character of
them is not more fully described in the ancient
accounts. The animals most generally offered at the
larger public sacrificial festivals were oxen, horses,
sheep and swine. The victims were fattened before
hand, in order that they might attain a very large
size and make a good appearance. They were
slaughtered by the gobi or Chief Director of the tem
ple, and generally, as it appears, before the images
of the Gods, The blood, which was called laut, was
coUected in a bowl called laut-bolii ; the latter was
usuaUy of copper and had its place in the temple
upon the High- Altar, By the aid of sprinkling-
rods — the so-called laut-teinar — the altars and walls
of the temple were besmeared (rjoba) with this laut

THE DIVINB SERVICE OF THE HEATHENS, 217
or sacrificial blood, as it was also sprinkled (stokkva)
over .the multitude assembled at the sacrifice. The
statues of the Gods, which, as before observed,
were mostly of wood, were smeared with the fat of
the victims, rubbed with cloth, and baked by the
fires burning along the temple-fioor. This function,
we find, was performed by the women assembled at
the festival.
The public sacrifices were in connection with
solemn festivals (blotveizlur, sing, blotveizla, per
haps also gildi). In some places these were at the
expense of the Chief Director of the temple, who in
return had the use of the Temple-possessions, and re
ceived the Temple-tribute or hof-toU, This appears
to have been universal in Iceland, where the tem
ples were usually the private property of the gobar
or priests. In other places, however, and it appears
to have been universal in Norway, the expenses of
the sacrificial feasts were defrayed by contributions
from the people who attended a particular temple,
who for that purpose brought ale and all kinds of
provisions to the festival ; though it also happened
sometimes that some rich and powerful chieftain,
who was at the same time superintendent of a tem
ple, undertook alone to bear the expenses of a sacri
ficial banquet, in Avhich case his liberality was, of
course, highly praised. In Norway, it appears that
after Harald Harfagri's time the chief direction of
all public sacrifices and the feasts connected with
them devolved upon the king ; he, therefore, occu
pied the high-seat at the sacrificial guilds, when he
was present at them ; otherwise some chieftain pre-

218 RELIGION OF THE NORTHMEN,
sided over them in his behalf Sometimes the man
agement of the sacrificial feasts of a Fylki or a larger
district passed around by turns among a certain
number (twelve) of the chosen men of the district ;
but this was perhaps an exception to the general
custom, and was first adopted when the kings and
their men had fallen off from the Asa-faith and em-
•braced Christianity. The ancient custom in the
time ofthe Fylki governments was, doubtless, thus:
that the hersir, in the character of gobi, conducted
the pubUc sacrificial feasts in his herab or district,
or where several herab or even fylki joined together
in a sacrifice, then all the hersar present acted, but
in such a manner that the one in whose temple the
feast was held presided. If a King or Jarl was
present, the post of honor was, of course, always con
ceded to him ; but they could hardly be called the
actual conductors of sacrifices ; at least, their King
ship or Jarlship originated in a higher than priestly
dignity. Such was certainly the case in many places
in Norway, as it is known to have been with the Up
sala Kings in Sweden.
The sacrificial feast followed after the sacrifice.
The flesh of the sacrificed animals, including that of
the horses, was now boiled in large pots which hung
over the fires along the temple-floor, and was after
wards devoured by the assembled guests, who, as at
other banquets, sat along the side-walls ofthe house
on both sides of the fire. The full drinking-horns
(fuit) were now borne around or between the fires
(of elda), probably as a kind of purification, and the
conductor of the sacrifice consecrated (vigja) them.

THE DrVINE SERVICE OF THB HEATHENS, 219
as well as all the sacrificial food (blot matr). They
first drank Odin's horn — or those who trusted in
their own strength and energy drank a horn to Thor
— next Njorb's horn, and Frey's horn for prosperous
seasons and for peace. Then many were accus
tomed to drink Bragi's horn, by which solemn vows
were made ; and finally, a horn to the memory of
good kinsmen departed. All these- solemn toasts
were called minni or memorial horns, and were
called out by the conductor of the sacrifice, who,
in the ancient language was said " at meela fyrir
minni " " to caU out the memorial toasts,"
The public sacrifices thus consisted of two import
ant performances: first, the butchering (hogg, at^
hoggva) and the blood-sprinkling (at rjoba, stokkva)
connected with it, all which it seems took place dur
ing the first night of the festival; and secondly,
the sacrificial feast, at which the consecrated horns \
were the principal affair, aad during which the [
anointing of the idols appears to have been attended
to. Three times during the year they held great sacri
ficial festivals, at which the inhabitants of larger or
smaller portions of the country assembled together
at one common chief-temple. The first of these fes
tivals was held on Winter-night, at the beginning
of Gor-manabr, or, by our reckoning, about the mid
dle of October, — the 14th of that month being still
called Winter-night in Norway, and reckoned the
beginning of winter. This festival was called
" vetrnatta blot " or " blot imoti vetri," *', e.. Winter-
night's Sacrifice, or. Sacrifice toward Winter ; and

220 EELIGION OF THB NOETHMEN,
they were then said to welcome winter — (at fagna
vetri). They sacrificed at that time for a good year
(til ars), which in Norway meant in reality a good
winter, that being then, as now, a matter of very
great importance for that country.*
The second great sacrificial festival was held on
Mid-winter (mibr vetr), i. e., at the beginning of
the f)orra-manabr (Thor's month) of the ancients, or,
according to our reckoning, in the middle of Janu
ary. The 12th of January is still called Mitvet hy
the Northmen. This sacrifice was usually called
mibsvetrar blot, i. e.. Midwinter's Sacrifice, or J61,
jolablot, z. e., Tule ; sometimes also Jorra-blot, from
the month in which it was solemnized. It began on
Midwinter-night (mibsvetrar-natt), which, by reason
of the great sacrificial slaughter then performed,
was named hoggu-natt, the Hewing or Butchering
Night, and it lasted three days, or, according to
the ancient mode of expression, three nights. It ap
pears to have been the most solemn sacrificial fes
tival of the Northmen, and they then sacrificed for
Peace and a productive Season (til ars ok fribar).
On Tule-eve it was the custom to lead out a boar
consecrated to Frey, which was called the Atone
ment-Boar (s&nar-goltr) ; upon this the persons pres
ent laid their hands and made solemn oaths (heit
strengingar). This circumstance, as well as the fact
that the Tule-sacrifice was made for Peace and
Fruitfulness, makes it highly probable that the fes
tival was chiefly in honor of Frey.f
* Snor.: Yngl. S. 8; Ib. 01. Hei, S. 116.
f Concerning Yule (Joi) see Snorri: Ynglinga Saga, 8; E^k-
G65. Saga. 15 and 19 ; Olaf HeL Saga, 114 and 116, and 01'

THE DIVINE SERVICE OF THB HEATHENS. 221
The third great sacrificial festival was held at the -
beginning of Summer, probably on Summer's-day,
which, according to both the ancient and the modem
Calendar of the Northmen, faUs on the middle of
April. This festival was called blot at sumri — Sac
rifice toward Surhmer, or Sigr-blot — Sacrifice for
Victory, a name which it received because they
then sacrificed for victory and success in the mili
taiy and Yiking-expeditions which they might
undertake in the approaching summer..* It is,
therefore, probable that this festival was specially
in honor of Odin.
Some have also supposed that a great sacrificial
-festival was held at Mid-summer-time,f but there
is scarcely sufficient ground in the ancient sagas for
this assumption. It is true that Snorri speaks in a
single place of a mibsumars-blot, but this is evidently
a confusion in the account, and it is properly a Mid
winter sacrifice, and not a Mid-summer one that is
alluded to.
The heathen Northmen had many smaller sacri
ficial feasts, beside the three great ones above cited,
but to pretend to decide upon the times when they
Tryggv. Saga in Fornm. Sogur, 162, r65, 166; from -which it ap
pears that Yule and the Mid-winter Sacrifice were the same fes-
tivaL and that the heathen Yule was held in January, therefore
later than the Christian festival. Yule is doubtless the same fes
tival that Procopius says the Thulites (Iforthmen) celebrated on
the return of the sun, after it had been, at midwinter's time, forty
days below the horizon. Proc. de BelL Got. lib. II. cap. 1 6.
* Snor. : Yngl. S. 8, 01. HeL S. 115.
f Magnusen : Specimen Calendarii Gentilis in the 3d part of the
Arna-Magnsean edition of the O. Edda, p. 1086, et al.

222 RELIGION OF THE NORTHMEN.
were held, leads only into a multipUcity of conjec
tures, which are wholly without foundation.*
Human sacrifices (manna-blot) were not unusual,
although it was generally bondsmen and malefac
tors that were offered up. The sacrifice of human
beings was performed either by butchering them
like other victims, collecting the blood in the sacri
ficial bowls, and afterward sinking the corpse into
a pool or morass ; or by breaking the victim's back
over a sharp rock ; or finally by hurling it out over ,
a precipice among the rocks of an abyss. Only on
rare and very important occasions were the free
born sacrificed to the Gods; and yet there were
instances when the victims were chieftains or their
children. Thus it is related of the Upsala King
Aun that he sacrificed his nine sons to Odin for the
sake of prolonging his life.f King Olaf Tretelgja
of Yermaland was burned to death by his subjects,
and sacrificed thus to Odin in order that a great
famine should cease.:]: Of the zealous Asa-wor
shiper Hakon Jarl it is stated, that during the battle
in Hjdrunga bay with the Jomsvikingar he sacrificed
his son Erling, then seven years old, to Thorgerd
Horgabrub, and caused his bondman Skopta Kark
to kill the boy, in the manner which the Jarl him
self prescribed.!
Among human sacrifices may also be reckoned
the practice of "carving the Blood-eagle" (rista
* See Magnusen : Spec. Cal. Gentilis.
t Snor. : Yngl. S. 29.
X lb. 47.
§ Jomsvik, S. 44, in Forum. S. XL p. 136.

THE DIVINE SERVICE OF THE HEATHENS. 223
bloborn) upon captured enemies. It consisted in
cutting the ribs from the spinal column and then
through the open wound tearing out the lungs,
which, it was said, they presented to Odin for
victory.* The inhuman custom which the Norwegian Yik-
ings in heathendom had, of throwing up small chil
dren into the air and catching them again upon
their spear-points (henda born a spjota oddum),f is
to be regarded perhaps not merely as an outburst
of the most savage ferocity of rude warriors, but
also as a kind of human sacrifice.
The conqueror usually regarded all enemies slain
in battle as an offering he had made to Odin, and
it appears to have been the custom sometimes, in
order that the sacrifice should be still more special,
to besmear the altars with the blood of the first
chieftains among the slain.
Two kinds of bloody self-immolation are mention
ed ih the Sagas. The one is "to mark one's-self
with the Spear-point" (at marka sik geirs-oddi),
a custom by which the Asa worshiper, when dying
of sickness, consecrated himself to Odin. The
introduction of this custom is attributed to Odin
himself,:]: but how far it came into general practice
is not known. Probably it was intended to take
the place of death by arms upon the battle-field,
and thus open to the dying an admission into the
* OL Tr. S. Skalh. L 179; the O. Edda: SigurOar-kviSa Fafnis
bana, H. 26; Ragn. LoSbr. S. 18 ; Iforna Gests S. 6.
t Landnmb. V. 11 ; Fri5>. S. 11.
X Snor. : Yngl. S. 10.

224 RELIGION ON THE NOETHMEN.
ranks of the Einherjar. The other kind of self-im
molation consisted in the custom by which any one,
who had become old or weary of life, leaped head
long from a steep cliff and thus went hence to Odin.
It is mentioned only in King Gautrek's Saga. It is
there related that a family living in a retired place
in West-Gothland had a steep and lofty cUff (called
JEtternisstapi, i. e., Family Eock) near their house,
from the summit of which all the aged members 7)f
the family or those who had no prospect of support
ing themselves, without becoming a burthen to the
others, precipitated themselves. " Thus they died,"
it is stated, "without any kind of sickness, and went
to Odin."* It is true that Gautrek's Saga is in the
main a romance, yet there are a few very ancient
and undoubtedly genuine traditions here and there
interwoven in it, and among them is the above
account, which should not be regarded as a mere
fiction. There were human Ofterings which were not at
tended with the death of the victim, at least, not
immediately. This was when a person either gave
himself, or was given by his parents — sometimes,
even, before his birth — to one ofthe Gods, i. e., was
consecrated to the service of that God, perhaps as
his hofgobi or priest. Thus it is related of the
chieftain Gubbrand, from whom Gudbrandsdal re
ceived its name, that he was given to the Gods by
his father -Eaum, and his original name Brand was,
in consequence thereof, changed to Gubbrand.f
* Gautreks S. 1-2 in Fornald. S. IIL
f Fundinn Noreg. 1, in Fornald. S. II. p. 6.

THE DtVINE gERVlOE OF THE HEATHfiNS. 225
Thorolf Mostrarskegg of Iceland, the zealous wor
shiper of Thor already-'spoken of, "gave his son
Steinn (from his birth it appears) to Thor, his friend,
and called him Thorstein." Of this Thorstein, it is
related that when he had a son who at the heathen
rite of sprinkling with water received the name of
Grim, " he gave him to Thor, destined him to be a
priest (hofgobi) and called him Thorgrim."* The
Haleygian Chieftain Eyvind Kinnrifa, a contempo
rary of King Olaf Tryggvason, was given to Odin
from his birth. When King Olaf had taken him
prisoner and could neither with fair words nor with
threats prevail on him to submit to be baptized, he
at last caused a vessel of hot coals to be set upon
Eyvind's stomach, in order that the dreadful torture
might compel him. But Eyvind was even then inflexi
ble. At length, when his body was bursted with
the heat, he begged them to take off the vessel ; he
wished to say a few words before he died. The
king asked again if he would believe in Christ.
"No!" answered he, "I cannot receive baptism,
even though I would. My father and mother had
no children before they applied to the magic-
skilled Finns. The latter told them that they
should have a child, if they would promise under
oath this child should serve Odin and Thor until the
day of his death.- They did as the Finns advised.
I was born, and they gave me to Odin. So soon as
I was able to judge for myself in anything, I renew
ed their vow. I have since that time, in all de
votedness, served Odin, and I have become a
» Eyrb, S. 7 and 11.

226 RELIGION OF THE NORTHMEN.
mighty chieftain. Now I have been so many times
given to Odin that I neither can nor will deceive
him."' With these words upon his lips Eyvind
died.* When the Swedish King Eirik Sigi'sseli (the
Yictorious) was on the eve of an important battle
with his nephew Styrbjorn, and greatly feared the
issue of the contest, he went in the night to Odin's
temple and gave himself to the God in order to
obtain the victory — though on condition that he
should have ten years longer to live.f It is stated
that this same King Eirik died ten years afterwards
of sickness ;:]: but in general it was certainly the
belief of the heathen Northmen that they who were
given or had given themselves to Odin must die a
violent death, or at least be marked in their dying
hour with the spear-point. The Leira-King Harald
Hyldatand and King Yikarr of Horbaland, both of
whom had been given to Odin from their birth,
ended their lives by a violent death ; the former, as
it appears, by Odin's own hand, the latter by a
special arrangement of Odin's.
Besides by the sacrifice of living beings, it was
believed that the favor of the Gods might also be
gained by gifts (forn) to temples and idols, as well
as by prayers and the vows (heit) connected with
them. Thus it is said of Hakon Jarl, when he wished
to obtain for Sigmund Brestersson the protection of
the Goddess Thorgerd Horgabrub, that he first cast
himself down at the foot of her statue and lay there
* OL Tr. S. in Fornm. S. 204.
f Styrbjorn. JSttr, 2, iu Fornm. S. V. p. 250.
i 01. Tr. S. in Fornm. S. L p. 61.

THE DIVINE SERVICE OF THB HEATHENS. 227
for.a long time. He then arose and told Sigmund
that he was to bring her an offering (forn) of silver
and lay it upon the footstool before her. But as the
statue would not even then give the desired token
of its good-will, the Jarl cast himself down before it
again and then shed tears. Thereupon the statue
gave the desired token by letting loose a gold ring
which it bore upon its arm, and which the Jarl
wished to take from it for Sigmund.* Before Thor's
statue in a temple at Hundsthorp in Gudbrandsdal,
the people placed every day four loaves of bread
with the due proportion of meat, and they believed
that the God consumed the food, when it was de
voured by the vermin that found a retreat in the
great hollow wooden statue.f When the heathen
Icelander Hallfred Yandrsebaskald wished to get
quickly away from Norway, which Olaf Tryggvason
was just then converting to Christianity, he and his
seamen united in making vows to the Gods, in order
to get a fair wind for any heathen country whatso
ever, and they promised to give goods (fe) and three
barrels of ale to Frey if they could get a fair wind
for Sweden, or to Thor or Odiri, if they came back
to Iceland.:]: The purport of this gift we suppose to
be, that there should be a banquet held at which
they would drink the promised ale to the honor of
the Gods they called upon. During a severe win
ter in Iceland, the people of Eeykdal held a meet
ing at the house of the hofgobi Ljot, on the Thvera
* Fareyinga S. 23.
t Snor.: 01. Hei. S. 118-119.
X OL Tr. S. 164, in Fornm. S. p. 15.

228 RELIGION OF THE NOETHMEN.
and unanimously agreed to make vows in order to
obtain a better state of weather. Ljot thought they
ought to promise gifts to the temple, and to let the
new-born infants be exposed and kill off the old peo
ple. But AskeU, a pious chieftain, raised objections
to this proposition; It would be better, said he, for
them to promise, in honor of the Creator, to give
property to support the aged and bring up the chil
dren. Askell's humane counsel was also followed.*
Prayers were for the most part connected with the
sacrifices, and it was believed that they must be ut
tered with great precision and care, wherefore the
people mostly confined themselves to certain formu
las which were composed by the priests most deeply
initiated into the mysteries of Eeligion.f When
they wished to pray right zealously, they cast them
selves down with the face upon the ground before
the image of the God.
Purifications were also among the sacred rites
of the Northmen's worship, as we have seen in the
above reference to the sacred Helgafell in Iceland,
which no person could look upon before he had
washed himself.f Not only water, but ^Iso fire, was
esteemed a means of purification ; hence the custom,
at the sacrificial feasts, of bearing the filled horns
around or between the fires before they emptied
them. Fire was regarded with veneration, and the
people consecrated landed property and appro.
priated it to themselves by passing around it with
* Vemundar S. 7, in fslendinga Sogur IL, p. 248.
t The O. Edda: Hdvamdl 145-146.
X Chap. XX.

THE DIVINE SERVICE OF THE HEATHEN. 229
burning fire, the ceremony being performed by
walking or riding around the place against the smi^
(andsoelis), i. e., from west to east, with a fiaming
brand*. * Hsensnaforis S. 10; Viga-GL S. 26; Landnmb, HL 6; V. 1, 3.

11

230 RELIGION OF THB NOETHMEN.

CHAPT'EE xxn.
THE WOESHIP OF THE DEAD, AND OF NATDEAL OBJEOTS.
It was not merely' the .^sir and the Spiritual
beings allied to them that the heathen Northmen
made the object of their worship ; we find they also
placed confidence in departed human beings as well
as animate or inanimate natural objects, and even
worshiped them.
A few noble and virtuous men, who, during life,
had effected much good in their circle, were some
times worshiped after death as guardian spirits of
the country or the region in which they had lived
and labored for good. Thus King Olaf Gubrobsson
of Yestfold, who dwelt at Gierstad, was worshiped
after his death by his former subjects ; they sacri
ficed upon his burial-mound and called him Geir-
staba-dlfr, or Geirstad's Spirit.* Of another North
man, Grim Kamban, the first settler who made a
permanent residence on the Faroe Islands, it is like
wise related that " after his death they sacrificed to
him on account of the favor in which he stood."f
It is related of the Swedes that at the time when
Ansgarius proclaimed Christianity in Sweden, they
* {.Attr af Olafi Geirsta«a-Slfi.
f Landnmb. I. 14.

THE WOESHIP OF THE DEAD. 23l
reased the number of their Gods by admitting
ong them — in consequence, it was said, of a reve-
ion from above — one of their departed Kings,
ik, to whom they dedicated a temple and in
ose service special priests were appointed.*
ese deified spirits of the Dead were doubtless
istly regarded as a kind of Land-guardians (Land-
ttir).
A.n idolatry far more gross, according to our ideas,
s practiced by a few, who worshiped and put
iir faith in natural objects, sometimes animate and
netimes inanimate.
We find it mentioned in a few places that living
sn were worshiped, an idolatry which the Chris-
ns considered the most abominable of all, but
lich was certainly of very rare occurrence.
Many traces, however, of the worship of animals
3 to be found.
Ihe faith which some placed in horses, has been
¦eady alluded to.f This may be understood when
I remember that the horse was beyond all doubt
animal sacred to Frey, and therefore may have
en worshiped as the symbol of that God.
The worship of oxen and cows is likewise men-
ned. The Norse chieftain Harek, who lived in
af Tryggvason's time, and dwelt at Eein, was ac-
sed of secretly sacrificing to an unusually large
d strong ox that he owned.:]: A certain King
'¦stein of Upsala, who Uved about the time of Eag-
Rimbertus : Vita AnSgarii, cap. 23.
Chap. XVIL
fSttr f 6rBt. Uxaf<StB, 13, in Fornm. S. IIL, p. 182,

232 EELIGION 01* THE NOETHilEN.
nar Lobbrok and his sons, appears to have had greiat
faith in a cow which was called Sibilia (the ever-bel
lowing ?). To this cow, says the account, they sacri
ficed greatly, and no one could endure to hear her
bellowing. Therefore, the King was accustomed to
let her go in advance of his army, when he marched
forth against his enemies.* It is related of the Nor
wegian Fylki-King Augvald, that he made special
sacrifices to a cow which he took with him whither
soever he went, by sea or by land, and whose milk
he esteemed as a medicine. When he died the cow
was laid in a mound near his own.f Perhaps sacred
cows were symbols of the mythic cow Aubhumla,
although there are no traces of her worship to be
found. Small metallic images of both horses and oxen are
found in the heathen burial-mounds in Norway, and
may without doubt be regarded as reUcs of the wor
ship of these animals.
When the Norse chieftain Floki Yilgerbarson
was preparing to set out from Eogaland in search of
Iceland, he set up a great sacrifice at Smorsund, and
sacrificed to three ravens, or consecrated them by
sacrifi'ces, in order that they inight show him the
way. By their direction, it seems, he found the land
he was seeking for.:]: Floki's offering, it may be pre
sumed, was actually to Odin, and for this the buds
of Odin were to show him the way.
With regard to animal-worship aomng the hea-
* RagnarXbSbr. S. 8.
t Snor. : 01. Tr. S. 71 ; Ol. Tr. S. 197 in Fornm. S. IL, p. 138.
:|: Landnmb. I. 2.

THB WOESHIP OF NATUEAL OBJEOTS. 233
then Northmen, it is by no means clear what signi
ficance they attached to it — whether they imagined
a Deity in any manner incarnated in the animal — or
whether they regarded it merely as sacred to a cer
tain Deity — or finally, whether they imagined it by
any magic speUs to be endowed with supernatural
powers. Without doubt, the worship of animals was
most frequently regarded from one of the two last-
mentioned points of view, and was usually in the
nearest connection with the belief in sorcery.
Of inanimate things we find Mounds, Stones,
Groves, andWaterfaUs mentioned as.objectsof wor
ship, with some individuals.
Sacrifices to Mounds cannot have been of very
rare occurrence ; for in the Christian Code of the
" Older Gula-Thing Laws " they are expressly for
bidden, along with sacrifices to heathen Gods and
altars. In the somewhat fabulous Saga of Ketil
Heeng, a mound of Good Seasons (Arhaugr, i. e..
Mound of FruitfuLness)'is mentioned, to which the in
habitants of Gestrekaland (in Sweden) sacrificed, in
order to obtain favorable seasons, and upon which
the snow never lay.* No doubt such sacred mounds
were the graves of men who had been deified after
death, or else they were thought to be the dwelling-
places of the Elves.f
The Icelandic settler Eyvind, son of Lobin Aungul
of Halogaland, is said to have sacrificed to some
stones, called Gunnsteinar, which marked the bound-
» Ketil Hsengs S. 5 in Fornald. S. IL
t See Chap. XVIIL

234 RELIGION OF THE NORTHMEN.
aries of his estate in Flateyjardal, in the north Fjorb
ung of Iceland.* The Icelander Thorstein GuU-
knapp had a stone in his sacriflcial house, to which
he sacrificed and before which he cast himself down
upon the earth when he worshiped it.f FinaUy, it
is stated that on the estate Gilja in Yatnsdal, in
North-Iceland, a large stone was standing, to which
the owner of the estate, Kobran Eilifsson and his
kinsfolk, offered up sacrifices ; for they said that in
it dwelt their Ar-mabr (Year-Man, the bestower of
prosperous seasons or fruitfulness). Conceming this
stone, the legend farther says, that it split, asunder
when it was sprinkled with holy-water by Bishop
Fribrek, who had accompanied Kobran's son, llor-
vald Yibforla, from Germany to his native island,
in order to preach Christianity there,:]: Some such
Elf or Guardian Spirit as the one last named was
always imagined to dwell in the adored stones.
The Northman Thorir Snepil, who settled in
Fnjoskadal in the North-Fjorbung of Iceland, sacri
ficed to a grove in the vicinity, from which his
estate was named.§
Of the Icelander Thorstein Eaubnef, who was a
great sacrificer and was also far-sighted or clairvoy
ant, it is related, that he sacrificed to a waterfall
(fos) near his house, into which he caused all rem
nants to be thrown. On the night of his death, it is
further related, his whole flock of sheep, consisting
* Landnmb. IIL, 17.
f H6r6s S. 37.
X Kristni S. 2 ; compare with 01. Tr. S. 131 in Fornm. S. L
§ Landnmb. HL 17.

THB WORSHIP OF NATURAL OBJECTS. 235
of more than two thousand, leaped over the water
fall and were destroyed.* In many parts of Nor
way the belief is still prevalent that a being, which
is universally called Fosse-Grim, has its abode in the
waterfalls. This superstition is evidently a relic of
the old heathen belief in a similar being, in which
the worship of waterfalls may have originated.
From aU that is above quoted on the worship of
inanimate objects among the heathen Northmen,
we have every reason to presume that this idolatry
was most intimately connected with the beUef in
Elves, and really originated in it.
* Landnmb. V. 5.

236 RELIGION OF THE NORTHMEN.

CHAPTEE XXHI.
OATHS ; DUELS AND BERSERKSGANG ; ORDEALS OE JUDG
MENTS OF THE GODS.
As the heathen Northmen considered Judicial
Proceedings in the main to be closely connected
with Eeligion, and, so to speak, under the directjpn
of the Gods, from whom they imagined aU Law and
Justice originaUy proceeded — so did they also con
ceive that the Gods, especiaUy in certain legal pro
ceedings, more immediately made their appearance,
either as witnesses or as judges. Of such proceed
ings the Oath and the Duel were the most import
ant. The Oath (eibr) was regarded by the heathen
Northmen as a most sacred act. The solemn Oath
was administered in a temple or at the great Assem
blies (|>ing). He who took the oath caUed upon
one or more of the JEsir to witness, while he held in
his hand the so-called Altar-ring (stalla-hringr,)
which had been dipped beforehand in the blood of
a sacriflced ox. This Altar-ring was to be of silver,
or of gold when convenient, with the ends unjoined
(m6tlauss), and should weigh at least two ounces ;
there was to be one in every chief-temple, to have
its place upon the high- altar (stallr); whence its

OATHS. 237
name. When the temple-priest (hofgobi) who was
also Euler of the district (herabs-hofbingi), was pres
ent at the Thing or in the Assemblies where he
had to appear as Judge of the Court, he wore the
ring upon his arm in 'order to have it always at
hand in the possible event of administering an oath.
To swear such an oath was called "to take oath
upon the Altar-ring " (vinna eib at stallahring), or
" to take Temple-oath " (vinna hofseib).*
In two places in the ancient Sagas — in the Land-
namabok and in Yiga-Glum's Saga — we flnd a
pretty fuU exposition of the administration of Oaths
among the heathen Northmen.
In the former, speaking of the heathen laws of
Iceland, it is said that "a ring of two ounces in
weight, or larger, shall lie upon the altar (a stalla)
in every chief-temple ; this ring shall the priest bear
upon his arm at all the assemblies of the people
which he shall preside over (heya); and he shall
beforehand dip it (rjobra, properly, redden it) in the
blood of the ox which he himself has sacriflced.
Every man who may have a case to be tried before
the Court (|)urfti logskil af hendi at leysa at domi),
shall first take oath upon this ring, and name for
himself two or more witnesses : ' I call upon these
men as witnesses,' he shall then say, ' That I take
oath upon the ring (at ek vinna eib at baugi), lawful
oath, so help me Frey and Njorb and the Almighty
As (Odin), that I will so prosecute — or defend, or
* Eyrb. S. 4, 16, 44 ; Kjalnes. S, 2 ; DropL Son. S. 6 ; Landnmb.
IV. 17 ; Viga-Gl. S. 25,
11*

238 EELIGION OF THB NOETHMEN.
bear witness in, or judge — this cause in such manner
as I know to be most just and true, and most con
sistent with the law, and that I will fulfill all lawful
obligations (ok 611 logmaet skil af hendi leysa) con
cerning the cases which I ¦may have to act upon,
while I am in this Assembly.' "*
Yiga-Glum's Saga relates how the Icelandic
Chieftain Glum Eyjolfsson (Yiga-Glum) took oath
that he had not committed a murder of which he
had been accused. He was sentenced to take the
oath at three temples in Eyjafjorb, viz. : at Djupadal,
at Gnupafell, and at Thvera. " When he had come
with his attendants," it is stated, "tb the temple in
Djupadal, six men entered the temple with Glum.
The man who was to administer the Temple-oath
(vinna hofseib), took in his hand a silver ring, dip
ped (robinn, i. e., red-cotored) in the blood of an ox
that was sacrificed; and this ring did not weigh
less than three^ounces. Then Glum began to speak
thus : ' I name Asgrim as a witness and Gizur as
another witness that I take the Temple-oath on the
ring, and declare before God, i. e., Odin (at ek vinn x
hofseib at baugi ok segi ek Jat Msi, i. e., Obinn),
that I was not present there, and did not commit
murder there, and did not stain point and edge with
blood there, where Thorvald Krok was killed (at
ek vark-at |)ar, ok vdk-at |)ar, ok raubk-at f)ar odd ok
egg, er J)6rvaldr Ej-okr fekk bana). Give heed
now to the oath, ye who are wise men, and are here
present I' " The form of this oath may serve at the
* Landnmb. IV. 7,

OATHS, 239
same time as an example of the craftiness which was
iometimes employed on such occasions ; for Glum,
tvho actually had committed the murder, from
;vhich he intended to clear himself on oath, had
jraftily arranged his words in so ambiguous a man-
ler that, when critically examined, they contained a
Urect confession of the murder. The ambiguity
which lies in the use of the particle at — which as a
suffix in the Old-Norse signifies both not and at, or
oresent at — cannot be expressed in the translation,
rhe witnesses seemed to think the formula which
jrlum made use of to be rather unusual, but did not
aotice the trick untU a more sagacious chieftain
showed them, some time afterward, how they had
been humbugged. Glum's murder case was again
taken up by the Supreme Court (Al-J)ing), and to
escape outlawry he had to give over the half of his
estate to the son of the murdered man, as a
penalty.* The former of the above cited oath-formulas was
doubtless used before the Courts of Justice of
heathendom, not only in Iceland but also in Nor
way, from whence the inhabitants of that island
brought it with them. Frey, Njorb, and Odin, who
were probably meant by the term Almighty As,
were therefore the Deities generally called to wit
ness in Oaths ; sometimes, however, the term As or
Odin only was employed, as is seen in the second
formula. Out of Courts they made use of other oaths, as
Viga-Gl. S. 25.

240 EELIGION OF THE NOETHMEN.
we find they swore by certain objects which were
looked upon as holy, or as symbols of something
holy. Such oaths are named in various places in
the old Eddaic poems : for instance, by the Deck
of the Ship, by the Margin of the Shield, by the
Edge of the Sword, by the Lightning's light Water,
i. e., flash, by the southward declining Sun, i. e..
Mid-day Sun, and many such things. When
Yolund wishes to secure his bride, the daughter of
King Nibab, against the molestations of her father,
he exacts of the king an oath that he will not do her
any harm : "First shalt thou swear me
All the oaths : —
By the Ship's deck
And the Shield's margin,
By the Steed's neck
Aud the Sword's edge, —
That thou torment not
The wife of Volund,
Nor of my bride
Become the destroyer."*
Sigrun upbraids her brother Dag, for having broken
his oath to her husband Helgi, in the following
words ; " May all the oaths
Recoil upon thee.
Which thou hast sworn
To Helgi,—
By the light waters
Of Leiptur's stre8m,-|-
» The 0. Edda: VolundarkviSa, 31.
t'Leiptr— lightning— is one of the mythic streams mentioned
in the Edda as flowing out from Hvergelmir, the great source of
all streams. "|)aSan eiga vot^ qU vega," " thence the streams all
have their ways."

OATHS ;  DUELS. 241
And by the cold stones
Beneath the sea."*
When Gubrun Gjukadottir reminds her husband
Atli of the oaths he has broken toward her brother
Gunnar, she says :
" So may it befall thee, Atli !
As thou held oaths
Oft sworn with Gunnar
And early given; —
By the Sun southward bearing.
By Sigtyr'sf strong mountain.
By the sanctity of the couch
And by UUur's ring. "J
How the expressions occurring in these formulas
were to be taken, whether literally or figuratively,
it is now impossible to determine.
Sometimes, also, there occurs a formula by which
the swearer wishes himself in the power of evil
beings, or that misfortune may strike him, if he
swear falsely. Thus it is said of King Atli's mes
senger Yingi : " Then swore Vingi
Hunself little sparing :
Might the Jotuns take him
If on oath he lied.
And the gallows his body
If he the peace disturbed. "§
Duelling was known among the heathen North-
« The 0. Edda: Helgakv. Hundb. IL, 29.
f Sigtyr, the God of Victory, a name of Odin.
X The 0. Edda: Atlakv. 30.
§ The 0, Edda ; Alamdl 3i .

242 RELIGION OF THE NORTHMEN.
men by two .names : holmganga and einvigi, terms
which were sometimes distinguished, but which
were more frequently used indiscriminately.
The holmgang was so named because it origin
ally took place on an islet or holm, where the com
batants could be more undisturbed and less Uable to
be interfered with by others, who might venture to
mingle in their quarrel, or separate them against
their will ; and where the field of battle might have
natural boundaries beyond which neither of the
parties could possibly retreat. Other artificially-
inclosed battle-grounds afterwards took the place of
the holms, but they still/ retained the name, and
when possible, were laid out upon a small island.
The holmgang took place after a preliminary chal
lenge (at skora a holm ; at skora a til holmgongu), at
which the time and place were fixed, and at the same
time the challenger declared his antagonist, should
he not accept the challenge, to be every man's
Nithing, i. e., a man whom every one might scoff
with iinpunity.
The usages of the holmgang are variously de
scribed ; no doubt they varied in minor essentials at
different periods, and were probably dependent, in
many particulars, upon the choice of the combat
ants, especially of the challenger. A few of the
more detailed accounts of such duels, according to
the Sagas, shall here be given.
The Icelander Egil SkaUagrimsson, while on a
journey through Norway in the time of Hakon Abal-
steinsfostri, came to the estate of Blindheim on the
island Haub, where a young parish overseer, Erib-

DUELS. 243
geir, dwelt with his mother Gyba. He found a
friendly reception with them and stayed in BUnd-
heim several days. During this time he noticed that
a great affiiction rested upon the whole household,
but especially upon Fribgeir's sister ; yet it was not
until he was on the eve of departure that Gyba re
vealed to him the cause of this sadness. A man
with the name of Ljot the Pale, a universally-hated
Berserk^^and duellist (holmgaungu-mabr), had sued
for the"i5aughter, and having been rejected, he had
challenged Fribgeir to a holmgang. On the foUow
ing day they were to meet (ganga a holm) on the
island Yorl, and Gyba now begged of Egil, who was
an expert swordsman, that he would accompany her
son thither. Egil promised to do so, and remained
that day at Blindheim. " In the evening came the
friends of Fribgeir who had resolved to bear him
company ; there were many men assembled during
the night, and a great banquet. But on the day
after, Fribgeir made ready for' the journey, and many
men with him ; Egil was in his train." It was good
weather for traveling. They set off and arrived at
the island. At the place of meeting there was a
broad embankment stretching along at a short dis
tance from the sea ; upon this the holm-stead was
marked off, with stones laid in a circle round about
it. Now Ljot came along with his folk and made
ready for battle; he had both sword and shield.
Ljot was a very large and strong man, and as
he was walking forth along the embankment to
the place of combat, the Berserksgang came sud
denly upon him ; he began to yell horribly and bite
his shield, Fribgeir was not large ; he was slend

244 RELIGION OF THE NORTHMEN.
and of beautiful countenance, but not strong;
neither had he at any time taken part in a fight.
When EgU saw Lj&t, he sung a verse in which he
said that the battle would not go off well for Frib
geir ; he himself would meet the terrible champion
who, biting in his shield's edge, called upon the
Gods.* Ljot saw Egil and heard his words, ' Come
up hither to the holm, thou great man!' said he,
' and fight wit*h me, if thou hast such a great de
sire to do so. That will be much better than for me
to fight with Fribgeir ; for I shall not add to my
glory by laying him upon the ground.^ Egil answered
in a verse that he accepted the challenge, There-
~upon Egil made ready for a holmgang with Ljot,
He had the shield which he was wont to bear, and
in his belt was the sword which he called Nabra
(Yiper) ; Dragvandil — the sword he generally used
— he had in his hand. He went in over the marks
which bounded the place of combat ; but Ljot was
not yet ready, Egil brandished his sword and sung
a verse in which he threatened his antagonist. Then
comes Ljot forth upon the battle ground and pro
nounces the holmgang laws, ' that he shall forever
bear the name of Nithing who retreats beyond the
boundary stones which are set up in a ring around
the holmgang,' Then they ran in upon each other,
and Egil hewed at Ljot, but the latter warded off
with his shield, Egil struck now one blow after an
other, so that Ljot could not make a single stroke in
defense. He moved backward in order to get
* The magic songs which were to protect the champion in battle,
were sung under the shield, by setting the mouth to its edge, per
haps tp make the soupd loiid^r, <Se« 0. Edda ; H&vamSl, 167,

DUELS, 245
sword-room ; but Egil was just as quickly after him
and was not sparing in his blows. In this manner
Ljot passed out over the boundary stones and far
along the embankment. Thus the first round was
ended and Ljot demanded rest, Egil let it be so ;
they stood still and rested a while. It was a law of
the holmgang, at that time, that when one party de
manded anything of the other and conquered, he
should have as reward of victory (sigrm^l), whatever
he had demanded ; but should he be overcome, he
was to acquit himself with so much property as
might be agreed upon ; and if he fell on the holm,
then all his possessions were forfeited, and the one
who slew him was to inherit after him, Egil now
caused Ljot to make ready : ' I wish we may now
put an end to this holmgang !' Ljot sprang hastily
up, Egil ran up to him, hewed at him straightway,
and came so near his Ufe that he gave way and ex
posed himself, for his shield slipped from him.
Then Egil hewed at Ljot ; the blow struck him above
the knee and took off his foot. Ljot fell and died
immediately. His death was but little mourned, for
he had been a most turbulent man. He was a
Swede by birth, and had no kinsmen in Norway,
He had come thither and had accumulated property
by holmgang, as he had slain many good citizens to
whom he had given the choice between holmgang
and a relinquishment of their lands and allodial pos
sessions. He had in this manner become very
wealthy, both in lands and movables."*
« Egil's S. 67.

246 RELIGION OF THE NOETHMEN,
EgU SkaUagrimsson had at the same time an in
heritance to claim in Norway, which a certain Atli
the Short held in possession by an unjust decree of
King Eirik Blood-axe, As Eirik was now banished
from the country, Egil thoHght that he might per
haps be able to establish his claims ; he accordingly
repaired to Ask, the residence of AtU, on Fenring
island near Horbaland, in order to claim his inherit
ance. AtU refused to pay up, but accepted EgU's
summons to appear at the Chda Thing to have the
case decided. They both accordingly made their
appearance at the Thing. Egil claimed his inherit
ance before the Tribunal ; but Atli proffered Tylft-
ar-eib, or the Oath of twelve men, that he had no
property whatever in his care, belonging to Egil,
" When AtU came before the court (domr) with the
men who were to take oath for him, Egil appeared
against him and said that he would not accept AtU's
oaths for his (Egil's) property. 'I wUl offer thee
another law, this, namely, that we shall go to holm
here at the Thing, and he who conquers shaU have
this property,' This proposition of Egil's was
according to law and ancient usage, i. e., that every
man had the right to challenge another to a holm
gang, either in prosecution or defense of his cause,
Atli said he would not object to a holmgang with
Egil, They then took each other by the hand and
came to a mutual agreement that they would fight
(gdnga a holm), and that the victor should take pos
session of the disputed lands. Thereupon they
armed theinselves for the holmgang, Egil went
forth with helmet upon his head, a shield before him

DUELS. 247
and a spear (kesja) in hand ; but the sword Drag
vandil he had firmly secured in his right hand. It
was a custom of the holmgang-men to equip them
selves so that they hg,d no occasion to draw their
swords upon the holm, but could have the sword in
hand always ready for use. AtU was armed in the
same manner. He was accustomed to the holm
gang, and was besides a strong man and very bold.
A large and old ox was then led forth ; this was
caUed blotnaut, i. e., Ox of Sacrifice, and the victor
was to kiU it (hoggva). Sometimes there was one
ox, sometimes each of the combatants led out his
own. When they were equipped and all was ready,
they rushed forth upon each other and first threw
their spears, but neither of them pierced the shield ;
they were both left sticking in the ground. They
then seized their swords ; they closed in upon each
other and exchanged blows. They hewed thick and
heavy, and soon the shields became useless. As
AtU's shield became much injured, he cast it away,
seized his sword with both hands and' h%wed briskly.
Egil struck him over the shoulders, but the sword
did not cut; he gave the second and the third
stroke, and it was easy for him to get a stroke at
Atli ; for Atli had not any defense. But although
Egil swung his sword with might and main, stiU it
did not cut, with all that he hewed, . Egil now saw
that all this was of no use, for his own shield was
beginning to give way. So he let go sword and
shield, ran in upon Atli and seized him with his
hands. Now all could see which of them was
strongest. AtU was thrown upon his back; but

248 EELIGION OF THE NOETHMEN,
EgU cast himself fiercely down upon him and bit his
throat asunder. Thus did Atli give up his life.
Egil sprang up immediately and rushed to the place
where the sacrificial ox was standing, seized with
one hand the chops, and with the other the horn,
and wrested it around so violently that the feet of
the animal came up into the air and its neck was
broken. Then Egil took possession of all the lands
about which the quarrel had been,"*
It appears, however, that the holmgang was
mostly attended with a great many more circum
stances than those above described.
The Icelandic Skald Kormak Ogmundsson, was
embittered against his fellow-countryman Bersi —
commonly called Holmgang-Bersi — because the lat
ter had married Steingerba, a woman whom Kormak
loved. He therefore challenged Bersi to a holm
gang in a fortnight upon Leibholm, When the
appointed time was come they rode to the place of
meeting, each with fifteen men. Many others had
also assembled to see the fight. "Now they took a
felld (a kind of large cloak) and spread out under
the feet of Kormak and Bersi, Bersi said, ' Thou
hast chaUenged me to a holmgang, Kormak ! but I
offer thee single combat (einvigi). Thou art a young
and inexperienced man ; the holmgang is attended
with difficulties, but the single com'bat is by no
means!' Kormak said, 'I do not fight better in
siiigle combat; I will try the holmgang, and in
everything measure myself with thee.' ' Have thy
* Egil's S. 68.

DUELS. 249
own way then !' said Bersi. It was a law of the holm
gang (holmgongu-log) that the felld should be five
eUs between the skirts, with holes in the corners ; in
¦ these holes they were to set wooden pins (hselar)
with heads upon them, called tjosnur. The man
who made the preparations was to go to the tjosnur
in such a manner that he could see the sky between
his legs, and to hold his ear-lobes while he repeated
a prayer (formali) — which was afterwards adopted
in the sacrificial ceremony called tjosnu-blot. There
should be three terraces (reitar) made around the
felld, each a foot broad, and outside of them, four
stakes. These were called hoslur (hesli-stengur,
hazel stakes)', and the arena was said to be hazelled
(Jar er voUr haslabr) when thus prepared. Each
combatant shall have three shields, and when these
are worn out they shall step in upon the felld, in
case they have pressed off from it before. After this
they shall defend themselves with their (offensive)
weapons only. He who has been challenged shall
have the first stroke. Should either be wounded so
that blood falls upon the felld, then there is no obU
gation to fight longer. Should either step with one
foot beyond the hoslur, in technical language he
gives way (ferr han a hsel, lit. takes to his heels), but
if with both, he flAes (rennr). A man shall hold a
shield before each of the combatants. He who is
most severely wounded shall pay as holm-fine
(holmlausn) three marks of silver. Thorgils held the
shield for his brother Kormak, and Thord Arndisson
for Bersi. Bersi struck first and clove Kormak's
shield ; the latter repaid Bersi in the same manner.

250 RELIGION OF THE NOETHMEN.
and thus they hewed three shields to pieces for each
other. Then it was Kormak's tum to strike. He
struck at Bersi, but the latter defended himself with
his sword Hviting. Skofnung (Kormak's sword) took
off the point of Hviting, but the point sprung against
Kormak's hand and wounded him slightly on the
thumb, so that the joint opened and let blood fall
upon the felld. Thereupon the seconds stepped in
between and would not allow them to fight longer.
Then said Kormak, 'This is a trifling victory that
Bersi has gained by my mishap, though we be now
separated.' Bersi demanded the h61m-flne, and
Kormak promised that it should be paid."*
It is easily seen in the foregoing descriptionsj that
there was a great difference in the h61mgangs, the
two flrst-mentioned being quite simple, and the lat
ter one being attended with more difficulties. We
see also in the latter that there was a distinction
made between the einvigi and the holmganga, and
that it was the duels of the latter sort that were
attended with such complicated difficulties.
The Einvigi being the simplest, was probably also
the oldest form of single combat. It was gradually
made more and more complicated, so that the com
batants might have better opportunities for display
ing their strength and skill. The duel, however,
appears to have been always caUed H61mg4nga,
when it was resorted to for justice, whether it was of
the simpler or more complex kind. Therefore, the
two foremeshtioned h61mgangs, taken from Egil's
* Kormaks S. 9-10.

DUELS, 251
Saga, may be considered to approach more nearly
the einvigi.
The peculiarities of the einvigi, in its more
limited sense, were doubtless these : that the space
allotted to the combatants for action was not so
limited, that they had liberty to use more kinds of
weapons than the sword alone, and that they held
their own shields. But the peculiarities of the com
plicated holmgang were : that the combat' should
tak6 place upon a Felld or a kind of mantle, that
the combatants were allowed to use three shields
apiece, and in general did not themselves bear
them, but each one had one of his friends to hold
the shield before him, who was thence called his
Shield-bearer (skjaldsveinn), that they fought with
swords only and those of a certain length, and that
they regularly exchanged blows.
Both kinds of duel, when resorted to for justice,
were regulated by certain laws, which were recited
by the challenger before the fight began ; both con
veyed the right of the challenged to strike the first
blow, and to appoint a man in his stead, if he him
self should feel any hesitation to meet his antag
onist ; both were accompanied with the sacrifice of
one or two oxen, which the victor butchered ; and
finaUy, the holm-fine or ransom of the vanquished
for a certain sum fixed beforehand (three marks of
silver, or more), appears to have been common to
both. Sometimes the challenger, when the duel
was to decide the possession of property, in order to
show his disinterestedness, would stake as much
value in money as was risked by the party against
whom he made his claims.

252 RELIGION OF THE NORTHMEN.
It may, doubtless, be considered to have been a
departure from the usual custom when sometimes
each of the combatants stood upon his own felld,
beyond which he was not to move so much as a
finger's breadth ; or when one fought against
several, one after the other, in the same engage
ment. Another kind of holmgang, or duel, was the so-
called kerganga, in which the contending parties
were inclosed in a covered tub or vessel, and there
in the dark exchanged cuts or thrusts, while they
fended with batons which they held in one hand.
This combat is only found described in a single
place in the Sagas, and may, therefore, be regarded
as having been of rare occurrence. The account is
as foUows :
" When the Icelander Thorgils, called Orrabein's
Step-son, came on mercantile business to Upland in
Svibjjob (Sweden), he remained during the winter
with a rich countryman named Thrand, who had a
daughter Sigrid. To her a certain Eandvid, an evU-
disposed fellow, but a great warrior, had paid his
addresses. Thrand refused his consent to the mar
riage. Thereupon Eandvid challenged Thrand to a
kind of holmgang called kerganga, in which the
parties shall fight in a covered vessel, having each
a club in his hand. Thrand would rather fight
than give his daughter to so wicked a man.
Then said Thorgils to him, ' Thou hast entertained
me hospitably, I will reward thee accordingly; I
will fight with Eandvid in thy stead,' Thrand
accepted his offer, Thrand had the sword Jarbhus-

EEESEEKSGANG. 253
naut (a sword which he had found in a subter
ranean passage); Eandvid had a very slender
baton, an ell in length, in his hand. When all was
ready, the tub was covered, Eandvid told Thorgils
to thrust the first, for he was the chaUenged, He
did so, struck the baton so that it broke in pieces,
and wounded Eandvid in the abdomen. The latter
then said, 'Give me now the sword, but do thou
have the baton, then shall I stab thee with the
sword,' 'Methinks now,' said ThorgUs, 'that
there is not any baton,' Soon afterward Eandvid
died. He had relied upon his sorcery ; for he had
killed many a man in this kind of Holmgang,"*
The Kerganga has something in common with
the Belt-clasping (Beltespsenden), stiU common in
modem tunes among the peasants in some of the
mountain districts of Norway, in which the two
contending parties are inclosed within a large belt
constructed for that purpose, and thrust at each
other with large pocket-knives. Of this kind of
duel there are scarcely any traces to be found in
the ancient Sagas,
There were men in heathen times, as has been
already alluded to in the above-quoted accounts,
who made the holmgang a means of gaining a sub
sistence, and even a source of wealth ; such were
especially the so-called Berserks (Berserkr, plur.
Berserkir), of whom it may be proper here to speak
more at length.
The name of Berserkir was given to ceutain men
¦who sometimes, especially in the heat of battle,
* F16amanna S. 14,
12

264 EELIGION OF THE NOETHMEN,
were carried away by a wild frenzy which for the
moment redoubled their strength and rendered
them insensible to bodily pain, but at the same
time deadened all humanity and reason in them,
and made them like furious wild-beasts. In this
condition, according to the ancient descriptions,
they distorted their countenances hideously and
changed color, now pale, now blue, and the hair
stood up on their heads; they raved like dogs or
wolves, and were as strong as bears or bulls ; they
howled like wild-beasts, bit the edge of their
shields, and hewed down everything that met them,
often without distinguishing between friend and foe,
not even sparing their own children or nearest
kindred, if these happened to come in their way.
Neither fire nor steel, it was believed, could then
take effect on them ; with terror people saw them
wade through fire or cast themselves upon naked
weapons as if in pastime. In battle they went forth
unharnessed, clad in the bare serk or shirt, whence
probably their name was derived. This mad fury
of theirs was called Berserksgang, and seems to
have been regarded by the zealous Asa-worshipers
as an inspiration from the War-God Odin. The
Berserksgang, however, not only made its appear
ance in time of battle, but often also during severe
labors, when the men who were transported by it
accomplished things which otherwise seemed im
practicable for human power. It was mostly
called forth when the passion of the Berserk, and
more especiaUy his anger, was awakened. 'When
the Berserksgang had spent its fury, there foUowed

BEESEEkSGANfl, 255
a great stupor and weakness, which often lasted
many days.
In some, who in other respects were peaceable
men, the Berserksgang was an actual disease, that
came upon them at certain times without any
known cause. It is said to have begun with a tremb
ling, a chattering of the teeth, and a coldness of the
body, followed by a great heat, which finally passed
over into a perfect frenzy, during which the patient
showed no mercy to anything whatever that came
near him. When the disease left him, he again
became as peaceable as before. Thus it is said of
of the Icelander Thrymketill "that there was a
great defect in his mind, and some looked upon it
as a disease. It came over him every fortnight ; a
trembling seized upon his body so that every tooth
in his head chattered, although his friends sought
for him every alleviation possible. After this
trembUng and coldness followed a great heat ; he
then spared nothing about hirti, neither wall, stick,
staff, nor man ; even if there was a fire in his way
he would go right through it. He tore off the
table-covers and the door^casings from the house,
whenever he could get at them. But when the
frenzy left him he was again gentle and peace
able,"* It is no wonder that in such cases the
Berserksgang was considered a gi-eat defect ; we
find even that those who were possessed by it made
vows to the Gods for the sake of being delivered
from the plague. * DropL Son. S. 3.

256 EELIGION OF TflE NOETHMBK.
The Berserks had another name given them by
our forefathers, viz.: hamramir menn, and their
madness was at hamMst. These expressions denote
the idea of the ancients conceming the nature of
the Berserksgang. The Old-Norse word hainr sig
nifies external form, disguise or semblance. Some
times it was also used to denote the animal-fylgia or
attendant spirit, which was believed to accompany
every human being invisibly, as a kind of inferior
guardian spirit.* The animal-fylgia (d^r-fylgja), as
before said, expressed, in a certain manner, the
character of the person whom it attended. Cruel,
passionate men were thus believed to have ferocious
wild-beasts as their fylgias. When their passion
overpowered them to such a degree that it made
them raving and deprived them of the use of reason,
it was believed that the beast stepped up in the
place of the man, that it entered the outward form
of the man but acted with its ovm pecuUar strength
and unruUness, It was, therefore, said of one thus
possessed by the Berserksgang, that he was not
single or one-formed (ekki einhamr), i. e., that
another, stronger being acted in his human form.
The superstition in this matter sometimes went even
so far that they believed the man, in the moment
of madness, to assume the outward form of the
animal, as well as its internal nature and its
strength. WarUke chieftains endeavored to attract the
Berserks to their armies, in order to render them-
* Chap, 18.

BEESEEKSGANG. 26T
selves so much the more irresistible and the more
terrible to their enemies. Thus Harald Harfagri is
said to have had Berserks in his service, which were
called Wolf-hides (dlfhebnar), because they wore
wolf-skins over their armor. Their station was in
the prow ofthe King's ship, as it was most exposed, in
time of battle, to the attacks of the enemy. The
Berserks could in this way become useful to those
chieftains who had men enough to keep them in
check when the Berserksgang came over them un
timely. But to the masses the Berserks were a
terror, and they availed themselves of the fear
which they inspired — and which they naturally
strove to augment by strengthening the superstition
of their invulnerability — ^in order to bring into their
power whatever they might wish to gain from the
weaker. A challenge to holmgang, for instance,
was ever read;f on the part of the Berserk when his
shameless demands of property or of women were
repulsed, and his wild frenzy, joined to his skill in
the accomplishments requisite in a duel, secured to
him in most cases a favorable issue of the battle.
Those who in this way made of the holmgang a
means of gain, were usually called holmgang-men
(holmgongu-menn) ; their number was not inconsid
erable in heathen times, and they were a real
plague to the peaceable countrymen, whom they
took pleasure in tormenting on aU ocpasions.
Although the holmgang degenerated in this man
ner into a tool of the basest selfishness, revenge, and
wickedness, there is, at the same, time no doubt that
it was originally a reUgious custom, in which the

.268 EELIGION OP THE NOETHMEN,
fundamental idea was, that the Gods would make
manifest by the issue of the battle which of the con
tending parties had justice on his side. Therefore
it was, even after its religious significance had be
come a matter of secondary importance, frequently
attended with sacrifices, prayers, and other religious
performances. The holmgang was thus in effect a
judgment of the Gods, intimately connected with
the Asa-faith, and among the" Northmen it disap
peared with that faith, at least as a judicial act,
although among many kindred nations, especially
among the Germans, the duel passed over from the
heathen into the Christian code. In Norway it was
the Christian Jarls Eirik and Sveinn Hakonssons
who abolished the holmgang while Christianity was
yet far from being generally introduced into the
country (A, D. 1000-1014), while they at the same
time estabUshed the penalty of outlawry against the
holmgang-men and Berserks who aggrieved the
citizens,* In Iceland, where Christianity became
the established religion by a decree of the people in
the Al-Thing, A, D. 1000, the holmgang was soon
afterward abolished by the popular voice, in conse
quence of a duel of this kind between two Icelandic
youths of distinction, the skalds Gunnlaug Orms-
tunga and Skald-Eafn. The issue of the battle be
tween them being indecisive, and the combatants
wishing to renew it, their infiuential kinsmen inter
fered and obtained the prohibition of all holmgangs
by law,t
* Grettis S. 21.
t Gunnlaugs Onnstiinga S. 11.

OEDEALS. 259
Another judicial proceeding ofthe heathen North
men, whieh was regarded stiU more expressly as a
judgment of the Gods, though it is much less fre
quently mentioned that the holmgang, was the cus
tom of going ^under a strip of earth (ganga undir
jarbarmen) in'order to clear one's-self from accusa
tions, to prove the justice of his claims or the truth
of his assertions. This custom is caUed skirsla in the
Old-Norse — a name which signifies a purification
or setting free from accusations, and which was
probably common to all similar customs. We find
a description of it in the Laxdsela Saga. " It was a
mode of setting one's-self free from accusations in
those times, for him to go under a strip of earth (J»at
var skirsla at ganga sky Idi undir jarbarmen) — a
strip of green-sward being thrown up in such a man
ner that the ends only rested upon the ground, while
he who was to clear himself from unfounded accus
ations (sa mabr er skirsluna skyldi fram fiytja) had
to pass under it. The heathens considered it no less
a case of conscience, when they had to pass through
this ceremony, than the Christians now esteem it
when similar modes of purification (skirslur) are ap
plied — as for instance, the ordeal of hot-iron (jarn-
burbr). He who passed under the strip of earth was
acquitted if the turf did not fall upon him," The
narration in the above-mentioned Saga, shows also
how much the heathens feared to submit to this
means of deUverance when they were not quite cer
tain themselves of the justice of their cause. The
account is as follows : — A certain Icelander of dis
tinction, Thorstein Surt, being by an unlucky acci-

260 RELIGION OF THE NORTHMEN.
dent drowned, with his family, the question arose
how his inheritance should be divided among his
relatives. A certain Thorkel TrefiU, whose wife
Gudrid was a near relative of Thorstein, and had
besides a sister among the drowned, wished to get
the whole inheritance. He therefore bribed the
only survivor of the shipwreck, a certain Gudmund,
to declare that the persons drowned had died in such
an order that Gudrid's sister, who died last, became
the heir of all the rest. Then after her death the
whole inheritance should fall to Gudrid. But Gud
mund had related the circumstances differently be
fore he had been bribed by Thorkel, and this being
rumored abroad, awakened some doubt in the minds
of the other heirs, as to the legaUty of Thorkel's
claim. They therefore demanded that Gudmund
should be subjected to the above-mentioned test in
order to confirm the truth of his later assertion.
The test .was accordingly decided upon. But as
Thorkel was conscious that the whole affair did not
hang rightly together, and consequently feared an
unfavorable issue of the test, he persuaded two men
to make a pretense of falling out in a quarrel at the
moment that Gudmund was creeping under the turf,
and to throw each other across it in such a way that
the bystanders could plainly see that it fell bytheir
fault. The plan was carried out successfully. Just
as Gudmund had come under the strip of green-turf
the preconcerted quarrel began, and both the com
batants fell over the turf, which naturally tumbled
down upon Gudmund. Thorkel now called upon
the bystanders to give their opinion of the test, and

OEDEALS. 261
they, being mostly his friends, declared with one
voice that it would have turned out favorable if it
had not been disturbed. It was decided accordingly
and Thorkel took possession of the inheritance.*
This ceremony was sometimes accompanied with
the taking of oaths, as was the case, for instance,
when two or more persons swore fellowship (fdstbrseb-
ra-lag) with each other. On this occasion they
sometimes passed under three such strips of turf f
This ceremony was also employed as a symbol of
humility, in which case the first strip was to be
raised as high as the shoulders, the second should
reach the hips, the third as high as the middle of the
thighs. Another kind of heathen ordeal may here be
mentioned in conclusion, which is spoken of in a
few places in the ancient Eddaic poems, namely, the
ceremony of clearing one's-self from an accusation
by taking up stones out of a boiling cauldron with
the bare hand, without injuring the hand. It is re
lated of King Atli's Queen, Gubrun, that when she
was accused of Ulicit intercourse with one King
Thjodrek, a guest at AtU's court, she desired to
prove her innocence by the means here spoken of.
The ordeal was performed with great solemnities.
The seething cauldron was consecrated by a certain
King who was skUled in such things, who had been
sent for on the occasion, and seven hundred of King
Atli's men were present in the hall where the ordeal
* Laxd. S. 18.
t FoBtbr, S, 1.
12*

262 EELIGIOH OF THE NORTHMEN,
took place. Gubriin took up the stones from the
bottom of the boiling cauldron with unscathed hand,
and was acquitted. But Herkja, Atli's mistress who
had accused the Queen, burned her hand when she
was subjected to the same ordeal,^ and in punishment
for her falsehood was cast into a pool and drowned.*
This whole affair, however, if indeed there be any
thing historical in the account, took place among
the German tribes. The ordeal may therefore have
been in use among them in heathen times, and
through them become known to the Northmen,
without having been employed by them. Not until
Christian times do we find with certainty that the
Northmen adopted this ordeal (ketilfang, or ketil-
tak),-f- which among the Germans was, like many
similar customs, carried over from heathendom to
Christianity, * The 0, Edda: GuSrilnarkv. HL
f EiSsiva Thing's Chr. Laws, 42 & ISTorw. Anc. Laws, I., p. 389,

SORCERY. 263

CHAPTEE XXIY.

BOEOBET.

The beUef in sorcery (fjolkyngi, gorningar)* was
universal among the heathen Northmen, and it had
its origin in the doctrine itself, which represents the
magic arts as an invention of the Asa-Gods.
They made a distinction between two kinds of
magic, viz,, galldr and seibr.
The name galldr may be derived from gala, to
sing, and thus denoted a kind of sorcery that was
performed by magic songs (gala or kveba galldra).
Its origin and dissemination was attributed to the
.^sir, and especially to Odin, who therefore was
also called galldrs fobur — the father of magic incan
tations. The men who cultivated this art were
called galldra-smibir or galldra-menn. The Eunes
occupied in this kind of sorcery an important place
as magic characters, and it appears that the magi-
* Fjolkyngi and fjolkunnigr — from fjold, a multitude, ^6L much,
many (Germ, viel), and kunna, to be able, to know — signify multi
farious knowledge, and much-knowin^g, and hence, magic, skilled
in magic. Gorningar (sing, gbrnjngr) from gora, to do, to make,
properly denotes actions, psyformanoes ; irhenoe, magic, arts:
witchcraft.

264 RELIGION OF THB NORTHMEN.
cian, while singing his incantations, mostly marked
or scored certain runic characters corresponding to
the effects which were desired from his sorcery.
Often the magic songs or incantations themselves
were called runes (runar). It was believed that by
such incantations they could protect themselves
against arms, undo chains, heal wounds and cure
diseases, extinguish fire and settle storms, gain
woman's love and wake up the dead in order to
learn of them the future.* In the Older Edda there
are several poems which allude to these things,
though often in a manner rather obscure to us, and
they even contain powerful incantations of this kind,
as well as instructions concerning the magic use of
Eunes ; for instance, in the Eunatals-f)attr Obins
(Odin's Eunic Lay) which forms the conclusion of
the Havamal (SubUme Discourse), Grougalldr
(Groa's Incantation), Sigrdrifumal (Sigurdrifa's
Song), &c. In the latter especially there is reckoned
up a whole lot of magic runes, such as runes of Yic
tory (sigrrunar) to be cut upon the sword for victory ;
Ale-runes (olrunar) to be carved upon the drinking
horn, or marked upon the back of the hand and on
the nails, in order to gain woman's love ; Safety or
Protection runes (bjargrunar) to be marked inside of
the hand of those who render assistance at the birth
of children; Surf-runes (brimrunar) to be carved
upon the ship's prow and rudder as a protection
against the raging of the sea ; Limb-runes (limrunar)
* These incantations were called valgalldr, probably because
they were chiefly used in calling up those fallen in battle (valr).

SOROERT. 266
to be made on bark or wood to insure a speedy and
favorable cure ; Speech-runes (malrunar), which
were to confer eloquence at the assemblies; Sense-
runes (hugrunar) which were to give understanding.
The poem clearly shows that these runes denoted in
cantations by means of magic songs and the inscrib
ing of magic characters. A story from Egil's Saga
may show what great faith the people had in the
power of these formulas and magic signs. Queen
Gunhilda wished to do harm to EgU at a banquet,
and for this purpose caused poisoned ale to be
offered to him. But Egil, who was suspicious of the
drink, scored runes upon the horn, then pricked the
inside of his hand with his knife and marked the runes
with blood, whereupon the hom bursted ahd the
drink fell on the floor.* It was, however, necessary
to be very careful in the application of these magic
speUs, for in the hands of a bungler who knew not
how to apply them properly, it was thought they
might become very dangerous. This appears in an
other place in the sanae Saga. When Egil was on a
journey in Norway, it is there related, he met with
a countryman's daughter who was lying very sick.
Her parents said they had appUed to a country lad
of the neighborhood for help, and he had carved
runes in order to cure her, but. she had onlyl)ecome
worse with them. Egil examined the bed in which
she lay, and found under the head a piece of whale
bone with runes engraved upon it. He read them and
found that they were incorrect. He scraped them
* Eg. S. 44.

266 RELIGION OF THE NOETHMEN.
off, bumed the scrapings in the fire and engraved
new runes, which he laid under her pillow. Imme
diately the girl awoke as if from a sleep, and
recovered her health.* A knowledge of incanta
tions and runes was not, as a general thing in
heathen times, held to be in any way ignoble, when
not applied to ignoble objects.
The term seibr, sometimes written seybr, appears
to be cognate with sjoba, to seethe, to boil, and in
this case would signify witchcraft, or sorcery which
was performed by the boiling of certain objects to
which superstition had imputed magic powers.
What these things were, is now no longer known ;
this was very naturally a secret of the initiated. In
the performance of witchcraft (at siba, efia seib)
there were a great many circumstances to be
attended to. It was mostly done at night, and those
who practiced it sat during the magic performances
upon a raised platform called the witches' seat (seib-
hjallr). The performance was also connected with a
magic song or incantation, and the melody of this
song was beautiful to hear. In the Laxdsela Saga
a magic performance of this kind is described. The
Icelandic chieftain Hrut Herjulfsson was on un
friendly terms with his kinsman Thorleik Hoskulds-
son. The latter wished to do some injury to Hriit,
and for that purpose employed his hireling Kotkel
and Grima his wife, both of whom were well skiUed
in magic, " Kotkel and Grima went in the night to
Hriit's house and estabUshed a great seibr. 'When
*Eg. S.78.

SOECEET. 267
the enchanting song (seiblsetin) began, the people in
the house could not imagine what it meant ; but
the song was beautiful to hear. Hrut alone knew
the song ; he forbade every one to look out of the
house during the night, and bade all to keep awake
as weU as they could, then no one could be harmed
by it. Nevertheless they all slept ; Hriit remained
awake the longest, but he, too, fell asleep at last.
Hrut's son Kari, who was then twelve years old, was
the most promising of his children and well beloved
by the father. The sorcery was directed upon him ;
he, therefore, could not sleep soundly, but became
more and more restless. Finally he sprang up and
looked out ; he drew near the place of the enchant
ment and fell down dead." Hrut afterward avenged
his son's death by causing Kotkel and Grima to be
stoned.* By means of these enchantments called seib, it
was beUeved that the sorcerer could call up storms
and all manner of injuries, transform himself into
the Ukeness of animals, and enable himself to fore
tell coming events. This art appears to have been
mostly employed for doing injury, and was con
sidered a far more ignoble art.than the incantations
(gaUdr). Its origin was ascribed to the Goddess
Freyja, and it appears to have been mostly practiced
by women, who were called witches (seibkona, plur.
seibkonur). The great abhorrence which many,
even in heathen times, had for this kind of sorcery,
is geen in King Harald Harfagri's proceedings
* Laxd. S, 37.

268 RELIGION OF THE NOETHMEN.
against his own son Eagnvald Eettilbein, whom he
put to death because he meddled with this kind of
witchcraft.* There are many kinds of sorcery mentioned in the
ancient Sagas without being expressly classed under
either of the above-named principal heads, but
which, doubtless, were in some way connected with
them more or less remotely. The most important
of them shaU here be cited.
Jugglery (sjonhverfingar, from sjon, si^t, and
hverfa, to turn) was performed by blinding the eyes
ofthe people with magic arts, so that certain objects
appeared to them totaUy different from what they
really were. This kind of sorcery is often spoken of
in the ancient Sagas as being employed by magicians
when they wished to conceal any person from hostile
pursuit, or to frighten his enemies. In such cases
the pursuers saw, as it is stated, an animal, a coffin,
or some other animate or inanimate object, in the
very place where the person was whom they were
looking for, while on the other hand they fancied
they saw troops of armed men coming to aid the one
they pursued, where there was nothing in reality
but a herd of cows or sheep. The magician was also
believed to have power to blind others in the same
manner with regard to himself But if the pursuers
either broke the inanimate thing in pieces or killed
the animal, under whose form they saw the real ob
ject, then their vision cleared up and they saw the
person in his true form lying dead. Certain people,
» Snor,: JIar, BSrf. S. 36.

BOECEEY, 269
however, were believed to possess such strong
natural powers that their eyes remained unbUnded
by this kind of sorcery,*
Intimately connected . with the above, was the
power, often mentioned in the Sagas, of becoming
invisible, through which the magician by his arts
could make himself or any one else that he chose
become totally invisible. He was then said to
"make a hiding-helmet" (gera huUbs-hjalm) for
himself or others. This kind of invisibiUty is some
times described as being produced by a sort of dust,
of the appearance of ashes, which the magician
scattered over and about those whom he wished to
conceal. The beUef in actual transformations, especially
into the forms of animals, was also universal. Such
transformations could either be brought upon others
to their injury — as, for instance, it is related of the
magic-skUled Queen Hvita, that in hatred to her
step-son who had rejected her love, she changed him
into a bear by the stroke of a wolf-skin glovef — or
they could be assumed by the magician himself, in
order that in his enchanted form he might pass more
easily and quickly to distant places. This latter
sort of transformation occurs most frequently in the
Sagas, and the joumey by this mode was designated
hamfor, gandreib, or, at renna gondum.:!: On such
* HorSs S., Eyrb. S. et aL
t Hr61fs Kraka S. 20.
X Hamfor — ^from hamr, outward form — denotes a joumey in an
assumed form. Gandr, a wolf, a dragon, and especially, a demon-
animal; gandreiS, the ride upon such animals, and renna gondum,
to travel upon them.

270 RELIGION OP THE NORTHMEN.
occasions the human body was believed to lie as if
dead or in an enchanted sleep, while the soul, en
closed in the form of a whale, a seal, a falcon, or
any other animal that might be found best adapted
to the object of its magic journey, roamed abroad in
other places. It was then necessary to be careful
not to speak the sorcerer's name nor wake up the
sleeping body, for by doing so the whole charm was
destroyed and the spirit was compelled to turnback
to its own proper habitation again. Should there be
any injury done to the assumed form — or, as it was
called, hamr — ^it affected the real body. Women
who undertook fhese enchanted flights in transfor
mation, were caUed hamhleypur (sing, hamhleypa,
a witch, a lamia ; from hcmvr, and hleypa, to run).
Certain women, it was believed, could transform
themselves into Nightmares (mara, or kveldriba),
and in this disguise smother people in their sleep, or
do them some other injury in the night.* Finally,
it was also admitted as a possibUity that people
could mutually exchange their outward appearance
(skipta litum). In all such transformations, how
ever, it appears that they beUeved the eyes — ^that
reflection of the human soul — ^to remain unchanged.
There was another species of charmed sleep be
side that above-mentioned, in which sorcerer's body
lay while his soul wandered abroad in an assumed
form, which it was believed the magicians could
bring upon others by pricking them with a so-called
soporific thom (svefii-forn). This enchanted sleep,
* The punishment for such women is established in the Anc
Laws of Norway, L, p. 403.

SOECEET. 271
it was thought, could not be released so long as the
thom remained lying on the' body of the spell-
boimd person, or cUnging to his clothes.
Some magicians were believed to have so great
power in their eyes that by the mere glance they
could turn the edge of a sword in battle, and also
with an eye-glance make the earth tremble and
be convulsed, scorch the grass, and frighten their
enemies out of their wife, so that they would run
hke hunted beasts, and even become changed into
brutes (in the Old-Norse, verba at gjallti, become
Bwine). In order to make this last-named sorcery
very effectual, it was necessary to throw their bodies
into the most unnatural positions, so that their
appearance should be the more frightful ; and their
success then depended very much on whether the
person who practiced the sorcery got to see his an
tagonist first; if the contrary happened, then the
charm lost all power. In the Yatnsdsela Saga, an
Icelandic sorceress named Ljot is described in an
undertaking of this kind. Her son HroUeif had
killed the chieftain Ingemund of Hof. The sons of
Ingemund, wishing to avenge their father's death,
set out for Ljot's abode with that intention. They
arrived just as the witch was busied in preparing a
sacrifice for the protection of her son, and they suc
ceeded in capturing HroUeif as he was leaving the
dwelling house to go into the house of sacrifice.
While they were making ready to slay him, one of
their company became aware of Ljot, whom he saw
coming toward them in the most hideous form. She
had thrown one foot over her head and went back-

272 EELIGION OF THE NORTHMEN.
wards upon one hand and foot, with her face stick-
out behind ; her eyes were hideous and demon-Hke.
This appearance did not, however, prevent the
brothers from putting HroUeif to death. Lj6t her
self was immediately seized. She now confessed
that it had been her intention to go in this manner
over the whole neighborhood and to drive the sons
of Ingemund out of their senses, so that they would
run crazy about the roads with the wild-beasts ; and
this would have happened if she had only seen tliem
before they got sight of her ; but now their attendant
spirit had been too powerful for her. They put Lj6t
to JeMh.* When the Icelandic chieftain Olaf Pa
surprised the dangerous sorcerer Stigandi sleeping,
he caused a skin to be dravm over his head in order
that his sight, when he awoke, should do no harm to
any one. But there happened to be a little hole in
the skin, and Stigandi cast his eyes out through this
over a beautiful, grassy mountain-slope which was
opposite. Instantly it appeared as though a whirl
wind had broken loose upon this spot and tumed the
earth up-side-down in such a manner that from that
time there was never any more grass grew upon it.
Stigandi was stoned to death by Olaf and his men.f
The same precaution as that here mentioned was
employed by the renowned sorceress GunhUda,
afterward the queen of Eirik Blood-axe, when she
betrayed the two Finns who had instructed her in
magic arts, and whose sight, it was said, was so
* Vatnsd. S. 26 ; compare Gull])6ri8 gaga.
t Laxd. S. 38,

soeceKt. ^73
sharp when they were angry that the earth was torn
up by' it, and any living being that met them fell
down dead. She drew two seal-skins over their
heads and then let King Eirik's men kill them.*
Enchanted food and drink are mentioned in
many places both in the old Eddaic poems and in
the Sagas. It was believed that, by means of such
food or drink, the dispositions of men could be
changed, courage and ferocity awakened, or forget
fulness induced. The flesh, and especiaUy the
heart and blood of certain strong and wild animals
— ^wolves, for instance — when used as food, were re
garded as a means of making men bold and cruel.
To obtain a charmed drink, they mingled together a
variety of things which superstition had endowed
with magic powers; runes were also employed —
sometimes read as 'magic formulas over the potion,
sometimes carved upon wood or bone and cast into
it. The term enchanted drink was also frequently
understood to mean a poisonous drink.
The belief in enchanted clothing and armor was
hkewise very prevalent. Clothes were enchanted,
either to secure the wearer against wounds or to
bring injury or death upon him. It is said of the
chieftain Thorer Hund, that he had several reindeer
frocks (hreinbj alfar) made for himself by the Finns,
which were charmed in such a manner that no
weapon could take effect upon them ; and in the
battle by Stiklastad one of these frocks protected
him against the sword of Olaf the Saint, when the
* Snor.! Har. ffirf. S. 34.

274 EELIGION OF THB NOETHMEN,
king hewed him right over the shoulders, "The
sword did not bite ; it seemed only to raise the dust
on the reindeer frock,"* The Orkneian Jarl Harald
Hakonsson died, it is stated, by dressing himself in
charmed clothing made by his own mother and her
sister, but which was intended for his step-brother
Pal Jarl.f Swords were sometimes so charmed,
say the accounts, that success in battle always fol
lowed the men who wielded them, and the
wounds they made could not be healed until
they were touched by a so-called life-stone Qifstpinn),
which accompanied the sword. In the use of this
kind of charmed swords, there •were many things to
be observed when they were to. have the proper
effect. Thus, for example, the renowned sword
Skofnung, which was taken out of Hrolf Kraki's
burial mound, was not to be drawn in the presence
of woman, nor so that the sun could shine upon the
hilt, or it would lose somewhat of its pecuhar
virtue.:!: Magic-skilled women used sometimes to pass their
hands over the bodies of persons going to battle, in
order to discover by this means what place upon
them was most liable to be wounded. It was be
lieved that they could feel a protuberance in every
such place, and then a special protective remedy
was applied to the spot. If no such protuberance
was perceived, it was thought, accordingly, that no
danger was to be apprehended,
* Snor.: Ol.'Hel. S. 204, 240.
t Orkney. S. p. 144.
X Laxd. S. 67.

SOECEET, 275
A pecuUar kind of sorcery was the so-caUed sit-
ting-out (litiseta, at sitja liti), in which the magician
sat out at night under the open sky, and by certain
magic performances now no longer known, perhaps
most frequently by incantations (gaUdur), was be
heved to call up evil spirits (vekja upp troll) or
awaken the dead in order to consult them. It was
especiaUy to inquire into the future that this kind
of sorcery was resorted to. An invocation of the
dead, not just for this object, but which was to clear
up an affair concerning which there was some doubt
of gaining light by natural means, is described in
the Fsereyinga Saga. The crafty Thrond of Gata,
an inhabitant of the Faroes, who it appears had
been forced to accept baptism although he was still
a rank heathen at heart, wished to find out how the
renowned hero Sigmund Brestarsson had met with
his death ; whether he had been drowned while
attempting with two others to escape by swimming
from Thrond's pursuit, or whether he had reached
the land and was killed there. For this purpose he
had a great fire kindled in the presence of a large
concourse of people, and set up four panels of lattice
work in a square around the fire, and traced nine
sentences (reitar) upon the earthen floor around the
inclosure. He then seated himself upon a chair
between the fire and the raiUng, and forbade the
bystanders to speak. After he had been sitting
thus a long time, the ghosts of Sigmund's two com
panions, who were dripping wet, made their appear
ance, went up to the fire and warmed themselves,
and then passed out again. At length came Sig-

276 EELIGION OE T&E NORTHMEN.
mund himself, bloody and bearing his head in his
hand ; he stood a good whUe upon the floor and
then left the room. Thrond now rose up groaning
with fatigue, and declared himself to be convinced
by the vision that Sigmund's companions were
drowned, but that he himself had reached the land
and there met with a violent death,*
It was believed that sorcerers could obtain great
assistance from certain animals. Thus we find fre
quent mention of the art of interpreting the voice of
birds, as a means of important discoveries. The
crow was in this respect a bird of great significance,
and that the raven was so, ia-to be inferred from the
myth of Odin's news-bringing ravens. The cat is
also mentioned as an animal speciaUy loved by
sorcerers. The magic-skilled Icelander Thorolf
Skeggi, of Yatnsdal, is said to have had no less than
twenty large black cats, that bravely defended their
master when he was attacked by the Sons of Inge
mund of Hof, and gave eighteen men enough to
do.f Although people were not wanting among the
Northmen who, by a more than ordinary knowledge
of the powers of nature, made their superstitious
contemporaries beUeve that they were skilled in
magic, yet the Finns were even in a remote
antiquity looked upon as the chief masters in
sorcery, with whom even the Norsemen, who
wished to perfect themselves more fully in the art,
* Fwreylnga S, 40.
t 'Vatnsd. S. 28;

soeOert. 277
went formally to school. The famous Queen Gun.
hilda, who was sent in her youth to Finnmark in
order to leam witchcraft, may serve as an instance.
Finns Skilled in magic were often sent for and con
sulted, when any important magic operation was to
be performed. They were regarded as especially
capable of undertaking the so-called hamfarir, or
magic fiights in transformation.
In heathen times the magicians were often prose
cuted, and even tried before the courts, and punish
ed by a sentence of law ; but this was not actually
done because they practiced sorcery, but because it
was believed that they could be convicted of having
done harm with their sorcery. It is spoken of as a
universal custom to stone evil-disposed sorcerers and
witches. It was not to be expected that Christianity should
be able to tear out at once the deep-rooted faitli of
the Northmen in Sorcery, especially when not only
the first Christian teachers, but also the clergy
throughout all the Middle Ages, were as fully con
vinced of the existence of sorcery as the heathens
were. The only difference between them was, that
the teachers of Christianity regarded it as an
abomination, a work of the devil, which they should
strive to check, even by application of the severest
measures ; while the Asa-faith, on the contrary, repre
sented it to be a knowledge imparted to man by the
Gods themselves, a knowledge, therefore, which, by
its abuse only, could deserve punishment. Of the
belief of the Christian teachers in sorcery, and their
zeal to eradicate it, there is abundant evidence
13

278 EELIGION OF THE NOETHMEN.
furnished by the penal decrees on that subject
which are found in the ancient Norwegian church
laws. But how strictly soever the laws of the
church may have forbidden all practice of sorcery,
there were still many Northmen who continued, for
a long time after the fall of the Asa-faith, to look
upon witchcraft as an art which it was profitable to
cultivate.

EXPLORING The future, 279

CHAPTEE XXV,
EXPLORING THE FUTURE; DIVINATION,
The investigation of the Future was most inti
mately connected with Sorcery,
The heathen Northmen believed that there were
means by which man could prevail on the Gods to
raake known their will, or to reveal things which
otherwise, in the order' of Nature, must remain hid
den from the human understanding. This kind of
inquiry was named, sometimes, frett — an interroga
tion, investigation — (from fretta, to ask), and to un
dertake it wag " at ganga til frettar," to consult the
oracle ; and sometimes it was termed spa, or plural,
spar — ^prophecy, divination — and to make applica
tion to it was "at spyrja spa," to inquire out the
prophecy — or " at lyba spam," to listen to prophe-
ciejp. Concerning the mode in which this kind of
inquiry into the Future took place, our old manu
scripts give no special information. It appears to
have been most usual for the explorer of the Future,
while invoking or sacrificing to a deity, either to
demand as a response some signal which he left to
the God himself to decide upon, and which he

280 RELIGION OF T'HE NORTHMEN,
recognized in any remarkable event occurring a*
the time, and then interpreted in such a mode as
appeared most probable according to the circum
stances, or else to decide upon the signal himself
by which the divinity was to answer him.
We have seen ^at the zealous Asa-worshiper Ha
kon Jarl made use of the former mode when he
sacrificed to Odin before his bold march through
Gothland, and he interpreted it as a promise from
the God of success in the expedition, when two
ravens during the sacrifice came flying along and
screaming loudly. When the Icelandic chieftain
Thorkel the Tall invoked the God Frey for ven
geance upon his enemy Yiga-Glum, and at the same
time demanded a signal that the God had heard his
prayer, he regarded it as a favorable response of
Frey when the ox, which he had led out as an offer
ing, immediately fell with loud bellowing upon the
ground and died,* The latter mode we find appUed
by the emigrating Northmen, in choosing their
places of residence in foreign lands by direction of
the Sacred Columns, In this they believed that the
God, whom they invoked beforehand, directed the
columns to a place where a prosperous abode was
vouchsafed to them and their descendants.
An important ceremony of measurement which
was employed in building a new house, in order to
find out what fortune was in store in it for its future
occupants, was also of the same character. This
ceremony was performed by measuring the founda-
* Viga-Gl. S. 9.

EXPLORING THE FUTURE. 281
tions repeatedly — say three times — and very care
fully noting whether there was any difference in
dimensions between the first and last measurement.
If the last was greatesc they believed it to forbode
increasing prosperity to the occupant of the house ;
but if the contrary happened, th^n they believed it
would always go down-hill with him.
The second above-mentioned mode of consulting
the Gods appears to have been the most generally
employed. Two kinds of exploration of the future
are mej>tioned in the Sagas, which may be referred
to this class, namely, by means of sacred leaves or
slips (blotspdnn) and by prophetic lots (hlotar or
hlutar), both, doubtless, a species of lot-casting in
principle, but practiced by different modes.
To consult the Gods by the first-named species of
oracle was " at fella blotspann," i. e., to drop the
sacred leaves. Although, this is very often men
tioned in the old manuscripts, yet the details are no
where described. We must, therefore, be content
with probable conjectures to which the ancient
name, compared with descriptions of similar modes
of consulting the Gods among people nearly related
to the Northmen, may lead us.
The expression " at fella blotspann " seems to im
ply that the exploration was effected by the casting
of consecrated slips or pieces of wood.
We find the casting of lots (Sortilegium, of the Eo
mans) employed as -a means of divination among
many of the nations of antiquity — the Greeks,
Eomans, Scythians, Alani, Germans, and others.
Ofthe mode of foretelUng events by casting lots, as

282 RELIGION OP THE NOETHMEN.
employed by the Germans, the near kinsmen of the
Northmen, we find the following account by Taci
tus : " They (the Germans) pay strict attention to
omens and the casting of lots (sortes). The usual
mode of casting lots (sortium consuetudo) is simple.
A bough cut from a fruit-tree is divided into small
slips (surculos), which are marked, each with its
sign, and cast out at random upon a white cloth.
Thereupon the State Priest, if the consultation be
pubUc, or the master of the household himself, if it
be private, makes a prayer to the Gods, arid, with
eyes uplifted toward heaven, takes up every twig
three times, and explains them according to the
marks set beforehand upon them,"* Of the Alani
it is said by Ammianus Marcellinus, " They explore
the future by a remarkable method. They collect
osier twigs (virgas vimineas) which are tolerably
straight, scatter them about for a certain time, whUe
they sing mysterious incantations, and then they
know with certainty what they signify."f By this
is meant, no doubt, that after thus scattering" the
twigs about, they foretold the future by the relative
positions in which they settled.
If we tum to these descriptions for explanation of
the old Norse expression, "at fella blotspann," it
will appear highly probable that this expression de
notes a prophetic lot-casting precisely similar to
that employed by the Germans and Alani. Besides,
if we take into consideration the use which the hea
then Northmen made of runes, as weU as the nature

* Tacitus : Germ. o. 10.
f Ammian., lib. 31, c. 2.

DIVINATION. 283
of these characters, this supposition is strengthened,
and even passes over into a certainty.
Of the employment of runes in sorcery as magic
characters, we have before spoken ; that they were
also applied to the art of divination, so nearly allied
to sorcery, can hardly be doubted. Each runic
character has a name denoting some object of im
portance in Ufe, something to be desired or feared,
concerning which it might, therefore, be desirable to
consult the Gods. Thus, for instance, the name of
the character A is ar, a year, fruitfulness ; I is is,
ice ; F is fe, cattle, money, (pecus, pecunia), &c.
Moreover, all runes are formed by a combination of
right lines, 'Whence no doubt their name stafir, sing.,
stafr, a staff, stave. Thus, when a number of straight
sticks were thrown up, thej' might very easily fall
in such relative positions toward one another, as to
form runic characters, and from the significant
names of these figures a prophecy could be traced
out. No doubt an improvement was afterward
made in the matter, by carving a rune npon each of
the sticks. By scattering them and afterward
either blindly picking them up one by one, after the
manner of the Germans, or by viewing their rela
tive positions as a whole, it was easy to fabricate
a prophecy quite satisfactory to the superstition of
the times.
Such was, beyond aU doubt, the nature of the
divination by blotspann employed by the heathen
Northmen. That they also invoked the Gods
thereby, and sang magic songs and incantations,
Uke the Germans and Alani, is highly probable.

284 EELIGION OF THE NOETHMEN.
The second species of exploring the future, i. e.,
by means of divination-lots, is found more minutely
described in the Sagas. In the three most detailed
accounts we have of the invasion of Norway by the
Jomsburg sea-rovers, it is related how Hakon Jarl,
in order to gain over the Skald Einar, afterward
surnamed Skalaglam, presented to him a costly
divining-balance, with the accompanying weights.
The best descriptions of this divining apparatus
are in this wise : " Then the Jarl (Hakon) takes a
good balance-scale (skalir gobar) which he had in
his possession. It was made of burnished silver and
was all gilt. With it there were two weights (met),
the one of gold, the other of silver, upon each of
which there was a figure wrought (a human figure,
according to the other two accounts). They were
called hlotar (by the others, hlutar) and were in
reality lot-casting weights (hlutir; Latin, sortes)
such as people of that time used to have. A great
power lay hidden in them, and on all occasions
which were deemed by the Jarl to be of importance,
he made use of these weights. He would then place
them in the scales, appointing at the same time
what each one was to decide for him ; and always
when the throwing tumed out weU, and the one
came up that he desired, the weight indicating his
choice was restless in the scale and turned gently
about in it so as to give out a cUnking sound. This
treasure the Jarl gives to Einar, and Einar is greatly
rejoiced therewith."*
* J6msviklnga S. 43 in Fornm. S. XI. p. 128.

DIVINATION. 285
This sketch, although not in every way satisfac
tory, gives an idea of fhe divination-weights of the
heathen Northmen. We may imagine the two
weights to have been precisely equal, and the
balance upon which they were thrown very deli
cate and easily turned. The one was made to de
note what tlje person wished for, the other, what
he did not wish. It was probably imagined that
that would happen which the weight that rose up in
the balance indicated ; and which of the weights
this might be depended entirely upon chance. The
human figure, said to have been stamped upon the
weights, probably denoted the divinity from whom
they demanded a response by the casting of the lots.
The special power that lay in Hakon Jarl's divin-
ing-weights, appears to have been chiefly in the
sound which it was imagined was to be heard in
the scales when the good weight came up.
They also sought information concerning the
future from men who, by being gifted with superior
powers — and this mostly by the aid of magic
means — were believed to be able to penetrate the
hidden decrees of Fate.
Seers (menn frams^nir, menn forspair) are fre
quently mentioned in our ancient Sagas. Their gift
of foreseeing and foretelling certain things was
usually regarded as inborn. .What brought them
into repute was, doubtless, in most cases, a keen un
derstanding, a more than ordinary knowledge of
nature, a deeper insight into human character, and
an attentive observance of past and present events
in their causes and effects. More was not required
13*

286 EELIGION OF THE NOETHMEN.
in those unenlightened times to bring one into notice
as a prophet or prophetess, especially when a certain
natural or assumed mysteriousness, and a wise ap
plication of circumstances, were added. Such seers
were believed to have a presentiment of coming
events of importance, and to be able to see by one's
features and ftianners what his fate would be. That
both these species of prophecy should often hit the
mark is not so wonderful, when we consider on one
hand the intimate relation between the Past and
Future, and on the other, how strongly the character
of a people of inferior cultivation is usually ex
pressed in their features, and also how common it is
that a man's disposition shapes his good or evil
destiny. Whatever might be wanting in the accu.
racy ofthe supposed prophecies, was fiUed out by the
superstition of the age, which often, when the event
had actually happened, involuntarily adapted to it
the words with which the seer might be supposed to
have announced it beforehand. His fame thus grew
sometimes without his own cooperation; his con
temporaries listened to every expression that fell
from his lips, as "to the response of an oracle, and
After-ages ascribed to him prophecies which in all
probability never came from his lips.
Many of the seers of heathen times believed, pro
bably by the aid of a certain enthusiasm, that they
actually received higher revelations, but there were
also many, doubtless, who were fully conscious of the
true state of the case with their gifts of prophecy.
It is, however, easy to imagine that the latter seldom
opposed the superstition concerning their superna-

DIVINATION. 287
tural poM^ers, for the distinction which the fame of
their prophetic faculty conferred upon them was too
alluring, and they were also influenced by baser
motives. A good prophecy was mostly well re
warded, while a prophecy of evil was 'a grand
medium for striking terror where revenge and de
light in mischief could not by any better means be
appeased. Those who made a source of gain of their sup
posed gift of prophecy, willingly took refuge in the
magic arts in order to increase their fame. In
cantations, witchcraft, transformations, nocturnal
sittings, and similar magic performances were the
means by which they made the people, and perhaps
themselves, beUeve that they received their revela
tions. All such arts were believed to cause no
trifling exertions to the one who practiced them, and
they had, therefore, to be well paid for. The Finns,
both men and women, were also regarded as espe
cially skiUed in penetrating the future.
Of those among the Northmen of Antiquity who
made a business of foretelling the future, the most
remarkable were the so-called Yalas (Yala or
Yolva, plur. Yolvur), or the Spse-wives (Spakonur),
on accounj; of the extraordinary lionor they univer
sally enjoyed. The Yalas are mentioned in the
poems of the Older Edda, and the most remarkable
of these poems is ascribed to such a prophetess,
whence its name — Yoluspa, the Prophecy of the
Yala— is derived. It appears that they were some
times called Noms, and regarded as a kind of
superior, semi-godUke beings, as bodily revelations

288 RELIGION OF THE NORTHMEN.
of the subordinate Noms, which, according to the
Asa-faith, were sent out from the three great God
desses of Fate at Urdar's Fount, to measure out the
Ufe of individual men and appoint their fate, which
they consequently were able to announce before
hand. But so high a conception of the Noms was
hardly maintained during the heathen ages, espe
cially in the latter years ; yet they were always
looked upon as most remarkable beings, who at
least were considered to be under the special pro
tection of the great Norns, and to receive revela
tions from them. Men, therefore, not only listened
with eagerness to their prophecies, but they also
rejoiced at their good wishes and feared their
curses ; for to both had been ascribed extraordinary
power. For this reason people took all possible
pains to make the Yala, whom they wished to con
sult, incline propitiously towards them and their
house. The Yala wandered by invitation from
house to house, and everywhere people vied with
each other in doing honor to her while she staid, and-
in bestowing rich gifts upon her at her departure
Her dress and address were calculated to attract
attention. A seat of distinction was ready for her
wherever she came, and magic performances, such
as seibr and galldr, were practiced as preUminary
measures for opening her prophetic vision.
The Saga of Eirik the Eed contains a very de
tailed account of a Yala and her proceedings,
during her visit to Thorkel, a distinguished chieftain
among the Norwegian settlers of Greenland in the
later heathen times. "At that time," it is stated.

DIVINATION. 289
" there was a great famine in Greenland. Those
who had gone to the wild districts (hunting and
fishing), had met with Uttle success, on account of
storms and bad roads. Some had never returned.
There was a woman living in the settlement, whose
name was Thorbjorg ; she was a Spae-wife, and was
called the little Yala or Prophetess (litil-volva).
She had had nine sisters, of whom she was the only
survivor. Thorbjorg was in the habit 5f going
round to the festivals, and she was invited chiefly
by those who wished to .learn their fate and the
coming seasons. As Thorkel was the best man of
the settlement, it seemed to be incumbent upon him
to gajn. some information when the prevailing
famine should cease. Thorkel therefore invites the
Spa^-wife to his house and prepares for her a good re
ception, such as was customary when a woman of
her standing was expected. A cushion was pre
pared for her; it had to be stuffed with hen-
feathers. It was laid upon the high-seat in the
evening, when she came in with the man who had
been sent out to receive her. She was dressed on
this occasion as follows : — She wore a blue cloak
with fastenings of cords (tyglarmotuU), set with
stones around the border from top to bottom (alt i
skaut ofan). Around her neck she had glass beads ;
upon her head a black lambskin hood (kofri), lined
with white catskin. She carried a staff mounted
with brass, with the head inlaid with stones. She
was girded with a young bearskin belt (hiinskan
Unda), and to this hung a large pouch in which she
kept the instruments of magic belonging to her

290 RELIGION OF THE NORTHMEN.
occupation. On her feet she wore shaggy calfskin
shoes with long, heavy thongs, on the ends of which
were large brass buttons (latuns kn appar). She had
catskin gloves upon her hands, white vrithin and
shaggy. When she entered, every one felt it a duty
to greet her with reverence; she returned their
salutations according to what she thought of each
one indiyiduaUy. Thorkel took the wise woman
(visinda konunni) by the hand and conducted her to
the seat prepared for her. He requested her to
cast her eyes over (renna augum yfir) his herds and
property and house. She said but little conceming
all this. In the evening the tables were set, and
now it shall be told what dishes were made ready
for the Spae-wife. There was groats, made of goats'
milk (kiba mjolk); but her food was prepared fi-om
the hearts of every kind of animal that there was in
the neighborhood. She had a brass spoon, and a
knife of copper with a shaft of walrus-tooth and a
double sheath (knif tannskeptan tviholkaban af
eiri); the point of it was broken off. When the
tables were cleared, Thorkel Bondi goes up to Thor
bjorg and asks what she thinks ofthe house and the
appearance of the people, and also how soon she
will have a revelation concerning the things he has
asked her about and which the people are all
anxious to know. She answers that she cannot
make this known before morning, after she has
slept there over night. Early in the morning all
the arrangements were made for her which belong
to the incantations of Seibr, She then asked them
to fumish her with "women who knew the magic

DIVINATION, 291
formulas (frsebi) of that ceremony, and who are
called Yarblokur, i. e., the Watch-guard ; but none
could be found who knew it, although inquiry was
made at all the neighboring houses. Then Gubrib,
a young girl who was present, said, 'I am not
skilled in magic nor any wise woman; but my
foster-mother in Iceland taught me a formula, which
she caUed Yarblokur,' Thorkel said, 'Thou art
wiser than I' thought,' Gubrib answered, 'This
formula and the proceedings connected with it are
of such a character that I cannot be present to assist
with them ; for I am a Christian,' Thorkel repUed,
'Thou couldst help us in this matter without harm
ing thyself thereby; I should be glad to furnish
Thorbjorg with whatever is necessary,' He then
persuaded Gubrib so long that she at length
promised to fulfill his wishes. Now Thorbjorg sat
upon the witch-seat (seibhjallr), and the women
formed a circle around her, Gubrib sang the song
so beautifully and so well, that no one of the by
standers thought they had ever heard a fairer song.
Even the Spae-wife thought the song was beautiful
to hear, and thanked her for it when it was done,
'Now,' says Thorbjorg, 'I have reflected on the
matter, how it will be both with the sickness and
with the seasons ; and much has now been made
clear to me that before was hidden from me and
from others,' She then foretold that the famine
and sickness which were raging, should both disap
pear in the spring. To Gubrib she prophesied, in
return for the services she had rendered, a very
happy fate in the futi^re, and also that a renowned

292 RELIGION OF THE NOETHMEN,
family (the Sturlungs of Iceland) should be descend
ed from her. Afterward aU the company went one
after the other to the Spae-wife and consulted her
about the future matters which they wished to
know ; and she gave them deflnite answers. Soon
afterwards she was invited to another house, and
went thither; but her prophecies concerning the
coming events of the year were entirely fulfilled,"*
The truth of this description is confirmed by the
accounts — more imperfect, it is true — which are re
corded of the Yalas in other Sagas, Thus Orvar-
Odd's Saga relates of Heib, a Yala and Witch of
Norway, that she wandered around to the festivals
attended by fifteen boys and fifteen girls. She fore
told the pecuUarities of the seasons and the destiny
of men. When she came by invitation to the house
of Ingjald, he went out with all his attendants to
meet her. After the evening meal, when the
house-folk had retired to bed, the Yala and her
companions set about their nocturnal vigils (for til
nattfarsseibs.) In the morning, the people of the
house came in one after another before her seat and
listened to her prophecies. After a sojourn of three
days she departed with rich gifts,t We here see
that it was customary to practice seib during the
night, before the solemn prophecies were to be
uttered in the moming. The boys and girls who
accompanied Heib were, doubtless, to form the circle
around the watches' seat and to sing the enchanting
* Saga af Eiriki EauSa, 5,
t Orv. Odds S. 8,

DIVLNATION. 293
song. A Yala's train in Norway could of course
be far more splendid and awe-inspiring than in the
poor and thinly-settled Greenland. The Yatnsdsela
Saga represents the Icelandic Spae-wife Thordis as
being so highly esteemed, that even at the assem
blies she was chosen arbitrator in the most import
ant cases. Her dress was a black hooded-cloak
(kufl), and her staff Hangnubr was believed to have
the power to impart forgetfulness to any man who
was touched by it three times upon the left cheek,
but it would restore his memory when he was
struck by it three times upon his right cheek,*
The staff (seibstafr, voir) appears, on the whole, to
have been the Yala's most important mark of
dignity, which was even to accompany her into the
grave. Some have also supposed that the name
Yala stands in connection with voir, a stick.
Something remains to be said, in conclusion, con
cerning the heathen Northmen's belief in dreams
and omens.
To all dreams that appeared in any way unusual
they gave a meaning, and the people who were
thought to possess special gifts in interpreting them
were called draumspekingar, i. e.. Dream-wise,
But the interpretation was mostly very arbitrary,
and it is, indeed, probable that the greater part of
the significant dreams which the Sagas can give
account of, were invented, or at least greatly em
bellished, after the event which they are said to
have foreboded had already taken place. The
* Vatnsd. S. 2.

294 EELIGION OP THE NOETHMEN.
significant revelations in dreams made by the Fyl
gjur have been afready mentioned,* There was
often a great diversity of opinion concerning the
manner in which a dream should be interpreted ;
an example may show how uncertain the interpreta
tions mostly were. An Icelandic chieftain named
Thorkel Silfra dreamed, on the night before he
expected to be chosen Gobi in Yatnsdal, that he
rode through the valley upon a red horse so swiftly
that t^p horse's feet scarcely touched the ground.
He interpreted the dream to refer to the new
dignity which he had in expectation. But his wife
was of another mind, " A horse," said she, " is caUed
by another name, mar ; but mar signifies also a
man's Fylgja, and that which is bloody appears red,''
From this she explained the meaning to be, that
Thorkel would be killed at the meeting, which also
happened,f It was also a very ancient superstition
that people did not have equally significant dreams
in aU places. What was presented to one when he
slept in a new house, was thought deserving of
special attention. Some, again, used to sleep in a
pig-sty in order to obtain revelations in their
dreams. The history of King Halfdan Svarti, who
in this manner received information of the future
greatness of his family, is well known,:]:
Concerning omens (fyrirburbir), which appear to
have been presented to people in a waking state,
both in visions and by other means, there are like-
» Chap.XVnL
t Vatnsd. S. 42.
X Snor.: HSlfd. St. S. 7.

DIVINATION. 295
.wise many accounts in the Sagas. Certain omens,
it was beUeved, were repeated before events of a
corresponding character. Thus it was thought to
denote a near-approaching violent death when a
person saw his own Fylgja bloody. The wise Ice
landic chieftain Nial said to his workman Thord,
when the latter seemed to see a goat Ue bleeding in
his yard : " That is neither a goat nor anything else,
but thou art a doomed man; thou hast seen thy
Fylgja."* The same was the case when any one
seemed to see blood upon the table instead of food,
or when the portion of food assigned to him vanished.
It was a universal belief that as an omen of a near-
approaching bloody battle, blood sometimes dripped
from axes, swords, or spears, or that there was a
loud singing in those weapons when men were tak
ing them up to arm themselves. With this class of
omens may be reckoned the so-called Urdar Moon
(urbarmani) which was believed to forebode a great
mortaUty in the place where it appeared. This ap
pearance is described in the Eyrbyggja Saga : " One
evening as the people of Froda (an estate in western
Iceland) were sitting around the fire, .they saw a
haU-moon upon the wall. All who were in the
house could see it. This moon passed backward
from the sun around the house, and did not vanish
so long as the people sat by the fire, Thorodd, the
master of the house, asked Thorir Trefot what this
could indeed mean, Thorir answered that it was
Hrdar moon, and that it foreboded death. On every
* Niils S. 41.

296 ,• RELIGION OF THE NORTHMEN.
evening during a whole week this moon made its
appearance."* The name Hrbarmani seems to indi
cate that it was regarded as a sign from the Norns,
or from the highest Norn Urbur.
There were other omens which were beUeved to
be peculiar to certain remarkable events. Such are
repeatedly mentioned in the Sagas, and it mostly
belongs to the history of every event of more than
usual importance in pubUc or private life, to have
some omen brought up as going before it. Some
times there are accounts of the revelations of super
natural beings, who by significant but enigmatical
songs announced what was to happen, whUe at other
times the omens consisted only of strange sights in
the air or upon the earth.
Finally, they often perceived omens in quite natural
occurrences, which were expounded by certain
established rules, according to the circumstances of
the case. Thus when they marched out to battle it
was considered a good omen if they saw a raven fly
ing in the same direction, or if they perceived two
men standing in conversation, or heard a wolf howl ;
but if any one stumbled in going out to battle, it
was thought to forebode evil. When a man was
slain by arms aud fell forwards, it was accepted as
an omen that he should be avenged ; and the ven
geance, it was beUeved, would strike the one who
stood directly before him when he fell.
* Eyrb. S. 72.

OTHER SUPERSTITIONS . 297

CHAPTEE XXYI, '

OTHER SUPERSTrnONS,

Beside the belief in sorcery and divination, many
other superstitions prevailed among the heathen
Northmen which were either directly or indirectly
connected with their religion.
First in this connection may be noticed the differ
ent kinds of supernatural beings with which their
imagination peopled the mountains, the interior of
the earth, and the seaj beings which have been
alluded to above only in a partial manner, in so far
as they appear in the Asa Mythology in a higher
mythic significance or as they were objects of popu
lar worship.
The strongest and most terrible of these beings
were the Jotuns or Giants, who were also caUed Ei-
sar, Thursar, Troll, Bergbuar, and their wives were
named TroUkonar and Gygar, The mythic signifi
cance of these beings has been already spoken of,*
They were represented, to be shapeless giants, of a
dark and hideous aspect. Their usual dwelling
place was thought to be in the wild mountains.
They were, it is certain, most usually imagined to
» Chap, XII. and XVIII.

298 RELIGION OF THE NORTHMEN,
be the enemies of mankind, a representation which
most nearly coincides with the manner in which
they manifest themselves in the Asa Mythology, but
it was also beUeved that people could sometimes
make friends of them, and then these mountain
genii became the trusty guardians of house and pro
perty. They were believed to shun the Ught of the
sun, and if the sun surprised them out of their moun
tain homes, they were transformed to stone. The
Troll-women were represented as most frequently
making their appearance in riding upon wolves,
with serpents for their bridle's,
A peculiar kind of Thurs or Demon is mentioned
under the name of Brunnmigi, which was beUeved
to dwell in the springs and streams that gush out of
moimtains. The name signifies one who makes
water in. the fountains, and it seems in this connec
tion to indicate that to this kind of genius was as
cribed the origin of all mineral or ill-tasted, ill-scented
waters. This also agrees with the myth of the salt-
ness of the sea being produced by beings of Jotun
nature.* It was supposed that the Thursar and human
beings could form marriage connections with each
other, and hence arose a blended race, the so-called
blendingar (hybrids) who retained, both in charac
ter and appearance, something that gave evidence
of their twofold origin. By being afterwards united
with mankind through many generations, the Thursar
nature of these hybrids could by degrees be wom
* The L. Edda: Skdlda 43.

OTHBE SUPEESTITIONS. 299
away. Such a descent was no doubt conferred upon
the men who received the surname of HalftroU. A
giant-like, hideous appearance and a ferocious dis
position may have given cause for such an idea, es
pecially when those quaUties were hereditary
through several generations of one family.
The belief in Dwarves as inhabitants ofthe interior
of the earth and especially of large isolated rocks,
was likewise a direct offshoot of the Asa-Mythology,
These beings were considered to be great artists
in preparing metals. Weapons of remarkably good
properties were said to be produced from their sub
terranean workshops. The Dwarves, like the Jo
tuns, could not endure the sunlight; they became
turned into stone if they were approached by its
rays while out- of their dwellings,* It was also be
Ueved that if a man met a dwarf away from his rock,
and should throw steel between him and his home,
he could close up his habitation to him and thereby
become able to extort from him whatever he wished-
As Echo in the Old-Norse was called " Dwarf lan"
guage " (dvergmal), it is highly probable that the
people imagined it to be produced by the Dwarves
living within the mountains, who imitate^the sound
they heard without.
Although the Dwarves in the Asa doctrine have
a very important mythic signification, yet they ap
pear to have been in general quite as little an object
of worship among the Northmen as were the Jotuns.
It was only when a Jotun or a Dwarf was occa-
* The 0. Edda : AlvismSl, 36.

300 EELIGION OF THE NOETHMEN.
sionaUy looked up to as the guardian spirit of a cer
tain estate or a certain district, that he could be wor
shiped in the character of " Land Guardian." The
same might be the case with beings of the Dwarf
race when they were regarded as the Disir of par
ticular persons or families.
In regard to other supernatural beings who lived
in the popular belief, their connection with the Asa
doctrine is not so easily seen. Such are the Mer
men and Mermaids, the Nykar, Finngalknar' and
Dragons. The Merman was called Marmennill. His form
and appearance are nowhere described. The most
remarkable attribute of this being was his gift of
prophecy. It was believed that if a man should be
so fortunate as to fish up a merman from the sea, he
could compel him to foreteU his destiny. The Mar
mennill could also live awhile upon dry land, but
it took no pleasure in that kind of life, and pined for
its home in the sea.
The Mermaid (Margygur) is described as having
the form of a woman to the belt, but that of a fish
below. It was believed to presage good or evil to
sea-farers. For instance, if one had risen above the
surface of the sea, when it again dived under it fore
boded evil if it tumed itself towards the ship, but if
it turned away from the ship it was then a presage
of good. It may, however, be remarked of the
superstition concerning this being, that it is possibly
of a foreign and southern origin, and that it is the
Syren that here presents itself, although in some de
gree fashioned after tbe notions of the Northmen.

OTHEE SUPBESTrnONS. 301
The Nyk is described as a horse of a dapple-gray
color, whose place of resort was in fresh-water
streams, where it sometimes made its appearance on
the banks. It appears to have been exceedingly
strong, and it sometimes allowed itself to be taken
by men and set to work during the day ; but when
the sun went down it tore itself out of the harness
and ran off into the water again. Thus it is related
of a certain Aubun Yalisson, a settler of Iceland,
that during harvest time he saw a dapple-gray
stalUon run out from Hjarbarvatn to some of his
horses, Aubun caught the gray horse, harnessed it
to a sled, which was usually drawn by two oxen,
and hauled all his hay together with it. The horse
was very easily managed in the nuddle of the day,
but as evening ^came on it became restive and
stamped in the ground up to its fetlocks, and after
sunset it broke out of the harness, ran to the water
and was never seen afterwards.* It appears, how
ever, that the Nyk, especiaUy in the Christian Mid
dle Ages, was regarded as a being that could assume
various forms. In Norway and Iceland the people
still believe in the existence of this being, and they
usually describe it just as it is described by the an
cients. In Iceland at the present day it is called
Nykr, and also Yatnhest or Nennir.f
The Finngalkn is a monster that is often men
tioned, but not further described except in the later
fictitious Sagas. According to these, it had the head
* Landnmb. IL 10.
\ Olafsen and Povelsen's Travels, p. 55.
14

302 EELIGION OF THE NORTHMEN.
of a man, with large teeth, the body of an anima,l,
with a huge tail, terrible claws and a sword in
every claw. But these descriptions seem rather to
be creations of the Saga-writer's imagination, guided
by the pictures of simUar monsters in the mytUs of
more southem nations, than to rest upon any ancient
legend preserved from heathen times, although it is
true the heathens had imagined the existence of a
supernatural being of that name.
Dragons, according to the most ancient heathen
representations, were nothing more than monstrous
serpents, by which name — ormar, sing, ormr — they
are also mostly named in the older manuscripts.
The superstition was prevalent that the 07'm, espe
cially the so-called lyngormr (doubtless the Dragon —
Danish, Lindorm, German, Lindwurm— of the Danish
and German legends and songs of the Middle Ages),
if laid upon gold, would grow as large as the gold.
It was thus with the serpent which, according to the
legend, surrounded Thoras Borg, the Gothic King's
daughter, and which Eagnar Lobbrok slew.* These
imaginary monsters were often supposed to be the
transformations of avaricious men who had volun
tarily clothed themselves in this enchanted form in
order to brood in safety over their gold. It was also
said of them that they bore the Helmet of Terror
(JEgishjalmar), with which they frightened away all
living things. Thus Fafnir is described in the an
cient legend which one of the Eddaic poems treats
of.f Thus also, a somewhat later legend speaks of
» Eagn. Ld6br. S. 1-2.
+ The 0. Edda: FafnismdL

OTBEE SUPEESTITIONS. 303
the Jomsviking Bui the Thick, who in the battle at
Hjorlingavag jumped overboard with his two heavy
chests of gold, "that he transformed himself into a
serpent upon the bottom of the sea, and there brooded
over his treasures."* In later times these serpents
were imagined to be winged dragons (flugrdrekar),
probably after the legends of southern lands had
been heard of, concerning such monsters.
Deeply rooted in the minds of the heathen North
men was the belief in ghosts and their apparitions
(aptrganga, plur. aptrgongur, reimleikar), and this
belief appears to have been intimately connected
with their ideas of a future state. The peculiar doc
trines of the Asa-faith on this subject have been
before unfolded. The soul was imagined to return
to its original source — to Heaven and the Gods
abiding there — while the body and the grosser life
connected with it wandered to the abodes of Hei or
Death. Herewith was very naturally connected the
belief that the spirit of the departed could leave its
home with the Gods and again visit the earth at
night, in order to unite itself at the funeral mound
with the bodily shadow, which was set free from
Helheim. The departed were thus enabled some
times to appear in the opening mounds in the same
forms which they had worn in life. The old Eddaic
poem of Helgi Hundingsbani makes the hero return
by night from YalhaUg,, caUed back by the grief of
his deserted wife Sigrun. Sigrun sees him with all
his death- wounds, in the open mound ; she goes in to
* JdmsT, S. 49 in Fornm, S, XI.

304 EELIGION OF THE NOETHMEN.
him and they remain there together during the
night. But with the dawning day he rides again
upon his pale horse back to Yalhalla ; he must be
there before the crowing of the cock shall awaken
the JEinherjar, When the dead thus made them
selves visible by night in the open burial mounds,
sometimes surrounded by flames of flre or by a clear
light which cast no shadow, then the portals of Hei
were said to be opened ; 'then had Hei set free the
bodily part to be united for a season with the soul,
which came to the mound from Yalhalla, Such ap
paritions were usually believed to be harmless, and
to make their appearance only to comfort beloved
survivors or to give them good counsel. When
drowned persons came as apparitions to the funeral
ceremonies which the survivors held to their mem
ory, it was looked upon as a good omen ; a token
that the departed had met with a friendly reception
from Ean,
It was believed to be otherwise with men whose
souls, by a contempt for the Gods, joined to wicked
ness and a base disposition, had rendered themselves
unworthy of the joys of Heaven, Their whole
being became at their death the prey of Hei, and
whenever they left their funeral mounds they be
came frightful specters, whose deUght it was to tor
ment the living. It was said that when they thus
made their appearance, they were stronger and far
more hideous than they had been when livuig.
They only showed themselves at night — when the
sun was not shining. By day the undecayed body
lay blue and bloated, but dead and quiet in the

OTHEE SUPEESTITIONf!. 805
grave. The only power which it was thought to be
possessed of then, was that of making itself so heavy
that if any one tried to remove it, levers were neces
sary to raise it up and strong oxen strained them
selves in attempting to drag ^t away. In mid-win
ter, at Yule-tide, the ravages of all specters were the
worst, but in the height of summer-time people saw
no traces of them. It was believed that they would
kill the people whom they could lay hold of in their
ghostly wanderings, or at least frighten them out of
their senses, and but few of the Living were bold
enough to dare, or strong enough to bear, an en
counter with them. Even if the Uving should come
off victorious, the bare remembrance of the horrid
vision would make him ever afterwards afraid in the
dark, however great a hero and warrior he might
otherwise be. The best way to get rid of such hard
customers was, to dig up the body, burn it to ashes,
and scatter the ashes in the sea, or else to cut the
head off the -corpse and lay it between its legs.*
Doubtless it was believed that the body was neces
sary to this class ofthe Dead, in order to make their
appearance among the living ; when their souls were
deprived of- this means of carrying on operations,
they could no longer do any harm to men, but had
to stay in their dweUing in Helheim.
We flnd mention of another way to get rid of
troublesome apparitions, namely, to prosecute them
with all legal formalities for the disturbance they
occasioned, and to banish them by a regular sen-
* Laxd. S. : Eyrb. S.: Grettis S. et aL

306 RELIGION OF THE NORTHMEN.
tence of law. The decree was posted upon the
principal door of the house where the specters made
their appearance. In the Eyrbyggja Saga, which
is very rich in traces of the heathen superstitions,
we find the description of a judicial process of this
kind, which it seems was held on the estate of Froba
in Iceland, where a whole troop of ghosts had ap
peared every evening for a long time and scared the
people of the house away from the fire, in order to
get a seat by it themselves. The sentence of banish
ment, it is stated, was passed on each specter in
particular, by expressly calling him by name, where
upon the ghost had to take his departure through
the opposite door, however reluctant he might be to
go. It was a consequence of their ideas of a future
state, to bury with the dead in the grave, not only
useful implements with which they could busy them
selves when the spirit at night visited the home of
the body and clothed itself for a season in the cast-
off earthly form, but also gold and ornaments with
which they could shine in the halls of Hei, or else
splendid armor w^ith which the spirit, which was
never conceived pf as being quite deprived of aU
bodily form, could make an honorable entrance into
Yalhalla. These treasures, which, when very rich,
were thought to betray themselves by nocturnal
fires which burned above the mounds (haugeldar),
often allured bold men to break open and rob the
graves. But these mound-breakers had to go pre
pared for a hard struggle with the inhabitant of the
mound (haugbui) or the ghost of the buried man.

OTHER SUPBRSTrriONS. 307
which was believed rarely to grant its treasures to
any Uving being. They could never gain undis
turbed possession of the treasures until they had suc
ceeded in hewing off the head of the specter and
laying it between its legs. But the great advantages
promised by such a mound-breaking, induced them
to close their eyes against the dangers of the under
taking, as weU as the wrong which they doubtless
believed there was in thus disturbing the repose of
the dead. Many descriptions of terrible battles with
these mound-spirits are found in the Sagas,* which
contain a multitude of remarkable features of the
ancient Northmen's belief in specters.
Another very ancient superstition may here be
cited in conclusion, namely, the belief that men
could be born again (vera endrbornir), that the
spirit could pass from one body when it was dead,
and enter another in order to be bom anew with it.
Thus it was believed tbat the hero Helgi Hjorvarbs
son was born again in Helgi Hundingsbani, and
Svafa, the favorite of the former, in the Yalkyrja
Sigrun, who was beloved by the latter. In like
manner it was believed that Olaf the Saint was the
re-bom Olaf Geirstaba-Alf. Connected with this
and Ukewise of heathen origin appears to have been
the belief that two persons could have, in common,
one man's Ufe ; and that both should therefor.e die
at the same time. * HorSs S. 14 ; Grettis S. 20.

308 RELIGION OF THE NORTHMEN.

CHAPTEE XXYH.
INFLUENCE OF THB ASA-FAITH UPON THE NATIONAL
SPIRIT OF THE NORTHMEN.
That the Asa-faith exercised a mighty influence
over the character of all the nations who were its
adherents, is manifest. As to the Northmen, it is
only necessary, in conflrmation hereof, to take a com
parative view of the doctrines of that faith and of
the popular life in heathendom, as portrayed by the
Sagas. By this, however, we would not say that
the popular character, individually and collectively,
was created by that faith; that the virtues and
vices of the people originated in it alone. In that
case we might fancy that the Germanic nations, and
especially the Norrsena branch, had received the
Asa-faith as a comparatively finished system of re
ligion. But this would certainly be an incorrect
view of the subject. This people, at its separation
from a larger whole, took with it only the germs of
that faith which afterward became developed in a
peculiar direction, under the influence of the popular
life and the action of external circumstances upon
that life, but which also reacted upon that life with
a power which increased in proportion as the sys
tem acquired by development a more decided

INFLUENCE OF THE ASA-FAITH. 309
character. In this we can perceive an active recip
rocating infiuence between the religion and the
popular life, analogous to that operating between
the soul and the body.
When.we find, for instance, that the doctrine of
the Asa-faith concerning Odin as Yal-father, Yal
haUa, and the Einherjar, contains a strong incentive
to warUke deeds, we must not, therefore, imagine
that the warlike spirit which displayed itself so
powerfuUy among the Germanic tribes in general,
and the Norrsena in particular, had its origin in this
doctrine precisely, or that this doctrine consequent
ly forms any part of the real basis of the religion.
Eather may we conceive that the inherent physical
power of these tribes, set in activity by casual out-
'ward circumstances, by hostile conflicts with other
tribes and intestine quarrels among themselves,
called forth the warlike spirit from the beginning ;
that this spirit in turn stamped itself upon the reU
gious doctrines, and finaUy, that the religion, after
having received this characteristic impress, again
reacted to sustain and still further inflame that war
Uke spirit.
The influence of the Asa-faith upon the popular
spirit of the Northmen must be regarded from
quite another point of view than that of Christianity
at a later period. The Asa-faith was, so to speak,
inborn with this particular class of people and this
particular nation, as it had developed itself from
certain germs and taken form with the popular life
itself, almost unknown to it. Christianity, on the
contrary, was imparted to the people- as a religious
14*

310 RELIGION OF THE NOETHMEN.
system complete in itself, appointed for all the
nations of the earth ; one which by its own divine
power opened for itself a way to conviction, and
through that operated on the popular spirit in a
direction pointed out by the fundamental principles
of the religion itself.
As the system ofthe Asa-faith arose without any con
scious object to be effected in morals, therefore it did
not embrace any actual code of morals, in the higher
sense of the term. The Asa doctrine does not pro
nounce by positive expression what is virtue and what
is vice ; it pre-supposes a consciousness thereof in its
votaries. It only represents in general terms Yirtue
as bringing its own reward, Yice its own punish
ment, if not here upon the earth, then with certain
ty beyond the grave. This is contained in the doc
trines of Yalhalla and Helheim, of Gimli and Na
strond. For the rest, the precepts relating to life
which are propounded as divine in many of the
heathen poems, especially in Havamal and Sigr
drifumal of the Older Edda,* constitute a collection
of prudential maxims rather than a system of
morals. But these maxims, inasmuch as they were
thought to proceed from the Gods, or from superior
beings nearly related to the Gods, are combined
with the Asa-faith, and express the ideas of a
rational and worthy life which were developed
among the Northmen under its influence.
« In the Hdvamil — which name signifies either the Sublime
Discourses or the Discourse of the Sublime Being — Odiu himself is
represented as the speaker. In Sigrdrlfumd.1 it is the Valkyrja
Sigrdrifa, who gives counsel to Sigurd Fafnisbani.

INFLUENOE OF THE ASA-FAITH. 311
What these rules of life, which are uttered in
apothegms, mauUy inculcate, is briefly as foUows :
The recognition of man's imperfection, which
should challenge in him a struggle against his own
evil propensities and forbearance toward the weak
ness of others.
" Yices and virtues are borne by the sons of men
blended in the breast ; no man is so good that his
faults do not follow him ; no one so bad that he is
good for nothing."
Courage and strength, both in bearing the hard
decrees of fate, and in fighting against enemies.
"The unwise man lies awake all night, and
ponders over all things : then he is weary when the
morning comes, yet his sorrow remains as it was."
"Silent and thoughtful should be the sons of
princes, and bold in battle."
"The timid man thinks he shaU live forever if
he keeps away from battle ; but age gives him
no peace even though the spear may spare him."
The struggle for independence in life with regard
to knowledge as well as fortune, an independence
which should, therefore, be earned by a love of
learning and by industry.
"A friend more trusty can no man ever have
than a good understanding."
"Happy he who has law and understanding of
himself while he lives; for evil counsel has been
often found in the breast of another."
" One's own home is the best though little it may
be ; every man is master in his own house. Though
he have but two goats and a cottage thatched with
boughs, is it better than begging."

312 RELIGION OF THE NORTHMEN.
"A bleeding heart is his who has to beg his bread
for every meal."
"Early shaU he rise whose laborers are few, and
see to his work; many things hinder him who sleeps
away the moming. The half of riches depends on
quickness." A strict adherence to oaths and promises :
"This I counsel thee secondly, that thou swear
not an oath unless it be true; cruel fetters shaU
bind the traitor; wretched is he who breaks his
word." Candor and fidelity as weU as foresight in love ;
devotion to the tried friend, but dissimulation toward
the false and war to the death against the implacable
enemy. " To thy friend shalt thou be a friend, to him and
his friend ; but no one should be the friend of his
friend's enemy."
"Hast thou a friend in whom thou hast full con
fidence, and thou wilt receive good from him, then
mingle thy thoughts with his, exchange gifts with
him and visit him often."
" But hast thou another in whom thou hast not
great confidence, and yet wiU receive good from
him, fair words shalt thou speak to him but falsely
think, and reward loose speech with lies."
" Never be the first to break off rashly with thy
friend. Sorrow consumes the heart when thou hast
no one to whom thou canst open thy whole mind."
"Make tl\y friend's misfortune thy own; but
give thy enemy no peace."
" If thou wilt find a good wife, to be a pleasant

INFLUENOE OF THE ASA-FAITH. 313
companion and to bring thee joy, make fair
promises but hold them in good faith; no one is
made weary with good."
" Hast thou a friend in whom thou hast full confi
dence? go often to see him; for the weeds grow
and the high grass in the path where no one
treads." " Once I was young ; I traveled alone through
wild paths ; I thought myself rich when I met with
others. Man is a joy to man."
" That is a communion of soul where each can
say confidentially to the other all his thoughts.
Anything is better than to be false. He is not a
friend who speaks only fair words."
"Let no one trust the words of a maiden nor a
woman's speech ; for upon rolling wheels their
hearts were formed, and inconstancy lies in their
breast."
- "Never rejoice at the misfortunes of others, but
let their prosperity please thee."
Eespect for Age.
" Laugh not at the gray-haired speaker. That is
often good which the aged have to say. Often
from the wrinkled skin come forth words of
wisdom." Hospitality, liberality, and charity to the poor.
" Fire is needed by him who has come in and is
chilled at the knees ; food and clothing are needed
by the man who has wandered over the mountains."
"Water he needs who comes to thy table; a
towel and a hospitable welcome. By good treat
ment thou shalt win from him good words and
kindness in return,"

314 RELIGION OF THE NORTHMEN.
"With arms and clothing shall friends gladden
each other. They who give and receive gifts in re
turn, are friends the longest, if all other things be
weU." " With scorn and laughter mock not the stranger
and the wayfarer. He who sits at his own door is
often uncertain who it may be that comes by."
" Scoff not the guest nor spit upon him from the
window ! Be kind to the poor."
A prudent foresight in word and deed.
" The wary guest who comes to the banquet is hot
wasteful of words ; he listens with the. ear, he sees
with the eye ; thus the wise man feels about him."
" He talks too much who never ceases his vain
flow of words. The flippant tongue, unless it be
checked, often runs itself into mischief."
" From thy weapons on the field move not a foot-
breadth ; for it is uncertain how soon upon the way
out the spear may be needed."
Temperance, not only in the gratification of the
senses, but in the exercise of power.
" No heavier burden is borne by man than immod
erate drinking ; nor is ale so good as it is said for
the sons of men. The more one drinks the less he
knows, until his understanding is gone."
" The bird of forgetfulness hovers over the drink
ing room and steals away the senses of men."
" The herd knows when to go home and it leaves
the pasture ; but the foolish man knows not the mea
sure of his stomach."
" The gluttonous man, unless he makes use of his
reason, eats his own death. To the Wise the stom
ach of the stupid man often brings laughter."

INFLUENCE OF THE ASA-FAITH. 315
" His power the wise man shall wield with moder
ation ! This he finds when among the brave he has
come, that no one excels in everything."
Contentment and cheerfulness.
" Prudent and generous be the sons of the free
born, and bold in battle. Cheerful and glad let
every man be to the end of his life."
"The heart only knows what dwells the heart
nearest ; it alone can betray itself. There is no dis
ease worse for the brave man than to be discontented
with his lot."
" The master of the house should be cheerful at
home, kind to his guests and circumspect ; let him
be attentive and affable."
Modesty and poUteness of intercourse.
" Thou shalt no maiden entice nor any man's wife,
nor urge them to wantonness."
" The fool stares when he comes a guest ; he talks
with himself and murmurs. If he gets a drink his
whole mind is opened."
"Washed and sated should a man ride to the as
semblies, even though he be not finely dressed. Of
his shoes and breeches let no one be ashamed, nor of
his horse, though it may not be the best."
A desire to win the good will of our fellow men,
especially to surround one's self with a steadfast
circle of devoted kinsmen and faithful friends.
"The tree pines away which stands within the
village ; no bark nor leaf remains to shelter it. So
is it with the man whom no one loves ; why shall he
live long ?"
" Seldom stands a monumental stone by the way
side, unless by kinsman raised to kinsman."

316 RELIGION OF THE NORTHMEN.
" Bear thyself irreproachably toward thy kinsfolk ;
be slow to avenge thyself on them, even though they
injure thee : this, it is said, will profit thee in
death." A careful treatment of the bodies of the dead.
" Carefully gather up the dead wherever on earth
thou may find them, whether they have died by
sickness, by the sea, or by arms. Eaise up a mound
for the departed, wash the hands and head, comb
and dry it before it is laid in the coffin, and pray for
it to sleep in peace."
The remembrance that earthly riches are perish
able, and in connection therewith, the struggle to
gain a good reputation and a renown which shall
reach beyond this life and be cherished and honored
by posterity.
" Wealth is like the glance of the eye, it is a most
unstable friend."
"Eiches depart, kindred die, man himself dies
also; but a good name dies never for him who
gained it."
" Eiches depart, kindred die, man himself dies
also ; but one thjng I know of which never dies :
the Judgment of the Dead."
These rules of life were variously understood, and
as variously carried out into practice. But on the
whole we find them refiected in the popular charac
ter of the Northmen, such as history teaches it to us
during heathendom. Bravery, prudence, and a love
of independence are its bright features, although
bravery often degenerated into warrior-fierceness,
prudence into dissimulation, and the love of inde-

INFLUENCE OF THE ASA-FAITII. 317
pendence into self-wiU. If on the one hand we find
a noble self-command, devoted faithfulness in friend
ship and love, noble-hearted hospitaUty and gene
rosity, a love of right and of legal order, we also see
on the other, unyielding stubbornness, a fierce spirit
of revenge, a repulsive arrogance, a far-reaching
self-interest and an excessive dependence upon the
formalities of the law. A cold and unmoved ex
terior often concealed a soul torn by the bitterest
grief, or stirred up by the wildest passions. A pas
sionate outburst of joy, or of grief, was considered
undignified. Few words, but energetic action, was
esteemed in conduct, and complaint was silenced in
order that vengeance could strike the more surely
and heavily. Under a tranquil, indifferent mien
were concealed the boldest and most deep-laid plans,
and the real intentions first came to light in the de
cisive moment. On the whole there was certainly
an impress of rigidity, insensibiUty, and self-good
ness stamped upon the popular character ; but this
stamp was more upon the outside than in its inner
most character, more the result of inordinate pru
dence than of an evil disposition ; and through all its
faUings there shines forth a dignity of soul which
ennobled power and held -up glory in tjiis life and in
after-ages as the highest object of human under
takings.

318 RELIGION OF THE NOETHMEN.

CHAPTEE XXYHI.

DECLINE OF THB ASA-FAITH.

A HisTOEicAL representation of the development of
the Asa-Faith cannot be given. As its origin is en
veloped in total darkness, so is the period of its
highest glory unknown to us, and it is in fact only
in its decline and fall that history reveals it to us as
appearing in the popular life and acting upon it. We
know not what revolutions and changes the system
may possibly have undergone during the long course
of centuries in which the faith was cherished by the
Northmen, but that these changes were not whoUy
unimportant, and moreover, that the religion was
very differently understood at different times — now
with greater warmth and a more special reference
to its deep fundamental ideas, now with more cold
ness and more immediately in reference to its exter
nal form, its symbolic dress — the very character pf
the religion leads us to presume.
The religion which draws man into reflective
meditation, which, as it were, strives to separate
him from the flnite world in order to absorb him in
the contemplation of the Infinite, can maintain

DECLINB OF THE ASA-FATTH. 319
itself through a long course of centuries with unim
paired power, even amid violent outward convul
sions. But the Asa-faith was not such a reUgion.
It is evident, on the contrary, that in the form under
which we know it, it must of necessity draw its
votaries into a life of activity, or rather, tear them
almost involuntarily out into the wildest tumult of
the world. History shows us also how the Ger
manic nations in earUer times, and afterward the
Northmen, inflamed by this faith, developed a
warlike power and boldness which shook Europe's
former social fabric to its foundations — how great
hosts of Northmen were driven by this faith to a
Yiking-Ufe which knew no home, no rest, and but
few of the mUder feelings of humanity ; and how
the warlike spirit among them toward the close of
heathendom blazed out with a wild ferocity which,
as it were, consumed itself.
But in this agitated Ufe, which the Asa-faith,
although it did not, perhaps, call it forth from the
first, yet (Jid so strongly support, there lay an effec
tive germ, not only of changes in the doctrines
themselves, but more especially of revolutions in
the religious opinions of its votaries — ^revolutions
which, in the course of time, were, of necessity, to
involve its decUne and fall.
The Yiking's life and uninterrupted warfare kept
many of the chieftains and large troops of men the
greater part of the time away from their homes and
from the sanctuaries of the people, and made them
by degrees foreign and indifferent to them, whUe
they, at the same time, came in contact with people

320 EELIGION OP THE NOETHMEN.
of another religion and other customs. Many re
turned to their homes with contempt, at heart for
the faith of their fathers, and as free-thinkers who
had become accustomed to rely upon their own
powers alone. For every new generation that grew
up in that wild Yiking-life the faith became more
powerless and insignificant. They persisted in their
warrior-ferocity from habit and by the force of
example, but no longer directly impeUed by a
longing for the society of the jEsir and the joys of
Yalhalla. And though they did not yet give up
the faith entirely, still it was only the exterior, the
sensuous form, to which they paid attention. It
was in idols and sacrifices, divination and sorcery,
that they placed confidence, and it was the grossest
superstition that formed the counterpart to the free-
thinking. That wild life, agitated by all manner of
passions, which also transferred itself to their
homes, and toward the close of heathendom gained
the ascendency everywhere in the North, coudd not
be favorable to any weU-regulated system of reli
gion whatever, and the foundations of the Asa-faith
were thus undermined by the very spirit which it
had helped to awaken, and which it had itself
strongly supported.
In this condition, then, we find the Asa-faith at
the period when history first properly makes us
acquainted with it — in its last stage of existence.
It is free-thinking and abject superstition which
we find here presented as the counterpart of each
other. While the Northmen on one hand wor
shiped stick and stone, animals and dead men, and

DECLINE OF THE ASA-FAITH. 82l
beUeved' their idols to find sustenance in bloody
sacrifices, even of human beings, there were many,
on the other hand, who lived without God and
thoughtlessly put their whole trust in their own
power and strength. There were some, indeed, who
thought more deeply. They rejected a plurality of
Gods and put their trust in one only Supreme
Being, " in Him who created the Sun and all things
that have a being." In this Supreme Being the
first sovereign king of Norway, Harald Hdrfagri,
professed to believe.* The Icelandic chieftain
Thorkel Mani in his last sickness requested to be
carried into the rays of the Sun, where he com
mended his soul to the God who created the Sun.
"And he had led as virtuous a life as the best
Christian."f The Icelander Thorstein Ingemunds-
son said to his brothers, that their departed father
would certainly enjoy a blissful reward for his piety
"with Him who created the Sun and all the world,
whoever He may be ;" and this same Being, whom
he regarded as " the Mightiest," he called upon to
deUver his brothers from the Berserksgang.:]: The
Asa doctrine itself, with its not indistinct presenti
ments of a Being higher than all JEsir, might
awaken such conceptions in the pious and contem
plative mind who felt disgusted with the gross
superstition of the times, and yet was not willing to
give up every consolation of Eeligion. But these
few individuals could not contribute anything to
* Snor. : Har. Hdrf. S. 4.
f Landnmb. I. 9.
X Vatnad. S, 23, 37, 46.

322 RELIGION OF THE NORTHMEN,
support the Asa-faith, now tottering to its fall ; on
the contrary it was they who left it the most hastily
when they became acquainted with Christianity,
It was of no avail that the zealous Asa-worshipers
portrayed the calamities which could strike one or
another of these free-thinkers as a punishment be
cause he did not bestow upon the Gods that worship
due unto them. Nor did it avail any more that
they disclaimed that toleration of other believers,
which otherwise appears to have been a character
istic of the votaries of the Asa-doctrine, and sharp
ened, the severity of the laws against those who
showed disrespect toward the Gods, At the time
when Christianity was approaching the North, the
Asa-faith no longer satisfied the more deep-think
ing portion of the people who were nominally its
adherents, and, therefore, it could not long sustain a
conflict with the new faith, when that faith came to
be promulgated with zeal and energy.

APPEIDIX.

Text to various translations from the Older Edda
on the foregoing pages.

On page 121.
Voluspd strophe 20.
J)ffir log I6g5u,
faer lif kuru
alda bornum,
orlog seggja. On page 166.
Helgakviba Hundingsbana IL,
str, 32.
Mt ertu, systir !
ok ervita,
er |>(l brffibr Jinum
biSr fovskapa ;
einn veldr Obinn
ollu bolvi,
Jpviat meS sifjungum
sakriiuar bar. On page 188.
Atlamal, str. 19.
Om hugSa ek h^r inn fljiiga
at endlongu htisi,
J)at mun oss dij ilgt deilask ;
dreifgi hann oss 611 bl<55i,
hug5a ek af heitum
at vEeri hamr Atla.
On page 206.
5yndlulj6«, str. 10.
Horg hann m6r gerBi

hlaSinu steinum,
— nil er grj8t Jat
at gleri vor5it —
rau5 hann i n^u
nauta bl65i,
se triibi Ottar
4 Ssynjur. On page 240.
VolundarkviSa, str. 31.
EiSa skaltu m^r dBr
alia vinna,
at skips borCi
ok at skjaldar rond,
at mars bsegi
ok at msekis egg :
at J)ti kveljat
kvSn Volundar,
n6 brii&i minni
at bana verbir. On page 240.
Helgakv. Hundingsb. IL, str. 29.
fik skyli allir
eibar bita,
teir er Helga
haf Sir unna ;
at enu lj8sa
leiptrar vatni,
ok at Virsvolum
unnar steini.

324

APPENDIX.

On page 241.
AtlakviSa, str. 30.
Sv5 gangi |)fir, Atli !
sem Jul viS Gunnar dttir
eiSa opt um svar5a
ok Sr of nefnda,
at s81 inni euSrhoUu
ok at Sigt;^s bergi,
hulkvi hvilbeSjar,
ok at hringi Ullar.
On page 241.
Atlani&l, str. 31.
Sor |)4 Vingi,
ser r68 hann litt eira :
" eigi hann jotnar, .
ef hann at y8r lygi,
gAlgi gorvallan,
ef hann d gri5 hyg8i."
On page 311.
HSvamSl, str. 134.
Lostu ok kosti
bera Ij &5a sy nir
blandua brjiSstum i ;
erat maSr sv& gdSr
at galli ne fylgi,
n^ SV& illr at eini%i dugi.
Ib. str. 22.
Osvibr mabr vakir
um allar naetr
ok hyggr at hvlvetna ;
|)4 er m68r
er at morni kemr,
alt er vil sem var.
Ib. str. 14.
fiagalt ok hugalt
skyli J)j6bans barn
ok vigdjarft vera.
Ib. sir. 15.
Csnjallr mabr
hyggsk munu ey lifa,
ef hann yib vig varask ;
enu elli gefr
hSuum engi frib,
|)(itt hinum geirar gefl.

Ib. str. 6.
* * * 6brigbra vin
fser mabr aldregi
en manvit miklt.

Ib. str. 9.
SS er ssell
er sjAlfr um &
lof ok vit meban liflr;
|)viat ill rSb hefir
mabr opt J)egit
anuars brjdstum or.
Ib. str. 35.
Bii er betra,
t6tt litit se,
air er heima hverr ;
|)8tt tvser geitr eigi
ok taugreptan sal,
Jiat er J>6 betra en been.
On page 312.
HSvamil, str. 36.
Bu er betra,
f)6tt Htit s6,
hair er heima hverr;
bl&bugt er hjarta
J)eim er biSja skal
ser i mSl hvert matar.
Ib. str. 58.
Ar skal risa
si. er & yrkendr i&,
ok ganga sins verka S vit ;
mart um dvelr J>ann
er um morgiu sefr,
hSlfr er aubr und hvotum^
Sigrdrifumil, str. 23.
J)at rsed ek J)6r annat,
at J)u eib ne sverir
nemr Jann er sabr s6;
grimmar simar
ganga at trygbrofi,
armr er v4ra vargr.

APPENDIX.

326

HSvamSl, str. 42.
Vin sinum skal
mabr vinr vera,
Jeim ok |)es3 vin ;
eu ovinar sins
skyli engi mabr
vinar vinr vera. Ib. str. 43.
Veiztu ef J>ti vin Stt,
Jann er |)U vel truir,
ok vill |)u af hd,num gott geta ?
gebi skaltu vib J)ann blanda
ok gjofum skipta,
fara at finna opt.
Ib. str. 44.
Ef J)fi itt annan,
J)anns J>u ilia trliir,
vildu af hSnum J)6 gott geta;
fagrt skaltu vib fiann msela,
enn flitt hyggja,
ok gjalda lausung vib lygL
Ib. str. 122.
Vin Jinum
ver bii aldregi
fyrn at flaumslitum ;
sorg ctr hjarta,
ef ^ti segja ne n&ir
einhveijum aUan hug.
Ib. str. 128.
Hvars fiti bol kant
kveb |>li p6r bolvi at,
ok gefat |>iaum Q&ndum frib.
Ib. str. 131.
Ef |)d vilt |)6r gbda konu
kvebja at gamanrtinum,
ok ii fognub af ;
fogru skaldu heita,
ok l&ta fast vera,
leibisk mangi gott ef getr.
On page 313.
HSvamSl, str. 120.
Veiztu ef tli vin itt,
|>4nns |)ti vet trdir,
15

farbu at finna opt ;
|)viat hrisi vex
ok hSvu grasi
vegi, er vsetki trebr.
Ib. str. 46.
ITngr var ek forbum,
f6r ek einn saman,
JS varb ek vilir vega ;
aubigr |)6ttumk,
er ek annan faun :
mabr er manus gaman.
Ib. str. 125.
Sifjum er bS blandat,
hverr er segjr rsebr
einum allan hug ;
alt er betra
en s6 brigSum at vera
era sa vinr bbrum er vilt eitt segir.
Ib. str. 83.
Meyjar orbum
skyli manngi trua,
n6 bvi er kvebr kona ;
|)viat &. hverfanda hveli
vSru Jeim hjbrtu skopub,
brigb I brj63t um lagit,
Ib. str. 129.
Ulu feginn
ver J>li aldregi,
enn l«lt Jer at g65u getib.
Ib. str. 135.
At hSrum Jul
hlse JU aldregi,
opt er gott ])at er gamlir kveba;
opt or skorpum belg
skilin orb koma. Ib. str. 3.
Elds er Jjorf
Jeijss inn er kominn
ok S knfe kallnn ;
Matar ok vAba
er manni Jorf,
Jeim er hefir um fjall fariS.

326

APPENDIX.

Ib. str. 4.
Vatns er Jorf
beinl er til verbar kemr,
Jerru ok |)j6bla5ar,
gobs um sebis,
ef s6t geta maetti
orbs ok endrjiogu. On page 314.
Ib. str. 40.
VSpnum ok vSbum
skolu vinir glebjask,
Jat er i. sjilfum synst;
vibrgefendr ok endrgefendr
erusk lengst vinir,
ef Jat bibr at verba vel.
Ib. str. 133.
At hSbi nfi hlStri
hafbu aldregi
gest ng ganganda;
opt vitu ogorla
beir er sitja inni fyrir,
hvers Jeir 'ro kyns er koma.
Ib. str. 136.
Gest Jti ne geyja
ne & grind hrsekir
get Jii vSlubum vel.
Ib. str. 1.
Enn vari gestr
er til verbar kemr
Junnu hljobi Jegir;
eyrum hlybir
en augum skobar;
svS n;^sisk frobra hverr fyrir.
Ib. str. 28.
^rna mselir
sS er seva Jegir
stablausu stafi ;
hrabmajlt tunga,
nema haldendr eigi,
opt s6r 6gott um geir.
Ib. str. ZI.
Vdpnum sinum
skala mabr velli &.

feti ganga framar;
Jviat ovist er at vita,
nser verbr & vegum dti
geirs um Jorf guma.
Ib. str. 11.
Vegnest verra
vegra hann velli at,
en 66 ofdrykkja ois ;
era svS gott,
sem gott kveba,
ol alda sona :
Jviat faera veit
er fleira drekkr
sins til gebs gumi.
Ib. str. 12.
Ominnis hegri heitir
s^ er yfir olbrum Jrumir,
hann stelr gebi guma.
Ib. str. 20.
Hjarbir J at vitu,
nffir Jaer heim skolu,
ok ganga JS af grasi,
en osvibr mabr
kann sevagi
sins um mSIs maga.
Ib. str. 19.
GrSbugr hair,
nema gebs viti,
etr s6r aldrtrega ;
opt faer hlsegis,
er meb horskum kemr,
Manni heimskum magi.
On page 315.
Ib. str. 63.
Riki sitt skyli
rS,bsnotra hverr
i hofi hafa;
JS hann J at fihnr,
er meb frseknum kemr,
at engi er einna hvatastr.
Ib. sir. 14.
Jagalt ok hugalt
skyli Jjobans barn

APPENDIX,

327

ok vigdjarft vera ;
glabr ok reifr
skyli gumna hverr
unz sinn bibr bana.
Ib. str. 94.
Hugr einn J at veit,
er b^ hjarta nser,
einn er hann ser um seva;
ong er sott verri
hveim snotrum manni
en s6r ongu at una.
Ib. str. 102.
Heima glabr gumi
ok vib gesti reifr
Bvibr skal um sik vera ;
minnigr ok mSlugr.
SigrdrifumSl, str. 32.
Mey Ju teygjat
nfi manns konu
n6 eggja ofgamans.
HSvamSl, str. 16.
Kopir afglapi,
er til kynnis kemr,
Jylsk hann um eba Jrumir ;
alt er senn
ef han sylg um getr,
uppi er JS geb guma.
Ib. str. 60.
Jveginn ok mettr
ribi mabr Jingi at,
Jott hann s^b vseddr til vel ;
skua ok broka
skammisk engi mabr,
n6 bests in heldr,
Jott hann hafit goban.
Ib. str. 49.
Hrornar J611
sti er stendr Jorpi S,
hlyrat henni borkr n6 barr ;
svS er mabr sS
er manngi ann,
hvat skal hann lengi lifa?

Ib. str. 11.
Sjaldan bautarsteinar
standa brautu nser,
nema reisi nibr at nib.
On page 316.
SigrdrifumSl, str. 22.
Jat raeb ek Jer ib fyrsta,
at Ju vib frseudr Jina
vammalaust verir ;
sibr Ju hefnir,
Jott peir sakar gori,
Jat kveba daubum duga.
Ib. str. 33.
Jat rasb ek Jer it niunda,
at JU uSm bjargir,
hvars Jii 4 foldu finnr ;
hvart eru sottdaubir
eba ssedaubir,
eba 'ro vipndauSir verar.
34. Haug skal gora
hveim er libinn er,
hendr Jva ok hofub;
kemba ok Jerra,
abr 1 kistu fari,
okbibja sifilin sofa.
HSvamSl, str. 11.
SvS er aubr
sem augabragb,
hann er valtastr vina.
Ib. str. 15.
Deyr fe,
deyja frseudr,
deyr sjSlfr it sama ;
en orbstirr
deyr aldregi,
hveim er ser goban getr.
Ib. str. 16.
Deyr f6,
deyja frsendr,
deyr sjSlfr it sama ;
ek veit einn
at aldri deyr :
domr um dauban hvem.

828 APPENDIX.

EXTRACT FROM EGIL'S SAGA,
Ohap. 68, quoted on pp. 242-245.
Egill drap Ljot hinn Bleikna.
J)ErR |)6rsteinn ok Egill bjuggu fer5 sina J)egar
J)eir hof5u lokit erendum sinum, fara |)eir |)a aptr a
lei5, ok er J)eir koma su5r um Dofra-fjall Ja segir
Egill at hann vill fara ofan til Eaumsdals ok si5an
su6r sunda leiS : " YU ek," segir hann, " liika eren
dum minum i Sogni ok a HorSalandi, J)viat ek vil
bua skip mitt i sumar til Islands ut." |)6rsteinn
ba5 hann ra5a fer5 sinni ; skiljast J)eir |)6rsteinn ok
Egill, for |)6rsteinn su5r um DaU ok alia lei5 til |)ess
er hann kom til biia sinna, * * * Egill for
lei5ar sinnar ok feir xij, saman, komu |)eir fram i
Eaumsdal, fingu ser J)a flutningar ; foru siSan su5r
a Mseri ; er ekki sagt fra ferS |)eirra fyrir enn Jieir
komu i ey Ja er Hau5 heitir, ok foru til gistingar a
bse f>ann er heitir a BUndheimi, fat var gofugr
bserr, J)ar bj& lendr-ma5r er Fribgeir het; hann
var ungr at aldri, haffii n;f tekit vit foSrarsi sinum,
M65ir hans het Gyba, hon var systir Arinbjarnar
hersis, skor-dngr mikUl ok gofug kona ; hon var at

APPENDIX, 329
raubum meb syni sinum Fribgeiri, hofbu f>au far
rausnar-bu mikit,
J)a fengu feir allgobar vibtokur, sat EgiU um
kveldit it nsesta Fribgeiri ok torunautar hans far
utar fra ; var far drykkja mikil ok d;frlig veizla,
Gyba husfreyja gekk um kveldit til tals vib Egil ;
hon spurbi at Arinbirni brobr sinum ok enn at
fleirum frsendum sinum ok vinum f eim er til Eng-
lands hofbu farit meb Arinbirni ; Egill sagbi henni
fat sem hon spurbi, Hon spurb i hvat til tibenda
hefbi gjorast i ferbum Egils, Han segir henni af
Ijosasta ; fa kvab hann :
"ITrSumst leiS in Ijota
LandbeiSaSar reiSi
Sigrat gaukr ef Glamma
Gamma veit um sik Jramma." -
Egill var alkatr um kveldit, enn Fribgeir ok
heimamenn voru heldr hljobr, Egill sa far mey
fagra ok vel buna, honum var sagt at hon var systir
Fribgeirs; mserinn var 6k4t ok gret einart um
kveldit, fat f otti f eim undarUgt far voru f eir um
nottina. En um morgininn var vebr hvast ok eigi
ssefsert, far f urftu f eir far or eyjunni, J)d gekk
Fribgeir ok bsebi fan honum far at sitja meb foru-
nauta sina til fess er gott veri fseri-vebr ok hafa
faban fara-beina f ann sem feir fyrfti, EgiU
f ektist fat, satu feir far vebr-festir iij, nsetr ok var
far hinn mesti mannfagnabr. Eptir gerbu vebr
lygnt, stobu feir Egill f 4 upp snemma um mor
gininn ok bjuggust, gingu fa til matar ok var f eim
gefit 61 at drekka, ok satu feir um hrib ; siban toku

330 APPENDIX.
feir kleebi sin. Egill stob upp okf akkabi bonda ok
husfreyju bein a sinn, ok gengu siban nt; bondi ok
mobir bans gengu a gautu meb f eim. fa gekk
Gyba til mals vib Fribgeir son sinn ok talabi vib
hann lagt ; Egill stob meban ok beib f eirra. Egill
msellti vib meyna: "Hvat grsetr fu mser? ek se
fik aldri kata." Hon matti engu svara, ok gret at
meirr, Fribgeir segir at mobur sinni hatt: "ekki
vil ek mi bibja fess ; feir eru nu bunir ferbar sin
nar, |)a gekk Gyba at EgU ok mseUti : " ek mun
segja fer, Egill, tibendi, fan sem her eru meb oss,
Mabr heitir Ljotr hinn bleiki, hann er berserkr ok
holmgongu-mabr, hann er of okku-ssell ; hann kom
her ok bab dottur minnar, en ver svorubum honum
skjott ok ''synjubum honum rabsins, Siban skorabi
hann til holmgongu a Fribgeir son ininn, ok skal a
morginn koma til h6lmsins i ey f a er Vorl heitir,
JSTu vilda ek, Egill, at f u fserir til holmsins meb
Fribgeiri; mundi fat sannast ef Arinbjorn veri her
i landi at ver mundim eigi f ola ofriki slikum manni
sem Ljotr er," Egill segir, " skylt er fat, husfreyja,
fyri sakir Arinbjarnar frsenda fins at ek fara, ef
honum fikir ser fat nokkut fuUting," "fa gerir
f u vel," segir Gyba ; " skulu ver fa ganga inn i
stufu ok vera 611 saman daglangt." Ganga feir
EgU fa inn i stufu, ok drukku, satu feir far um
daginn. En at kveldi komu vinir Fribgeirs feir
er til ferbar voru rabnir meb honum, ok var far
fjolment um nottina, ok var far fa veizla mikil.
En eptir um daginn bjost Fribgeir til ferbar ok
mart manna meb honum ; var far Egil i f6r. fa
var gott fsri-vebr ; fara feir siban ok koma i eyna ;

APPENDIX, 331
far var fagr voUr skamt fra sjonum er holmstefnan
skyldi vera, var far markabr holmstabr, lagbir
steimar i bring utan um, Nu kom far Ljotr meb
lib sitt ; bjozt hann fa til h61mg6ngu ; hann hafbi
skjold ok sverb, Ljotr var allmikil mabr ok sterk-
ligr, ok er hann gekk fram a vollinn at holmstab-
num fa kom a hann berserksgangr ; tok hann at
grenja illiliga ok belt i sk6ld sinn, Fribgeir var
ekki mikill, grannligr ok fribr sjonum, ok ekki
stabit i barbogum. En er EgiU sa Ljot fa kvab
hann visu : "Era FriSgeiri fseri
(Faurum motst S vit sorvar,
Skolum banna mjbg manni
Mey) aurleygi at heyja
Vit J ann er bitr ok blotar
Bond el-hvbtu5 Gondlar
Al-feigum skytr segir
Augum skjold S baugi."
Ljotr sa hvar Egill stob, ok heyrbi orb hans ; hann
mselti: "gakk hig at hinn mikli mabr a holminn,
ok berzt vit mik ef f u ert allfdss til ! er fat miklu
jafnligra enn ek berjumst vit Fribgeir, fviat ek
f ikjumst eigi at meiri mabr f 6 at ek leggi hann at
jorbu. fa kvab Egill :
"EratlitiIlarLj6ti
Leik ek viS hai bleikan,
ViS bifteini bseuar
Brynju rfett synja.
Buumst til vigs ! en vsegSar
VSn letka ek hanum.
Skapa verSum viS skjaldi
Skaeru, drengr, S maeri."

332 APPENDIX,
Siban bjost Egill til holmgongu vib Ljot. Egill
hafbi skjbld f ann sem hann var vanr at hafa, en
hann var gyrbtf sverbi f vi er hann kallabi Nahr, en
hann hafbi Dragvandil i hendi. Hann gekk inn
yfir mark fat er holmstefnan skyldi vera ; en Ljotr
var far eigi buinn. EgiU skok sverbit ok kvab
visu : "Hoggum hjalt-vbnd skygSum ;
Hsefum rond meS brand; ;
Reynum rauBar mSni ;
RjoSum sver6 i bl66i.
St^fum Lj6t af lifi ;
Leikum sSrt viS bleikan ;
Eyrrum kappa errinn
(Komi auru S hrae) jSrnum.''
fa kom Ljotr fram a vigvolUnn ok segir upp
holmgongulog, " at sa skal bera nibings-nafn jafnan
siban er ut hopar um marksteina fa er upp eru
settir i bring um h61mg6ngu stabinn ;" siban rennast
feir at, ok hoggr Egill til Ljotr bra vib sMldinum.
En Egill hjo hvert hogg at obru sva at Ljotr fekk
ekki h6ggit i moti. Hann hopabi undan til hogg-
r^msins, en Egill for jamskjott eptir ok hjo sem
akafast. Ljotr for ut um marksteinana ok viba um
vollinn ; gekk sva hin fyrsta hrib. fa beibist Ljotr
hvilbar, Egill let fat ok vera ; nema feir fa stab,
ok hvilbu sik, fa kvab EgiU :
" Fyri Jiki mfer fura
Flein stokkvandi nokkvat
(HraeSist hodda beiSir ?)
Happlauss fura kappi.
Vegrat fast sS er frestar
Flein-doggvar stafr hoggum.
VSbeySan f6r viSau
Voll fyri rotnum skalla."

APPENDIX. 333
fat voru holmgongulog i f ann tima, at sa er
skorar a mann annan tU einshvers hlutar, ok fengi
sa sigr er askorabi, fa skyldi sa hafa sigrmal fat er
hann hafbi til skorab ; en ef hann fengi osigr, fa
skyldi hann leysa sik f vilika fe sem akvebit veri ;
en ef hann felli a h61mi, fa hafbi hann fyrirgjort
allri eigu sinni, ok skyldi sa taka arf er hann felldi
a holmi. EgiU bab at Ljotr skyldi buinn verba :
"vil ek at vib reynim mi holmgongu f essa." Ljotr
spratt fa skjott a fsetr. fa hljop Egill at honum ok
hjo f egar til hans, gekk hann fa sv4 nser honum at
hann hraukk fyrir ok bar fa skj6ldinn af honum.
fa hjo Egill til Ljots ok kom a iyrir ofan kne, ok
tok af fotinn ; fell Ljotr far ok f egar erehdr. fa
gekk EgiU far til er feir Fribgeir voru ; var f etta
verk honum allvel f akkat, fa kvab Egill :
" Fell sS er flest hit ilia
(Fot hjo skSld af Ljoti),
Ulfgrennir hefir unnit ;
Eir veittag FriSgeiri.
Sekja ek 16ns til launa
Log brjotanda i moti ;
Jafnt var mfer i gny geira
Gamanleikr viS hai bleikan.''
Ljotr var litt harmbandi af m6nnum, fviat hann
hafbi verit hinn mesti oeiru-mabr, Hann var
Svsenskr at sett ok atti engva frseudr far i landi ;
hann hafbi komit f angat ok aflat ser fjar a holm-
gongum, Hann hafbi fellt marga goba bsendr ok
skorat abr a fa tU h61mg6ngu ok til jarba f eirra ok
obala, ok var fa vorbinn storaubigr btebi at I6ndum
ok 1 ausum aurum,
15*

334 APPENDIX.
EgiU for heim meb Fribgeiri af holmstefnunni,
dvaldist hann far fa litta hrib 4br hann for subr a
Mseri ; skyldust feir Egill ok Fribgeir meb miklum
kserleik, baub Egill Fribgeiri um at heimta jarbir
fser er Ljotr hafbi att.

INDEX.

Adam of Bremen, a historian of
the 12th century, 14 — alludes
to America, 80 — to the temple
at Upsala, 116, 198,211.
Adelung, 30.
Adils, a king of Upsala, 185.
Afeeliu.s, 32.
Al-fabir (OSinn), 90, 93, 112,12*?.
Alfar (Elves), 1*79, 193-5.
Alfheimr, the abode of Frey, 96,
134, 139— the home of the
Light Elves, 123, 134.
Alfrek, a king of Horbaland, 178.
AlvismSl, an Eddaic poem, 41 —
quoted 299.
Ammianus Marcellinus, quoted,
282.
Angrboba, 98, 143.
Antiquarian researches in lee-
land, 14, 15; — by Arngrim and
Brynjulf, 16, 17 ;— by Torfaeus,
17, 18; — by Arnas Magnseus,
17, 22, 23;— by the Danish
Government, 18; — by the
Swedes, 18, 19.
Antiquarians of Germany, 29, 30 ;
— of Norway, 37 ; — of Sweden,
19, 37.
Antiquaries, the Koyal Society
of Northern, 33, 37, 38, 39, 77.
Antiquitates Americanse, 39, 77.
Apparitions, belief in, 303-305.
Aptrganga (see Appai'itions), 303.
Arna-Magna;an Commission, 23,
32, 34.
Arnas Magnseus, 18 — collects a
large quantity of old MSS., and
lays the fou;>dation of the
Arna-Magnsean Commission,
22-3.

Arngrimr Jonsson, finder of the
Edda, 16, 17, 66.
Arnkiel's Cimbrian Mythology,
29.
Aron Hjbrleifsson's Saga, 71.
Arwidsson, 37.
Asgarbr, the abode of the gods,
93, 122;— the earthly, 107,
159.
Ash, the, a sacred tree, from
which the first human pair
were formed, 91, 115.
Askr, the first raan, 91, 115.
Asynjur, the Goddesses, 96, 126 ;
—worship of, 177, 178.
Atlakviba, an Eddaic poem, 54;
— quoted, 241.
Atlamal, an Eddaic poem, 64; —
quoted, 183,188, 241.
Atlantica of Rudbeck, traces the
legends and learning of the
Greeks to Scandinavia, 19, 20.
Atli, 51, 53, 54, 188, 241.
Attila (Atli), 51.
Aubhumla, the mythic cow, re
presenting the elementary prin
ciple of materi.il life, 89, 111,
112; — traces of its worship,
232.
Austri (the East), one of the four
dwarves which support the
sky, 91.
Baldur, 94, 135, 145 ;— his death,
99, 144; — return from the
realms of death, 103, 152;—
poems relating to, 28, 44, 45 ;
— worship of, 176; statues of,
199.
Bardic Sctool, iu Germany, 30.

336

INDEX.

Bartholin's Antiquities, 18; —
translated, 29.
Bergrisar (mountain giants), 89,
111, 113.
Berserkir, 253.
Bifrost, the Rainbow, the bridge
from earth to heaven, 90, 95,
114.
Biographical Sagas, 67-72.
Bjarni Herjiilfsson, first discover
er of America, 78, 79.
Boar, the, sacred to Frey, 95,
134, 176.
Bragarfulli, thc full horn, sacred
to Bragi, note, 176, 177.
Bragarsebr, second part of the
Later Edda, containing mytho
logical ideas, 57.
Bragi, the god of Poetry, 96, 135;
— worship of, 177.
Breibablik, the dwelling of Bal
dur, 94, 144.
Breibafjorbr, a firth in western
Iceland, 71, 192, 207.
Brynjfilf Sveinsson, discoverer of
the poetic Edda, 16, 17, 42, 56.
Buri, Burr, Bor, 89, 112.
Calendar, based on the Asa My
thology, by Finn Magnusen,
Twte, 140.
Cat, the, sacred to Freyja, 96,
135.
Chronicles of the Danish Kings
first published, 15.
Classes, different, mythic origin
of, 49, 50.
Cold, the symbol of evil, 89, 110,
116.
Cottle's translation of the Edda,
40.
Cow, the, worship of, 231, 232.
Creation, 44 ; — of chaotic matter,
89, 111, 154;— of the world,
90, 112, 113, 154;— of the sun,
moon and stars, 90, 91, 114.
Creutzer's Symbolik, 34.
Criticism in mythological stu
dies, 22, 26-6, 81-2.

Dalin's History of Sweden, 27,
Delius, against the Bdda, 30.
Dellingr, the dawn, the father of
Day, 90, 114.
Denis' ' Songs ' and translations,
30.
Diar, Gods, 127 ; — priests of an
cient Asgard who accompa
nied Odin into the North, 159.
Disir, inferior goddesses, 127,
179, 181 ;— saerifioes, 184-5.
DokkSlfar (dark elves), 193.
Dragons, 302.
Draumkonur, 179.
Dreams, 188, 293-4.
Droplauga-sonar Saga, quoted,
255.
Drottnar, rulers and priests in
the earliest ages, 159-160.
Dualism, pervades the Old-Norse
religion, 89, 110-116, 118,
154-5.
Dvergar (dwarves), origin of, 90,
114;— belief in, 299.
Edda, the Older, 42-66, 86;—
discovery of, 17, 19 ; — Bese
nius' edition, 17, 24'; — Arna
Magnsean ed., 23; — German
translations, 29, 30, 40.
Edda, the Later, 56-58, 86;—
discovery of, 16, 17 ; — publi
cation and translation, 17, 25,
29, 37, 40.
Egil Skallagrimsson (see Egil's
Saga).
Egil's Saga, 69; — quoted, 173,
190-1, 242-5, 246-8, 266-6.
Eichhofs 'Literature of the
North,' 40.
Einherjar, fallen heroes chosen
for Valhalla, 93, 128.
Einar Eyjolfsson's dream, 188.
Einvigi, 242, 248, 250-1.
Eirikr BloSox, a king of Nor
way, 173, 185, 190-1, 246.
Eirikr Raubi, visited and colo
nized Greenland, 78; — extract
from his Saga, 288-292.

INDEX.

337

Eirikr Sigrsajli, protected by
Odin, 172; — gave himself to
the god and conquered by his
aid, 168, 226.
Eiriksson, a learned Icelander,
23 ; — assists Mallet, 24 ; — his
writings, 28.
Elves, 193; — sacrifices to them,
194-5.
Embla, the first woman, 91, 115.
Enthusiasm of Antiquaries, 1 5-1 9,
21.
Epic poems of the Edda, 50-55.
Evald, a Danish poet, 28.
Eyjafjorbr, a firth in the north
of Iceland, 174, 188, 192, 238.
Eyrbyggja Saga, 40, 70-71;—
quoted, 204, 207-8, 212-13,
226, 295-6, 306.
Fenrisulfr, a mythic monster, 98,
143, 148;— bound by the ^sir,
99; — breaks loose at the end
of the world and fights against
the Gods, 101 ; — swallows
Odin and is slain by Vibarr,
102.
Fensalir, the abode of Friga, 96,
-129.
Figure-heads on the prow • of
ships forbidden by the Old-
Icelandic laws, 190.
Finnr J6nsson's Ecclesiastical His
tory of Iceland, 28.
Finnr Magnusen, a learned Ice
lander, works, 35, 36, mytho
logie calendar, 87 ; — refer
ence,- noZe 189.
FinngSlkn, a supernatural mon
ster ofthe north, 300, 301-2.
Finns, the, skilled in magio, 273,
276-7, and in the Future, 287.
FjorSuDgr, a division of Iceland,
a fourth or quarter, 160, 214,
234.
FjolsvinnsmSl, an Eddaic poem,
48.
Jjorgyn, the mother of Friga, 93,
129.

Flateyjabok, first Icelandic edi
tion printed, 25.
F16amanna Saga, quoted, 252-3.
F61kvangar, the abode of Freyja,
96, 134, 139, 149.
Forseti, the god of Justice, 96,
137, 139, worshiped by the
Frisians iu a temple on Helgo
land, 177.
FostbrseSra Saga, 70; — quoted,
200.
Freki, one of Odin's wolves, 93,
128.
Freyja, the goddess of Love, 96,
133, 134-6 ;— worship of, 177-
8 ; — statues, 199.
Freyr, the god of Fruitfulness,
96, 133, 134;— worship of, 173,
176; — temples and saerifioes
173-6 ;— statues, 198-200.
FriSJjof's Saga, 63; — quoted,
176, 184-5, 209.
Friga, the wife of Odin, 93, 96,
99 ;— worship of, 177-8 ; — sta
tues, 199.
Frisians, the, worshiped Forseti,
177.
Frost-giants, 89, 90, 111.
Fundinn Noregr, 60 ; — quoted,
224.
Future rewards and punishment?,
148-150, 152.
Future state, the, employments
in, 306.
Fylgjur, attending spirits, 179 ; —
gave to men their peculiar
qualities, 187-8; — manifesta
tions, 188-9.
Fylki, in ancient Norway, a
small district ruled by a petty
king, 215.
Fsereyinga Saga, 67;^-quoted,
226-7, 275-6.
Gardar, a Dane, first discovered
Iceland, 77.
Gaungu-Hrolf's Saga, quoted,
194-5.
Gautrek's Saga, 224.

338

INDEX.

GerSa, the wife of Frey, 48, 95,
134.
Geri, one of Odin's wolves, 93,
128.
Gerstenberg's ' Letters ' and po
ems, 30.
Geijer (E. G ), 35, 87 ; quoted,
160.
Giants or Demons, 297-9.
Gimli, the highest heaven, 93,
103, 122, 148, 152.
Ginungagap, 89, 90, 111.
Gisli Sursson's Saga, quoted, 174,
182.
Gjallarhorn, 95, 102.
Glitnir, the abode of Forseti, 96,
137, 139.
Gods, the, impersonations of the
powers of nature, 125; — their
various titles, 126-7.
Gobar, priests and teachers of
religion, 160-8.
Gorre's ' Mythic History,' 34.
Grater, 30.
Greenland discovered and colon
ized, 78.
Grettis Saga, 71.
Grimm (J.), 39, 40, 85, 87 ; quot
ed, 177 ; and in notes to Part
Second, passim,
GrimnismSl, 43 ; quoted, 183.
Groa (1), an enchantress of the
Edda, 65, 264;— (2), a sorcer
ess in Iceland, 180.
Grotta-sbngr, an Eddaic poem,
56.
Grougalldr, an Eddaic poem, 65.
Groves, worshiped, 233, 234.
Grundtvig (N. F. S.), 'Mytholo
gy of the North,' 35, 87.
Gubbrandr, a celebrated chief
tain of Gubbrandsdal in Nor
way, 199, 201-2.
Gubbrandsdal, a large and fertile
valley of central Norway, 170,
186, 198, 199, 201-2.
Gubrunarkviba I. II. III., Eddaic
poems, 63; IIL quoted, 261-2. i
Gubrunarhvaut, an Eddaic poem', '
54.

Gullinbursti, the golden bristled
boar of Frey, 95, 134, 176.
Gunnbjorn, the discoverer of
Greenland, 78.
Gunjhilda, a sorceress. Queen of
king Eirik Blobox, 173, 185,
190-1, 272-3;— taught bythe
Finns, 277.
Gunnlaug Ormstiinga's Saga, 69,
quoted, 171-2.
Gunnar Helming, an imposter,
175.
¦Gybja, a priestess, 163.
Gygar, giantesses, 297.
Gylfaginning, the mythological
book of the Later Edda, 56-7.
Gymir (see ^Egir), 97, 138.
HSkon ABalsteinf&strij a King of
Norway, 171, 242.
HSkon Eiriksson Jarl, a king of
Norway, overcomes the Joms
vikingar, 73; — quoted, 149; —
his devotion to the Gods made
the country prosperous, 162;
— anecdote of his religious zeal
and bravery, 166 ; — sacrificed
his son to his tutelary deity
and gains her assistance in
battle, 186, 222;— his temples
to her 199, 201-2; — asks a
favor of her, 226-7 ; — response
to his sacrifice, 168, 280; — his
gift to Einar, 284.
HSkonarmSl, a poem, quoted,
148.
HSlf's Saga, 60, 61; quoted, 178,
182-3.
HSlfdSn, a son of king Bele, in
Norway, 184.
HSlfdSn Einarsson's ' Icelandic
History,' 28.
Hallfrebr VandrtebaskSld', 178 ;
180, 227.
Halogaland, a province of Nor
way, 185-6, 238.
Hamarsheimt, an Eddaic poem,
Hamingjar, a class of inferior
goddesses, 179, 180, 183.

INDEX,

339

Hammerich (M.), ' Concerning t^e
myths of Eagnarokk and their
significance in the Old-North
ern Religion,' 87.
Harald HSrfagri, first king over
all Norway, 200, 257, 267-8 ;
Saga quoted, 272-3, 321.
Harald Gormsson, a king of Den
mark, sends a sorcerer-spy to
Iceland, 192.
Harald Hyldatand, a king of
Denmark, consecrated to Odin,
168,
Harbarbsljob, an Eddaic poem,
47.
Haulgi, an ancient king in Nor
way, 185.
HSvamSl, an Eddaic poem, first
published from the MS. by Ee
senius, 17 ;^ubjeot, 48-9,
quoted, 264; — extracts, 311 —
316 (see Appendix).
Heibarviga Saga, 68.
Heimdallr, theWarder of heaven,
95, 136.
Heimskringla, Schoning's Edi
tion, 24 ; Norwegian do., 37 ;
— account oft 75, 76.
Hei, the goddess of Death,
98-100, M, 103, 143-4, claim
ed the bodies of the dead, 147
-50, 303.
HelgakviSa -Hundingsbana, an
Eddai<f poem-, quoted, 166, 167,
240-lj ,303-4. ¦
Helgi, a hero of the Edda.
Helgi hinn Magri, an Icelandic.
settler, 171.
Helgi, a son of Bele, a king in
Norway, 184.
Helgoland, a sacred island of the
Frisians, 177.
Helheimr, the abode of Hei, where
she receives all who are not
biave and virtuous, 99, 146.
Herab, in Norway, the district
under a hersir, 161-2.
Herder's Eddaic translations, 30,
Hersir, a baron, in Norway,
161-2. ,

Hervarar Saga, 24, 63-4.
Himinbjorg, the abode of Heim
dall, 95, 136, 139.
Historical interpretations, 26
107-8,
Historical Sagas, 64-76.
Hjalti Skeggjason, 184.
Hl^r (see ^gir), 97, 137.
HlibskjSlf, the throne of Odin, 93,
100, 123.
HlorriSi, a name of Thor, 94.
Hofgobi, a temple-priest (see
Gobi), 160.
Hofgybja, a temple priestess (see
Gybja), 163.
Holmgang, a duel, 242-258.
Horse, the, sacred to Frey, 175-6,
231.
Hewitt's ' Literature and Eo
mance of the North of Europe,'
41.
Hodur (HoSr) the blind, 96, 135 ;
— kills Baldur the Good, 99,
144-5 ; — is slain by Vali, 100,
145; — rejoins the Gods, 103,
152.
Hogni, a hero of the Edda, 51,
188.
Horbaland, a petty kingdom iu
ancient Norway, 169, 178.
Horg, a kind of stone altar,
205-6.
Hoskuld, an Icelandic chieftain,
188-4.
Hrimfaxi, the horse of Night, 90.
Hiimjursar, frost-giants, 89, 90,
IIL
Hrolf Ganger (see Gaungu-Hrolf).
Hrolf Kraka's Saga, 61, quoted,
188, 269.
Hrym, a Jotun, leads on the
Hrimjursar to the last battle,
101.
Hrsesvelgr, a Jotun, the cause of
storms, 91, 113.
Huginn, a raven of Odin, 93, 128.
Hunds])orp, atown in Gubbrands-
•¦ dal, 170, 198.
Hvergelmir, 89, 92, 103, 117.
Hyltto-Cavallius, 37.

340

INDEX.

HymiskviSa, an Eddaic poem,
46.
Hyndluljob, an Eddaic poem, 48,
quoted 177, 206.
Hsenir, assists in creating man,
91, 115 ; — is given to the Va
nir in exchange for Njorb, 94,
131.
Iceland, first visited by Irish
monks, 77-8 ; — re-discovered
and settled by the Northmen,
77-8.
Iduna, the Goddess of Immortal
ity, 67, 96, 135.
Ihre, 26 ; — his ' Lexicon ' and
' Letters,' 28.
Immortality of the Soul, taught
by the Asa doctrine, 103, 104,
146-160, 152, 163, 165.
Ingemund Thorsteinsson, an Ice
landic settler, 173, 200.
Ingolfr, a Norwegian, began the
colonization of Iceland, 78.
Jens Mortensen, a Danish trans
lator of Snorri, 15.
J61 (Yule), 220.
Jomsviklnga Saga, 73 ; — quoted,
284, 308.
Jokulls, ice-mountains, the abode
of Jotuns, 113.
Jormungandr (see Mibgarbs-
ormr).
Jotunheimr, the abode of the Jo
tuns, 113, 117, 123.
Jotuns, giants, evil beings, rude
nature, 44, 89, 90, 111, 113,
193, 297 ; — nature's disturbing
powers, 154, older than the
.iEsir, 119,
Kanne's ' Pantheon,' 34.
Kenningar, third part of the
Later Edda, containing poeti
cal terms and paraphrases, 67,
58.
Kerganga, a kind of duel, 262-3.
¦igetii Hseng's Saga, 64, quoted,
. 233.

Keyser (E.), 5, 37.
i^alnesinga Saga, quoted 208-9.
Kjotvi, King of AgSir, 200.
Klopstock's poems, 30.
Kniitr Sveinsson, hinn riki (Ca
nute the Great), 73, 74.
Knytlinga Saga, 23, 73, 74.
Koeppen's 'Literary Introduction
to Northern Mythology, 7.
Konungs-skugssjS [King's Mir
ror], 37.
Kormak's Saga, 69-70, quoted,
194, 248-250.
Krakumal, an ancient poem, quot
ed, 167.
Kraku Hreibar, au Icelandic set
tler, 170.
Kretsehman, the Barde Ehin-
gulph, 30.
Kristni Saga (an account of the
introduction of Christianity in
to Iceland), 66 ; — first printed,
23;— quoted, 234.
Lagerbring's 'History of Swe
den,' 27.
LandnSmabok (history of the co
lonization of Iceland), 66, first
printed, 24; — quoted, 191-2,
203-4, 207-8, 213, 234, 237-8,
301, 32L
Landvibi, the abode of Vibarr,
96, 136, 139.
Landvsettir, 179, 190-3; — drive
King Eirik Blobox from Nor
way, 191 ; — guard Iceland
against King Harald's spy, 192.
Laxdsela Saga, 71;— quoted, 266
-7, 274.
Leifr hinn heppni Eiriksson, first
; landed iu America, 79.
Lexicons and handbooks on
Northern Mythology, 28, 35,
36.
Lif, and i P'*^'«'it! °J tlie re-
Lifjrasir, 1 p'^?,''*'^! l^""^^"
^ ' ( family, 103.
Lindfors' 'History of Icelandic
Literature,' 36.
Lj6sSlfar, light-elves, 184, 193.

INDEX.

34:1

Ljosvetninga Saga, quoited, 188.
Loburr, assists in creating man,
91, 115, 142.
Lokasenna, or ) an Eddaic poem,
Lokaglepsa, J 45.
Loki, the traducer and betrayer
of the gods, 45; — his origin
and offspring, 98 ; — the author
of evil among gods and men,
98, 141-2 ; — causes the death
of Baldur the Good, 99, 144,
145 ; — bound iu a cavern until
the end of time, 100, 145; —
leads the troops of Hei to the
last battle, 101.
Loptr, 98, 142.
Lot-casting, 281-2, 284-5.
Mallet, a French -writer on
Northern History and Mytho-
• logy, 24, 26, 29, 41.
Markiisson's 'Collection of Sagas'
printed in Skalholt, Iceland, 25.
Marmier's ' Popular Songs of the
North,' 40.
Maxims from the Edda, 311-316.
Megingj6r6r, Thor's magic girdle,
94;
Mermaids, mermen, 300.
MiSgarSr, the world, 90, 91, 113,
116, 123.
MiSgarSsormr, the world-ser
pent, 98, 143; — joins iu the
last battle against the gods,
101, and is killed by Thor, 102.
Mimir the Wise, guards the foun-
taiii of wisdom, 92, 118, 119.
Mjolnir, Thor's hammer, 94, 130,
198, 200 ; — sign of the hammer
made to exorcise evil beings,
17L
Mone's (F. J.) ' History of Hea
thendom in Northern Europe,'
34, 87.
Moster, an island on the coast of
Norway, 170, 2,04, 207, 215.
Mounds worshiped, 233.
Mountain-giants (Bergrisar), 89,
111 ;— (bergbtiar), 191, 297.
Mulier (P. E.), 32.

Munch (P. A.), Professor of His
tory in Christiania, 87 ; — his
'Mythologie and Heroic Le
gends,' 87.
Muninn, one of Odin's ravens, 98,
128.
Muspellheimr, the source of light
and life iu creation, 89, 110,
111, 122; — agent in purifying
the world from evil, 101, 102,
161-2.
Mythic Sagas, 60-62.
Mseri, a chief-temple in Thrond
heim, 161, 170, 198, 213.
NaglfSr, the ship made of dead
men's nails, which bears the
frost-giants to the last battle,
101.
Nanna, wife of Baldur, burned
on his funeral pile, 99, 145.
NSstrbnd, the strand of the dead,
103, 148.
New England (Vinlaud), visited
by the Northmen, 79.
Newfoundland (Helluland), visit
ed by thc Northmen, 79.
Nibhoggr, the primitive evil be
ing, 89, 110; — gnaws at the
root of the all-sustaining tree,
92, 118; — banished from the
regenerated world, 104, 153.
Nibing, niSstaung, 191, 244.
Niflheimr, 88, 110, 124, 152.
NjSl's Saga, 68;— quoted, 149,
186, 189, 199, 201-2, 295.
Njorbr, 94-5, 132-3;— worship
ed as the god of seafaring,
172-3.
Noatlin, the abode of Njorb, 96,
132, 139.
Norbri (the North), one of the
dwarves that hold up the sky,
91.
Nornir, the northern Fates, 92,
120, 121,287-8.
N6tt (night), the mother of Day,
90, 114.
Nova Scotia (Markland), visited
by the Northmen, 79.

342

INDEX,

Nyerup (R.) Danish antiquary
and historian, 32, 35, 36.
Nykr, a fabulous sea-horse, 800,
801.
Odin, the father of the gods, 90;
— with Viii and Ve created the
¦world, 90, 112; — with Hanir
and L6burr created man, 91,
116;— attributes, 93, 112, 119,
127-8; — relations, 129; — sings
of the gods and Valhalla and
YggdrasiU, 43 ; — asks Vaf-
Jrudnir concerning the origin of
things, 44; — calls up a Vala in
order to learn Baldur's fate
and the impending destiny of
the gods, 45 ; he and Thor re
late their exploits, 47 ; — Odin
awakened the spirit of War by
casting his spear over the
heads of the people, 141, 166 ;
— selects the heroes slain in
battle, 151 ; — worshiped as the
god of war, 165; — chieftains
and children often consecrated
to him, 167-9 ; — represented as
one-eyed, 119, 167, 170;— sta
tue in Upsala, 198.
Oddrunargratr, an Eddaic poem,
54.
Obr, the husband of Freyja, 96,
135.
Oehlenschlager, 36.
Olafr Haraldsson, a king of Nor
way, 184.
Olafr hinn Helgi [Olaf the Saint],
Saga of, 74; — quoted, 194; —
227;— Olaf destroyed a sta
tue of Thor in Gubbrandsdal,
198-9.
Olafr Tretelgja, a kiug in Verma-
land in Sweden, 162.
Olaf Tryggvason's Saga, 74; —
quoted on the worship of Thor,
171-2, 200, 201;— of Frey,
173-6 ; — on the guardian spir
its of Iceland, 192; — Olaf
burns a statue of Thor, 201 ; —
an instance of Olafs mod* of

christianizing Norway, 225-6 ;
—227, 278-4.
Omens, 294-6.
Orkneyinga Saga, 24, 66;— quot
ed, 274.
Ossian's Poems awakened atten
tion to the study of northern
literature in Germany, 29.
Oxen worshiped, 231.
Oku-Jorr, a name of Thor, 94.
Olvusvatn, a lake in Iceland, 186,
199.
Ondvegissiilar [sacred columns],
174, 202-4;— guided the set
tlers of Iceland to a home,
202-3, 280.
Orvar-Odd's Saga, 64; — quoted,
292.
Paulus Diaconus, a Longobard
writer, 14.
Percy's translation of Mallet's
'Introduction,' 25, 41.
Peringskjold, -note 21.
Petersen's (N. M.) History of Den
mark in Heathen Antiquitv,
87.
Philology enriched by the stu
dies of Northern Antiquaries,
81.
Pigott's 'Manual of Scandinavian
Mythology,' 41.
Plato's Atlantis, 20 ; — his wisdom
derived from the Swedish
Skalds, 20.
Poets, 28, 30, 36-7.
Purifications, 228-9.
Eafn (Prof. C. C), 34, 38, 77.
Eagnar L6bbr6k's Saga, 61, 62;
— his death, 167 ;— saga quot
ed, 302.
Eagnarokkr, 48, 44, 101-2, 161-
8, 155.
ESn, wife of Mgir, 97, 138; —
claimed the bodies of the
drowned, 160.
Eask (E. K.), 31, 32.
Eationalism, 21, 22.

INDEX.

343

Raubsey, an island of Norway,
170, 201.
Eaven, the, a sacred bird, 93,
128, 166, 232, 280.
Eesenius, published the first edi
tion of the Edda, 17.
Eeykjanes, the southwestern
promontory of Iceland, 192.
RigsmSl, an Eddaic poem, 49, 50.
Eomantic literature of the south
translated by the Icelanders,
64.
Eomantic Sagas, 63, 64.
Eoskva, an attendant of Thor,
94, 131.
Eugman (J.), a learned Icelander
in Sweden, 18, 19.
Ruhs, spread the study of north
ern literature in Germany, 30;
— traced the Icelandic poetry
and mythology to the Anglo-
Saxons, 31.
Eunar [runes], 163; — magic
words or incantations, 268-6;
used in divination, 283.
Eunic Chapter, 49, 264.
Sacrifices, 166, 186, 216;— pub
lic, 217 ;— periodical, 219-221;
— human victims, 222-3 ; —
self-immolation, 223-4 ; — con
secration to the gods, 224r-6;
gifts and offerings, 226-8.
Saga, tbe goddess of History, 96,
136, 139.
Sagas, 58 ; — relating to Denmark,
72-4; — to Norway, 74-6.
Saxo Grammaticus, 14; — quoted,
168.
Schlozer, a skeptic in northern
mythology, 80.
Schoning's Heimskringla, 24; —
historical writings, 27.
Schiitz on Northern Antiquities,
29.
Scott's abstract ofthe Eyrbyggja
Saga mentioned, 41.
Seers, 285-7.
Sessrymnir, the hall of Freyja,
96, 134.

SigrdrifumSl, 264, 310 ; — extracts
in Chap. XXVII. (see Appen
dix).
Sigyn, the wife of Loki, 100.
Simrock's translation of the Ed
das, 40.
Skabi, the wife of Njorb, 95, 132.
SkSlda, a treatise on prosody,
rhetoric, &c., connected with
the Later Edda, 68.
Skibblabnir, the ship of Frey, 95,
134.
Skinfaxi, the steed of Day, 91.
Skirnisfor, an Eddaic poem, 48.
Skuld, one of the nornir, goddess
of the Future, 92, 120.
Sleipnir, Odin's eight-footed
horse, 94.
Snorri Sturlason, the Icelandic
historian, 16, 86 ; — ^his account
of the arrival of Odin and the
jEsir in the north, 158-9.
Solarljob, an Eddaic poem, 50.
Sonargolltr, the atonement-boar,
176.
Sogubrbt, a historical fragment,
62.
Sbkkvabekkr, the abode of Saga,
96, 186, 139.
Stafir [letters], 163,. 288.
Starkabr, a semi-fabulous war
rior or giant, sacrifices Vikarr
to Odin, 169 ; — carries off king
Alfs daughter, 185.,
Stephanius, 16, 17, 18.
Stephens (G.), 37.
Stones, -worshiped, 238-4.
Storms, caused by the evil Jo
tuns, 91, 113.
Sturlunga Saga, 71.
Styrbjorn Sviakappi, with his
hosts, slain by Odin, 168 ; —
Thor appears to him in battle,
172.
Subreyjar [South Islands], now
Hebrides, or Western Islands,
171.
Subri [the South], one of the four
dwarves -which bear up the
sky, 91.

344

index;

Suhm, g. Banish Antiquary, 23,
24, note 27.
Sun, moon andttats formed from
the sparks of Muspell, 90, 91,
114;'^the sun, aiid moon pur
sued by the Jotuns, 91, 114; —
who,swall6w them, 101^ — new
ones appear, 103.
Supreme being, higher than all
the jEsir, alluded to, 104, 153,
155.
Surtur, the Fire-god, 89, 101-2,
110, 152.
SvartSlfar, the swarthy elves,
115.
Saehrlmnir, the boar, of whose
flesh the Einherjar partake,
93.
Ssemundr hinn Frobi, editor ofthe
Older Edda, 86.
Tacitus, quoted, 282.
Tegnfer, 36.
Temples, of Thor in Norway and
Iceland, 170, 207-8;— of Frey
in Throndheim and Iceland,
173-4;— one to Odin, Thor
and Frey in Upsala, 175, 198;
— to Baldur in Norway, 176,
199 ; — to Forseti in Helgoland,
177 ; — to Thorgerd Horga-
brtid,186, 199; — othertemples,
199, 200; — construction and
arrangement of temples, 206-
211 ; — dedication of, 211 ; —
sanctity of, 212,214; — support
of, 214-215.
Theories concerning the Asa My
thology, 105-9.
Thibrandi Hallsson, slain by the
Disir of his family, 181-2.
Thingsokn, a judicial district in
Iceland, 160.
ThjSlfi, an attendant of Thor, 94,
13L
Thor, the strongest of the gods,
94;— the god of thunder, 129,
130;— his attributes, 94,129-
131 ; — fights against Trolls and
Jotuns, 94, 130; — the god of

' bondsmen after death, 94, 150 J-
— held the highest place in the
• worship, of Noryay and Ice
land,. I7O; — directed his -wor
shipers to a place of abode,
170-1 ; — invoked by those -who
trusted in their own strength,
171 ; — by wrestlers, 171-2; —
sometimes appeared as a red-
bearded man, 172; — statues,
198, 199, 201, 204, 207, 208:
— Eddaic poems relating his
deeds, 46, 47.
¦fhorfinnr Karlsfnefni, visits
Greenland,79 ;^^visits Amerioa
and remains three years, 80.
Thorgerbr Hbrgabrubr, an infe
rior deity, 185-7 ; — worshiped
- by HSkon Jarl, 186, 199, 226-
7 ; — aided him against the
Jomsvlkings, 186, — statue of,
199, 201.
Thorhaddr hinn GamU, a chief-
priest in Throndheim, 161.
Thorhallr,a soothsayer (spSmabr),
181-2.
Thorkelin, 24, 28.
Thorlacius, 24, 28 ; — the young
er, 32.
Th6r61fr, a sorcerer in Iceland,
187.
Thorolfr Mostrarskegg, directed
by Thor to Iceland, 170, 204 ;
— sacredness of his temple and
lands, 212-13; — devoted to
Thor from his birth, 225-6.
Thorsnes, a promontory in Ice
land, 170.
Thorsteinn Uxafot, 189.
Thorvaldr Eiriksson, visits Ame
rica, 79.
Thorvaldr ViSforli [the far-trav
eled], introduoed Christianity
into Iceland (A. D. 981), 284.
Thorvaldsen, the sculptor, a son
of Icelandic parents, the lineal
descendant of a native Ameri
can, note 80.
ThorvarSr Eysteinsson, cured by
the Elves, 194.

INDEX.

345

Throndheim, Jrandheimr [Dront-
heim], temples, 170, 173, 198.
*J>:f ThrtiSheimr,. ) the abode of
ThruSvangar, j Thor, 94, 130.
Thrymheimr, the abode of SkaSi,
96, 133.
ThrymskviSa, an Eddaic poem,
46.
Thulr, an improvisator, 163.
ThverS, in Iceland, 174-6, 180.
Torfason, ThormoSr [Torfajus],
18, 22, 25-6.
Tyr, the god of bravery, 95,
135.
Tryker, a German, found the
vine growing in America, from
which 'Finland ¦wa.s named, 79.
Ulf the Eed [RauSiilfr], 182-3.
Ullr, the god ' of winter life and
hunting, 96, 137, note 189.
Unger, 37.
Upsala, 175, 183, 198, 210.
UrSarbrunnr, the sacred foun
tain ofthe Fates, 92, 120, 121.
UrSarmSni, 295-6.
UrSr, one of the nornir, a god
dess of the Past, 92, 120.
UtgarSr, the region of the Jotuns,
90, 113.
UtgarSa-Loki, 142.
Vaf JrtiSnismSJ, an Eddaic poem,
28, 44;— quoted, 173.
Vala, a seeress or prophetess, 43,
45, 68;— description of, 287-
293
ValfaSir [Odin], 93, 127, 128.
Valhalla, the abode of Odin's
chosen sons, 93, 97, 128, 146 —
150, 165-7.
Vali, one of the ^sir, 96, 135 ; —
— avenges the death of Baldur,
100, 144, 145; — rejoins the
gods, 103, 152.
Valkyrjur, 98, 96-7, 120, 137,
139, 148.
Vanaheimr, the home of the
Vanir, the air, 94, 123,
Vanirr94, 96, 131-2.

VSpnafjorSr, a firth in the N. E.
part of Iceland, 192.
Vatusdal, a valley in Iceland,
180.
Vatnsdifila Saga, 70 ; — quoted,
178-4, 176-7, 180, 187, 200,
271-2, 276, 293, 294, 321.
VegtamskviSa, an Eddaic poem,
45.
VerSandi, one of the nornir, a
goddess of the Present, 92, 120.
Vermaland, a petty kingdona in
ancient Sweden, 162.
Vestri [th« West], one of the
four dwarves that sustain the
sky, 91.
Videlin [Paul], 22.
ViSarr, the silent god, 96, 139
note; — the victor in the last
battle, 102, 186; — rejoins the
gods in the regenerated world,
108, 162.
Viga-Glum's Saga, 69 ; — quoted,
174-5, 180, 288-9.
Viga-Styr's Saga, 67-8.
Vigfus, a Norwegian hersir, 180,
185.
Vikarr, a king, sacrificed for a
favorable wind, at the instiga
tion of Odin, 169.
Viklngar, 13, 222;— Viking life,
61-2, 319-320.
Vingolf, the hall of the god
desses, 93, 128-9, 149.
Volsunga Saga, 60, quoted, 167-
8.
Volundar kviSa, an Eddaic
poem, quoted, 240.
VbluspS, an Eddaic poem, 48 ; —
reference, 119, 139, 14L
Waterfalls, worshiped, 233, 234.
Westphalen's 'Monuments,' 29.
Wolff's Handbook of German
Mythology, 40.
Worm, (Ole) [Olaus Wormius],
16.
Worship of divine beings among
heathens, 156-7 ; — among the
Northmen, 168-9 ; — The wor-

346

INDEX.

ship of the Gods by rulers,
brought prosperity to the peo
ple; neglect thereof brought
adversity, 162.
YggdrasiU, the emblem of the
wqrld, 44, 92, 102, 117.
Ymir, the first chaotic matter,
89, 111;- from -which the
world was formed, 90, 112,
113, 164.
Ynglinga Saga, 76, quoted, 209-
210.
Yrp, an inferior deity -worshiped
in the North, 185; — aided HS
kon Jarl against the Jomsvik
ingar, 186; — statue, 199.
jEgir, the god of the Sea, '67;
137-8 ; entertains the .(Esir45,
46.
.^gisdrekka (see Lokasenna), 45.
^sir, 21, 26, 45, 57, 86;— de

scended from Odin, 90, 93, 112 ;
— acting powers in the Crea
tion, 90-91, 112-116; — banish
evil (the Jotuns) from the
world, 90, 113;— their judg
ment-seat, 92, 121 ; — home and
assembling-place, 93, 122-3 ;
— attributes and abodes, 93-97,
126-139; — ^they form connec
tions -with the Jotuns and
bring evil into the world, 98,
141 ; — suffer by Loki*s malig
nity and duplicity, 98-9,142-5;
—•bind 'him and his pffspring
nutu the end of the world, 100,
145 ; — join iu the last battle,
102 ;— are slain together -with
their enemies, 102, 162, 165; —
arise regenerated with the
new heaven and the new earth,
103, 152, 155;— historical the
ory of their arrival in the
North, 26-7, 159.

CORRECTIONS AND ADDITIONS.

Page 25, line 3 — Mallet's 'History' comes down to the death of
Christian IIL, to 1559.
34, 22 — For were, read was.
39, 15 — ^To the list add the title : ' Antiquity Eusses et
Orientales d'aprfes les monuments his-
toriques des Islandais et des anciens Scan
dinaves,' a collection of the Scandinavian
sources to the history of Eussia and other
Eastern countries, from the earliest times
to the Middle of the XV. century. 2 vols.
Imp. 4to., with facsimiles, maps and plates.
48, 15 — For Fjbls-vinns, read Fjblsvinns (^ fjol -t
svinns).
48, 27— " Ylfiinga, read Ylflnga.
60, 3 — " Amme, read Amma.
54, 1 — dele .
54, 8 — For Gumar, read Gunnar.
67, 4 — " Brestason, read Brestisson.
108, 28 — " and were clothed, read and clothed.
121, 26 — " far, r«arf for.
149, note * — For Ynlinga, read "tnglinga.
170, 18 — For Eandsey, read Eaudsey or Eaubsey.
176, note § — For menn S heit, read menn JS heit.
182 ^2 [ -^'"' TliorhaUi, read ThorhaU.
189, I'a— For Geiter, read Geitir.
189, note f — For Tmv, read raht.
226, 27 — For Brestersson, read Brestisson.
234, 15— " ViSfbrla, read ViSforli.
273, 26— " Thorer, read Thorir.
275, 17 — " Brestarsson, r«a(i Brestisson.
27 e' ¦^ ^' ^3 [ -^or Thrond, r«a(i ThrSnd,
294, 7— i^or Silfra, read Silfri.

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