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HISTORY

OF

9 '
COMPRISING,

A Geographical and Statistical
VIEW of the UNITJED .. .^ATBS,
AND OF THE .. * _ . . "H /
BRITISH CANADIAN POSSgg^jJD^S ;

INCLTJDINO

A GREAT VARIETY OF IMPORTANT INFORMATION
ON THE SUBJECT OF EMIGRATING TO THAT
COUNTRY.

EMBELLISHED WITH PLATES AND MAPS.

IN TWO VOLUMES.
VOL. I.

LEEDS:
PRINTED BY DAVIES AND CO.
PERIODICAL PUBLISHERS, NO. 48, VICAR-LANE,
AND
SOLD BT ALL THE BOOKSELLERS!
1820.

PREFACE.

In presenting this work to the public, the Editor
has been principally* solicitous to lay before his read
ers important facts ; he has aimed much more to in
form, than to amuse ; he trusts, however, that its
pages will not be found void of interest, even to
those who read principally for amusement. The ori
gin and rise of a mighty empire, however distant in
point of time, and however little connected with
present events, cannot be contemplated without feel
ings powerfully awakened. But when this empire
has started into bfe in our own times ; when its con
cerns are intimately connected with our own desti
nies, and come home to every man's business and
bosom, it becomes then an object of intense interest ;
and every individual must be anxious to be ac
quainted with the mighty events which have produ
ced so singular a phenomenon in the history of the
world. It is not only the philosopher and the poli
tician that are interested in the subjects treated of in
this work ; the humble cottager, and the industrious
artizan are equally concerned in the destinies of a
New World, which Providence in its mercy seems
to have prepared as an asylum from the persecutions,
the privations, and the revolutionary storms which

IV PREFACE.
threaten to afflict, and disturb the nations of Eu
rope. The Editor has entered more at large into the de
tails of the discovery and early history of the Ame
rican Continent than some readers may approve of;
but, in adopting this plan> he was influenced by the
conviction that the present state of America cannot
be fully understood, nor the character of its people
fairly appreciated, without a reference to the origin
of its' colonization, and some knowledge of the vari
ous steps by which it has attained its present impor
tance. As it was one of the main objects of the Editor to
consult the wants of that class of readers who have
not access to numerous writers on the same subject;
he has liberally availed himself both of the research
es of his predecessors, and the labors of his con
temporaries. The present work aspires to no higher
title than a faithful compilation, or digest, of the
facts furnished by others ; and if the Editor has suc
ceeded in arranging them in a lucid order, he ha&
fully accomplished his original purpose.

HISTORY

OF

NORTH AMERICA,

Ti

HE following seems the most natural order of arranging the
immense mass of important 'matter which will be embraced in
the following Work. First, a clear, but succinct narrative of^the
different steps by which the Continent of America was discover
ed, subdupd, and colonized— an accurate outline of its Geogra
phical Features — an historical detail of the interesting events,
which led to thergapid population of the British Colonies, and
to their subsequent! %paration from the Parent State — a .brief
but interesting sketch" 'of the arduous contest, which terminated
in the raising of these Colonies to the rank and privileges of an
Independent State. This will introduce a correct delineation
of the Laws, Government, and Constitution of the United
States, and a Statistical account of the different States, in re
ference to Agriculture, Commerce, and Manufactures ; also de
scriptive traits of the Manners, Customs, and Domestic Habits,
both of the native tribes, and the citizens' of the United
States ; This part of the Work will comprise a View of the State
of Emigration to the United States from this country, in
which each State will be examined, in reference to its suitable
ness to the different classes of emigrants, as Capitalists, Agri
culturists, Manufacturers, and Artizans. To which we shall
subjoin a variety of useful hints to those who may be delibera
ting on the propriety of emigrating to that Country.
There is no event in the history of the world more interesting
* and extraordinary than the discovery of the American Conti
nent j -which with its surrounding seas forms an entire Hemis
phere ; the effect which this event produced on the general state
of the Old World is incalculable ; and it cannot but excite won-
1. A

a HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
der 'and astonishment, that so considerable a portion of the
Globe should have remained unknown for so many generations.
The surmises that this Continent was known to the Phoenicians,
and the Carthaginians, is totally unsupported by any evidence
which can be considered as at all satisfactory ; and the probabi
lity is, that it was totally unknown to the ancient world.
America derives its name from Americus Vespatius, a Floren
tine, who preferred a groundless claim to the honor of having
discovered it ; a claim which unfortunately was not disputed,
until that Continent had been so long called by his name, as to
rentier it impossible to alter it. This circumstance has deprived
Columbus of the honor which was- so justly his due ; of giving
his name to a Continent, so vastoas to be called a New World ;
a species of posthumous injustice, which there is now no proba
bility of ever redressing.
Towards the close of the fourteenth century, the navigation
of Europe was scarcely extended beyond the limits of the Me
diterranean. The mariner's compass had been invented and in
common use for more than. a century; yet, with the help of this
sure guide, prompted by the most ardent spirit of discovery,'
and encouraged by the patronage of princes, the mariners of
those days rarely ventured from the sight of land. They acqui
red great applause by sailing along the coast of Africa, and dis
covering sonie of the neighbouring islands ; and, after pushing
their researches with the greatest industry and perseverance for
more than half a century, the Portuguese, who were the most
fortunate and enterprising, extended their discoveries southward
no farther than the equator.
The rich commodities of the East had for several ages been
brought into Europe by the way of the Red Sea and the Medi
terranean ; and it had now become the object of the Portuguese
to find a passage to India, by sailing round the southern extre
mity of A1"03* an(* tnen taking an eastern course. This great
object engager} the general attention of mankind, and drew into
the Portuguese service adventurers from every maritime nation
in Europe.
Among the foreigners whom the fame of the discoveries made
bv the Portuguese had allured into their service, was Christo
pher Colon, or Columbus, a subject of the republic of Genoa,
Neither the time nor place of his birth are known with certainty j

DISCOVERY AND EARLY SETTLEMENTS. 3
but he was descended of an honorable family, though reduced to
indigence by various misfortunes. His ancestors having betaken
themselves for subsistence to a sea- faring life, Columbus disco
vered/ in his early youth, the peculiar character and talents
which mark, out a man for that profession. His parents, instead
of thwarting this original propensity of his mind, seem to have
encouraged and confirmed it, by the education which they gave
him. After acquiring some knowledge of the Latin tongue, the
only language in which science was taught at' that time, lie was
instructed in geometry, cosmography, astronomy, and the art
of drawing. To these he applied with such ardor and predilec
tion, on account of their connexion with navigation, his favor
ite object, that he advanced with rapid proficiency in the study
of them. Thus qualified, in the year 1461, he went to sea at
the age of fourteen, and began his career on that element which
conducted him to so much glory. His early voyages were limit
ed principally to those places which had before been discovered,
in which nothing very remarkable happened, except that in a
sea-fight, off the coast of Portugal, with some Venetian coast
ers, the vessel on board which he served took fire, together with
one of the enemy's, to which it was fast grappled ; upon which
he threw himself into the sea, laid hold of a floating oar,
and by the support of it, and his dexterity in swimming, he
reached the shore, though more than six miles distant, and thus
preserved a life designed for great undertakings.
Soon after this Columbus went to Lisbon, where he married
a daughter of Bartholomew Perestrello, one of the captains em-'
ployed by prince Henry in his early voyages, and who had disco
vered and planted the islands of Porto Santo and Madeira. The
journals and charts of this experienced navigator, his father-in-
law, fell into his hands, and he, with avidity, availed himself of
the valuable information they contained. His impatience to visit -
the places which Perestrello had seen and described, became ir
resistible ; and he made a voyage to Madeira, and spent several
years in trading with that island, the Canaries, the Azores, the
settlements in Guinea, and all other places which the Portuguese
had discovered on the continent of Africa.
By the experience acquired during such a variety of voyages,
Columbus becatne-one of the most skilful navigators of Europe.
But his ambition did not suffer him to rest satisfied with that

I HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
praise. He aimed at something more. A project had been con
ceived of finding out a passage by sea to the East Indies. The
accomplishment of this became a favorite object with Columbus.
The Portuguese sought this route by steering towards the south,
in hope of arriving at India, by turning to the east, after they
had sailed round the farther extremity of Afiica; which passage
was afterwards effected in 1497, by Vasco de Gama, a Portu
guese navigator. Columbus contemplated a shorter and more
direct passage to the East Indies, by sailing towards the west,
across the Atlantic Ocean. The principles and arguments which
induced him to adopt this opinion, then considered as chimeri
cal, were highly rational and philosophical. The sphericity and
magnitude of the earth, were at that period ascertained with
some degree of accuracy. From this it was evident, that the
continents of Europe, Asia, and Africa, formed but a small part
of the terraqueous globe. It appeared like wise, extremely proba
ble, that the continent on the one side of the globe was balan
ced by a proportional quantity of land in the other hemisphere.
These conclusions concerning the existence of another continent,
drawn from the figure and structure of the globe;, were confirm
ed by the observations and conjectures of modem navigators,
and from pieces of timber artificially carved, canes of an enor
mous size, trees torn up by the roots, and the dead bodies of
two men with singular features, which had been discovered and
taken up, floating before a westerly wind, or driven on the coasts
of the Azores. The force of this united evidence, arising from
theoretical principles and practical observations, led Columbus
to conclude, that by sailing directly towards the west, across the
Atlautic Ocean, new countries, which probably formed a part of
the vast continent of India, must infallibly be discovered. As
early as the year 1474, he communicated his ingenious theory
to Paul, a physician of Florence, eminent for his knowledge of
cosmography. He warmly approved of the plan ; suggested se
veral facts in confirmation of it, and encouraged Columbus to
persevere in an undertaking so -laudable, and which must re
dound so much to the honor of his country, and the benefit of
Europe. Columbus now became impatient to bring to the test of expe
riment the truth of his system, and to set out upon a voyage
of discovery. The first step towards this was to secure the pa-

DISCOVERY AND EARLY SETTLEMENTS. 5
tronage of some of the considerable powers of Europe. With
this view he laid his scheme before the senate of Genoa, and,
making his native and Beloved country the first tender of his ser
vice, offered to sail, under the banners of the republic, in quest
_of new regions which he expected to discover. But they, inca
pable of forming just ideas of his principles, inconsiderately re
jected his proposal as chimerical. He then submitted his plan
to the Portuguese, who perfidiously attempted to' rob him of the
honor of accomplishing it, by privately sending another person
to pursue the same track which he had proposed. But the pi
lot, who was thus basely employed to execute Columbus' plan,
had neither the genius nor the fortitude of its author. Contra
ry winds arose ; no land appeared ; his courage failed ; and he
returned to Lisbon, execrating a plan which he had not abilities
to execute. On discovering this flagrant treachery, Columbus
immediately quitted the kingdom in disgust, and landed in
Spain, towards the close of the year 1484. Here he resolved
to propose it in .person to Ferdinand and Isabella, who at that
time governed the united kingdoms of Castile and Arragon.
He, in the mean time, sent his brother Bartholomew to Eng
land, to propose his plan to Henry VII.
After experiencing a series of mortifying disappointments, du
ring eight tedious years, Columbus, in deep anguish, withdrew
from court, determined to repair to England as his last resource.
At this juncture the affairs of Spain, which had been perplexed
in consequence of a war with the Mjpors, took a -favorable turn.
Quintanilla and Santangel, two powerful, vigilant, and discern
ing patrons of Columbus, seized this favorable opportunity to
make one more effort in behalf of their friend. They addressed
themselves to Isabella, with such forcible arguments as produ
ced the desired effect. They dispelled all Isabella's doubts and
fears ; she ordered Columbus, who had proceeded on his jour
ney, to be instantly recalled ; declared her resolution to employ
him on his own terms ; and, regretting, the low state of her fi
nances, generously offered to pledge her own jewels, in order to
raise as much money as might be needed in makitjgfpreparations
for the voyage. Santangel, iri, a. transport, of gratitude, kissed
the queen's hand ; and, in order to save her from having re
course to such a mortifying expedient for procuring money,
engaged to advance, immediately, the sum that- Was requisite.

0 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
Columbus had proceeded some leagues on his voyage to Eng
land, when the messenger from Isabella overtook him. He re
turned with joy mingled with some degree of fear, lest he
should again be disappointed. The manner of his reception by
the queen was, however, such as quickly dispelled his fears. A
negociation commenced, and was forwarded with dispatch, and
an agreement was finally entered into and signed, on the 7th of
April, 1492. The chief articles of it were, 1. Ferdinand and
Isabella, as sovereigns of the ocean, constituted Columbus their
high-admiral in all the seas, islands, and continents, which
should be -discovered by his industry ; and stipulated, that he
and his heirs for ever should enjoy this office, with the same
powej and prerogatives which belonged to the high-admiral of
Castile, within the limits of his jurisdiction. 2. They appoint
ed Columbus their viceroy in all the islands and continents
which he should discover ; but if, for the better administration
of affairs) it should be necessary to establish a separate governor
in any of those countries, they authorised Columbus to name
three persons, of whom they would choose one for that office ;
and the dignity of viceroy, with all its immunities, was likewise
to be hereditary in the family of Columbus. 3. They granted
to Columbus, and his heirs for ever, the tenth of the free profits
accruing from the productions and commerce of the countries
which he should discover. 4, They declared, if any controver
sy or lawsuit should arise, with respect to any mercantile transac
tion, in the countries which shall be discovered, it should be de
termined by the sole authority of Columbus, or of judges to be
appointed by him. 5. They permitted Columbus to advance
one-eighth part of what should be expended in preparing for the
expedition, and in carrying on commerce with the countries
which he should discover, and intitled him, in return, to an
eighth part of the profit.
Though the name of Ferdinand appears conjoined with that
of Isabella in this transaction, his distrust of Columbus was so
violent, that he refused to take any part of the enterprise, as king
of Atragon. As the whole expence of the expedition was to be
defrayed by the crown of Castile, Isabella reserved for her subr
jects of that kingdom an exclusive right to all the benefits wrii^pk
might redound from its success.
After all the efforts of Isabella and Columbus, the armament

DISCOVERY AND EARLY SETTLEMENTS. f
was suitable, neither to the dignity of the power who equipped
it, nor to the importance of the service to which it was destined.
It consisted of three vessels ; the largest, a ship of no conside
rable burden, was commanded by Columbus, as admiral, who
gave it the name of Santa Maria. Of the second, called the
Pihta, Martin Pinzon was captain, and his brother Francis pilot.
The third, named the Nigna, was under the command of Vincent
Yanez Pinzon. These two last-mentioned were light vessels,
hardly superior in burden or force to large boats. This little Squad
ron was victualled for twelve months, and had on board ninety
men, mostly sailors, together with a few adventurers, who follow
ed the fortune of Columbus, and some gentlemen of Isabella's
court, whom she appointed to accompany him. The sum
employed in fitting out this squadron did not exceed .£4000
sterling. On the third of August, 1492, being Friday, Columbus set
sail, in the presence of a vast crowd of spectators, who offered
fervent supplications to heaven for his success, which they rather
wished than, expected. He steered directly for the Canary
islands, and in short run thither, found his ships crazy and ill
appointed, and very unfit for sp long and dangerous a navigation
as he had undertaken. After renting them as well as he could,
he left the Canaries on the 6th of September, and here properly
commenced the voyage of discovery. He held his course due
west, and immediately left the usual track of navigation, and
stretched into unknown and unfrequented seas. By the 14th
of September, the fleet was about 200 leagues west of the Cana
ries, at a greater distance from. land than any Spaniard had been
before that time.
^ Columbus early discovered, from the spirit 'of his followers,
that he must prepare to struggle, not only with the unavoidable
difficulties which might be expected from the nature of his un
dertaking, but with such also as were likely to, arise from jthe
ignorance and timidity of the people under his command. All
the art and addrtess he was master of was hardly sufficient to
quell the mutinous disposition of his sailors, who grew the more
turbulent in proportion as their distance from home increased.
''What most astonished Columbus, during the voyage, was the
variation of the magnetic needle. He observed that it did not
point exactly to the polar star, but varied towards the west.

S -HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
This appearance, then one of the mysteries of nature, though
now familiar, filled the companions of Columbus with terror.
They were now in the midst of a trackless ocean; nature herself
seemed to be altered, and the only guide they had left was about to
fail them. Columbus, with no less quickness than ingenuity, in
vented a reason for this appearance, which though it did not satisfy
himself, seemed so plausible to them, that it dispelled their fears
and silenced their murmurs.
On the evening of the 11th of October, Columbus was so
confident, from various appearances, of being near land, that he
ordered the sails to be furled, and the ships to lie to, and strict
watch to be kept lest they should be driven on shore in the night.
During this interval of suspense and expectation, no man shut his
eyes, all kept on deck, gazing intently towards that quarter where
they expected to discover the land, which had so long been the
object of their wishes. A little before midnight, Columbus, from
the forecastle, discovered a light at a distance; and, shortly
after, the joyful sound of land ! land ! was heard from the Pinta,
which always kept a head of the other ships. At the dawn of
day, an island was seen from every ship, at the distance of about
two leagues north, whose verdant aspect indicated a most de
lightful country. The crews of all the ships, _ with tears of joy
and transports of congratulation, unitedly sang Te Deum, as a
hymn of thanksgiving to God. They then with feelings of self-
condemnation mingled with reverence, threw themselves at the
feet of Columbus, begged him to forgive their ignorance, incre
dulity, and insolence, which had given him so much unnecessary
disquiet ; acknowledged his superior abilities, and promised obe
dience in future.
At sun-rising, the boats were manned and armed, and they
rowed towards the island with their colors displayed, with war
like music and other martial pomp. As they approached the coast,
they saw it covered with a multitude of people, whom the novel
ty of the spectacle had drawn together, whose attitudes and
gestures expressed wonder and astonishment at the strange ob
jects before them. Columbus was the first European who set foot
in the New World which he had discovered. „ He landed in a rich
dress, and with a naked sword in his hand. His men followed,
and, kneeling down, they all kissed the ground which they had
so long desired to see. They next erected a crucifix, and pros-

DISCOVERY AND EARLY SETTLEMENTS. 9
trating themselves before it, returned thanks to God for con
ducting their voyage to so happy an issue. They then took a
solemn and formal possession of the country for the crown of
Castile and Leon.
The dress of the Spaniards, their beards, their arms, the vast
machines with which they traversed the ocean, the thundering
roar of the cannon, accompanied with lightning and smoke, filled
the natives with surprise and terror, and they began to consider
them as children of the sun, who had descended to visit mortals
here below, The Spaniards were hardly less amazed in their
turn. The productions of the island were different from any
thing they had seen in Europe. The inhabitants appeared in the
simple innocence of nature, entirely naked. Their black hair
long and uncurled, floated upon their shoulders, or was bound in
tresses round their heads. They had no beards, and every part
of their body was perfectly smooth. Their complexion was of a
dusky copper color ; their features singular rather than disagreea
ble, and their aspeet gentle and timid. They were shy at first,
through fear, but soon became familiar with the Spaniards, and
with transports of joy received from them various kinds of trin
kets, in return for which they gave provisions, and some cotton
yarn, the only commodity of value they could produce. Thus in
the first interview between the inhabitants of the old andtftgw
worlds, every thing was conducted amicably, and to their nraliral
satisfaction. The island on which Columbus first landed he called San Sal
vador. It is one of that large cluster of islands known by the name
of the Lucaya or Bahama islands, and is above 3000 miles west
of the Canaries. He afterwards touched at several islands in the
same cluster, enquiring every where for gold, which he thought
was the only object of commerce worth his attention. In steer
ing southward, he discovered the islands of Cuba and Hispaniola,
abounding in all the necessaries of life, and inhabited by a hu
mane and hospitable people.
On his return to Spain he was overtaken by a storm, which had
nearly proved fatal to his ships and their crews. At a crisis when
all was given up for lost, Columbus had presence of mind enough
to retire into his cabin, and to write upon parchment a short ac
count of his voyage. This he wrapped in an oiled cloth, which
he inclosed in a cake of wax, put it into a tight cask, and threw
1. B

10 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
it into the sea, in hopes that some fortunate accident might pre
serve a deposit of so much importance to the world. He arrived
at Palos, in Spain, whence he had sailed the year before, on the
15th of March, 1493. He was welcomed with all the acclama
tions which the populace are ever ready to bestow on great and
glorious characters ; and the court received him with marks of
the greatest respect.
In September, of this year, (1493), Columbus sailed upon his
second voyage to America; during the performance of which he
discovered the islands of Dominica, Marigalante, G.uadaloupe,
Montserrat, Antigua, Porto Rico, and Jamaica; and returned to
Spain in 1496.
In 1498, he sailed a third time for America; and on the first
of August discovered the continent, at the mouth of the river
Oronoke. He then coasted along westward, making other dis
coveries, for 200 leagues, to Cape Vela, from which he crossed
over to Hispaniola, where he was seized by a new Spanish
governor, and sent home in chains.
In 1502, Cokirnbus made his fourth, and last, voyage to
Hispaniola ; thence he went over to the continent ; discovered
the bay of Honduras; thence sailed along shore easterly 200
leagues, to J2ape Graciasa Dios, Veragua, Porto Bello, and the
Gulf of Darien, searching, in vain, for a passage to the East
Indies. During this voyage, he was shipwrecked on the island of
Jamaica, where he suffered almost inconceivably from the cruelty
of the inhabitants, the mutiny of his men, and especially from the
infamous conduct of the governor of Hispaniola. He returned
to Spain in 1504. On his arrival he received the fatal news of
the death of his patroness, queen Isabella.
The jealous and avaricious Spaniards,- not immediately receiv
ing those golden advantages from these new discoveries which
they had promised, and lost to the feelings of humanity and gra
titude, suffered their esteem and admiration of Columbus to dege
nerate into ignoble envy. The latter part of his life was therefore
made wretched by the cruel persecutions of his enemies. Queen
Isabella, his friend and patroness, was no longer alive to afford
him relief. He sought redress from Ferdinand, but in vain.
Disgusted with the ingratitude of a monarch whom he had served
with so much fidelity and success, exhausted with hardships, and
broken with the infirmities which these brought upon him, Co-

DISCOVERY AND EARLY SETTLEMENTS. 11
lumbus ended his active and useful life at Valladolid, on the 20th
of May, 1506, in the 59th year of his age. He died with a
composure of mind suited to the magnanimity which distinguished
his character, and with sentiments of piety, becoming that su
preme respect for religion which he manifested in every occurrence
of his life. He was grave though courteous in his deportment,
circumspect in his words and actions, irreproachable in his morafs
and exemplary in all the duties of his religion.
Among other adventurers to the new world, in pursuit of gold,
was Americus Vesputius, a Florentine gentleman, whom Ferdi
nand had appointed to draw sea-charts, and to whom he had
given the title of chief pilot. This man accompanied Ojeda,
an enterprising Spanish adventurer, to America ; and having,
with much art, and some degree of elegance, drawn up an amus
ing history of his voyage, he published it to the world. It cir
culated rapidly, and was read with admiration. In his narrative,
he had insinuated that the glory of having first discovered the
new world belonged to him. This was in part believed, and the
country began to be called after the name of its supposed first
discoverer. The unaccountable caprice of mankind has perpe
tuated the error ; so that now, by the universal consent of all the
nations, this new quarter of the globe is called America.
As any length and detail of the West India islands does not fall
within the plan of this work, we shall proceed with the Spanish
discoveries on the Continent of America and it is to be regretted
that those who succeeded Columbus, did not imitate his forbear
ance, his justice, and his benignity. In the islands of Cuba and
Hispaniola, better known by the name of Domingo, the cruel
ties of the Spaniards were so excessive, that the native popula
tion was soon destroyed ; a waste of life which laid the founda
tion of the African slave trade.
Hitherto the Spaniards had not established themselves in any
force on the Continent of America ; but the report which had
reached them of its riches,' induced them to conclude that a
firm footing there would be highly advantageous ; and afford
them an opportunity of carrying their system of cruelty, and
plunders, on a more extensive scale. With this view, Fernando
Cortez Was dispatched from Cuba, with 600 men, 18 horses,
and a small number of fieldpieces to subdue Mexico, the most
powerful empire then existing in America, inhabited by millions of

12 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
Indians^ passionately fond of war, and then headed by Mon
tezuma, whose fame in arms had struck terror into the neighbour
ing nations and extended over one half the continent. No authen
ticated history was ever so improbable and romantic as that of
this war. The empire of Mexico had subsisted for ages : its
inhabitants were a polished and intelligent people. Their supe
riority in military affairs, and their government, founded on
the sure basis of laws combined with religion, seemed to bid de
fiance to time itself. The capital city, of the same name, situ
ated in the middle of a spacious lake, was the noblest specimen
of American industry : it communicated with the continent by
immense causeways, which were carried through the lake, and
was admired for its buildings, all of stone, its squares, markets,
shops, and the sumptuous palaces of Montezuma. But all the
grandeur of this empire could not defend it against the Spaniards.
Cortez and his followers met with but feeble opposition from the
natives along the coast, who were terrified at their first appear
ance: the warlike animals on which the officers were mounted —
the artificial thunder that issued from their hands — and the
wooden castles which had wafted them over the ocean — all
struck a panic into the natives, from which they did not recover
until it was too late. Montezuma heard of their progress, with
out daring to oppose it. This sovereign commanded thirty vassals,
each of whom could take the field at the head of 100,000 com
batants, armed with bows and arrows ; and yet he was, doubtless
from motives of superstition, afraid to oppose a handful of Spa
niards, whom he hoped to conciliate by a rich present of gold.
This, however, only whetted the Spanish avarice, and hastened
their approach. No opposition was made to their entry into the
capital, where a palace was set apart for Cortez, who was treat
ed as the master of the empire. Being suspicious, however, that
this politeness covered some plot for his destruction, his palace
was surrounded , with artillery, the most terrible of all machines
to the Americans, by. which he not only secured himself from
surprise, but was placed in a situation to take advantage of any
circumstance that might lead to a misunderstanding with the na
tives. Cortez, in order to preserve a communication by sea, had
erected a fort, and left a small garrison behind him, at Vera
Cruz, which he understood that the Americans in the neighbour-

DISCOVERY AND EARLY SETTLEMENTS. 13
hood had attacked, and that a Spaniard had been killed. On
hearing this, Cortez affected to be in a violent fury, and insisted
that Montezuma himself was privy to this violence, to whom he
went in person, attended by a few experienced officers. The
emperor pleaded innocence, to which Cortez could not be per
suaded, unless he consented to return with them to their resi
dence, which, he said, would remove all jealousy between them.
To this, after some, hesitation, he consented ; and, though a.
powerful monarch, in the middle of his own. palace, and sur
rounded by his guards, he gave himself up a prisoner, to be dis
posed of according to the inclination of a few adventurers. Cortez
had now got into his hands an engine, by which every thing
might be accomplished, for the Mexicans had a kind of super
stitious veneration for their emperor. Cortez, therefore, by,,
keeping him in his power, allowing him to enjoy every mark of
royalty but his freedom, and at the same time being able to
flatter all his tastes and passions, maintained an easy sovereignty
over this country, by governing its prince. Did the natives,
grown familiar with the Spaniards, begin to abate of their re
spect — Montezuma was the first to teach them more politeness.
Was there a tumult, excited through their cruelty or avaricer— .
Montezuma, from the battlements of his palace, harangued his
Mexicans into submission. This farce continued some time, till
on one occasion, when he was disgracing his character by justi
fying the enemies of his country, a stone from an unknown hand
struck him on the forehead, which in a few days occasioned his
death. The Mexicans, now delivered from this emperor, elected*
a new prince, the famous Guatimdzin, who from the beginning
bad discovered an implacable animosity against the Spaniards.
Under. his conduct the unhappy Mexicans made no small efforts
for independence : but all their valor, and despair itself, gave
way before the Spanish artillery ; and Guatimozin and the Em
press were taken prisoners. By getting this prince into his
"hands, Cortez made a complete conquest of the country.
The Spaniards had scarcely obtained possession of Mexico,
when. they received intelligence of the existence of another great
empire^ situated to the south of the equator, that was said to
abound in < gold, silver, and precious stones. This was the
empire of J^eru, which was the only other country in America
that degery&fthe nam* of a civilized kingdom. This extensive coun-

14 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
try was reduced by the endeavours, and at the expence, of three
private persons ; namely, Francis Pizarro, Almagro, and Lucques
a priest. The two former were natives of Panama, of mean birth,
and low education. Pizarro, the soul of the enterprise, could
neither read nor write. They sailed over to Spain, and without
difficulty obtained a grant of what they should conquer. Pizarro
then set out for the conquest, with 250 foot, 60 horse, and 12
small pieces of cannon. As the Peruvians entertained the same
prejudices as the Mexicans iu favor of the Spaniards, and were,
beside, of a character still more effeminate and unwarlike, it
need not surprise us, after the conquest of Mexico, that with
this inconsiderable force Pizarro should make a deep impression on
the Peruvian empire, which had existed in its present form up
wards of 300 years. It was founded by one Mango Capac, who,
observing that the people were naturally superstitious, and had a
particular veneration for the sun, pretended to be descended from
that luminary, whose worship he was sent to establish, and whose
authority he was entitled to bear. By this story, romantic as it
was, he easily deceived this credulous people, and brought a
larre extent of territory under his jurisdiction. The deceit, how
ever, he employed for the most laudable purposes : he united
and civilized the till then barbarous people, bent them to laws
and arts, and softened them by the institution of a benevolent
religion. A race of princes succeeded Mango, called Yncas, who
were revered by the people as the descendants of their great God
the Sun. The twelfth of these was now on the throne, named
Atabalipa, whose father had conquered the province of Quito,
and, to secure the possession, had maEried the daughter of the
natural prince of that country, by whom he had Atabalipa. His
elder brother, Huescar, by a different mother, had claimed the
succession to his father's dominions ; and a civil war was
kindled, which, after various turns of fortune, ended in favor of
Atabalipa, who detained Huescar as a prisoner, in the tower of
Cusco, the capital of the empire.
In this feeble and disjointed state was Peru when Pizarro ap
peared ; on whose arrival prophecies were recollected, that fore
told the subjection of the empire by unknown persons, whose
description exactly corresponded with that of the Spaniards.
Under these circumstances, Atabalita, instead of opposing them,
set himself to procure their favor. . Pizarro, however,- whose

DISCOVERY AND EARLY SETTLEMENTS. 15
temper partook of the meanness of his education, had no con
ception of dealing gently with those people. While he was en
gaged in conference with Atabalipa, his men, being previously
instructed, furiously attacked the guards of that prince, and
butchered some thousands of them, as they pressed forward to
defend the sacred person of their monarch. Notwithstanding
all their efforts, Atabalipa was seized by Pizarro, and carried to
the Spanish, quarters. He, however, was not long in their
hands before he began to treat of his ransom ; but while Pizarro
was engaged in this negociation, by which he proposed, without
releasing the emperor, to get into his possession an immense
quantity of gold, the arrival of Almagro caused some embarrass
ment in his affairs. As the friendship between these men was
solely founded on the principle of avarice, when their interests -
interfered, it was not to be expected that any measures could
be kept between them. Pizarro claimed the most consider
able share of the royal ransom, because he had the chief hand
in acquiring it ; while Almagro insisted on being upon an
equal footing. At length, however, lest the cause might suf
fer from any rupture between them, the latter disposition was
agreed to, and the ransom vvas paid without delay. Although
the sum exceeded their conception, yet it was by no means ca
pable of satiating their avarice. It exceeded ^£1,500,000, ster
ling, which, considering the value of money at that time, was
prodigious. After deducting one fifth for the king of Spain,
and the shares of the chief commanders and officers, each pri
vate soldier shared upwards of ^£2000 English money. No
sooner did numbers of them find themselves possessed of such
fortunes, than they insisted on being disbanded, that they might
enjoy the fruits of their labor in quiet, in their own country.
To this Pizarro consented, sensible that avarice would still de
tain a number in his army, and that those who returned would
induce new adventurers to pursue the same speculation. This
idea was soon abundantly verified : for it was impossible to send
out better recruiting officers, than those who had themselves so
much -profited by the field; new soldiers constantly arrived, and
the Spanish armies never wanted reinforcements.
This immense ransom was no sooner deposited at the Spanish
head-quarters, than the release of the king was demanded; but
with this Pizarro refused to comply, framing several excuses fq

16 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
his farther detention, though his real motive was to discover, if
any farther treasure would be offered. Atabalipa, perceiving his
treacherous intentions, boldly remonstrated against them ; and Pi
zarro, finding ultimately that no farther advantage was to be ac
quired by keeping him longer a prisoner, began to treat him in
a rude and haughtv manner, but ill suited to a person of his ex
alted birth and usual mode of life. This caused him to remon
strate, and at length threaten, which so exasperated Pizarro,
that (notwithstanding all the favors that this unhappy prince
had shown him) he called a council of officers, who unjustly tri
ed him according to the laws of Spain ; and he was found guil
ty of idolatry, of having a plurality of wives, and other circum
stances equally in themselves frivolous and impertinent, but for
which this monster of barbarity caused him to be burnt alive ! ! !
After his death, a number of competitors, appeared for the
throne. The principal nobility set up the brother of Huescar ;
Pizarro favored a son of Atabalipa ; while two of the principal
generals endeavoured to establish themselves, through the assist
ance of the army. These oppositions, though in their conse
quences exceedingly sanguinary, were in the beginning rather
favorable to the Spaniards : but the inhabitants, becoming ac- •
customed to scenes of blood and slaughter, began to rise from
the lethargy into which for ages they had been sunk, and boldly
attacked the Spaniards, whom they recognized as the authors of
all their calamities, and slew a considerable number of them.
Having once established throughout the country an idea that
their invaders were not invulnerable, thousands flocked to the
standard of Rolla, their famous general, who made head against
them with partial success. Pizarro at length found it adviseable
to conclude a truce with the inhabitants, who, being tired of the
contest, readily assented, provided the Spanish general indica
ted the sincerity of- his designs by retiring to the coast. This he
immediately did, and a peace was concluded. During this in
terval Pizarro did not remain inactive, but employed himself
and his troops in founding the city of Lima, which he strongly
fortified, and thus obtained a firm establishment in the country,
to which he might always retire in case of any reverse of for
tune. As soon 'as a favorable opportunity offered, he renewed the
war, and, after many difficulties, made himself master of Cus-

DISCOVERY AND EARLY SETTLEMENTS. 17
eoj, the capital, and subsequently of the greatest part of the
country. But no'sooner were the Spaniards in complete posses
sion, than Pizarro and Almagro began to differ about the divi
sion of the country. At length, however, a reconciliation was
brought about, through the dexterity of Pizurro, who, in giving
up to his rival the southern provinces of the empire, persuaded
him that still farther to the southward there existed a kingdom
no way inferior in riches to that of Peru, the conquest of which
would, doubtless, add greatly to his fame and fortune. This in
centive Pizarro well knew was exactly suited to his disposition ;
for, anxious of conquering a kingdom for himself, Almagro col
lected a body of troops, and penetrated with great difficulty and
danger into Chili, losing many of his soldiers as he passed over a
branch of the Andes mountains, which are covered with perpe
tual snow. After surmounting these obstacles, he reduced a
considerable part of the country ; but was recalled from his vic
torious career by the revolt of the Peruvians, who had now be- N
come too well acquainted with the art of war, not to take ad
vantage of the division of the Spanish troops. They made an,
effort to regain their capital, in which, Pizarro being indisposed,
they would have been successful, if Almagro had not suddenly
returned, to secure the grand object of their former labors. He
raised the siege, with infinite slaughter of the assailants ; but,
having obtained possession, was unwilling to give it up to Pi
zarro. ¦>
This dispute occasioned a long and sanguinary struggle be-
. tween them, in which the turns of fortune were various, and
the resentment fierce on both sides, because the fate of the van
quished was certain death. This was the lot of Almagro, who,
in an advanced age, fell a victim to the security of his rival.
During the course of this war, many Peruvians served in the
Spanish armies, and learned, from the practice of christians, to
butcher one another. The majority of the people, however, at
length opened their eyes to their real situation, and took a very
remarkable resolution. They saw the ferocity of the Europeans,
their unextinguishable resentment and avarice ; and they conjec
tured that these passions would never permit their contests to
subside. " Let us retire," said they, " from among them, let
us fly to our mountains ; they will speedily destroy one another,
and then we may return in peace to our former habitations."
1. C

18 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
This res olution was instantly put in practice ; the Peruvians dis
persed, and left the Spaniards in their capital. Had the force
on each side been exactly equal, this singular policy of the na
tives of Peru might have been attended with success. But the
victory of Pizarro put an end to Almagro's life, and the hopes
of the Peruvians, who have since ceased to be a distinct people.
Pizarro, notwithstanding he was now sole master of one of
the richest empires in the world, was still urged by his bound
less ambition to undertake new enterprises. The southern
countries of America, into which he had some time before
dispatched Almagro, offered the richest conquest. Towards
this quarter, the mountains of Potosi, composed of entire
silver, had been discovered, the mere shell of which only now
remains. He therefore followed the track of Almagro into
Chili, and reduced another part of that country. At length,
meeting with repeated success, and having no superior to con
trol, no rival to keep him within bounds, he began to give loose
reins to the natural ferocity of his temper, and behaved with
the basest tyranny and cruelty against all who had not concur
red in his designs. This conduct raised a conspiracy against
him, to which he fell a sacrifice in his own palace, in the city
of Lima. The partisaus of old Almagro now declared his son,
of the same name, their viceroy; but the greater part of the
nation, though extremely well satisfied with the fate of Pizarro,
did not concur with this declaration. They waited the orders of
the Emperor Charles V., then king of Spain, who sent over Va-
ca di Castro to be their governor. This man, by his integrity
and wisdom, was admirably calculated to heal the wounds of
the colony, aud to place every thing on the most advantageous
footing, both for it and for the mother- country. By his pru
dent management, the mines of La Plata and Potosi, which
were formerly private plunder, became an object of public utili
ty to the court of Spain ; the parties were silenced or crushed ;
young Almagro, who would hearken to no terms of accommo-
dation, was ffut to death ; and a tranquillity, since the arrival of
the Spaniards unknown, was restored. But unfortunately, Castro
was not sufficiently skilled in gaining the favor of the Spanish
ministry, by bribes or promises, which they always expect
from the governor of so rich a country. By their advice a coun
cil was sent over to control Castro, and the colony was again

DISCOVERY AND EARLY SETTLEMENTS. 19
unsettled. The party spirit, but just extinguished, again broke
out ; and Gonzalo, the brother of Pizarro, put himself at the
head of his brother's partisans, to whose standard several
malcontents immediately flocked. Gonzalo, who only paid a
nominal submission to the Spanish monarch, went so far as to
behead a governor whom he sent over to curb him. He also
gained the confidence of the admiral of the Spanish fleet, by
whose means he proposed to hinder the landing of any troops from
Europe. But in this he was disappointed; for the court of
Spain, now become sensible of its mistake in notsendingto Ame
rica men of character and virtue, dispatched, with unlimited
powers, Peter de la Gasca, a gentleman of mild and insinuating
behaviour, and possessing at the same time a love of justice,
greatness of soul, and disinterested spirit. Though it was not
without some difficulty that he effected a landing, yet, when that
was accomplished, all those who had not joined in Pizarro's re
volt, flocked to his standard ; many of his friends, charmed with
the hehaviour of Gasca, forsook their old connexions ; the ad
miral was gained over to return to his duty; and to Pizarro him
self a full indemnity was offered, provided he would return to the
allegiance of the Spanish crown. But he was inclined to run
every hazard, rather than submit ; and, with those of his par
tisans that continued to adhere to his interest, he determined to
hazard a battle, in which he was defeated and taken prisoner.
By his execution, which followed soon after, a permanent tran
quillity was diffused throughout the whole country, which suffered
no material interruption till within these few years, when the
troubles in the mother-country have enabled the inhabitants, in
a great measure, to throw off the Spanish yoke.
Nohth America was discovered in the reign of Henry VII.
a period when the arts and sciences had made very considerable
progress in Europe. Many of the first adveuturers were men of
genius and learning, and were careful to preserve authentic re
cords of such of their proceedings as would be interesting to pos
terity. In 1502, Sebastian Cabot fell in with Newfoundland; and, on
his return, he carried three of the natives of that island to Henry
•VII. In the spring of 1513, John Ponce sailed from Porto
Rico northerly, and discovered the continent in 30°8' north
latitude. He landed in April, a season when the country round

20 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
was covered with verdure, and in full bloom. This circumstance
induced him to call the country Florida, which, for many years
was the common name for North and South America. In 1516,
Sir Sebastian Cabot and Sir Thomas Pert explored the coast as
far as Brazil in South America. This vast extent of country,
the coast whereof was thus explored, remained unclaimed and
unsettled by any European power (except by the Spaniards
in South America) for almost a century from the time of its
discovery. It was not till the year 1524 that France attempted discoveries
on the American coast. Stimulated by his enterprising neigh
bours, Francis I., who possessed a great and active mind, sent
John Verrazano, a Florentine, to America^ for the purpose of
making discoveries. He traversed the coast from latitude 28°
to 50° north. In a second voyage, some time after, he was
lost. The next year Stephen Gomez, the first Spaniard who
came upon the American coast for discoverv, sailed from Groyon
in Spain, to Cuba and Florida, thence northward to Cape Razo,
in latitude 46 degrees north, in search of a north-west passage
to the East Indies,
In the spring of 1534, by the direction of Francis 1., a fleet
was fitted out at St. Malo's, in France, with a design to make
discoveries in America. The command of this fleet was given to
James Carrier. He arrived at Newfoundland in May of this
year. Thence he sailed northerly; and, on the day of the fes
tival of St. Lawrence, he found himself in about latitude 48° 309
north, in the midst of a broad gulf, which he named St. Law
rence. He gave the same name to the river which empties into
it. In this voyage he sailed as far north as latitude 51?, ex
pecting in vain to find a passage to China. The next year he
sailed up the river St. Lawrence, 300 leagues, to the great and
swift Fall. He called the country New France; built a fort iij
which he spent the winter, and returned in the following spring
to France.
In 1542, Francis la Roche, lord of Robewell, was sent to
Canada, by the French king,- with three ships and 200 men
women, and children. They wintered there in a fort which they
had built, and returned in the spring. About the year 1550 a
large number of adventurers sailed for Canada, but were never
after heard of. In 1598, the king of France commissioned -th<j

DISCOVERY AND EARLY SETTLEMENTS. 21
marquis de la Roche to conquer Canada, and other countries not
possessed by any christian prince. We do not learn, however,
that la Roche ever attempted to execute his commission, or that
any farther attempts were made to settle in Canada during this
century. On the 12th of May, 1539, Ferdinand de Soto, with
900 men, besides seamen, sailed from Cuba, having, for his ob
ject the conquest of Florida. On the 30th of May he arrived
at Spirito Santo, from whence he travelled northward 450
leagues from the sea. Here he discovered a river a quarter of a
mile wide and nineteen fathoms deep, on the bank of which he
died and was buried, May, 1542j' aged forty-two years. Alverdo,
his successor, built seven brigantines, and the year following
embarked upon the river. In seventeen days he proceeded down
the river 400 leagues, where he judged it to be fifteen leagues
wide. From the largeness of the river at that place of his em
barkation, he concluded its source must have been at least 400
leagues above, so that the whole length of the river, in his opi
nion, must have been more than 800 leagues. As he passed down
the river, he found it opened by two mouths into the gulf of
Mexico. These circumstances lead us to conclude, that this ri
ver, so early discovered, was the one which we now call the
Mississippi. On the 6th of January, 1549, king Henry "VII.
granted a pension for life to Sebastian Cabot, in consideration of
the important services he had rendeied to the kingdom by his
discoveries in America.
The admiral of France, Chatillon, early in the year 1562, sent
out a fleet under the command of John Ribalt. He arrived at Cape
Francis, on the coast of Florida, near which, on the first of May, he
discovered and entered a river which he called May river.- It is
snore than probable that river is the same which we now call St.
Mary's, whieh forms a part of the southern boundary of the
United States. As he coasted northward, he discovered eight
other rivers, one of which he called Port Royal, and sailed up
it several leagues. On one of the rivers he built a fort, arid called
it Cliarles, in which he left a colony under the direction of cap
tain Albert. The severity of Albert's measures excited a mutiny,
in which, to the ruin of the colony, he was slain. Two years
after, Chatillon sent Rene Laudonier, with three ships, to Flo-.
rida. In June he arrived at the river May, on which he built a
fort, and, in honor to his king, Charles IX., he called it Carolina*

22 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
In August, this year, captain Ribalt arrived at Florida the se
cond time, with a fleet of seven vessels to recruit the colony,
which, two years before, he had left under the direction of the
unfortunate captain Albert. The September following, Pedro
Melandes, with six Spanish ships, pursued Ribalt up the river on
which he had settled, and, overpowering him with numbers,
cruelly massacred him and his whole company. Melandes, having
in his way taken possession of the country, built three forts, and
left them' garrisoned with 1200 soldiers. Laudonier, and
his colony on May river, receiving information of the fate
of Ribalt, took the alarm, and escaped to France.
A fleet of three ships was sent from France to Florida, in 1567,
under the command of Dominique de Gourges. The object of
this expedition was to dispossess the Spaniards of that part of
Florida which they had cruelly and unjustifiably seized three
years before. He arrived on the coast of Florida in April, 1568,
and soon after made a successful attack upon the forts. The
recent cruelty of Melandes and his company, excited revenge in
the breast of Gourges, and roused the unjustifiable principle of
retaliation. He took the forts ; put most of the Spaniards to
the sword; and, having burned and demolished all their for
tresses, returned to France. During the fifty years next after this
event, the French enterprised no settlements in America. In
1576, captain Frobisher was sent to find out a north-west passage
to the East Indies. The first land which he made on the coast
was a cape, which, in honor to the queen, he called Queen
Elizabeth's Foreland. In coasting northerly he discovered the
straits which bear his name. He prosecuted his search for a
passage into the western ocean, till he was prevented by the ice,
and then returned to England. In 1579, Sir Humphrey Gilbert
obtained a .patent from queen Elizabeth, for lands not yet
possessed by any christian prince, provided he would take pos
session within six years. With this encouragement he sailed for
America, and on the first of August, 1583, anchored in Con
ception Bay. Afterwards he discovered and took possession of
St. John's harbour, and the country south. In pursuing his
discoveries, he lost one of his ships on the shoals of Sabion;
and, on his return home, a storm overtook him, in which
he was unfortunately lost, and the intended settlement was
prevented.

DISCOVERY AND EARLY SETTLEMENTS. 2%
As this is the first charter to a colony, granted by the Crown
of England, the articles in it merit particular attention, as they
unfold the ideas of that age, with respect to the nature of such
settlements. Elizabeth authorises him to discover and take pos
session of all remote and barbarous lands, unoccupied by any
christian prince or people. She vests in him, his heirs and
assigns for ever, the full right of property in the soil of those
countries \vhereof he shall take possession. She permits such of
her subjects, as were willing to accompany Gilbert in his voy
age, to go and settle in the countries which he shall plant. She
empowers him, his heirs and assigns, to dispose of whatever por
tion of those lands he shall judge meet to persons settled there,
in fee-simple, according to the laws of England. She ordains,
that all the lands granted to Gilbert shall hold of the Crown of
England by homage, on payment of the fifth part of the gold
or silver ore found there. She confers upon him, his heirs, and
assigns, the complete jurisdictions and royalties, as well marine
as other, within the said lands and seas thereunto adjoining ;
and as their common safety and interest would render good go-.
vernmenl necessary in their new settlements, she gave Gilbert,
his heirs and assigns, full power to convict, punish, pardon,
govern, and rule, by their good discretion and policy, as well
in causes capital or criminal as civil, both marine and other, all
persons who shall from time to time settle within the said
countries, according to such statutes, laws, and ordinances as
shall be by him, his heirs and assigns, devised and established
for their better government. She declared, that all who settled
there should have and enjoy all the privileges of free denizens
and natives of England, any law, custom, or usage to the con
trary notwithstanding. And finally, she prohibited all persons
from attempting to settle within two hundred -leagues of any
place which Sir Humphrey Gilbert, or his associates, shall have
occupied, during the space of six years.
With these extraordinary powers, suited to the high notions
of authority and prerogative prevalent in England during the
sixteenth century, but very repugnant to more recent ideas with
respect to the rights of freemen, who voluntarily unite to form
a colony, Gilbert began to collect associates, and to prepare for
embarkation. His own character, and the zealous efforts of his
half-brother, Sir Walter Raleigh, who, even in his early youth,

24 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
displayed those splendid talents, and that undaunted spirit,
which create admiration and confidence, soon procured him a
sufficient number of followers. But his success was not suited
either to the sanguine hopes of his countrymen, or to the ex-
pence of his preparations. Two expeditions, both of which he
conducted in person, ended disastrously. In the last, he him
self perished, without having effected his intended settlement on
the continent of America, or performing any thing more worthy
of notice, than the empty formality of taking possession of the
island of Newfoundland, in the name of his sovereign. The
dissensions among his officers ; the licentious and ungovernable
spirit of his crew: his total ignorance of the countries which he
purposed to occupy ; his misfortune in approaching the conti
nent too far towards the north, where the inhospitable coast of
Cape Breton did not invite them to settle ; the shipwreck of his
largest vessel; and above all, the scanty provision wbich the
funds of a private man could make of what was requisite .for
establishing a new colony, were the true causes to which the
failure of the enterprise must be imputed, not to any deficiency
of abilities or resolution in its leader.
But the miscarriage of a scheme, in which Gilbert had wast
ed his fortune, did not discourage Raleigh. He adopted all his
brother's ideas ; and applying to the Queen, in whose favor he
stood high at that time, he procured a patent, with jurisdiction
and prerogatives as ample as had been granted unto Gilbert.
Sir Walter Raleigh, no less eager to execute than to undertake
the scheme, instantly dispatched two small vessels, under the
command of Amadas and Barlow, two officers of trust, to visit
the countries which he intended to settle, and to acquire some
previous knowledge of their coasts, their soil, and productions.
In order to avoid Gilbert's error, in holding too far north, they
took their course by the Canaries and the West India islands,
approached the North American Continent by the Gulf of Flo
rida. Unfortunately their chief researches were made in that
part of the country now known by the name of North Carolina,
the province in America most destitute of commodious harbours.
They touched first at an island, which they call Wokocon (pro
bably Ocakoke), situated on the inlet into Pamplicoe Sound,
and then at Raonoke, near the mouth of Albemarle Sound. In
both, they had some intercourse with the natives, whom they

DISCOVERY AND EARLY SETTLEMENTS. 25
found to be savages, with all the characteristic qualities cf un
civilized life, bra very j aversion to labor, hospitality, a propensi
ty to admire, and a willingness to exchange their rude produc
tions for English commodities, especially for iron, or any of the
useful metals of which they were destitute. After spending a
few weeks in this traffic, and in visiting some parts of the adja
cent continent, Amadas and Barlow returned to England with
two of the natives, and gave such splendid descriptions of the
beauty of the country, the fertility of the soil, and the mildness
of the climate, that Elizabeth, delighted with the idea of occu
pying a territory, superior, so far, to the barren regions towards
the north bitherto visited by her subjects, bestowed on it the
name of Virginia; as a memorial that this happy discovery had
been made under a virgin Queen.
Their report encouraged Raleigh to hasten his preparations
for taking . possession of such an inviting property. He fitted
out a. squadron of seven small ships, under the command of Sir
Richard Greenville, a man of honorable birth, and of courage so
undaunted as to be conspicuous even in that gallant age. But
the spirit of that predatory war which the English carried on
against Spain, mingled with this scheme of settlement ; and on
this account, as well as from unacquaintance with a more direct
and shorter course to North America, Greenville sailed by the
West India islands; He spent some time in cruising among
these, and in taking prizes; so that it was towards the close of
June before he arrived on the coast of North America. He
touched at both the islands where Amadas and Barlow had
landed, and made some excursions into different parts of the
continent round Pamplicoe and Albemarle Sounds. But as, un
fortunately, he did not advance far enough towards the North,
to discover the noble Bay of Chesapeak, he established the co
lony which he left on the island of Raonoke, an incommodious
station, without any safe harbour, and almost uninhabited.
This colony consisted only of one hundred and eighty per
sons, under the command of Captain Lane, assisted by some
men of note, the most distinguished of whom was Hariot, an
eminent mathematician. Their chief employment, during a re
sidence of nine months, was to obtain a more extensile know
ledge of the country ; and their researches were carried on with
greater spirit, and reached farther than could have been expect-
2. D .

26 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
ed from a colony so feeble, and in a station -so disadvantageous.
But from the same impatience of indigent adventurers to acquire
sudden wealth, which gave a wrong direction to the industry of
the Spaniards in their settlements, the greater part of the Eng
lish seem to have considered nothing as worthy of attention but
mines of gold and silver. These they sought for, wherever they
came ; these they enquired after with unwearied eagerness. The
savages soon discovered thefavorite objects which allured them,
and artfully amused them with so many tales concerning pearl
fisheries, and rich mines of various metals, that Lane and his
companions wasted their time and activity in the chimerical
pursuit of these, instead of laboring to raise provisions for their
own subsistence. On discovering the deceit of the Indians,
they were so much exasperated, that from expostulations and
reproaches, they proceeded to open hostility. The supplies of
provisions which they had been accustomed to receive from the
natives were of course withdrawn. Through their own negli
gence, no other precaution had been taken for their support.
Raleigh, having engaged iu a scheme too expensive for his nar
row funds, had not been able to send them that recruit of stores
with which Greenville had promised to furnish them early in the
spring. The colony, reduced then to the utmost distress, and
on the point of perishing with famine, was preparing to disperse
into different districts of the country in quest of food, when Sir
Francis Drake appeared with his fleet, returning from a success
ful expedition against the Spaniards in the West Indies. A
scheme which he formed, of furnishing Lane and his associates
with such supplies as might enable them to remain with com
fort in their station, was disappointed by a sudden storm, in
which a small vessel -that he destined for their service was dash
ed to pieces ; and as he could' not supply them with another, at
their joint request, as they were worn out with fatigue and fa
mine, he carried them home to England
Such was the inauspicious beginning of the English settle
ments in the New World ; and after exciting high expectations,
this first attempt produced no effect but that of affording a more
complete knowledge of the country ; as it enabled Hariot, a man
of science and observation, to describe its soil, climate, produc
tions, and the manners of its inhabitants, with a degree of ac
curacy which merits no inconsiderable praise, when compared

DISCOVERY AND EARLY SETTLEMENTS. 27
with the childish and marvellous tales published by several of
the early visitants of the New World. There is another conse
quence of this abortive colony important enough to entitle it to
a place in history. Lane and his associates, by their constant
intercourse with the Indians, had acquired a relish for their fa
vorite enjoyment of smoking tobacco ; to the use of which,' the
credulity of that people not only ascribed a thousand imaginary
virtues, but their superstition considered the plant itself as a
gracious gift of the gods, for the solace of human kind, and the
most acceptable offering which man can present to heaven.
They brought with them a specimen of this new commodity to
England, and taught their countrymen the method of using it ;
which Raleigh, and some young men of fashion, fondly adopted.
From imitation of them, from love of novelty, and from the fa
vorable opinion of its salutary qualities entertained by several.
physicians, the practice spread among the English. The Spa
niards and Portuguese had, previous to this, introduced it in .
other parts of Europe. This habit of taking tobacco gradually
extended from the extremities of the north to those of the
south, and in one form or other seems to be equally grateful to
the inhabitants of every climate ; and by a singular caprice of
the human species, no less inexplicable than unexampled, (so
bewitching is the acquired taste for a weed of no manifest utili
ty, and at first not only unpleasant, but nauseous,) that it has
become almost as universal as the demands of those appetites
originally implanted in our nature. Smoking was the first mode
of taking tobacco in England ; and we learn from the , comic
writers towards the close of the sixteenth century and the
beginning of the seventeenth, that this was deemed one of the
accomplishments of a man of fashion and spirit.
A few days after Drake departed from Roanoke, a small bark,
dispatched by Raleigh with a supply of stores for the colony,
landed at the place where the English had settled ; but on find
ing it deserted by their countrymen, they returned to England.
The bark was hardly gone, when Sir Richard Greenville appear
ed with three ships. After searching in vain for the colony
which he had planted, without being able to learn what had be
fallen it, he left fifteen of his crew to keep possession of the
island. This handful of men was soon overpowered and cut in
pieces by the savages.

28 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
In the following year, 1587, Raleigh, who was neither dis
couraged nor wearied out by the ill success which had hitherto
attended all his efforts to make a settlement in America, fitted
out three ships, under the command of Captain John White,
and, as some authors say, directed the colony to be removed to
the waters of the Chesapeak, which bay had been discovered by
Lane in the preceding year. Instructed by the calamities alrea
dy experienced, more efficacious means ,for preserving and con
tinuing the colony than had heretofore been used, were now
adopted. The number of men was greater ; some women ac
companied them ; and their supply of provisions was more abun
dant. Mr. White was appointed their governor, and twelve as
sistants were assigned him as a council. A charter was granted
them, incorporating them by the name of the Governor and As
sistants of the City of Raleigh in Virginia.
Thus prepared for a permanent settlement, they arrived in
the latter end of July at Roanoke, where they received the me
lancholy intelligence of the loss of their countrymen who had'
been left there by Sir Richard Greenville. They determined,
, however, to remain at the same place ; and immediately began
to repair the houses, and to make the necessary preparations for
their accommodation and comfort. They endeavoured to effect
a reconciliation with the natives, one of whom, who had ac
companied Amadas and Barlow to England, and who had dis
tinguished himself by his unshaken attachment to the English.
was christened and styled Lord of Dassa Monpeake, an Indian
nation in the neighbourhood.
About the same time was added to the colony the first child of
" English parentage ever born in America. She was the daughter
of Ananias Dare, and, in token of the place of her birth, was
named Virginia.
On viewing the country, and their own actual situation, the
colonists found themselves destitute of many things deemed es
sential to the preservation and comfortable subsistence of 'a new
settlement, in a country covered with forests, and inhabited on
ly by a few scattered tribes of savages. With one voice they
deputed their governor to solicit those specific aids which their
situation particularly and essentially required. On his arrival in
England, he found the whole nation alarmed at the formidable
preparations made by Philip II. of Spain for their invasion, and

DISCOVERY AND EARLY SETTLEMENTS. 29
Raleigh, Greenville, and the other patrons of the colony, parti
cularly and ardently engaged in those measures of defence which
the public danger called for, and rendered indispensable. Ra
leigh, however, mingled with His exertions to defend his native
country, some attention to the situation of the colony he had
planted. Early in the year 1588, he found leisure to fit out for
its relief, at Biddeford, a small fleet, the command of which
was given to Sir Richard Greenville ; but the apprehensions from
the Spanish armament, proudly and confidently styled by their
monarch the Invincible Armada, still increasing, the ships of
force prepared by Raleigh were detained in port, by order of the
queen, for the defence of their own country, and Sir Richard
Greenville was specially and personally commanded not to de
part out of Cornwall, where his services under Sir Walter Ra
leigh, who was mustering and training the forces as lieutenant
of the county, were deemed necessary. On the 22nd of April,
White put to sea with two small barks ; but these vessels being
unfortunately more desirous of making prizes than of relieving
their distressed countrymen, were beaten by a superior force,
and totally disabled from prosecuting their voyage.
Soon after this, in March 1589, the attention of Raleigh be
ing directed to other more splendid objects, he assigned his pa
tent to Sir Thomas Smith, and a company of merchants in
London. It was not till the year after this transfer, 1590, that any
other effort was made for the relief of the colony. Three ships
fitted out by the company, and having Mr. White on board,
sailed in March from Plymouth ; but having cruelly and crimi
nally wasted their time in plundering the Spaniards in the West
Indies, they did not reach Hatteras till the month of August.
They fired a gflh to give notice of their arrival, and sent sorhe
men on shore at the place where the colony had been left three
years before ; but no sign of their countrymen could be found.
Ifi attempting the next day to go to the Roanoke, one of the
boats, in passing a' bar, was half filled with water, another
overset, and six men were drowned. Two other boats, howe
ver, were some time afterwards fitted out with nineteen men
to search the island on which the colony had been left. At
the departure of Mr." White they had contemplated removing
about fifty miles up into the main ; and it had been agreed that,

30 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
if they left their then position, they would carve the name of the
place to which they should remove, on some tree, door, or post,
with the addition of a cross over it, as a signal of distress, if they
should be really distressed at the time of changing their situation.
After considerable search, the word CROATAN was found car
ved, in fair capital letters, on one of the chief posts, but unac
companied by the sign of distress which had been agreed on.
Croatan was the name of an Indian town on the north side of
Cape Look Out, and for that place the fleet weighed anchor the
next day. Meeting with a storm, and several accidents which
. discouraged them from proceeding on the voyage, they deter
mined to give over further search for the present, and to return
to the West Indies.
The company made no other attempt to find this lost colony;
nor has the time, or the manner of their perishing, ever been
discovered. If any subsequent voyages were made by the English to North
America, they were for the mere purposes of traffic, and were
entirely unimportant in their consequences, until the year 1602,
when one was undertaken by Bartholomew Gosnald, which con
tributed greatly to revive in the nation the hitherto unsuccessful,
and then dormant, spirit of colonizing in the new world.
He sailed from Falmouth in a small bark with thirty-two men,
and avoiding the usual, but circuitous course by the West Indies,
steered as nearly west as the winds would permit, and reached
the American continent on the 11th of May in nearly forty-three
degrees of north latitude. Here some Indians in a shallop, with
a mast and sails (supposed to have been obtained from Biscayan
fishermen), came fearlessly on board them.
Finding no good harbour at this place, Gosnald put to sea
again, and stood to the southward. The next morning he de
scried a promontory which he called Cape Cod, and holding his
course along the coast as it stretched to the south-west, he touch
ed at two islands, the first of which he named Martha's Vine
yard, and the second Elizabeth's Island. Having passed some
time at these places, examining the country, and trading with
the natives," he returned to England.
This voyage, which was completed in less than four months,
wa6 attended with important consequences. Gosnald had found
a healthy climate, a rich soil, good harbours, and a route which

DISCOVERY AND EARLY SETTLEMENTS. 31
greatly shortened the distance to the continent of North Ameri
ca. He had seen many of the fruits known and prized in Eu
rope, blooming in the woods ; and he had planted European
grain, which he found to grow rapidly. Encouraged by these
experiments, and delighted with the country he had visited, he
quickly formed the resolution of transporting thither a colony,
and of uniting with himself, in the execution of this design,
others who might be enabled to support it. So unfortunate,
however, had been former attempts of this sort, that men of
wealth and rank, although the report of Gosnald made consi
derable impression on them, were slow in giving full faith to his
representations, and in entering completely into his plans. One
vessel was fitted out by the merchants of Bristol, and another
by the Earl of Southampton, and Lord Arundel of Warder, in
order to learn whether Gosnald's account of the country was to
be considered as a just representation of its state,*or as the ex
aggerated description of a person fond of magnifying his own
discoveries. Both returned with a full confirmation of his vera
city, and with the addition of so many new circumstances in fa
vor of the country, acquired by a more extensive view of it, as
greatly increased the desire of planting it. The merchants of
London, too, fitted out a vessel, which is supposed to have en
tered the Bay of Chesapeak, but to have returned without hav
ing penetrated into and explored the country.
The English Historians say, that Richard Hackluyt, preben
dary of Westminster, a man of distinguished learning and in
telligence, contributed more than any other, by his able and ju
dicious exertions, to form an association sufficiently extensive,
influential, and wealthy, to execute the so often renewed, and
so often disappointed, project of establishing colonies in Ame
rica. At length such an association was formed ; and a petition was
presented to James I., who on the death of queen Elizabeth,
had succeeded to the crown of England, praying the sanction of
the royal authority to the execution of the plan they proposed.
Greatly pleased with it, he commended, and immediately acce
ded to the wishes of its projectors.
On the 10th of April 1606, letters patent, were issued, under
the great seal of England, to the petitioners Sir Thomas Gates
and his associates, granting to them those territories in America

32 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
lying on the sea coast, between the thirty-fourth, and forty-fifth
degrees of north latitude, and which either belonged to that mo
narch, or were not then possessed by any other christian prince
or people ; and also the islands adjacent thereto, or within one
hundred-miles thereof. They were divided, at their own desire,
into two several companies ; one, consisting of certain knights,
gentlemen, merchants, and other adventurers of the city of
London, and elsewhere, was called the first colony, and was
required to settle between the thirty-fourth and foTty-first de
grees of latitude ; the other, consisting of certain knights, gen
tlemen, merchants, and other adventurers of Bristol, Exeter,
Plymouth, and elsewhere, was named the second colony, and
was ordered to settle between the thirty-eighth and forty-fifth
degrees of north latitude : — yet so that the .colony last formed,
should not be planted within one hundred miles of the prior
establishment. The adventurers were empowered to transport thither so ma
ny English subjects as should be willing to accompany them,
with provisions and arms, and without paying customs for seven
years. The colonists and their children were at all times to en
joy the same liberties, within any other dominions of the crown
of England, as if they had remained, or were born within the
realm. For their better government, there was established, for each
of the projected settlements, a council consisting of thirteen, to
be appointed and removed by the royal instructions, who were
empowered to govern the colonies according to such laws as
should be given under the sign manual and privy seal of Eng
land. Two other boards were formed in England, which were,
in like manner,' to consist of thirteen persons to be appointed by
tbe king, and who were invested with the superior direction of
the affairs of the colonies.
The adventurers were allowed to search for and open mines of
gold, silver, and copper, yielding one-fifth of the two former *
metals, and one-fifteenth of the latter, to the king; and to <
make a coin which should be current as well among the colo
nists as the natives. '
The president and council, within the colonies, were authori
sed to repel those who should, without their authority, attempt
to settle or trade within their jurisdiction, and to seize and de-

DISCOVERY AND EARLY SETTLEMENTS. 33
tain their persons and effects, till they should pay a duty-of two
and one-half per centum ad valorem, if subjects; but of five
per centum, if aliens.
These taxes were to be applied, for twenty-one years, to the
use of the adventurers, and afterwards to be paid into the royal
exchequer. While the council for the patentees were employed in making
preparations to secure the benefits of their grant, James was no
less assiduously engaged in the new, and to his vanity the flat
tering task of framing a code of laws for the government of the
colonies about to be planted. Having at length prepared it, the
code was issued under the sign manual and privy seal of England
on the 20th of November, 1606. He invested, by these regula
tions, the general superintendence of the colonies in a council in
England, " composed of a few persons of consideration and ta
lents." He ordered that the word and service of God should, be
preached and used according to the rites and doctrines of the
church of England. Both the legislative and executive powers,
within the colonies, were vested in the presidents and councils.
To their legislative power$ however, was annexed a proviso, that
their ordinances should not touch any man's life or member,
should only continue in force till made void by the king or his
council in England for Virginia, and should be, in substance,
consonant to the laws of England. He also enjoined them to
permit none to withdraw the people from their allegiance to
himself and his successors, and to cause all persons so offending
to be apprehended and imprisoned till reformation ; or, in cases
highly offensive, to be sent to England to receive punishment.
And no person should be permitted to remain in the colony
without taking the oath of obedience. Tumults, mutiny, and
rebellion ; murder aiid incest, were to be punished with death :
and for these offences the criminal was to be tried by a jurv.
Inferior crimes were to be punished in a summary way, at the
discretion of the president and council. Lands were to be hold
en within the colony as the same estates were enjoyed in Eng
land. Kindness towards the heathen was enjoined ; arid a pow
er reserved to the king and his successors to ordain further laws
so that they- were consonant to the jurisprudence of England.
Under this charter and these laws, which manifest, at the
same time, a total disregard to all political liberty, and a total
2. E

34 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
ignorsBfcce of the ieal advantages which may be drawn from co
lonies by a parent state ;¦ which vest the higher powers of legis
lation in persons residing out of the country, unchosen by. the
people, and unaffected by the laws they make, while commerce
remains unconfined ; the patentees proceeded to execute the ar
duous, and almost untried task, of peopling a strange, distant,
and uncultivated land, covered with woods and marshes, and
inhabited only by a few savages, easily irritated ; and, when ir
ritated, more fierce than the beasts they hunted.
Although several men of rank and fortune were concerned in
the companies which had been formed in England for colonising
America, their funds appear to have been very limited, and their
first efforts were certainly extremely feeble.
The first expedition of the southern colony consisted of one
vessel of a hundred tons, and two barks, with a hundred and
five men destined to remain in the country.
The command of this small embarkation was given to Capr
tain Newport, who sailed therewith from the Thames the 1 9th
of December, 1606. At the same time that his instructions
were received, three packets, sealed with the seal of the coun
cil, were delivered, one to Captain Newport, a second to Cap
tain Bartholomew Gosnald, and a third to Captain John Rad-
cliffe, containing the names of the council for the colony.
These packets were accompanied with instructions directing
that they should be opened within twenty-four hours after their
arrival on the coast of Virginia, and not before ; and ¦ that the
names of his majesty's council should then be proclaimed. The.
council were then to proceed to the choice of a president, who
should have two votes. To this singular and unaccountable con
cealment have been, in a great degree, attributed the dissensions
which distracted the colonists on their passage, and which after
wards considerably impeded the progress of their infant settle
ment. Newport, whose place of destination was Roanoke, took the
circuitous route by the West India Islands, and had a long pas
sage of four months. The reckoning had been out for three
days, without perceiving land, and serious propositions were
made for returning to England, when they were overtaken by a
.storm which fortunately drove them to the mouth of the Chesa-
- peak.

DISCOVERY AND EARLY SETTLEMENTS. 35
On the 26th of April, 1607, they descried Cape Henry, and
soon afterwards Cape Charles. Impatient to land-, a party
of about thirty men went on shore at Cape Henry ; but they
were immediately attacked by the natives, who considered them
as enemies, and in the skirmish which ensued several were
wounded on both sides.
The first employment of the colonists was to explore the adr
jaceht country, with the appearance of which they were greatlv
delighted, and to select a spot on which their settlement should
be made. They proceeded up a large beautiful river called by
the natives Powhatan, and to which they gave the name of
James, on a peninsula on the north side of which they unani
mously agreed to make the first establishment of their infant co
lony. This place, as well as the river, they named after their
king, and called it James-town.
Here they debarked on the 13th of May, and the sealed pack
ets delivered to them in England being opened, Mr. Wingfield
was, by the council, elected their president ; but under frivolous
and unjustifiable pretexts, they excluded from his seat among
them John Smith, whose courage and talents seemed to have
excited their envy, and who on the passage had been impri
soned on the improbable and unsupported charge of intending
to murder the council, usurp the government, and make himself
king of Virginia.
The colonists soon found themselves embroiled with the In
dians, who attacked them suddenly while at work, but were
frightened by the fire from the ship, and in some short time a
temporary accommodation with them was effected.
Although Newport was named of the council, he was ordered
to return with the vessels to England, and the time of his de
parture approached. The accusers of Smith affecting a degree
of humanity which they did not feel, proposed that he should
return with Newport, instead of being prosecuted in Virginia;
but with the pride of conscious innocence, he demanded his tri
al, and being honorably acquitted, took his seat in the council.
About the 15th of June, 1607, Newport sailed for England,
leaving behind him one of the barks, and about a hundred per
sons, the pnly English then on the continent of America.
Thus about one hundred and ten years after this continent
had been discovered by Cabot, and twenty-two years after a co-

36 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
lony had been conducted to Roanoke by Sir Richard Greenville,
the English possessions in America, designed soon tp become a
mighty empire, were limited to a peninsula of a few thousand
acres of land held by a small body of men, who with difficulty
maintained themselves against the paltry tribes which surround
ed them, and looked, in a great measure, to the other side of
the Atlantic for the bread on which they were to subsist.
The stock of provisions for the colony had been very improvi-
dently laid in. It was entirely inadequate to their wants, and in
addition to tliis original error, it had sustained great damage,
in the holds of the vessels, during their long passage. On the
departure of Newport (during whose stay they managed to parr
take of the superfluity of the sailors) they were reduced to the
necessity of subsisting on the distributions from the public
stores. These were at the same time scanty and unwholesome.
They did not amount to more per man than a pint of worm-eat
en wheat and barley, boiled in a common kettle. This wretch
ed food increased the malignity of the diseases generatd by a
hot, and, at the same time, (the country being entirely unclear
ed and undrained) a damp climate among men exposed from
their situation to all its rigors. Before the month of Septem
ber, fiftv of the company, and among them Bartholomew Gos
nald, who had planned the expedition and so much contributed
towards its being carried on, were buried. This scene of their
distress was heightened by internal dissension. The president
was charged with having embezzled the best stores of the colo
ny, and with feasting at his private table with beefj bread, and
aqua vitas, then deemed luxuries of the highest order, while fa
mine and death devoured his fellow adventurers. No crime
could in the public opinion have been more atrocious. In addi
tion to this, he was detected in an attempt to escape from them
and their calamities, in the bark which had been left by Newport.
The general indignation could be no longer restrained. He was
deposed and Radcliffe chosen to succeed him.
Misfortune is not unfrequently the parent of moderation and
reflection ; and this state of misery produced a system of con
duct towards the neighbouring Indians, which for a moment dis
armed their resentments, and induced them t6 bring in such
supplies as the country in that season afforded ; and thereby to
preserve the remnant of the colony. It produced another effect,

DISCOVERY AND EARLY SETTLEMENTS. 37
not less important. Their sense of imminent and common dan
ger called forth and compelled submission to those talents which
were fitted to the exigency, and best calculated to extricate
them from the difficulties with which they were surrounded.
Captain Smith, who had been imprisoned and expelled from the
council by the envy of those who felt and hated his superiority;
who, after evincing, his innocence, had with difficulty been ad
mitted to the station assigned him ; preserved his health unim
paired, his spirits unbroken, and his judgment unclouded amidst
this general misery and dejection. In him, by common con
sent, all actual authority was placed, and he, by his own ex
ample, soon gave energy and efficiency to others, in the exe
cution of his commands.
He immediately erected at James-town such rude fortifica
tions as were necessary to resist the sudden attacks of the sava
ges ; and with great labor,-in which he always took the lead
himself, completed the construction of such dwellings, as, by
sheltering the people from the weather, contributed to restore
and preserve their health, while his own accommodation gave
place to that of all others. In the season of gathering corn,
which with the Indians is the season of plenty, putting himself
at the head of small parties, he penetrated into the country,
and by presents and caresses to those who were well disposed,.
and attacking with open force, and defeating those who were
hostile, he obtained for his countrymen the most abundant sup
plies. 'The hope was now indulged of preserving the colony in quiet
and plenty, until supplies could be received from England with
the ships which were expected in the spring. This hope was in
a considerable degree defeated, by an event which threatened at
first the most disastrous consequences. In an attempt to explore
the head of Chiccahominy river, Smith was discovered and at
tacked by a numerous body df Indians, and in endeavouring to
make his escape, after a most gallant defence, his attention be
ing directed to the enemy, whom he still fought in retreating, he
sunk up to his neck in a swamp, and was obliged' to surrender.
Still retaining his presence of mind, he showed them a mariner's
compass, at which, especially at the- playing of the needle, and
the impossibility of touching it, although they saw it so distinct
ly, they were greatly astonished ; aud he amused them with so

38 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
many surprising stories of its qualities, as to inspire them with
a degree of veneration, which prevented their executing their
first design of killing him on the spot. They conducted him in
triuiiiph through several towns to the palace of Powhatan, the
most potent king in that part of the country. There he was
sentenced to be put to death, by laying his head upon a stone,
a"nd beating out his brains with clubs. He was led to the place
of execution, and his head bowed down for the purpose of death,
when Pocahontas, the king's darling daughter, then about thir
teen years of age, whose entreaties for his life had been ineffec
tual, rushed between him and his executioner, and folding his
head in her arms and laying hers upon it, arrested the fatal
blow. Her father was then prevailed on to spare his life, and
after a great many savage ceremonies, he was sent back to
James-town. On his arrival thither, having been absent seven weeks, he
found the colony reduced to thirty-eight persons, most of whom
seemed determined to abandon a country which appeared to
them so unfavorable to human life. He was just in time to pre
vent the execution of this design. Alternately employing per
suasion, threats, and even violence, he at length, with much
hazard to himself, induced the majority to relinquish the inten
tion they had formed, and then turning the guns of the fort on
the bark, on board which were the most determined, compelled
her to remain or sink, in the river.
By a judicious regulation of their intercourse with the Indi
ans, among whom Smith was now in high repute, he preserved
plenty in the colony until the arrival of two vessels, which, had
been dispatched from England under the command of Captain
Newport, with a supply of provisions, of instruments of hus
bandry, and with a reinforcement of one hundred aud twenty
persons, consisting of many gentlemen, a few laborers, and se
veral refiners, and goldsmiths, and jewellers.
The joy of the colony on receiving this accession of force
and supply of provisions was extreme. But the influence of
Smith disappeared with the danger which had produced it ; and
an improvident relaxation of . discipline, productive of the most
pernicious consequences, succeeded to it. Among the unwise
practices which they tolerated, an indiscriminate traffic with the
natives was permitted, in the course of which some obtained for

HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 39
their commodities much better bargains than others, which
inspired those who had been most hardly dealt by, and who
thought themselves cheated, with resentment against the Eng
lish generally, and a consequent thirst for revenge.
About this time was found, washed down by a small stream
of water at the back of James-town, a glittering earth, which
by the colonists was mistaken for gold dust. All that raging
thirst for gold, which accompanied the first Europeans who vi
sited the American continent, seemed re-excited by this incident.
Mr. Stith, in his History of Virginia, describing the phrenzy
of the moment, says, " There was no thought, no discourse;
no hope, and no work, but to dig gold, wash gold, refine gold,
and load gold. And notwithstanding Captain Smith's warm
and judicious representations, how absurd it was to neglect
other things of immediate use and necessity, to load such a
drunken ship with gilded dust ; yet was he overruled, and her
returns made in a parcel of glittering dirt which is to be found
in various parts of the country, and which they very sanguinelv
concluded to be gold dust."
The two vessels returned, one in the spring, the other the 2nd
of June, 1608, laden one with their dust, and the other with
cedar. This is the first remittance ever made from America by
an English colony.
The effects of this fatal delusion were such as might have
been foreseen, and were soon felt. The colony began to suffer
the same distress from scarcity of food, which had before
brought it to the brink of ruin. ,
The researches of the English settlers had not yet extended
beyond the countries adjacent to James-river. Smith had form
ed the, bold design of exploring the great Bay of Chesapeak,
examining the mighty rivers which empty into it, opening an in
tercourse with the nations inhabiting that territory, and acquis
ring a knowledge of the state of their cultivation and population.
This hardy enterprise he undertook, accompanied by Doctor Rus^-
el, in an open boat of about three tons burden, and with a crew
of thirteen men. On the 2nd of June, he fell down the river in
company with the last of Newport's two vessels, and parting
with her at the capes, began his survey at Cape Charles. J4e
examined, with immense fatigue and danger, every river, inlet,
and bay on both sides the Chesapeak, as far as the mouth of

40 DISCOVERY AND EARLY SETTLEMENTS.
Rappahannock, from whence, their provisions being exhausted,
he returned to James-town. He reached that place on the 21st
of July, and found the colony in the utmost confusion and dis
order. Those who had arrived last with Newport were all sick ;
a general scarcity prevailed ; and a universal discontent with the
president, whom they charged with riotously consuming the
stores, and unnecessarily fatiguing the people with building a
house of pleasure for himself in the woods. The seasonable ar
rival of Smith prevented their fury from breaking out in acts of
personal violence.*
They contented themselves with deposing their president, and
Smith was urged, but refused, to succeed him.
Having in three days made arrangements for obtaining regular
supplies, and for the government of the colony, his firm friend
Mr. Scrivener, was appointed vice-president, and on the 14th
of July he again set out with twelve men to complete his re
searches into the countries on the Chesapeak.
From this voyage he returned on the 7th of September. He
had advanced as far as the river Susquehanah, and visited all
the countries on both shores of the bay. He entered most of
the large creeks, and sailed up many of the great rivers to their
falls. He made accurate observations on the extensive teiritories
through which he passed, and on the various tribes inhabiting
them, with whom he alternately fought, negociated, and traded.
In the various situations in which he found himself, he always
displayed judgment, courage, and that presence of mind which
is so essential to the character of a commander, and he never
failed finally to inspire the savages he encountered, with the
most exalted opinion of himself and his nation. When we con
sider that he sailed above three thousand miles in an open boat •
when we contemplate the dangers and the hardships he encoun
tered, and the fortitude, courage, and patience with which he
met them ; when we reflect on the useful and important addi
tions which he made to the stock of knowledge respecting Ame
rica, then possessed by his countrymen ; we shall not hesitate to
saly that few voyages of discovery, undertaken at any time, re
flect more honor on those engaged in them, than this does on
Cajptain Smith. " So full and exact," says Mr. Robinson " are
-y —  _ 
* Tliit error might very possibly be occasioned by the Indians represent
ing toe great lakes to the west as seas.

DISCOVERY AND EARLY SETTLEMENTS. 41
his accounts of that large portion of the American continent
comprehended in the two provinces of Virginia and Maryland,*
that after the progress of information and research for a century
and a half, his map exhibits no inaccurate view of both coun
tries, and is the original on which all subsequent delineations
and descriptions have been formed."
It may not be entirely unworthy of remark that, about the
bottom of the bay, Smith met with a party of Indians from the
St. Lawrence coming to war with those of that neighbourhood,
and that he found, among Indians on the Susquehanah, hatchets
obtained originally from the French in Canada.
On the 10th of September, immediately after his return from
this expedition, Smith was chosen president by the council, and,
yielding to the general wish, he accepted the office. Soon after,
Newport arrived with an additional supply of inhabitants, among
whom were the tvvo first females who had adventured into the
present colony, but he came without provisions.
The disinterested, judicious, and vigorous administration ot
the president, however, supplied their wants and restrained the
turbulent. Encouraged by his example, and coerced by his au
thority, a spirit of industry and subordination appeared to be
created in the colony, which was the parent of plenty and
of peace.
To increase their funds, as well as the influence and reputa
tion of the company, a new charter was petitioned for, which,
on the 23rd of May, 1609, was granted them. Some of the
first nobility and gentry of the country, most of the companies
of London, with a numerous body of merchants and tradesmen ;
were now added to the former adventurers ; and they were all
incorporated by the name of " The Treasurer and Company of
Adventurers of the City of London for the first Colony in Virgi
nia." To them were now granted, in absolute property, the
lands extending from Cape or Point Comfort, along the sea
coast, two hundred miles to the northward, and from the same
point, along the sea coast, two hundred miles to the southward,
and up into the land throughout from sea to sea west and north
west ; and also all the islands lying within one hundred miles of
* This must be understood as applying to the very extensive parts of those
states which border on the bay; and on the rivers emptying into it "below
their falls.
2. F

42 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
the coast of both seas of the precinct aforesaid ; to be holden of
the manor of East Greenwich in free and common soccage, and
paying in lieu of all services one fifth of the gold and silver that
should be found. The corporation was authorised to convey,
under its common seal, particular portions of these lands to sub
jects or denizens, on such conditions as might promote the in
tentions of the grant. The powers of the president and council
in Virginia were abrogated, and a new council in England was
established and ordained in the charter, with power to the com
pany to fill all vacancies therein by election. This council was
empowered to appoint and remove all officers for the colony, and
to make all ordinances for its government, provided they be not
contrary to the laws of England ; and to rule and correct the
colonists according to such ordinances. Licence was given to
transport to Virginia all persons willing to go thither, and to ex
port merchandise free from customs for seven years. There was
also granted for twenty- one years, freedom from all subsidies in
Virginia, and from all impositions on importations and exporta
tion to or from any of the king's dominions, " except only the
five pounds in the hundred due for customs." The colonists
were declared to be entitled to the rights of natural subjects.
The governor was empowered to establish martial law in case of
rebellion or mutiny, and to prevent the superstitions of the
church of Rome from taking root in the plantation, it was de
clared that none should pass into Virginia but such as shall have
first taken the oath of supremacy.
The company being thus enlarged, was now enabled to take
more efficient measures than heretofore, for the settlement of
the country. They soon fitted out nine ships, with five hundred
emigrants, and such supplies as were deemed necessary for
them. Lord Delaware whs constituted governor and captain-ge
neral for life, and several other high sounding and useless offices
were created. The direction of the expedition was again given
to Newport, and to him and Sir Thomas Gates, and Sir George
Somers, powers were severally granted to supersede the existing
administration, and to govern the colony until the arrival of
Lord Delaware. With singular indiscretion, the council omitted
to establish precedence among these gentlemen, and being to
tally unable to settle this important point between themselves,
they agreed to embark on board the same vessel, and to be com-

DISCOVERY AND EARLY SETTLEMENTS^ 43
panions during the voyage. They were parted from the rest ot
the fleet in a storm, and driven on Bermudas, having on board
one hundred and fifty men, a considerable portion of the provi
sions destined for the colony, and the new commission and in
structions of the council.
The residue of the squadron, arrived safely in Virginia. " A
great part of this new company," says Mr. Stith, " consisted of
unruly sparks, packed off by their friends, to escape worse des
tinies at home ;, and the rest were chiefly made up of poor gen
tlemen, broken tradesmen, rakes and libertines, footmen and
such others, as were much fitter to spoil and ruin a common
wealth, than to help to raise or maintain one. This lewd com
pany, therefore, were led by their seditious captains into many
mischiefs and extravagancies. They assumed to themselves the
power of disposing of the government, and it sometimes devolv
ed on one, and sometimes on another. To-day the old commis
sion must rule ; to-morrow the new ; and next day neither ; so
that all was anarchy and distraction."
The decision of Smith was suspended but for a short time.
He soon determined that his own authority was not legally revo
ked until the arrival of the new commission, and therefore re
solved to continue its exercise. Incapable of holding the reins of
government but with a firm, and steady hand, he exhibited, on
this emergency, that vigor and good sense, which he always dis
played most eminently when he most needed them. He boldly
imprisoned the chief promoters of the sedition, and thereby re
stored, for a time, regularity and obedience. Having effected this,
he, for the double purpose of extending the settlements of the co
lony, and of preventing the mischiefs to be apprehended from so
many turbulent spirits collected in James-town, detached one
hundred persons to the falls of James-river, under the conduct
of West, and the same number to Nansemond, under the com
mand of Martin. - These settlements were conducted with so lit
tle judgment, that they soon* converted all the neighbouring In
dians into enemies, had several parties cut off, and found them
selves in. absolute need of the support and direction of Smith.
They were readily supplied till a melancholy accident deprived
the colony of the aid of a man, whose talents had more than
once rescued jt from that desperate condition into which folly
and vice had plunged it. Returning from a visit to the detach-

44 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
ment stationed at the falls of James-river, his powder-bag, while
he was sleeping in the boat, took fire, and in the explosion he
was so severely wounded, as to be confined to his bed, and
thereby rendered absolutely incapable of performing the active
duties which his station so indispensably required. Being thus
wounded, and unable to obtain the aid of a surgeon in the colo
ny, he determined to return to England, for which place he
embarked about the beginning of October.
At his departure the colony consisted of about five hundred
inhabitants. They were furnished with three ships, seven boats,
commodities ready for trade, ten weeks provision iu the public
stores, six mares and a horse, a large stock of hogs and poultry,
with some sheep and goats, utensils for agriculture, nets for
fishing, one hundred trained and expert soldiers well acquainted
with the Indians, their language and habitations, twenty-four
pieces of ordnance, and three hundred muskets, with a suffi
cient quantity of other arms and ammunition.
The present fair prospects of the colony were soon blasted by
those scenes of folly and crime, of riot and insubordination,
which ensued.
Various pretenders immediately advanced their claims to the
supreme command. The choice, however, fell upon Captain
Percy, who derived much consideration from the virtues of his
heart, as well as from his illustrious family; but his talents, at
no time suited to the stOTtns of his new and difficult situation,
were rendered still less competent to the task, by a long course
of ill health, which had determined him to return to England,
from which he was with difficulty dissuaded. Being generally
confined by sickness to his bed, he was incapable of maintaining
his authority, and a total confusion with its accustomed baneful
consequences ensued.
The Indians, understanding that the man whose conduct and
vigor they had so often experienced and so much dreaded, no
longer governed the colonists, attacked them on all sides. Cap
tains West and Martin having lost their boats and nearly half
their men, were driven from the falls of James-river and Nanse-
mond, unto James-town. The stock of provisions was lavishly
wasted, and a famine, the most dreadful with which they had
ever been afflicted, raged among them. After devouring the
skins of their horses, and the Indians they had killed, the survi-

DISCOVERY AND EARLY SETTLEMENTS. 45
vors fed on those of their companions, who had sunk under such
accumulated calamities. The recollection of these tremendous
sufferings was long retained, and for many years this period was
distinguished and remembered by the name of the STARVING
TIME.
In six months the colony was by these distresses reduced to
sixty persons of all ages and sexes, who were so feeble and de
jected that they could not have survived ten days longer. In
this calamitous state they were relieved by Sir Thomas Gates,
Sir George Somers, and Captain Newport, who arrived from
Bermudas the 24th of May, 1610.
It was immediately determined to abandon the country, and
for this purpose the wretched remnant of the colony embarked
on board the vessels just arrived from Bermudas, and set sail for
England. "None dropped a tear," says Mr. Chalmer, "be
cause none had enjoyed one day of happiness."
Fortunately they met in the river Lord Delaware with three
ships and a recruit of new settlers and provisions from England,
who prevailed upon them to return, and on the 10th of June
resettled them at James-town.
By his mildness of temper, his assiduity to business, and a
judicious exercise of authority, this nobleman restored order and
contentment to the colony, and again impressed the Indians
with respect for the English name. Unfortunately a complica
tion of diseases soon obliged him to resign his government,
which, on the 28th of March, 1611, he placed once more in the
hands of Mr. Percy, and sailed himself for Nevis in. the West
Indies ; leaving in the colony about two hundred persons in pos
session of the blessings of health, plenty and peace.
On the 10th of May, Sir Thomas Dale, who had been ap
pointed to the government, arrived with a fresh supply of men
and provisions, and found the colony relapsing into its forme*
state of idleness and penury. It required all the authority of
the new governor to maintain public order, and to compel the
idle and dissolute to labor. Some conspiracies having been de
tected, he proclaimed martial law, and instantly executed it by
punishing the most guilty. These severities which, in the ordi
nary state of society, would not and ought not to have been sub
mitted to, were then deemed necessary, and are spoken of as
having probably saved the settlement.

46 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
In the beginning of August, Sir Thomas Gates, who had been
appointed to succeed Sir Thomas Dale, arrived with six ships
and a considerable supply of men and provisions. The colony
being now greatly strengthened, began to extend itself up James-
river, and several new settlements were made.
The extravagant accounts given of the beauty and fertility of
Bermudas, by those who had been cast away on that island,
having reached England, crt-ated in the company a desire of ob
taining it as a place from which Virginia might be supplied with
provisions. Application was therefore made to the crown for a
new patent which should comprehend this island, and, in March,
1612, anew charter was issued, granting to the treasurer and
company all the islands situated in the ocean within three hun
dred leagues of the coast of Virginia. By this charter former
grants and immunities were confirmed, but the corporation was
essentially new modeled. It was ordained that four general
courts of the adventurers should be holden annually, for the de
termination of affairs of importance ; and weekly meetings were
appointed, for the transaction of common business : and to pro
mote the effectual settlement of the plantation, which had alrea
dy cost such considerable sums, licence was given to open lotte
ries in any part of England.
These lotteries, which were the first ever drawn in England,
(and it is to be lamented that they were not the. last,) brought
twenty-nine thousand pounds into the treasury of the company,
they were complained of by the ^commons in parliament, and
therefore discontinued by proclamation.
About this time, a change took place in the interior arrange
ments of the colony, which greatly ameliorated its condition,
and gave to the colonists ver-y general satisfaction.
Heretofore no separate property in lands had been acquired,
and no individual labored for himself. The lands had been held
in common, cleared in common, cultivated in common, and
their produce carried into a common granary, from which it was
distributed to all. This system, which might in some degree be
justified by the peculiarities of their situation, was chiefly occa
sioned by the unwise injunction contained in the royal instruc
tions, which directed the colonists, for five years, to trade toge
ther in one common stock. Its effect was such as ought to have
been foreseen. Industry itself, deprived of its due reward, ex-

DISCOVERY AND EARLY SETTLEMENTS. 47
elusive property in the produce of its toil, felt no .sufficient sti
mulus to exertion ; and each individual believing that his efforts
could add but little to the general fund, and that he must be fed,
although idle, sought to withdraw himself as much as possible
from the labors assigned him. It was computed that less work
was accomplished in a week, than might have been performed
in a day, had each individual labored on his own account. To
remove this cause of perpetual scarcity, Sir Thomas Dale divi
ded a considerable portion of the land into lots of three acres,
and granted one of these to each individual in full propertv. Al
though they were still required to devote a large portion of their
labor to the public, yet a sudden change was made in the ap
pearance and habits of the colony. Industry, having from this
moment the certain prospect of recompence, advanced with ra
pid strides, and the colonists were no longer in fear of wanting
bread, either for themselves, or for the emigrants who came an
nually from England.
Early in the year 1614, Sir Thomas Gates returned to Eng
land, leaving the government again with Sir Thomas Dale. He
planned, and, in the course of that summer, executed under
Captain Argal, an enterprise of which no immediate notice was
taken, but which was afterwards lecollected with no inconsider
able degree of indignation.
The French who had directed their course to the more nor
thern parts of our continent, had been among the first adven
turers to North America. Their voyages of discovery are of a
very early date, and their attempts at a settlement were among
the first which were made. So early as the year 1535, Jacques
Quartier wintered in Canada, made an alliance with some tribes
of savages, built a fort, and took possession of the country. In
1540, Francis I. appointed the Sieur de Roberval, lieutenant-
general of Newfoundland and Canada, with power to conduct
French families thither, and to make settlements. In the au
tumn of the same year Jacques Quartier was appointed captain-
general of five vessels destined for an expedition to the new
world. They arrived in 1541, at Cape Breton, where the emi
grants fortified themselves, and made their first establishment.
The fort built by that adventurer is considered by the French as
having been erected with an intent to hold the country ; but his
object is contended, by the English, to have been rather disco-

48 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
very than setfJement. The civil contentions which soon after
wards desolated France diverted the attention of the govern
ment from America, to objects of deeper concern ; yet a perma
nent settlement was made in Canada in the year 1601, and the
foundation of Quebec was laid in the year 1608. In November,
1603, Henry IV. appointed De Mont, lieutenant-general of that
part of the territory which he claimed lying in North Ame
rica, the 40th and 46th degrees of latitude, then called Acadie,
with power to colonise and to rule it ; and he soon afterwards
granted to that gentleman and his associates an exclusive right
to the commerce of peltry in Acadie in America, and the gulf
of St. Lawrence. A settlement was- accordingly, in the subse
quent year, founded on that coast near the river St. Croix; and,
in 1605, was built Port Royal, on a more northern part of the
Bay of Fundy.
The colony receiving but little support from France was feeble
and unprosperous, but retained quiet possession of the country.
Against this colony, in a time of profound peace, the expedition
of Argal was directed.
He found it totally unprepared for defence ; the inhabitants,
who had assiduously and successfully cultivated the friendship of
the Indians, being restrained by no fear of hostility from them,
were scattered abroad in the woods, engaged in their several
pursuits ; and a ship and a bark just arrived from France laden
with articles necessary for the use of the colony, were surprised
in port, and their cargoes taken to James-town. Argal left no
garrison to keep possession of the place, and after his departure,
the French, who had only dispersed themselves among the In
dians during the continuance of danger, immediately resumed
their former station.
The pretext for this predatory expedition was, that the
French, by settling in Acadie, had invaded the rights of the
English acquired by the first discovery of the continent.
On his return to James-town, Argal paid a visit to New York,
then in possession of the Dutch. He claimed the country
as having been first discovered in 1609 by Captain Hudson, who
was an Englishman, and the benefit of whose discoveries, he
alledged, could not be transferred from his nation. He de
manded possession ; and the Dutch governor, whose force con
sisted merely, of a few traders, being unable to resist, " peace-

DISCOVERY AND EARLY SETTLEMENTS. 4Q
ably submitted both himself and his colony to the king of Eng
land, and the governor of Virginia under him," and consented
to pay a tribute. Argal then continued his voyage to James
town. But another governor afterwards arriving from Amster
dam with better means of asserting the title of his countrymen,
the payment of the tribute was refused, and the place put in a
situation to be defended.
The advantages resulting to the colony from the portion of la
bor which each individual had been permitted to apply to his
private account having soon become apparent, the system of
working in common to fill the public stores seems to have been
totally abandoned. Originally every emigrant was, by the rules
of the company, entitled to one hundred acres of land for him
self, and as much for every person he should import into the
country ; but these rules had never been earned into effect. The
quantity was now reduced to fifty acres, which were actually laid
off, and delivered to the person having title to them, who was
permitted to exercise over them, in such manner as was agreea
ble to himself, all the rights of ownership.
About the same time tobacco was first cultivated in Virginia.
This plant, although detested by the king, who used all his in
fluence to prevent its use, and even wrote a pamphlet against it,
which he styled a counter-blast ; although discountenanced by
the leading members of parliament, and even by the company,
who issued edicts against its cultivation ; although on a first ex
periment extremely unpleasant to the taste, and disagreeable in
its effects; surmounted all opposition, and has, by an unac
countable caprice, been brought into general use, and become
one of the most considerable staples of America.
In the spring of the year 1616, Sir Thomas Dale sailed for
England, having placed the government in the hands of Mr.
George Yeardly, his deputy, who, after a very lax administra
tion of one year, was succeeded in May, 1617, by Captain Ar
gal, who had been appointed deputy governor by the company.
He was a man of considerable talents and great energy of
mind, but selfish, haughty, and tyrannical. He provided with
ability for the wants of the colony, and remedied with skill and
attention many abuses which had been permitted to creep in
among them ; but he is charged with having availed himself im
properly of the advantages of his situation for the acquisition of
3. G

50 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
private wealth, and with having exercised over the people of
Virginia his high authority, in a manner to the last degree odi
ous and despotic. Martial law was continued during a season of
peace ; and a Mr. Brewster, who was tried under his arbitrary
system for contemptuous words spoken of the governor, was sen
tenced to suffer death. A respite of execution was with difficul
ty obtained, and on an appeal to the treasurer and council in
England, the sentence was reversed.
While martial law was, according to Stith, the common law
of the land, the deputy governor seems to have been the sole le
gislator. His edicts mark the severity of his rule, but some of
them evince an attention to the public safety. lie ordered that
merchandises should be sold at an advance of twenty- five per
centum, and tobacco taken in payment at the rate of tinea
shillings per pound, under the penalty of three years servitude
to the company ; that no person should traffic privately with the
Indians, or teach them the use of fire-arms under the pain of
death ; that no person should hunt deer or hogs without the go
vernor's leave ; that no man should shoot unless in his own
necessrry defence, until a new supply of ammunition arrived, on
pain of a j ear's personal service; that none should go on board
the ships at James-town without the governor's leave; that eve
ry person should go to church on Sundays and holydays, under
the penr.lty of slavery during the following week for the first of
fence, during a month for the second, and during a year and a
day for the third. The rigor of this administration, necessarily
excited much discontent, and the complaints of the Virginians at
length made their way to the company. Lord Delaware being
now dead, Mr. Yeardly was appointed captain-general, with in
structions to examine with attention the wrongs of the colonists,
and to redress them.
The new governor arrived in April, 1619, and soon after, to
the inexpressible joy of the inhabitants, declared his determina
tion to convoke a colonial assembly.
This is an important sera in the history cf Virginia. Hereto
fore all legislative authority had been exercised, either by the
corporation in England, or by their officers in this country. The
people, either personally or by their representatives, had no
voice in the government of themselves ; and their most impor
tant concerns were decided on by persons often unacquainted

DISCOVERY AND EARLY SETTLEMENTS. 51
With their situation, and always possessing interests different
from theirs. They now felicitated themselves on having really
the privileges of Englishmen, and on possessing substantially
the benefits of the English constitution.
This first assembly met at James-town on the 19th of June.
The colony was not then divided into counties, and the mem
bers were elected by the different -boroughs, amounting at that
time to seven. From this circumstance the popular branch of
the assembly received the appellation of the House of Burgess
es, which it retained until all connection with England was dis
solved. The assembly, composed of the governor, the council, and
burgesses, met together in one apartment, and there debated all
matters thought conducive to the. general welfare. The laws
then enacted, which it is believed are no longer extant, were
transmitted to England for the approbation of the treasurer and
company, and were said to have been "judiciously formed." .
The emigrations from England continued to be very consider
able, and were made at great expence to the company, but as
yet few females had crossed the Atlantic. Men without wives
could not contemplate Virginia as a place of permanent resi
dence, and proposed, after amassing some wealth, to return to
their native land. To put an end to a mode of thinking in its
effects ruinous to the colony, it was proposed to send out one
hundred maids, as wives for the colonists. Ninety girls, young
and uncorrupt, were transported in the beginning of the year
1620, and sixty more in the subsequent year. They were imme
diately disposed of to the young- planters. The price of a wife
was estimated first at one hundred, and afterwards at one hun
dred and fifty pounds of tobacco, then selling at three shillings
per pound, and a debt so contracted was made of greater digni
ty than any other.
The education of children was likewise attended to, and seve
ral steps were taken towards founding the college, afterwards
completely established by William and Mary. Abont the same
time the company received orders from the king to transport to
Virginia a hundred idle and dissolute persons, then in custody
of the knight marshal. These men dispersed through the co
lony, became a useful and acceptable addition of laborers, and
were the first convicts transported to America.

52 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
In 1622, the cup of prosperity, of which the eolonists now
began to taste, was dashed from their lips by an event which
shook to its foundation and nearly destroyed the colony. In
1618, Powhatan, the most powerful of the Indian kings in Vir
ginia, who, after the marriage of his daughter Pocahontas to Mr.
Rolfe, had remained faithful to the English, departed this life,
and was succeeded, not only in his own dominions, but in his
influence over all the neighbouring tribes, by Opechancanough,
a bold and cunning chief, as remarkable for his jealousy and
hate for the new settlers, as for his qualifications to execute the
revenge his resentments dictated. He renewed however the sti
pulation of Powhatan, and for a considerable time the general
peace remained undisturbed. The colonists, unsuspicious of dan
ger, neither attended to the Indians, hot their machinations.
Engaged in the cultivation of their soil, all their views seemed
directed to that single object ; and their military exercises and
all useful precautions were laid aside; while the Indians being
often employed as hunters, were furnished with fire arms and
taught to use them. They were admitted at all times, freely,
into the habitations of the English, as harmless visitants ; were
fed at their tables, and lodged in their chambers. During- this
state of free and friendly intercourse, was formed, with cold and
unrelenting deliberation, the plan of a general massacre, which
should involve man, woman and child, in indiscriminate slaugh
ter. The tribes in the neighbourhood of the English except"
those on the eastern shore, who were not trusted with the plan,
were successively gained over; and notwithstanding the perpetu
al intercourse kept up between them and the white people, the
most impenetrable secrecy was observed. So deep and dark was
* their dissimulation, that they were accustomed to borrow boats
from the English to cross the river, in order to concert and ma
ture their execrable designs. 9
The 22nd of March was designated as the day on which all
the English settlements were to be at the same instant attacked.
The belter to disguise their intentions, and to ensure success,
they brought in the preceding evening, deer, turkies, and fish,
as presents ; and even on the morning of the massacre came
freely among them, behaving in their usual friendly manner, un
til the very instant which had been appointed to commence the
scene of carnage they had prepared. The fatal hour having ar-

DISCOVERY AND EARLY SETTLEMENTS. 53
rived, they fell at once on every settlement, murdered without
distinction of age or sex ; and so sudden were they in executing
their pjan, that few perceived the weapons, or the approach of
the blow which terminated their existence. Thus in one hour,
and almost in the same instant, fell three hundred and forty-se
ven men, women, and children, most of them by their own
plantation tools and utensils.
The massacre would have been much more complete, had not
information been given the preceding night to a Mr. Pace, by
an Indian domesticated in his house, where he had been treated
as a son, and who being pressed to murder him, disclosed to him
the plot. He immediately carried the intelligence to James- town,
and the alarm was given to some of the nearest settlements,
which were thereby saved : at some other places too, where the
circumstances of the attack enabled the English to seize their
arms, the assailants were repulsed.
To this horrible massacre succeeded a vindictive and extermi
nating war, in which were successfully practised upon the Indi
ans, the wiles of which they had set so bloody an example.
During this disastrous period, many public works were abandon
ed ; the college institution was deserted, the settlements were
reduced from eighty to eight, and famine superadded to the ac
cumulated distresses of the colony, its afflicting scqurge.
As soon as intelligence of these calamitous events reached
England, a contribution of the adventurers for the relief of the
sufferers was ordered ; arms from the Tower were delivered to
the treasurer and company ; and several vessels were immediate
ly dispatched with those articles, which might best alleviate such
complicated distress. '
In June, 1632, Charles I. granted to Lord Baltimore for ever,
"that -region bounded by a line drawn from Watkin's point of
Chesapeak Bay, to the ocean on the east; thence to that part
of the estuary of Delaware on the north, which lieth under the
40th degree, where New England is terminated; thence in a
right line, by the degree aforesaid, to the meridian of the foun
tain of the Potowmac ; thence following its course, by the fur
ther bank of its confluence." The territory thus granted was
denominated Maryland, and was separated entirely from Virgi
nia. The proprietor was empowered, with the assent of the
freemen, or their delegates, whom he was required to assemble

54 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
for that purpose, to make all laws for the government of the
new colony not inconsistent with the laws of England. Privile
ges, in other respects analagous to those given to other colonies,
were comprised in this charter; and it is remarkable, that it
contains no clause for obliging the proprietary to submit the
laws which might be enacted to the king for his approbation or
dissent ; nor any reservation of the right of the crown to inter
fere in the government of the province.
This is the first example of the dismemberment of a colony,
and the creation of a new one within its limits, by the mere act
of the crown.
The first emigration consisted of about one hundred gentle
men, with their adherents, chiefly Roman Catholics, who sailed
from England under Calvert, the brother of the proprietor, in
November, 1632, and, early in the following year, landed in
Maryland, near the confluence of the Potowmac. Their imme
diate effort was to conciliate the good will of the aborigines,
from whom they purchased their town, which Calvert settled,
and called it St. Mary's. This measure was as wise as it was
just. By obtaining the peaceful possession of a considerable
piece of ground already prepared for cultivation, the Marvland-
ers were enabled, immediately to raise their food ; and from this
cause, as well as from their neighbourhood to Virginia, which
now afforded in abundance the necessaries of life, they were ne
ver afflicted with famine and its concomitant diseases, and thus
escaped those calamities which had nearly suffocated in the cra
dle the infant colonies of Virginia and New England.
Against the grant to Lord Baltimore, the planters of Virginia
presented a petition, which was heard before the privy council in
July, 1633, when it was decided, that that nobleman should re
tain his patent, and the petitioners their remedy at law. To this
remedy they never thought proper to resort. To prevent further
differences, however, free and mutual commerce was permitted
to exist between the colonies ; and they were each enjoined to
receive no fugitives from the other ; to do no act which might
bring on a war with the natives ; and, on all occasions, to assist
each other as became fellow-subjects of the same state.
In February, 1634-5, was convened the first assembly of Ma
ryland. Like those of other colonies, it appeared to have been
composed of the whole body of freemen. Their acts were, most

DISCOVERY AND EARLY SETTLEMENTS. 55
probably, not approved by the proprietor, who transmitted in
turn, for their consideration, a code of laws prepared by him
self. This code was laid before an assembly summoned to meet
in January, 1637-8, which rejected it without hesitation, and
immediately prepared a body of regulations adapted to their own
situation. Heretofore, as in the other colonies at their commencement,
the whole body of freemen constituted the legislature. But se
veral causes had contributed greatly to increase their numbers.
The Roman Catholics, who fled from the persecutions then ex
perienced in England, sought an asylum in Maryland, and they
also received into their bosoms those who were banished by the
policy of their sister colonies. While the puritans of New Eng
land were employed in coercing conformity to their particular te
nets, Virginia retaliated on them by passing severe laws affecting
puritans, which induced persons of that persuasion to take re
fuge in Maryland, where all were permitted to pursue, unmo
lested, the form of worship dictated by conscience.
An increase of population, and extended settlements, produ
ced their certain consequence. The exercise of the sovereign
power by the people themselves, became intolerably burthen-
some, and the third assembly, which was convened in 1639,
passed an act " for establishing the house of assembly." This
act declared, thatthose who should be elected in pursuance of
writs issued, should be called burgesses, and should supply the
place of freemen who chose them, in the same manner as the
representatives in the parliament of England, and with those
called by special writ, together with the governor and secretary,
should constitute the general assembly ; but the two branches of
the legislature were to sit in the same chamber. In 1650, this
regulation was changed ; an act was then passed, declaring,
that those who are called by special writ should form the upper
house ; that those who are chosen by the hundreds should form
the lower house ; and that, bills which should be assented to by
both branches of the legislature, and by the governor, should
be deemed the laws of the province.
The most perfect harmony subsisted between the proprietary
and the people ; and Maryland, attentive to its own affairs, re
mained, without any other interruption than one Indian war,
which terminated in the submission of the natives, in a state of

56 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
increasing prosperity until the civil war broke out in England.
The government, like that of Virginia, was attached to the roy
al cause; but Clayborne, who took part with the parliament,
found means to intrigue among the people, and to raise an in
surrection in the province. Calvert the governor, was obliged
to fly to Virginia for protection, and the insurgents seized the
reins of government. It was not until August in the subsequent
year (1641), that the revolt was suppressed and tranquility re
stored. An act of general pardon and oblivion was passed, from
.the benefits of which only a few leading characters were except
ed ; but this, like most other insurrections, produced additional
burthens on the people, which did not so soon pass away.
The repose of Maryland was soon disturbed by the superin
tending care of parliament. In September, 1651, commission
ers were appointed " for reducing and governing the colonies
within the Bay of Chesapeak." Among them was Clayborne,
the evil genius of the colony. As the proprietary had acknow
ledged and submitted to the authority of parliament, he was per
mitted to retain his station and govern as formerly, although in
the name of the keepers of the liberties of England. It was
however impossible" that he could long retain the quiet posses
sion of actual authority. The distractions of England having
found their way into Maryland, divided the colonists ; and the
commissioners supported, with their countenance, the faction
opposed to the established government.
The contentions, generated by such a state of things, at
length broke out into civil war, which terminated in the de
feat of the governor and the Roman Catholics. A new assem
bly was now convened, which being entirely under the influence
of the victorious party, passed an act declaring, that none who
professed the popish religion, could be protected in the province
by the laws; that such as professed faith in God by Jesus Christ,
although dissenting from the doctrine and discipline publicly
held forth, should not be restrained from the exercise of their
religion ; provided such liberty was not extended to popery, or
prelacy, or to such as, under the profession of Christ, practised
licentiousness. Other laws in the same spirit were enacted; and
a persecution commenced against the Quakers, as well as those
guilty of popery and prelacy. A scene of revolutionary turbu
lence ensued, in the course of which the upper house was resolv-

DISCOVERY AND EARLY SETTLEMENTS. 57
«d to be useless, which continued until the restoration, when
Philip Calvert was appointed governor by Lord Baltimore, and
the ancient order of things was restored. Notwithstanding the
commotions which had agitated the colony for a few years past,
it had greatly flourished, and at the restoration, its population
was estimated at twelve thousand souls.
We have seen with what slow and difficult steps the first, or
southern colony, although supported by individuals of great
wealth and influence in the nation, advanced to a firm, and se
cure establishment. The company for founding the second, or
northern colony, to which it will be recollected a charter was at
the same time granted, and which was composed of gentlemen
residing in Plymouth, and other parts of the west of. England,
was less wealthy, and possessed fewer resources for the esta
blishment of distant and expensive settlements, than the first
company which resided in the capital. Their efforts were conse-
.quently more feeble, and less successful, than those which were
made in the south.
The first vessel fitted out by the company in 1606, was cap
tured and confiscated by the Spaniards, who, at that time, as
serted, a right to exclude the ships of all other nations from na
vigating the American seas. Not discouraged by this misfor
tune, two other vessels, under the command of Raleigh and
Gilbert; having on board about one hundred persons designed to
form the proposed settlements, were dispatched the following
year, and arriving safely on the American coast in autumn, took
possession of a piece of ground near the river Sagahadoc, where
they built Fort St. George. Their sufferings in that severe cli
mate during the following winter were immense. Many of the
company, among whom were Gilbert their admiral, and George
Popham their president, sunk under the diseases with which
they were attacked, and in the spring the vessel which brought
them supplies, brought them also information that their principal
patron, Sir John Popham, chief justice of England, was dead.
Discouraged by their own losses and sufferings, and by the death
of a person on whose active exertions, more than those of any
other, they relied for assistance, it was determined to abandon
the country, and they embarked on board the vessel then return
ing to England. The frightfuLpictures given of the coast, and of
the climate, deterred the company for the present from further
3. H

58 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
attempts to make a settlement, and their enterprises were limit
ed to voyages made for the purposes of taking fish, and of tra
ding with the natives for their furs. One of these was made in
1614, by Captain Smith, so remarkable in the history of Virgi
nia. He explored with great accuracy that part of the coast
which stretches from Penobscot to Cape Cod, and having deli
neated it in a map, he presented it, with the descriptions dic7
tated by a mind which, however sound, was enthusiastic and
sanguine, to Charles, Prince of Wales, who was so pleased with
the country, that it was denominated New England, which name
it has ever since retained.
The languishing company of Plymouth could not be stimula^
ted to engage in further schemes of colonisation, the advantages
of which were distant and uncertain, while the expence was im
mediate and inevitable. To accident, and to a stronger motive
than eyen interest, a motive found to be among the most power-
erful which can influence the human mind, is New England in
debted for its first settlement.
An obscure sect, which had acquired the appellation of Brown
ists from the name of its founder, and which had rendered itself
peculiarly obnoxious by the democracy of its tenets respecting
church government, had been driven by persecution to take re
fuge at Leyden, in Holland, where its members formed a distinct
society, under the care of their pastor, Mr. John Robinson,
There they resided several years in safe obscurity. This situation
at length became irksome to them. Without persecution to give
importance to the particular points which separated them from
their other christian brethren, they made no converts ; and their
children were drawn from them by intermarriages in Dutch fa-
¦ rnilies, and by engaging in the Dutch service. They saw before
them with extreme apprehension the prospect of losing their se
parate identity, and becoming entirely Dutch. In the extinction
of their church they dreaded too the loss of those high attain
ments in spiritual knowledge which they deemed so favorable to
truth. The laxity of exterior manners too, which prevailed
among their neighbours, so contrary to the strict sanctity of the
Brownists, added its influence to the more powerful considera
tions which have been stated, and produced the determination
of removing in a body to America.
In 1618, they applied to the London company for a grant of

DISCOVERY AND EARLY SETTLEMENTS. 59
lands, and, to promote the success of their application by im
pressing the certainty of their emigration, they say, " That they
were well weaned from the delicate milk of their mother coun
try, and inured to the difficulties of a strange land. That they
were knit together in a strict and sacred bond, by virtue of
which they held themselves bound to take care of the good of
each other, and of the whole. That it was not with them as
with other men, whom small things could discourage, or small
discontents cause to wish themselves at home again." The only
privilege on which they insisted, was a licence under the great
seal to practise and profess religion in that . mode which, under
the impulse of conscience, they had adopted. This reasonable
and modest request was refused. James had already established
the churcfi of England in Virginia, and although he promised to
connive at their nonconformity, and not to molest them while
they demeaned themselves peaceably, yet he positively refused to
give them that explicit and solemn pledge of security which they
required. This, for a short time, suspended their removal ; but
the cause of their discontent in Holland continuing, they at
length determined to trust to the verbal declarations of the king,
and immediately negociated with the Virginia company for a
tract of land within the limits of their patent.
In September, 1620, they sailed from England, with only one
hundred and twenty men, in a single ship. Their destination
was Hudson's River, but the pilot on board being a Dutchman,
is said to have been bribed by his countrymen, who were them
selves desirous of occupying that territory, td carry them so far
to the north, that the first land they made was Cape Cod.
They soon perceived that they were not only beyond their own
limits, but beyond those of the company from which they deri
ved their title ; but it was now the month of November, and
too late in the season for men unacquainted with the country,
and afflicted with disease, again to put to sea in search of a new
habitation. After exploring the coast, they chose for their sta
tion a convenient position, to which they gave the name of
New Plymouth. On the 1 1th of November, before they landed,
a solemn covenant was signed by the heads of families, and free
men, in which, after reciting that they had undertaken to plant
a colony for the glory of God, and for the honor of their king
and country ; and professing their loyalty to their sovereign lord

60 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
King James ; they combined themselves into a body politic, for
the purpose of making equal laws for the general good.
Having thus by common consent formed a compact, the obli
gation of which all admitted, they proceeded to the choice of a
governor for one year, and to enable him the better to discharge <
the important trust confided to him, they gave him one assist
ant. In 1624, three others were added, and the number was
afterwards increased to seven. The supreme power resided in
the whole body of the male inhabitants, and during the infancy
of the colony was exercised by them. They assembled together,
occasionally, to determine on all subjects of a public concern,
nor was it until the year 1639, that they established a house of
representatives. They adopted, as a common rule of action, the
laws of England ; adding occasionally, municipal regulations, in
cases to which the laws they had adopted, either did not com
pletely apply, or did not, iu their opinion, furnish the most per
fect rule of conduct. Some of the changes in their penal code
strongly mark their character and circumstances. While on for
gery (which in large commercial societies is pursued with so
much rigor,) was inflicted only a moderate fine; fornication was
punished with whipping, and adultery with death.
The season of the year in which the colonists landed was ex
tremely unfavorable to the establishment of a new settlement.
The winter, which was much more severe than they expected,
had already set in, and they were but very badly supplied with
the means of obtaining comfort, or even.sj^sis^tice. , Before the
return of spring, about fifty of their siftiiM company perished
with maladies, increased by the hardships to Which they were
exposed, the scarcity of food, and the almost total privation of
those comforts to which they had been accustomed, and which
are so necessary to support the human frame struggling with dis
ease. The survivors, as the season moderated, had new difficul
ties to encounter. They were compelled, instead of attending
uninterruptedly to the means of .providing for their future wants^
to take up arms to defend themselves against the neighbouring
savages. Fortunately for the colonists, the natives had been so
wasted the preceding year by pestilence, that they were easily
subdued, and compelled to accept a peace, which was offered
them on equitable terms. Nothing could have supported the
English under these accumulated distresses, but the hope of bet-

DISCOVERY AND EARLY SETTLEMENTS. 61
ter times, and that high gratification which is derived from the
complete enjoyment of the rights of conscience, and the full
exercise of all the powers of self-government. They received
occasional, but scanty supplies from their friends in England,
and continued with a patient and persevering spirit to struggle
against the difficulties which surrounded them. They remained
in peace, and were alike exempt from the notice or oppressions
of government. Yet their soil being uninviting, and the perni
cious policy of a community of goods and of labor, so unfavor
able to population, being for some few years adhered to, they
increased more slowly than any other of the colonies, and in the
year 1630, amounted only to three hundred souls. Until this
period they possessed no other title to their lands, than is af
forded by occupancy. In that year they obtained a grant of
property from the New Plymouth company, but were never in
corporated as a body politic by royal charter. Having derived
no powers from the parliament or king, and being totally disre
garded by the Plymouth company, they appear to have remained
a mere voluntary association, yielding obedience to laws, and to
magistrates, formed and chosen by themselves. In this situation
they continued undisturbed and almost unknown, more tolerant
and more moderate than their neighbours, until their union with
a younger, and more powerful sister, who .with a frame more
hardy and robust, advanced with strides unusually rapid to a
state of maturity.
The original company of Plymouth, having done nothing ef
fectual towards settling the territory which had been granted to
them, and being interfered with by individuals in their trade and
fisheries, applied to James, for a new, and more enlarged patent.
After much solicitation, he, on the 3rd of November, 1620,
granted that territory, which lies between the 40th and 48th de
grees of north latitude to the Duke of Lenox, the Marquis of
Buckingham, and several others, in absolute property, and in
corporated theni under the name of " The Council established
at Plymouth, for planting and governing that country, called
New England ;" with jurisdiction and powers similar to those
which had before been conferred on the companies of South and
North Virginia, and especially that of excluding all other persons
whatever from trading within their boundaries, and fishing in the
neighbouring seas. This improvident grant, which excited the

62 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
indignation of the people of England, then deeply interested in
the fur trade and fisheries, soon engaged the attention and re
ceived the censure of parliament. The patentees were compel
led to relinquish their odious monopoly, and, being thus depri
ved of the funds on which they had relied to enable them to en
counter the expence of supporting new settlements, they aban
doned entirely the design of attempting them. New England
might have remained long unoccupied, had not the same causes
which occasioned the emigration of the Brownists, still continu
ed to operate. The persecutions to which the puritans were ex->
posed, increased their zeal and their numbers. Despairing of
obtaining at home a relaxation of those rigorous penal statutes
under which they had so long smarted, they began to look else
where for that toleration which was denied them in their native
land. Understanding that their brethren in New Plymouth were
permitted to worship their Creator according to the dictates of
conscience, their attention was directed towards the same coast,
and several small emigrations were made at different times to
Massachussetts-Bay, so termed from the name of the sachem
who was sovereign of the country ; and grants of land were
made to the emigrants, the conditions of which having probably
never been complied with, they were afterwards totally disregarded.
Mr. White, a nonconformist minister at Dorchester, who had
prevented some few of his countrymen settled around the Bay of
Massachussetts from returning to England, by his assurance of
procuring them relief and assistance, formed by great exertions
an association of several gentlemen who had imbided puritanical
opinions, for the purpose of conducting thither a colony, and
rendering it an asylum for the persecuted of his own persuasion.
In prosecution of these views a treaty was concluded with the
council of Plymouth, for the purchase of part of New England ;
and that corporation, in March, 1627, conveyed to Sir Henry
Rosewell and others, all that part of New England lying three
miles to the south of Charles-river, and three miles north of
Merrimack-river, and extending from the Atlantic to the South
Sea. A small number of planters and servants were soon after
wards dispatched under Endicot, a deep enthusiast, who, in
September, 1628, laid the foundation of Salem, the first per
manent town of Massachussetts.
The purchasers soon perceived their total inability to accom-

DISCOVERY AND EARLY SETTLEMENTS. 63
plish the settlement of the extensive regions they had acquired,
without the aid of more opulent partners. These were soon
found in the capital ; but they insisted that a new charter should
be obtained from the crown, in which their names should be in
serted, confirming the grant of the, council of Plymouth, aud
conferring on them the powers of government.
To these requisitions the proprietors without hesitation acce
ded, and Charles was applied to, for a patent conforming to
them, which issued on the 4th of March, 1628.
This charter incorporated the grantees by the name of " The
Governor and Company of Massachussetts-Bay in New Eng
land." The patent being obtained, the governor and council began
with ardor to give effect to the views of the grantees. A fresh
embarkation was determined on, to support the expences of
which, it was resolved, that every person subscribing fifty pounds
should be entitled to two hundred acres of land as the first divi
dend. Five vessels were procured, which sailed from the Isle of
Wight in May, 1629, carrying about two hundred persons, with
such articles as were proper for making a new settlement. In
June, they reached Salem, where they found Endicot, to whom
they brought the confirmation of his commission as governor.
The colony now consisted of three hundred persons, of whom
one hundred removed to Charles-town, and the remainder con
tinued at Salem.
Religion having stimulated them to emigrate from their native
land, constituted the first object of their care in the country they
had adopted. Being zealous puritans, they concurred in the in
stitution of a church, in which was established that form of po
licy, which was believed best to agree with the divine will as re
vealed in the scriptures, and which has since been denominated
independent. A confession of faith was drawn up, to which the
majority signified their assent; and an association was then
formed, in which they covenant with the Lord and with each
other, to walk together in all his ways as he should be pleased
to reveal himself to them. Pastors and other ecclesiastical offi
cers were chosen,, who were installed into their sacred offices, by
the imposition of the hands of the brethren.
A church being thus formed, several were received as mem
bers, who gave an account of their faith and hope as christians ;

64 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
and those only were admitted into the communion, whose mo
rals and religious tenets were approved by the elders. From the
form of public worship which was instituted, they discarded the
liturgy as well as all ceremonies deemed useless, and reduced it
to the standard of Calvinistic simplicity.
Pleased with the work of their hands, and believing them
selves to be perfect, they could not tolerate a different opinion
in- others. Just escaped from persecution, they demonstrated
that itwas not the principle, but its application which they con
demned, and became persecutors themselves. Some few of their
number, attached to the ritual of the church" of England, were
dissatisfied with its total abolition, and withdrawing from com
munion with the church, met apart, to worship God in the man
ner they deemed most proper. At the head of this small party
were two of the first patentees and of the council. These were
called before the governor, who being of opinion that their non
conformity and conversation tended to sedition, sent them to
England. Deprived of their leaders, the opposition ceased.
The ensuing winter brought with it the calamities which had
been uniformly sustained by the first emigrants into a wilderness,
where the cold was extreme, and the privations almost universal.
In the course of it, nearly half their number perished, " lament
ing that they did not live to see the rising and glories of the
faithful." The fortitude however of the survivors was not sha
ken, nor were their brethren in England deterred from joining
them. Religion supported the colonists under all their difficulr
ties ; and the then intolerant spirit of English hierarchy, at the
head of which was placed the rigid Laud, exacting a strict con
formity to its ceremonies, diminished, in the view of the puritans
in England, the, dangers and the sufferings to be encountered in
America, and disposed them to forego every other human enjoy
ment, for the consoling privilege of worshipping the Supreme
Being according to their own opinions. Many persons of for
tune had determined to seek, in the new world, that liberty of
conscience which was denied them in the old ; but foreseeing the
misrule inseparable from the residence of the legislative power in
England, they demanded, as a previous condition to their emi
gration, that the power of government should be transferred to
New England, and be exercised in the colony. The company
had already incurred expences for which they saw no prospect of

DISCOVERY AND EARLY SETTLEMENTS. 65
a speedy retribution, and although they doubted the legality of
the measure, were well disposed to obtain such impoitant aid by
embracing it. A general court was therefore convened, by whom
it was unanimously resolved "that the patent should be transfer
red, and the government of the corporation removed from Lonr
don to Massachussetts-Bay." It was also agreed that the mem
bers of the corporation remaining in England, should retain a
share in the trading stock and profits" for the term of seven
years. Having effected this important revolution in their system of
.government, such great exertions for emigration were made?
that early in the following year, fifteen hundred persons,
among whom were several of family 'and, fortune, embarked on
board seventeen vessels at an expenee of upwards of twenty
thousand pounds, and arrived at Salem in July. Dissatisfied
with this situation, they explored the country in quest of better
stations, and settling in many places around the bay, they laid
the foundations of several towns, and among others of Boston.
The difficulty of obtaining subsistence, the difference of
their food from that to which they had been accustomed, the
extreme cold of winter, against which they had not sufficient
means of protection, were still severely felt by the colonists,
and still continued to carry many of them to the grave; but
that enthusiasm, which had impelled them to emigrate, preser
ved all its force, and they met, with a firm unshaken spirit, the
calamities which assailed them. Our admiration of their forti
tude and of their principles sustains, however, no inconsiderable
diminution, from observing the severity with which they denied
to others, that civil and religious liberty which through so ma
ny dangers and hardships they sought, with such laudable zeal,
for themselves. At a meeting of their general court early in
the year 1631, it was decreed that none should be admitted as
freemen, or permitted to vote at elections, or be capable of be
ing chosen as magistrates, or of serving as jurymen, but such
as had been received in the church as members, Thus did men,
who had braved every hardship for freedom of conscience de
prive, without reluctance, of the choicest rights of humanity,
all those who dissented from the opinion of the majority on any
article of faith, or point of church discipline.
The; numerous complaints of the severities exercised by' the
3. \ ' I

66 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
government of Massachussetts, which were made by persons exr
pelled for nonconformity in matters of religion, and by many
dissatisfied by other means, added to the immense emigration
of persons noted for their enthusiasm, and for their hostility to
Che existing system in England, seems at length to have made
some impression on Charles ; and on the 21st of February 1633,
an order was made by the king in council to stop the ships at
that time ready to sail, freighted with passengers and provi
sions for New England. This order, however, seems never to
have been strictly executed, as the emigrations still continued
without any sensible diminution.
Hitherto the legislature had been composed of the whole body
of the freemen. Under this system, so favorable to the views
of the few who possess popular influence, the real power of the
state had been chiefly engrossed by the governor and assistants,
aided by the clergy. The emigrations, however, had already
been very considerable, and the settlements, in consequence of
the depopulation of the surrounding country by the small-pox,
which, sweeping off whole tribes, left a great extent of vacant
lands, had become so extensive, that it was found extremely
inconvenient, if not impracticable, longer to preserve a princir
pie which their charter enjoined. In the succeeding year, 1634,
therefore, as it were by common consent, the people elected
delegates, who met the governor and council, and constituted
the general court. This important and necessary improvement
in their system, rendered familiar and probably suggested by the
practice in the mother country of delegating legislative power
to representatives, although not authorised by their charter, re
mained unaltered so long as that charter was permitted to exist.
The colony of Msssachussetts, having being settled by men
whose political as well as religious opinions were strongly tinc
tured with the spirit of republicanism, had been conducted, from
its commencement, very much on the plan of an independent
society. It at length attracted the particular notice of the jea
lous administration in England, and in April a commission for
" the regulation and government of the plantations" was issued
to the great officers of state, and to some of the nobility, in
which was granted absolute power to the archbishop of Canter
bury, and to others,- " to make laws and constitutions concern
ing their state public, or the utility of individuals." The corn-

DISCOVERY AND EARLY SETTLEMENTS. 67
Kiissioners were authorised to support the clergy, by assigning
them 'Ctithes, oblations, and other profits, according to their
discretion ; to inflict punishment on those who should violate
their ordinances ; to remove governors of plantations, and to
appoint others ; and to constitute tribunals, and courts of jus
tice, ecclesiastical and civil, with such authority and form as
they should think proper ;" but their laws were not to take ef
fect until they had received the royal assent, and been proclaim
ed in the colonies. The commissioners were also constituted a
committee to hear complaints against a colony, its govemor,
or other officers, with power to remove the offender for punish
ment to England. They were further directed to cause the re
vocation of such letters patent, granted for the establishment of
colonies, as should, upon enquiry, be found to have been un
duly obtained, or to contain a grant of liberties hurtful to the
prerogative royal.
From their first settlement at Salem; the colony of Massachus
setts had cultivated the friendship of their neighbours of New
Plymouth. The bonds of mutual amity were now rendered
more strict, not only by some threatening appearances of a
hostile disposition among the natives, but from another circum
stance which excited, in both colonies, considerable alarm.
The voyages of discovery, and for settlements,, made by the
English and French to the coast of North America, had been
nearly cotemporaneous, and of consequence they set up conflic
ting claims to the territory. In 1603, Idlenry IV. of France
granted to De Mont a commission, as lieutenant-general over
that part of America which lies between the fortieth and forty-
sixth degrees of north latitude, with powers to colonise and to
rule it; and in 1606, king James granted to the two Virginia
"companies, all that territory whicMies between the thirty-fourth.
and forty-fifth degrees of north latitude; in consequence of
which Captain Argal, in 1614, attacked, and, for the moment,
dispersed the settlements made by the French on the Bay of
Fundy. In 1620, James granted .to the Plymouth company^
all that territory which lies between the fortieth and forty-.
eighth degrees of north latitude ; and in 1621, he, as king, of
Scotland, granted to Sir William Alexander, under the title of
Nova Scotia, with the consent of the Plymouth company, the,.
country bounded on the north, and east? and south, by then-,

68- HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
ver St. Lawrence and the ocean, and on the west by the river
St. Croix. Under these different grants, actual settlements had
been made by the French as far south and west as St. Croix,
and by the English as far north and east as Penobscot. During
the war with France, which broke out in the reign of Charles
I., that monarch granted a commission to Captain Kirk for the
conquest of the countries in America occupied by the French;
and under that commission Canada and Acadie were subdued;
but, by the treaty concluded at St. Germain's those places were
restored to France, generally, without describing their limits;
and Fort Royal, Quebec, and Cape Breton, were severally sur
rendered by name. In 1632, a party of French from Acadie,
whether with or without authority from government seems not to
have been ascertained, committed a robbery on a trading house
established in 1627 by the people of New Plymouth at Penob
scot; with the intelligence of this fact; information was also*
brought that Cardinal Richlieu had ordered some companies to
that station, and that more were expected the next year, with
priests, Jesuits, and other formidable accompaniments; for a
permanent settlement. It was immediately determined to com
plete a fort which had been commenced at Boston, and to build
some other for the defence of that part of the country where en
croachment from the French was most dreaded. Notwithstand
ing this robbery, the company still retained possession of the
fort, and continued to carry on their trade with the Indians un
til the year 1635, when they were dispossessed by a military
force detached by Rosillon, commander of a French fort at La
Have, in Acadie, who, at the same time, wrote to the governor
of the colony, stating that he had orders to displace all the Eng
lish as far as Pemaquid. The government of New PlymOutli1
was not disposed to submit quietly to this invasion of territory^
and hired, for an expedition undertaken for the recovery of tfte;
fort at Penobscot, an English ship of war, under the command
of Captain Girling, to which they joined an auxiliary force of a;
bark, and twenty men belonging to the colony. They stipulated
to pay him two hundred pounds on his dislodging the French*
from the place ; but, having notice of the armament coming
against them, they prepared for its reception by fortifying and
strengthening the fort ; in consequence of which Girling, after
expending his ammunition, and finding himself too weak to at-

DISCOVERY AND EARLY SETTLEMENTS. 69
tempt to carry the works by assault, sent the bark, accompanied
with two of the people of Plymouth, to solicit the aid of Mas
sachussetts. The court agreed to assist their neighbours with a
hundred men, aud to bear the expence of the expedition by pri
vate subscription among their own body ; but provisions were so
scarce, that a sufficient supply, even for this small corps, could
not be immediately obtained. In consequence of this circum
stance, the expedition was abandoned for the present ; Girling
returned, and the French retained possession of the station until
1654. The apprehensions entertained of these formidable neigh
bours contributed, in no small degree, to cement the union be
tween Massachussetts and Plymouth.
Two persons, who afterwards made a distinguished figure in
English annals, arrived in 1635, at Boston. One was Hugh Pe
ters, the coadjutor, and chaplain of Oliver Cromwell ; the other
Mr. Henry Vane, the son of Sir Henry Vane, who was at that
time a privy counsellor of great credit with the king. So forci
ble was the influence of the political, and perhaps religious opi
nions theii maintained by the puritans on the mind of this young
gentleman, that he appeared ready to sacrifice, for their gratifi
cation, all the enjoyments which awaited him, and all his high
expectations in his native land. His mortified exterior, his grave
and solemn deportment, although not more than twenty-five
years of age, his reputation for piety and wisdom, his strong
professions of attachment to liberty, and to the public interest,
added to his attention to some of the leading members in the
church, won rapidly the affections of the people, and the year
after his arrival he was, with general approbation, chosen their
governor. His administration commenced with more external
pomp than had been usual, or would seem to be congenial
with the plain and' simple manners of the people he governed.
When going to court, or church, he was always preceded by two
sergeants; who walked with their halberts ; yet his popularity
sustained no diminution, until the part he took in the religious
controversies of the country detached from him many of its most
judicious and influential inhabitants.
Independent of the meetings for public worship on every SunJ
day; of the stated lecture in Boston, on every Thursday; and
of occasional lectures in other towns ; there were frequent pri
vate meetings of tHe brethren of the churches for religious exer-

70 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
clses. Mrs. Hutchinson, a woman of deep enthusiasm,, and of
considerable eloquence, who had been much flattered by the at^
tentions of the governor, and of Mr. Cotton, one of the most
influential of the clergy, and whose husband was among the
most respected men in the country, dissatisfied with the exclu
sion of her sex from the private meetings of the brethren, insti
tuted a meeting of the sisters also, in which she repeated the
sermons of the preceding Sunday, accompanied with such re->
marks and expositions as she deemed pertinent. These meetings
vvere attended by a large number of the most respectable of her
sex ; her lectures were much spoken of, and, for a time, very
generally approved. At length she drew a marked distinction
between the ministers and members of churches through the'
country. A small number she designated as being under a cove-1
nant of grace ; the others as being under a covenant of works.
Contending for the necessity of the former, she maintained that
sanctity of life is no evidence of justification, or of favor with
God ; and that the Holy Ghost dwells personally in such as are
justified. The whole colony was divided into two parties, equal
ly positive on these abstruse points, whose resentments against
each other threatened the most serious calamities. Mr. Vane
espoused, with zeal, the wildest doctrines of Mrs. Hutchinson,
and Mr. Cotton decidedly favored them. The lieutenant-gover
nor, Mr. Winthrop, and the majority of the churches, were of
the opposite party. Many conferences were held; days of fast
ing and humiliation were appointed ; a general synod was call
ed ; and, after the most violent dissensions, Mrs. Hutchinson's
opinions were condemned as erroneous, and she herself banished.
Many of her disciples followed her. Vane, in disgust, quitted
America. Charles had long resolved to take the government of New
England entirely into his own hands. In pursuance of this de
termination, he had, in 1635, issued the commission already
mentioned, for the regulation and government of the planta
tions. In 1637, he issued a proclamation, directing that none
should be transported thither who had not the special licence of
the government, and that this should be granted only to those
who had taken the oaths of supremacy and allegiance, and had
conformed to the discipline of the church of England, This or
der, however, from its real difficulty, could not be completely

DISCOVERY AND EARLY SETTLEMENTS. 71
executed ; and the emigrations, which were entirely of noncon
formists, still continued. So high in estimation, among those
who were disgusted with the ceremonials so rigidly exacted in
England, was the simple frame of church policy established in
Massachussetts, that crowds surmounted every difficulty, to seek
an asylum in this New Jerusalem. Among them were found
persons of the first political influence and mental attainments of
their country. Pym, Hampden, Hazlerig, and Cromwell, with
many others who, afterwards, performed a conspicuous part in
.that.revolution, which brought the head of Charles to the block,
are said to have been actually on board a vessel prepared to sail
for New England, and to have been stopped by the special or
ders of the privy council.
The commission for the regulation and government of the
plantations conceiving the administration of the colony to have
been in violation of its charter, a writ of quo u)arranto was is
sued, and judgment was given, that the liberties of Massachus
setts shall be seized into the hands which conferred them, be
cause they had been improperly exercised. This judgment was
probably not final, and none of the corporation in New England
were served with the process. The privy council, however, or
dered the governor and company to send their patent to Eng
land to be delivered up. This order the general court answered
in September, 1638, by a petition to the commissioners, in
which they say, " We dare not question your lordships' proceed
ings in requiring our patent to be sent unto you ; we only desire
to open our griefs, and if in any thing we have offended his ma
jesty or your lordships, we humbly prostrate ourselves at the
footstool of supreme authority ; we are sincerely ready to yield
all due obedience to both ; we are not conscious that we have of
fended in any thing, as our government is according to law : we
pray that we- may be heard before condemnation, and that we
may be suffered to live in the wilderness." Fortunately for the
colonists, the attention of Charles and of his commissioners be
gan now to be too much occupied with affairs at home, to ena
ble them to carry into complete execution, a system aimed at
the subversion of every thing dear to the American heart.
To the religious dissensions which distracted Massachussetts,
and to the rigor with which conformity was exacted, is, in a
great measure to be attributed the first settlement of the other

72 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
colonies of New England. So early as the year 1634, Roger
Williams, a very popular preacher at Salem, who had refused to
hold communion with the church of Boston, because its mem
bers* refused to make a public declaration of their repentance for
having held communion with the church of England during
their residence in that country, was charged with many excep
tionable tenets. Among several which were condemned, and
which mark his wild enthusiasm, we are surprised to find one
in total opposition, not only to the spirit of the times, but
to the severity of his other doctrines. He maintained, that to
punish a man for any matter of conscience is persecution ; and
that even papists and arminians are entitled to freedom of con
science in worship, provided only the peace of civil society be
secured. The divines of Massachussetts opposed this doctrine,
by contending that they did not persecute men for conscience,
but corrected them for sinning against conscience ; and so they
did not persecute, but punish heretics. This unintelligible so
phism having no effect upon Williams, he was for this, and
for his other heresies, banished by the magistrates from their
jurisdiction, as a disturber of the peace of the church and com
monwealth. Many of his disciples followed him into exile, and travelling
south until they passed the line of Massachussetts, they purcha
sed a tract of land of the Mariaghansetts, then a powerful tribe
of Indians, where, in 1635, they made a settlement, to which
they gave the name of Providence. Having fixed the place of
their future residence, they entered into a voluntary association,
and framed a government composed of the whole body of free
men, for the preservation of peace, and the making of such laws
as their situation might require. They created a church after
the manner of Massachussetts, by collecting a religious society;
but as one of the causes of their migration had been the tenet,
that all were entitled to freedom of conscience in worship, the
most entire toleration in matters of religion was established.
These new settlers cultivated with assiduity the good will of
the aborigines, and, at Providence, Williams long retained his
authority, employing himself continually in acts of kindness,
affording relief to the distressed, and an asylum to the perse
cuted. It was not long after the banishment of Williams, that thft

DISCOVERY AND EARLY SETTLEMENTS. 73
controversy between those who maintained " the covenant of
works," and those who maintained ' ' the covenant of grace,"
divided and distracted Massachussetts. This controversy hav
ing been decided in 1637 against the antinomians, ot those
who supported the covenant of grace, and Mrs. Hutchinson,
the leader of that sect, being banished; she, with many of her
disciples, followed the steps of Williams, and, arriving in his
neighbourhood, purchased a tract of land from the same tribe,
where they founded Rhode Island. Imitating the conduct of
their neighbours, they founded a similar association for the es
tablishment of civil government, and adopting the same princi
ples of toleration, they afforded protection to all who resorted
thither. In consequence of this conduct, the island soon became
so populous as to send out colonists to the adjacent shores.
Connecticut 'too is a colony of Massachussetts. So early as
the year 1634, several persons, among whom was Mr. Hooker,
one of the favorite ministers of the church, who was only infe
rior in influence to Mr. Cotton, applied to the general court of
Massachussetts, for permission to go in quest of new adventures
in a better land. That body was divided, 'and permission was
not at that time obtained. It being then the received opinion,
that the inhabitants were all mutually bound to each other by
the oath of a freeman, as well as the original compact, so as not
to be at liberty to separate without the consent of the whole,
this emigration was for the present suspended. The general
court, however, did not long withhold its assent. The coun
try having been explored, and a place chosen on the west side
of fthe great river Connecticut, a commission was granted to
the petitioners, to remove wherever they chose; but on the con
dition of their still continuing under the jurisdiction of Massa
chussetts. Some few huts had been erected the preceding year,
in which a small number of emigrants had wintered, and the
fall succeeding the permit to settle the country, about sixty per
sons traversed the wilderness in families, and encountered im
mense distress. In 1636, about one hundred persons, led by
Pynchon, Hooker, and Haynes, followed the first emigrants, and
founded the towns of Hartford, Springfield, and Wetherfield.
There were some difficulties attending the title of the settlers,
The Dutch, at Manhadoes, or New York, claimed a right to
the river, which they asserted themselves to have first discover-
4. K

74 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
ed, and to which they had given the name of Fresh River. In
addition to this hostile title, Lord Say and Seal, and Lord
Brooke, with some others, contemplating, at one time, a retreat
in the new world from the despotism with which England was
threatened, had made choice of Connecticut-river for that pur
pose ; and had built a fort at its mouth, which they had named
Saybrooke.* The emigrants from Massachussetts, however,
kept possession ; and proceeded to clear and cultivate the coun
try. They purchased the rights of Lord Say and Seal, and
Lord Brooke, and their partners ; and the Dutch being too fee
ble to go to war, gradually receded from Connecticut-river.
Disclaiming the authority of Massachussetts, the emigrants en
tered into a voluntary association for the establishment of a go
vernment for themselves, which, in its frame, was like those
adopted in the first instance throughout New England. The
most material point of variance between their constitution and
that of Massachussetts was, that they did not deprive of the
right of freemen those who were not members of the church.f
These new establishments gave great and just alarm to the
Piquods, a very powerful tribe of Indians, situated' on the
south of the Massachussetts. They clearly foresaw their own
ruin in this extension of the English settlements ; aud the dis
position excited by this apprehension soon displayed itself in pri
vate murders, and various other acts of hostility. With a poli
cy suggested by a strong sense of danger, they sought a reconci
liation with the Narraghansetts, their ancient enemies and rivals
in power. They requested these people to forget their long che
rished animosities, and to co-operate cordially with them against
a common enemy, whose continuing encroachments threatened
* Mr. Trumbull states this fort to have been ereeted by Mr. Winthrop,
-n ho was dispatched for the purpose by Lord Say and Seal, Lord Brooke,
and others, the grantees from the Plymouth Company, .and who fortunately
took possession of the mouth of Connecticut-river just in time to prevent its
being seized by the Dutch, who had detached a vessel from Manhadoes for
that purpose.
+ All the powers of government, for nearly three years, seem to have been
in the- magistrates, of whom two were appointed in each town. These gave
all ordeis, and directed all the affairs of the plantation. The freemen ap
pear to have had no voice in making the laws, or in any part of the govern
ment, except in some instances of general and uncommon concern. In these
instances, committees were sent from the several towns. During this term,
it seems that juries were not employed in any case. ¦

DISCOVERY AND EARLY SETTLEMENTS. 75
to overwhelm both with one common destruction. They mark
ed to them the rapid progress of the English settlements, and
urged, with great reason, that although a present friendship sub
sisted between them and the new comers, yet all in their turn
must be dispossessed of their country, and they could hope, from
that friendship, no other good than the wretched privilege of be
ing last devoured.
These judicious representations of the Piquods could not ef
face from the bosom of the Narraghansetts that deep rooted en
mity which neighbours not accustomed to consider themselves as
possessing one common interest, and not bound together by li
gaments of sufficient strength to prevent reciprocal acts of hos
tility, so often feel for each other. Dreading still less the power
of a foreign nation than that of men with whom they had been
in the habit of contending, they not only refused to join the Pi
quods, but communicated their proposition to the government
of Massachussetts, with which they formed an alliance against
that tribe. Open war being now resolved on by both parties,
Captain Underhill was sent to the relief of Fort Saybrooke,
which had been besieged by the enemy ; and the three colonies,
Massachussetts, Plymouth, and Connecticut, agreed to march
with united forces the next year into the country of the Piquods,
in order to effect their utter destruction. Connecticut being
most exposed to the enemy, the troops of that colony were first
in motion. Those of Massachussetts were detained by the con
troversy concerning the covenant of works and of grace, which
: id insinuated itself into all the transactions of that colony.
Their little army, when collected, in 1637, found itself divided
by this metaphysical point, and the stronger party believing that
the blessing of God. could not be expected to crown with success
the arms of such unhallowed men, as they deemed their op
ponents in faith on this question, refused to march until their
small band was purified, by introducing, in place of the unclean,
others whose tenets were unexceptionable.
In themean time the troops of Connecticut being joined by
a body of friendly Indians, and reinforced by a small detachment
from Saybrooke, determined to march against the enemy. The
Piquods had taken two positions, which they had surrounded
with pallisadoes, and resolved to defend. In one of theirf was
Sassacus himself, their chief sachem, and the other was on a

76 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA^
rising ground, surrounded by the head of Mystic-river. Against
the fort commanded by Sassicus the first attack was intended to
be made ; but some of the troops becoming lame, and all very
much fatigued with the march, the original plan was changed,
and it was determined to attack Fort Mystic, which was eight
miles nearer than that commanded by Sassacus. By an Indian
they obtained the information that the enemy, deceived by the
movement of their vessels from- Saybrooke to Narraghansetts,
believed the expedition to have been abandoned, and were cele
brating in perfect security, on a large quantity of bass they had
taken, the supposed evacuation of their country. About day
break, while in deep and secure sleep, they were approached by
the English, and the surprise would have been complete, had.
they not been alarmed by the barking of a dog. The war-whoop
was immediately raised, and they flew, undismayed, to such
arms as they possessed. The English rushed on to the attack ;
and while some of them fired on the Indians through the palisa-
does, others forced their way through the works, and set fire to-
their wigwams, which were covered with reeds.- The confusion.
soon became universal, and almost the whole party were either.
killed or taken.
Soon after this action, the troops from Massachussetts arrived,
and it was resolved to pursue their victory. Several skirmishes.
took place, which terminated unfavorably for the Piquods ; and
in a short time, another total defeat was given them, which
put an end to the war. A few only of this once powerful- nation
survived, who, abandoning their country to the English, disper
sed themselves among the neighbouring tribes, and were incor
porated with them.
This first essay in arms of the New England colonists was
conducted with vigor and ability, and impressed on the aborigi
nes a high opinion of their courage and military superiority;
but their victory was sullied with cruelties, which cannot be
recollected without mingled regret and censure.
Immediately after the terminatien of this war,, New Haven-
was settled.
A- small emigration, conducted from England by Eaton and Da
venport, arrived at Boston in June. Unwilling to remain under
a government where power and influence were already in the
hands of others, they refused to continue within the jurisdiction;

DISCOVERY AND EARLY SETTLEMENTS. 77
of Massachussetts ; and notwithstanding the opposition and
threats at Manhadoes, settled themselves at a place on, Connec
ticut -river, which they named New Haven. Their institutions,
civil and ecclesiastical, were in the same spirit with those of
their elder sister Massachussetts.
The colony was now in a very flourishing condition. It is com
puted that from its first settlement there had arrived at Massa-
chussets twenty-one thousand two hundred persons. Although
its inhabitants, who had emigrated in search of civil and reli
gious liberty, devoted a great part of their attention to those
abstruse points of theology which so much employed the casu
ists of that day, yet they were by no means unmindful of those
solid acquisitions which were so necessary for their comfort
while they sojourned in this sublunary world. Sober,, industri
ous, and economical, they labored indefatigably in opening
and improving the country they occupied, and were unremitting
in their effort? to furnish themselves with those supplies which
are to be drawn from the bosom of the earth. Of these they
soon raised a surplus,- for which fresh emigrants offered a ready
and a profitable market ; and their foreign trade in lumber, a
business at first accessary to the clearing of their lands, furnish
ed them, in addition to their fish and fur,, with the means of
making remittances to England for those manufactures which
they found it advantageous to import from that country. Their
fisheries had become so important as to attract the attention of
government. For their encouragement, a law was this year
passed, exempting property employed in catching, curing, or
transporting fish, from all duties and taxes ; and the fishermen
and shipbuilders from militia duty. By the same law, too, all
persons were restrained from using cod or bass fish for ma
nure. In reviewing the means by which most of the early settle
ments in the New World have been made, it is impossible not
to feel indignation, at the injustice and abhorrence, at the cruel
ties which were so generally exercised towards the original occu
piers of this new discovered country; atrocities which have
entailed a disgrace on Europe, and a reproach on the name of
christians, which the revolutions of centuries have not been suf-
cient to efface : but in the settlement of Pennsylvania to which
the attention of the reader is now to be directed ; very different,

78 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
and far more grateful feelings will be called into exercise, and
he will trace with unmingled satisfaction the steps by which this
most important province was settled and colonized : steps unpol
luted by injustice, and unstained with blood.
William Penn the celebrated Quaker had advanced large sums
Of money from time to time for the good of the naval service, and
his pay had been also in arrears. For these two claims, including
the interest upon the money due, government were in debt to
him no less a sum than sixteen thousand pounds. William Penn
was desirous therefore of closing the account. He was however
not anxious for the money. He wished, on the other hand,
to take land in America in lieu of it, and therefore petitioned
Charles the Second, that letters patent might be granted
him for the same. The tract he solicited was to lie north of
Maryland. It was to be bounded on the east by the Delaware-
river. It was to be limited on the west as Maryland was, and
it was to extend northward as far as it was plantable.
The king having read it, sent it to the Privy Council ; and
the Privy Council, after considering its contents, returned it to
the Lords Committee of Trade and Plantations. Great oppo
sition was made to it in both places, and for no other reason
than because William Penn was a Quaker. Several meetings
took place, in which the objections of the Duke of York (by
his agent Sir John Werden) as proprietor of a large tract of
land in the neighbourhood of that which was the object of the
Petition, and those of Lord Baltimore as proprietor of Mary
land, were fully heard and debated. The advice too of the
Chief Justice North and the Attorney-General Sir William
Jones was taken on the subject of the grant. The matter at
length ended in favor of William Penn ; and he was by charter,
dated at Westminster the fourth of March 1681, and signed by
writ of the Privy Seal, made and constituted full and absolute
proprietor of all that tract of land which he had solicited and
marked out; and invested with the power of ruling and govern
ing the same.
This charter consisted of twenty-three sections. In these the
extent and boundaries of the new province were specified, and
the free use of all ports, bays, rivers, and waters there, and of
their produce, and of all islands, mountains, soils, and mines
there, and of their produce, were wholly granted and given up

DISCOVERY AND EARLY SETTLEMENTS. 79
to him. He was made absolute proprietary of the said terri
tory, which was to be held in free and common soccage by fealr
ty, paying two beaver skins annually and one-fifth of all the
gold and silver discovered to the king, and the said territory was
to be called Pennsylvania after his own name. He had the power
of making laws with the advice, assent, and approbation of
the freemen of the territory assembled for the raising of monev
for public uses ; of appointing judges and other officers; and
of pardoning and reprieving, except in the cases of wilful mur
der and high treason. In these cases reprieve was to be granted '
only till'the pleasure of the king was known, who also reserved
to himself the right of hearing appeals. He had the power
also in new and sudden circumstances, where the free men could
not be suddenly and conveniently assembled, of making ordi
nances, which, however, were to be agreeable to reason and
not repugnant to the laws of England, or to be extended in any
sort to bind, change or take away the right or interest of per
sons for, or in, their lives, members, freeholds, goods, and
chattels ; and all property as well as felonies were to be regula
ted by the laws of England, until the said laws should be alter
ed by himself, or assigns, and the freemen of the said province.
Duplicates of all laws made there were to be transmitted to the
Privy Council within five years after they were passed ; and if
within six months after having been so transmitted such laws
were not pronounced void by the said Council, they were to be
considered as having been approved of and to be valid. Per
mission was given to English subjects to transport themselves
' to, and to settle in, Pennsylvania ; to load and freight in En
glish ports and transport all merchandise from thence to the said
province, and to transport the fruits and produce of the said
province to England on paying the aecustomary duties. He
had the power of dividing the province into towns, hundreds,
and counties; of erecting and incorporating towns into boroughs,
and boroughs into cities ; of erecting manors, holding courts
baron, and of having and holding view of frankpledge ; of sell
ing or alienating any part or parts of the said province, in
which case the purchasers were to hold by his grant ; of consti
tuting fairs and markets ; and of making ports, harbours, and
quays, at which ports, harbours, and quays, and at which only,
vessels were to be laden and unladen. All officers, however,

80 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
appointed by the farmers or commissioners of the king's customs
were to have free admission thereto. He had the power of as
sessing, with the advice of the' freemen assembled, custom on
goods to be laden and unladen, and of enjoying the same, saving
however to the king such impositions as were and should be
appointed by act of parliament. He was to appoint from time
to time an agent to reside in or near London, to answer for any
misdemeanor on his part against the laws of trade and naviga
tion ; and, in case of such misdemeanor, he was to make good
the damage occasioned thereby within one year ; in failure of
which, the king was to seize the government of the said pro
vince and to retain it until the said damage was made good.
He was not to maintain correspondence with any king or pow
er at war with England, nor to make war against any king
or power in amity with the same. In case of incursion by
neighbouring barbarous nations, or by pirates or robbers, he
had power to levy, muster, and train to arms all men in the
said province, and to act as their Captain- General, and to
make war upon and pursue the same. The king was never to
impose any tax or custom upon the inhabitants of it, either
upon their lands, tenements, goods, or chattels, or upon any
merchandise to be laden or unladen within it, unless by the
consent of himself, or the chief governor appointed by him, or
by the assembly, or by act of parliament in England. This
declaration was to be deemed by all the judges in all the courts
of law to be a lawful discharge or payment, and acquittance ;
and no officer was to attempt any thing contrary to the premi
ses, but to aid him, his heirs, servants, agents and others in
the full use and enjoyment of the charter. If any of the inha
bitants to the number of twenty should signify their desire to
the bishop of London to have a preacher sent to them, such
preacher should be allowed to reside and perform his functions
without any denial or molestation whatever. If any doubt
should arise concerning the meaning of any expression in the
charter, the interpretation of it was to be construed in a man
ner the most favorable to him and his heirs.
It may be proper to give here an anecdote of William Penn,
as it relates to the'above charter. On the day that it was sign
ed he wrote to several of his friends to inform them of it, and
among others to R. Turner, one of the persons mentioned to

DISCOVERY AND EARLY SETTLEMENTS. 81
have been admitted as a partner in the purchase of East New
Jersey. He says in this letter, that after many waitings, watch-
ings, solicitings, and disputes in council, his country was on
that day confirmed to him under the Great Seal of England,
with large powers and privileges, by the name of Pennsylvania,
a name which the king gaVe it in honor of his father. It was
his own intention to have had it called New Wales ; but the
under secretary who was a Welchman, opposed it. He then
suggested Sylvania on account of its woods, but they would still
add Penn to it. He offered the under secretary twenty guineas
to give up his prejudices, and to consent to change the name ;
for he feared lest it should be looked upon as vanity in him, and
not as a respect in the king, as it truly was, to his father,
whom he often mentioned with great praise. Finding that all
would not do, he went to the king himself to get the name
of Penn struck out, or another substituted ; but the king said
it was passed, and that he would take the naming of it upon
himself. The charter having been signed, the king gave it his further
authority by a declaration, dated April the second, to all per
sons designing to become planters and inhabitants of Pennsylva
nia. This declaration pointed out to them the boundaries of the
new province, and enjoined them to yield all obedience to the
proprietor, his heirs, and his or their deputies, according to the
powers granted by the said charter.
The first thing William Penn did, after obtaining the charter,
was to draw up " some account of the province of Pennsylvania
in America, lately granted under the Great Seal of England to
William Penn." To this account he annexed a copy of the roy
al charter, and also the terms on which he intended to part with
the land. It appears from these terms, that any person wishing
to become a planter might then buy a hundred acres of land for
forty shillings, but a quit-rent of one shilling was to be reser
ved to the proprietor for every hundred acres for ever. Thus,
if a person had bought one thousand acres, he would have
had twenty pounds to pay for them, and ten shillings per annum
quit-rent. The reason of the latter sort of payment was this,
namely, that whereas William Penn held of the king by a
small annual rent, others - were obliged to hold of him in the
same manner, having no security or good title to their purchases
4. L

82 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
but by such a mode of tenure. It appears also, that renters
were to pay one shilling an acre yearly not exceeding two
hundred acres, and servants were to have fifty acres when the
time of their servitude expired, whether men or women, that
quantity of land being allowed their masters for such purpose.
He drew up next " certain conditions or concessions to be
agreed upon by William Penn, proprietary and governor of the
province of Pennsylvania, and those who may become adventu
rers and purchasers in the same province." These conditions
related to the building, forming, and settling of towns, roads,
and lands, and to the treatment of the natives, and other sub
jects. They consisted of twenty articles. Among other things
it was stipulated in these, that no purchaser of ten thousand
acres or move should have above a thousand acres lying together,
unless in three years he planted a family upon every thousand of
the same. — That every man should be bound to plant or man so
much as should be surveyed and set out to him within three
years after such survey, or else a new comer should be settled
thereon, who should pay him his survey-money, and he himself
should go up higher for his share. — That in clearing the ground
care should be taken to leave one acre of trees for every five
acres cleared, especially to preserve oaks and mulberries for «ilk
and shipping. — In behalf of the Indians it was stipulated, that,
as it had been usual with planters to overreach them in various
ways, whatever was sold to them -in consideration of their furs
should be sold in the public market-place, and there suffer the
test, whether good ©r bad: if good, to pass ; if not good, not
to be sold for good ; that the said native Indians might neither
be abused nor provoked. — That no man should by any ways or
means, in- word or deed, affront or wrong any Indian, but he
should incur the same penalty of the law as if he had commit
ted it against his fellow planter; and if any Indian should
abuse, in word or deed, any planter of the province, that the
said planter should uot be his own judge upon the said Indian,
but that .he should make his complaint to the governor of the
province, or his deputy, or some inferior magistrate near him,
who should to the utmost of his power take care with the king of
the said Indian, that all reasonable satisfaction should be made
to the said injured planter. — And that all differences between
planters and Indians should be ended by twelve men, that is, by

Discovery and early settlements. 83
six planters and six Indians, that so they might live friendly to
gether, as much as in them lay, preventing all occasions of
heart-burnings and mischief.— ^These stipulations in favor of the
poor natives will for ever immortalize the name of William Penn ;
for, soaring above the prejudices' and customs of his time, by
which navigators and adventurers thought it right to consider
the inhabitants of the lands they discovered as their lawful
prey, or as mere animals of the brute creation, whom they
might treat, use^ and take advantage of, at their pleasure, he
regarded them as creatures endued with reason, as men of the
like feelings and passions with himself, as brethren by nature,
and as persons, therefore, to whom the great duties of huma
nity and justice were to be extended, afid who, in proportion
to their ignorance, were the more entitled to protection and
care. These conditions having been made known to the public,
many purchasers came forward both in London and Liverpool,
and particularly in Bristol. Among those in the latter city
J. Claypqle, N, More, P. Forde, W. Sharloe, E. Pierce, J.
Simcock, T. Bracy, E. Brooks and others formed a company,
which they called "The Free Society of Traders in Pennsylva
nia," ~They purchased twenty thousand acres of land in trust
for the said company, published articles of trade, and prepared
for embarking in many branches of the same. Other persons
purchased also, and among these a great number of Quakers
from Wales.
It- was necessary, before any of the purchasers embarked,
that they should know something of the political constitution
under which they were to live in the New Land, as well as that.
it should be such as they approved. William Penn accordingly
drew up a rough sketch, to be submitted to their opinion, of^
that great frame of government which he himself wished to be
come the future and permanent one of the province. It consist
ed of twenty-four articles. These were preceded by what he
called his first or great fundamental, by which he gave them
that liberty of conscience which the laws of their own country
denied them, and in behalf of which he had both written and
suffered so frequently himself. " In reverence," says he, " to
God, the father of light and spirits, the author as well as object
of all divine knowledge, faith and worship, I do, for me and

84 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
mine, declare and establish for the first fundamental of the go
vernment of my province, that every person that doth and shall
reside therein shall have and enjoy the free profession of his
or her faith and exercise of worship towards God, in such way
and manner as every such person shall in conscience believe is
most acceptable to God. And so long as every person Useth not
this christian liberty to licentiousness or the destruction of others,
that is to say, to speak loosely and profanely, or contemptuously
of God, Christ, the Holy Scriptures, or Religion, or commit any
moral evil or injury against others in their conversation, he or
she shall be protected in the enjoyment of the aforesaid christian
liberty by the civil magistrate."
The conditions and frame of government having been mutual
ly signed, three ships full of passengers set sail for Pennsylvania ;
two from London, and one from Bristol. It appeared that the
John and Sarah from London, Henry Smith, master, arrived
first; and the Bristol Factor, Roger Drew, master, the next.-
The last vessel arrived at the place where Chester now stands.
Here the passengers, seeing some houses, went on shore ; and
here, the river being frozen up that night, they remained all the
winter. The other London ship, the Amity, Richard Dimon,
master, was blown off with her passengers to the West Indies,
and did not arrive at the province till the spring of the next
year. In one of these ships went Colonel William Markham. He
was a relation of William Penn, and was to be his secretary
when he himself should arrive. He was attended by several
commissioners, whose object was to confer with the Indians re
specting their lands, and to endeavour to make with them a
league of eternal peace. With this view they were enjoined in
a solemn manner to treat them with all possible candour, jus
tice, and humanity. They were the bearers also of a letter to
them, which William Penn wrote with his own hand, and of
which the following is a copy :
" There is a great God, and Power, which hath made the
world and all things therein, to whom you, and I, and all people
owe their being and well-being, and to whom you and I must
one day give an account for all that we have done in the world.
" This great God has written the law in our hearts, by which
we are taught and commanded to love, and to help, and to do

Discovery and early settlements. 85 i
good to one another. Now this great God hath been pleased to
make me concerned in your part of the world ; and the king of
the country where I live hath given me a great province therein :
but I desire to enjoy it with your love and consent, that we may
always live together as neighbours and friends ; else what would
the great God do to us, who hath made us (not to devour and de
stroy one another, but) to live soberly and kindly together in the
world ? Now, I would have you well observe, that I am very
sensible of the unkindness and injustice which have been too
much exercised 'towards you by the people of these parts of the
world, who have sought themselves to make great advantages
by you, rather than to be examples of goodness and patience
unto you. This I hear hath been a matter of trouble to you,
and. caused great grudging and animosities, sometimes to the
shedding of blood ; which hath made the great God angfy.
But 1 am not such a man, as is well known in my own country.
1 have great love and regard toward you, and desire to win and
gain your love and friendship by a kind, just, and peaceable
life ; and the people I send are of the same mind, and shall in
all things behave themselves accordingly; and if in any thing
any shall offend you or your people, you shall have a full and
speedy satisfaction for the same, by an equal number of just
men on both sides, that by no means you may have just occa
sion of being offended against them.
" I shall shortly come to see you myself, at which time we
may more -largely and freely confer and discourse of these mat
ters. In the mean time I have sent my commissioners to treat
with you about land and a firm league of peace. Let me desire
you to be kind to them and to the people, and receive the pre
sents and tokens, which I have' sent you, as a testimony of my
good will to you, and of my resolution to live justly, peaceably,
and friendly with you. " I am your loving friend,
WILLIAM PENN."
v By the constitution framed by William Penn, the government
was placed in the governor and freemen of the province, out of
whom were to be formed two bodies; namely, a Provincial
Council, and a General Assembly.
William Penn, having published the constitution as now con
cisely explained, thought it of great importance, in order to pre-

%& HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
vent all future claim, or even pretence of claim hy the Duke of
York or his heirs upon the province, to obtain from His Royal
Highness a deed of release for the same, which was accordingly
made out.
This deed was signed by His Royal Highness on the 21st of
August, 1682, and was sealed and delivered in the presence of
John Werden and George Man.
Besides the above, he obtained of His Royal Highness the
Duke of York his right, title, and interest in another tract of
land, of respectable extent, which lay contiguous to Pennsylva
nia. This was at that time inhabited by Dutch and Swedes.
The Dutch had long before made war upon and conquered the
Swedes ; and the English had afterwards conquered both, and
had annexed the country they occupied to that which belonged
to His Royal Highness, and placed it under his government of
New York. This tract then, which was known afterwards by the
name of The Territories, was presented to William Penn. It
was made over to him, his heirs and assigns, by two deeds of
feoffment, dated the 24th of August, 16S2, in which theboun-
daries were duly specified, aud particularly those between the-
said Territories and Maryland.
"Vyilliam Penn sailed soon after to his new government. One
of his first movements was to Upland, in order to call the first
General Assembly. This was a memorable event, and to be dis
tinguished by some marked circumstance. He determined there
fore to change the name of the place. Turning round to his-
friend Pearson, one of his own Society, who had accompanied
him in the ship Welcome, he said, " Providence has brought us
here safe. Thou hast been the companion of my perils. What
wilt thou that 1 should call this place ?" Pearson said, " Ches
ter, in remembrance of the city from whence he came." Willi
am Penn replied, that it should be called Chester; and that,
when he divided the land into counties, he would call one of
them by the same name also.
At length the Assembly met. It consisted of an equal number
for the Province and for the Territories of all such Freemen as
chose to attend, according to the sixteenth article of the Frame
of Government. It chose for its Speaker, Nicholas Moore, Pre
sident of the "Free Society of Traders of Pennsylvania," be-

DISCOVERY AND EARLY SETTLEMENTS. 8?
fore spoken of, and then proceeded to business, which occupied
three days.
Among, the Laws the following are worthy of notice. All
persons who confessed the one almighty and eternal God to be
the Creator, Upholder, and Ruler of the World, and who held
themselves obliged in conscience to live peaceably and justly in
society, were in no ways to be molested for their religious per
suasion and practice, nor to be compelled at any time to fre
quent any religious place or ministry whatever. All Treasurers,
however, Judges, Sheriffs, Justices of the Peace ; and all what
soever in the service of the government, and all members elect
ed to serve in Provincial Council and- General Assembly, and all
electors, were to be such as professed faith in Jesus Christ, and
as had not been convicted of ill fame, or unsober and dishonest
conversation, and who were one-and-twenty years of age. All
children of the age of twelve were to be taught some useful trade
or skill, to the end that none might be idle in the province ; ' but
that the poor might work to live, and the rich, if they became
poor, might not want. Servants were not to be kept longer
than the time of servitude agreed upon, and were to be put in fit
equipage at the expiration of it. All pleadings, processes, and
records in Courts of Law were to be as short as possible. All
fees of Law were to be moderate, and to be hung up on tables
in the Courts. All persons wrongfully imprisoned or prosecuted
were to have double damages against the informer or prosecutor.
All fines were to be moderate. With respect to the criminal part
of these Laws, one new principle was introduced into it. Willi
am Penn was of opinion, that though the deterring of others
from offences must continue to be the great and indeed only end
of punishment, yet, in a community professing itself christian,
the reformation of the offender was to be inseparably connected
with it. Hence he made but two capital offences ; namely, mur
der, and treason against the state : and hence also all prisons
were to be considered as workshops, where the offenders might
be industriously, soberly, and morally employed.
After the adjournment, William Penn prepared for a visit to
Maryland. On his -first arrival at Newcastle he had dispatched
two messengers to" the Lord Baltimore " to ask his health, to
offer kind neighbourhood, and to agree upon a time of meeling,
the better to establish it." By this time the messengers had re-

88 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
turned, from whom it appeared that the Lord Baltimore would
be glad to see him. On receiving this information he set out for
West River, and at the appointed time reached the place of
meeting, where he was very kindly received, not only by his
host, but by the principal inhabitants of the province. There
the two governors endeavoured to fix the boundaries between
their respective provinces ; but the winter season being expect
ed, and there being no appearance of speedily determining the
matter, after two days spent upon it, they appointed to meet
again in the spring. William Penn accordingly departed. Lord
Baltimore had the politeness to accompany him several miles,
till he came to the house of one William Richardson, where he
took his leave of him. And here it may be observed, that the
nobleman just mentioned, whose name was Charles, was the son
and heir of Cecilius Calvert, Baron of Baltimore, who had
obtained the original grant of Maryland, and who, being a ca
tholic, had peopled it with those of his own persuasion. Ceci
lius, however, though he himself and they who emigrated with
him were of this description, had the liberality to allow liberty
of conscience to all who came to settle in his province ; so that
though William Penn is justly entitled to the praise of posterity
for having erected a colony composed of different denominations
of christians, where the laws respecting liberty both civil and re
ligious were equally extended to all, and where no particular
sect was permitted to arrogate to itself peculiar advantages, yet
he had not the honor, as we see, (however the project with him
might have been original,) of being the first to realise it.
The time now arrived when William Penn was to confirm his
great Treaty with the Indians. His religious principles, which
led him to the practice of the most scrupulous morality, did not
permit him to look upon the king's patent, or legal possession
according to the laws of England, as sufficient to establish his
right to the country, without purchasing it by fair and open bar
gain of the natives, to whom only it properly belonged. He had
therefore instructed commissioners, as I mentioned before, who
had arrived in America before him, to buy it of the latter, and
to make with them at the same time a Treaty of eternal Friend
ship. This the commissioners had done; and this was the time
when, by mutual agreement between him and the Indian Chiefs,
it was to be publicly ratified. He proceeded therefore, accom-

DISCOVERY AND EARLY SETTLEMENTS. 89
panied by his friends, consisting of men, women, and young
persons of both sexes, to Coaquanuoc, the Indian name for the
place where Philadelphia now stands. On his arrival there he
found the Sachems and their tribes assembling. They were
seen in the woods as far as the eye could carry, and looked
frightful both on account of their number and their arms. The
Quakers are reported to have been but a handful in comparison,
and these without any weapon.
It is much to be regretted, when we have accounts of minor
Treaties between William Penn and the Indians, that in no his
torian I can find an account of this, though so many mention it,
and though all concur in considering it as the most glorious of
any in the annals of the world. There are, however, relations
in Indian speeches, and traditions in Quaker families descended
from those who were present . on the occasion, from which we
may learn something concerning it. It appears that, though the
parties were to assemble at Coaquannoc, the Treaty was made a
little higher up, at Shackamaxon. Upon this Kensington now
stands, the houses of which may be considered as the suburbs of
Philadelphia. There was at Shackamaxon an elm tree of pro
digious size. To this the leaders on both sides repaired, ap
proaching each other under its widely-spreading branches. Wil
liam Penn appeared in his usual clothes. He had no crown
sceptre, mace, sword, halbert, or any insignia of eminence. He
was distinguished only by wearing a sky-blue sash* round his
waist, which was made of silk net-work, and which was of no
larger apparent dimensions than au officer's military sash, and
much like it except in color. On his right hand was Colonel
Markham, his relation and secretary, and on his left, his friend
Pearson before mentioned ; after whom followed a train of Qua
kers. Before him were carried various articles of merchandise,
which, when they came near the Sachems, were spread upon the
ground. He held a roll of parchment, containing the Confirma
tion of the Treaty of Purchase and Amity, in his hand. One
of the Sachems, who was the Chief of them, then put upon
his own head a kind of chaplet, in which appeared a small horn.
This, as among the primitive eastern nations and according to
scripture language, was an emblem of kingly power ; and when-
* This sash is now in the possession of Thomas Kelt, Esq., of Seething-hall,
aear Norwich.
4. M

90 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
ever the chief, who had a right to wear it, put it on, it was un
derstood that the place was made sacred, and the persons of all
present inviolable. Upon putting on this horn the Indians threw
down their bows and arrows, and seated themselves round their
chiefs in the form of a half-moon upon the ground. The chief
Sachem then announced to William Penn, by means of an in
terpreter, that the Nations were ready to hear him.
Having been thus called upon, he began. The Great Spirit,
he said, who made him and them, who ruled the heaven and
the earth, and who knew the innermost thoughts of man, knew
that he and his friends had a hearty desire to live in peace and
friendship with them, and to serve them to the utmost of
their power. It was not their custom to use hostile weapons
against their fellow creatures, for which reason they had come
unarmed. Their object was not to do injury, and thus provoke
the Great Spirit, but to do good. They were then met on the
broad pathway of good faith and good will, so that no advan
tage was to be taken on either side, but all was to be openness,
brotherhood and love. After these and other words, he unrolled
the parchment, aud by means of the same interpreter conveyed
to them, article by article, the Conditions of the Purchase, and
the Words of the Compact then made for their eternal Union.
Among other things, they were not to be molested in their law
ful pursuits even in the territory they had alienated, for it was to
be common to- them and the English. They were to have the
same liberty to do all things therein relating to the improvement
of their grounds, and providing sustenance for their families,
which the English had. If any disputes should arise between
the two, they should be settled by twelve persons, half of whom
should be English and half Indians. He then paid them for
the land, and made them many presents besides from the mer
chandise which had been spread before them. Having done
this, he laid the roll of parchment on the ground, observing
again, that the ground should be common to both people. He
then added, that he would not do as the Mar\ landers did, that
is, call them Children or Brothers only; for often Parents were
apt to whip their children too severely, and Brothers sometimes
would differ : neither would he^ compare the friendship between
them to a Chain, for the rain might sometimes rust it, or a tree
might fall and break i,t ; but he should consider them as the

DISCOVERY AND EARLY SETTLEMENTS. 91
same flesh and blood with the christians, and the same as if one
man's body were to be divided into two parts. He then took up
the parchment, and presented it to the Sachem who wore the
horn in the chaplet, and desired him and the other Sachems to
preserve it carefully for three generations, that their children
might know what had passed between them, just as if he had
remained himself with them to repeat it.
That William Penn must have done and said a great deal
more on this interesting occasion than has now been represent
ed, there can be no doubt. What I have advanced may be de
pended upon ; but I am not warranted in going further. It is
also to be regretted, that the speeches of the Indians on this
memorable day have not come down to us. It is only known,
that they solemnly pledged themselves, according to their coun
try manner, to live in love with William Penn and his children
as long as the Sun and Moon should endure. — Thus ended this
famous Treaty, of which more has been said in the way of praise
than of any other ever transmitted to posterity. " This," says
Voltaire, " was the only Treaty between those people and the
christians that was not ratified by an oath, and that was never bro
ken." — "William Penn thought it right," says the Abbe Ray-
nal, "to obtain an additional right by a fair and open purchase
from the aborigines ; and thus he signaiized his arrival by an apt
of equity which made his person and principles equally beloved.
— Here it is the mind rests with pleasure upon modern history,
and feels some kind of compensation for the disgust, melancho
ly, and horror, which the whole of it, but particularly that of
the European settlements in America, inspires." — Noble, in his
Continuation of Granger, says, " he occupied his domains by ac
tual bargain and sale with the Indians. This fact does him infi
nite honor, as no blood was shed, and the Christian and the Bar
barian met as brothers. Penn has thus taught us to respect the
lives and properties of the most unenlightened nations." — " Be
ing now returned," says Robert Proud, in his History of Penn
sylvania, "from Maryland to Coaquannoc, he purchased lands
of the Indians, whom he treated with great justice and sincere
kindness. — It was at this time when he first entered personally
into that friendship with them, which ever afterwards continued
between them, and which for the space of more than seventy
years was never interrupted, or so long as the Quakers retained

92 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
power in the government. — His conduct in general to these peo
ple was so engaging, his justice in particular so conspicuous, and
the counsel and advice which he gave them were so evidently for
their advantage, that be became thereby very much endeared to
them ; and the sense thereof made such deep impressions on
their understandings, that his name and memory will scarcely
ever be effaced while they continue a people*."
Having now fairly purchased the land of the natives, he or
dered a regular survey of it. This was performed by Thomas
Holme, who had come out as Surveyor- General of the province.
During the survey he pitched upon Coaquannoc as the most no
ble and commodious place for his new city. It was' situated be
tween the rivers SkUylkill and Delaware, and therefore bounded
by them on two sides, and on a third by their confluence.
William Penn having determined upon -the site, and after
wards upon the plan of the city, he instructed Thomas Holme
to make a map, of it, in which the streets were to be laid out as
they were to be afterwards built. There were to be two large
streets, the one fronting the Delaware on the east, and the other
the Skuylkill on the west, of a mile in length. A third, to be
called High-Street, of one hundred feet broad, was to run di
rectly through the middle of the city so as to communicate with
the streets now mentioned at right angles; that is, it was to run
through the middle from river to river, or from east to west- A
fourth of the same breadth, to be called Broad-Street, was to
run through the middle also, but to intersect High-Street at
right angles, or to run from north to south. Eight streets, fifty
feet wide, were to be built parallel to High- Street, that is, from
river to river ; and twenty, of the like width, parallel to Broad-
Street, that is, to cross the former from side to side. The
streets running from east to west were to be named according to
their numerical order, such as First, Second, and Third- Street,
* The great elm tree, under which this Treaty was made, became celebra
ted from this day. When in the American war the British General Simcoe
was quartered at Kensington, he so respected it, that when his soldiers were
cutting down every tree for fire-wood, he placed a centinel under it, that not
a branch of it might be touched. It was blown down a few years ago, when
its trunk was split into wood, and cups and other articles were made of it,
toieep as memorials of it. As to the roll of parchment containing the Trea
ty, it was shown by the Mingoes, Shawanese, and other Indians, to Governor
Keitli, at a Conference, in 1722.

DISCOVERY AND EARLY SETTLEMENTS. 93
and those from north to south according to the woods of the
countr.y, such as Vine, Spruce, Pine, Sassafras, Cedar, and
others. There was to be, however, a square of ten acres in the
middle of the city, each corner of which was to be reserved for
public offices. There was^ to be also in each quarter of it a
square of eight acres, to be used by the citizens in like manner
as Moorfields in London. The city having been thus planned,
he gave it a name, which he had long reserved for it, namely,
Philadelphia, in token of that principle of brotherly love, upon
which he'had come to these parts; which he had shown to
Dutch, Swedes, Indians, and others alike ; and which he wish
ed might for ever characterize his new dominions.
Scarcely was this plan determined upon, when, late as the
season was, some- of the settlers began to build, and this with
such rapidity, being assisted by the Swedes, that several houses
were erected in this year. He himself was employed jn the
mean while with Thomas Holme in finishing the survey of his
grants and purchases ; the result of which was, that he divided
the Province and Territories, each into three counties. The
Province contained those of Philadelphia, Bucks and Chester ;
the first so named from the city, which was then building; the
second from Buckinghamshire in England, which was the land
of his ancestors ; and the third from the promise before men
tioned which he had made to his friend Pearson. The Territo
ries contained those of Newcastle, Kent, and Sussex ; the lat
ter of which he so named out of respect to his wife's family,
Sussex in England having been the county of their nativity for
generations. After this, a number of vessels arrived in the Delaware from
Somersetshire, Cheshire, Lancashire, Wales, and Ireland. Out
of the twenty-three which sailed from thence, not one was lost.
They brought with them altogether more than two thousand
persons. These were mostly Quakers, who had bought allot
ments, and had come to occupy them. They had left their
country, as we learn from " The Planter's Speech to his Neigh
bours" published at this time, " that they might lead a life quiet
and peaceable, free from the vexations they had experienced,
and during which they might worship the great Creator in their
own way.
When the vessels arrived, the Swedes very kindly volunteered

94 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
their services in unloading them ; and as they arrived not all at
once, but in succession, the goods were more speedily brought
on shore, and the passengers more easily accommodated and dis
posed of. The latter, as they were landed, distributed them
selves through the country, some going one way and some ano
ther, some settling within the territories, others within the pro
vince, according as their lots or as their friends and expectations
lay. Their number being altogether great, they appeared, when
thus distributed, to occupy a large portion of land. There were
people apparently all the way, though thinly scattered, from
the Falls of Trenton to Chester. Taking in the Dutch and
Swedes, and those wtio had gone out with Colonel Markham
and William Penn, and the new comers just mentioned, and
including men, women, and children, their total number did
not fall short of six thousand persons ; so that William
Penn may be said to have raised a colony at once in his new
domains. Many of those who had arrived being of a sober cast, and
having property, had brought out with them houses in frame,
tools, implements, and furniture, and also food and raiment
sufficient to last them for some time after their arrival. All
such experienced the benefit of their prudence. Others were
not so well provided ; but coming some weeks before the winter
began, they were enabled to get through it with more comfort
than could have been expected, as it related to their habitations.
- They used the short opportunity they had in cutting down wood,
and working it, and putting it together, so as to construct tem
porary huts. William Penn furnished them with a general plan
for these. They were to be rather better than thirty feet long,
and eighteen wide. There was to be a partition in the middle,
so that each was to be divided into two equal parts. When the
shell was up, it was to be covered and defended on the outside
by clapboards. It was to be lined also in the inside by the
same. The intervening space between the external covering
and inside lining was to be filled with earth, to keep out the cold
and frost. . The ground floor was to be made of clay, and the
upper or loft of wood. The latter was to be divided or not, ac
cording to the wants of the family. As to the roof, it was to
be of clapboard also. Others arrived too late in the season to
be able to raise themselves habitations. These suffered more or

DISCOVERY AND EARLY SETTLEMENTS. 95
less from the severity of the winter. Some of them were kind
ly {aken in by the Swedes and others; but the rest weie obliged
to betake themselves to the bank of the river, whefe the city
was building. This standing high, and being dry, they dug -
large holes in it, and in these they lived. These dwelling-pla
ces went by the name of the Caves from this period.
With respect to provisions, they fared better, all of them,
than might have been expected in a country which all around,
except just upon the snore, was an entire wilderness. Yet in
this situation they met with occasional support. The wild pi
geons flew" about in such numbers, that the air was sometimes
darkened by them ; and, flying low, they were sometimes
knocked down in great numbers by those who had no other
means of taking them. The supply from these was sometimes
so great, that they could not consume them while fresh : they
therefore salted the overplus.' The Indians also were remarkably
kind to them. They hunted for them frequently, doing their
utmost to feed them. They* considered them all as the children
of Onas* ; and, looking upon him ever since the Great Treaty
as their own father also, they treated them as brothers.
Soon after the new year had begun, an infant was born of
the family of Key. His mother had been brought -to-bed in her
habitation in one of the Caves. He was the first-born child of
English parents in the colony. This being a new event, the
governor recorded it by making him a present of a lot of land.
Key lived afterwards to a great age, but he never lost the name
of first-born to the day of his death.
The time being now at hand, as specified in the writs which
had been issued, for the organization of the legislative bodies,
those who had been chosen by the freeholders began to move,
some from their temporary huts and others from their houses, to
the place of meeting. It appears that only twelve persons had
been returned out of each of the six counties, three of these for
the council and nine for the assembly. Thus the council consisted
only cf eighteen and the assembly of fifty-four, making toge
ther seventy-two. It will be proper to observe here, that, after
the division of the land into counties, thfe Province still conti-.
nued to be called the Province, but the Territories usually went
by the name of the " Three lower counties of the Delaware.
* Onas was the.nam»for Penn in the Indian language.

96 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
We have not a perfect list of those who composed the
first council. Sixteen, however, of their names have been pre
served. Among these were Colonel Markham, the governor's
relation and secretary ;, Thomas Holme, his surveyor-general of
the colony ; and Lacy Cock, the Swede before mentioned, who
had been deputed by his countrymen to congratulate the govern
or on his arrival, and to acquaint him, after the first assembly
at Chester, that they would love, serve, and obey him with all
they had.
The freeholders, when they returned the members of the
first assembly, were sensible that, according to the letter of the
constitution, they had returned a far less number to the legisla
tive bodies than they ought, having elected only seventy-two
persons in all, whereas the council itself should have consisted
of that number. It was impossible however, in the then state
of things, that they could have done otherwise. They gave
therefore their reasons in writing on the sheriff's returns for the
deficiency; and they added that, though the number was less
than the law required, they considered those who had been
elected as possessing the power of all the freemen, both of the
province and territories. They petitioned the governor also,
before the members met in their official capacities, that this
their non-compliance with the constitution to its full extent
might not deprive them of the benefit of their charter. To this
he replied, " that they might amend, alter, or add, for the
public good; and that he was ready to settle such foundations
with them, as might be for their happiness, according to the
powers vested in him."
These preliminaries having been adjusted, he met his council
on the tenth of March.
On the twelfth he met the assembly. This latter body chose
for its speaker Thomas Wynne, and then proceeded to business.
At this and subsequent sittings till the twentieth much work
was gone through. Several bills were framed and passed. Out
lines also were agreed upon for the amendment of the old char
ter. A seal also was established for each county. To Phi-
ladephia was given an anchor, to Bucks a tree and vine, to
Chester a plough, to Newcastle a cassia, to Kent three ears
of Indian corn, and to Sussex a wheat-sheaf.
At a council held on the twentieth, the speaker and two

DISCOVERY AND EARLY SETTLEMENTS. 97
snembers of the assembly attending with certain bills which had
been sent to them, the governor and council desired a confe
rence with the whole house and freemen about the charter. They
attended accordingly. He then asked them explicitly, whether
they chose to have the old or new charter. They unanimously
requested a new one, with such amendments as had already
been agreed upon. Upon this he made a short speech to them,
in which he signified his assent to their request ; distinguishing,
however, between theii duty and his own willingness to oblige
them, and hoping that both would be found consistent with
each other and reconcileable on the present occasion.
On the twenty-first the assembly sent Griffith Jones and
Thomas Fitzwater to thank him for his speech, and to sig
nify their grateful acceptance of his offer. -After this a com
mittee of each house was appointed to draw up a new char
ter. At a council held on the thirteenth, the governor having
read, approved, signed, and sealed the charter, which the com
mittees had drawn up, presented it in due form to James Har
rison, Thomas Wynne, and another member, who attended
in- behalf of the assembly and freemen. These, on receiving
it, returned the old one into his hands with the hearty thanks
of the whole house. By this charter the provincial council was
to consist of eighteen persons, three from each county, and the
assembly of thirty-six, men of most note for virtue, wisdom,
and ability ; by whom, with the governor, all laws were to be
made, officers chosen, and public affairs transacted, in the
manner expressed therein. All the laws, however, were still to
be prepared by the governor and council, and the number of
assembly-men were to be increased at their pleasure. This was
the last business transacted at this session, which had continued
twenty-two days.
The legislative assembly being over, and the members return
ed to their habitations, William Penn directed his attention to
"his new city. By this time Philadelphia had begun to rise out,
of the ground. The first house finished there was built by
George Guest. The owner of it used it as a tavern, a godd
speculation under existing circumstances, and called it the Blue
Anchor. Soon after many small houses were erected. Larger
and more commodious followed, and this so rapidly, that inclu-
5. N

§8 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
ding ordinary and good houses, not less than a hundred were
found in their proper stations by the end of the present year.
William Penn, indeed, seems to have had a mind capable of
directing its energies usefully to every department of a new co
lony, whether in that of agriculture, building, government, or
religion. His plan for the city of Philadelphia has been consi
dered as the work of a provident and great architect ; and to that
sleepless spirit of vigilance, that spirit which he possessed in the
highest degree, of constantly overlooking and forwarding what
ever he had begun, it was to be ascribed that so great a pro
gress had been made in the buildings in so short a time. Dean
Prideaux, in his connexion of the history of the old and new
Testament, gives a plan or model of the city of ancient Baby
lon, after which he speaks thus : " much according to this mo
del hath William Penn, the Quaker, laid out the ground for his
city of Philadelphia, in Pennsylvania; and were it all built ac
cording to that design, it would be the fairest and best city in all
America, and not much behind any other in the whole world."
The settlers too had by this time made a visible Improvement
in some of their allotments. Portions of these had not only in
many instances been cleared, but put into cultivation. Mo?t of
those who arrived in the first ships had been enabled, in conse
quence of the openness of the winter for a longer period than
usual, to put their winter corn into" the ground. Others had
since sown here and there patches of barley. A letter written
by Richard Townsend, who went out with William Penn, is ex
tant, from which we may collect something as to the way in
which they went on, as well as to their subsequent gradual
progress. " After our arrival," says he, " we found it a wilderness.
The chief inhabitants were Indians, and some Swedes, who re
ceived us in a friendly manner ; and though there was a great
-number of us, the good hand of Providence was seen in a par
ticular -manner, in that provisions were found for us by the
Swedes and Indians at very reasonable rates, as well as brought
from divers other parts that were inhabited before.
''After some time I set up a mill on Chester Creek, which
I brought ready framed from London, which served for grind
ing of corn and sawing of boards, and was of great use to us.
Besides, with Joshua Tittery, I made a net, and caught great

DISCOVERY AND EARLY SETTLEMENTS. 99
quantities of fish, which supplied ourselves and many others;
so that, notwithstanding it was thought near three thousand
persons came in the first year, we were so providentially provi
ded for, that we could buy a deer for about two shillings, and a
large turkey for about a shilling, and Indian corn for about two
shillings and sixpence per bushel. v
" And as our worthy proprietor treated the Indians with ex
traordinary humanity, they became very civil and loving to us,
and brought us in abundance, of venison. As in other countries
the Indians were exasperated by hard treatment, which hath
been the foundation of much bloodshed, so the contrary treat
ment here hath produced their love and affection.
" After our arrival there came in about twenty families from
High and Low Germany of religious good people, who settled
about six miles from Philadelphia, and called the place German
Town ; about the time when German Town was laid out, I set
tled upon my tract of land, which I had bought of the pro
prietor in England, about a mile from thence, where I set up
a hoqse and corn-mill, which was very useful to the country for
several miles round ; but there not being plenty of horses, people
generally brought their corn on their backs many miles. I
remember one man had a bull so gentle, that he used to bring
his corn on him instead of a horse."
We cannot perhaps betterclose our account of the early set
tlements in Pennsylvania, than by submitting the following ac
count of this province as given by its venerable founder.
"1. The country itself, its soil, air, water, seasons, and pro
duce, both natural and artificial, are not to be despised. The
land containeth divers sorts of earth, as sand, yellow and black,
poor and rich ; also gravel, both loamy and dusty ; and in some
places a fast fat earth, like that of our best vales in England,
especially by inland brooks and rivers ; God in his wisdom ha
ving ordered it so, that the advantages of the country are di
vided ; the back lands being generally three to one richer than
those that lie by navigable rivers. We have much of another soil,
and that is a black hazel mould upon a stony or rocky bottom.
2. The air is sweet and clear, and the heavens serene, like
the south parts of France rarely overcast; and as the woods
come by numbers of people to be more cleared, that itself will
refine.

100 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
" 3. The waters are generally good ; for the rivers and brooks
have mostly gravel and stony bottoms, and in number hardly
credible. We have also mineral waters, which operate in the
same manner with those of Barnet and North Hall, not two
miles from Philadelphia.
"4. For the seasons of the year, having by God's goodness
now lived over the coldest and hottest that the oldest liver in the
province can remember, 1 can say something to an English un
derstanding. " First of the fall, for then I came in. I found it from the
twenty-fourth of October to the beginning of December, as we
have it usually in England in September, or rather like an Eng
lish mild spring. From December to the beginning of the
month called March we had sharp frosty weather ; not foul,
thick, black weather, as our north-east winds bring with them
in England, but a sky as clear as in the summer, and the air dry,
cold, piercing, and hungry ; yet I remember not that I wore
more clothes than in England. The reason of this cold is given
from the great lakes, which are fed by the fountains of Canada.
The winter before was mild, scarce any ice at all, while this for a
few days froze up our great river Delaware. From that month to
the month called June we enjoyed a sweet spring ; no gusts, but
gentle showers and a fine sky. Yet this 1 observe, that the winds
here, as there, are more inconstant, spring and fall, upon that
turn of nature, than in summer or winter. From thence to this
present month, August, which endeth the summer, commonly
speaking, we have had extraordinary heats, yet mitigated some
times by cool breezes. The wind that ruleth the summer season
is the south-west ; but spring, fall, and winter, it is rare to want
the north-western seven days together. And whatever mists,
fogs, or vapours foul the heavens by easterly or ijoutherly winds,
in two hours time are blown away; the one is followed by the
other; a remedy that seems to have a peculiar providence in it
to the inhabitants, the multitude of trees yet standing being lia
ble to retain mists and vapors, and yet not one quarter so thick
as I expected.
" The natural produce of the country, of vegetables, is trees,
fruits, plants, flowers. The trees of most note are the black
walnut, cedar, cypress, chesnut, poplar, gum-wood, hickory,
sassafras, ash, beech, and oak of divers sorts, as red, white

DISCOVERY AND EARLY SETTLEMENTS. 101
and black,; Spanish chesnut, and swamp, the most durable of
all ; of all which there is plenty for the use of man.
" The fruits I find in the woods are the white and black
mulberry, chesnut, walnut, plums, strawberries, cranberries,
hurtleberries, and grapes of divers sorts. The great red grape
now ripe, called by ignorance the fox-grape, because of the
relish it hath with unskilful palates, is in itself an extraordi
nary grape; and by art, doubtless, may be cultivated to an
excellent wine, if not so sweet, yet little inferior to the
Frontiniac, as it is not much unlike it in taste, ruddiness
set aside ; which, in such things, as well as mankind, dif
fers the case much. There is a white kind of muscadel,
and a little black grape, like the cluster grape of England,
not yet so ripe as the other, — but, they tell me, when ripe,
sweeter, and that they only want skilful vinerons, to make
good use of them. I intend to venture on it with my
Frenchman this season, who shows some knowledge in those
things. Here are also peaches very good, and in great quanti
ties, not an Indian plantation without them, — but whether na
turally here at first I know not. However, one may have them
by bushels for little. Trfey make a pleasant drink, and I think
not inferior to any peach you have in England, except the true
Newington. It is disputable with me, whether it be best to fall
to fining the fruits of the country, especially the grape, by the
care and skill of art, or send for foreign stems and sets- already
good and approved. It seems most reasonable to believe, that
not only a thing groweth best where it naturally grows, but will
hardly be equalled by another species of the same kind, that
doth not naturally grow there. But to solve the doubt, I in
tend, if God give me life, to try both, and hope the conse
quence will be as good wine as any European countries of the
same latitude do yield.
" 6. The artificial produce of the country, is wheat, barley,
oats, rye, peas, beans, squashes, pumkins, water-melons, musk-
melons, and all herbs and roots that our gardens in England
usually bring forth.
"7. Of living creatures, fish, fowl, and the beasts of the
good, here are divers sorts, some for food and profit, and some,
for profit only : for food as well as profit the elk, as big as a
6mall ox; deer, bigger than ours; beaver, raccoon, rabbits,

1021 -HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
squirrels ; and some eat young bear and commend it. Of fowl
of the land, there is the turkey (forty and fifty pounds weight)
which is vejy great, pheasants, heath-birds, pigeons, arid par
tridges in abundance. Of the water, the swan, goose white and
grey ; brands, ducks, teal, also the snipe and curloe, and that
in great numbers ; but the duck and teal excel, nor so good
have I ever eaten in other countries. Of fish, there is the stur
geon, herring, rock, shad, cats-head, sheeps-head, eel, smelt,
perch, roach ; and in inland rivers trout, some say salmon above
the falls. Of shell-fish, we have oysters, crabs,' cockles, eonchs,
and muscles ; some oysters six inches long, and one sort of coc
kles as big as the stewing oysters ; they make a rich broth. The
creatures for profit only, by skin or fur, and which are natural
to these parts, are the wild cat, panther, otter, wolf, fox, fish
er, minx, musk-rat; and of the water, the whale vfor oil, of
which we have good store ; and two companies of whalers, '
whose boats are built, will soon begin their work; which hath
the appearance of considerable improvement : to say nothing of
our reasonable hopes of good cod in the bay.
" 8. We have no want of horses, ' and some are very good, and
shapely enough. Two ships have been freighted to Barbadoes,
with horses and pipe staves, since my coming in. Here is also
plenty of cow-cattle and some sheep. The people plough most
ly with oxen.
" 9. There are divers plants, which not only the Indians tell
us, but we have had occasion to prove, by swellings, burnings,
and cuts, that they are of great virtue, suddenly curing the pa
tient; and for smell, I have observed several, especially one,
the wild myrtle, the other I know not what to call, but they
are most fragrant.
" 10. The woods are adorned with lovely flowers for color,
greatness, figure, and variety. I have seen the gardens of Lon
don best stored with that of beauty, but think they may be im
proved by our woods. I have sent a few to a person of quality
this year for a trial."
The present seems the most proper place, for giving some ac
count of the original occupiers of the New World; or, as they
are familiarly palled, the Indians. The enquiry to which we
shall be led will include the following particulars; 1. The bodily
constitution of the native Americans in those regions now under

DISCOVERY AND EARLY SETTLEMENTS. 103
review ; 2. The qualities of their minds ; 3. Their domestic
state; 4. Their political state and institutions; 5. Their system
of war, and public security ; 6. The arts with which they were
acquainted; and 7. Their religious ideas and institutions;, and
such customs as are not reducible to any of the above heads.
I. The bodily constitution of .the Americans. The first ap
pearance of the inhabitants of the new world, filled the disco
verers with such astonishment, that they were apt to imagine
them a race of men different from those of the other hemis
phere. Their complexion is of a reddish brown, nearly resem
bling the color of copper. The hair of their heads is always
black, long, coarse, and uncurled. They have no beard, and
every part of their body is perfectly smooth. Their persons are
of a full size, extremely straight and well proportioned. Their
features are regular, though often distorted by absurd endeavours
to improve the beauty of their natural form, or to render their
aspect more dreadful to their enemies.
The native Americans were more remarkable for agility than
strength. They were not only averse to toil, but almost incapa
ble of it ; and when roused by force from their native indolence,
and compelled to work, they sunk under tasks which the people
of the other continent would have performed with ease.
The beardless countenance and smooth skin of the American
has been considered as indicating, a defect of vigor. This pecu
liarity, by which the inhabitants of the new world are distin
guished from the people of ail other nations, cannot be attribu
ted, as some travellers have supposed, to their mode of sub
sistence. For though the food of many Americans be extremely
insipid, as they are Altogether unacquainted with the use of salt,
rude tribes in other parts of the earth have subsisted on aliments
equally simple, without this mark of degradation, or any appa
rent symptom of a diminution in their vigor.
As the external form of the Americans leads us to suspect
that there is some natural debility in their frame, the smallness
of their appetite for food has been mentioned by many authors
as a confirmation of this suspicion. Though it must be confess
ed that this affords only a feeble corroboration of this supposi
tion, as this defect of appetite may be fairly attributed to their
indolent and inactive mode of life, rather than to any thing pe
culiar in the physical structure of their bodies, it has been ob-

104 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
served, that in those districts where the people of America are
obliged to exert any unusual effort of activity in order to procure
subsistence, or wherever they are employed in severe labor, their
appetite is not inferior to that of other men, and, in some pla
ces, it has struck observers as remarkably voracious.
Notwithstanding the feeble make of the Americans, hardly any
of them are deformed, or mutilated, or defective in any of their
senses. All travellers have been struck with this circumstance,
and have celebrated the uniform symmetry and perfectioh of
their external figure. Some authors search for the cause of this
appearance in their physical condition. As the parents are not
exhausted or over-fatigued with hard labor, they suppose that
' their children are born vigorous and sound. They imagine, that,
in the liberty of savage life, the human body, naked and uncon-
fined from its earliest age, preserves its natural form ; and that
all its limbs and members acquire a juster proportion, than'
when fettered with artificial restraints, which stint its growth,
and distort its shape. Something, without doubt, may be ascri
bed to the operation of these causes ; but the true reasons of
this apparent advantage, which is common to all savage nations,
lie deeper, and are closely interwoven with the nature and geni
us of that state. The infancy of man is so long and -so helpless,
that it is extremely difficult to rear children among rude nations.
Their means of subsistence are not only scanty, but precarious.
Such as live by hunting must range over extensive countries, and
shift often from place to place. The care of children, as well
as every other laborious task, is devolved upon the women.. The
distresses and hardships of the savage life, which are often such
as can hardly be supported by persons in full vigor, must be fa
tal to those of more tender age. Afraid of undertaking a task
so laborious, and of such long duration, as that of rearing their
offspring, the women, in some parts of America, procure fre
quent abortions by the use of certain herbs, and extinguish the
first sparks of that life which they are unable to cherish. Sensi
ble that only stout and well- formed children have foree of con
stitution to struggle through such an hard infancy, other nations
abandon or destroy such of their progeny as appear feeble or de
fective, as unworthy of attention. Even when they endeavour
to rear all their children without distinction, so great a propor
tion of the whole number perishes under the rigorous treatment

DISCOVERY AND EARLY SETTLEMENTS. 105
which must be their lot in the savage state, that few of those
who labored under any original frailty attain the age of man-
bood. There is less variety in the human form throughout the new
world, than in the ancient continent. When Columbus and the
other discoverers first visited the different countries of America
which lie within the torrid zone, they naturally expected to find
people of the same complexion with those in the corresponding
regions of the other hemisphere. To their amazement, however,
they discovered that America contained no negroes ; and the
cause of this singular appearance became as much the object of
curiosity, as the fact itself was of wonder. In what part or
membrane of the body that humor resides which tinges the com
plexion of the negro with a deep black, it is the business of ana
tomists to enquire and describe. The powerful operation of heat
appears manifestly to be the cause which produces this striking
variety in the human species. All Europe, a great part in Asia,
and the temperate countries of Africa, are inhabited by men of
a white complexion. All the torrid zone in Africa, some of the
warmer regions adjacent to it, and several countries in Asia, are
filled with people of a deep black color. If we survey the na
tions of our continent, making our progress from cold and tem
perate countries towards those parts which are exposed to the
influence of vehement and unremitting heat, we shall find, that
the extreme whiteness of their skin soon begins to diminish ;
that its color deepens gradually as we advance ; and_after pass
ing through all the successive gradations of sshade, terminates in
an uniform unvarying black. But in America, where the agency
of heat is checked and abated by various causes, which I have
already explained, the climate seems to be destitute of that force
which produces such wonderful effects on the human frame.
The color of the natives of the torrid zone, in America, is hard
ly of a deeper hue than that of the people in the more tempe
rate parts of their continent. Accurate observers, who had an
opportunity of viewing the Americans in very different climates,
and in provinces far removed from each other, have been struck
with the amazing similarity of their figure and aspect.
There are, however, some varieties "which deserve notice; the
first of these is situated in the isthmus of Darien, near the cen
tre of America. Lionel Wafer, a traveller possessed of more
5. o

106 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
curiosity and intelligence than we should have expected to find
in an associate of buccaniers, discovered there a race of men,
few in number, but of a singular make. They are of low sta
ture, according to his description, of a feeble frame, incapable
of enduring fatigue. Their color is a dead milk white ; not re
sembling that of fair people among Europeans, but without any
tincture of a blush or sanguine complexion. Their skin is co
vered with a fine hairy down of a chalky white ; the hair of
their heads, their eye-brows, and eye-lashes, are of the same
hue. Their eyes are of a singular form, and so weak, that they
can hardly bear the light of the sun ; but they see clearly by
moon-light, and are most active and gay in the night. No race
similar to this has been discovered in anv other part of America.
Cortes, indeed, found some persons exactly resembling the white
people of Darien, among the rare and monstrous animals which
Montezuma had collected. But as the power of the Mexican
empire extended to the provinces bordering on the isthmus of
Darien, they were probably brought thence. Singular as the
appearance of those people may be, they cannot be considered
as constituting a distinct species : they are a degenerated breed,
• not a separate class of men ; and from some disease or defect of
their parents, the peculiar color and debility which mark their
degradation are transmitted to them. As a decisive' proof of this,
it has been observed, that neither the white people of Darien,
nor the Albinos of Africa, propagate their race ; their children
are of the color and temperament peculiar to the natives of their
respective countries
The second district that is occupied by inhabitants differing
in appearance from the other people of America, is situated in a
high northern latitude, extending from the coast of Labrador
towards the pole, as far as the country is habitable. The peo
ple scattered over those dreary regions are known to the Euro-:
peans by the name of Esquimaux. They themselves, with that
idea of their own superiority which consoles the rudest and most
wretched nations, assume the name of keralit, or men. They
are of a middle size, and robust, with heads of a disproportioned
bulk, and feet as remarkably small. Their complexion, though
swarthy, by being continually exposed to the rigor of -a cold
climate, inclines to the European white, rather than to the
copper color of America ; and the men have beards, which are

DISCOVERY AND EARLY SETTLEMENTS. 107
sometimes bushy and long. From these marks of distinction,
as well as from one still less equivocal, the affinity of their lan
guage to that of the Greenlanders, which I have already men
tioned, we may conclude, with some degree of confidence, that
the Esquimaux are a race different from the rest of the Ame
ricans. We cannot decide with equal certainty concerning the inhabi- -
tants of the third district, situated at the southern extremity of
America. These are the famous Patagonians, who, during two
centuries and a half, have afforded a subject of controversy to
the learned, and an object of wonder to- the vulgar. They are
supposed to be one of the wandering tribes, which occupy that
vast but least-known region of America, which extends from
the river De La Plata to the Straits of Magellan. Their proper
station is in that part of the interior country which lies on the
banks-of the river Negro; but in the hunting season they often
roam as far as the straits which separate Terra del Fuego from
the main land. The first accounts of this people were brought
to Europe by the companions of Magellan, who described -them
as a gigantic race, above eight feet high, and of strength in pro
portion to their enormous size.
Though several persons, to whose testimony great respect is
due, have visited this part of America since the time of Magel
lan, and have had interviews with the natives ; though some
have affirmed, that such as they saw were of gigantic stature ;
and others have formed the same conclusion from measuring
their footsteps, or from viewing the skeletons of their dead ; yet
their accounts vary from each other in so many essential points,
and are mingled with so many circumstances manifestly false or
fabulous, as detract much from their credit. On the other hand,
some navigators, and those among the most eminent of their or
der for discernment and accuracy, have asserted, that the natives
of Patagonia, with whom they had intercourse, though stout
and well-made, are not of such extraordinary size as to be dis
tinguished from the rest of the human species. The existence
of this gigantic race of men seems then to be one of those points
in natural history, with respect to which a cautious enquirer will
hesitate, and will choose to suspend his assent until more com
plete evidence shall decide, whether he ought to admit a fact,
seemingly inconsistent with what reason and experience have

108 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
discovered concerning the structure and condition of man, in
all the various situations in which lie has been observed.
In the simplicity of the savage state, when man is not op
pressed with labor, or enervated by luxury, or disquieted with
care, we' are apt to imagine that his life will flow on, almost un
troubled by disease or suffering, until his days be terminated in
extremfe old age, by the gradual decays of nature. We find, ac
cordingly among the Americans, as well as among other rude
people, persons whose decrepid and shrivelled form seems to in
dicate an extraordinary length of life. But as most of them are
unacquainted with the art of numbering, and all of them as for
getful of what is past, as they are improvident of what is to
come, it is impossible to ascertain their age with any degree of
precision. It is evident that the period of their longevity must
vary considerably, according to the diversity of climates, and
their different modes of subsistence. They seem, however, to
be every where exempt from many of the distempers which afflict
polished nations.
"But whatever be the situation in which man is placed, he is
beset with physical evils; and his diseases in the savage state,
though fewer in number, are, like those of the animals whom he
nearly resembles in his mode of life, more violent and more fa
tal. If luxury engenders and nourishes distempers of one spe
cies, the rigor and distresses of savage life bring on those of
another. As men, in this state, are wonderfully improvident,
and their means of subsistence precarious, they often pass from
extreme want to exuberant plenty, according to the vicissitudes
of fortune in the chase, or in consequence of the various degrees
of abundance with which the earth affords to them its produc
tions, in different seasons. Their inconsiderate gluttony in the
one situation, and their severe abstinence in the other, are
equally pernicious.
'One dreadful malady, the severest scourge with which, in this
life, offended heaven chastens the indulgence of criminal desire,
seems to have been peculiar to the Americans. By communica
ting it to their conquerors, they have not only amply avenged
their own wrongs, but by adding this calamity to those which
formerly embittered human life, they have, perhaps, more than
counterbalanced all the benefits which Europe has derived from
the discovery of the New World.

DISCOVERY AND EARLY SETTLEMENTS. 109
II. After considering what appears to be peculiar in the bodi
ly constitution of the Americans, our attention is naturally
turned towards the powers and qualities of their minds.
The thoughts and attention of a savage are confined within
the small circle of objects immediately conducive to his preser*
vation or enjoyment. Every thing beyond that escapes his ob
servation, or is perfectly indifferent to him. Like a mere ani
mal, what is before his eyes interests and affects him ; what is
out of sight, or at a distance, makes little impression. There are
several people in America whose limited understandings seem
not to be capable of forming an arrangement for futurity ; nei
ther their solicitude nor their foresight extend so far. They fol
low blindly the impulse of the appetite which they feel, but are
entirely regardless of distant consequences, and even of those
removed in the least degree from immediate apprehension.
While they highly prize such things as serve for present use, or
minister to present enjoyment, they set no value upon those
which are not the object of some immediate want. When, on
the approach of the evening, a Caribbee, feels himself disposed
to go to rest, no consideration will tempt him to sell his ham-
mock. But, in the morning, when he is sallying out to the bu
siness or pastime of the day, he will part with it for the slightest
toy that catches his fancy. At the close of winter, while the
impression of what he has suffered from the rigor of the climate
is fresh in the mind of the North American,* he sets himself
with vigor to prepare materials for erecting a comfortable hut to
protect him against the inclemency of the succeeding season ;
but as soon as the weather becomes mild, he forgets what is
past, abandons his work, and never thinks of it more, until
the return of cold compels him,- when too late, to resume it.
Among civilized nations, arithmetic, or the art of numbering,
is deemed an essential and elementary science, and in our con
tinent, the invention and use of it reaches back to a period so
remote as is beyond the knowledge of history. But among sa
vages, who have no property to estimate, no hoarded treasures
to count, no variety of objects or multiplicity of ideas to enu
merate, arithmetic is a superfluous and useful art. Accordingly,
among some tribes of America it seems to be quite unknown.
There are many who cannot reckon farther than three ; and
have no denomination to distinguish any number above it, Se*

110 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
veral can proceed as far as ten, others to twenty. When they
would convey an idea of any number beyond these, they point
to the hair of their head, intimating that it is equal to them,
or with wonder declare it to be "so great that it cannot be reck
oned. The North American tribes and the natives of Chili, who in
habit the temperate regions in the two great districts of Ameri
ca, are people of cultivated and enlarged understandings, when
viewed in comparison with some of those seated in the islands,
or on the banks of the Maragnon and Orinoco. Their occupa
tions are more various, their system of policy, as well as of
war, more complex, their arts more numerous. But, even
among them, the intellectual powers are extremely limited in
their operations, and unless when turned directly to those objects
which interest a savage, are held in no estimation. Both the
North Americans and Chilese, when not engaged in some of the
functions belonging to a warrior or hunter, loiter away their time
in thoughtless indolence, unacquainted with any other subject
worthy of their attention, or capable of occupying their minds.
Such is their aversion to labor, that neither the hope of fu
ture good, nor the apprehension of future evil, can surmount it.
They appear equally indifferent to both, discovering little solici
tude, and taking no precautions to avoid the one, or to secure
'the other. The cravings of hunger may rouse them; but as
they devour, with little distinction, whatever will appease Us
instinctive demands, the exertions which these occasion are of
short duration. Destitute of ardor, as well as variety of desire,
they feel not the force of those powerful springs which give vi
gor to the movements of the mind, and urge the patient hand
of industry to persevere in its efforts. Man, in some parts of
America, appears in a form so rude, that we can discover no
effects of his activity, and the principle of understanding, which
should direct it, seems hardly to be unfolded. Like the other
animals, he has no fixed residence ; he has erected no habitation
to shelter him from the inclemency of the weather ; he has ta
ken no measures for securing certain subsistence ; he neither
sows nor reaps ; but roams about as led in search of the plants
and fruits which the earth brings forth in succession, and in
quest of the game which he kills in the forests, or of the fish
which he catches in the rivers.

DISCOVERY AND EARLY SETTLEMENTS. Ill
This description, however, applies only to some tribes.
Among most of the American nations, especially those seated in
rigorous climates, some efforts are employed, and some previous
precautions are taken, for securing subsistence. The career of re
gular industry is begun, and the laborious arm has made the
first essays of its power. Still, however, the improvident and
slothful genius of the savage state predominates. Even among
those more improved tribes, labor is deemed ignominious and
degrading. It is only to work of a certain kind that a man will
deign to put his hand. The greater part is devolved entirely
upon the women. One half of the community remains inactive,
while the other is oppressed with the multitude and variety of its
occupations. Thus their industry is partial, and the foresight
which regulates it is no less limited. A remarkable instance of
this occurs in the chief arrangement with respect to their manner
of living. They depend for their subsistence, during one part
of the year, on fishing; during another, on hunting; during a
third, on the produce of their agriculture. Though experience
has taught them to foresee the return of those various seasons,
and to make some provision for the respective exigencies of each,
they either want sagacity to proportion this provision to their
consumption, or are so incapable of any command over their
appetites, that, from their inconsiderate waste, they often feel
the calamities of famine as severely as the rudest of the savage
tribes. ,What they suffer one year does not augment their in
dustry, or render them mere provident to prevent similar dis
tresses. III. After viewing the bodily constitution of the Americans,
and contemplating the powers of their minds, we are led in the
natural order of inquiry, to consider them as united together in
society : and the domestic state is the first and most simple form
of human association.
As the infancy of man is more feeble and helpless than that
of any other animal, and he is dependent, during a much longer
period, on the care and foresight of his parents, the union be
tween husband and wife came early to be considered, not only
as a solemn, but as a permanent contract. Accordingly, in Ame
rica, even among the rudest tribes, a regular union between
husband and wife was universal, and the rights of marriage were
understood and recognised. In those districts where subsistence

11.2 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
was scanty, and the difficulty of maintaining a family was great,
the man confined himself to one wife. In warmer and more
fertile provinces, the facility of procuring food concurred with
the influence of climate in inducing the inhabitants to increase
the number of their wives. In some countries, the marriage
union subsisted during life ; in others, the impatience of the
Americans under restraint of any species, together with their
natural levity and caprice, prompted them to dissolve it on very
slight pretexts, and often without assigning any cause.
But in whatever light the Americans considered the obligation
of this contract, either as perpetual, or only as temporary, the
condition of women was equally humiliating mid miserable.
Whether man has been improved by the progress of arts and ci
vilization in society, is a question which, in the wantonness of
disputation, has been agitated among philosophers. That women
are indebted to the refinements of polished manners, and above
all, to the benign spirit of the christian religion, for a happy
change in their state, is a point which can admit of no doubt.
To despise and to degrade the female sex, is the characteristic
of the savage state in . every part of the globe. It is not, by a
studied display of tenderness and attachment, that the native
American endeavours to gain the heart of the woman whom he
wishes to marrv. Marriage itself, instead of being an union of
affection and interests between equals, becomes, among them,
the unnatural conjunction of a master with his slave. It is the
observation of an author, whose opinions are deservedly of great
weight, that wherever wives are purchased, their condition is
extremely depressed. They become the property and the slaves
of those who buy them. In whatever part of the globe this
custom prevails, the observation holds. In countries where re
finement has made some progress, women, when purchased, are
excluded from society, shut up in sequestered apartments, and
kept under the vigilant guard of their masters. In ruder na
tions, they are degraded to the meanest functions. Among many
people of America, the marriage contract is properly a purchase.
A wife, among most tribes, is no better than a beast of bur
den, destined to every office of labor and fatigue. While the
men loiter out the day1 in .sloth, .orv spend it in amusement, the
women are condemned to incessant toil. Tasks are imposed up
on them without pity, and services are received without com-

DISCOVERY AND EARLY SETTLEMENTS. 118
plaisance or gratitude. Every circumstance reminds women of
this mortifying inferiority. They must approach their lords with
.reverence ; they must regard them as more exalted beings, and
are not permitted to eat in their presence. There are districts
in America where this dominion is so grievous, and so sensibly
felt, that some women, in a wild emotion of maternal tender
ness, have destroyed their female children in their infancy, in
order to deliver them from that intolerable bondage to which
they knew they were doomed.
It is owing, perhaps, in some measure, to this state of de
pression, that women in rude nations are far from being prolific.
The vigpr of their constitution is exhausted by excessive fatigue,
and the wants and distresses of savage Jife are so numerous, as
to force them to take various precautions in order to prevent too
rapid an increase of their progeny. Among wandering tribes, or
such as depend chiefly upon hunting for subsistence, the mother
cannot attempt to rear a second child, until the first has attain
ed such a degree of vigor as to be in some measure independent
of her care. From this motive, it is the universal practice of
the American women to suckle their children during several
years ; and as they seldom marry early, the period of their fer
tility is over, before they can finish the long but necessary at
tendance upon two or three children. Among some of the least
polished tribes, whose industry and foresight do not extend so
far as to make any regular provision for their own subsistence,
it is a maxim not to burden themselves with rearing more than
two children ; and no such numerous families, as are frequent in
civilized societies, are to be found among men in the savage state.
When twins are born one of them commonly is abandoned, be
cause the mother is not equal to the task of rearing both. When
a mother dies while she is nursing a child, all hope of preserving
its life fails, and it is buried together with her in the same
grave. As the parents are frequently exposed to want by their
own improvident indolence, the difficulty of sustaining their
children becomes so great, that it is not uncommon to abandon
or destroy them. Thus their experience of the difficulty of
training up an infant to maturity amidst the hardships, of savage
life, often stifles the voice of nature among the Americans, and
suppresses the strong emotions of parental tenderness.
But, though necessity compels the inhabitants of America
5. P

114 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
thus to set bounds to the increase of their families, they are
not deficient in affection and attachment to their offspring.
They feel the power of this instinct in its full force ; and as long
as their progeny continue feeble and helpless, no people exceed
them in tenderness and care. But in rude nations, the depend
ance of children upon their parents is of shorter continuance
than in polished societies. When men must be trained to the
various functions of civil life by previous discipline and educa
tion, when the knowledge of abstruse sciences must be taught,
and dexterity in intrinsic arts must be acquired, before a young
man is prepared to begin his career of action, the attentive feel
ings of a parent are not confined to the years of infancy, but
extend to what is more remote, the establishment of his child
in the world. Even then, his solicitude does not terminate.
His protection may still be requisite, and his wisdom and expe
rience still prove useful guides. Thus a permanent connexion
is formed ; parental tenderness is exercised, and filial respect re
turned, throughout the whole course of life. But in the sim
plicity of the savage state, the affection of parents, like the in
stinctive fondness of animals, ceases almost entirely as soon as
their offspring attain maturity. Little instruction fits them for
that mode sf life to which they are destined. The parents, as
if their duty were accomplished, when they have conducted
their children through the helpless years of infancy, leave them
afterwards at entire liberty. Even in their tender age, they sel
dom advise or admonish, they never chide or chastise them.
They suffer them to be absolute masters of their own actions.
In an American hut, a father, a mother, and their posterity,
live together like persons assembled by accident, without seem
ing to feel the obligation of the duties mutually arising from this
connexion. As filial love is not cherished by the continuance
of attention or good offices; the recollection of benefits received
in early infancy is too faint to excite it. Conscious of their
ewn liberty, and impatient of restraint, the youth of America
are accustomed to act as if they were totally independent.
Their parents are not objects of greater regard than other pet-
sons. They treat them always with neglect, and often with
such harshness and insolence, as to fill those who have been
witnesses of their conduct with horror. Thus the ideas which
seem to be natural to man in his savage state, as they result ne?

DISCOVERY AND EARLY SETTLEMENTS. 115
eessarily from his circumstances and condition in that period of
his progress, affect the two capital relations in domestic life.
They render the union between husband and wife unequal ;
they shorten the duration, and weaken the force of the connexion,
between parents and children.
IV. From the domestic state of the Americans the transition
to the consideration of their civil government and political in
stitutions is natural. In every enquiry concerning the opera
tions of men when united together in society, the first object of
attention should be their mode of subsistence.
All the people of America now under review, subsist chiefly by
hunting and fishing. On the extensive plains of South America,
man appears in one of the rudest states in which he has been
ever observed, or perhaps can exist. Several tribes depend en
tirely on the bounty of nature for subsistence. They discover
no solicitude, they employ little foresight, they scarcely exert any
industry, to secure what is necessary for their support. The
Topayers of Brasil, the Guaxeros of Tierra Fifme, the Cai-
guas, the Moxos, and several other people of Paraguay, are
unacquainted with every species of cultivation. They neither
sow nor plant. Even the culture of the manioc, of which cas-
Sada bread is made, is an art too intricate for their ingenuity,
or too fatiguing to their indolence. The roots which the earth
produces spontaneously, the fruits, the berries, and the seeds,
which they gather in the woods, together with lizards and other
reptiles, which multiply amazingly with the heat of the climate,
in a fat soil moistened by frequent rains, supply them with food
during some part of the year. At other times they subsist by
fishing ; and nature seems to have indulged the laziness of the
South American tribes, by the liberality with which she minis
ters, in this way, to their wants. The vast rivers of that region
in America abound with an infinite variety of the most delicate
fish. The lakes and marshes formed by the annual overflowing of
the waters, are filled with all the different species, where they
remain shut up, as in natural reservoirs, for the use of the inha
bitants. They swarm in such shoals, that in some places they
are catched without art or industry.
None but tribes contiguous to great rivers can sustain them
selves in this manner. The greater part of the American na
tions, dispersed over the forests with which their country is co-

116 HISTORY OF NORTT1 AMERICA.
vered, do not procure subsistence with the same facility. For*
although these forests, especially in the southern continent of
America, are stored plentifully with game, considerable efforts/
of activity and ingenuity are requisite in pursuit of it. Neces
sity incited the natives to the one, and taught them the other.
Hunting became their principal occupation; and as it called
forth strenuous exertions of courage, of force, 'and of inven
tion, it was deemed no less honorable than necessary. This "oc
cupation was peculiar to the men ; they were trained to it from
their earliest youth. A bold and dexterous hunter ranked next
in fame to the distinguished warrior, and an alliance with the
former is often courted in preference to one with the latter.
Hardly any device, which the ingenuity of man has disco
vered for ensnaring or destroying wild animals, was unknown
to the Americans. While engaged in this favorite exercise,
they shake off the indolence peculiar to their nature, the la
tent powers and vigor of their minds are roused, and they be
come active, persevering, and indefatigable. Their sagacity in
finding their prey, and their address in killing it, are equal.
Their reason and their senses being constantly directed towards
this one object, the former displays such fertility of invention,
and the latter acquire such a degree of acuteness, as appear
almost incredible. They discern the footsteps of a wild beast,
which escape every other eye, and can follow them with certain
ty through the pathless forest. If they attack their game open
ly, their arrow seldom errs from the mark ; if they endeavour to
circumvent it by art, it is almost impossible to avoid their toils.
Among several tribes, their young men were not permitted to
marry, until they had given such proofs of their skill in hunting
as put it beyond doubt that they were capable of providing for a
family. Their ingenuity always on the stretch, and sharpened
by emulation, as well as necessity, has struck out many inven
tions, which greatly facilitate success in the chace. The most
singular of these is the discovery of a poison in which they dip
the arrows employed in hunting. The slightest wound with
those envenomed shafts is mortal. If they only pierce the skin,
the blood fixes and congeals in a moment, and the strongest
animal falls motionless to the ground. Nor does this poison,
notwithstanding its violence and subtlety, infect the flesh of the
animal which it kills j that may be eaten with perfect safety,

DISCOVERY AND EARLY SETTLEMENTS. 11*7
and retains its native relish and qualities. All the nations situa
ted upon the banks of the Maragnon and Orinoco are acquaint
ed with this composition, the chief ingredient in which is the
juice extracted from the root of the curare, a Species of withe.
In other parts of America, they employ the juice of the manche-
nille, for the same purpose, and it operates with no less fatal
activity. To people possessed of those secrets, the bow is a more
destructive weapon than the musket, and, in their skilful hands,
does great execution among the birds and beasts which abound
in the forests of America.
Hardly any region of the earth furnishes man spontaneously
with what his wants require. In the mildest climates, and
most fertile soils, his own industry and foresight must be exert
ed, in some degree, to secure a regular supply of food. Their
experience of this surmounts the abhorrence of labor natural to
savage nations, and compels them to have recourse to culture,
as subsidiary to hunting. In particular situations, some small
tribes may subsist by fishing, independent of any production of
the earth raised by their own industry. But, throughout all
America, we scarcely meet with any nation of hunters which
dees not practise some species of cultivation.
The agriculture of the Americans, however, is neither exten
sive nor laborious. As game and fish are their principal food, all
they aim at by cultivation, is to supply any occasional defect of
these. In the southern continent of America, the natives con
fined their industry to rearing a few plants, which in a rich soil
and warm climate, were easily trained to maturity. The chief
of these is maize, well known in Europe by the name of Turkey
or Indian wheat, a grain extremely prolific, of simple culture,
agreeable to the taste, and affording a strong, hearty nourish
ment. The second is the manioc, which grows to the size of a
large shrub, or small tree, and produces roots somewhat resem
bling parsnips. After carefully squeezing out the juice, these
roots are grated down to a fiue powder, and formed into thin
cakes, called cassada bread, which, though insipid to the taste,
proves no contemptible food. The third is the plantain, which,
though it rises to the height of a tree, is of such quick growth,
that in less than a year it rewards the industry of the cultivator
with its fruit. This, when roasted, supplies the place of bread,
and is both palatable and nourishing. The fourth is the potatoe,

118 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
whose culture and qualities are too well known to need any de*
scription. The fifth is pimento, a small tree, yielding a strong
aromatic spice. The Americans, who, like other inhabitants
of warm climates, delight in whatever is hot and of poignant
flavor, deem this seasoning a necessary of life, and mingle it co
piously with every kind of food they take.
Such are the various productions which were the chief object
of culture among the hunting tribes on the continent of Ameri-*
ca, and with a moderate exertion of active and provident indus
try, these might have yielded a full supply to the wants of a nu
merous people. But men, accustomed to the free and vagrant
life of hunters, are incapable of regular application to labor,
and consider agriculture as a secondary and inferior occupation.
Accordingly, the provision for subsistence, arising from cultiva
tion, was so limited and scanty among the Americans, that, up
on any accidental failure of their usual success in hunting, they
were often reduced to extreme distress.
Two circumstances, common to all the savage nations of
America, concurred with those already mentioned, not only in
rendering their agriculture imperfect, but in circumscribing their
power in all their operations. They had no tame animals ; and
they were unacquainted with the useful metals.
In other parts of the globe, man, in his rudest state appears^
as lord of the creation, giving law to various' tribes of animals,
which he has tamed and reduced to subjection. The Tartar fol
lows his prey on the horse which he has reared, or tends his nu
merous herds, which furnish him both with food and clothing;
the Arab has rendered the camel docile, and avails himself of its
persevering, strength ; the Laplander has formed the rein-deer to
be subservient to his will ; and even the people of Kamschatka
have trained their dogs to labor. This command over the infe
rior creatures is one of the noblest prerogatives of man, and
among the greatest efforts of his wisdom and power. Without
this, his dominion is incomplete. He is a monarch, who has no
subjects; a master, without servants, and must perform every
operation by the strength of his own arm.
This, perhaps, is the most prominent distinction between the
inhabitants of the ancient and new worlds, and a high pre-emi
nence of civilized men above such as continue rude. The great
est operations of man in changing and improving the face of na-

DISCOVERY AND EARLY SETTLEMENTS. 119
lure, as well as his most considerable efforts in cultivating the
earth, are accomplished by means of the aid which he receives
from the animals whom he has tamed and employs in labor. It
is by their strength that he subdues the stubborn soil, and con
verts the desert or marsh into a fruitful field. But man, in his
civilized state, is so accustomed to the service of the domestic
animals, that he seldom reflects upon the vast benefits which he
derives from it. If we were to suppose him, even when most
improved, to be deprived of their useful ministry, his empire
over nature must in some measure cease, and he would remain
a feeble animal, at a loss how to subsist, and incapable of at
tempting such arduous undertakings as their assistance enables
him to execute with ease.
It is a doubtful point, whether the dominion of man over the
animal creation, or his acquiring the use of metals, has contri
buted most to extend his power. The era of this important
discovery is unknown, and in our hemisphere very remote. It is
only by tradition, or by digging up some rude instruments of our
forefathers, that we learn that mankind were originally unac
quainted with the use of metals, and endeavoured to supply the
want of them by employing flints, shells, bones, and other hard
substances, for the same purposes which metals serve among po
lished nations. Nature completes the formation of some metals.
Gold, silver, and copper, are found in their perfect state in the
clefts of rocks, in the sides of mountains, or the channels of ri
vers. These were accordingly the metals first known, and first
applied to use. But iron, the most serviceable of all, and to
which man is most indebted, is never discovered in its perfect
form ; its gross and stubborn ore must feel twice the force of
fire, and go through two laborious processes, before it becomes fit
for use. Man was long acquainted with the other metals, be
fore he acquired the art of fabricating iron, or attained such in
genuity as to perfect an invention, to which he is indebted for
those instruments wherewith be subdues the earth, and com
mands all its inhabitants. But in this, as well as in many other
respects, the inferiority of the Americans was conspicuous. All
the savage tribes scattered over the continent and islands, were
totally unacquainted with the metals which their soil produces in
great abundance, if we except some trifling quantity of gold,
.which they picked up in the torrents that descended from their

120 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA,.
mountains, and formed into ornaments. Their devices to supply
this want of the serviceable meta's, were, extremely rude and
awkward. The most simple operation was to them an under
taking of immense difficulty and labor. To fell a tree with no
other instruments than hatchets of stone, was employment for a
month. To form a canoe into shape, and to hollow it, consu-"
mcd years ; and it frequently began to rot before they were able
to finish it. Their operations in agriculture were equally slow
nnd defective. In a country covered with woods of the hardest
timber, the clearing of a small field destined for culture required
the united efforts of a tribe, and was a work of much time and
great toil. This was the business of the men, and their indor
lence was satisfied with performing it in a very slovenly manner.
The labor of cultivation was left to the women, who, after dig
ging, or rather stirring the field, with wooden mattocks, and
stakes hardened in the fire, sowed or planted it ; but they were
more indebted for the increase to the fertility of , the soil, than
to their own rude industry.
From this, description of the mode of subsisting among the
rude American tribes, the form and genius of their political in
stitutions may be deduced, and we are enabled to trace various
circumstances of distinction between them and more civilized
nations. 1. Thev were divided into small independent communities,
While hunting is the chief source of subsistence, a vast extent
of territory is requisite for supporting a small number of pebple.
In proportion as men multiply and unite, the wild animals, on
which they depend for food, diminish, or fly at a greater dis
tance from the haunts of their enemy. The increase of a society
in this state is limited by its own nature, and the members of it
must either disperse, like the game which they pursue, or fall
upon some better method of procuring food than by hunting.
Beasts of prey are by nature solitary and unsocial ; they go not
forth, to the chase in herds, but delight in those recesses of the
forest where they can roam and destroy undisturbed. A nation
of hunters resembles them both in occupation and in genius.
They cannot form into large communities, because it would be
impossible to find subsistence; and they must drive to a distance
every rival who may encraach on those domains, which they
consider as their own. This was the state of all the American

DISCOVERY AND EARLY SETTLEMENTS. 121
tribes ; the numbers in each were inconsiderable, though scat
tered over countries of great extent; they were far removed
from one another, and engaged in perpetual hostilities or rival-
ship. In the provinces which border on the Orinoco, one may tra
vel several hundred miles in different directions, without finding
a single hut, or observing the footsteps of a human creature.
In North America, where the climate is more rigorous, and the
soil less fertile, the desolation is still greater. There, journeys
of some hundred leagues have been made through uninhabited
plains and forests. As long as hunting continues to be the chief
employment of man, to which he trusts for subsistence, he can
hardly be said to have occupied the earth.
2. Nations which depend upon hunting are in a great mea
sure strangers to the idea of property. As the animals on which
the hunter feeds are not bred under his inspection, nor nourish
ed by his care, he can claim no right to them, while they run
wild in the forest. Where game is so plentiful that it may be
catched with little trouble, men never dream of appropriating
what is of small value, or of easy acquisition. Where it is so
rare, that the labor or danger of the chase requires the united
efforts of a tribe, or village, what is killed is a common stock,
belonging equally to all who, by their skill or their courage,
have contributed to the success of the excursion.
Even agriculture has not introduced among them a complete
idea of property. As the men hunt, the women labor together,
and after they have shared the toils of the seed-time, they en
joy the harvest in common. Among some tribes, the increase
of their cultivated lands is deposited in a public granary, and di
vided among them at stated times, according to their wants.
Among others, though they lay-up separate stores, they do not
acquire such an exclusive right of property, that they can enjoy
superfluity, while those around them suffer want. Thus the dis
tinctions arising from the inequality of possessions are unknown.
The terms rich or poor enter not into their language, and being
strangers to property, they are unacquainted with what is the
great object of laws and policy, as well as the chief motive
which induced mankind to establish the various arrangements of
regular government.
3. Men in this state retain a high sense of equality and indc-
6. Q

122 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
pendence. Wherever the idea of property is not established,
there can be no distinction among men, but what arises from
personal qualities. These can be conspicuous only on such ocr
casions as call them forth into exertion.. In times of danger, or
in affairs of intricacy, the wisdom and experience of age are
consulted, and prescribe the measures which ought to be pursu
ed. When a tribe of savages takes the field against the enemies
of iheir country, the warrior of most approved courage leads
the youth to the combat. If they go forth in a body to the
chase, the most expert and adventurous hunter is foremost, and
directs their motions. But during seasons of tranquillity and in
action, when there is no occasion to display those talents, all
pre-eminence ceases. Every circumstance indicates, that all the
members of the community are on a level. They are clothed in
the same simple garb ; they feed on the same plain fare ; their
houses and furniture are exactly similar ; no distinction can arise
from the inequality of possessions ; whatever forms dependance
on one part, or constitutes superiority on the other, is unknown;
all are freemen, all feel themselves to be such, and assert, with
firmness, the rights which belong to that condition. This senti
ment of independence is imprinted so deeply in their nature,
t,hat no change of condition can eradicate it, and bend their
minds to servitude Accustomed to be absolute masters of their
own conduct, they disdain to execute the orders of another ; and
having never known control, they will not submit to correction.
Many of the Americans, when they found that they were treated
as slaves by the Spaniards, died of grief; many destroyed them
selves in despair.
4. Among people in this state, government can assume little
authority, and the sense of civil subordination must remain very
imperfect. Where the right of separate and exclusive possession
is not introduced, the great object of law and jurisdiction does
not exist. When the members of a tribe are called into the
field, either to invade the territories of their enemies, or to re
pel their attacks, when they are engaged together in the toil
and dangers of the chase, they then perceive that they are part
of a political body. They are conscious of their own connexion
with the companions in conjunction with whom they act; and
they follow and reverence such as excel iu conduct and valor.
Eut, during the intervals between 6uch common efforts, they"

DISCOVERY AND EARLY SETTLEMENTS. 123
seem scarcely to feel the ties of political union. No visible form
of government is established. The names of magistrate and
subject are not in use. Every one seems to enjoy his natural in
dependence almost entire. The right of revenge is left in private
hands. If violence is committed, or blood is shed, the commu
nity does not assume the power either of inflicting, or of mode
rating the punishment* It belongs to the family and friends of
the person injured or slain to avenge the wrong, or to accept of
the reparation offered by the aggressor. If the elders interpose,
it is \o advise, not to decide, and it is seldom their counsels are
listened to ; for as it is deemed pusillanimous to suffer an offen
der to escape with impunity, resentment is implacable and ever
lasting. The objeet of government among the American Indi
ans is rather foreign than domestic. They do not aim at main
taining interior order and police by public regulations, or the ex
ertions of any permanent authority, bat labor to preserve such
union among the*members of their tribe, that they may watch
the motions of their enemies, and act against them with con
cert and vigor.
Imperfect as these institutions may appear, several tribes were
not so far advanced in their political progress. Among all those
petty nations which trusted for subsistence entirely to fishing
and hunting, without any species of cultivation, the union was
so incomplete, and their sense of mutual dependance so feeble,
that hardly any appearance of government or order can be dis
cerned in their proceedings. Their wants are few, their objects
of pursuit simple ; they, form into separate tribes, and act toge
ther, from instinct, habit, or conveniency, rather than from any
formal concert and association. To this class belong the Cali-
fornians, several of the small nations in the extensive country of
Paraguay, some of the people on the banks of the Orinoco, and
on the river St. Magdalene, in the new kingdom of Granada.
In the new world, as well as in other parts of the globe} cold
or temperate countries appear to be the favorite seat of freedom
and independence. There the mind, like the body, is firm and
vigorous. There men, conscious of their own dignity, and ca
pable of the greatest efforts in asserting it, aspire to indepen
dence, and their stubborn spirits stoop with reluctance to the
yoke of servitude.
If we proceed from north to south, along the continent of

124 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
America, we shall find the power of those vested with authority"
gradually increasing, and the spirit of the people becoming more
tame and passive. In Florida, the authority of the sachems, cazi-
ques, or chiefs, was not only permanent, but hereditary. They
were distinguished by peculiar ornaments, they enjoyed preroga
tives of various kinds, and were treated by their subjects with
that reverence which people accustomed to subjection pay to a
master. Among the Natchez, a powerful tribe now extinct, for
merly situated on the banks of the Mississippi, a difference of rank
took place, with which the northern tribes were altogether unac
quainted. Some families were reputed noble, and enjoyed he
reditary dignity. The body of the people was considered as vile,
and formed only for subjection. This distinction was marked by
appellations which intimated the high elevation of the one state,
and the ignominious depression of the other. The former were
called Respectable; the latter Stinkards. The great chief, in
whom the supreme authority was vested, is reputed to be a be
ing of superior nature, the brother of the suh, the sole object of
their worship. They approach this great chief with religious ye*
neration, and honor him as the representative of their deity. His
will is a law, to which all submit with implicit obedience. The
lives! of his subjects are so absolutely at his disposal, that if any
one has incurred his displeasure, the offender comes with pro
found humility, and offers him his head. Nor does the dominion
of the chiefs end with their lives ; their principal officers, their
favorite wives, together with many domestics of inferior rank,'
are sacrificed at their tombs, that they may be attended in the
next world by the same persons who served them in this; and
such is the reverence in which they are held, that those victims
welcome death with exultation, deeming it a recompence of
their fidelity, and a mark of distinction, to be selected to ac
company their deceased master. Thus a perfect despotism, with
its full train of superstition, arrogance, and cruelty, is establish
ed among the Natchez, and by a singular fatality, that people
has tasted of the worst calamities incident to polished nations,
though they themselves are not far advanced beyond the tribes
around them in civility and improvement. In Hispaniola, Cuba,
and the larger islands, their caziques or chiefs, possessed exten
sive power. The dignity was transmitted by hereditary right
from father to son. Its honors and prerogatives were consider-

DISCOVERY AND EARLY SETTLEMENTS. 125
able. Their subjects paid great respect to the caziques, and
executed their orders without hesitation or reserve. They were
distinguished by peculiar ornaments, and in order to preserve or
augment the veneration of the people, they had the address to
call in the aid of superstition to uphold their authority. They
delivered their mandates as the oracles of heaven, and pretend
ed to possess the power of regulating the seasons, and of dispen
sing rain or sunshine, according as their subjects stood in need
of them.
For, even among nations in this state, the spirit of subjects
could not have been rendered so obsequious, or the power of
rulers so unbounded, without the intervention of superstition.
By its fatal influence, the human mind in every stage of its pro
gress, is depressed,v-and its native vigor and independence sub
dued. The only radical cure of this great evil, is, the general
diffusion of just and honorable ideas of the Supreme Being, pro
mulgated by the christian religion.
Superstition, which, in the rudest period of society, is either
altogether unknown, or wastes its force in childish unmeaning
practices, had acquired such an ascendant over those people of
America, who had made some little progress towards refinement,
that it became the chief instrument of bending their minds to an
untimely servitude, and subjected them, in the beginning of
their political career, to a despotism hardly less rigorous than
that which awaits nations in the last stage of their corruption
and decline.
V. After examining the political institutions of the rude na
tions in America, the next object of attention is their art of war,
or their provision for public security and defence. The small
tribes dispersed over America are not only independent and un
connected, but engaged in perpetual hostilities with one another.'
Though mostly strangers to the idea of separate property vested
in any individual, the rudest of the American nations are well
acquainted with the rights of each community to its own do-
- mains This right they hold to be perfect and exclusive, enti
tling the possessor to oppose the encroachment of neighbouring
tribes. As it is of the utmost consequence to prevent them frpm
destroying or disturbing the game in their hunting-grounds, they
guard this national property with a jealous attention. But as
their territories are extensive, and the boundaries of them not

126 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
exactly ascertained, innumerable subjects of dispute arise, which
seldom terminate without bloodshed. Even in this simple and
primitive state of society, interest is a source of discord, and
often prompts savage tribes to take arms in order to repel or pu
nish such as encroach on the forests or plains to which they
trust for subsistence.
But these unrelenting wars originate still more frequently from-
the desire of avenging an injury, and when the right of redress
ing his own wrongs is left in the hands of every individual, in
juries are felt with exquisite sensibility, and vengeance exercised
with unrelenting rancor. No time can obliterate the memory of
an offence, and it is seldom that it can be expiated but by the
blood of the offender. In carrying on their public wars, savage
nations are influenced by the same ideas, and animated with the
same spirit, as in prosecuting private vengeance. In small com
munities, every man is touched with the injury or affront offered
to the body of which he is a member, as if it were a personal-
attack upon his own honor -or safety. The desire of vengeance is
the first, and almost the only principle, which the Indian instils
into the minds of his children. This grows up with him as he
advances in life ; and as his attention is directed to few objects,
it acquires a degree of force unknown among men, whose pas
sions are dissipated and weakened by the variety of their occu
pations and pursuits. The desire of vengeance, which takes
possession of the heart of savages, resembles the instinctive rage
of an animal, rather than the passion of a man. It turns, with
undiscerned fury, even against inanimate objects. If hurt acci
dentally by a stone, they often seize it in a transport of anger,
and endeavour to wreak their vengeance upon it. If struck with
an arrow in a battle, they will tear it from the wound, break
and bite it with their teeth, and dash it to the ground.- With
respect to their enemies, the rage of vengeance knows no
bounds. When under the dominion of this passion, man be
comes the most cruel of all animals. He never pities, nor for
gives, nor spares.
A single warrior, prompted by caprice or revenge, will take
the field alone, and march several hundred miles to (surprise and
cut off a straggling enemy. The exploits of a noted warrior,
in such solitary excursions, often form the chief part in the his
tory of an American campaign j and their enemies connive at

DISCOVERY AND EARLY SETTLEMENTS. 127 .
snch irregular sallies, as they tend to cherish a martial spirit,
and accustom their people to enterprise and danger. But when
a war is national, and undertaken by public authority, the deli
berations are formal and slow. The elders assemble, they deli
ver their opinion in solemn speeches, they weigh with maturi
ty the nature of the enterprise, and balance its beneficial or
disadvantageous consequences with no inconsiderable portion of
political discernment or sagacity. Their priests and soothsayers
are consulted, and sometimes they ask the advice even of their
women. If the determination be for war, they prepare for it
with much ceremony. A leader offers to eonduct the expedi
tion, and is accepted. But no man is constrained to follow
him ; the resolution of the community to commence hostilities,
imposes no obligation upon any member to take part in the war.
Each individual is still master of his own conduct, and his en
gagement in the service is perfectly voluntary.
The maxims by which they regulate their military operations,
-though extremely different from those which take place among
more civilized and populous nations, are well suited to their own
political state, and the nature of the country in which they act.
They never take the field in numerous bodies, as it would re
quire a greater effort of foresight and industry than is usual
among savages, to provide for their subsistence, during a march
of- some hundred miles, through dreary forests, or during a
long voyage upon their lakes and rivers. Their armies are not
encumbered with baggage or military stores. Each warrior, be-.
sides his arms, carries a mat and a small bag of pounded maize,
and with these is completely equipped for any service. While at
a distance from the enemy's frontier, they disperse through the
woods, and support themselves with the game which they kill,
or the fish which they catch. As they approach nearer to the
territories of the nation which they intend to attack, they col
lect their troops, and advance with greater caution. Even in
their hottest and most active wars, they proceed wholly by stra
tagem and ambuscade. They place not their glory in attacking
their enemies with open force. To surprise and destroy is the
greatest merit of a commander, and the highest pride of his
followers. War and hunting are their only occupations, and
they conduct both with the same spirit and the same arts. They
follow the track of their enemies through the forest. They en-

128 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
deavour to discover their haunts, they lurk in some thicket near
to these, and, with the patience of a sportsman lying in wait
for game, will continue in their station day after day, until they
can rush upon their prey when most secure, and least able to re
sist them. If they meet no straggling party of the enemy, they
advance towards their villages, but with such solicitude to con
ceal their own approach, that they often creep on their hands
and feet through the woods, and paint their skins of the same
color with the withered leaves, in order to avoid detection. If
so fortunate as to remain unobserved,! they set on fire the
enemy's huts in the dead of night, and massacre the inhabi
tants, as they fly naked and defenceless from the flames. If
they hope to effect a retreat without being pursued, they car
ry off some prisoners, whom they reserve for a more dreadful
fate. But if, notwithstanding all their address and precau
tions, they find that their motions are discovered, that the
enemy has taken the alarm, and is prepared to oppose them,
they usually deem it most prudent to retire. They regard
it as extreme folly to meet an enemy who is on his guard,
upon equal terms, or to give battle in an open field. The most
distinguished success is a disgrace to a leader if it has been pur
chased with any considerable loss of his followers ; and they
never boast of a victory, if stained with the blood of their own
countrymen. To fall in battle instead of being reckoned an
honorable death, is a misfortune which subjects the memory
of a warrior to the imputation of rashness or imprudence.
But though vigilance and attention are the qualities chiefly
requisite, where the object of war is to deceive and to surprise;
and though the Americans, when acting singly, display an ama
zing degree of address in concealing their own motions, and
discovering those of an enemy, yet it is remarkable, that, when
they take the field in parties, they can seldom be brought to ob
serve the precautions most essential to their own security. Such
is the difficulty of accustoming savages to subordination, or to
act in concert, such is their impatience under restraint, and
such their cap; ice and presumption, that it is rarely they can be
brought to conform themselves to the counsels and directions of
their leaders. They never station sentinels around the place
where they rest at night ; and after marching some hundred
miles to surprise an enemy, are often surprised themselves,

DISCOVERY AND EARLY SETTLEMENTS. 129
and cut off, while sunk in as profound sleep as if they were not
within reach of danger.
If, notwithstanding this negligence and security, which often
frustrate their most artful schemes, they catch the enemy unpre
pared, they rush upon them with the utmost ferocity, and tear
ing off the scalps of all those who fall victims to their rage,
they carry home those strange trophies in triumph. These they
preserve as monuments, not only of their own prowess, but of
the vengeance which their arm has inflicted upon the people
who were objects of public resentment. They are still more so
licitous to seize prisoners. During their retreat, if they hope to
effect it unmolested, the prisoners are commonly exempt from
any insult, and treated with some degree of humanity, though
guarded with the most strict attention.
But after this temporary suspension, the rage of the conquer
ors rekindles with new fury. As soon as they approach their
own frontier, some of their number are dispatched to inform
their countrymen with respect to the success of the expedition.
Then the prisoners begin to feel the wretchedness of their con
dition. The women of the village, together with the youth
who have not attained to the age of bearing arms, assemble,
and forming themselves into two lines, through which the pri
soners must pass, beat and bruise them with sticks or stones in
va cruel manner. After this first gratification of their rage
against their enemies, follow lamentations for the loss of such
of their own countrymen as have fallen in the service, accom
panied with words and actions which seem to express the ut
most anguish and grief. But in a moment, upon a signal given,
their tears cease ; they pass with a sudden unaccountable tran
sition, from the depths of sorrow to transports of joy; and be
gin to celebrate their victory with all the wild exultation ot a
barbarous triumph. The fate of the prisoners remains still un
decided. The old men deliberate concerning it. Some are
destined to be tortured to death, in order to satiate the revenge
of the conquerors ; some to replace the members which the
community has lost in that or former wars. They who are re
served for this milder fate, are led to the huts of those whose
friends have been killed. The women meet them at the door,
and if they receive them, their sufferings are at an end. They
are adopted into the family, and according to their phrase, are
6. R

ISO HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
seated upon the mat of the deceased. They assume his namtfy
they hold the same rank, and are treated thenceforward with all
the tenderness due to a father, a brother, a husband, or a
friend. But if either from caprice, or an unrelenting desire of
revenge, the women of any family refuse to accept of the pri
soner who is offered to them, his doom is fixed. No power can
then save him from torture and death.
While their lot is in suspense, the prisoners themselves apr
pear altogether unconcerned about what may befal them. They
talk, they eat, they sleep, as if they were perfectly at ease,
and no danger impending. When the fatal sentence is intimated
to them, they receive it with an unaltered countenance, raise
their death song, and prepare to suffer like men. Their con-?
querors assemble as to a solemn festival, resolved to put the for-
' titude of the captive to the utmost proof. A scene ensues, the
bare description pf which is enough to chill the heart with horr
ror, wherever men have been accustomed, by milder institu
tions, to respect their species, and to melt into tenderness at
the sight of human sufferings. The prisoners are tied naked to
a stake, but sq as to be at liberty to move round it. All who
are present, men, women, and children, rush upon them like
furies. Every species of torture is applied that the rancour of
revenge can invetit. Some burn their limbs with red-hot irons,
some mangle their bodies with knives, others tear their flesh
from their bones, pluck out their nails by the roots, and rend
and twist their sinews. They vie with one another in refiner
ments of torture. Nothing sets bounds to their rage but the
dread of abridging the duration of their vengeance, by hastening
the death of the sufferers ; and such is their cruel ingenuity in
tormenting, that by avoiding industriously to hurt any vital part,
they often prolong this scene of anguish for several days. In
spite of all that they suffer, the victims continue to chant their
death-song with a firm voice; they boast of their own exploits;
they insult their tormentors for their want of skill in avenging
their friends and relations ; they warn them of the vengeance
which awaits them on account of what they are now doing,
and excite their ferocity by the most provoking reprpaches and
threats. To display undaunted -fortitude in such dreadful situ
ations is the noblest triumph of a warrior. To avoid the trial
by a voluntary death, or to shrink under it, is deemed infamous

DISCOVERY AND EARLY SETTLEMENTS. 131
and cowardly. If any one betrays symptoms of timidity, his
tormentors often dispatch him at once with contempt, as un
worthy of being treated like a man. Animated with those
ideas, they endure, without a groan, what it seems almost im
possible that human nature should sustain. They appear to be
not only insensible of pain, but to court it. ' Forbear/ said an
aged chief of the Iroquois, when his insults had provoked one
of his tormentors to wound him with a knife, ' forbear these
stabs of your knife, and rather let me die by fire, that those
dogs, your allies, from beyond the sea, may learn by my exam
ple to suffer like man.' This magnanimity, of which there are
frequent instances among the American warriors, instead of ex
citing admiration, or calling forth sympathy, exasperates the
fierce spirits of their torturers to fresh acts of cruelty. Weary at
length of contending with men whose constancy of mind they
cannot vanquish, some chief in a rage puts a period to their suf
ferings, by dispatching them with his dagger or club.
This barbarous scene is often succeeded by one no less shock
ing. As it is impossible to appease the fell spirit of revenge
which rages in the heart of a savage, this frequently prompts
the Americans to devour those unhappy persons who have been
the victims of their cruelty. In" the ancient world, tradition
has - preserved the memory of barbarous nations of cannibals,
who fed on human flesh. But in every part of the New World
there were people to whom this custom was familiar. It pre
vailed in the southern continent, in several of the islands, and
in various districts of North America. Even in those parts,
where circumstances, with which we are unacquainted, had in
a great measure abolished this practice, it seems formerly to
have been so well known, that it is incorporated into the idiom
of their language. Among the Iroquois, the phrase by which
they express their resolution of making war against an enemy is,
4 Let us go and eat that nation.' If they solicit the aid of a
neighbouring tribe, they invite it to ' eat broth made of the
flesh of their enemies.' Nor was the practice peculiar to rude
unpolished tribes; the principle from which it .took rise is so
deeply rooted in the minds of the Americans, that it subsisted
in Mexico, one of the "civilized empires in the New World,
and relics of it may be discovered among the more mild in
habitants of Peru, It was not scarcity of food, as some W-

132 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
thors imagine, and the important cravings of hunger, which
forced the Americans to those horrid repasts on their fellow-
creatures. Human flesh was never used as common food in any
country ; and the various relations concerning people who reck
oned it among the stated means of subsistence, flow from the
credulity and mistakes of travellers. The rancour of revenge
first prompted men to this barbarous action.
The people of South America gratify their revenge in a man
ner somewhat different, but with no less unrelenting rancour.
Their prisoners, after meeting, at their first entrance, with the
same rough reception as among the North Americans, are not
only* exempt from injury, but treated with the greatest kindness.
They are feasted and caressed, and some beautiful young wo
men are appointed to attend and solace them. It is not easy to
account for this part of their conduct, unless we impute it to a
refinement in cruelty. For, while they seem studious to attach
the captive to life, by supplying them with every enjoyment that
can render it agreeable, their dooni is irrevocably fixed. On a
day appointed, the victorious tribe assembles ; the prisoner is
brought forth with great solemnity ; he views the preparations
for the sacrifice with as much indifference as if he himself were
not the victim, and meeting his fate with undaunted firmness, is
dispatched with a single blow. The moment he falls, the wo
men seize the body, and dress it for the feast. They besmear
their children with the blood, in order to kindle in their bosoms
a hatred for their enemies, which is never extinguished ; and all
join in feeding upon the flesh with amazing greediness and ex
ultation. To devour the body of a slaughtered enemy, they
deem the most complete and exquisite gratification of revenge.
Wherever this practice prevails, captives never escape death;
but they are not tortured with the same cruelty as among tribes
which are less accustomed to such horrid feasts.
As the constancy of every American warrior may bp put to
such severe proof, the great object of military education and
discipline in the New World is to form the mind to sustain it.
When nations carry on war with open force, defy their enemies
to the combat, and vanquish them by the superiority of their
skill or courage, soldiers are trained to be active, vigorous, and
enterprising. But in America, where the genius and maxims of
war are extremely different, passive fortitude is. the quality in

DISCOVERY AND EARLY SETTLEMENTS. 133
highest estimation. Accordingly, it is early the study of the
Americans to acquire sentiments and habits which will enable
them to behave like men, when their resolution shall be put to
the proof; As the youth of other nations exercise themselves in
feats of activity and force, those of America vie with one ano
ther in exhibitions of their patience under sufferings. They
harden their nerves by those vohmtary trials, and gradually ac
custom themselves to endure the sharpest pain without com
plaining. A boy and girl will bind their naked arms together,
and place a burning coal between them, in order te try who
first discovers such impatience as to shake it off. All the trials,
customary in America, when a youth is admitted into the class
of warriors, or when a warrior is promoted to the dignity of
captain or chief, are accommodated to this ' idea of manliness.
They are not displays of valor, but of patience ; they are not
exhibitions of their ability to offend, but of their capacity to
suffer. The perpetual hostilities carried on among the American
tribes are productive of very fatal effects. Even in seasons of
public tranquillity, their imperfect industry does not supply them
"with any superfluous store of provisions ; but when the irrup
tion of an enemy desolates their cultivated lands, or disturbs
them in their hunting excursions, "such a calamity reduces a
community, naturally improvident and destitute of resources, to
extreme want. All the people of the district that is inva
ded are frequently forced to take refuge in woods or mountains,
which can afford them little subsistence, and where many of
them perish. Notwithstanding their excessive caution in con
ducting their military operations, and the solicitude of every
leader to preserve the lives of his followers, as the rude tribes in
America seldom enjoy any interval of peace, the loss of men
among them is considerable in proportion to the degree of po
pulation. Thus famine and the sword combine in thinning
their numbers. All their communities are feeble, and nothing
now remains of several nations, which were once considerable,
but -the name.
VI. The arts of rude nations, unacquainted with the use of
metals, hardly merit any attention on their own account, but
are worthy of some notice, as far as they serve to display the
genius and manners of man in this stage of his progress. The

134 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
first distress a savage must feel, will arise from the manner in
which his body is affected, by the heat, or cold, or moisture, of
the climate under which he lives ; and his first care will be to pro
vide some covering for his own defence. In the warmer and more
mild climates of America, none of the rude tribes were clothed.
To most of them nature had not even suggested any idea of impro
priety in being altogether uncovered. As, under a mild climate,
there was little need of any defence from the injuries of the air,
and their extreme indolence shunned every species of labor to which
it was not urged by absolute necessity, all the inhabitants of the
isles, and a considerable part of the people on the continent,
remained in this state of naked simplicity. Others were satisfi
ed with some slight covering, such as decency required. But,
though naked, they were not unadorned. They dressed their
hair in many different forms. They fastened bits of gold, or
shells, or shining stones, in their ears, their noses, and cheeks.
They stained their skins with a great variety of figures ; and
they spent much time, and submitted to great pain, in orna
menting their persons in this fantastic manner. Vanity, however,
which finds endless occupation for ingenuity and invention, in
nations where dress has become a complex and intricate art, is
circumscribed within so narrow bounds, and confined to so few
articles among naked savages, that they are not satisfied with
those simple decorations, and have a wonderful propensity to al
ter the natural form of their bodies, in order to render it, . (as
they imagine), more perfect and beautiful. This practice was
universal among the rudest of the American tribes. Their ope
rations for that purpose begin as soon as an infant is born. By
compressing the bones of the skull, while still soft and flexible,
some flatten the crown of their heads ; some squeeze them into
the shape of a cone; others mould them as much as possible into
a square figure ; and they often endanger the lives of their poste
rity by their violent and absurd efforts to derange the plan of
nature, or to improve upon her designs. But in all their at
tempts either to adorn or to new-model their persons, it seems
to have been less the object of the Americans to please, or to
appear beautiful, than to give an air of dignity and terror to
their aspect. Their attention to dress had more reference to war
than to gallantry. The difference in rank and estimation be
tween the two sexes was so great, as seems to have extinguish-

DISCOVERY AND EARLY SETTLEMENTS. 135
ed, in some measure, their solicitude to appear mutually amia
ble. The man deemed it beneath him to adorn his person, for
the sake of one on whom he was accustomed to look down as a
slave. It was when the warrior had in view to enter the coun
cil of his nation, or to take the field agaiust its enemies, that he
assumed his choicest ornaments, and decked his person with the
nicest care. The decorations of the women were few and sim
ple : whatever was precious or splendid was reserved for the men.
In several tribes, the women were obliged to spend a considera
ble part of their time every day in adorning and painting their
husbands, and could bestow little attention upon ornamenting
themselves. Among a race of men so haughty as to despise, or
so cold as to neglect them, the women naturally became careless
and slovenly, and the love of finery and show, which had been
deemed their favorite passion, was confined chiefly to the other
sex. To deck his person was the distinction of a warrior, as
well as one of his most serious occupations.
The next object to dress that will engage the attention of a sa<-
vage, is to prepare some habitation which may afford him shelter "
by day, and a retreat at night. Whatever is connected with his
ideas of personal dignity, whatever bears any reference to his
military character, the savage warrior deems an object of im
portance. Whatever relates Only to peaceable and inactive life,
he views with indifference. Hence, though finically attentive to
dress, he is little solicitous about the elegance or disposition of
hjs habitation. Savage nations, far from that state of improve
ment, in which the mode of living is considered as a mark of
distinction, and unacquainted with those wants which require a
variety of accommodation, regulate the construction of their
houses according to their limited ideas of necessity. Some of
the American tribes were so extremely rude, and had advan
ced so little beyond the primeval simplicity of their nature, that
they had no houses at all. During the day they take shelter
from the scorching rays of the sun under thick trees ; at night
they form a shed with their branches and leaves. In the rainy
season they retire into coves, formed by the hand of nature, or
hollowed out by their own industry. Others, who have no fixed
abode, and roam through the forest in quest of game, sojourn
in temporary huts, which they erectwith little labor, and aban
don without any concern. The inhabitants of those vast plains,

136 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
which are deluged by the overflowing of rivers during the heavy
rains that fall periodically between the tropics, raise houses upon
piles fastened in the ground, or place them among the boughs of
trees, and are thus safe amidst that wide -extended inundation
which surrounds them. Such were the first essays of the rudest
Americans towards providing themselves with habitations. But
even among tribes which are more improved, and whose resi
dence is become altogether fixed, the structure of their houses is
extremely mean and simple. They are wretched huts, some'-
times of an oblong and sometimes of a circular form, intended
merely for Shelter, with no view to elegance, and little attention
to conveniency. The doors are so low, that it is necessary to
bend, or to creep on the hands and feet, in order tp enter them.
They are without windows, and have a large hole in the middle
of the roof, to convey out the smoke. To follow travellers in
other minute circumstances of their descriptions, is not only he-
neath the dignity of history, but would be foreign to the object
of my researches. One circumstance merits attention, as it is
singular, and illustrates the character of the people. Some of
their houses are so large, as to contain accommodation for four
score or a hundred persons. These are built for the reception of
different families, which dwell together under the same roof, and
often around a common fire, without separate apartments, or
any kind of screen or partition between the spaces which they
respectively occupy. As soon as men have acquired distinct
ideas of property, or when they are so much attached to their
females, as to watch them with care and jealousy, families of
course divide, and settle in separate houses, where they can se
cure and guard whatever they wish to preserve. This singu
lar mode of habitation among several people of America, may
therefore be considered not only as the effect of their imperfect
notions concerning property, but as a proof of inattention and in
difference towards their women. If they had not been accustom
ed to perfect equality, such an arrangement could not have ta
ken place. If their sensibility had been apt to have taken
alarm, they would not have trusted the virtue of their women
amidst the temptations and opportunities of such a promiscuous
intercourse. At the same time, the perpetual concord which
reigns in habitations where so many families are crowded toge
ther, is surprising, and affords a striking evidence that they

DISCOVERY AND EARLY SETTLEMENTS. i37
must be people of either a very gentle, or of a very phlegmatic
temper, who, in such a situation, are unacquainted with ani
mosity, brawling, and discord.
After making some provision for his dress and habitation, a
savage will perceive the necessity of preparing proper arms with
which to assault or repel an enemy. Clubs made of some heavy
wood, stakes hardened in the -fire, lances whose heads were arm
ed with flint, or the^bones of some -animal, are weapons known
to the rudest nations. All these, however, were of use only in
close encounter. But men wished to annoy their enemies while
at a distance, and the bow and arrow is the most early invention
for this purpose. This weapon is in the hands of people whose
advances in improvement are extremely inconsiderable, and is
familiar to the inhabitants of every quarter of the globe. It is
remarkable, however, that some tribes in America were so des
titute of art and ingenuity, that they had not attained to the
discovery of this simplej invention, and seem to have been unac
quainted with the use of any missive weapon. The sling, though
in its construction not more complex than the bow, and among
many nations of equal antiquity, was little known to the people
of North America, or the islands, but appears to have been used
by a few tribes in the southern continent.
Among people who had hardly any occupation but war or
hunting, the chief exertions of their intention, as well as indus
try, were naturally directed towards these objects. With respect
to every thing else, their wants and desires were so limited, that
their invention was not upon the stretch. As their food and ha
bitations are perfectly simple, their domestic utensils are few
and rude. Some of the southern tribes had discovered the art
of forming vessels of earthen ware, and baking them in the sun,
so as they .could endure the fire. In North America, they hol
lowed a piece of hard wood into the form of a kettle, and filling
it with water, brought it to boil, by putting red-hot stones into
it. These vessels they used in preparing part of their provi
sions ; and this may be considered as a step towards refinement
and luxury ; for men in their rudest state, were not acquainted
with any method of dressing their victuals, but by roasting them
on the fire ; and, among several tribes in America, this is the
•nly species of cookery yet known.
But the masterpiece of art among the savages of America, is
6. s

138 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
the construction of their canoes. An Esquimaux, shut up in
his boat of whalebone, covered with the skins of seals, can brave
that stormy ocean on which the barrenness of his country com
pels him to depend for the chief part of his subsistence. The
people of Canada venture upon their rivers and lakes in boats
made of the bark of trees, and so light that two men can carry
them, wherever shallows or cataracts obstruct the navigation.
In these frail vessels they undertake and accomplish long voy
ages. But, in every attempt towards industry among the Americans,
one striking quality in their character is conspicuous. They ap
ply to work without ardor, carry it on with little activity, and,
like children, are easily diverted from it. Even in operations
which seem the most interesting, and where the most powerful
motives urge them to vigorous exertions, they labor with a lan
guid listlessness. Their work advances under their hand with
such slowness, that an eye-witness compares it to the impercep
tible progress of vegetation. They will spend -so many years in
forming a canoe, that it often begins to rot with age before they
finish it. They will suffer one part of a roof to decay and pe
rish, before they complete the other. The slightest manual
operation consumes an amazing length of time, and what jn po
lished nations would hardly be an effort of industry, is among
savages an arduous undertaking.
VII. No circumstance respecting rude nations has been the
object of greater curiosity than their religious tenets and rites ;
and none, perhaps, has been so imperfectly understood, or re-.
presented with so little fidelity.
There are two fundamental doctrines, upon which the whole
system of religion, as far as it can be discovered by the light of
nature, is established. The one respects the being of a God,
the other the future existence of man.
The idea of creation is so familiar wherever the mind is enlar
ged by science, and illuminated with revelation, that we seldom
reflect how profound and abstruse this idea is, or consider what
progress man must have made in observation and research, be
fore he could arrive at any knowledge of this elementary princi
ple in religion. Accordingly, several tribes have been discovered
in America, which have no idea whatever, of a Supreme Being,
and no rites of religious worship. Inattentive to that iriagnifi-

DISCOVERY AND EARLY SETTLEMENTS. 139
cent spectacle of beauty and order presented to their view, un
accustomed to reflect either upon what they themselves are, or
to enquire who is the author of their existence, men in their sa
vage state, pass their days like the animals round them, without
knowledge or veneration of any superior power. Some rude
tribes have not in their language any name for the Deity, nor
have the most accurate observers been able to discover any prac
tice or institution which seemed to imply that they recognised
his authority, or were solicitous to obtain his favor. It is how
ever only among men in the most uncultivated state of nature,
and while their intellectual faculties are so feeble and limited as
hardly to elevate them above the irrational creation, that we
discover this total insensibility to the impressions of any invisible
power. Among some of the American tribes, still in the infancy of
improvement, we discern apprehensions of some invisible and
powerful beings. These apprehensions are originally indistinct
and perplexed, and seem to be suggested rather by the dread of
impending evils, than to flow from gratitude for blessings receiv
ed. While nature holds on her course with uniform and undis
turbed regularity, men enjoy the benefits resulting from it, with
out enquiring concerning its cause. But every deviation from
this regular course rouses and astonishes them. When they be
hold events to which they are not accustomed, they search for
the reasons of them -with eager curiosity. Their understanding
is unable to penetrate into these ; but imagination, a more for
ward and ardent faculty of the mind, decides without hesitation.
It ascribes the extraordinary occurrences in nature to_the influ
ence of invisible beings, and supposes that the thunder, the hur
ricane, and the earthquake, are effects of their interposition.
Some such confused notion of spiritual or invisible power, super
intending over those natural calamities which frequently desolate
the earth, and terrify its inhabitants, may be traced among ma
ny rude nations. But besides this, the disasters and dangers of
savage life are so many, and men often find themselves in situa
tions so formidable, that the mind, sensible of its own weakness,
has no resource but in the guidance aiid protection of wisdom
and power superior to what is human. Dejected with calamities
which oppress him, and exposed to dangers which he cannot re
pel, the savage no longer relies upon himself; he feels his own

140 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
impotence, and sees no prospect of being extricated, but by the
interposition of some unseen arm. Hence, in all unenlighten
ed nations, the first rites or practices which bear any resem
blance to acts of religion, have it for their object to avert evils
which men suffer or dread. The manitous or okkis of the North
Americans were amulets or charms, which they imagined to be
of such virtue, as to preserve the persons who reposed confidence
in them from every disastrous event ; or they were considered as
tutelary spirits, whose aid they might implore in circumstances
of distress. The cemis of the islanders were reputed by them to
be the authors of every calamity that afflicts the human race;
they were represented under the most frightful forms ; and relii
gious homage was paid to them with no other view than to ap- .
pease these furious deities. Even among those tribes whose reli
gious system was more enlarged, and who had formed some con
ception of benevolent beings, which delighted in conferring be
nefits, as well as of malicious powers prone to inflict evil ; su
perstition still appears as the offspring of fear, and all its efforts
were employed to avert calamities. They were persuaded that
their good deities, prompted by the beneficence of their nature,
would bestow every blessing in their power, without solicitation
or acknowledgment ; and their chief anxiety was to soothe and
deprecate the wrath of the powers whom they regarded as the
enemies of mankind.
Such were the imperfect conceptions of the greater part of the
Americans with respect to the interposition of invisible agents,-
and such almost universally, was the mean and illiberal object of
their superstitions. Were we to trace back the ideas of other na
tions to that rude state in which history first presents them to
our view, we should discover a surprising resemblance in- their
tenets and practices ; and should be convinced, that, in similar
circumstances, the faculties of the human mind hold nearly the
same course in their progress, and arrive at almost the same
conclusions. The impressions of fear are conspicuous in all the
systems of superstition formed in this situation. The most ex
alted notions of men rise no higher than to a perplexed appre
hension of certain beings, whose power, though supernatural, is
limited as well as partial, a fact which strongly proves the ne
cessity of a divine interposition, to reveal even the essential
truths of natural religion.

DISCOVERY AND EARLY SETTLEMENTS. 141
The tribe of the Natchez, and the people of Bogota, had
advanced beyond the other uncultivated nations of America in
their ideas of religion, as welL as in their political institutions ;
and it is no less difficult to explain the cause of this distinction
than of that which we have already considered. The sun was
the chief object of religious worship among the Natchez. In
their temples, which were constructed with some magnificence,
and decorated with various ornaments, according to their mode
of architecture, they preserved a perpetual fire? as the purest
emblem of their divinity. Ministers were appointed to watch
and feed this sacred flame. The first function of the great chief
of the nation, every morning, was an act of obeisance to the
sun ; and festivals returned at stated seasons, which were cele
brated by the whole community with solemn but unbloody rites.
This is the most refined species of superstition known in Ameri
ca, and perhaps, one of the most natural as well as most sedu
cing. The sun is the apparent source of the joyy fertility, and
life diffused through nature ; and while the human mind, in its
earlier essays towards enquiry, contemplates and admires his uni
versal and animating energy, its admiration is apt to stop short
at what is visible, without reaching to the unseen cause ; and
pays that adoration to the most glorious and beneficial work of
Godj which is due only to him who formed it. As fire is the
purest and most active of the elements, and in some of its qua
lities and efffects resembles the sun, it was not improperly cho
sen to be the emblem of his powerful operation. The ancient
Persians, a people far superior, in every respect, to that rude
tribe whose rites I am describing, founded their religious system
on similar principles, and established a form of public worship
less gross and exceptionable than that of any people destitute of
guidance from revelation. This surprising coincidence in senti
ment between two nations, in such different states of improve
ment, is one of the many singular and unaccountable circum
stances which occur in the history of human affairs.
Among the people of Bogota, the sun and moon were like
wise the chief objects of veneration. Their system of religion"
was more regular and complete, though less pure, than that of
the Natchez. They had temples, altars, priests, sacrifices, and
that long train of ceremonies, which superstition introduces
wherever she has fully established her dominion over the minds

142 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
of men. But the rites of their worship were cruel and bloody.
They offered human victims to their deities, and many of their
practices nearly resembled the barbarous institutions of the
Mexicans. With respect to the other great doctrine of religion, concern
ing the future life of man, the sentiments of the Americans
were more united. The human mind, even when least impro
ved and invigorated by culture, shrinks from the thoughts of an
nihilation, and looks forward with hope and expectation to a
state of future existence. This sentiment, resulting from a se
cret consciousness of its own dignity, from an instinctive longing
after immortality, is universal, and may be deemed natural.
Upon this are founded the most exalted hopes of man in his
highest state of improvement ; nor has nature withheld from
him this soothing consolation, in the most early and rude period
of his progress. We can trace this opinion from one extremity
of America to the other ; in some regions more faint and obscure,
in others more perfectly developed, hut no where unknown. The
most uncivilized of its savage tribes do not apprehend death as
the extinction of being. All entertain hopes of a future and
more happy state, where they shall be for ever exempt from the
calamities which imbitter human life in its present condition.
This future state they conceive to be a delightful country, blessed
with perpetual spring, whose forests abound with game, whose ri
vers swarm with fish, where famine is never felt, and uninterrupN
ed plenty shall be enjoyed without labor or toil. But as men, in
forming their first imperfect ideas concerning the invisible world,
suppose that there they shall continue to feel the same desires,
and to be engaged in the same occupations, as in the present
world ; they naturally ascribe eminence and distinction, in that
state, to the same qualities and talents which are here the object
of their esteem. The Americans, accordingly, allotted the high
est place, in their country of spirits, to the skilful hunter, to the
adventurous and successful warrior, and to such as had tortu
red the greatest number of captives, and devoured their flesh.
These notions were so prevalent, that they gave rise to an uni
versal custom, which is at once the strongest evidence that the
Americans believe in a future state, and the best illustration of ,
what they expect there. As they imagine that departed spirits
begin their career anew in the world whither they are gone, that

DISCOVERY AND EARLY SETTLEMENTS. 143
their friends may not enter defenceless and unprovided, they bu
ry together with the bodies of the dead, their bow, their arrows,
and other weapons used in hunting or war ; they deposit in their
tombs the skins or stuffs of which they make garments, Indian
corn, manioc, venison, domestic utensils, and whatever is reck
oned among the necessaries in their simple mode of life. In
some provinces, upon the decease of a cazique or chief, a certain
number of his wives, of his favorites, and of his slaves, were
put to death, and interred together with him, that he might ap
pear with the same dignity in his future station, and be waited
upon by the same attendants. This persuasion is so deep rooted,
that many of the deceased person's retainers offer themselves as
voluntary victims, and court the privilege of accompanying their
departed master as an high distinction. It has been found diffi
cult, on some occasions, to set bounds to this enthusiasm of af
fectionate duty, and to reduce the train of a favorite leader to
such a number as the tribes could afford to spare.
Among the Americans, as well as other uncivilized nations,
many of the rites and observances which bear some resemblance
to the acts of religion, have no connexion with devotion, but
proceed from a fond desire of prying into futurity. Wherever
superstition is so established as to form a regular system, this
desire of penetrating into the secrets of futurity is connected
with it. Divination becomes a religious act. Priests, as the mi
nisters of heaven, pretend to deliver its oracles to men. They are
the only soothsayers, augurs, and magicians, who profess the
sacred and important art of disclosing what is hid from other
eyes. But, among rude nations, who pay no veneration to any su
perintending power, and who have no established rites or minis
ters of religion, their curiosity to discover what is future and un
known is cherished by a different principle, and derives strength
from another alliance. As the diseases of men, in the savage
state, are (as has been already observed) like those of the ani
mal creation, few, but extremely violent, their impatience under
what they suffer, and solicitude for the recovery of health, soon
iuspired them with extraordinary reverence for such as pretended
to understand the nature of their maladies, and to be possessed
of knowledge sufficient to preserve or deliver them from their
sudden and fatal effects. These ignorant pretenders, however,

144 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
were such utter strangers to the structure of the human frame,
as to be equally unacquainted with the causes of its disorders,
and the manner in which they will terminate. Superstition,
mingled frequently with some portion of craft, supplied what they
wanted in science. They imputed the origin of diseases to super
natural influence, and prescribed or performed a variety of myste
rious rites, which they gave out to be of such efficacy as (o re
move the most dangerous and inveterate maladies. The credu
lity and love of the marvellous, natural to uninformed men, fa
vored the deception, and prepared them to be the dupes of those
impostors. Among savages, their first physicians are a kind of
conjurers or wizards, who boast that they know what is past,
and can foretel what is to come. Incantations, sorcery, and
mummeries of diverse kinds, no less strange than frivolous, are
the means which they employ to expel the imaginary causes of
malignity ; and relying upon the efficacy of these, they pre
dict, with confidence, what will be the fate of their deluded
patients. The native Americans did not long suppose the efficacy of
conjuration to be confined to one subject. They had recourse to
it in every situation of danger or distress. When the events of
war were peculiarly disastrous, when they met with unforeseen
disappointments in hunting, when inundations or drought threat
ened their crops with destruction, they called upon their conju
rers to begin their incantations, in order to discover the causes
of those calamities, or to foretel what would be their issue.
Their confidence in this delusive art gradually increased, and
manifested itself in all the occurrences of life. When involved
in any difficulty, or about to enter upon any transaction of mo
ment, every individual regularly consulted the sorcerer, and der
pended upon his instructions to extricate him from the former,
as well as to direct his conduct in the latter. Even among the
rudest tribes in America, superstition appears in this form, and
divination is ap art in high esteem. To discern, and to wor
ship a superintending and beneficent power, is an evidence of
the enlargement and maturity of the human understanding; a
vain desire of prying into futurity, is the error of its infancy,
and a proof of its weakness.
From this weakness proceeded likewise the faith of the Ame
ricans in dreams, their observation of omens, their attention

DISCOVERY AND EARLY SETTLEMENTS. 145
to the chirping of birds, and the cries of animals, all which
they suppose to be indications of future events ; and if any one
of these prognostics is deemed unfavorable, they instantly aban
don the pursuit of those measures on which they are most ea
gerly bent.
If we would form a complete idea of the uncultivated nations
of America, we must not pass unobserved some singular cus
toms, which, , though universal and characteristic, could not be
reduced, with propriety, to any of the articles into which we
have divided our inquiry concerning their manners.
Among the American Indians, the love of dancing is a favo
rite passion. As, during a great part of their time, they lan
guish in a state of inactivity and indolence, without any occu
pation to rouse or interest them, they delight universally in a
pastime which calls forth the active powers of their nature into
exercise. The Spaniards, when they first visited America, were
astonished at the fondness of the natives for dancing, and be
held with wonder a people, cold and unanimated in most of theit
other pursuits, kindle into life, and exert themselves with ardor,
as often as this favorite amusement recurred. Among them, in
deed dancing ought not to be denominated an amusement. It is a
serious and important occupation, which mingles in every occur
rence of public or private life. If any intercourse be necessary
between two American tribes, the ambassadors of the one ap
proach in a solemn dance, and present the calumet or emblem
of peace; the sachems of the other receive it with the same ce
remony. If war is denounced against an enemy, it is by a
dance, expressive of the resentment which they feel, and of the
vengeance which they meditate. If the wrath of their gods is
to be appeased, or their beneficence to be celebrated; if they
rejoice at the birth of a child, or mourn the death of a friend;
they have dances appropriated to each of these situations, and
suited to the different sentiments with which they are then ani
mated. If a person is. indisposed, a dance is prescribed as the
taost effectual means of restoring him to health ; and if he him
self cannot endure the fatigue of such an exercise, tha physician
or conjuror performs it in his name, as if the virtue of his ac
tivity could be transferred to his patient.
All their dances are imitations of some action ; and though
-the music by which they are regulated is extremely simple and
7. T

146 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
tiresome to the ear by its dull monotony, some of their dances
appear wonderfully expressive and animated. The war-dance is,
perhaps, the most striking. It is the representation of a com
plete American campaign. The departure of the warriors from
their village, their march into the enemy's country, the caution
with which they encamp, the address with which they station
some of their party in ambush, the manner of surprising the
enemy, the noise and ferocity of the combat, the scalping of
those who are slain, the seizing of prisoners, the triumphant
return of the conquerors, and the torture of the victims, are
successively exhibited. The performers enter with such enthu
siastic ardor into their several parts ; their gestures, their coun
tenance, their voice, are so wild and so well adapted to their
various situations, that Europeans can hardly believe it to
be a mimic scene, or view it without emotions of fear and
horror. An immoderate love of play, especially at games of hazard,
which seems to be natural to all people unaccustomed to the oc
cupations of regular industry, is likewise universal among the
Americans. The same causes which so often prompt persons in
civilized life, who are at their ease, to have recourse to this ¦
pastime, render it the delight of the savage. The former are
independent of labor, the latter do not feel the necessity of it ;
and as both are unemployed, they run with transport to what
ever is interesting enough to stir and to agitate their minds,
Hence the Americans, who, at other times, are so indifferent,
so phlegmatic, so silent, and animated with so few desires, as
soon as they engage in play, become rapacious, impatient, noU
6y, and almost frantic with eagerness. Their furs, their domes
tic utensils, their clothes, their arms, are staked at the gaming
table, and when all is lo6t, high as their sense of independence
is, in a wild emotion pf despair or of hope, they will often risk
their personal liberty upon a single cast.
From causes similar to those which render them fond of play,
the Americans are extremely addicted to drunkenness. It seems
to have been one of the first exertipns of human ingenuity to
discover some composition of an intoxicating quality ; and there
is hardly any nation so rude, or so destitute of invention, as not
to have succeeded in this fatal research. The most barbarous of
the American tribes have been so unfortunate as to attain this

DISCOVERY AND EARLY SETTLEMENTS. 147
art ; and even those which are so deficient in knowledge as to be
Unacquainted with the method of giving an inebriating strength
to liquors by fermentation, can accomplish the same end by
other means. The people of the islands of North America, and
of California, used for this purpose the smoke of tobacco, drawn
up with a certain instrument into the nostrils, the fumes of
which ascending to -the brain, they felt all the transports and
frenzy of intoxication. In almost every other part of the new
world, the natives possessed the art of extracting an intoxica
ting liquor from maize ot the manioc root, the same substances
which they convert into bread. The operation by which they
effect this, nearly resembles the common one of- brewing, but
with this difference, that in place of yeast, they use a nauseous
infusion of a certain quantity of maize or manioc chewed by
their women. The saliva excites a strong fermentation, and in
a few days the liquor becomes fit for drinking. It is not disa
greeable to the taste, and when swallowed in large quantities is1
of an intoxicating quality. This is the general beverage of the
Americans, which they distinguish by various names, and for
which they feel such a violent and insatiable desire, as it is not
easy either to conceive or describe.
While engaged in war or in the chase, the savage is often in
the most interesting situations, and all the powers of his nature
are roused to the most vigorous exertions. But those animating
scenes are succeeded by long intervals of repose, during which
the warrior meets with nothing that he deems of sufficient dig
nity or importance to merit his attention. He languishes and
mopes in this season of indolence. The posture of his body is
an emblem of the state of his mind. In one climate, cowering
over the fire in his cabin ; in another, stretched under the shade
of some tree, he dozes away his time in sleep, or in an unthink
ing joyless inactivity, not far removed from it. As strong liquors
awake him from this torpid state, give a brisker motion to his
spirits, and enliven him more thoroughly than either dancing or
gaming, his love of them is excessive. A savage, when not en
gaged in action, is a pensive melancholy animal; but as soon as
he tastes, or has a prospect of tasting, the intoxicating draught,
he becomes gay and frolicsome. Whatever be the occasion or
pretext on which the Americans assemble, the meeting always
terminates in a debauch, Many of their festivals.have no other

148 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
object, and they welcome the return of them with transports of
joy. As they are not accustomed to restrain any appetite, they
set no bounds to this. The riot often continues, without inter
mission, several days ; and whatever may be the fatal effects of
their excess, they never cease from drinking as long as one drop
of liquor remains. The persons of greatest eminence, the most
distinguished warriors, and the chiefs most renowned for their
wisdom, have no greater command of themselves than the most
obscure member of the community. Their eagerness for present
enjoyment renders them blind to its fatal consequences; and
those very men, who, in other situations, seem to possess a force
of mind more than human, are in this instance inferior to chil
dren in foresight, as well as consideration, and mere slaves of
brutal appetite. When their passions, naturally strong, are
heightened and inflamed by drink, they are guilty of the most
enormous outrages, and the festivity seldom concludes without
deeds of violence or bloodshed.
As the Europeans early found it their interest to supply them
with spirituous liquors, drunkenness soon became as universal
among them as among their countrymen to the south ; and their
women having acquired this new taste, indulge it with as little
decency and moderation as the men.
It were endless -to enumerate all the detached customs which
have excited the wonder of travellers in America ; but we cannot
omit one, seemingly as singular as any that has been mentioned.
When their parents and other relations become old, or labor un
der any distemper which their slender knowledge of the healing
art cannot remove, the Americans cut short their days with a vi
olent -hand, in order to be relieved from the burden of support
ing and tending them. This practice prevailed among the ruder
tribes, in every part of the continent, fiom Hudson's Bay to the
river De La Plata.
The same hardships and difficulty of procuring subsistence,
which deter savages, in some cases from rearing their chil
dren, prompt them to'destroy the aged and infirm. The decli
ning state of the one is as helpless as the infancy of the other.
The former are no less unable than the latter to perform the
functions that belong to a warrior or hunter, or to endure those
various distresses in which savages aie so often involved, by their
»wn want of foresight and industry. Their relations feel this,

DISCOVERY AND EARLY SETTLEMENTS. 149
and, incapable of attending to the wants or weaknesses of
others, their impatience under an additional burden prompts
them to extinguish that life which they find it difficult to sus
tain. This is not regarded as a deed of cruelty, but as an act
of mercy. An American, broken with years and infirmities,
conscious that he can no longer depend on the aid of those
around him, places himself contentedly in the grave ; and it is
by the hands of his children, or nearest relations, that the-
thong is pulled, or the blow inflicted, which releases him for
ever from the sorrows of life.
In contemplating the inhabitants of a country so widely ex
tended as America, great attention should be paid to the diver
sity of climates under which they are placed. The influence of
this I have pointed out with respect to several important parti
culars which have been the object of research ; but, even where
it has not been mentioned, it ought not to be overlooked. The
provinces of America are of such different temperament, that
this alone is sufficient to constitute a distinction between their
inhabitants. In every part of the earth where man exists, the
power of climate operates, with decisive influence, upon his
condition and character. In those countries which, approach
near to the extremes of heat or cold, this influence is so conspi
cuous as to strike every eye. Whether we consider man merely
as an animal, or as being endowed with rational powers, which
fit him for activity and speculation, we shall find that he has
uniformly attained the greatest perfection of which his nature is
capable, in the temperate regions of the globe. There his con
stitution is most vigorous, his organs most acute, and his form
most beautiful. There, too, he possesses a superior extent of
capacity, greater fertility of imagination, more enterprising cou
rage, and a sensibility of heart which gives birth to desires, not
only ardent, but persevering. In this favorite situation he has
displayed the utmost efforts of his genius, iu literature, in poli ¦
cy, in commerce, in war, and in all the arts which improve or
embellish life.
This powerful operation of climate is felt most sensibly by
rude nations, and 'produces greater effects than in societies more
improved. The talents of civdized men are continually exerted
in rendering their own condition more comfortable; and by their
ingenuity and inventions, they can, in a great measure, sup-

150 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERfCA.
ply the defects, and guard against the inconveniencies, of any
climate. But ,the improvident savage is affected by every cir
cumstance peculiar to his situation. He takes no precaution ei
ther to mitigate or to improve it. Like a plant or an animal,
he is formed by the climate under which he is placed, and feels
the full force of its influence.
In surveying the rude nations of America, this natural dis
tinction between the inhabitants of the temperate and torrid
zones is very remarkable. They may, accordingly, be divided
into two great classes. The one comprehends all the North
Americans, from the river St. Lawrence to the Gulf of Mexico,
together with the people of Chili, and a few small tribes to
wards the extremity of the southern continent. To the other
belong all the inhabitants of the islands, and those settled in
the various provinces which extend from the Isthmus of Darien
almost to the southern confines of Brazil, along the east side of
the Andes. In the former, which comprehends all the regions
of the temperate zone that in America are inhabited, the human
species appears manifestly to be more perfect. The natives are
more robust, more active, more intelligent, and more coura
geous. They possess, in the most eminent degree, that force of
mind and love of independence which I have pointed out as the
chief virtues of man in his savage state. They have defended
their liberty with persevering fortitude against the Europeans,
who subdued the other rude nations of America with the great
est ease. The natives of the temperate zone are the only peo
ple in the new world who are indebted for their freedom to their
own valor. The North Americans, though long encompassed by
three formidable European powers, still retain part of their ori
ginal possessions, and continue to exist as independent nations.
The people of Chili, though early invaded, still maintain a gal
lant contest with the Spaniards, and have set bounds to their
encroachments ; whereas, in the warmer regions, men are more
feeble in their frame, less vigorous in the efforts of their mind,
of a gentle but dastardly spirit, more inslaved by pleasure, and '
more sunk in indolence. Accordingly, it is in the torrid zone
that the Europeans have most completely established their do
minion over America ; the most fertile and desirable provinces in
it are subjected to their yoke ; and if several tribes there still
enjoy independence, it is either because they have never been

DISCOVERY AND EARLY SETTLEMENTS. 151
attacked by an enemy already satiated with conquest, and pos
sessed of larger territories than he was able to occupy, or be
cause they have been saved from oppression by their remote and
inaccessible situation.
Conspicuous as this distinction may appear between the inha
bitants of those different regions, it is not, however, universal.
Moral and political causes, as I have formerly observed, affect
the disposition and character of individuals as well as nations,
still more powerfully than the influence of climate. There are,
accordingly, some tribes, in yarious parts of the torrid zone, pos
sessed of courage, high spirit, and the love of independence, in
a degree hardly inferior to the natives of more temperate cli
mates. We are too little acquainted with the history of those
people,- to be able to trace the several circumstances in their
progress and condition, to which they are indebted for this' re
markable pre-eminence. The fact, nevertheless, is certain. As
early as the first voyage of- Columbus, he received information
that several of the islands were inhabited by the Caribbees, a
fierce race of men, nowise resembling their feeble and timid
neighbours. In his second expedition to the new world, he
found this information to be just, and was himself a witness of
their intrepid valor. The same character they have maintained
invariably in all subsequent contests wkh the people of Europe ;
and, even in our own times, we have seen them make a gal-
bint stand in defence of the last territory which the rapacity of
their invaders had left in their possession. Some nations in
Brazil were no less eminent for vigor of mind, and bravery in
war. The people of the Isthmus of Darien boldly met the Spa
niards in the field, and frequently repelled those formidable in
vaders. Other instances might be produced. It is not attend
ing to any single cause or principle, how powerful and extensive
soever its influence may appear, that we can explain the actions,
or account for the character, of men. Even the law of climate,
more universal, perhaps, in its operation than any that affects
the human species, cannot be applied, in judging of their con
duct, without many exceptions.*
* It may perhaps be interesting to subjoin to the preceding delineation of
the American Aborigines from the pen of the celebrated Dr. Robertson ; an
account of an interesting scene relative to this singular people, which occur
red in the town of Leeds, in the course of the year 181 S. Six Indians of the

152 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
Seneca nation, from Buffaloe Creek, on the Lake Erie, had been exhibiting
in that place scenic representations of their public dances, and mode of war
fare — when it occurred to some benevolent individuals, that an useful impres
sion might be made on the minds of these "' Commoners of Nature," by hold
ing a Council or Public Talk with them. This suggestion was carried into
effect, and this friendly Council was held at the Concert- Room in that place,
on Monday, the 27th of April. The following account of it is extracted
from an highly respectable provincial paper — the Leeds Mercury ; the accu
racy of this account the writer of this note can, confidently vouch for, as
he was an eye-witness of this interesting spectacle.
The sit Indians and their Chief dressed in their national costume, and
adorned vtiih all the ornaments which appertained to their respective rank,
were placed at the head of a long table in the upper end of the room ; round
this table were also seated some of the more- elderly of the audieni e, whilst
the room was thronged with persons of every varying religious profession,
who though differing as much in their opinions as in their outward garb,
were united in one friendly and benevolent feeling towards those " Stran
gers from the Wilderness." It was indeed a spectacle most singularly in-
teresting. To behold the warriors of the least polished tribe of North
America mingling in peaceful conference with the citizens of the most po
lished and enlightened nation ; to hear them detail the tradition of their re
mote ancestors, explain their present manners and customs, or observe them
listening with grave attention to the counsel and advice which were offered
to them, was a scene equally adapted to impress the imagination, and affect
the heart.
After the object of the meeting had been briefly stated, the Speech of the
^Indian Chief to the Quakers, as it bad been translated by the Interpreter,
was read by the Rev. W. Eccles, as was also the answer written by a friend,
and the reply of the Chief.
These papers having been read, it was signified to the Indians that the
company would be gratified by some account of their traditions, the cus
toms of their country, and their mode of barter : after a short pause, Se-
nunggise, the Chief Warrior rose, and with a good deal of dignity and na-'
tural eloquence addressed tlte meeting: The Interpreter explaining what he
said, paragraph by paragraph; the following is the substance of this ad
dress : —
Indian Chief — Brothers, I am glad to see so large a company—I am
glad to see so many of the friends of our nation the Quakers, they have been
very kind to us whilst we have been iu this place, and we thank them for
their kindness : we are also glad to see the ministers and every other perso
now present, and we thank them all for the attention they have shown to us.
Brothers, we understand that you wish to be informed respecting our tradi.
tions and our customs, and we wish tp tell you what we know about them.
Brothers, we wish you to understand that we have no written histories, our
old men tell us what has happened in their time, and also what their fatheri
have told to them ; and that which they tell to usj we record in our memory
and in our breast. Brothers, it is our belief that the Great Spirit made the
world and all men, and we are iufofmed by our old men that the earth
when first made was covered with water, but that some dry earth adhered to
the body of a turtle, and that this earth increased more and more, until "3t
last it became large enough to contain men and animals. The Great Spirit

DISCOVERY AND EARLY SETTLEMENTS. 153
then made a man, and told him that he was to cultivate the. ground, but the
man did not do this, and when the Great Spirit came to visit him he found
the man lonesome and slothful ; the Great Spirit asked him why he had not
watered and cultivated the ground ? The man replied, that he was lonesome
and cheerless, and that he had no companion. "Th.e Great Spirit then went
away, but returned when the man was asleep, and took out of his side a small
tender rib, which he made into a woman, and told the man that she was to
be his wife. The Great Spirit then told the woman that she was to cultivate
the ground, to mind the house and take care of the children, and she was to
be very choice of the health of her children, and choice of her husband; the
Great Spirit also told the man that he was to provide food for his family by
hunting, and that he was to he choice of his wife and children and take great
care ol them. The Great Spirit then left the man and the woman for some
time, and the man hunted aud caught plenty of game, and the woman culti
vated the ground and took care of children ; and when the Great Spirit vi
sited them again he found them very comfortable, and they enjoyed them
selves very much, and the Great Spirit was pleased with them. Brothers,
hearken — we were once a numerous people, our hunting grounds were large,
and we had plenty of game ; but we are now few in number, our hunting
grounds are no looger sufficient to furnish game to maintain the few that re
main of us. We have been advised since we came hare to grow com, to
breed cattle, and to build warm houses. We think that this is good counsel,
and we are determined to follow it and to cultivate the ground. Brothers,
our ancient men have told us that the white people came to our country from
beyond the sea, and we know that within our own memory they have great
ly increased. Brothers, the Great Spirit has given much mere to the white
men than he has to the red men; he has given to the former plenty of corn
and cattle, and warm houses, and woollen clothes; and he has also given
them the Great Book ; but to ushis red children be has not given these things;
he has not even given us the hatchet, we have only the beasts of the forest to
chase, our huts are made of sods, and we are clothed only with the skins of
the wild beasts. Brothers, perhaps you were not always so well off an you
arc now, perhaps you had not always such good houses as this, (which seems
to be a new one) and your forefathers perhaps might once be in the same si
tuation as the red people are now.
The Chief then after a short pause proceeded to explain the manners in
which fire was procured before they had flints and steel. He also stated the
names of the six warriors, and explained the meaning of their names with a
short description of their place of abode. The Brother-in-Law of the Chief
then rose, and stated the name of the Chief, who had omitted to mention his
own name, because added this warrior, it was not the custom in our nation for
the person who speaks ever to name himself. The mode in which the"y sign
their names was then explained, their signature consists of an hyeroglyphic
representation of the idea included in the name, for example the Chief Se-
nunggise, (Long Horns) was represented by an animal with long horns; and
the other warriors, in a similar manner. The Chief in answer to some ques
tions put by Mr, Hardy, detailed the mode in which marriages were con
tracted and solemnized among them.
The Rev. D. M' Nichol, one of the preachers in the Methodist Connexion,
stated that he intended to put a series of questions to the Chief, on the sub
ject of re'igion. The first question was, whether it was their belief that the
7. IT

154 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
Great Spirit was the Creator of them and all men." When this question was
explained to them, the Chief rose, and with great animation remonstrated"
on the impropriety of putting a question which had already been fully answer
ed by him. In conclusion he said, " It is our belief that tbe Great Spirit
created all men, and every thing." The Interpreter having stated that they
were averse to being questioned on the subject of religion, added, "he
seems rather warm." The other questions were, in consequence, abandon
ed: it was thought desirable, however, to ask, what idea they had of a fu
ture state.
Ne guye-et-twassa, or Little Bear, brother-in law to the Chief, rose and
said, Brothers, when a man dies, his body is put into the ground, where it
corrupts ; but the blood, and with the Hood the minds of good men are ta
ken up to the Great Spirit, where they are verj' comfortable and happy: but
the blood of wicked men is not taken up to the Great Spirit, but remains in .
the grave, and perishes with the -body. By good men, he explained that he
meant men who hunted for their families, and loved their children, and took
care of them ; and who did not rob nor lie; and by wicked men the reverse
of this, men who were habitually liars or cheats, and who did not care, or
provide for their families. The Indians then exhibited the progress they
had made in attaining the rudiments of the English Language, the knovv.-
ledge of the alphabet, and in which, considering the very short time they
had devoted to it, their progress was very rapid! A Bible was then given
to each of the Indians by Mr. Eccles, one of the secretaries to the Leeds
Auxiliary Bible Society. They appeared to be much gratified with this pre
sent, and the. brother-in-law to the Chief, made a very good, and even eloquent
address, expressive of their gratitude for the kindness, with which they
had been treated, and of their determination to learn to read and under
stand the Great Book, and to recommend to their countrymen also to learn
st; and to cultivate their lands, and subsist by agriculture, instead of hunt
ing- He concluded with expressing his good wishes for the happiness and
welfare of the whole auditory, with an earnestness which indicated the
warmth of his own feelings. The meeting then broke up, after a continu
ance of nearly three hours, and every individual departed highly gratified
by the singular but interesting scene which had been exhibited ; and proba
bly disposed to think better, and more kindly of this singular rate of aien.

HISTORY

OF

NORTH AMERICA.
GEOGRAPHY AND NATURAL HISTORY.
SECTION II.
1 HE southern limit of this extensive continent is clearly defi
ned by the Strait of Magellan, which separates it from the
island Terra del Fuego ; but its extent towards the north is not
ascertained with the same precision. As no traveller or naviga
tor has "ever proceeded to its northern extremity, its extent can
be computed only so far as it has been imperfectly explored. In
this view it suffices to estimate the whole length of this conti
nent from 72° north latitude, to 54° south latitude, compri
sing an extent of 126°, equal to 7,560 geographical, or near
ly 8,800 British, miles. The greatest breadth of North Ameri
ca, from the eastern part of Greenland, to the western promon
tory of Alaska, may be computed at about 3,900, and the great
est breadth in South America, from Cape St. Roque in the east,
to Cape Blanco in the west, cannot be reckoned at less than
2,850 geographical miles.
The southern division of the new continent extends, from
about 12° north, to 54° south latitude; and from about 34° 30'
to about 80° west longitude. Its greatest length from north
to south may therefore be computed at 3,960, and its greatest
breadth at 2,880 geographical miles. The same geographical
obscurity attends this as the northern division of this vast conti-

156 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
nent. Many parts of the interior yet remain unexplored. This
division of America is distinguished by the largest rivers and the
highest mountains on the face of the globe. The principal river
is that of Amazons, so called from a female tribe inured to arms,
said to' have been discovered on its banks by the first navigators,
although the whole story has probably originated in fiction, or at
least in mistake. The native term by which it is designated
is the Maranon ; and by this it ought to be called, rather
than by the ridiculous appellation imposed by ignorance. This
is distinguished by geographers as the largest river in the world ;
and the estimate is undoubtedly just, when breadth as well
as length is considered. Its source is not yet exactly aicer-
tained5 as two large rivers, the Maranon and the Ucaial, join
in composing this vast body of water. Of these, the Maranon
seems to make the greatest circuit ; but the Ucaial appears to
be the principal stream, and its sources are more remote. The
Maranon issues from the Lake of Lauricocha, near the city of
Guanuco, in the parallel of 11° south. The whole length of
its course, before it falls into the Atlantic, is computed at about
3,800 miles. The Apurimac, the remotest branch of the Ucai
al, is represented as rising near the town of Arequipa, on the
west of the lake of Titicaca, in 16° 30' -south latitude. The
course of the Ucaial lies through the unexplored forests of a re
mote region, and is consequently unknown to geography^ The
Maranon is better known, and has been repeatedly described.
It was navigated by Condamine from near the town of Jaen,
its remotest navigable extent. Proceeding north-east, it passes
through the' Andes at a place called Pongo, which displays a
sublime and magnificent scenery : the river, which is there con
tracted from 500 to 50 yards in breadth, being confined within
two parallel walls of almost perpendicular rock. The Apurimac
also bursts through the Andes ; but its passage, which must also
exhibit striking scenes, yet remains unexplored. After the juno
tion of the two great rivers, the Ucaial and Maranon, their uni
ted stream receives from the north and the south many other
large rivers, which being likewise composed of a number of in
ferior streams, water a vast extent of country. The breadth of
the Maranon at the Portuguese boundary is about a league, and
it is seldom less than two miles. The depth is in many places

GEOGRAPHY AND NATURAL HISTORY. 15%
more than 100 fathoms ; and the swell of the tide is percepti
ble at the distance of 600 miles from the sea.
The Rio de la Plata is, in magnitude and extent of course,
the second river in South America. It is formed of the con
junct waters of the Paraguay, the Parana, the Pilcomayo, and
the Urucuay, the two former of which are the principal streams.
The Parana, which rises in the mountains of Brazil in latitude
19° south, appears to be the most considerable river, although
the Paraguay seems little inferior. The Rio de la Plata is inter
spersed with numerous islands. The breadth of the restuary is
such, that land cannot be discovered on either side from a ship
in the middle of the stream ; and vessels ascend as high as the
town of Assumption, at the distance of near 1200 miles from
the sea.
The third great river of South America, is the Oronoko,
which, according to La Cruz, rises in latitude 5Q 10' north.
Its course is exceedingly tortuous, and it receives many large ri
vers. One striking peculiarity is observable in regard to the Ma
ranon, or river of Amazons, and the Oronoko. The streams is
suing from the lake of Parima form three different communica
tions between those immense rivers, and that lake may be re
garded as the centre of this singular connexion. It is easy to
conceive what great advantages those countries may, at some
future period, derive from this remarkable inland navigation,
which nature has prepared, and art may exceedingly improve.
The mountains of South America may be ranked among the
grandest objects of nature. They are the loftiest on the face of
the globe, and are intermixed with the most sublime and terrific
volcanos. The immense chain of the Andes extends from the
southern almost to the northern extremity of this continent, at
the medial distance of about 100 miles from the western coast,
beginning near the Strait of Magellan, and expiring on the west
side of the Gulf of Darien, the whole length, allowing for the
windings, being not less than 4,500 miles. The highest sum
mits are those of Peru, near the equator : towards the north and
the south, but especially the latter, their height greatly decreas
es. About two degrees north of the equator, it diminishes near
ly one fourth : and the Andes of Peru are asserted to be near se
ven times as high as those of Chili. Chimborazo, the most ele
vated summit of the Andes, is about 100 English miles to the

158 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
south of Quito/ in the northern division of Peru. Its height1
was computed by the French mathematicians to be 20,280 feet
above the level of the sea. The next in elevation is supposed to
be Cotopashi, a tremendous volcano, which is said to eject
stones of eight or nine feet in diameter, to the distance of more
than nine miles, a circumstance which would be absolutely in
credible, were it not attested by so respectable, an authority.*
The height of Cotopashi is estimated at about 18,600 feet. It
is situated about twenty-five miles to the south-east of Quito.
The mountain of Sanguay, the summit of which is covered with
perpetual snow, is a constant volcano ; and its explosions are
sometimes so tremendous, as to be heard at the distance of 120
miles. Many other summits of prodigious elevation, noticed by
Bouguer, Ulloa, and others, might be added to those already
mentioned. It ought, however, here to be observed, that the lof
tiest mountains of the Andes rise from the elevated plain of Qui
to, which constitutes more than one-third of the computed
height. Chimborazo being, as already observed, 20,280 feet
above the sea, is therefore about a fourth part higher than Mont
Blanc ; but if its elevation be computed from the level of the
plain, it is considerably lower than that celebrated mountain of
the old continent. Besides the Andes, the chief of the South
American mountains, there are, according to Humboldt, three
remarkable ranges lying in a direction from west to east, near
ly parallel to the equator, the first between 9° and 10° ; the
second between 3° and 7* north latitude ; and the third be
tween 15° and 20" south. This author's account, however, is
extremely confused ; and of these chains, only the first and its
projecting branches can be said to be sufficiently known to merit
a place in, geography. These northern mountains extend in dif
ferent branches from the Andes eastward into the province of
St. Martha. The two Sierra Nevadas of St. Martha and Meri-
da, are supposed to be about 13,000 or 14,000 English feet
above the level of the sea. Ulloa says, that the mountains of
St. Martha are visible from the ocean, and perpetually covered
with snow. In Terra Firma, Brazil, and some other parts of
this vast continent, are several ranges of mountains, which are
little known, and do not indeed appear very considerable.
The whole interior of South America, comprising the vast coun-
* Bouguer, p. 66.

GEOGRAPHY AND NATURAL HISTORY. 159
tries watered by the Rio de la Plata, the river of Amazons, the
Oronoko, and all their tributary streams, is an immense plain,
of which many extensive districts are annually inundated by
their redundant waters.
The most considerable lake yet known on this division of the
new continent, is that of Titicaca, in Peru, which is of an oval
figure, and about 240 miles in circuit. There are, however,
many temporary lakes of great extent, which exist only during
the annual inundations of the great rivers, that deluge large
tracts of country.
Most of the islands of any importance contiguous to the coast
of South America, are claimed by Spain ; but none of them are
very -considerable, and most of them are neglected. In a brief
enumeration, beginning with those in the Pacific Ocean, it will
suffice to mention the most considerable, and those that are the
best known. The principal is that of Chiloe, in the bay of
Chonos, being about 140 British miles in length, by about 30
in breadth. In the Gulf of the Holy Trinity, is the island of
St. Martin, on which are some Spanish settlements of little im
portance. The pleasant and healthful island of Juan Fernandez
appears to be uninhabited : but it is famous for being some years
the solitary -abode of Alexander Selkirk, a Scotchman, who was
wrecked on its coast, and whose singular adventure served, in
the hands of Daniel De Foe, as the basis of the celebrated
romance of Robinson Crusoe. It is celebrated in the voyage
of Lord Anson, who found it an excellent place of refresh
ment for his men . when suffering extremely from the scur
vy. Terra del Fuego, at the southern extremity of the South
American continent, is generally considered as one island, but is
in reality an assemblage of no fewer than eleven, separated by
narrow straits. The rigor of the climate has already been noti
ced. This miserable region is entirely left to the natives, who
are of a middle stature, with broad flat faces, and use for cloth
ing the skins of seals. Fish, especially shell-fish, appears to be
their only food ; and they live in villages, consisting of mi
serable huts of a conical form: To the north-east of Terra del
Fuego, and nearly opposite to the strait of Magellan, are Falk-.
land islands, in 52° south latitude. These islands had been dis
covered by Sir Richard Hawkins so early as the year 1594. Be
ing of little value, however, they were long neglected. But ir.

160 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
1764, Commodore Byron was sent to take possession of them in
virtue of the British claim, and a small settlement was formed
at a place called Port Egmont, of which the English were in
1770 dispossessed by the Spaniards ; and the islands were soon
after ceded to Spain.
To the south-east of Falkland islands is another island of con
siderable extent, discovered in 1675 by La Roche; and in 1775
named Georgia by Captain Cook. It may be described in a few
words, by calling it the land of ice and snow. The shores, how
ever, are- frequented by penguins and seals; and the lark' is
not uncommon. Further to the south-east are other islands still
more dreary, being the throne of perpetual winter. Of the few
islands on the eastern coast of South America, that of Trinida-
da may be reckoned the chief. The next are those of Saremburg
and Ferdinando Noronha. On the northern shore, the most ce
lebrated is the French island of Cayenne.
NORTH AMERICA.
This division which is by far the most important, is bounded
on the east by the Atlantic; and on the west by the Great, or
Pacific Ocean. On the south it is understood to extend to the
vicinity of Panama, the province of Veragua being universally
considered as part of North America.* The northern limits
have not yet been clearly ascertained ; but as it is improbable
that a slip of land, on the N. W. of Hudson's Bay, should ex
tend far to the north, the limit may probably be discovered
about 74° or 75°. In the mean time 72 degrees may be safe
ly assumed; whence to the southern boundary, about N. lat.
7° 30', as marked in the map of Lacruz, there will be 64| de
grees, or 3,870 geographical miles; more than 4,500 British.
The breadth from the promontory of Alaska to the extreme
* In the large map of South America, published at Madrid in 1775, by
Don Juan de la Cruz^ Cano, y Olmedilla, Geographer to His Catholic Ma
jesty, the province of Panama extends to the Bay del Almirante, in the
north, and includes the Bay of Panama, in the south, Sant Yago, in Vera
gua, being the first town in North America. According to the maps of Lo
pez there is a chain of mountains running north and south called Sierras de
Canatagaa, and ending in the point of Higuera; which, dividing the pro
vince of Panama and Veragua, ffcrms a natural boundary between Norih
and South America,

GEOGRAPHY AND NATURAL HISTORY. lGl
point of Labrador, or the Cape of St. Charles, will, by some
what of a solecism, exceed the length, which last is however
considered as forming part of the length of the general conti
nent. If it should be discovered that Greenland is united to
arctic lands of America, as Kamschatka is, for instance, to Asia,
both the length and breadth will be greatly increased.
The general features of North America, which cannot be
brought within the descriptions of particular countries, are chief
ly the vast lakes, or inland seas, and the extensive rivers which
pervade this portion of the globe.
Among the inland seas of North America may be mentioned
the gulfs of Mexico, California, and St, Lawrence ; with Hud
son's Baj', or rather Hudson's Sea,* and what is called the strait
of Davis, which is probably a sea of communication between
the Atlantic and the arctic oceans. The existence of Baffin's
Bay is doubtful ; but there are several lakes of so great a size
that they deserve to be distinguished by the name of seas, par
ticularly Lakes Superior, Michigan, and Huron, which consti
tute ohe piece of water, about 350 miles in length ; and the
great Slave Lake in the north is laid down as about 220 British
miles in length. In Asia, no hesitation has been shown by geo^
graphers, in applying the name of Sea to the Lake of Aral,
which is about 200 miles in length; and the sea of Baikal about
350. But the latter is not above 35 miles in breadth, while the
Lake Superior is more than 100.
Of all these inland seas the Gulf of Mexico is the most cele
brated, as lying in a most favorable climate, and presenting at
its entrance that grand Archipelago of North American islands
called the West Indies. From this gulf a singular current sets
towards the N. E., this current called the gulf stream passes to
the banks of Newfoundland, and is supposed to proceed from
the accumulation of waters by the trade wind. It is distinguish
ed from other parts of the ocean, by the gulf weed ; is. eight or
ten degrees warmer ; never sparkles in the night ; and when it
arrives in cool latitudes produces thick fogs. The trade wind,
Or; diurnal sea-breeze, is from the east, and its collateral points,
with little intermission, for nine months of the year. To the

« The Bay of Biscay and that of Bengal may perhaps authorise the re
ceived appellation ; but these bays should rather be called leas or gulfi, if
there were any uniformity in geographic termt.
7. x

l§2 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
south of the Gulf of Mexico is the Bay of Honduras, well
known in the annals of English commerce. The Caribbean sea
may perhaps more properly be considered as belonging to South
America. The opposite shore presents the Gulf of California, which
seems an estuary of two large rivers. The jealous silence of the
Spaniards concerning their American possessions affords but few
materials for a proper illustration of their geography. The Gulf
of St. Lawrence is the well known estuary of a river of' the
same name, generally frozen from December to April. This no
ble gulf is closed by the island of Newfoundland, and by nume
rous sand banks, particularly what is called the Great Bank.
This celebrated fishing station is more than 400 miles iu length,
by about 140 iu breadth ; the water being from 22 to 50 fa
thoms, with a great swell, and frequently a thick fog. The
chief fishery begins on the 10th of May, and continues till the
end of September, the greatest number of cod fish, taken by a
single fisherman, being 12,000, but the average is 7,000; the
largest fish was four feet three inches in length, and weighed
forty-six pounds. More than 500 English vessels commonly fish
on the bank ; and the number used sometimes to be equalled
by that of the French, who had formerly a settlement in th§
neighbouring isle of Cape Breton.
There are also great fisheries on the banks which lie off the
coasts of Nova Scotia, particularly on that called Saddle Island
Bank, or rather from the French Sable, the Isle of Sand, which
is in the shape of a bow, about eight leagues in length, with a
narrow pond of sea-water in the middle, filled every tide by a
narrow inlet.
Hudson Sea, may be considered as extending from the en
trance of Hudson Strait, to its western extremity, that is, from
Ion. 65° W. to Ion. 95°, or thirty degrees of longitude, which in
lat. 60° will be 900 geographical miles, or about 1050 British,
exceeding the Baltic in length as well as breadth. The shores
are generally rocky and precipitous, and the climate almost the
perpetual abode of winter, the hot weather in June being brief
though violent. This sea is far from abundant in fish, but the
common whale is found ; and the Beluga, or white whale, is ta
ken in considerable numbers in June, when the rivers in the,
south have discharged their ice, Large sturgeons are also caught

GEOGRAPHY AND NATURAL HISTORY. 163
near Albany. Shell fish are extremely rare, common muscles
alone being frequent. The large track of territory on the south
of this sea is the property of the Hudson's Bay Company, whose
chief profits are derived from furs. This sea has been repeatedly
s'xplored for a N. W. passage, perhaps as little to be expected
as a passage from the Baltic into the Arctic ocean, or the Eux-
ine. Chesterfield inlet is a singular strait stretching far to the
west, but terminates in a magnificent lake of fresh water, com
municating with this sea by what may be called a broad river ;
the adjacent land being level,, rich in pasture, and abounding
with deer. But it is probable that in the N. E. Hudson Sea
opens into the Arctic ocean, where the" perpetual ice presents a
complete barrier to commercial yiews.
The Gulf, or Sea of Davis may be considered as part of the
Sea of Hudson, and probably joins the Arctic ocean. What is
called Baffin's Bay is laid down as extending from 46° W. long.
to 94°, which, supposing the degree only 16 geographical miles,
would yield a length of 768 geographical miles ; and the breadth
on the west side is represented as little inferior. As this sea is
perhaps wholly imaginary, it is unnecessary to enlarge on the
subject : and it shall only be observed that the west coast of
Greenland has not been explored beyond lat. 72°, or Sander
son's Hope, and an old Danish settlement called Opernevig. In
the midst of Baffin's Bay many maps present a large tract
called James Island, which perhaps is a promontory passing
from Greenland.*
As in the general description of Asia not only the Caspian
Sea, but those of Aral and Baikal have been commemorated, so
the vast lakes, above mentioned, may here be considered as de
tached inland seas.
The Lake Superior, Michigan, and Huron, in this point of
view, form one large inland sea, which might be called the Sea
of Canada, or that of Huron. This expansion of water, is
about 350 miles in length, and more than 100 at its greatest
breadth : according to the French charts that part of this sea,
which is called Lake Superior, is not less than 1500 miles in
circumference. The greater part of the coast seems to consist of
rocks and uneven ground, like those of the Sea of Baikal. The
* It is rather a large isle in the north of Hudson Sea, laid rt» wn from err*.
neous observations.

164 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
water is pure and transparent ; and the bottom generally Compo
sed of large rocks. There are several islands, one of which
called Minong is about 60 miles in length : the savages suppose
that these islands are residences of the Great Spirit. More than
thirty rivers fall into this lake, some of them of considerable
size, but the geography is far from being perfect. The banks of
a river on the N. W. abound with native copper. The chief
fish are sturgeon and trout ; the latter being caught at all sea
sons, and said to weigh from twelve to fifty pounds. This part
of the Sea of Canada opens into the Lake Huron, by the Straits
of St. Mary, about 40 miles in length, and in some places only
one or two miles in breadth ; with a Rapid towards the N. W.
extremity, which may however be descended by canoes, and the
prospects are here delightful. The storms on this large expanse
of water are as dangerous as those on the ocean, the waves break
ing more quick, and running nearly as high. The circumference
of that part called Lake Huron is said to be about 1000 miles;
and on the northern side are some islands called Manatulan, im
plying the place of spirits. Another short strait leads into the
third lake called Michigan, also navigable for ships of any bur
then. When the population of North America shall have diffu
sed itself towards the west, these lakes may become the seats of
flourishing cities, and of arts and sciences now unknown in Eu
rope. Their latitude corresponds with that of the Black Sea,
and the Gulf of Venice ; nor are the rigors of the Baltic here
to be apprehended. From the descriptions it does not appear
that these lakes are ever impeded with ice.*
The Lake of Winnipeg or Winipfc may also well aspire to
the name of an inland sea :f but it yields considerably to the
great Slave lake, or rather sea, a recent discovery, from which
Mackenzie's river extends its course to the .Arctic ocean. The
Slave sea, according to Mr. Arrowsmith's maps, is about 200
miles in length, by 100 at its greatest breadth. The geography
of this lake is rather imperfect ; and it is not improbable that
* Mr. Morse, p. 136, says that these lakes never freeze, but the communi
cations between them are frozen for a considerable time ; and Hudson River
is impeded with ice for three months in the year. The climate however gra.
dually becomcB warmer.
+ According to Mr. Mackenzie, p. lxii., this lake discharges itself into
Hudson's Bay, by the river Nelson, an elongation of the Saikashawin. See
Arrowsmith's map of North America, edition ISO'?.

GEOGRAPHY AND NATURAL HISTORY. 165
other large lakes may be found in the western regions of North
America, which remain unexplored.
The smaller lakes shall be briefly described in the divisions of
territory to which they belong. It may here suffice to observe
that there are probably above two hundred lakes of considerable
size in North America; a singularity which distinguishes it from
any other portion of the globe. A theorist might perhaps consi-
der,this an additional argument for the novelty of this continent,
as the waters still cover so much of its surface.
In the ancient continent the rivers and mountains are usually
confined within the limits of some great state, to which of course
the description becomes appropriated. But in America these
features are on so great a scale, that they pervade immense ter
ritories, divided among distinct nations, whence it would be dif
ficult to assign a just arrangement. The river of Amazons, for
example, pursues a long course in Spanish America, and an equal
extent through the ^Portuguese territory, if the French do not
now claim the northern shore. The river Mississippi, or rather
Missouri, belongs in part to jthe American States and in part to
Spain. Amidst this uncertainty, it seems preferable to describe
the chief rivers and mountains under the general heads of North
and South America.
Length of course seems universally and justly- considered as
the chief distinction of a liver, which becomes noble as it were
by the extent of its genealogy; while the great breadth and
depth of a short stream issuing from a lake would deserve little
attention. In this point of view the Mississippi is the most dis
tinguished among the rivers of North America; its source having
already been traced to three small lakes above lat. 47°, and it
enters the sea in lat. 29°, after a comparative course of about
1400 British miles. Nay of late the sources of the Missouri (the
chief stream) have been detected about 600 British miles more
remote. The account of this noble river shall be transcribed
from a recent system of American geography, as the author mu3t
have had several opportunities of being well informed.
"The Mississippi receives the waters of the Ohio and Illinois,
and their numerous branches from the east ; and of the Missou
ri, and other rivers, from the west.* These mighty streams
united are borne down with increasing majesty, through vast fo-
* It is now known that the Missouri receives the Mississippi.

166 HISTORY OV NORTH AMERICA.
rests and meadows, and discharged into the Gulf of Mexico.
The great length and uncommon depth of this river, says Mr.
Hutchins, and the excessive muddiness and salubrious quality of
its waters after its junction with the Missouri, are very singular.
The direction of the channel is so crooked, that from New Or
leans to the mouth of the Ohio, a distance which does not ex
ceed 460 miles in a straight line, is about 856 by water. It
may be shortened at least 250 miles, by cutting across eight or
ten necks of land, some of which are not thirty yards wide.
Charlevoix relates that jn the year 1722, at Point Coupee, or
Cut Point, the river made a great turn ; and some Canadians,
by deepening the channel of a small brook, diverted the waters
of the river into it. The impetuosity of the stream was so vio
lent, and the soil of so rich and loose a quality, that in a short
time the point was entirely cut through, and travellers saved
fourteen leagues of their voyage. The old bed has no water in
it, the times of the periodical overflowings only excepted. The
new channel has been since sounded with a line of thirty fa
thoms, without fin-iing bottom. Several other points of great
extent, have, in like manner, been since cut off, and the river
diverted into new channels.
" In the spring floods the Mississippi is very high, and the
current so strong, that it is with difficulty it can be ascended;
but this disadvantage is remedied in some measure by eddies,
or counter currents, which are generally found in the bends close
to the banks of the river, and assist the ascending boats. The
current at this season descends at about the rate of five miles an
hour. In autumn when the waters are low, it does not run fast
er than two miles, but it is rapid in such parts of the river as
have clusters of islands, shoals, and sand banks. The circum
ference of many of these shoals being several miles, the voyage
is longer, and in some parts more dangerous, than in the spring.
The merchandise necessary for the commerce of the Upper Set
tlements, on or near the Mississippi, is conveyed in the spring
and autumn in batteaux, rowed by eighteen or twenty men, and
carrying about forty tons. From New Orleans to the Illinois
the voyage is commonly performed in eight or ten weeks. A
prodigious number of islands, some of which are of great extent,
intersperse that mighty river. Its waters, after overflowing its
banks below the river Ibberville on the east, and the river Rouge

GEOGRAPHY AND NATURAL HISTORY. 167
on the west, never return within them again, there being many-
outlets or streams by which they are conducted into the Bay of
Mexico, more especially on the west side of the Mississippi, di
viding the country into numerous islands. These singularities
distinguish it from every other known river in the world. Below
the Ibberville the land begins to be very low on both sides of the
river, across the country ; and gradually declines as it approach
es nearer to the sea. The island of New Oi leans, and the lands
opposite, are to all appearance of no long date, for in digging
ever so little below the surface you find water, and great quanti
ties of trees. The many beeches and breakers, as well as inlets,
which have arisen but of the channel, within the last half cen
tury, at the several mouths of the river, are convincing proofs
that this peninsula was wholly formed in the same manner. And
it is certain that when La Salle sailed down the Mississippi to
the sea, the opening of that river was very different from what it
is at present.
"The nearer you approach the sea this truth becomes more
striking. The bars that cross most of these small channels*
opened by the current, have been multiplied by means of the
trees carried down by the streams ; one of which, stopped by its
roots or branches ie a shallow part, is sufficient to obstruct the
passage of thousands more, and to fix them at the same place.
Astonishing collections of trees are daily seen in passing between
the Balize and the Missouri. No human force is sufficient to
remove them, and the mud carried down by the river serves to
bind and cement them together. They are gradually covered
and every inundation not only extends their length and breadth
but adds another layer to their height. In less than ten years
time, canes, shrubs, and aquatic timber, grow on them ; and
form points and islands which forcibly shift the bed of the river.
" Nothing can be asserted with certainty respecting the length
of this river. Its source is not known, but supposed to be up
wards of 3000 miles from the sea as the river runs. We only
know that from St. Anthony's falls in lat. 45°, it glides with a
pleasant clear current, and receives many large and very exten
sive tributary streams, before its junction with the Missouri,
without greatly increasing the breadth of the Mississippi, though
they do its depth and rapidity. The muddy waters of the Mis
souri discolor the lower part of the river, till it empties into the

168 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
Bay of Mexico. The Missouri is a longer, broader, and deeper
river than the Mississippi, and affords a more extensive naviga
tion ; it is, in fact, the principal river, contributing more to the
common stream than does the Mississippi. It has been ascend
ed by French traders about 12 or 1300 miles; and from the
depth of the water and breadth of the river at that distance, it
appeared to be navigable many miles further. And in this year
Captain Lewis was sent by the American government to explore
the Missouri to its source ; and from thence to pass forward to
the Pacific Ocean. He went up the Missouri from its junction
with the Mississippi, to the -Rapids, below the great Falls of
the Missouri 2572 miles, then by land crossing the rocky moun
tains to a navigable part of the Kooskooshe 340 miles, and on
that river 73 miles — on Lewis' river 154 miles, and down the
Columbia river to the Pacific Ocean 413 miles, making the to
tal distance from the confluence of the Missouri and Missis
sippi to the Pacific Oean 3552 miles.
" From the Missouri river to nearly opposite the Ohio, the
western bank of the Mississippi is, some few places excepted,
higher than the eastern. From Mine au Fer to the Ibberville
the eastern bank is higher than the western, on which there is
not a single discernible rising or eminence for the distance of
750 miles. From the Ibberville to the sea there are no eminen
ces on either side, though the eastern bank appears rather the
highest of the two, as far as the English turn. Thence the
banks gradually diminish in height to the mouths of the river,
where they are but a few feet higher than the common surface
of the water.
" The slime which the annual floods of the river Mississippi
leave on the surface of the adjacent shores, may be compared
with that of the Nile, which deposits a similar manure, and for
many centuries past has insured the fertility of Egypt. When
its banks shall have been cultivated, as the excellency of its soil
and temperature of the climate deserve, its population will equal
that of any other part of the world. The trade, wealth, and
power of America may at some future period depend, and per
haps centre, upon the Mississippi. This also resembles the Nile
in the number of its mouths, all issuing into a sea that may be
compared to the Mediterranean, which is bounded on the north
grid south by the two continents of Europe and Africa, at the

GEOGRAPHY AND NATURAL HISTORY. l'69
Mexican Bay is by North and South America. The smaller
mouths of this river might be easily stopped up by means of
those floating trees, with which the river, during the floods, is
always covered. The whole force of the channel being united,
the only opening then left would probably grow deep, and the
bar be removed.
" Whoever for a moment will cast his eye over a map of the
town of New Orleans, and the immense country around it, and
view its advantageous situation, must be convinced that it, or
some place near it, must in process of time become one of the
greatest marts in the world.
"The falls of St. Anthony, in about lat. 45°, received their
name from Father Lewis Hennepin, a French missionary, who
travelled in these parts about the year 1680, and was the first
European ever seen by the natives. The whole river, which is
more than 250 yards wide, falls perpendicularly about thirty
feet, and forms a most pleasing cataract. The Rapids below,
in the space of 300 yards, render the descent considerably great
er, so that when viewed at a distance they appear to be much
higher than they really are. In the middle of the falls is a small
island about 40 feet broad, and somewhat longer, on which
grow a few scragged hemlock and spruce trees ; ahd about half
way between this island and the eastern shore is a rock lying at
the very edge of the fall in an oblique position, five or six feet
broad, and thirty or forty long. These falls are peculiarly situ
ated, as they are approachable without the least obstruction
from any intervening hill or precipice, which cannot be said of
any other considerable fall perhaps in the world. The country
around is exceedingly beautiful. It is not an uninterrupted plain,
where the eye finds no relief, but composed of many gentle
ascents, which in the" spring and summer are covered with ver
dure, and interspersed with little groves, that give a pleasing
variety to the prospect.
" A httle distance below the falls is a" small island of about an
acre and a half, on which grow a great number of oak trees, al
most all the branches of which able to bear the weight are, in
the proper season of the year, loaded with eagles' nests. Their
instinctive sagacity, has taught them to choose this place, as it is
secure, on account of the rapids above, from the attacks of ei
ther man or beast,
8. V

170 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
" The Ohio is a most beautiful river. Its current gentle, wa
ters clear, anckbosom smooth and unbroken by rocks and rapids,
a single instance only excepted. It is one quarter of a mile wide
at Fort Pitt ; 500 yards at the mouth of the Great Kanhaway ;
1200 yards at Louisville : and the rapids half a mile in some few
places below Louisville : but its general breadth does not exceed
600 yards. In some places its width is not 400 ; and in one
place particularly, far below the rapids, it is less than 300. Its
.breadth iu no one place exceeds 1200 yards; and at its junc
tion with the Mississippi neither river is more than 900 yards
wide." Mr. M°rse proceeds to state the precise measurement of the
the length of the Ohio, with all its windings, from fort Pitt "to
its junction with the Mississippi, amounting to 1188 miles. The
inundations commonly begin with April, and subside in July.
A vessel drawing 12 feet water might safely navigate from
Pittsburg to the sea. Ships of 200 to 800 tons are now built
at Pittsburg, and in the spring or autumn are sent down the
Ohio and Mississippi, (a voyage of above 2000 miles) for sale
at New Orleans or elsewhere. Two great rivers unite to form
the Ohio, namely the Monongahela, and the Allegany^ both oif
them subservient to navigation.
The noble river of St. Lawrence is universally regarded as the
second in North America, being not less than 90 miles wide at
its mouth, and navigable for ships of the line as far as Quebec
a distance of 400 miles from the sea. Near Quebec it is five
miles in breadth ; and at Montreal from two to four. Though
there be some rapids, yet this grand river may be considered as
navigable to Kingston, and the Lake Ontario, 743 miles from
the sea. It is difficult to define the precise source of the St.
Lawrence, though that name be generally confined to the river
issuing from Lake Ontario ; while the Niagara, which flows from
the Lake Erie, is regarded as a distinct stream. As in Asiatic
geography the Angara is traced from the Sea of Baikal, without
assuming the Selinga as a further source, so by analogy the St.
Lawrence cannot be traced beyond the Lake Ontario, nor can
geographical usage permit it to be traced to the Lake Superi
or ; and far less, with Mr. Weld, to the Lake Winipic, which,
according to the best maps, has no communication whatever
with what has been called the Sea of Canada, consisting of

GEOGRAPHY AND NATURAL HISTORY. 171
the joint Lakes Superior, Michigan, and Huron. The length
of the St. Lawrence may therefore be about 700 British miles,
the breadth being the grand characteristic.
The other chief rivers in North America are the Saskashawin,
the Athabasca, the Unjiga or Mackenzie's river, the Rio Bravo,
which flows into the Gulf of Mexico ; that of Albany, which
joins Hudson's Bay.
We shall defer the enumeration of the lesser rivers until we
come to delineate more particularly the immense resources of
the United States. We cannot however close this short Geogra
phical Sketch without remarking how admirably ^the whole of
North America, and more especially the United States, is fitted
for the most intimate union : and strikingly nature has marked
it out as the Seat of A Mighty Empire.
No part of the globe is so well watered with rivulets, naviga
ble rivers, and lakes, as the territories of the United States.
By means of these various streams and immense inland seas
the whole country is divided into islands, and peninsulas. The
facilities of navigation render the communication between the
parts of Georgia and New Hampshire, far more expeditious and
practicable than between those of Provence and Picardy, in
France ; Cornwall and Caithness, in Great Britain ; or Gallicia
and Catalonia, in Spain. The canals opening betweeen Sus
quehannah and Delaware, between Pasquetank and Elizabeth
rivers, in Virginia, and between Schuylkil and Susquehannah,
will form a communication from the Carolinas to the western
counties of Pennsylvania and New York. The improvement of
the , Patomack will give a passage from the southern states to
the western parts of Virginia, Maryland, Pennsylvania, and even
to the Lakes. From Detroit to. Alexandria on the Patomack
607 mlies, are only two carrying places which together do not
exceed 40 miles. The canals of Delaware and Chesapeak will
open the communication from South Carolina to New Jersey,
Delaware, the most populous parts of Pennsylvania, and the
midland counties of New York. Were these, and the canal be
tween Ashley and Cooper rivers,, in South Carolina, the canals
in the northern parts of the State of New York, and those of
Massachussetts and New Hampshire all opened, (and many of
them are in great forwardness,) North America would thereby
b,e converted into a cluster of large and fertile islands communi-

172 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
eating easily with each other at little expence, and in many in
stances without the uncertainty or danger of the seas.

NATURAL GEOGRAPHY.

The mountains of North America aTe "far from rivalling the
Andes in the south. Some irregular ranges pervade the isthmus,
but it seems mere theory to consider them as conhected with
the Andes, as they have neither the same character nor direc
tion. In the isthmus there are also several volcanoes ; but
the natural history of Spanish America is extremely imper
fect. The most celebrated mountains in North America are those
called the Apalachian, passing through the territory of the Uni
ted States from the S. W. to the N. E. According to the best
maps they commence on the north of Georgia, where they givft
source to many rivers running south to the Gulf of Mexico ; and
to the Tenessee and others running north. There are several
collateral ridges, as the Iron or Bald Mountains, the White Oak
Mountains, and others ; the exterior skirt on the N. W. being
the Cumberland Mountains. The Apalachian chain thence ex
tends through the western territory of Virginia, accompanied
with its collateral ridges, the breadth of the whole being often
seventy miles, and proceeds through Pennsylvania, then passes
Hudson river ; and afterwards rises to more elevation, but seems
to expire in the country of New Brunswick.
' The chief summits appear to be in the privince trf New
Hampshire ; where the White Mountains are by some reported
to be 9000 feet above the sea. For a particular account of these
mountains see Morse's American Geography, p. 292. But the
Duke de Rochefoucault says that no mountains in North Ameri
ca exceed the Vosges, or Wasgau. Kalm ii. 352, observes that
the snow, even on the highest mountains, always melts during
the summer. It may well be affirmed that the White Mountains
cannot much exceed 4000 feet : and the glaciers of the Pyrenees
at 9000 feet show the futility of the calculation. It is probabl*

GEOGRAPHY AND NATURAL HISTORY. 173
that the highest mountains of North America are towards the
western shores along the Pacific.
The Apalachian chain may thus extend about 900 geographi
cal miles, a length, unrivalled by any European mountains, ex
cept the Norwegian Alps. In no chain perhaps are the collate
ral ridges more distinct; and a naturalist would at once pro
nounce that the central, or highest, must be granitic, the next
schistose, and the exterior belts calcareous. The granite seems
commonly to consist of white felspar, bluish or rather pellucid
quartz, and black mica. The schistose band, generally metal
liferous in other regions here presents copper ore ; and in Ca
nada lead and silver are said to have been discovered. The
limestone contains, as usual, many petrifactions, particularly the
cornu ammonis, a small scallop shell, and several sorts of co
rals. The height of the chief summits does not appear to be
precisely ascertained, but probably does not exceed 3000 feet
above the sea ; and they are often clothed with forests. Mr.
Weld conjectures that the Peaks of Otter, the highest of what
are called the Blue Mountains, are little more than 2000 feet
in height ; and at any rate much inferior to that of Snow-
don. The Alleghanie Mountains are from 1000 to 4000 feet
high. The White Mountains in New Hampshire are visible 30
leagues at sea ; and are said to be 7800 feet high.
The travels of the Duke de Rochefoucault in, North America,
present some valuable information concerning the orology. The
primitive calcareous rock is mingled, in veins' or banks, with
the granitic, and is evidently contemporary. Near Philadelphia
large pieces of talc appear, instead of Mica. There are also
reins of hornblende, quartz, and marble, in the position of me
tallic veins. It is a remarkable feature in the mineralogy that
the granitic mountains approach nearest to the sea, while at a
greater distance the rocks are calcareous ; and the red primi
tive limestone is sometimes covered with breccia, and argilla
ceous schistus. The lakes of Upper Canada are surrounded
with calcareous rocks ; while in Lower Canada, from Montreal
to the sea, the granite predominates. At the isle of St. Helen
this substance is apparent, and at the mountain of Beloeil dis
plays much black schorl. The black slate of our traveller is the
black schistose limestone of Calm, The rock of Quebec is said
to consist of grey granite, mingled with schorls; and' was called

174 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
the rock of diamonds,J)ecause quartz crystals were found, fri
the vicinity blocks of granite are mingled with limestone, and
the bank of Newfoundland is supposed to be a nlass of granite,
covered with sand. Towards New York and Boston the rocks
are of a soft granite interspersed with limestone and schistus ;
but towards Carolina and Florida the granitic mountains are at
a considerable distance from the sea, which seems gradually to
have retired. This observing traveller is of opinion that the
highest mountains in North America do not exceed the elevation-
of the Vosges in France, that is perhaps 4 or 5000 feet.
But from the travels of Kalm, a farx more skilful naturalist, it
would appear that the rocks of North America often consist of a
substance unknown to modern systems of mineralogy, and which'
may be termed calcareous granite, the absence of the felspar
being supplied by primitive limestone. The Swedish traveller
minutely describes this substance, as consisting of grey lime
stone, purple, or garnet colored quartz, and black mica. The-
limestone effervesces strongly with aquafortis ; and there are
some particles of felspar. Another mountain, near the river St.
Lawrence, is composed of red felspar, black mica, white lime
stone, with grains of the purple or red quartz. Sometimes this
calcareous granite is schistose, or assumes the form of gneiss.
Part of the hills near the isle of Orleans is composed of grey
quartz, reddish and grey limestone, and grains of sand. Near
Fort St. Frederick, or Crown Point, Kalm observed fragments
of granite mixed with schorl, without any calcareous addition ;
and he found ammonites about two feet in diameter. Towards
the Lake Champlain he observed quantities of red sand, which-
seemed to be decomposed or pounded garnets. The Apalachian
mountains he does not appear to have examined : but he men
tions the calcareous granite as frequent in Pennsylvania, and of-,
ten used in building at Philadelphia. He describes the lapis 61-
laris of New England, as sometimes spotted with starry asbes
tos,; while green soap rock and amianthus are common in Penn-.
sylvania. The hatchets of the savages were frequently of fine
basalt; their knives of quartz and petrosilex; their kettles of
lapis ollaris, grey or green ; and their tobacco pipes of the-
same substance ; but those of the chiefs, of beautiful red ser
pentine, from the west of the Mississippi.*
* Of the same description were the celebrated calunuts, or pipes of peace,.

GEOGRAPHY AND NATURAL HISTORY. 175
The -mountains in the Isthmus, as well as those in the wes
tern part- of North America, are certainly of far superior eleva
tion : and in most maritime divisions of the old and new conti
nents the highest mountains are towards the west, as their most
precipitous sides uniformly front the west and south. But of the
Isthmus, the kingdom of Mexico, and California, the natural
-history and geography are far from being clearly illustrated. In
the province of Darien the Andes, according to the best maps^
seem to expire in the ridge called Sierra Tagargona, which may
•be said to be lost in the sea on the west of the Gulf of Darien.
This ridge with the Peak of Panama, belong to South Ameri
ca : but the inspection of any good map of this part will suffi
ciently show that the ridges in the province of Panama have not
the smallest connexion with the Andes, but are scattered in eve
ry direction. On the west of that province, as already stated, a
considerable chain passes north and south, which may be regard
ed as a natural division between the two great portions of Ame-
,rica. This chain is called the Sierra de Canatagua. The ridges
in Veragua also run N. and S. and on the west of that province
is the volcano of Varu. Of the nature and height of the moun
tains in Mexico there is no particular account. Not far from
Vera Cruz, Chappe D'Auteroebe ascended a mountain of great
height, which seems to have been volcanic ; and he adds that
the mountain of Orisaba is said to be the highest in that region^
the snowy summit being visible from Mexico at the distance jof
-twenty leagues.
On the western side of North America volcanoes have been
observed by navigators ; and one is said to exist in the province
of New Hampshire.
In Florida, chiefly consisting of low grounds, the climate is
insalubrious in the summer, when there is a kind of mal avia as
in Italy; but the winters are mild and healthy. The climate of
Louisiana is cold in the northern parts. In .California epidemic
cal distempers seem to be frequent; but the country has not
been sufficiently examined by scientific observers. Moisture
so called by the French settlers in Canada, from the Normao word chalu-
meau, the native term being poagan, and in the Iroquois ganondao. Lahon-
tan, i. 2"0. He means the head of the Calumet, eight inches long; while
the mouth projected about three inches; the pipe or stem, being about four
or fiVe feet in length, was probably of wood", and was adorned with fea
thers. Ib. 4T.

174 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
the rock of diamonds, Jjecause quartz crystals were foundi, hi
the vicinity blocks of granite are mingled with limestone, and
the bank of Newfoundland is supposed to be a mass of granite,
covered with sand. Towards New York and Boston the rocks
are of a soft granite interspersed with limestone and schistus ;
but towards Carolina and Florida the granitic mountains are at
a considerable distance from the sea, which seems gradually to
have retired. This observing traveller is of opinion that the
highest mountains in North America do not exceed the elevation-
of the Vosges in France, that is perhaps 4 or 5000 feet.
But from the travels of Kalm, a fai>more skilful naturalist, it
would appear that the rocks of North America often consist of a
substance unknown to modern systems of mineralogy, and which'
may be termed calcareous granite, the absence of the felspar
being supplied by primitive limestone. The Swedish traveller
minutely describes this substance, as consisting of grey lime
stone, purple, or garnet colored quartz, and black mica. The-
limestone effervesces strongly with aquafortis;' and there are
some particles of felspar. Another mountain, near the river St.
Lawrence, is composed of red felspar, black mica, white lime
stone, with grains of the purple or red quartz. Sometimes this
calcareous granite is schistose, or assumes the form of gneiss.
Part of the hills near the isle of Orleans is composed of grey
quartz, reddish and grey limestone, and grains of sand. Near
Fort St. Frederick, or Crown Point, Kalm observed fragments
of granite mixed with schorl, without any calcareous addition ;
and he found ammonites about two feet in diameter. Towards;
the Lake Champlain he observed quantities of red sand, which-
seemed to be decomposed or pounded garnets. The Apalachian
mountains he does not appear to have examined : but he men-'
tions the calcareous granite as frequent in Pennsylvania, and of-,
ten used in building at Philadelphia. He describes the lapis 61-
laris. of New England, as sometimes spotted with starry asbes
tos ; while green soap rock and amianthus are common in Penn-.
sylvania. The hatchets of the savages were frequently of fine
basalt ; their knives of quartz and petrosilex ; their kettles of-
lapis ollaris, grey or green ; and their tobacco pipes of the-
same substance ; but those of the chiefs, of beautiful red ser
pentine, from the west of the Mississippi.*
* Of the same description were the celebrated caluntets, or pipes of peace,.

GEOGRAPHY AND NATURAL HISTORY. 175
The mountains in the Isthmus, as well as those in the wes
tern part of North America, are certainly of far superior eleva-
.tion : and in most maritime divisions of the old and jiew conti
nents the highest mountains are towards the west, as their most
precipitous sides uniformly front the west and south. But of the
Isthmus, the kingdom of Mexico, and California, the natural
•history and geography are far from being clearly illustrated. In
the province of Darien the Andes, according to the best maps'
seem to expire in the ridge called Sierra Tagargona, which may
¦be said to be lost in the sea on the west of tlie Gulf of Darien.
This ridge with the Peak of Panama, belong to South Ameri
ca: but the inspection of any good map of this part will suffi
ciently show that the ridges in the province of Panama have not
the smallest connexion with the Andes, but are scattered in eve
ry direction. On the west of that province, as already stated, a
considerable chain passes north and south, which may be regard
ed as a natural division between the two great portions of Ame
rica. This chain is called the Sierra de Canatagua. The ridges
an Veragua also run N. and S. and on the west of that province
is the volcano of Varu. Of the nature and height of the moun
tains in Mexico there is no particular account. Not far from
'Vera Cruz, Chappe D'Auterocbe ascended a mountain of great
height, which seems to have been volcanic ; and he adds that
the mountain of Orisaba is said to be the highest in that region^-
the snowy summit being visible from Mexico at the distance ,of
twenty leagues.
On the western side of North America volcanoes have been
observed by navigators ; and one is said to exist in the province
of New Hampshire.
In Florida, chiefly consisting of low grounds, the climate is
insalubrious in the summer, when there is a kind of mal avia as
in Italy ; but the winters are mild and healthy. The climate of
Louisiana is cold in the northern parts. In .California epidemic
cal distempers seem to be frequent; but the country has no*t
been sufficiently examined by scientific observers. Moisture
so called by the French settlers in Canada, from the Norman word chalu-
meau, the native term being poagan, and in the Iroquois ganondao. Lahon-
tan, i. 270. He means the head of the Calumet, eight inches long; while
the mouth projected about three inches; the pipe or stem, being about four
or five feet in length, was probably of woocf, and was adorned with fea
thers. Ib. 4T.

176 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
seems to predominate in the Isthmus ; but not to such a degree
as in the South American province of Darien, where it may be
said to rain for nine months of the year. The rains, however,
temper the extreme heat, which would otherwise predominate in
this climate. Violent storms are not unfrequent, and sometimes
the lightning seems to rise from the ground. The maritime
districts of Mexico are, however, hot and unhealthy, so as to
occasion much perspiration even iu January. The inland moun
tains, on the contrary, will sometimes present white frost and
ice in the dog-days. In other inland provinces the climate is
mild and benign, with some momentary snow in winter ; but no
artificial warmth is found necessary, and animals sleep all the
year in the open sky. There are plentiful rains, generally after
mid-day, from April till September, and hailstorms are not un
known. Thunder is frequent ; and the earthquakes and volca
noes are additional circumstances of terror.
The face of the country is rather mountainous than plain, ex
cept towards the shores; but the mountains are interspersed with
delightful vales, and the soil is generally fertile. In the northern
provinces of Louisiana and Florida, the soil corresponds with
that of Georgia, and the western settlements of the United
States. Concerning New Mexico and California there is little
minute and authentic information ; but the testimony of La Pe-
jouse is greatly in favor of the latter^
The streams in the Isthmus are of a short course, and little
remarkable in any respect. The principal river of Spanish
North America is, beyond all comparison, the Rio Bravo, called
also Del Norte, or of the northern star. The course of this im
portant river, so far as its sources can yet be conjectured, may
be about 1000 British miles; but its whole circuit probably ex
ceeds that of the Danube. The nature of the shores, and the
vvarious appearances, and qualities of the waters, have not been
Jlustrated. * Next in consequence would seem to be the Rio Colorado, on
the east of the Bravo, whose comparative course may be about
700 British miles. Towards the west is a large river which flows
into the Vermillion Sea, or Gulf of California, also called by
D'Anville Colorado, with the addition de Ios Martyres ; but the
main stream seems rather to be the Rio Grande de Ios jfpostp-
tos, barbarous appellations imposed by the Jesuits who had set-

\xE.uufjA,Ajrn. i Ai\JJ l\A±;uitAJUi Jtl'XS'l'lUA'X . X'i'f
tlements in California. The course 6f this river may be compu
ted at 600 British miles. Among the rivers of the Isthmus may
he mentioned those of Palmas, of Panuco, Tabasco, Sumasinta,
St. Juan, all flowing into the Gulf of Mexico. Those which
join the Pacific seem mere rivulets; till, iu the vicinity of Mex
ico, the mountains rather tend to the east, and the streams of
Yopez, and Zacatula, join the Pacific Ocean. That of Guada-
laxara rises to the W. of Mexico ; and being considered as pass
ing through the Lake of Chapala.will thus join the Pacific after
a comparative course of 350 British miles.
The chief lake in Spanish North America, so far as yet explo
red, is that of Nicaragua, which is about 170 British miles in
length, N. W. to S. E.,; and about half that breadth. This
grand lake is situated in the province of the same name towards
•the south of the Isthmus, and has a great outlet, the river of
St. Juan, to the Gulf of Mexico, while a smaller stream is by
-some supposed to flow into the Pacific. In the hands of an en
terprising people this lake would supply the long wished for pas
sage, from the Atlantic into the Pacific, and in the most direct
-course that could be desired. Nature has already supplied half
the means; aud it is probable that a complete passage might
have been opened, at half the expence wasted in fruitless expe
ditions to discover such a passage by the norfh west, or the north
east. This speculation must depend on circumstances; but if
a passage were once opened, the force of the ocean would pro
bably enlarge it ; and a tribute at this new sound would be a
considerable source of revenue. Among the more northern lakes
that of Mexico is not orily celebrated, but of considerable ex
tent, being, according to the best maps, more than 30 British
miles in length N. to S. if the part called Chalco be included.
Towards the W- in this part, where the Isthmus begins to en
large, there are several lakes, the principal being that of Cha?.
pala, which is about 60 British miles in length by 20 in breadth^.
The north western parts have been little explored, but probabte'
contain some lakes of considerable extent. In West Florida ate
the lagoons of Ponchatrian and Maurepas ; and in East Florida
the lakes of Mayaco and George, with others of smaller note.
The whole of the Spanish territories in North America may be
regarded as mountainous. The grand chain of the Andes seems
td terminate, as already mentioned, on the west of the Gulf of
8. 7,

178 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
Darien in South America, but by others is supposed to extend to
the Lake of Nicaragua. Even this extension would totally differ
in its direction from the Andean range, as bending N. W., then
S. W., then again N. W., so that the main range seems here
lost, or passes through the Caribbean Sea in the isles of MosT
quitos and others towards Jamaica ; while the mountains in the
south of the Isthmus, as far as the Lake of Nicaragua, must be
regarded as only a branch, declining much in height, till it final
ly expires at that lake. In this point of view the ranges passing
from N. to S. must be regarded as spurs of the main chain; but
as on the one hand orology is confounded by minute and various
appellations given to portions of the same range, so it may be
equally perplexed by too extensive appellations; which, as in
the case of the Taurus of the ancients, can only impart confur
sed and erroneous ideas. The Mexican mountains seem to con
sist of gneiss, granite, &c, while the grand chain of the Andes
has a most peculiar character, being composed of argillaceous
schistus. It has already been observed that the ridge of Cata-
nagua passes N. and S. between the provinces of Veragua and
Panama. It is followed in the former province by the range,
called Urraca, and the Volcano of Varu ; and by several ridges
in Costa Rica.
To the north of the Lake of Nicaragua the main ridges often
pass E. and W. ; and the Sierra of Yucatan N. E. The chief
summit of Nicaragua seems to be the Mamatombo. The volca
no of Guatimala raged furiously during the earthquakes which
ruined that great city in 1773. In the ancient kingdom of Mex
ico, which extended from near the Lake of Chapala in the north,
to Chiapa, on the river Tabasco in the south, the summits rise
to great height, as being the central parts of a range wholly un
connected with the Andes. Their direction has not been laid
down with care or intelligence, more attention having been paid
to the numerous volcanoes, than to the other grand features.
D'Auteroche observes that the- mountain of Orisaba is said to be
the highest in Mexico ; and its snowy summit is visible from the.
capital, a distance of 60 miles. This celebrated mountain is tp
the S. E. of Mexico, not far from the road to Vera Cruz : it ber
came volcanic in 1545, and continued for twenty years; since
which time there has been no appearance of inflammation.
Though the summit be clothed with perpetual snow, the side*

GEOGRAPHY AND NATURAL HISTORY. 179
are adorned with beautiful forests of cedars, pines, aftd other
trees. The detached mountains called by the Mexicans Pop^ca-
tepec, and Iztaccihuatl, are also to the S. E. of the capital, at
about 30 miles distance, both being volcanic. The crater of the
former is said to be half a mile wide, and celebrated for ancient
eruptions. Both are covered with perpetual snow. There are
many other volcanoes in this singular province ; while others are
only remarkable for height, as the mountain of Tlascaja, the
Tentzon, Toloccam, and others ; the range now extending in a
N. W. direction towards Cinaloa, and being called the Sierra
Mada, or Mother Range, and the Shining Mountains. It is af
terwards, according to the best maps, joined by a ridge running
N. W. from Louisiana; and after this junction passes through
the north-west to the proximity of the arctic ocean, while the
centre of North America consists of extensive and fertile plains.
The construction of the Mexican mountains has not been ex
amined by any geologist. Among the substances basalt seems
clearly indicated ; and some others will be mentioned in the mi
neralogy. There are numerous forests on the sides of the moun
tains ; and the peninsula of Yucatan is particularly abundant in
logwood trees.
The plants that characterize the North American possessions
of the Spanish crown are caetus cochenilifer, a species of the
Indian fig, upon which the cochineal insect more particularly
delights to feed : convolvalus jalapa, the true jalap, a native of
the province of Xalappa, in the viceroyalty of Mexico ; copaife-
ra officinalis and toluifera halsamum, two trees that yield the
fragrant gum resins known in commerce by the name of balsam
of Capivi and of Tolu. The shores of the bays of Honduras
and Campechy have been celebrated from their very first disco
very for their immense forests of mahogany and logwood ; and
the neighbourhood of Guatimala is distinguished for its indigo.
The guayacum, the sassafras and tamarind, the cocoa nut palm,.
the chocolate nut tree, and a variety of others, which are better
known as natives of the West Indian islands, enrich and adorn
these fertile provinces. The pine apple grows wild in the woods
and the shallow rocky soils are inhabited by the various species
of aloe and euphorbia. A few Mexican plants have been intro
duced into European gardens, among which may be noticed the
salvia fulgens, glowing with its crimson blossoms, the splendid

180 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
dahlia, the elegant striated sisyrinchium, the gigantic helian-
thus, and the delicate mentzelia.
The zoology has been ably illustrated by Hernandez, styled the
Pliny of New Spain, who flourished in the middle of the seven
teenth century. The variety of animals is great, though it do
not equal that of the plants and minerals. Among the most sin
gular animals is, the Mexican, or hunchback dog, a kind of por
cupine ; and some others described by several naturalists. What
is called the tiger seems a species of panther, and sometimes
grows to a great size, though Buffon, ever fond of theory, asserts
that American animals are generally small. In South America
it attains the length of a large ox, as appears from the testimo
ny of Dobrizhoffer ; but Clavigero says that the largest quadru
ped is the Danta, Antaj or Tapir, about the size of a middling
mule, being amphibious. This animal seems to be different
from the Lanta or Danta of Africa, described by Leo ; but the
identity of the name tends to corroborate the idea that America
was peopled from Africa. The bison is found in New Mexico ;
and the musk cattle may perhaps extend as far. In California
there are said to be wild sheep. The birds of New Spain are
particularly numerous and curious.
The mineralogy of the Spanish empire in North America is
equal, if not superior, to that of Peru, and the other southern
provinces. Even in the northern parts nature ha* disclosed her,
treasures : the abundance of gold found in the province of So-
nora has already been mentioned ; and California is supposed to
contain rich minerals. The silver mines in New Spain, though:
they do not contend with Potosi, have long maintained great
celebrity. Those of Sacotecas, or Zacatecas, are particularly
distinguished. The produce of the Mexican mines, as already
mentioned, has by some been computed at ten millions yearly;
but the whole amount of the American mines probably does not
exceed seven millions and a half; of which it cannot be supposed
that North America produces more than two-thirds. The an
cient Mexicans found gold in many of their rivers; and 'silver
was dug up, but little esteemed. The chief silver mines are
now to the north-west of the capital, where there is a town call
ed Luis de Potosi, more than 20O British miles from Mexico.
These mines are said to have been discovered soon after those of
Potosi, 1545 : they are in a considerable range of mountain*,

GEOGRAPHY AND NATURAL HISTORY. 18l
which give source to the River of Panuco. Concerning the na
ture of these mines, and the manner of working them, the Spa
nish writers seem to be silent.
Copper is said to abound in some districts to the west of the
capital ; and tin is also mentioned among the Mexican minerals.
Mercury is likewise reported to have been found in Mexico, and
there was a celebrated mine in Peru ; but both seem to be now
exhausted, as the chief supply is from Spain. Amber and as
phalt likewise occur in New Spain : and among the precious
stones a few diamonds, with amethysts and turquoises, but the
list is imperfect, and perhaps erroneous. The mountains also
poduce Jasper, marble, alabaster, magnet, steatite, jad, talc.
The stone called tetzontli, red and porous, was used in building,
being perhaps a kind of tufa. The itzU is semi-transparent, of
a glassy substance, and generally black, but also found white
and blue: it was used in mirrors; and also for sharp instruments,
being the same called pietrd del Galinazzo in South America,
the obsidian or volcanic glass of modern mineralogy.
There are several mineral waters of various qualities, sulphu
reous, vitriolic, and alumenotis; and- some springs of great heat,
but none seem particularly distinguished. Besides the volcanoes
there are many natural curiosities, one of the most remarkable
being the Pont de Dios, or Bridge of God, resembling the na
tural bridge in the territory of the United States. It is about-
100 miles S. E. from Mexico, near thevillage of'Molcaxac, over
a deep river called the Aquetoya'que, and is constantly passed as
a highway; but it seems uncertain whether the river have worn
the passage through a rocky mountain, or the fragment be part
of a fallen hill detached by an earthquake. There are many
romantic cataracts, among which must be mentioned those of
the river Guadalaxara, between the city of the same name and
the Lake of Chapala. The floating gardens in the Lake of
Mexico were artificial curiosities, the bottom being formed of
intertwisted willows.
The climate of the United territories, is chiefly remarkable for
sudden transitions from heat to coldj and the contrary. The
wind from the' north-west is violently cold, as it passes a wide
expanse of the frozen continent. In the plains on the east of
the Apalachian chain the summer heats are immoderate ; and iu
some places even iee will not preserve poultry or fish from putre-

184 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
Africa* There is, on the contrary, an exuberance of water eve*
in the most torrid regions ; which might be added as a proof of
the theory that this continent has more recently emerged. Eveu
the volcanoes in South America often pour down torrents of wa
ter and mud', and nd where occur the sandy ruins of plains, af
ter the fertile soil has been totally lost, or the rocky skeletons of
ancient mountains. The large tract in the eastern part of Vir
ginia and.North Carolina, called the Dismal Swamp, occupies
about 150,000 acres; but it is entirely covered with trees, juni
per and cypress on the more moist parts, and on the drier White
and fed oaks, and a variety of pines. These trees attain a pro
digious size ; and among them there is often thick brushwood,
so as to render the swamp impervious, while other forests in
North America are commonly free from underwood. Cane
reeds, and tall rich grass, soon fatten cattle of the vicinity,
which are taught to return to the farms of their own accord.
In this swanipy fdrest bears, wolves, deer, and other wild ani
mals abound ; and stories are told of children having been lost,
who have been Seen; after many years, in a wild state of nature.
Some parts are so dry as to bear a horse, while some are Over
flowed, and Others so miry, that a man would sink up to the
neck. A canal has been led through it ; and even in the dry
parts water of the color of brandy, as is supposed from the roots
of the junipers, gushed in at the depth of three feet. In the
northern part the timber supplies an article of trade, while in
the southern rice is found to prosper ; and in the neighbourhood
none of these diseases are known which haunt other marshy si
tuations. Georgia presents a singular marsh, or in the wet season a lake,
tallied Ekansanoka, by others Ouaquafenoga, in the S. E. extrei-
mitylof the province. This marshy lake is about 300 miles in
circumference; and contains several large and fertile- isles; dneiof
which is represented by the Creek Indians as a kind of paradise,
inhabited by a peculiar race, whose women are, incomparably
beautiful, and are called by theni daughters of the sun. These
isjanders are said to be a remnant of an ancient tribe, nearly ex
terminated by the Creeks. Such events may not, have been un
common among savage tribes ; and the more industrious people
who erected the noted forts may have been passing, like the
Mexicans, to a comparative state of civilization, when an un,-

GEOGRAPHY AND NATURAL HISTORY. 185
happy defeat, by more savage tribes extinguished their, name
and power. That the natives have no memory of such transac
tions is not matter of wonder, for their traditions can scarcely
exceed a century or two at the utmost.
A country that experiences on one frontier the severity of the
Canadian winters, and on the other basks in the full radiance of
the West Indian summers, may naturally be expected to contain
no small variety of native plants. So numerous and important
indeed are they, as to render it impossible in a work not devo
ted particularly to the subject to notice them as they deserve ;
we must therefore be contented with, the selection of such alone
as, from their utility and beauty, have the strongest claim to
our attention.
The botany of these states, including the Floridas, or, in
other words, of the whole region extending eastward from the
Mississippi. to the ocean, and southward from the river St. Law
rence with its lakes to the Gulf of Mexico, may be divided into
those vegetables which are common to the whole country, and
those that occupy only particular parts.
. The most generally diffused species among the timber trees
are the willow-leaved oak (quercus phellos) growing in the
swamps; the ch.estnut oak (quercus prinos), which in the south
ern states attains an enormous size, and is almost as valuable
for its sweet farinaceous acorns as for its wood ; the white oak ;
the red and the black. Next to these in rank are two kinds of
waluut, the black, and the white or the hiccory, esteemed for
its oily nuts. The chestnut and beech of Europe are also
found abundantly in the American forests. The tulip tree and
sassafras laurel, more impatient of cold than the preceding, ap
pear as shrubs on the Canadian borders, rise into trees in the
midland states, and on the warm banks of the Altamaha attain
the full perfection of stateliness and beauty. The sugar maple,
on the contrary, is seen only on the northern sides of the hills
in the southern states, and increases both in size and frequency
in the more bracing climate of the New England provinces.
The sweet gum tree (liquidambar styraciflua), the iron wood
(carpinus ostrya), the nettle tree (celtis occidentalis), the Ame
rican elm, the black poplar, and the taccamahacca, appear in
every state of the Union wherever the soil is suitable, without
being much affected by variety of climate. The light sandy
8. A a

186 HISTORY OP NORTH AMERICA.
tracts, both wet and dry, are principally inhabited by the impor
tant and useful family of pines ; of these the chief species ars
the Pennsylvanian fir, the common and the hemlock spruce fir;
the black? the white, and the Weymouth pine ; and the larch :
nearly allied to which are the arbor vitte, and the juniperis vir-
giniana, the red cedar of America. The smaller trees and shrubs
that are dispersed in all parts of the United States, among a
multitude of others, consist of -the following ; the fringe tree
(chionanthus), the red maple, tile sumach and poison oak (rhus
radicans,) the red mulberry, the persimmon plum, the robinia
pseudacacia, and the triple-thorned acacia (gleditsia triacantha),
Such of the common herbaceous plants and low shrubs as are
best known to the generality of readers from their introduction
into the gardens of Great Britain are the collinsonia, used by
the Indians against the bite of the rattlesnake, several gay spe
cies of the phlox, the thornapple, the Pennsylvanian lily and
golden martagon, the bjennial Oenothera, with many species of
aster, monarda, and rudbeckia.
The mountainous ridges are not sufficiently high to be rich in
alpine plants ; their climate however is sensibly cooler than that
of the plains, on which account those of the south are inhabit
ed by the vegetables of Pennsylvania and the northern states,
while the highlands of these abound in the plants of Canada.
But the glories of the American flora are principally confined
to Virginia and the southern states ; it is here that the unfading
verdure of the wide savannas, the solemn magnificence of the
primeval forests, and the wild exuberance of the steaming
swamps, offer to the astonished admiration of the botanist every
thing that by color, by fragrance, and by form, can delight the
Senses and fix the attention.
Among the vegetables that inhabit the low shores of the Flo-
rid.as, Georgia, and South Carolina, may be distinguished the
mangrove tree, the only shrubby plant that can flourish in salt
water, the fragrant and snowy-flowered pancratium of Carolina,
and the splendid lobelia cardinalis.
The low ridges of calcareous soil running parallel with the ri
vers, and rising from the level savannas into extensive lawns, and
swelling hills, are generally covered with open or entangled woods,
except where they have been converted into tillage bv the industry
of the inhabitants. In these rich tracts grow the loft) palmetto^

GEOGRAPHY AND NATURAL HISTORY. 187
ihe evergreen oak, the sweet bay (laurus borbonia), the benzoe
laurel, the common laurel, the wide shading broom pine, and
the red cedar. The strait silvery columns of the papaw fig,
rising to the height of twenty feet, and crowned by a canopy of
broad sinuated leaves, form a striking feature in this delicious
scenery; while the golden fruit and. fragrant blossoms of the
orange, here realise the ancient traditions of the groves of the
. Hesperides. Superior however to all these is the towering mag
nificence of the great magnolia : in this rich marly soil it rises
above a hundred feet, with a perfectly erect trunk, supporting a
shady conical head of dark green foliage : from the centre of the
coronets of leaves that terminate the branches expands a large
rose-shaped blossom of pure white, which is succeeded by a
crimson cone, containing the seeds of a beautiful eoral red color,
and these falling from their cells remain for several days sus
pended from the seed vessel by a silky thread, six inches or more
in length, so that whether in this state or in blossom it is second
to none for grandeur and beauty.
The level plains by the sides of rivers, and therefore generally
in a flooded state during the whole Tainy season, are called sa
vannas. The trees that grow upon them are of the aquatic
kind, such as magnolia glauca, or beaver tree, American olive,
and gordonia lasianthus, silvered over with fragrant blossoms :
these are generally either singlej or grouped together into small
open groves^ while the larger part of the meadow is overgrown
with long succulent herbage, intermixed with shrubs and plants ;
the candleberry myrtle, with numerous species of azaleas, kal-
mias, andromedas, and rhododendrons, arranged by the hand of
nature into thickets and shrubberies, entwined and over-arched
by the crimson granadilla, or the fantastic clitoria, here display
their inimitable beauties in full luxuriance. The sides of the
pools and the shallow plashes are adorned by the bright caerule-
an flowers of the ixia, the golden blossoms of the canna lutea,
and the rosy tufts of the hydrangia, while the edges of the
groves,, and the dubious boundaries of the savannas, rising im
perceptibly towards the forests, are fringed by innumerable gay
varieties of the phlox, by the shrinking sensitive plant, the irri
table dionaea, the glowing amaryllis atamasco, and the impene
trable ranks of the royal palmetto (yucca gloriosa).
The swamps are at all times, even in the height of summer,

188 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
for the most part under water, and are distinguished from the
rest of the country by the crowded stems of the cane (arundo
gigantea,), the light' foliage of the tupelo tree (nyssa aquatica),
the taccamahacca, the fringe tree, and the white cedar (cupres-
sus disticha); this last is perhaps the most picturesque tree in all
America: four or five enormous buttresses or rude pillars rise from
the ground, and unite in a kind of arch at the height of about se
ven feet, and from this centre there>prings a straight eolumn eigh
ty or ninety feet high, without a branch : it then divides into a flat
umbrella-shaped top, covered with finely divided leaves of the
most delicate green. This platform is the secure abode of the
eagle and the crane; and the oily seeds contained in its cones
are the favorite repast of the paraquets that are constantly flut
tering around.
Hundreds more of interesting plants yet remain, and we might
go on to describe with unabated pleasure the profusion of vari
ous colored lupines and dwarf palmettos that relieve the dusky
hue of the pine forests in which they live ; the wild vines, the
gourds, the bignonias, and other climbers that display to the
sun their fruits and glowing blossoms above the summits of the
tallest trees;' we might describe the tent-like shade of the pla-
tanus, the regal splendor of the crimson-flowered horse' ches
nut, and the humbler, less obtrusive, yet not less exquisite
beauties of the meadia, the spigelia (Indian pink), and gaura,
but these our limits will not admit ; it is enough for the present
purpose to have sketched some of the characteristic features in
the botany of a country, the most accessible of all the warmer
climates to' the investigations of European science.
The domestic zoology of the United States nearly corresponds
with that of the parent country, with some few shades of differ
ence in size and color. Among the larger wild animals may
be mentioned the bison, large herds of which used to be seen
near the Mississippi, and they were once very numerous in the
western parts of Virginia and Pennsylvania. The musk bull and
cow only appear in the more western regions, beyond the Mis
sissippi. Among the animals now lost are classed the mammoth,
whose enormous bones are particularly found near the salt
springs upon the Ohio ; and teeth of the hippopotamus are said
to have been dug up in Long Island : but the labors of a late French
naturalist have evinced that such remains often belong to ani-

GEOGRAPHY AND NATURAL HISTORY. 189
mals long since extirpated, and of which he has traced more
than twenty kinds. The mammoth of America, though arm
ed with tusks of ivory, has been supposed to be even five or
six times larger than the elephant; but the bones are probably
the same with those of the supposed elephant found in Siberia.
In 1800, on the shore of the Frozem Ocean,, near the mouth of
the river Lena, the' body of a mammoth was observed, imbodied
in blocks of ice — In the summer of 1804, the ice melted, and
the body fell to the ground; a Tonquese Chief ,cut off its horns,
three yards long, and a drawing of it was made. — It had points
ed ears, small eyes, hoofs like a horse, and a bristly main along
the back. — In 1806 the skeleton was found entire, and the flesh
and skin remaining on the under side: the skin, remaining,, re
quired 10 men to carry it, it was covered; witbfeddishhair arid
bristles 2 feet long. — The entire carcase measured 8£ feet high,
and 14 feet from the tip of the nose to the beginning of the
tail — (for trunk and tail it had none)— the head weighed 460
pounds. — The skeleton is now at Petersburg. The- moose doer
are become extremely rare, and. probably in no long time will be
utterly extirpated, as the wolf and boar have been in Britain.
The/ black moose deer are said to have been sometimes 12 feet
in height, while the species called the grey seldom exceed the
height of a horse. Both have large palmated horna, weighing
30 or 40 pounds. Mr. Pennant mentions a pair that weighed
56 pounds, the length being 32 inches. The moose deer is only
a large species of the elk, and is found in the northern parts of
the United States ; while the rein deer inhabits! the northern re
gions of British America. The American stag rather exceeds
the European in size, aud is seen in great numbers feeding in the
rich savannahs of the Missouri and Mississippi, where there are
also' herds of that kind called the Virginian deer.
In the northern states are two kinds of bears, both black;
but that carnivorous animal called the ranging bear is found in
all the states, as is the wolf. Several kinds of foxes are 'also
seen : "and the wolverine seems a kind of bear. The animal
most dreaded is the catamount, or cat of the mountains, found
in the northern and middle states, and. is probably the same with
the puma of Pennant, which he says is sometimes in "North
America called the panther. One kiUed in New Hampshire was
six feet in length, aud the: tail three ; but the length . of the leg

190 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
did not exceed twelve inches.' The cougar is about five feet hi
length, and in the southern states is called the tiger : but it is
well known that the ferocious animals of the new continent are
totally different from those of the old, there being neither lions,
tigers, leopards, nor panthers, in the whole extent of Ameri
ca. A German missionary, who- resided twenty-two vears in
Paraguay, describes the tiger of that country as marked with
black spots, sometimes on a whitish, sometimes on a yellowish,
ground ; aud says that as the lions of Africa far exceed those of
Paraguay, so the African tigers greatly yield in size to the Ame
rican; which maybe just, as the royal tiger seems peculiar to
Asia. But he adds that he has seen the skin of a tiger three
-ells and two inches' in length; or equal to that of a large ox.
This animal easily carries off a horse or an ox ; and seems' to ex-
, ceed in size any American beast of prey admitted in- the system
of Buffon,' whose fondness for theories is often to be lament
ed; and his jaguar, or American tiger,- seems only a dimintf-
tive species;
The lynx, the ocelot, and the margay, are smaller beasts of
prey, of the eat kind. These and many other animals supply
furs. The beaver is well known from the fur, and the singular
formation of his cabin, built in ponds for the sake of security;
but he seems to feed on the twigs' of trees, and not on- fish, as
commonly supposed. This industrious animal is- found in all tHe
states, and is somewhat imitated by the musk rat, who likewise
builds his hut in shallow streams. Some kinds of monkies are
said to be found in the southern states. The morse or sea cow,
and the seal, used to frequent the northern shores; and the
manati, common in South America, is said sometimes' to appear
on the southern coasts:- this animal,. which has fore feet: 'like'
hands, and a tail like a fish, while the breasts of the female re
semble those of a woman, seems to be the mermaid of fable.
Among the birds there, are many kinds of eagles; vultures,-
owls, and numerous sorts- called by European names, though ge-
rally different in the eye of the naturalist. The bird called a-
turkey is peculiar to America, and abounds in the north. They
were brought from Mexico to Spain, and from Spain to England
about 1524 ; the African poultry, or mehagrides, of more an
cient authors, being Guinea fowls. There are also birds which'
resemble the partridge, ptarmigan, and quail, of Europe. , Vie-'

GEOGRAPHY AND NATURAL HISTORY. 1'91
i
;gf(nia abounds with beautiful birds; among which is the huriir
^ning bird, as already mentioned/ while the wakon resembles the
bird of paradise : and it may be conceived that vast varieties of'
aquatic birds crowd the numerous lakes and rivers, the largest'
being the wild swan, which sometimes weighs thirty-six pounds.
Some of the frogs are of remarkable size ; and the tortoise, or
turtle, supplies a delicious- food, while the alligator is not un
known in the southern rivers. Of serpents Mr. Morse enume
rates near forty kinds found in the United territories, Virginia,
in particular, producing great numbers. The rattlesnake is the
largest, being from four' to six feet in length, and is one of the
most dreaded. Among the fish are most of thOs*e which are es
teemed in Europe ; and among those that are peculiar may be
mentioned that large kind of white trout found iri the lakes.
The mineralogy of the United States will not supply an ex
pensive theme; as few substances are found, except those which
are indeed the most precious to industry, iron and coal. In the
district of Main the founderies are supplied with bog iron ore;
and there is said to be a kind of stone which yields copperas, or
vitriol and sulphur. Iron ore is found in great abundance in
Massachussetts, where there are considerable manufactures.
Copper ore also appears in that province with black lead, alumi
nous slate ; and asbestos is said to be found in a quarry of lime
stone. In Rhode Island there are mines of iron and copper;
and at Diamond Hill a variety of curious stones.* On the
banks of the Connecticut is a lead mine, but too expensive to
work; and zinc is also found, with talcs, and crystals of various
colors. At Philipsburg in New York is a silver mine ; and lead^
zinc, and manganese, with copper and coal. Gypsum, talc, as
bestos, also occur in that extensive province; In New Jersey a
rich copper mine was long wrought, pretended to have been dis
covered by a flame visible in the night, like one of the gold
mines in Hungary. The middle provinces seem only to produce
iron ore; but Virginia is celebrated for various minerals. A
lump of gold ore was found near the falls of the river Kapahan-
noc, probably rolled down from its source, or that of sbme tri
butary rivulet.f There are lead mines which yield from 50 to
* Native copper is found on the river' Tonuagan, which runs into Lake
^Superior. Mackenzie, xli.
t.ln 1804, a bed of golct ore was discovered in North Carolina, in a creek

1-92 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
80 pounds from 100 ot ore : copper and black lead are also
found ; and there is abundance of excellent coal on both sides of
James-river, said to have been discovered by a boy in pursuit of
cray fish. Coal also abounds towards the Mississippi and Ohio ;
and at Pittsburg is of superior quality : but this valuable mineral
15 chiefly worked in Virginia, where ,the beds seem very exten
sive, Lirnestone is rare on the east of the Blue ridge; but
there is a vein of marble which crosses James-river., Amethysts,
or violet-colored crystals, are also found in Virginia; and it is
probable that the emerald mentioned by Mr. Jefferson was only
a green crystal. North Carolina is crossed by a long ridge of
limestone, in a south westerly direction, but no minerals seem to
have, been discovered. In the territory south of the Ohio, what
is called stone-coal is found in the Cumberland mountains, or
great Laurel ridge, (supposed by some to be of great height,) and
there are salt springs near the upper ^branches of the Tenessee.
In South Carolina there are said to be appearances of silver and
lead, with abundance of iron ore, and quarries of free-stone ; but
the coarse diamonds are probably mere crystals, of quartz. Geor
gia, the most southern state, is of a rich soil ; but beside a bank
of oyster shells, 90 miles from the sea, there seems no minera-
logic discovery.*
There are several mineral waters, of various virtues, in diffe
rent provinces of the United States, but none of distinguished
eminence like Bath, or Aix-la-Chapelle. In the province of
Vermont, or the Green Mountain, there is a remarkable sulphu
reous spring, which dries up in two or three years, and bursts
out in another place. There- are several mineral springs in Mas
sachussetts, but little frequented, and there is another at Staf
ford in Connecticut. Those of Saratoga, in the province of
New York, are remarkably copious, and surrounded with singu
lar petrifactions. They are considerably frequented, as well as
those of New Lebanon in the same country. New Jersey boasts
of some chalybeate waters ; and near Isle Creek in Pennsylva-
running through the grounds of Mr. John Read, by his sons who were fishing,
and who have since often, picked up 100 to 120 penn} weights in a day.— -Mr.,
Read himself picked up one lump of ore weighing 28 pennyweights, suppo
sed to be worth .£1400 sterling.
* Oysters are however found in the rivers at a considerable distance from
the sea, as appears from Mr. Weld and other authors. According to Imlay,
136, there is a very rich vein of copper on the river Wabash,

GEOGRAPHY AND NATURAL HISTORY. 193
nia on the river Allegany, or Ohid, there is a spring which yields
petroleum, said to be useful in rheumatic complaints. TtVo
warm springs occur in Virginia, one of them 112°. These are
tailed the springs of Augusta ; but others more frequented are
¦near the river Patomack, A bituminous spring was discovered
on the estate of General Washington, which easily takes fire,
and continues burning for some time. The salt springs in Ken-i-
tucky also deserve mention ; and there are others in the province
of Tenessee. In Georgia, near the town of Washington, there
is a remarkable spring rising from a holldw tree, Which -is in-
crusted with matter probably calcareous.
The natural curiosities of the United States are numerous,
and have been investigated With that laudable intention, which
has been particularly directed by the English towards such inte
resting appearances. Besides the irriiptibn of the river Pato
mack through the Blue Mountains, and other objects already
mentioned, the principal unco'famoii features of nature shall be
briefly indicated from Mr. Morse's American Geography. In
Vermont there is a remarkable irnpendent ledge of rocks, about
200 feet high, on the west bank of the river Connecticut ; and
in the same province is a curious stalactitic cave, in which, after
a descent of 104 feet, there opens a spacious room about 20 feet
in breadth, and 100 in length, with a circular hall at the further
end, at the bottom of which boils up a deep spring of clear wa
ter. Rattlesnake Hill ih New Hampshire presents a stalactitic
cave; and near Durham is a rock so poised on another, as to
move with one finger ; a natural remain of a ruined hill, though
in England it would be called Druidical. The rivulet in Massa
chusetts^ called Hudson's Brook, has excavated in a fantastic
manner ti large rock of white marble. The falls of the river
Powow, in the same province, are not only curious in them
selves, but present many grotesque mills, and other monuments
of industry ; and a similar appearance occurs on the river Pautu-
kit in Rhode Island; In Connecticut is a cave which was for
some time the retreat of Whaley and Goffe, two of the Judges
of Charles I.
In the province of New York a rivulet runs under a hill about
70 yards in diamfeter, forming a beautiful arfch in the rock;
ahd there is. a stalactitic caVe in which , was found the petrified
skeleton of a large snake. The falls of the Mohawk river, call-
9. b b

194 HISTORY OP NORTH AMERICA.
ed Cohoz, are more remarkable for the width of the stream,
than from the height of the descent. There is a beautiful cas
cade in Fayette county, Pennsylvania, over a semicircular rock
of marble. Jn Pennsylvania there are also some remarkable
Caves, one of which resembles a church with pillars and monu
ments. In the territory on the N. W. of tRe Ohio, the savan7
nas, or rich plains, extend for 30 or 40 miles without any tree;
they are crowded with deer, wild cattle, and turkies, and often
visited by bears and wolves ; but this district is chie.fiy remarkaT
ble for a number of old forts, of an oblong form, with : an ad
joining tumulus, or tomb. As the Mexicans have a tradition
that they passed from the north, these forts may perhaps^ be re
mains of their first residence, or of some nation which they Sub
dued. In the western part of Maryland there are said to he
some remarkable caves : and others occur in Virginia, particular
ly that called Madison's cave, on the N. W. side of the Blue
ridge, extending about 300 feet into the solid limestone* The
blowing cave emits a strong current of* air, particularly in frosty
weather. The natural bridge is a sublime and striking curiosity,
being a rock covered with soil and trees, across a Chasm, apr
pearing to have been opened in the course of ages • by a brook,
which now runs between 2 and 300 feet beneath. The breadth
of this bridge is about 60 feet ; and the thickness' of the mass
about 40. The rock is limestone, which easily wastes by the
attrition of water, whence the number of caverns in that kind
of rock, while in the granitic, or argillaceous they rarely occur.
In Kentucky the banks of the river so called, and of Dick's ri
ver, are sometimes 400 feet in height of limestone, or white
m^r.ble ; and there are said to be caverns of some miles iu
length, thus rivalling the celebrated cave in Carinthja. The
territory on the south of the Ohio (Tenessee) present? a remark
able ledge of rocks in the Cumberland mountains, about SO
miles ?n length, and 200 feet thick, with a perpendicular face to
the S E. The whirl is more grand than the irruption of the
Patomack through the Blue ridge : the Tenessee, which a few
miles above is half a mile wide, contracts to 100 yards, and
forces its way through this outer ridge of the Apalachian, form
ing a whirlpool by striking against a large rock. In Georgia
the chief curiosity is a large bank of oyster shells, 90 miles from
the sea, to which it runs nearly parallel : if the river Savannah

GEOGRAPHY AND NATURAL HISTORY. 19&
tiever passed in that direction, it is probable that the land has
gained so far on the ocean.
The chief islands belonging to the United States are Long
Island* (the province called Rhode Island being continental,
with two or three small islands attached :*) and a few insular
stripes of land near the shores of North Carolina. The others,
scattered along the coast, and in the various bays and lakes, are
of little consequence.
Those parts of North America which still belong to Great
Britain are extensive, and of considerable importance, though
so thinly peopled, and in such a disadvantageous climate, that
they sink into insignificance, when compared with the great and
flourishing colony belonging to Spain, or with the territories of
the United States. The inhabitants of the former have been
estimated at 7,000,000, and those of the States at 5,000,000 ;
while those of the British possessions scarcely exceed 200,000
souls, and the far greater part are French and indigenes.
The chief of these possessions is Canada, now divided into
two provinces, called Upper and Lower Canada, the former be
ing the western division, on the north of the great Lakes or Sea
of Canada; while' the lower division is on the river St. Law
rence towards- the east, apd contains Quebec the capital, and the
chief city of our remaining settlements.
On the east of Canada, to the south of the river St. Lawrence
is Nova Scotia : which in 1784 was divided into two provinces,
that of Nova Scotia iii the south, and New Brunswick in the
north. What is called New Britain comprehends the most northern
parts towards Hudson's Bay, and the coast of Labrador. The
large island of Newfoundland ; that called Cape Breton ; and
the neighbouring isle St. John ; complete the chief denomina
tions of British territory. But in the English maps,, while
Greenland is assigned to Denmark, all the other most northern
parts of America, on the east and on. the west, as far south as
the, port of Sir Francis Drake, are impressed with the color of
British territory. By the right* of prior, or at least of more
complete and precise, discovery, the western coast might be
* Rhode Island, which gives name to the State, is about thirteen miles in
length, by four in breadth, with a eonsiderable town called Newport; and-,
before th« war, was a beautiful and highly cultivated district. .

196 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
considered as belonging to England,, according to the established
usage of all European nations; and which, of course must be
admitted as valid in, a cause between any two of them. This
right may indeed be carried to a ridiculous excess ; and we have
seen navigators in our own time giving new names to places in
Cochin China, a country perhaps as civilized as their own;
which is the same as if a Chinese junk should sail up the
Thames, and the captain bestow new names upon every object.
But in a country thinly inhabited by savages, and adapted for
European settlements, the case is totally different ;• and any
usage, however ridiculous, must be admitted, which tends to pre
vent disputes, and, contests. The first settlement seems however
to be the most rational claim;, and.no such event having yet hap
pened, the, western coast of North Ameriea shall be arranged
among the Unconquered Countries, which, seems to be the most.
proper method, when the settlements are only a few detached,
factories, to which, the. natives, profess, no subjection. Hence the
regions around Hudson's Bay, with Labrador and Greenland,
are, from the intense severity, of the climate, declared free by na
ture, and shall also be, classed among the Uncopquered Countries.
The present short description shall therefore only, comprise Car
nada, and the other British provinces in the south, which, form
actual possessions or colonies.
CANADA.
This country is computed to extend from the. Gulf of St.
Lawrence, and isle of Anticosta, in the east, to the lake of, Win
nipeg, in the west, or from long. 64° to 97° west, from London,
thirty-three degrees, which in that latitude may be about 1200
geographical miles , The breadth, from the Lake of Erie, in the
south, or lat. 43°, may extend to lat. 49°, or 360 geographical
miles ; but the medial breadth is not aboye 200. The original
population, consisted of several savage tribes, whose names and
manners may he traced in the. early French accounts, which
may. also be consulted for the progressive discovery, the first, set
tlement being at Quebec in 160S. During a century and a half
that the French possessed Canada, they made many discoveries
towards the west; and Lahonton, in the end of the seventeenth

GEOGRAPHY AND NATURAL HISTORY. 197
century, has given a tolerable account of some lakes beyond that
called Superior, and of the river Missouri. Quebec being con
quered by Wolfe 1759, Canada was ceded to Great Britain by
the treaty of Paris 1763.
The chief town is Quebec, built on a lofty point of land on
the north-west side of the great river St. Lawrence ; which in
the neighbourhood, is sufficiently deep- and spacious to float more
than one hundred sail of the line. The upper town, on a rock of
limestone, is, of considerable natural strength, and well fortified ;
but the lower town towards the river is open to every attack.
Montcalm's vain, confidence, in marching out of the city, led to
his destruction, while a siege must have been dissolved by the ap
proach of winter, when it was impracticable to form any works :-
yet Quebec might in the new procedures of war^ yield, like Hol^-
land, to, a frozen campaign. A large garrison is maintained';
but 5000 soldiers would be necessary to man the works. The
inhabitants are supposed to be 1 0,000, about two-thirds being
French ; and the presence of the governor, courts, and garrison,
conspire to render it gay and lively. The lower town is mostly
inhabited by traders and mariners. The houses are commonly
of stone, small, ugly, and inconvenient; but the new part of
the governor'* house, for there is no citadel, is upon an improved
plan. The monasteries are almost extinct ; yet there are three
nunneries. The market is well supplied; and the little carts are
often drawn by dogs. The vicinity presents most sublime and
beautiful scenery ; and the falls of the riyer Montmorenci are
particularly celeb rated.
Montreal is a neat town, on the east side of a considerable
island, formed by the river St. Lawrence at its junction with
the river Utawas, which is the boundary between Lower arid
Upper Canada, about 150 miles above- Quebec. This is the ut
most point to which ships can ascend from the sea; but several
of the burden of 400 tons reach Montreal by a tedious and diffi
cult navigation. This town contains about 1200 houses, and
probably 6000 souls ; with six churches, four of which are Ro
man Catholic, and four conventsi The chief trade is in furs,
which are thence sent to Canada for England. The North-west
company consists of merchants of Montreal. The canoes are
chiefly employed on the Utawas, whence the fur traders proceed
across to Lake Winnipeg. Mr. Mackenzie was a partner in the

19# HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA/
North-west Company, which has considerably lessened the trade^
of that of Hudson's Bay. La Prairie is a village on the oppo
site side of the river to Montreal. >
Mr. Weld, who is a great admirer of ice, depicts the Canadi->
an cHmate in the most favorable colors, and would persuade iw
that, though considerably further to the north, it is at least-'
equal to that of New England. But even by his account the'
extremes of heat and cold are amazing ; the thermometer in Ju
ly and August rising to 96, while in winter the mercury freezes.
The snow begins in November ; and in January the frost is so
intense that it is impossible to be out of doors for any time.
without the risk of what is called a frost-bite, which endangers
the limb : and the warm intervals only increase the sensation and-
the jeopardy. But winter, as at Petersburg, is the season of
amusement ; and the sledges drawn by one or two horses, afford
a pleasant and speedy conveyance. . Several stoves are placed in
the hall, whence flues pass to the apartments ; and there are
double windows and doors. On going abroad the whole body
is covered with furs, except the eyes and nose. In May the-.
thaw generally comes suddenly, the ice on the river bursting
with the noise of cannon, and its ¦ passage to the sea is terrific,.*
especially wnel1 a pile of ice crashes against a rock. Spring is:
summer : and vegetation instanteous. The month of September-
is one of the most pleasant.
The face of the country is generally mountainous and Woody ;:
but there are savannas, and plains of great beauty, chiefly to- ,
wards Upper Canada. In the lower province the soil mostly-
consists of a loose blackish earth of ten or twelve inches, in
cumbent on cold clay. This thin mould is however very fertile, .'
and manure was seldom or never used by the French settlers ;
but of late marl has been employed, and is found in considera--
ble quantities on the shores of the river St. Lawrence.
The great river St. Lawrence has been already described in-
the general view of North America. The Utawas is the most
important of all its tributary streams, issuing from various lakes,
towards the centre of Canada : its waters are of a bright greenish
color, while the St. Lawrence is muddy. Many rivers of small
er consequence flow into the river St. Lawrence from the north..
The large lakes have been also already mentioned ; there are
many others, of which the enumeration, would; be tedious; and:.

'GEOGRAPHY AND NATURAL HISTORY. 199
*come difficulty arises from the want of any precise boundary in
,the north of Canada. Nor have the mountains been examined
by any geologist, who could indicate their ranges or illustrate
.their structure. The chief ridge seems to be in the northern
part of the province, in a direction S. W. and N. E. givin<*
source to the many streams which flow S. E., while a few pass
to Hudson's Bay. But there are many mountains between Que
bec and the sea, while towards the Utawas only a few are scat
tered, and to the S. W. there are ample plains. The botany
differs little from that of the United States :. and the chief sin
gularities in zoology are the moose, the beaver, and some other
.animals, -for which Mr. Pennant's Arctic Zoology may be con
sulted. The rein- deer appears in the northern part, and the
puma and lynx are not unknown. Both the Canadas are much
infested with rattlesnakes. The humming bird is not uncommon
,at Quebec. The mineralogy is of little consequence; and even
iron seems to be rare. There are said to be lead mines which
produce some sdver; and it is probable that copper may be
found, as it appears in the S. W. of Lake Superior. Coal
abounds in the island of Cape Breton, but this valuable mineral
has not been discovered in Canada. If so wide a territory were
properly examined by skilful naturalists, which Ought always to
r he a primary care with every government for the most advan
tageous position of settlements, and that every advantage may
be secured, it is highly probable that important discoveries might
be made Little is said of warm springs, or mineral waters •
and the chief natural curiosities seem to be the grand lakes ri
vers, and cataracts. Among the latter the celebrated Falls o.
-Niagara are chiefly on the side of Upper Canada, the river be
ing there GOO yards wide, and the fall 142 feet. A small island
lies between the falls ; and that on the side of the States is 350
yards wide, while the height is 163 feet: from the great fall -,
constant cloud ascends, which may sometimes be seen at an ins-
credible distance ; and the whole scene is truly tremendous..
NEW B RUNSWICK.
The ancient province of Nova Scotia was granted by James
J. to his secretary Sir William Alexander,, afterwards earl of

200 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERrCA.
Stirling ; and the origin of the title of baronets of Nova Scotia
is well known. It was afterwards seized by the French, who
seem indeed to have been the first possessors, and by whom it
was called Acadie ; but it was surrendered to England by the
treaty of Utredht 1713. In 1784, as already stated, it was di
vided into two provinces, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia. In
the -former there are two considerable bays, and a river of some
length, called St. John's ; while that of St. Croix divides New
Brunswick from the province of Main, belonging to the United
States. The river of St. John is navigable for vessels of 50 ton*
about 60 miles; and for boats about 200; the tide flowing
about 80. The fish are salmon, bass, and sturgeon ; and the
banks, enriched by the annual freshets, are ofteh fertile, level,
and covered with large trees. This river affords a common and
near route to Quebec. There are many lakes, among which the
Grand Lake is 30 miles long, and about nine broad. The great
chain of Apalachian mountains passes on the N. W. of this pro
vince, probably expiring at the Gulf of St. Lawfence. The ca
pital is Frederick-town on the river St. John, about 90 mile*
from its estuary. St. Anne's is almost opposite; and there are
some other settlements nearer the Bay of Fundi, with a fort
called Howe. There is a tribe of savages called the Marechites,
estimated at 140 fighting men. The chief products are timber
and fish.

NOVA SCOTIA.
This province is about 300 miles in length, by about 80 of
inedial breadth, being inferior iu size to New Brunswick. There
tire several considerable rivers, among which that of Annapolis
is navigable 15 miles, for ships of 100 tons. The Bay of Fundi,
between New Brunswick and. Nova Scotia, extends 50 leagues
inland; the ebb and flowing of the tide being from 45 to 60 feet.
The capital is Halifax, on the Bay of Chebucto, well situated
for the fishery, with communications, by land and water, with
other parts of this province, and New Brunswick. There is a
good harbour, where a small squadron of ships of war, employ
ed in protecting the fishing Vessels, is laid up m the winter.
The town is entrenched, with forts of timber, and is said to

GEOGRAEHY AND NATURAL HISTORY. 201
contain 15 or 16,000 inhabitants, a superior population to that
of Quebec. Shelburn, towards the S. W., once, contained 600
families: Guisbury about 250. The harbour of Annapolis is
excellent; but it is an inconsiderable hamlet. During a great
part of the year the air is foggy aod unhealthy ; and for four or
five months intensely cold. There are many forests ; and the
soil is generally thin and barren, though fertile on the banks of
the rivers, in grass, hemp, and flax j but supplies of grain are
sent from England. The Micmaes, an Indian tribe of about 30Q
fighters, dwell on the east of Halifax. Britain sends to these pro7
vinces linen and woollen cloths, and other articles to the amount
of about jf30,000. ; and receives timber and fish worth abouj:
.£50,000. The chief fishery is that of cod on the Cape Sable
coast. Near Cape Canco there are remarkable cliffs of white
gypsum. About 23 leagues from that cape is the Isle de Sable,
or of Sand, consisting wholly of that substance, mixed with
white transparent stones, the' hills being milk-white cones, and
some 146 feet above the sea. This strange isle has ponds of
fresh water ; with junipers, blueberries, and cranberries, and
some grass and vetches, which serve to support a few horses,
cows, and hogs. The Bay of Fundi presents an infinite variety
of picturesque and sublime scenery ; and the Bore rises to the
height of 70 feet.
ISLAND OF CAPE BRETON.
This island is attached to the province of Lower Canada,
though divided from Nova Scotia only by a strait of one mile in
breadth. It is about 100 miles in length ; and according to the
French authors was discovered at a very early period, about
A. D. 1500, by the Normans and Bretons, who navigated these
seas ; and being supposed a part of the continent was called
Cape Breton, a name absurdly retained. They did not however
take possession of it till 1713, when they erected Fort Dauphin<:
the harbour being found difficult, Louisburg was built in 1720,
the settlers being chiefly from Europe, as the Acadians, or
French of Nova Scotia, .did not choose to leave that country.
In*1745' Cape Breton was taken by some troops from New Eng- '
land; and has since remained subject to the Britjsh crpwn. The)
9. c c

202 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
climate is cold and foggy, not only from the proximity of Newr
foundland, but from numerous lakes and forests. The soil is
chiefly mere moss, and has been found unfit for agriculture.
The chief towns are Sidney and Louisburg ; the whole inhabi
tants of the isle do not exceed 1000. The fur trade is inconsider
able, but the fishery very important, this island being esteemed
the chief seat ; and the value of this trade, while in the French
possession, was computed at .£1,000,000 sterling. There is a
very extensive bed of coal in this island, in a horizontal direct
tion, not more than six or eight feet below the surface ; but it
has been chiefly used as ballast : in one of the pits a fire was
kindled by accident, and remains unextinguished.
The island of St. John is at no great distance to the west of
Cape Breton, being about 60 miles in length by 30 in breadth,
and is attached to the province of Nova' Scotia. The French iiir
habitants, about 4000, surrendered with Cape Breton, in 1745.
It is said to be fertile, with several streams. A lieutenant-go
vernor resides at Charlotte-town; and- the inhabitants of the
island are computed at 5000.
NEWFOUNDLAND.
This island was discovered by Sebastian Cabot in 1496, wltp
also founded the prior claim of England to the North American
shores as far south as Florida. This discovery, like that of
Columbus and others, was unintentional, the design being mere
ly to penetrate to the East Indies. Those authors who wonder
that no colonies were sent, only show their ignorance of the in
tentions of the first navigators ; and at that period there was
not one man in Europe who could have formed the smallest idea
of the benefits of a colony. It was the success of the Spanish
colonies, allured by gold alone, that towards the end of the six
teenth century, enlarged the ideas of mankind : but even then
Raleigh's transcendent mind held out gold to all his followers,
as the sole inducement. The island of Newfoundland is about
320 miles in length and breadth, the shape approaching to a. tri
angle. It seems to be rather hilly than mountainous, with woods
of birch, small pine, and fir, yet on the south-west side there
are lofty head-lands. The country has scarcely been penetrated

GEOGRAPHY AND NATURAL HISTORY. 203
above 30 miles ; but there are numerous ponds and morasses,
with some dry barrens. The great fishery on the banks of New
foundland begins about the 10th of May, and continues till the
end of September. The cod is either dried for the Mediterra
nean ; or what are called mud-fish, barrelled up in a pickle of
salt, for the English market. These banks and the island.,are.
environed with constant fog, or snow and sleet ; the former sup
posed by some to be occasioned by the superior warmth of the
gulf stream from the West Indies. The fishery is computed to
yield about ,£300,000 a year, from the cod sold in the Catholic
countries. The island of Newfoundland, after many disputes
with the French, was ceded to England 1713, the French ha
ving permission to dry their nets on the northern shores ; and in
1763 it was stipulated that they might fish in the Gulf of St.
Lawrence ; and the small isles of St. Pierre and Miquelon were
ceded to them. The French, by the treaty 1783, were to enjoy
their fisheries on the northern and western coasts, the inhabi
tants of the United States having the same privileges as before
their independence; and the preliminaries of October 1801 con
firm the privileges granted to the French.
The chief towns are St. John in the S. E. with Placentia in
the south, and Bonavista in the east ; but not above a thousand
families remain during the winter. In the spring a small squa
dron is sent to protect the fisheries and settlements, the admiral
being also governor of the island, its sole consequence depend
ing on the fishery ; and there are two lieutenant governors, one
at St. John's, another at Placentia.*
These dreary shores are strongly contrasted by the Bermudas
or Sommer Islands,' lying almost at an equal distance between
Nova Scotia and the West Indies ; but as they are nearer to the
coast of Carolina than to any other land, it seems more proper
to arrange them here than under any other division.
THE BERMUDAS, or SOMMER ISLANDS.
They are four in number, and were discovered by the Spani
ards under John Bermudas, in 1527 j but being afterwards neg-
* The isle of Anticosta, at the month of the St. Lawrence, is full of rocke,
and has no harbour, but is covered with wood ; and excellent cad is feud
on the shores.

204 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
tected by them, they Were again disclosed by the shipwreck of
Sir George Sommer in 1609; which event seems to have indu
ced Shakespear to describe them as ever vexed with storms,
Another poet, Waller, who resided there some time, on his be
ing cdiidemned for a plot against the parliament in 1643, de
scribes them in very different colors, as enjoying a perpetual
spring. In 1725 the benevolent and eccentric bishop Berkley
proposed to erect a college in these islands for the conversion of
the savage Americans ! Of these little islands the chief is that
called St. George, with a capital town of the same name, con
taining about 500 houses, built of a soft free-stone, probably like
that of Bath ; the inhabitants being about 3000, and those of
all the isles perhaps about 9000^ There is a governor, council,
and general assembly : the religion being that of the church of
England. The people are chiefly occupied in building light ships
6f their cedars, in which they trade to North America and the
West Indies. It would appear that these remote isles were un
inhabited when settled by the English, but a good history and
description of the Bermudas might afford a pleasing addition to
the geographical library.

NATIVE TRIBES,

AND

UNCOtfQUERED COUNTRIES.

GREENLAND.

The discovery of this extensive region, whieh, whether con
tinental or insular, must be regarded as belonging to North
America; was made by the people of Iceland in the tenth centu
ry j the distance, according to the best maps, being about eight
degrees of longitude in lat 6,6°, or nearly 200 geographical
miles; but some maps reduce it to five degrees, or not more
than ISO geographical miles. The intercourse between this colo
ny and Denmark was maintained till the beginning of the fifteenth
century, the last of seventeen bishops being named in 1406: and
in that century, by the gradual increase of the arctic ice, the co
lony appears to have been completely imprisoned by the frozen
ocean ; while on the west a range of impassable mountains aiid
plains, covered with perpetual ice, precluded all access. The an
cient settlement contained several churches and monasteries, the
names and positions of which may be traced in the map by Tor-
faeus; from which it would seem that the Colony extended over
about 200 miles in the S- E. extremity. On the west some ruins
of churches have also been discovered. In more recent times the
Western coast was chiefly explored by Davis, and other English
navigators; but there was rio attempt to settle any colony. A
pious Norwegian clergyman, named Egede, having probably read
the book of Tttrfaeus published in 1715, was deeply impressed
with the melancholy situation of this colony, if it should be
found to exist; and in 1721 proceeded to the western shore;
where he continued till 1735, pireaching the gospel to the na-

206 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
lives, his benevolent example having been since followed by se
veral missionaries. The sect called Moravians began their set
tlements about thirty years after, being chiefly those of New
Hernhuth and Lichtenfels. It is said that the country is inha
bited as far as 76°; but the Danish and Moravian settlements
are chiefly in the S. W., though at one time there appears to
have been a factory as far north as 73°. The natives have no
conception of what we call Baffin's Bay : but say that in the
north of their country there is a narrow strait which divides it
from the continent of America.
This dreary country may be said to consist of rocks, ice, and
snow ; but in the southern parts there are some small junipers,
willows, and birch. There are rein-deer, and some dogs re
sembling wolves, with arctic foxes, and polar bears. Hares are
common ; and the walrus, and five kinds of seals, frequent the
shores. The birds, particularly sea and water fowl, are tolera
bly numerous ; as are the fish ; and the insects exceed ninety.
What is called the ice blink is an amazing congeries of ice, at
the mouth of an inlet, the splendor of which is discerned at the
distance of many leagues. It is said to extend in magnificent
arches for about 24 miles. The short summer is very warm, but
foggy; and the northern lights diversify the gloom of winter.
What is called the frost smoke bursts from cracks in the Frozen
Ocean. The natives are short, with long black hair, small eyes,
and flat faces, being a branch of the Iskimos, or American Sa-
moieds: it is supposed that they do not exceed 10,000, the num
ber having been greatly reduced by the small-pox. Their ca
noes, in which one man proceeds to kill seals, are of a singular
construction, and have sometimes been wafted as far as the
Orkneys. The highest mountains are on the west side ; and the
three pinnacles of what is called the Stag's Horn are visible from
the sea at the distance of forty or sixty leagues. Crantz observes
that the rocks are very full of clefts, commonly perpendicular,
and seldom wider than half a yard, filled with spar, quartz, talc,
and garnets. The rocks are generally rather vertical or little in
clined, consisting of granite, with some sand-stone, and lapis,
olaris. Our author's imperfect mineralogy also indicates mica-
cious schistus, coarse marble, and serpentine ; with asbestos and
amianthus, crystals, and black schorl. It is said that fluate of
argill, a new substance, has been recently found in Greenland]

GEOGRAPHY AND NATURAL HISTORY. 207
perhaps this is the soft transparent stone of Crantz. The lapis
olaris is of singular utility in Greenland, and the north of Ame
rica, being used for lamps and culinary utensils. The soil con
sists of unfertile clay or sand. The winter is very severe ; and
the rocks often burst by the intensity of the frost. Above 66°
the sun does not set in the longest days, and" at 64° is not four
hours beneath the horizon.

LABRADOR.
This large extent of coast was so named by the Portuguese
Bavigator who made the first discovery. In the inland parts
there were American savages, and on the coasts Iskimos ; but
the former have mostly retired to the south, and even the latter
seem gradually to withdraw : neither people had the ingenuity
of the Laplanders. There were here only a few factories, till
the Moravian clergy formed little settlements, particularly at
Nam, about 1764. To these missionaries we are indebted for
the discovery of that elegant iridescent felspar, called the La
brador stone. It is said to have been first discovered in sailing
through some lakes,* -here its bright hues were reflected from
the water. The most rare color is the scarlet. Mr. Cartwright,
who resided at intervals nearly sixteen years in this desolate
country, has published a minute and prolix journal, which how
ever gives a curious picture of its state, and appearances along
the coast, for the inland parts have never been explored. His
Indians seem to be Iskimos, and their manners are very fil
thy. He remarks that the grouse not only change their color in
the winter, but that they then gain a large addition of white fea
thers. The porcupines resemble the beaver in size and shape •
and he observed wolvereens. He who. wishes to study the man
ners of bears may here find ample satisfaction. At a cataract
surrounded with elders, spruces, firs, larches, birch, and aspin,
many salmon ascend, and the bears assemble in numbers to
cateh their favorite prey. Some dive after the fish, and do not
appear till at the distance of seventy or eighty yards. Others
seem to be loungers, who only come to see what is going for-
* A large inland sea, or lake, is laid down by D'Anville, which lias re
cently b«en copied under the appellation of a New Sea.

208 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
wards, and to enjoy the promenade and the spectacle. Our
author counted thirty-two white bears, and three black ones.
Rein-deer also abound, and their venison is excellent. , Mr„
Cartwright contradicts the received accounts of the beaver, as
serting that he never eats fish nor any animal food ; but lives on
the leaves and bark of such trees and shrubs as have not a resi
nous juice, and the roots of the water lily. Their sagacity isi
not so great as is generally supposed ; but there is something so
singular in their erect movements, that an illiterate observer pro
nounced them to be " enchanted christians." Even the peacea
ble Iskimos are liable to contests; and, about 1736, in a quar
rel concerning a young woman, a furious slaughter arose, in
which neither sex nor age were spared. At the close of his
third volume Mi\ Cartwright gives a general idea of the country,
and a thermometrical journal. So far as discovered, Labrador
is generally hilly, and even mountainous ; but the southern parts
might be improved, though it would be difficult to guard against
the white bears and wolye6 ; and cattle must be housed for nine
months in the year. The eastern coast exhibits a most barren
and iron-bound appearance, the rocky mountains rising suddenly
from the sea, with spots of black peat earth, producing stunted
plants. Rivers, brooks, lakes, pools, air! ponds, are abundant-1
ly rich in fish, and frequented by innumerable birds. Though,
springs be rare, the waters being mostly dissolved snow, yet
swelled throats are unknown, though frequent in the alpine
countries of Europe and Asia. The eastern coast also presents
thousands of islands, covered with flocks of sea fowl, particular
ly, eider ducks ; and in the larger isles there are deer, foxes, and
hares. The fish are salmon, trout, pike, barbel, eels, and
others. Inland the air is milder ; . there are many trees, and
some symptoms of fertility. The plants are wild celery, scurvy-
grass, reddocks, and Indian salad. There are some appearances
of iron ; and ,'the Iskimos now collect the Labrador spar on the
shores of the sea and lakes, for the rocks have not been disco
vered. Perhaps ¦ this spar was the shining stone brought from
Labrador by one of our early navigators,, as ,a specimen of gold
pre. The birds are common ,to arctic regions, and the animals
are mostly of the fur kind, in which trade our author was enga
ged. The natives are mountaineers aiid Iskimos ; the former re
sembling gypsies, with somewhat of French features from a mix-

GEOGRAPHY AND NATURAL HISTORY. 209
ture of Canadian blood. They chiefly live on rein deer, und
also kill foxes, martins, and beavers. They live in wigwams, a,
kind of tents covered with deer skin and birch rind ; and are a
sort of Roman Catholics, being anxious to visit the priests at
Quebec. The Iskimos are the same people with the Greenland-1
ers, whose manners are minutely described by Crantz. They,
use sledges drawn by dogs, as in Asia. Remains of seals and
oily substances have a remarkable effect on the ground, so as to
produce rich crops of grass on spots formerly only sprinkled
with heath.
HUDSON'S BAY.
The inland sea commonly called Hudson's Bay was explored
in 1610; and a charter for planting and improving the country,
and carrying on trade, was granted to a company in 1670. The
Hudson's Bay Company has since retained a claim to most ex*
tensive territories, on the west, south and east, of that inland
sea, suppdsed to extend from 70° to 115°, and allowing the de
gree only 30 miles, the length will be 1350 geographical miles,;
and the medial breadth about 350. This vast extent of ice and
sriow is however of little consequence considered in itself; and
it is not understood that the company gain great wealth. An
able writer has also defended them against the invidious charge
of obstructing geographical knowledge for the sake of commer
cial monopoly. The journey of Mr. Hearne is indeed a mani
fest, though tardy, proof of the contrary. The annual exports
are about .£16,000; and the returns, which yield a considerable
revenue to government, perhaps amount to ,£30,000. The
North-west Company lately established at Montreal, has also
considerably reduced the profits ; but an enquiry into the state
of this Company, and of their territories, might be an object
of some importance, and might perhaps lead to great improve
ments in the mode of conducting the commerce, and deriving
every possible advantage from these extensive territories and
seas. The establishment of factories, here called forts, and
which sometimes contain small garrisons, and other peculiar cir
cumstances, seem more adapted to the powers of a commercial
company, than of private traders; and even the example and
success of the North-west Company seem to authorise that of
9. nd

&10 HISTORY OF NORTHAMERICA.
Hudson's Bay. But they ought strictly to attend to the charac#
ter of their servants, who, as Mr. Cartwright observes, will
sometimes kill an Indian in preference to a deer.
The regions around Hudson?s Bay, and that of Labrador,
have, by a miserable compliment to the parent country, been
sometimes called New Britain, a name not admitted in French
or English maps. The parts on the west of Hudson's Bay have
also been called New North and South Wales ; while that on
the east is styled East Main. In the south, James' Bay stretch
es inland about 300 miles by about 150 in breadth; and the
most valuable settlements are in that vicinity, as Albany Fort,
Moose Fort, and East Main Factory. Further to the south,
on the confines of Upper Canada, are Brunswick House, Frede
rick House; and some others, which, perhaps, belong to the
North-west Company. In the north, Severn House is at the
mouth of a' large river, which seems to flow from the Lake of
Winnipic. York Fort stands on Nelson river;, and still further
to the north is Churchill Fort, which seems the furthest settle
ment in that direction.* To the west the Hudson's Bay Com
pany had extended little further than Hudson's House ; while
the superior spirit of the North-west Company has nearly ap-
. proached the Pacific.f The most important rivers are the Nel
son or Saskashawin, and the Severn ; the comparative course of
the latter scarcely exceeding 400 British miles, but of great
breadth and depth. In the south, the Albany, Moose, Abitib,
and Harricana, are the most considerable; but all the rivers are
impeded with falls and shoals. Near that .singular inlet 'called
Chesterfield there are many lakes, but the barbarous names
would neither edify nor entertain the reader ; nor is it likely that
they should ever become memorable in natural, or civil history.
The Sea of Hudson commonly presents bold rocky shores ; but
at intervals there are marshes and .large beaches. There are se
veral high islands, the largest of which in the north has been
little explored ; and in what is called Baffin's Bay (if such a sea
exist), some maps and charts admit a very large central island
called James Island, which others entirely reject.
* Churchill Fort was built in 1715. It is also called Eort Prince of Wales.
+ The boundary between the Hudson's Bay Company and Canada is unr
derstood to follow the ridge that gives source to the rivers (lowing N. and S.
as far as Lake Annipeg; whence lat 49° is said to-forai the limit.

Geography and natural history. 21 1
Even in lat. 57° the winters are extremely severe; the ice on
the rivers is eight feet thick, aud brandy coagulates. The rocks
burst with a horrible noise, equal to that of heavy artillery, and
the splinters are thrown to an amazing distance. Mock suns,
and haloes, are not unfrequent; and the sun rises and sets with
a large cone of yellowish light. The aurora borealis diffuses a
variegated splendor, which equals that of the full moon ; and
the stars sparkle with fiery redness. The- fish in Hudson Sea are
far from numerous ; and the whale fishery has been attempted
without success. There are few shell fish ; and the quadrupeds
and birds correspond with those of ^Labrador and Canada. The
northern indigenes are Iskimos; but there are other savages in
the south : and the factories are visited by several tribes.
In order to complete this general sketch of the geography of
the New World, we shall subjoin a very brief account of the
islands which form a part of it. The numerous and important
islands which border the Gulf of Mexico, extending nearly from
East Florida almost to the mouth of the Oronoko, have obtain
ed the name of West Indies, from an erroneous opinion en
tertained by the first discoverers, that they constituted a part of
India, or at least that they were not far distant from that conti
nent. The principal of these, ranging in a direction from east
to west, are Cuba, Jamaica, St. Domingo, and Porto Rico.
These are followed by that remarkable group known to the Eng
lish by the names of Leeward and Windward Islands, the former
distinction extending from Porto Rico to Dominica, the latter
comprising Martinico, and all the southern part of the range.
The French include them all under the appellation of windward,
as being situated towards the east, the point of the trade wind :
they are also known in geography by the names of the Antilles
and the Caribbee Islands. Their situation and products are
such as to render them of great commercial importance ; but ex
cepting St. D°mmgo, their political weight is considerable only
by their connexion with Europe. The West India Islands are
so well known, that a minute description is unnecessary ; and a
general view will suffice for ..every geographical and historical
purpose.

912 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.

St. DOMINGO.
Among all the islands comprised in this extensive range, His
paniola, or St. Domingo, constituting an independent negro go
vernment, a phenomenon in the history of the new world, has,
acquired the greatest political importance, and merits in the
highest degree the attention of the statesman and the philosopher.
The eentral part of St. Domingo is situated under the 19th de
gree of north latitude, and the 71st degree of west longitude}
and< its extent may be computed at something more than 400
English miles in length from east to west, by about 120 miles in its
greatest, or 100 in its medial breadth. The face of the country
is exceedingly diversified. Towards the coasts, numerous vallies
and extensive plains display the most luxuriant fertility-. The in
terior of the island is mountainous, and presents an intricate
mass of hills, vallies, and forests, which, notwithstanding'' the
early colonization of the coasts, appear to be imperfectly known
to the. Europeans. The climate, like that of the rest of the
West Indies, is hot; and if we may form a judgment from the
events of the last war, it must bet considered as extremely un-
healthful. Homspech's regiment of hussars was in littte more
than two months reduced from 1000 to 300; and the 96th regi
ment totally perished on this inhospitable shore. Of 15,000
British and foreign troops employed in the expedition to St. Do-
nungo, no more than 3000: were left alive and fit for service at
the end of the year 1797 ; and about 5000 seamen are said to
have perished in that ill-fated enterprise. The Europeans, haw-
ever, having wealth for their only object, in the establishment of
colonies, have invariably postponed the advantages of health to
the views of avarice ; and in the eye of the merchant or the
planter, the exuberant fertility of the soil of S*. Domingo mighfi
amply compensate the inconveniences of the climate. The ave
rage praduce of all the sugar lands, while in the hands of the
French, was not less than twenty-four hundred weight per aerey
which is three times the average fertility of those of Jamaica.
In the richest soil of St. Domingo, a single acre has been known
to yield the enormous quantity of two tons and a half of sugar.
Before the revolution, the annual value of the exports in sugar,

GEOGRAPHY AND NATURAL HISTORY. 213
the principal article, coffee, cotton, indigo, molasses, rum, raw
and tanned hides, amounted to about ,£4,765,129 sterling. In
regard to commerce, St. Domingo was the most valuable of all
the West India Islands, and a mine of wealth to France.
Of all the European settlements, this was the most remarkable
for the abundant importation of slaves. During the ten years;
previous to the revolution, the average number of negroes annu
ally imported amounted to 29,000. And amidst this immense
influx of Africans, the number of white inhabitants had some
what decreased. In the year 1790, the population of the French
part of St. Domingo amounted to 480,000 negro slaves, with
about 24,000 Mulattoes, or free people of color, and no more
than 30,830 whites. From a view of these' circumstances, it is
easy to perceive that the extent to Which the slave trade was
carried paved the way to that tremendous revolution, which pro
ved so fatal to those dealers in human flesh, whose grand object
was to acquire by the sweat and the toil of the negroea in St*
Domingo, a : fortune that might enable them to riot in luxury at
Bourdeaux or Paris. The national assembly of France too pre-*
cipitately atstemjMing to reform her colonial system, at ai moment
when- the -mother country was agitated by the most violent com
motions, gave the impulse to that dangerous power, which the;
rapid increase of black population had introduced into St. Do
mingo. Some contradictory decrees of that assembly respecting
the rights of the free Mulattoes to vote for representatives, exci
ted the first disturbances, which were further fomented by the
inirigues. of the French planters. Various struggles ensued be
tween the whites and the people of color. The commissioners of
France had emancipated and armed the slaves, in order to de
fend the island against the English; and the whole settlement
exhibited a tumultuous and martial, scene. The revolutionizing
aud; levelling; spirit e$ Prance was introduced into her colonies,
and St. Domingo afforded an ample and favorable field for it9
operation.. The consequence has been, that' after a war of' marry
years on the cruel principle of extermination, the French are to
tally expelled from alkparts-of the* island, except from thVeify
of St. Domingo; and; the wotld now sees the singular phenome
non, an independent) and' powerful negro empire, frv the Most
cammandlng silluatioiv of the West Indtesi

214 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.

CUBA.
The island of Cuba may be ranked next to St. Domingo, to
which it is equal, or even superior in extent, and inferior only in
political importance. The southernmost part of the coast is un
der the parallel of 20° north,, which is nearly the latitude of the
northern shores of St. Domingo ; and the northern extremity ex
tends almost to the tropic of Cancer. Cuba is about 700 mile*
in length, by, something less than 70 in medial breadth. A
chain of mountains runs across the interior from east to west ;
but the soil is in general extremely fertile. It produces a great
quantity of sugar ; and its tobacco has a finer flavor than that of
•any other part of America. ; Among its productions may also be
reckoned cocoa, mastic, long pepper, ' ginger and aloes. The
forests produce ebony, mahogany*' and most of the different spe
cies of West Indian timber: they also abound with. cattle and
swine like those. of St. Domingo. In consequence of the more li
beral policy which Spain has adopted in her colonial system since
1765, the state of Cuba is greatly improved. In a few years its
cultivation has, been, so greatly extended, that its, trade, instead
of requiring only six vessels as formerly, soon employed 200. The
eoast has several good harbours. St. Jago, on the south side of the
island, was formerly the capital; but that honor is now transfer
red to the Havannah, situated on the northern coast. This city
was founded about the year 1519. In 1669 it was taken by
Morgan, the famous Buccaneer. It surrendered to the British
arms under Admiral Pocock and the Earl of Albemarle, in 1761,
after a gallant defence. Since the. peace of 1763, its fortifica
tions have been greatly augmented, and are now reckoned al
most impregnable. Cuba was first discovered by Columbus.
But he soon after abandoned it for St. Domingo, where he ex
pected to find greater abundance of gold. Some gold dust,
however, is found in the rivers, or rather rivulets, of Cuba:
and there are mines of excellent copper. The gold mines of St.
Domingo seem not to have fully answered the expectations of
the Spaniards, who abandoned them as soon as those of Mexi
co were discovered. It was not known whether Cuba was an
island, or part of the continent, till it was circumnavigated by

GEOGRAPHY AND NATURAL HISTORY. " 215
Oeampo in 1508; and in 1511 it was conquered by 300 Spani
ards under Don Diego de Velasquez. From that time until after;
the conquest of Mexico, Cuba seems to have been the principal
*eat of the Spanish power in America,.

JAMAICA.
Jamaica, the chief, of : the British West India Islands, is in ex-
-tent the third in the American Archipelago, being about 170
miles in length, by 60 in breadth. A ridge of mountains runs
from east to west quite through the middle of the island, and
forms a variety of beautiful landscapes. The lower declivities
are covered with forests, overtopped by the blue summits of the
central ridge. The blue mountain peak rises 7,431 feet, or
nearly a mile and a half above the level of the sea; and the pre
cipices are interspersed with beautiful savannas. From these
central mountains descend above 100 rivulets, of which the
Black river, running to the south, is the most considerable.,
By the industry of the planters, Jamaica is become, a flourishing
settlement ; but in fertility it is far inferior to St. Domingo and
Cuba ; and the climate though tempered by the sea breezes, is
extremely hot. St. Jago, or Spanish town, is regarded as the
capital, but Kingston is the principal port. The population is
compdsed of 250,000 negroes, 10,000 Mulattoes, and about
20,000 white inhabitants. The legislature consists of the go
vernor, the council of twelve, nominated by the crown, and a
representative assembly of forty-three members chosen by the
freeholders. The importation of slaves from Africa formerly con
stituted a considerable part of the trade of this island. To the
immottal glory of the British senate, this commerce is now abo
lished, and the capital which it employed will be directed into
some more laudable, perhaps more profitable channel. The
chief exports of Jamaica to Great Britain, Ireland, and North
America, are sugar, ram, coffee, indigo, ginger, and pimento.
In 1787, they were estimated at the value of .£2,000,000 ster
ling, and the imports at £1,500,000. The intercourse with
Honduras, and other parts of the Mexican coast, is now nearly-
abandoned ; but some little trade is carried on, with Spanish
America, by small vessels, which elude the vigilance of the

216 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
Guarda Costas.- The annual revenue of the island, arising from &
poll-tax, with a duty on rum, and formerly on negroes, amount
ed to more than ,£100,000 sterling, of which about .£75,000
went to defray the ordinary expences of government. Jamaica
was first discovered by Columbus in his second ' voyage, A. D.
1494. In 1655 it fell into the hands of the English, in whose
possession it has ever since remained.- The most striking events
in its history are the wars with the Maroons or independent ne
groes. These were originally .slaves to the Spaniards, being left
behind when their masters evacuated the island, retired to the
mountains, where they maintained their independence until they
were lately subdued, and most of them sent to Nova Scotia.

PORTO RICO.
Porto'Rico, which belongs to Spain, is about 120 English
miles in length, by about 40 in breadth. It is a beautiful, well-
Watered, and fertile island. The productions are the same as
those of Cuba. The northern parts are said to contain some
mines of gold and silver ; but the richer veins of Mexico and
Peru have caused them to be neglected. This island was one of
Colon's discoveries. In 1509 it was conquered by Ponce de Le->
on, the first explorer of Florida.

THE ANTILLES, OR
CARIBBEE ISLANDS.
The Caribbee islands, including Barbadoes, which stands de
tached towards the east; at some distance from the general
range* are extremely fertile, and of great commercial advantage
to their possessors, who are chiefly the English and the French.
Barbadoes, Antigua, St. Christopher's, St. Vincent, Dominica,
Granada, Montserrat, Nevis, and the Virgin isles, belong to
Great Britain. Martinique, Guadaloupe, St. Lucie, and Toba
go, are French. The Danish islands are St. Croix, St. Thomas,

GEOGRAPHY AND NATURAL HISTORY. 217
,aud St. John. The Swedes possess St. Bartholomew, and the
Dutch St. Eustatia. Of the whole group, Guadaloupe and Bar
badoes are the most important. The first including Grand Terre,
far surpasses any of the others in size, being about 60 miles in
length, by 25 in breadth. Barbadoes, although only about
20 miles in length, and 13 in breadth, is supposed to contain
17,000 inhabitants, -to export annually -10,000 hogsheads of su
gar, and 6000 puncheons of rum, besides cotton and other com
modities. Martinique is also a valuable island. St. Viticent may
be considered as divided between the English and the black Ca-
ribs, a sort of Maroons, or descendants of revolted negroes, the
whole British territory consisting of only six parishes. In some
of these islands are short ranges of central hills ; but the coasts
are in general level, and display the most exuberant fertility.
Dominica contains several volcanoes. It also seems that there
have formerly been many in Guadaloupe. The noted souffriere,
in this island, is a natural curiosity, being a vast mass of sul
phur, or sulphurated earth, which emits a continual smoke.
The productions of all these islands are similar, consisting of su
gar, rum, coffee, cocoa, cotton, indigo, &c.
A group of islands also runs parallel to the coast of South
America, of which the most noted are Curassoa and Buenayre,
' the former belonging to Great Britain, the latter to the Dutch.
Under this division may also be classed the island of Trinidad,
recently ceded by Spain to Great Britain. It is situated under
the 10th parallel of north latitude, and is. about 80 or 90 miles
in length, by about 30 miles in medial breadth. About one
third of the island consists of mountainous tracts : the rest has
a fertile soil. The southern side is well adapted to the culture
of coffee : and the western coast has a safe and commodious
harbour. The climate of Trinidad is represented as excellent,
and remarkably free from those hurricanes, which so often
spread devastation in the other West India Islands ; but the ve
hemence of the north winds has been found prejudicial to the
cocoa plantations. The Bahama Islands form a numerous group;
but they are little known or noticed. The soil is in general bar
ren : their trade is consequently small, and their exports of little
importance. The whole number of English settlers in thess
islands does not exceed 3000 or 4000.
10. e e

218 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS
ON THE
WEST INDIES.
The situation of the West India Islands within the torrid
zone; the similarity of climate, products, and commerce; the
mixture of European and African inhabitants ; and, in fine, the
whole combination of physical and moral circumstances, place
them in nearly the same common predicament, and render some
general observations applicable to the whole of. this interesting
portion of the globe. A mountainous and woody interior, pre
senting lofty heights, and encumbered with pathless forests aiirj
waste fertility, contrasted with level and cultivated coasts, may
be regarded as. the most striking geographical feature in all the
larger, and most of the smaller islands. Their situation indi
cates the- common advantages and inconveniencies of the tropical
climates. From their exposure to the sea breezes, the heat in
the West India Islands, however, is far from being so intense as
the interior of Africa, Arabia, Persia, &c. where this refrigera
ting influence is wanted. In all these islands, the sea-breeze
commences about nine or ten in the morning, when the solar
rays have, to a certain degree^ heated the land, and rarefied the
incumbent air. This breeze blows from every point of the com
pass, from the Surrounding coast towards the interior. In the
evening, when the earth is cooled, the land-breeze begins, and
blows in every direction from the centre of the island towards
the coast. This alternate motion of the winds, constantly tend
ing to restore the equilibrium of the air, in proportion as it is
destroyed by rarefaction, greatly contributes to mitigate .the heat
of the climate. The combination of heat and moisture in the
West Indies, however, is such as to render them very unhealth-
fol to European constitutions, a fact so well known, as to render
any reference to authorities, or any examination of proofs, unne
cessary. The frequency of those dreadful hurricanes, which ruin
at once all the hopes of the planter, not to mention the earth
quakes which have sometimes proved so fatal in Cuba, Jamaica)

GEOGRAPHY AND NATURAL HISTORY. 219
and other islands, must also be considered as a tremendous cha
racteristic of the West India climate. The productions of those
islands, which in all are nearly the same, with the nature of
their commerce, have already been mentioned, and are subjects
generally known.
The peculiar circumstances of the West Indies, have given
rise to a particular state of society in a great measure common
to all the islands, although possessed by different nations. Lit
tle attention is paid to literature or the arts : commercial specu
lation absorbs all the faculties of the mind, and gain is the only
object of pursuit. The disproportionate numbers of the two
sexes, and the long prevalence of negro slavery, have unavoida
bly contributed to the contamination of morals, and to the in
troduction of licentiousness, as well as of indolence. The abo
lition of the African trade cannot fail of producing a beneficial
change in the structure of West Indian society.

HISTORY

OF

NORTH AMERICA.
PROGRESS OF THE BRITISH SETTLEMENTS.

SECTION III.
AS it does not consist with the plan of this work to enter into
any lengthened details of the Civil History of the British Colo
nies, until the memorable contest which separated the most va
luable of them for ever from the British sceptre; we shall very
shortly state the leading facts which occurred previous to the
dissensions which led to that memorable change. One of the
main causes which led to the rapid colonization of the American
colonies was, the spirit of religious intolerance which prevailed
in Europe, and governed the councils of its governments — an in
tolerance which drove numbers of virtuous and conscientious
men into the wilds and wildernesses of America, where they
might have the privilege of worshipping their creator in the
mode the most consonant to their own judgment. The plague,
the fire in London, and the discontents among the people of
England in the reign of Charles II., prevented the court from
prosecuting for some time the plans they had formed against the
liberties of the province of Massachussetts ; and the province in
this interval of neglect made rapid progress ; disregarding the
English acts of navigation, they traded as an independent peo
ple, and acquired a considerable portion of the commerce of
their sister colonies, and a rapid accumulation of mercantile

PROGRESS OF THE BRITISH SETTLEMENTS. 221
i
wealth. ' This state of prosperous repose was interrupted by a
general combination of the Indians against the settlement, from
which it suffered severely : after a long and bloody contest; this
combination was suppressed, and peace concluded with the dif
ferent tribes which had engaged in it. Disputes now commen
ced with the crown,1 arising from the neglect of the navigation
laws which at length arose to such a height, that Charles de
termined to take away their charter, and in the Court of Chan
cery in Trinity term 1684, a decree was obtained against the
governor and company, by which their charter Was cancelled j
but the king did not live long enough to complete his system re
specting the New England colonies,' and to adopt a new govern
ment for -Massachussetts ; he died early in the following year, and
his successor was proclaimed iu Boston with melancholy pomp.
One of the first acts of James was the issuing of a commission for
a temporary government for Massachussetts, New Hampshire,
Maine, Narraghansett ; but before this ill-fated monarch could
carry into full effect the plans he had formed for the annihilation
of the liberties of America, his intolerance and despotic power
occasioned his expulsion from the throne of his ancestors, and
opened brighter prospects to the people of .New England. The
revolution which placed the Stadtholder of Holland on the throne
of England, revived in the people of Massachussetts the. hope
of regaining their ancient charter, to which they were enthusias
tically attached ; and until the pleasure of the new king could
beascertained, the government was administered under tho pro
visions of the old charter. . It -was however soon apparent that
king William was indisposed to the restoration of the ancient
charter, and he very early manifested his determination to re
tain in his own hands the appointment of the governor. After
a considerable interval a new charter was obtained, in some re
spects more eligible than the first, though it contained some
provisions which materially affected the independence which the
colony had so long practically enjoyed — By this new system, the
governor, deputy governor, and secretary, were to be appointed
by. the crown, instead of , being chosen by the people; and the
governor had the same authorityj with respect to the assembly,
as was possessed by the king in reference to the parliament, he
pould- summon, prorogue^ and dissolve, them at pleasure; and
tie had the sole' appointment to all military offices, and with the

HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
consent of his council to all offices in courts of justice. Sir
William Phipps, the first governor under the new charter, arri
ved at Boston in May, 1692; he immediately issued writs for
a general assembly, which met on the 8th of June, arid who
joyfully accepted the charter, which united the colony of Ply
mouth and Nova Scotia to Massachussetts ; but contrary to die
wishes of. both colonies it omitted New Hampshire, which frbui
this time became a separate government. Some opposition was
made to the New English government by an adventurer of the
name of Leisler, who obtained the entire command of the lower
country of the state of New York, and he held that city against
the new governor appointed by the crown, for a short time ; but
having neither the power nor the ability to make any effectual
resistance, the new goverridr soon obtained possession of the fort
and garrison. The result was that Leisler was arrested, tried for
high treason, and executed. These domestic dissensions had
hardly subsided, when New England and York were exposed to
a bloody and desolating war with the French of Canada, and
the Iadiahs, which continued with the usual vicissitudes of war
—^alternate victory and defeat, until the peace of Ryswick)
which terminated the war between Great Britain and France,
and which also put an end to hostilities in the Western Hemis
phere. The annals of Massachussetts, for this period, exhibit one of
those, wonderful cases of popular delusion which, infecting every
class' of society, and gaining strength from its very extrava
gance ; triumphing over human reason, and trampling on hu
man life ; reveal to man his own imbecility, and would instruct
him, if the experience of other times could ever instruct, how
cautiously he should, in any case, countenance a departure from
that' moderation, and those safe and sure principles of moral
rectitude, Which have stood the test of time, and have received
the approbation of the wise and great in all ages. A very de*
tailed and interesting account of the humiliating and affecting"
events here alluded to, has been given by Mr. Hutchinson, but
is too long to be inserted entire in this work. They were how
ever of too much magnitude, while passing, to be entirely unno
ticed even at this day.
In Great Britain, as well as in America, the opinion had long
prevailed, that, by the aid of malignant spirits, certain persons

PROGRESS Of THE BRITISH SETTLEMENTS. 223
possessed supernatural powers, which were usually exercised in
the mischievous employment of tormenting others ; and the cri
minal code of both countries was disgraced with laws for the
punishment of witchcraft. With considerable intervals between
them, some few instances had occurred in New England of put
ting this sanguinary law in force ; but, in the year 1692, this
weakness was converted into phrenzy; and, after exercising suc
cessfully its destructive rage on those miserable objects whose
wayward dispositions had excited the ill opinion, or whose age
arid wretchedness ought to have secured them the pity, of their
neighbours; its baneful activity was extended to persons in. every
situation of life, and many of the most reputable members of
society became its victims.
The first scene of this distressing tragedy was laid in Salem.
The public mind had been prepared for its exhibition by some
publication, stating the evidence adduced in former witchcraft,
both in Old and New England, in which full proof was supposed
1;p have been given of the guilt of the accused. Soon after this,;
some young girls, in Boston, had accustomed themselves to fall
into fits, and. had affected to be struck dead on the production
of certain popular books; such as the Assembly's Catechism,
and Cotton's Milk for Babes, while they could read Oxford's
Jests, or Popish and Quaker books, with many others whjeh
were deemed profane, without being in any manner affected by
them. These pretences, instead of exposing the fraud to instant
detection, seem to have promoted, the cheat; and they were
supposed to be possessed of the devil, who were utterly con
founded at the production of those holy books.
." Sometimes," says Mr. Hutchinson, " they were deaf, then
dumb, then blind ; and sometimes all their disorders together
would come upon them. Their tongues would be drawn down
their throats, then pulled out upon their chins. Their jaws,
necks, and shoulders, elbows, and all their joints, would. appear
to be dislocated, and thay would make most piteous outcries, of
burnings, of being cut with knives, beat, &c. and the marks of
wounds were afterwards "to be seen." At length, an old Irish
woman, not of good character, who had given one of those girls
some harsh language, and] to whom all this diabolical mischief
was attributed, was apprehended by the magistracy ; and, nei
ther confessing nor denying the fact, was on the certificate of

224 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
physicians that she was compos mentis, condemned and exe
cuted. An account of the circumstances of this case was pub
lished by a Mr. Baxton, with a preface, in which he says, "the
evidence is so convincing, that he must be a ve?y obdurate sad-
ducee who will not believe." < f^Nfe;
Sir William Phipps, the governor, on his arrival from Engia»$;'
brought with him opinions which could not fail to strength
en the popular [prejudice ; and the lieutenant-governor suBt
ported one which was well calculated to render it sanguinary.
He maintained that though the devil might appear in the shape
of a guilty person, he could never be permitted to assume that
of an innocent one. Consequently, when those who affected to
perceive the form which tormented them, designated any parti-'
cular person as guilty, the guilt of that person was established,
because he could not, if innocent, be personated by an evH
spirit. The. public mind being thus predisposed, four girls, in Salem,
complained of being afflicted in the same manner with those in
Bo*ston, and the physicians, unable to account for the disorder,
attributed it to the witchcraft ; and an Old Indian woman in the
neighbourhood was fixed on as the witch. Those girls were
much attended to and rendered of- great importance by the pub
lic as well as private noticewhich was taken of them. ' Several
private fasts were kept at the house of the minister, whose
daughter one of them was ; several more public were kept by
the whole village; and, at length, a general fast was proclaim
ed through the colony, to seek to God to rebuke satan, &c.
The effect of these measures, as well as of the compassiou ex
pressed for them by all visitors, and the deep interest taken by
all in their pretended misfortunes, not only confirmed the girls in
an imposture productive of such flattering attentions, but produ
ced other competitors, who were ambitious of the same distinc
tion. Several other persons were now bewitched ; and not only
the, old Indian, but two other old women, the one bed-ridden,
and the other subject to melancholy and distraction, were accu
sed, as witches. It was necessary to keep up the agitation al
ready excited, by furnishing fresh subjects for astonishment; and,
in a short time, the accusations extended to persons who were ire
reputable situations. The manner in which these accusations'
were received, evidenced such a degree of public credulity,, that

PROGRESS OF THE BRITISH SETTLEMENTS. 225
the impostors seem to have been convinced of their power to as
sail with impunity any characters, which caprice or malignity
might select for their victims. Such was the prevailing irifatua-
tiaiSf *&4t, in one instance, a child of five years old was charged
as au accomplice in these pretended crimes ; and, if the nearest
retalives of the accused manifested either tenderness for their si
tuation, or resentment at the injury dotie their friends, they drew
upon themselves the vengeance of these profligate impostors, and
were involved in the dangers from which they were desirous of
rescuing those with whom they were most intimately connected.
For going out of church when a person of fair fame was believed
to be strongly alluded to from the pulpit, a sister was charged a9
a witch; and for accompanying,' on her examination, a wife Vvho
had been apprehended, the "husband was involved in the same
prosecution, and was condemned and executed. In the preseftce
of the magistrates, those flagitious persons, whose testimdny
supported these charges, affected extreme agony, and attributed
to those whom they accused the power of torturing them by a
look, and without appearing to approach them. The examina
tions were all taken in writing, and several of them are detailed
at full length in Mr. Hutchinson's History of Massachussetts.
They exhibit a deplorable degree of blind infatuation oh One
side, and the most atrocious profligacy On the other, which, if
not well attested, could scarcely be supposed to have existed;
One of them will be sufficient to convey ah idea of the course
Which was -pursued.
"At- a court held at Salem, the 11th of April, 1692, by the
honored Thomas Danfofthj deputy-governor.
" Question. — John, Who hurt you ? — -Answer. A goody ProcJ
tor firsts and then -Cloyse.
"Q. What did she do to you ? — A. She brought the book to
me. ¦' ¦-" 
" Q. John, tell the truth ; who hurts you ? Have you beeft
hurt ?— A The fitst was a gentlewoman I saw.
** Q. • Who next ?— A. Goody Cloyse. , ' *'
"'Q.: But who hurt you next? — A. Goody Proctor.
" Q. What did she do to you ? — A. She choked me and
brought the-book.
**<J. :How oft did she come to torment you ?-<^-A. A good
many times j she and goody 'Cloyse.
10. Ff

226 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
" Q. Do they come to you in the night as well as* in the day?
— A. They come most in the day.
" Q. Who ? — A. Goody Cloyse and goody Proctor.
" Q. Where did she take hold of you. ? — A. Upon my throat,
to stop my breath.
" Q. Do you know goody Cloyse and goody Proctor ? — A.
Yes ; here is goody Cloyse.
" Q. by Cloyse. When did I hurt thee ?— A. A great many
times, Cloyse.
" Oh ! you are a grievous liar.
" Q. What did the goody Cloyse do to you ? — A. She pinch
ed and bit me until the blood came.
"Q. How long since this woman came and hurt you?— A,
Yesterday, at meeting.
" Q. At any time before? — A. Yes, a great many times.
" Q.. Mary Walcot, who hurts you ? — A. A goody Cloyse.
" Q. What did she do to you ? — A., She hurt me.
"Q. Did she bring the book? — A. Yes.
" Q. What were you to do with it?— A. To tQUCh it and be
well. " Then the witness fell into a fit.
"Q. Doth she come alone? — A. Sometimes alone, and
sometimes in company with goody Nurse, and goody  , and
a great many I do not know.
" Then she fell into a fit again.
" Q. Abigail Williams, did you see a company at Mr. Paris's
house eat and drink ? — A. Yes, that was their sacrament.
'• Q. How many were there ? — A. About forty, and goody
Cloyse and goody Goode were their deacons.
",Q. What was it? — A. They say it was our blood, and thejh
had it twice that day.
" Q. Mary Walcot, have you seen a white man ? — A. Yes,
Sir, a great many times.
" Q. What sort of a man was he ? — A. A fine grave man ;
and when he came he made all the witches to tremble.  ¦
 confirmed the same, and said they had such a sight at dea
con Ingerroll's.
" Q. Who was at deacon Ingerroll's then ? — A. Goody Cloyse,
goody Nurse, goody Corey, and goody Goode. Then Sarah
Cloyse asked for water, and sat down as one seized with a dying

PROGRESS OF THE BRITISH SETTLEMENTS. 227
fainting fit ; and several of the afflicted fell into fits, and some
of them cried out, Oh ! her spirit is gone to prison to her sister
Nurse. " Q. Elizabeth Proctor ; you understand whereof you are
charged, viz. to be guilty of sundry acts of witchcraft ; what
say you to it ? Speak the truth. And so you that are afflicted,
you must speak the truth, as you will answer it before God ano
ther day. Mary Walcot,-. doth this woman hurt you ? — A. I ne
ver saw her so as to be hurt by her.
" Q. Mary Lewis, does she hurt you ? — Her mouth was
stopped. " Q. Ann Putnam, does she hurt you ? — She could not speak.
" Q. Abigail Williams, does she hurt you ? — Her hand was
thrust into her own mouth;
" Q. John, does she hurt you ? — A. This is the woman that
came in her shift and choked me. •
" Q. Did she ever bring the book ? — A. Yes, Sir.
" Q. What to do ? — A. To write.
" Q. What, this woman ?. — A. Yes, Sir.
" Q. Are you sure of it ? — A. Yes, Sir.
" Again Abigail Williams and Ann Putnam were spoken to by
the court ; but neither of them could make any answer, by rea
son of dumbness or other fits.
" Q. What do you say, goody Proctor, to these things ? — A.
I take God in heaven to be my witness that I know nothing of
it, no more than the child unborn.
*'Q. Ann Putnam, doth this woman hurt you?— A. Yes, Sir,
a great many times.
"Then the accused looked on them, and they fell into fits.
"Q. She does not bring the book to you, does she?-^A.
Yes, Sir, often, and saith she hath made her maid set her
hand to it.
" Q. Abigail Williams, does this woman hurt you ? — A. Yes,
Sir, often.
" Q. Does she bring the book to you ? — A. Yes.
" Q. What would she have you to do with it ? — A. To write
in it, and I shall be well.
" Did not you, said Abigail to the accused, tell me that your
maid had written ? Answer, Proctor. — Dear child, it isr not so.
There is another judgment, dear child.

228 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
" Then' Abigail and Ann had fits. By and by they cried out,4
look you, there is goody Proctor upon the -.  . ' ..j.. By and
by both of them cried out upon goodman Proctor himself, and
said he was a wizard. Immediately many, if not all, of the be
witched had grievous fits.
. " Q. Ann Putnam, who hurt you P — A. Goodman Proctor,
and his wife too.
H Afterwards some of the afflicted cried, there is Proctor go
ing to take up Mrs. Pope's feet ; and her feet were immediately
taken up.
" Q. What do you say, goodman Proctor, to these things ?
— A. I know not, I am innocent.
" Abigail Williams qried out, there is goodman Proctor going
to Mrs. Pope, and immediately said Pope fell into* a fit. You
see the devil will deceive you ; the children could see what you
was going to do before the woman was hurt. I would advise'
you to repentance, for the devil is bringing you out. Abigail
Williams cried out again, there is goodman Proctor going to
hurt goody Bibber; and immediately goody Bibber fell into a fit.
There was the like of Mary Wafcot, and divers others. . Ben
jamin Gould gave his testimony, that he had seen goodman
-¦ ¦¦ ¦ — - and his wife, Proctor and his wife, goody Cloyse,"
goody Nurse, and goody Griggs, in his chamber last Thursday
night. Elizabeth Hubbard was in a trance during the- whole
examination.' During the examination of Elizabeth Proctor,
Abigail Williams and Ann Putnam both made offer to strike »b
said Proctor; but when Abigail's hand came near, it opened,
whereas it was made up into a fist before, and came down ex
ceedingly lightly as it drew near to said Proctor ; and at length,
With open and extended fingers, touched Proctor's head very
lightly. Immediately Abigail cried out, her fingers, her fingers,"
her fingers burned ; and Ann Putnam took on most grievously of
\ter husband, and sunk down."
Upon such senseless jargon as this, many persons of sober
lives and unblemished characters were committed to prison;
and theVpuhiie prejudices had already pronounced their doom.
Against charges of this nature, thus conducted, no defence
could possibly be made. To be criminated, was to be foilnd
guilty. The very grossness of the imposition seemed to secure

PROGRESS OF THE BRITISH SETTLEMENTS. &2§
its success, and the absurdity of the accusation to- establish the
verity of the -charge.
' The consternation became almost universal. It was soon per
ceived that all attempts to establish innocence must be ineffectu
al ; and the person accused could only hope to obtain safety by^
confessing the truth of the charge, and criminating others. The
extent of crime to be introduced by such a state of things, may
readily be conceived. Every feeling of humanity is shocked,
when we learn; > that, to save themselves; children accused their
parents ; in some instances, parents their children ; and, in one
case, sentence of death was pronounced against a husband, on
the testimony of his wife.
There were examples of persons who, under the terrors of
examination, confessed themselves guilty, and accused others ;
but, unable afterwards to support the reproaches of conscience,
retracted their c^rifesslohSj under the persuasions, that death
would be the consequence of doing so. One of these retrac
tions wijl be inserted.
" The humble declaration of Margaret Jacobs, unto the ho
nored court now sitting at Salem, showeth: That whereas your
poor and humble declarant, being closely confined here in Salem
gaol, for the crime of witchcraft, which crime, thanks be to the
Lord, I am altogether ignorant of, as will appear at the great
day of jugdment: May it please your honored court, I was Cried
out Upon by some of the possessed persons, as afflicting them;
whereupon I was brought to my examination, which persons at
the sight of me fell down, which did very much startle and affright
me. The- Lord above knows I knew nothing, in the least mea
sure, how or who afflicted them. They told me, without doubt
I did, or else they Wouldnot fall do\vn at me: they told me,'if I
would not confess, I should be put down in the dungeon, arid
would be hanged ; but, if I would confess, I should have my '
life 3 the which did so affright me with my own vile wicked
heart, to save my life, made me make the like confession I did;
which cortfession may it please the honored courtj is altogether
false and untrue. The very first night after I had made confes
sion, I was in such horror. of conscience that I could riot sleep,
for fear the devil would carry1 me away for telling such horrid
lies. , I was, may it please the honored court^ sworn to rriy con
fession as I understand since; but then, at that time, was ig-

230 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
riorant of it, not knowing what an oath, did mean. The Lord
I hope, in whom I trust, out of the abundance of his mercy,
will forgive me my false forswearing of myself: what I said was
altogether false, against my grandfather and Mr. Burroughs,
which I did to save my life and to have my liberty ; but the
Lord charging it to my conscience, made me in so much horror,
that I could not contain myself before I had denied my confes
sion, which I did, though I saw nothing but death before me,
choosing rather death, with a quiet conscience, than to live in
such horror, which I could not suffer. Whereupon my denying
my confession, I was committed to close prison, where I have
enjoyed more felicity in spirit, a thousand times, than I did be
fore my enlargement. And now, may it please your honors,
your declarant having in part given your honors a description of
my condition, do leave it to your honors' pious and judicious
discretions to take pity and compassion on my young and tender
years, to act and do with me as the Lord above and your honors
shall say good, having no friend but the Lord to plead my cause
for me ; not being guilty, in the least measure, of the crime of
witchcraft, nor any other sin that deserves death from men : and
your poor and humble declarant shall for ever pray, as she is
bound in duty, for your honor's happiness in this life, and eter
nal felicity in the world to come."
During this reign of popular prejudice, the bounds of proba
bility were so far transcended, that we scarcely know how to
give credit to the well-attested fact, that, among those who
were permitted to save themselves by confessing that they were
witches, and joining in the accusation of their parents, were to
be found children from seven to ten years of age ! Among the
numbers who were accused, only one person was acquitted. For
this, he was indebted to one of the girls who would not join the
others in criminating him. The examination had commenced in
February, and the list of commitments had swelled to a lament
able bulk by June, when the new charter having arrived, com
missioners of oyer and terminer were appointed for the trial of
persons charged with witchcraft. By this court, a considerable
number were condemned, of whom nineteen, protesting their
ignorance, were executed. It is observed by Mr. Hutchinson,
that those who were condemned and not executed had most pro
bably saved themselves by a confession of their guilt.

PROGRESS OF THE BRITISH SETTLEMENTS. 231
Fortunately for those who were still to be tried, the legislature
convened under the new charter, created a regular tribunal for
the trial of criminal as well as civil cases, and the court of com
missioners rose to set no more. The first session of the regular
court for the trial of criminal eases was to be held in January,
and this delay was favorable to reflection and to the recovery of
the public reason. Other causes contributed to this event.
There remained yet in the various prisons of the colony a vast
number of women, many of whom were of the most reputable
families in the towns in which they had resided; and many of
the very first rank had been hinted at, and some expressly na
med, by the bewitched and confessing witches. A Mr. Brad-
street, who had been appointed one of the council, and was.*
soon after the old governor of that name, but who, as a justice
of the peace, was suspected of not prosecuting with sufficient
rigor, was named by the witnesses as a confederate, and found
it necessary to ahscond. The governor's lady, ¦ it is said, and the'
wife of one of the ministers, who had favored this , persecution,
were among the accused ; and a charge was also brought agaiUst
the secretary of the colony of Connecticut.
Although the violence of the torrent of prejudice was begin
ning to abate, yet the grand jury, in January, found true bills
against fifty persons, but »f those brought to trial, only three
were condemned, and they were not executed. All those who
were not tried in January, were discharged by order of the go
vernor; and never says Mr. Hutchinson, has such a jail delivery
been known in New England; and never was there given a
more melancholy proof of the degree of * depravity always to be
counted on when the public passions countenance crime.
POLITICAL HISTORY,

AND
Revolution of North America.
We have seen that America was originally peopled by uncivil
ised tribes, who lived mostly by hunting and fishing ; and that
the Europeans, who first visited these shores, treating the na-

232 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
fcives as wild beasts of the forests, which have ho property in the
woods where they roamj planted the standard of their respective"
masters where they first landed, and in their names claimed the"
colmtry by right of discovery. Prior to any settlement in North
America, numerous titles of this kind were acquired by the Eng^
lish, French; Spanish, and Dutch, navigators, who came hither
for the purposes of fishing and trading with the natives. Slight
as such titles were, they were afterwards the causes of conten
tion between the European nations. The subjects of different
princes often laid claim to the same tract of country, because
both had discovered thfe same river or promontory ; or because
the extent Of their respective claims was undetermined. While
the settlements in this vast uncultivated country were inconsi
derable and scattered, and the trade of it confined to the bar
tering of a few trinkets for furs, a trade carried on by some ad
venturers, the interfering of claims produced no important con
troversy among the settlers or the nations of Europe. But in
proportion to the progress of population, and the growth of the'
Americaft trade, the jealousies of the nations, which had made
early discoveries and settlements on this. Coast, were alarmed;
ancient claims were revived ; and each power took measures
to extend and secure its own possessions at the expence of a
rival. <i ;By a treaty, of Utrecht in 1713, the English claimed a right
of cutting logwood in the Bay of Cam peachy, in South Ameri
ca. 'In the exercise of this fight, the English merchants had
frequent oppbrtunities of carrying on a contraband trade with'
the Spanish settlements On the continent. To remedy this evil,
the Spaniards resolved to annihilate a claim, which, though of-'
ten acknowledged, had never been clearly ascertained. To effect
this design they-captured the English vessels, which they found
along the Spanish coast, and many of the British subjects were
doomed to work in the mines of Potosi. Repeated severities of
this kind produced a war between England and Spain, in 1739.
Porto Bello was taken from the Spaniards by Admiral Vernon.
Commodore Anson, with a squadron of ships, sailed to the
South Seas, distressed the Spanish settlements on the western
shore of America, and took a galleon laden with immense riches.
But, in 1741, a formidable armament, des'timed to attack Cav-'
thagenaj under the command df Lord Cathcart, returned unfctfc-

PROGRESS OF THE BRITISH SETTLEMENTS. 233
-cessful, with the loss of upwards of 12,000 British soldiers and
seamen ; and the defeat of the expedition raised a clamor against
•the minister, Sir Robert Walpole, which produced a change in
the administration. This change removed the scene of war to
Europe, so that America was not immediately affected by the
subsequent transactions, except that Louisburg, the principal
fortress of Cape Breton, was taken from the French by General
Pepperell, assisted by Commodore Warren with a body of New
England troops. This war ended in 1748, by the treaty of peace
signed at Aix-la-Chapelle, by which restitution was made, on
both sides, of all places taken during the war.
Peace however was of short duration. The French possessed
Canada, and had made considerable settlements in Florida,
claiming the country on hoth sides of the Mississippi, by right
of discovery. To secure and extend their claims, they esta
blished a line of forts from Canada to Florida. They had secu
red the important pass at Niagara, and erected a fort at the
junction of the Allegany and Monongahela rivers, called Fort du
Quesne. They took pains to secure the friendship and assist
ance of the natives; encroachments were made upon the English
possessions, and mutual .injuries were committed. The disputes
among the settlers in America, and the measures taken by the
French to command all the trade of the St. Lawrence river on the
north, and of the Mississippi on the south, excited a jealousy in
the English Nation, which soon broke out in open war. The next
year three other expeditions were undertaken in America against
the French. One was conducted by General Monckton, who
had orders to drive the French from their encroachments on the
province of Nova. Scotia. This expedition was attended with
success. General Johnson was ordered with a body of troops to
take possession of Crown Point, but he did not succeed. Gene
ral Shirley commanded an expedition against the fort at Niaga
ra, but lost the season by delay.
In 175.5, General Braddock marched against Fort du Quesne,
but, in penetrating through the wilderness, he incautiously fell
into an ambuscade, and suffered a total defeat. General Brad
dock was killed ; but the enemy not pursuing the vanquished
across the river, being eager in plundering the baggage of the
dead, a part of his troops were saved by flight under the conduct
of the celebrated Washington, at that time a colonel, who then
10. G g

334 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
-began to exhibit proofs of those military talents, by which he af
terwards conducted the armies of America jo victory, and his
country to independence. The ill success of these expeditions left
the English settlements in America exposed to the depredations
of both the French and Indians, .
It was not until the campaign of 1758, that affairs assumed
a more favorable aspect in America. But, upon a change of
administration, Mr. Pitt was appointed minister, and the opera
tions of war became more vigorous and successful. General
Amherst was sent to take possession of Cape Breton; and, after
a warm siege, the garrison of Louisburg surrendered by capitu
lation. General Forbes was successful in taking possession of
Fort du Quesne, which the French thought fit to abandon. But
General Abercrombie, who commanded the troops destined to
act against the French at Crown Point and Ticonderoga, at
tacked the lines at Ticonderoga, aud was defeated with a terri-
t ble slaughter of his troops. After this defeat, he returned to his
camp at Lake George. The next year, more effectual measures
-were taken to subdue the French in America. General Prideaux
;hnd- Sir William Johnson began the operations of the campaign
,by taking the French fort near Niagara. General Amherst took
possession of* the forts at Crdwn Point and Ticonderoga, which
the French had abandoned. But the decisive blow, which proved
fatal to the French interests in America, was the defeat of the
French army, and the taking of Quebec, by the brave General
Wolfe. Quebec stands on the north side of the St. Lawrence,
and on the west of the St. Charles, which latter river empties
ifito the former immediately below the town. Its fortifications
are. strong, and the city elegant and extensive. It consists of an
upper and a lower town ; the lower is built on the strand which
stretches along the base of the lofty rock, on which the upper is
.situated. This rock continues with a bold and steep front far to
the westward, parallel to and near the river St. Lawrence. On
this side, therefore, the city might well be deemed inaccessible.
On the other it was protected by the river St. Charles, in which
were several armed vessels and floating batteries, deriving addi
tional security from a strong boom drawn across its mouth. The
channel of this river is rough and broken, and its borders inter
sected with ravines. On its left or eastern bank was encamped
$ French army strongly entrenched, and amounting, according

Progress of the British settlements, 235
to all the English accounts, to 10,000 men. The encampment
extended from the St. Charles eastward to the river Montmo
rency ; and its rear was covered by an almost impenetrable
wood. To render this army still more formidable, it was com
manded by a general, who, in the course of the present war,
had already given signal proofs of active courage and consum
mate prudence. The same Marquis de M0"tcalm, who, when
strong enough to act offensively, had so rapidly carried Oswego
and Fort William-Henry; and who, when reduced to the defen- ,
sive, had driven Abercrombie with so much slaughter from the
walls of Ticonderoga, was now at the head of the army which
covered Quebec, and was an antagonist in all respects worthy of
Wolfe. Although perceiving in their full extent the difficulties with
which he was environed, the British general possessed a mind
too ardent, and too replete with military enthusiasm, to yield to
them. Unpromising as were his prospects, he did not hesitate
respecting the part it became him to take. He could not sub
mit to the disgraee of relinquishing an enterprise intrusted to him,
while any human means for accomplishing his object remain
ed unessayed.
He took possession of Point Levi, on the southern side of the
St. Lawrence, where he erected several heavy batteries, which
were opened on the town. These did great execution among
the houses, many of which were set on fire and reduced to ashes,
but made no considerable impression on the fortifications. The
works were too strong, and at too great a distance from Point
Levi, to be essentially affected by a cannonade from thence.
Nor could his ships be employed in this service. The eleva
tion of the principal fortifications placed them beyond the reach
of the fleet ; and the river was so commanded by the batteries
on shore, as to render a station in it near the town entirely ine
ligible. The English general was sensible of the impracticability of
reducing the place, unless he should be enabled to erect his bat
teries on the north side of St. Lawrence ; to effect which he de
termined to use his utmost endeavours to bring Montcalm to a
decisive engagement.
After several unavailing attempts, by the use of every military
manoeuvre his mind could suggest, to draw that experienced and

236 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
cautious officer from the strong and advantageous post he occu- .
pied, Wolfe resolved to pass the Montmorency,, and to, attack
him in his intrenchments. Should even this hardy enterprise
prove successful, the river St. Charles would still present an ob
stacle to his views not easily-to be surmounted: but, to use his
own heroic language, he was aware that " a victorious army
finds no difficulties."
In consequence of this resolution, thirteen companies of Eng
lish grenadiers, and part of the second- battalion of royal Ameri
cans, were ordered to be landed near the mouth of the Montmo
rency, under cover of the cannon of the ships of war ; while
two divisions, under Generals Townshend and Murray, prepared
to cross that river higher up. The original plan was, to attack)
first, a detached redoubt close to the water's edge, apparently
unprotected by the fire from the intrenchments, in the hope that
Montcalm might be induced to support this work ; inwhich case
it would be in the power of Wolfe to bring on the general. en
gagement he so much desired. Should the French general"sub-.
mit to the loss of this redoubt, without any effort to preserve it,
he might from, thence examine with coolness the situation of the
enemy ; throw his army over the Montmorency ; and' regulate, -
by circumstances, his future operations.
On the approach of the British troops the. redoubt was eva-?
t-uated ; and Wolfe observing some confusion in the French camp
changed his original purpose, and determined to avail himself
of the supposed impression of the moment, and nofctoidefer the
meditated attack. With this view he directed the grenadiers and
royal Americans to form on the beach ; where they were to wait
until the whole army should be formed; and they should be pro
perly sustained. Orders were at the same time dispatched to
Townshend and Murray to have their divisions in readiness for,
fording the. river.
Disregarding the orders which had been given, the grenadiers!.
arid, royal Americans rushed forward with impetuous and irregu
lar valor on the intrenchments of the enemy ; where they were
received with so steady and well supported a. fire, that they -were
soon thrown into confusion, and suffered very severely in, their rer
treat. The General advancing in person with the remaining bri
gades, the fugitives formed again in the rear of the army : but
the plan of attack was effectually disconcerted, and the English

PROGRESS OF THE BRITISH SETTLEMENTS. 237
commander was compelled to- give orders for repassing the river,
and returning to the Island of Orleans ; which was effected, not
without considerable loss.
Rendered sensible by this disaster of the impracticability of '.¦.
approaching Quebec on the side of the Montmoreney^ while
Montcalm chose to retain the strong post he at present occupi- >
ed, the whole attention of Wolfe was once more turned to the
St. Lawrenee.
A plan was formed, in concert with the admiral, for the pur
pose of destroying the French ships, and distracting the enemy
by descent* on the bank ; and 1200 men, under the command
of General Murray, were embarked in transports for its execu
tion. The bank „of the river, where practicable, was not unde-
fended. He made two vigorous attempts to land on the northern
shore without success. In the third he. was more fortunate; By
a. sudden descent at Chambaud he burnt a valuable magazine
filled with clothing, arms, ammunition, arid provisions ; but the
main object of the expedition* which was the destruction Of the
French ships in the river, totally miscarried. They were secu
red in such a manner as not to be approached either by the fleet
or army. Murray wasj therefore, recalled by the commander-in-
chief; He returned disappointed ; but brought with him the in
telligence that Niagara was taken.;, that Ticonderoga and Crown
Point had been abandoned ; and that General Amherst was ma
king preparations to attack the Isle au& Noix.
_This intelligence was joyfully received, but it promised no
immediate assistance; and the season for. action was rapidly
wasting away. Nor was it easy for Wolfe to avoid contrasting
the success attending British arms undeit other auspices, with
the ill fortune hitherto experienced by himself; His mind, alike
lofty and susceptible, was deeply impressed by the disaster at
Montmorency ; and the; extreme chagrin of his spirits preying on
his delicate frame sensibly affected his health. He was observed
frequently to sigh; and, as if Hfe.was only valuable while it add
ed to his glory, " he declared to his intimate friends his resolu*
tion not to survive: the, disgrace he imagined would attend the
failure of his enterprise." His dispatches, addressed about this
time to Mr. Pitt, eyince his perfect sense of the, almost despe
rate situation of his affairs, and seemed intended to prepare the
nation- for the ill success with which he was threatened. "We

238 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
have," said he, " almost the whole force of Canada to oppose!
In such a choice of difficulties I own myself at a loss how to de
termine. The affairs of Great Britain, I know, require the
most vigorous measures ; but the courage of a handful of brave
men should be exercised only where there is hope of a favorable
event." "The whole letter," says Mr. Belsham, "exhibits a
picture of gloomy grandeur, of a mind revolving and meditating
designs of the temerity of which it is perfectly conscious." Nor
is the delicacy it manifests less worthy of recollection than its
magnanimity. Severely as he must have been disappointed at
the failure on the part of General Amherst to execute his part
of the plan of co-operation concerted between the two armies,
a failure to which all his own cruel embarrassments were attri
butable, not a sentence was permitted to escape himself, mani
festing the slightest symptom of dissatisfaction at the conduct of
that officer. He seemed perfectly persuaded that the utmost ex
ertions Of the commander-in-ehief were used to accomplish every
thing which had been expected from him.
It having been determined in council that all their future ef
forts should be directed towards the effecting of a landing above
the town, the camp in the Island of Orleans was entirely broken
up'; and the whole army having embarked on board the fleet, a
part of it was landed at Point Levi, and a part carried higher up
the river.
Montcalm could not view this movement without alarm.
That part of Quebec which faces the country had not been forti
fied with so much care as those which look towards the water;
and he was apprehensive that a landing might be effected high
up the river, and the town approached on its weaker side. At
the same time he could not safely relinquish his present position,:
because the facility of transporting their troops, which the com
mand of the water gave the English, would enable them to seize
the ground on which he was now encamped, should his army be
moved above the town to prevent their landing in their quarter. •
Thus embarrassed, he detached Monsieur de Bougainville with
1500'men to watch the motions of the English up the river, and
prevent their landing.
In this state of things a bold plan was formed, well adapted
to the adventurous spirit of the English general, and the despe
rate situation of his affairs. This was to land the troops in the ¦

PROGRESS OF THE BRITISH SETTLEMENTS. 239
night, a small distance above the city, on the northern bank of
-the river, and by scaling a precipice, accessible only by a narrow
path, and therefore but weakly guarded, to gain by the morning
the heights behind the town, where it has been stated to have
been but slightly fortified. The difficulties attending the execu
tion of this scheme are represented to have been numerous. The
stream was rapid, the shore shelving, the intended and only prac
ticable landing-place so narrow as easily to be missed in the dark,
and the steep above, such as not to be ascended without difficulty
even when unopposed. Under these circumstances, it was appa
rent that a discovery and a vigorous opposition would not only
defeat the enterprise, but probably occasion the destruction of si
great part of the troops engaged in it.
This bold resolution being taken, the admiral- moved up the
river, several leagues above the place where it was designed to
land, and made demonstrations of an intention to debark a bo
dy of troops at different places. During the night a strong de
tachment was put on board the flat-bottomed , boats, which fell
silently down with the tide to the place fixed on for the descent,
which was made with equal secrecy and vigor about a mile above
Cape Diamond, an hour before day-break, Wolfe himself being
the first man who leaped on shore. The highlanders and light
infantry who composed the van, under the particular command
of Colonel Howe, were intended to secure a four-gun battery
which defended an intrenched path, by which the heights were
to be ascended ; and, dislodging from thence a captain's guard,
to coyer the landing of, the remaining troops. The violence of
the current forced them rather below the point of debarkation,
and this circumstance increased thieir difficulties. However,
scrambling up the precipice by the aid of the rugged projections
of the -rocks, and the branches of trees and plants growing on
the cliffs, into which it was every where broken, they gained the
heights, and very quickly dispersed the guard, which did not
make the resistance to have been expected from the advantages
of their situation. The whole army followed, up this narrow
pass; and having only encountered a scattering fire from some
Canadians and Indians, from which very little loss was sustain
ed, they gained the summit by the break of day, where the corps
were formed under their respective leaders.
The intelligence that the English were in possession of the

f2&© HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
heights of Abraham was soon conveyed to Montcalm. Believing
it to be impossible that an enterprise attended with so much dif
ficulty could have been achieved, that officer supposed it to be
only a feint, made with a small detachment, for the purpose of
-drawing him from his present strong aud well-chosen position.
. . On being convinced of his error, he comprehended at once
.the full force of the advantage which had been gained, and the
.necessity it imposed on him of changing his plan of operations.
He, perceived that a battle was uo longer avoidable, and that the
fate of Quebec depended on its issue. He prepared for it with
-p'romptness and courage. Leaving his strong camp at Montmo
rency, he crossed the river St. Charles for the purpose of attack
ing the English army.
- This movement was made in the view of Wolfe, who without
.lpss of time formed his order for battle. Hte right wing was
commanded by General Monckton, and his left by General Mur
ray. The right flank was covered by the Louisburg grenadiers,
;and the rear and left by the light infantry of Howe, who had
now returned from the four-gun battery. The reserve consisted
-of Wehb's regiment drawn up in eight subdivisions, with large
^intervals between them.
;,; Montcalm bad formed his right and left wing about equally of
[European and Colonial troops. His centre consisted of a co
lumn. of (Europeans; and two small field-pieces were brought iip
.to play on the English line.
I la this order he marched to the attack, advancing in his front
about 1500 'militia and Indians, who were sheltered by, bushes,
from whence they kept on the English an irregular and galling
ffire.; :. The movement of the French indicating an intention, to flank
hjs left, General Wolfe ordered the battalion of Amherst, with
-the two battalions of royal Americans, to that part of his line,;
Avhere they were! formed en potenie under General Townshend,
-presenting to'the enemy a double front.
Disregarding the irregular fire of the Canadian militia and In*
dians,; he ordered his troops to reserve themselves for the mail)
hody of the enemy, advancing in the rear of :those irregulars';
;but in the mean time a field-piece which had been brought, up
played briskly and with effect on the French column. ¦¦<
t ; .-Montcalm had taken post on the left of the French army, .and

PROGRESS OF THE BRITISH SETTLEMENTS. 241
•Wolfe on the right of the English ; so that the two generals met
each other, at the head of their respective troops, where -the
battle was ^ most severe. The French advanced briskly to the
charge, and commenced the action with great animation. The
-English are 6tated to have reserved their fire- until the enemy
were within forty yards of them, when they gave it with im
mense effect. It was kept up for some time with.great spirit j
when Wolfe, advancing at the head of Bragg's and the Louis
burg' grenadierr- with charged bayonets, received a mortal wound
of which he soon afterwards expired. Undismayed hy the loss
of their general, the English continued their exertions under
Morickton, on whom the command now devolved. He also re
ceived a ball through his "body, which is stated to have passed
through his lungs, and General Townshend took command of
the British army. About the same time Montcalm, fighting in
front of his battalion, received a mortal wound, ' and General Se-
nezergus, the second in command, also fell. The left wing and
centre of the French began to give way ; and, being pressed close
with the English bayonet aud Highland broad-sword, were dri
ven, notwithstanding one attempt to rally and renew the attack,
partly into Quebec, and partly over the St. Charles river.
On the left and rear of the English the action was less severe,
and thg attack made by the enemy much less animated. The
light infantry had been placed in houses; and Colonel Howe,
the better to support them, had taken post with two companies,
still further to the ! left, behind a copse. . As the right of the
enemy attacked the English .left, he sallied from this position
against their flanks, and threw them into disorder. In this cri
tical moment, Townshend advanced several platoons of Am
herst's regiment against their front; and thus was completely
frustrated! the intention the French general had formed of turn
ing the left flank. Townshend maintained his position,-for the
purpose of keeping in check the right wing of the enemy, and a
body of savages stationed opposite the light infantry, for the
purpose of getting into and falling on their rear.
In this state, of the action, Townshend was informed that the
command had devolved on him. Proceeding instantly to the
centre, he found that part of the army thrown into. some disor
der by the ardor of pursuit, and his efforts were employed in re
storing the line. Scarcely was this effected, when Monsieur de
11. H h

242 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
Bougainville, who had been detached as high as Cape Rouge to
prevent a landing above, and who had hastened to the assistance
of Montcalm, on his first hearing that the English had gained the
plains of Abraham, appeared in the rear at the head of 1506
men. Fortunately the right wing of the enemy, as well as their
left and centre, was now entirely broken, and had been drives
off the field. Two battalions and two piece* of artillery being
advanced towards Bougainville, he retired; and Townshend did
not think it advisable to risk the important advantages already
gained, by a pursuit of this fresh body of troops through a diffi»
cult country.
In this decisive battle, in which the numbers seem to have
been nearly equal, but in whieh the English had the iminense
advantage of being all disciplined troops, while little more thai
half the enemy were of the same description, the French regu
lars, who do not appear to have been well supported by the mi
litia or Indians, were aJmost entirely cut to pieces.
On the part of the English the loss was by no means so con*
siderable as the fierceness of the action would have induced us
to expect. The killed and w ounded were less than 600 men ;
but among the former was tlie commander-in-chief. This gal.
Jant officer, of whom the most exalted expectation* had very
justly been formed ; whose uncommon merit and singula* fate
have presented a rich theme for panegyric to both the poet and
historian, received, in the -cominencemedt' of the action, a ball
in his wrist : but without discovering the least discomposure,
wrapping a handkerchief around his arm, he continued to en-
-courage his troops. Soon afterwards he received a shot in the
groin. This painful wound he also concealed ; and was advan
cing at the head of the grenadiers, when a third bullet pierced
his breast. Though expiring, it was with reluctance he permitr
ted himself to hie conveyed into the rear, where, careless about
himself, he discovered in the agonies of death the most anxious
solicitude concerning' the fate of jthe day. Being told that the
enemy was visibly broker), he reclined his head, from extreme
faintness, on the arm of an officer Standing near him, but was
soon aroused with the distant sound of— '^ They fly ! they fly !"
"Who fly?" exclaimed the dying hero. On being answered--*-
MThek French!" "Then," said he, « 1 depart content ;" and
almost immediately expired in the arms of victory. " A death

PROGRESS OF THE BRITISH SETTLEMENTS. 243
more glorious, and attended with circumstances more pictu
resque and interesting, is no where to be found in the annals of
history." With less of good fortune, hut not less of heroism, expired
the equally gallant Montcalm. The same love of glory, and the
same fearlessness of death, which in so remarkable a manner
distinguished the British hero, were not less conspicuous in tho
conduct of his competitor for victory and for fame. He express
ed the highest satisfaction at hearing that his wound was mor
tal ; and, when told he could survive only a few hours, quickly
replied,—" So much the better : I shall not then live, to see the
surrender of Quebec"
The first days after the action were employed by General
Townshend in. fortifying, his camp, cutting a road up the preci
pice for the conveyance of his heavy artillery to the batteries on
the heights, and making the necessary preparations for the siege
of Quebec. But before his batteries were opened the town ca
pitulated, on condition that the inhabitants should, during the
war, be protected in the free exercise of their religion, and the
full enjoyment of their civil rights, leaving their future destinies
to be decided by the general peace.
General Townshend seems to have been induced to allow bet
ter terms than would otherwise have been granted, from an ap
prehension that the place might still be relieved by Bougainville,
or by a detachment from the army near Montreal.
Quebec, now in the possession of the English, was garrisoned
by about 5000 men, under the command of General Murray;
and the fleet sailed out of the St. Lawrence. And Canada at the
conclusion of the war was ceded to Great Britain, in whose pos
session it stall remains.
Colonel Grant in 1761, defeated the Cherokees in Carolina,
and obliged them to sue for peace. The next year Martinico
was taken by Admiral Rodney and General Monckton ; and also.
the Island of Grenada, St. Vincent's, and others. The capture
of these was soon followed by the surrender of the Havannah ,
the capital of the Island of Cuba.
In 1763, a definitive treaty of peace was concluded at Paris,,
between Great Britain, France, and Spain ; by which the Eng
lish ceded to die French several islands which they had taken
from them in the West Indies, but were confirmed jn the pos-

244 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
session of all North America on this side the Mississippi, except
the Island of Orleans. But this war, however brilliant the suc
cesses and glorious the event, proved the cause of great and un
expected misfortunes to Great Britain. Engaged with the com
bined powers of France and Spain during several years, her ex
ertions were surprising, and her expence immense. To dis
charge the debts of the nation, the parliament Was obliged ' to
have recourse to new expedients for raising money. Previous. to
t-he last treaty in 1763, the parliament had been satisfied to
raise a revenue from the American colonies, by a monopoly of
their trade. -
,It will be proper here to state, that there were four kinds of
government established in the British American colonies. The
first was a charter government, by which the powers of legisla
tion was vested in a governor, council, and assembly, chosen, by
the people : of this kind were the governments of Connecticut
and Rhode Island. The second was a proprietary government,
in which the proprietor of the province was governor; although
he generally resided abroad, and administered the government
by a deputy of his own appointment ; the assembly only being
chosen by the people : such were the governments of Penn
sylvania and Maryland, and originally of New Jersey and Ca
rolina. The third kind was that of royaL,, government, where
the governor and council were appointed by the Crown, and
the assembly by the people : of this kind were the . governments
of New Hampshire, New Yorkj. New Jersey (after the year
1/02), Virginia, the Carolinas after the resignation of the pro
prietors in 1728, and Georgia. The fourth kind was that of
Massachussetts,, which differed from all the rest-. The governor,
was appointed by the king ; so far it was a royal government ;
but the members of the council were elected by the representa
tives of the people. The governor, however, had a fight to
negative a certain number, but not to fill up vacancies thus oc
casioned. , . ..('.¦•
. s This variety of constitutions created different degrees of de
pendance on the crown. In the royal government, to render, a
law valid, it was constitutionally required that it should be rati
fied by the king ; but the charter governments were empowered
to enact laws, and no ratification by the king was necessary.- It
was onlyrequired that such laws should not be contrary to the

PROGRESS OF THE BRITISH SETTLEMENTS. 245
laws of England. The charter of Connecticut was express to
this purpose. • -
Such was the state of the British colonies at the conclusion of
the war in 1763. Their flourishing condition at this time was
remarkable and striking : their trade had prospered in the midst
of all the difficulties and distresses of war in which they were so
nearly and so immediately concerned- - Their population conti
nued on the increase", notwithstanding the ravages and depreda
tions that had been so fiercely carried on by the French, and the
native Indians in their alliance. They abounded with intelligent
and active individuals of all denominations. They were flushed
with the Uncommon prosperity that had attended them in their
commercial affairs and military transactions. Hence they were
ready for all kind of undertakings, and saw no, limits to their
hopes and expectations.
Their improvements in the necessary and useful arts did honor
to their industry and ingenuity. Though they did not live in the
luxury of Europe, they had all the solid and substantial enjoy
ments of life, and were not unacquainted with many of its ele
gancies and refinements. A circumstance much to their praise
is, that, notwithstanding their peculiar addiction to those occu
pations of which lucre is the sole object, they were duly atten
tive to cultivate the field of learning; and they have ever since
their first foundation been particularly careful to, provide for the
education of the rising generation. Their vast augmentation of
internal trade and external commerce, was not merely owing to
their position and facility of communication with, other parts • it
arose also from their natural turn and temper, full of schemes
and projects ; ever aiming at new discoveries, and continually
employed in the search of means of improving their condition.
Their industry carried them into every quarter from whence pro
fit could be derived. There was scarcely, any port of the Ameri
can hemisphere to which they had not extended their navigation.
They were continually exploring new sources of trade, and were
found in every spot where business could be.transacted. To this
extensive and incessant application. to commerce, they added an
- equal vigilance in .the administration of their affairs at home.
The progress of agriculture, and .the improvement of their, do
mestic circumstances, were ; attended ; to with so much labor, and
care, that it . may ibe. strictly. saidj; that nature had given them

246 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
nothing of which they did not make the most. In the midst of
this solicitude and toil in matters of business, the affairs of go
vernment were conducted with a steadiness, prudence, and acti
vity, seldom equalled, and never exceeded, in the best regulated
countries of Europe.
CONTEST BETWEEN
Great Britain and the United Colonies.
At the beginning of the war with France, commissioners from
many of the colonies had assembled at Albany, who proposed
that a great council should be formed by deputies from the seve
ral colonies, which, with a general governor to be appointed by
the crown, should be empowered to take measures for the com
mon safety, and to raise money for the execution of their de
signs. This proposal was not approved by the British ministry;
but in lieu of this plan, it was proposed, that the governors of
the colonies, with one or two of their council, should assemble
and concert measures for the general defence ; erect forts, levy
troops, and draw on the treasury of England for the monies that
should be wanted ; the British treasury to be reimbursed by a
tax on the colonies, to be laid by the parliament. To this plan,
which implied an avowal of the right of parliament to tax the
eolonies, the provincial assemblies objected with unshaken firm
ness. Hence it seems that the British parliament, even before
the war, had it in contemplation to exercise the right of taxing
the colonies, without permitting them to be represented. The
eolonies, however, with an uncommon foresight and firmness,
defeated these attempts, and the war was carried on by requisi
tions on the colonies for supplies of men and money, or by vo
luntary contributions.
Peace with France was no sooner concluded, than the English
parliament resumed the scheme of taxing America ; and, in
March, 1764, a bill was passed, by which heavy duties were
laid on goods imported by the colonists from such West India
Islands as did not belong to Great Britain ; at the same time

CONTEST BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN, &C. 247
that these duties were to be paid into the exchequer in specie :
and, in the same session, another bill was framed to restrain the
«urrency of paper-money in the colonies themselves. The pass
ing of these acts threw the whole colonies into the utmost fer-
ment. Vehement remonstrances xvere made to the ministry, and
every argument urged that reason or ingenuity could suggest,
hut to no purpose. The Americans, finding both entreaty and
remonstrance alike ineffectual, united in an agreement to import
no more of the manufactures of Great Britain, until these acts
should be repealed; and to encourage to the utmost of their
power every thing of that kind among themselves. This ferment
was still further increased by the bringing in of a bill to impose
a stamp duty on law and other proceedings; the reason assigned
for this most impolitic measure was, that a sum might be raised
sufficient for the defence of the colonies against a foreign enemy ;
but this pretence was so far from giving any satisfaction to the
Americans, that it exqited their indignation to the utmost de
gree. They nqt only asserted that they were abundantly able to
defend themselves against any foreign enemy> but denied that
England had any right to tax them at all, unless they were al
lowed the privilege of sending representatives to the British par
liament. It would he superfluous to enter into any of the arguments
used by the contending parties on this important occasion. The
stamp act, after a violent opposition, wa* passed, and its recep
tion in America was such as might have been expected. News
of its passing, 'and the act itself, first arrived at Boston, when
the bells were muffled and rung a funeral peal. The act was
hawked about the streets with a death's head affixed to it, and
styled the "Folly of England, and the ruin of America}" and
afterwards publicly burnt by the enraged populace. The stamps
themselves were seized and destroyed ; thoie who Were to receive
the stamp duties were compelled to resign their offices; and su«:h
of the Americans as advocated the cause of the British govern
ment had their hquses plundered and burnt.
It was now found absolutely necessary either to yield to the
colonists, by repealing the obnoxious statutes, o;1 to enforce
them by arms. The ferment had diffused itself universally
throughout the colonies. Non-importation agreements were
every where entered into ; a»d it was e"v£n resolved to prevent

24S HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
the sale of any more British goods after the present year. Ame
rican manufactures, though dearer, as well as inferior in quality
to the British, were universally preferred. An association was
entered into against eating of lamb, in order to promote the
growth of wool ; and the ladies with cheerfulness agreed to re
nounce the use of every species of ornament manufactured in
Britain. Such a general and alarming confederacy determined
the ministry to repeal some of the most obnoxious statutes; and
to this they were the more inclined by a petition from the first
American congress, held at New York, in October, 1765.
The stamp act was therefore repealed, to the universal joy of
the Americans, and indeed to the general satisfaction of the
English, whose manufactures had begun to suffer very severely
in consequence of the American association against them. The
ministry were conscious, that, in repealing this obnoxious act,
they yielded to the Americans ; and therefore, to support,' as
they thought, the dignity of Great Britain, it was judged proper
to publish a declaratory bill, setting forth the authority of the
mother country over her colonies, and her power to bind them
by laws and statutes in all cases whatever. This much. diminish
ed the joy with which the repeal of the stamp act was received
in America. It was considered as a proper reason to inforce any
claims equally prejudicial with the stamp act, which might
hereafter be set up; a spirit of jealousy pervaded the whole con
tinent, and a strong party was formed, • watchful on every occa
sion to guard against the supposed encroachments of the British
power. It was not long before an occasion offered, in whieh the Ame
ricans manifested the spirit of freedom. The Rockingham mi
nistry had passed an act, for providing the troops stationed in
different parts of the colonies with such accommodations as were
necessary for them. The assembly of New York, however, took
upon them to alter the mode of execution prescribed by the act
of parliament, and to substitute one of their own. This gave
great offence to the new ministry, and rendered them, though
composed of those who had been active against the stamp bill,
less favorable to the colonies than in all probability they would
have otherwise been. An unfortunate incident at the same, time
occurred, which ; threw every thing once more into confusion.
One of the new ministry, Mr. Charles Townshend, having de-

CONTEST BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN, &C. 249
clared that he could find a way of taxing the Americans without
giving them offence, was called upon to propose his plan. This
was by imposing a duty upon tea, paper, painters' colors, and
glass, imported into America. The undutiful behaviour of the
New York assembly, and that of Boston, which had proceeded
in a similar manner, caused this bill to meet with less opposition
than it otherwise might have done. As a punishment to the re
fractory assemblies, the legislative power was taken from that of
New York, until it should fully comply with the terms of the
act. That of Boston at last submitted with reluctance. The bill
for the new taxes was quickly passed, and sent to America in
1768. A ferment much greater than that occasioned by the stamp
act now took place, which was further augmented by the news
that a number of troops had been ordered to repair to Boston,,
to keep the inhabitants in awe. A dreadful alarm pervaded the
whole town ; and the people called on the governor to convene a
general assembly, in order to remove their fears of the military ;
who they said were to be assembled to overthrow their liberties,
and force obedience to laws to which they were entirely averse.
The governor replied,- that it was no longer in his power to call
an assembly; having, in his last instructions from England,
been required to wait the king's orders, the matter being then
under consideration at home. Being thus refused, the people
took upon themselves the formation of an assembly, which they
called a Convention. The proceedings and resolutions of this
were conformable to their former declarations ; but now they
went a step further, and, under pretence of an approaching rup
ture with France, ordered the inhabitants to put themselves in a
posture of defence against any sudden attack of an enemy ; and
circular letters were directed to all the towns in the province,
acquainting them with the resolutions that had been taken in
the capital, and exhorting them to proceed in the same manner.
The town of Hatfield aldne refused its concurrence ; but this op
position served only to expose its inhabitants to the censure and
contempt of the rest of the colonies. The convention assured
the governor^oSj&eh- pacific intentions, and renewed their re
quest that an assembly might be called ; but being refused an
audience, and threatened with being treated as rebels, they at
last thought proper to dissolve of themselves, and sent over to
11. i i

250 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
England a circumstantial account of their proceedings, with the-
reason of their having assembled in the manner already men?-
tioned. The expected troops arrived at Boston on the very' day on
which the convention broke up, and had some houses in the
town prepared for their reception. Their arrival had a consider
able influence on the people, and for some time seemed to put
an end to the disturbances; but the seeds of discord had taken
such deep root,'1 that it was impossible to destroy them. ' The
late spirited behaviour in Boston had given the greatest offence
hi England ; andj notwithstanding all the efforts of opposition,
an address from both houses of parliament was presented to tho
king ; in which the daring behaviour of the colony of Massa
chussetts- Bay wa3 circumstantially set forth, and the most vigor
rous measures recommended for reducing them to obedience.
The Americans, however, continued steadfast in the ideas they
had adopted. Though the troops had for some time quieted the
disturbances, yet the calm continued no longer than they appear
ed respectable on account of their number; but, as soon as thi§
~was diminished by the departure of a large detachment, the re,-
inainder were treated with contempt, and it was even resolved
to expel them altogether. The country people took up arms for
this purpose, aud were to have assisted their friends in Boston;
but, before the plot could be put in execution, an event happen
ed which put an end to -every idea of reconciliation betwixt the
contending parties.
On the 5th of March, 1 770, a scuffle happened between some
soldiers and a party of the town's people. The soldiers, while
under arms, were pressed upon, insulted, and pelted, by a
mob armed with clubs, sticks, and snowballs covering stones ;
they were also dared to fire. In this situation, one of the sol
diers, who had received a blow, in resentment fired at the sup
posed aggressor. This was followed by a single discharge from
six others ; so that three of the inhabitants were killed, and five
dangerously wounded. The town was immediately in commo-
tioii; and such was the temper, force, and number, of the in*
habitants, that nothing but an engagement to remove the troops
out of the town, together with the advice of moderate men, pre
vented the townsmen from falling on the soldiers. The killed
were buried in one vault, and in a most respectful manner, in-

CONTEST BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN, &C. 251
order <toi express the indignation of the inhabitants at the slaugh-
teriof, .their brethren, by soldiers quartered among them, in vio
lation of their civil liberties. Captain Preston, who commanded
the party which fired on the inhabitants, was committed to jajj,
and afterwards tried; but the captain, and six of the men, were
acquitted, and two only brought in, guilty of manslaughter; for
it appeared on the trial, that. the soldiers were insulted, threat
ened,- and pelted, before they fired; and it was also proved, that
only seven guns were fired by the eight prisoners ; these circum
stances, therefore, induced the jury to make a favorable verdict.
The result, of the trial .reflected great honor on John Adams, and
Josiah Quincey, Esqrs., the council for the prisoners; and also
on the integrity of the jury, who ventured to give an upright
verdict, , uj defiance of popular opinions. The consequences of
this, tragical event sunk deep into the minds of the people, and
werevmgdg subservient to important purposes. ,
The new assembly proceeded in the most formal manner to
disavow the supremacy of the British legislature; accused* the
parliamfcnjt.of Britain of having violated the natural rights of the
Americans in;a»umber of instances. Copies of the transactions
q& this, ossemhly were transmitted to every town in Massaehus-
£ettsj: eshorriog the inhabitants to rouse themselves, and exert
every nerve: in opposition to the iron hand of oppression, which
was daily tearing the choicest fruits from the fair tree pf liberty.
The disturbances were also, greatly heightened by an accidental
discovery that Mr. Hutchinson, governor of Massachussetts Bay,
had written several confidential letters to people in power in
England, complaining of the behaviour of the province, recom
mending vigorous measures against them,, and, among other
things, asserting, that "there must be, an abridgement of what
is called British liberty." Letters of this kind had somehow or
other fallen into the hands of the agent for the colony at Lon
don. They were immediately transmitted to Boston, where the
assembly was sitting, by whom they were laid before the gover
nor, who was thus reduced to a very mortifying situation. Los
ing every idea. of respect or friendship for him as their governor,
they instantly dispatched a petition to the king, requesting him
to remove the governor and: deputy. governor from their places;
but to this they not only received no favorable answer, but the
petition itself was declared groundless and scandalous.

252 .HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
Matters were now ripe for the utmost extremities on the part
of the Americans ; and they were brought on in the following
manner : though the colonists had entered into a non-importa
tion agreement against tea as well as all other commodities from
Britain, it had nevertheless found its way into America, though
in smaller quantities than before. This was sensibly felt bv the
•East India Company, who had now agreed to pay a large sum
annually to government ; in recompence for which compliance,
and to make up their losses in other respects, they were empow-
. ere# to export their tea free from any duty payable in Britain ;
.and in consequence of this permission, several ships freighted
with the commodity were sent to North America, and proper
agents apppointed for disposing of it. The Americans now per
ceiving that the tax was thus likely to be enforced whether they
would or not, determined to take every possible method to pre
vent the tea from being landed, as well knowing that it would
be impossible to hinder the sale, should the commodity once be
brought on shore. For this purpose the people assembled in
great numbers, forcing those to whom the tea was consigned to
resign their offices, and to promise solemnly never to resume
them ; and committees were appointed to examine the accounts
of merchants, and make public tests, declaring such as would
not take them enemies to their country. _ Nor was this behaviour
confined to the colony of Massachussetts Bay; the rest of the
provinces entered into the contest with the same warmth, and
manifested the same resolution to oppose the mother-country.
• In the midst of this confusion three ships laden with tea arri
ved at Boston ; but so much were the captains alarmed at the
disposition which seemed to prevail among the people, that they
offered, providing they could obtain the proper discharges fj#h
the tea consignees, customhouse, and governor, to return tojjri-.
,' tain without landing their cargoes. The parties concerned, how-
•eVer,f .though they durst not order the tea to be landed, refused
to grant the discharges required. The ships, therefore, would
have^eefi*obliged to remain in the harbour; but the people, ap
prehensive that if they remained there the tea would be landed
in small quantities, and disposed of in spite of every endeavour
to prevent it, resolved, to destroy it at once. This resolution was
executed with equal speed and sec,recy. The very evening after
the above-mentioned discharges had been refused, a number of

CONTEST BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN, ,&C. 253
people, dressed like Mohawk Indiaris, boarded the ships, and
threw into the sea their whole cargoes, consisting of 342 chests
of tea ; after which they retired without making any further dis
turbance, or doing any more damage. No tea was destroyed in
other places, though the same spirit was every where manifested.
At Philadelphia the pilots were enjoined not to conduct the ves
sels up the river ; and at New York, though the governor caused
some tea to be landed under the protection of" a man of war, he
was obliged to. deliver it up to the custody of the people, to pre
vent its being sold.
The destruction of the tea at Boston, which happened in No
vember 1773, was the immediate prelude to the disasters attend
ing .civil discord. Government finding themselves every where
insulted aud despised, resolved to enforce their authority by all
possible means ; and as Boston had been the principal scene of
the riots and outrages, it was determined to punish that city in
an exemplary manner. Parliament was acquainted by a message
from his majesty with the undutiful behaviour of the city of Bos
ton, as well as of all the colonies, recommending at the same
time the most vigorous and spirited exertions to reduce them to
obedience. The -parliament in its address promised a ready
compliance ; and indeed the Americans, by their outrageous be
haviour, had now lost many of their partisans. It was proposed
to lay a fine on the town of Boston equal to the price of the tea
which had been destroyed, and to shut up its port by armed vessels
until the refractory spirit of the inhabitants should be subdued j
which it was thought must quickly yield, as a total stop, would
thus be put to their trade. The bill was strongly opposed on the
same grounds that the other had been ; and it was predicted,
that instead of haying any tendency to reconcile or subdue the
Americans, it would infallibly exasperate them beyond any possi
bility of reconciliation. The petitions against it, presented by
the colony's agent, pointed out the same ^consequence in the
strongest terms, and in the most positive manner declared that
the Americans never would submit- to it; but such was the infatu
ation attending every rank and degree of men> that it never was
imagined that the Americans would dare to resist the parent
state openly, but would in the end submit implicitly to her com
mands. In this confidence a third bill was proposed for the im
partial administration of justice on such persons as might be

254 HISTORY OF NORTH- AMERICA. i •>
employed in the suppression of riots and tumults in the province
of Massachussetts Bay. By this act it was provided,' that
should any persons acting in that capacity be indicted for mur
der, and not able to obtain a fair trial in the province, they
might be sent by the governor to England, or to some other co
lon}', if , necessary, ,to be, tried for the supposed: crime.
These three bills having passed so easily, the ministry propo
sed a fourth, relative to the government of Canada; which it was
said, had not yet been settled on any proper plan. By this bill
the extent of that province was greatly enlarged ; its affairs wer#
put under the direction of a council into which Roman Catholics
were to be admitted ; the Roman Catholic clergy were secured
in their possessions and the usual perquisites from those of their
own profession. The council above mentioned were to be ap
pointed by the crown, to be removable at its pleasure; and to be
invested with every legislative power excepting that of taxation.
No sooner were these laws made, known in America, than
they cemented the union of the colonies almost beyond any possi
bility of dissolving it. The assembly of Massachussetts. Bay had
passed a vote .against the judges accepting salaries from the
crown, and put the question, Whether they would accept them
as .usual from the general assembly ? Four answered in the affir
mative; but Peter Oliver the chief justice refused. A petition
against him, and an accusation, were brought before the gover
nor ; but the latter refused the accusation, and declined to in
terfere .in the matter: but as they still insisted for what they
called justice against Mr. Oliver, the governor thought proper t»
put an end. to the matter by dissolving the assembly. .
In this situation of .affairs a new alarm was occasioned by the
news of the port bill. This had been totally unexpected; and
was received with the, most extravagant expressions of displea
sure among the populace ; and while these continued, the new
governor, General Gage, arrived from England. He had been
chosen to this office on account of his being well acquainted in
America,, and generally agreeable to the people 3 but human
wisdom could not now point out a method by which the flame
eould be allayed... The first act of his office as governor was to
remove the assembly to Salem, a town 17 miles distant, in con
sequence of the late act. ..When this was intimated to the as-
sejahly, they; replied^ by requesting him to appoint a. day of pub-

CONTEST BETWEEN GREAT BBITAIN, &C. 255
lie humiliation for. deprecating the wrath of heaven, but met
with a refusal. When, met at Salem, they passed a resolution,
declaring the necessity of a general congress composed of dele
gates from all the provinces, in order to take the affairs of the
colonies at large into consideration ; and five gentlemen, remark
able for their opposition to the British measures, were choseri to
represent that of Massachussetts Bay. They then proceeded
with all expedition to draw up a declaration, containing a detail
of the grievances they labored under, and the necessity of exert
ing themselves against lawless power } they set forth the disre
gard shown to their petitions, and the attempts of; Great Britain
to destroy their ancient constitution ; and concluded with exhort
ing the inhabitants of the colony to obstruct, by every-methodin
their power, such evil designs, recommending at the same time
a total renunciation of every thing imported from Great Britain,
till a redress of grievances could be procured.
Intelligence of this declaration was carried to the governor on
the very day that it was completed ; on which he dissolved the
assembly. This was followed by an address from the inhabitants
of Salem in favor of 4hose of Boston, and concluding with these
remarkable words ; By shutting up the port of Boston, some
imagine that the course of trade might be turned hither, and to
our benefit ; but nature, in the formation of our harbour, forbids
pur becoming rivals in commerce with that convenient mart;
and were it otherwise, we must be dead to every idea of justice,
lost to all feelings of humanity, could we indulge one thought to
seize on wealth, and raise our fortunes on the ruin of our suffer
ing neighbours.
: It had been fondly hoped by the ministerial party at home,
that the advantages which other towns of the colony might de
rive from the annihilation of the trade of Boston would make
them readily acquiesce in the measure of shutting up that port,
aud rather rejoice in it than otherwise; but the words of the ad
dress above mentioned seemed to preclude all hope of thi3 kind ;
and subsequent transactions soon manifested it to be totally vain.
No sooner did intelligence arrive of the remaining bills passed in
the session of 1774, than the cause of Boston became the cause
of all the colonies. The port bill had already occasioned violent
commotions throughout them all. It had hcen reprobated in
provincialmeetings, and resistance even to the last had been re-

256 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
commended against such Oppression. In Virginia,' the first of
June, the day on which the port of Boston was to be shut upy
was held as a day of humiliation, and a public intercession in
favor of America was enjoined. The style of the prayer enjoined
at this time was, that " God would give the people one heart
and one mind, firmly to oppose every invasion of the American
rights." The Virginians, however, did not content themselves
with acts of religion. They recommended in the strongest man
ner a general congress of all the colonies, as fully persuaded that
an attempt to tax any colony in an arbitrary manner was in re
ality an attack upon them all, and must ultimately end in the
ruin of them all.
The provinces of New York and Pennsylvania, however, were
less sanguine than the rest, being so closely connected in the
way of trade with Great Britain, that the giving it up entirely
appeared a matter of the most serious magnitude, and not to be
thought of but after every other method had failed. The intel
ligence of tlie remaining bills respecting Boston, however, spread
a fresh alarm throughout the continent, and fixed those who had
seemed to be the most wavering. The proposal of giving up all
commercial intercourse with Britain was again proposed ; con
tributions for the inhabitants of Boston were raised in every
quarter : and they every day received addresses commending
them for the heroic courage with which they sustained their ca
lamity. The Bostonians on their part were not wanting in their en
deavours to promote the general cause. An agreement was fra
med, which, in imitation of former times, they called a Solemn
League and Covenant. By this the subscribers most religiously
bound themselves to break off all communication with Britain
after the expiratiou of the month of August ensuing, until the
obnoxious acts were repealed ; at the same time they engaged
neither to purchase nor use any goods imported after that time,
and to renounce all connexion with those who did, or who refu
sed to subscribe to this covenant; threatening to publish the
names of the refractory, which at this time was a punishment
by no means to be despised. Agreements of a similar kind were
almost instantaneously entered into throughout all America.
General Gage indeed attempted to counteract the covenant by a
proclamation, wherein it was declared an illegal and traitorous

CONTEST BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN, &C. 257
combination, threatening with the pains of law such as subscri
bed or countenanced it. But matters were too far gone for his
proclamations to have any effect. The Americans retorted the
charge of illegality on his own proclamation, and insisted that
the law. allowed subjects to meet in order to consider of their
grievances, and to associate for relief from oppression.
Preparations were now made for holding the general congress
so often proposed. Philadelphia, as being the most considerable
town, was pitched upon for the place of its meeting. The de
legates, of whom it was to be composed, were chosen by the re
presentatives of each province ; and were in number from two to
seven for each colony, though no province had more than one
vote. The first congress which met at Philadelphia, in the be
ginning of September, 1774, consisted of fifty-one delegates.
The novelty and importance of the meeting excited an universal
attention ; and their transactions were such as could not but give
them great importance in the public opinion.
The first act of congress was an approbation of the conduct of
Massachussetts Bay, and an exhortation to continue in the same
spirit with which they had begun. Supplies for the suffering in
habitants (whom indeed the operation of the port bill had redu
ced to great distress) were strongly recommended ; and it was
declared, that in case of attempts to enforce the obnoxious acts
by arms, all America should join to assist the town of Boston •
and should the inhabitants be obliged, during the course of hos
tilities, to remove farther up the country, the losses thev might
sustain should be repaired at the public expence.
Matters thus went on, until every idea of reconciliation or
friendship with Britain was lost. The Americans, without cere
mony, began to seize on the military stores and ammunition.
This first commenced at Newport in Rhode Island, where the
inhabitants carried off forty pieces of cannon appointed for the
protection of the place ; and, on being asked the reason of this
proceeding, they replied, that the people had seized them lest
they should be made use of against themselves. After this the
assembly met, and resolved, that ammunition and warlike stores
should be purchased with the public money. New Hampshire
followed the example of Rhode Island, and seized a small fort,
for the sake of the powder and military stores it contained. In
11. xk

258 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
Pennsylvania a convention was held, which expressed an earnest.
desire of reconciliation with the mother country ; though, at the
same time, in the strongest manner declaring, that they were
resolved to take up arms in defence of their just rights ; and the
people were exhorted to apply themselves with the greatest assi
duity to the prosecution of such manufactures as were necessary
for their defence and subsistence, such as salt, saltpetre, gun
powder, 6teel, &e.
As the disturbances had originated in the province of Massa
chussetts Bay, and there continued with the greatest violence,
so this was the province where the first hostilities were commen
ced. In the beginning of February, 1775, the congress met at
Cambridge ; and, as no friends to Britain could now find admit
tance to that assembly, the only consideration was, how to
make speedy preparations for war. Expertness in military disci
pline was recommended in the strongest manner, and several
piilitary institutions were enacted ; among which, that of the
winute^men was one of the most remarkable. These were cho
sen from the most active and expert among the militia; and
.their business was to keep themselves in constant readiness at
fthe call of their officers; from which perpetual vigilance they
derived their title. It was now easily seen, that a slight occa
sion would bring on hostilities, which could not but be attended
with the most violent and certain destruction to the vanquished
party, for both were so much exasperated by a long course of
reproaches and literary warfare, that they seemed to be filled
with the utmost inveteracy against each other.
On the 26th of February, General Gage, having been inform
ed that a number of field-pieces had been brought to Salem,
dispatched a party to seize them. Their road was obstructed by
a river, over which was a draw-bridge. This the people had
pulled up, and refused to let down : upon which the soldiers
seized a boat to ferry them over, but the people cut out her bot
tom. Hostilities would immediately have commenced, had it not
been for the interposition of a clergyman ; who represented to
the military, on the one hand, the folly of opposing such num
bers ; and to the people, on the other, that, as the day was far
spent, the military could not execute their design, so that they
might without any fear, leave them the quiet possession of the
draw-bridge. This was complied with ; and the soldiers, after

CONTEST BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN, &C. 259
having remained for some time at. the bridge, returned without
executing their orders.
" The next attempt was attended with more serious consequen
ces. General Gage having been informed that' a large quantity
of ammunition and military stores had been collected at Con
cord, about twenty' miles from Boston, and where the provincial
congress was sitting, sent a detachment, under the command of
Colonel Smith and Major Pitcairn, to destroy the stores, and,
as was reported, to seize Messrs. Hancock and Adams, the
leading men of the eongress. They set out before day-break, on
the 19th of April, marching with the utmost silence, and secu
ring every one they met on the road, that they might not be dis
covered. But, notwithstanding all their care, the continual ring
ing of bells and firing of guns as they went along soon gave them
notice that the country was alarmed. About five in the rhorning
they had reached Lexington, fifteen miles from Boston, where
the militia of the place were exercising. An officer called out
to them to disperse ; but some shots, it is said, being at that
moment- fired from a house in the neighbourhood, the military
made a discharge, which killed and wounded several of the mi
litia. The detachment theri proceeded to Concord, where, hav
ing destroyed the stores, they were encountered by the Ameri
cans; and a scuffle ensued, in which several fell on both sides.
The purpose of their expedition being thus accomplished, it was
necessary for the king's troops to retreat, which they did through
a continual fire kept upon them from Concord to Lexington.
Here their ammunition- was expended ; and they would have
been unavoidably cut off, had not a considerable reinforcement,
commanded by Lord Percy, luckily met them. The Ameri
cans, however, continued their attack with great fury ; and the1
British would still -have been in the utmost danger, had it noti
been for two field-pieces which Lord Percy brought with him.
By- these the impetuosity of the Americans was checked, .and
the British made good their retreat to Boston, with the loss of
263 killed and wounded: that of the Americans was eighty-
eight.. By this engagement the spirits of thd Americans were so rais
ed, that they meditated nothing less than the total expulsion of,
the British troops from Boston. An army of 20,000 men was
assembled, who formed a line of encampment from Roxbury to

260 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
Mystic, through a space of about thirty miles ; and here they
were soon after joined by a large body of Connecticut troops,
under General Putnam, an old officer of great bravery and expe
rience. By this formidable force was the town of Boston now
kept blocked up. General Gage, however, had so strongly forti
fied it, that the enemy, powerful as they were, durst not make
an attack ; while, on the other hand, his force was by- far too
insignificant to meet such an enemy in the field. But, towards
the end of May, a considerable reinforcement having arrived,
with Generals Howe, Burgoyne,-and Clinton, he prepared to act
with more decision ; while the Americans, on their part, did
every thing to oppose him.
On the 15th of June, two days previous to this memorable
engagement, the congress had appointed George Washington,-
Esq,, a gentleman of large fortune in Virginia, to the chief
command of all the American forces. He had been a distin
guished and successful officer in the British service ; and at this
period was serving in the independent companies of Virginia:
and of which he had been chosen the commander. He was
elected a member of the first congress that met at Philadelphia,
in which body he was very soon distinguished as the soldier of
America. He was placed on all those committees whose duty it/
was to make arrangements for defence ; and when it became ne
cessary to appoint a commander-in-chief, his military "character,
the solidity of his judgment, the steady firmness of his temper,
the dignity of his person and deportment, the confidence inspi
red by his patriotism and integrity, and the independence of his
circumstances, combined with that policy which actuated New
England, and induced a wish to engage the southern colonies
cordially in a war, to designate him in the opinion of all as the
person to whom the destinies of his country should be confided.
He was unanimously chosen " General and Commander-in-
Chief of the army of the United Colonies, and all the forces
now raised or to be raised by them*."
* Ariemas Ward, of Massachussetts, who had commanded the troops be
fore Boston ; Colonel Lee, a British officer, who had distinguished himself
in Portugal, but had resigned his commission in the service of the king;
Philip .Schuyler, of New York; and Israel Putnam of Connecticut, now
also before Boston ; were appointed to the rank of major-generals ; and Mr-
Horatio Gates, who had held the rank of a major in the British service, wai
appointed adjutant-general.

CONTEST BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN, &C. 261
When, on the following day, the president communicated this
appointment to him, he modestly answered, that though truly,
sensible of the high honor done him, yet he felt great distress,
from a consciousness that his abilities and military experience
might not be equal to the extensive and important trust. How
ever, as the congress desired it, he would enter upon the mo
mentous duty, and exert every power he possessed in their service,
and for support of the glorious cause. He begged them to ac
cept his cordial thanks for this distinguished testimony of their
approbation, and then added, "But lest some unlucky event
should happen unfavorable to my reputation, I beg it may be re
membered by every gentleman in the room, that I this day de
clare, with the utmost sincerity, I do not think myself equal to
the command I am honored with."
He declined all compensation for his services, and avowed an
intention to keep an exact account of his expences,, which he
should rely on congress to discharge.
A special commission was made out for him*, and a solemn.
» " The delegates of the United Colonies of New Hampshire, Massachus-
sett's Bay , Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsyl
vania, the counties of Newcastle, Kent, and Sussex on Delaware, Mary
land, Virginia, North Carolina, and South Carolina;
To George Washington, Esq,,
" We, reposing special trust and confidence in your patriotism, valor, con
duct, and fidelity, do, by these presents, constitute and appoint you to be
General and Commander-in-Chief of the army of Ihe United Colonies, and
of all the forces now, raised, or to be raised by them, and of all others who
shall voluntarily offer their service, and join the said army for the defence
of American liberty, and for repelling every hostile invasion thereof. And
you are hereby invested with full power and authority to act as you shall
think for the good and welfare of the service.
" And we do hereby strietly charge and require all officers and soldiers un
der your command, to be obedient to your orders, and diligent in the exer
cise of their several duties.
" And we also enjoin and require you to be careful in executing the great
trust reposed in you, by. causing strict discipline and order to be observed in
the army, and that the soldiers be duly exercised and provided with all con-:
venient necessaries.
" And you are to regulate your conduct'in every respect by the rules and
discipline of war, (as herewith given you,) and punctually to observe and
follow such orders and directions from time to time as you shall receive
from this or a future congress of these United Colonies, or Committee of
congress. 'VThis commission to Continue in force until revoked by this »r a future
congress.

&6& HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
resolution was unanimously entered into, declaring, that congress
would maintain, assist, and adhere to him as the General and
Commander-in-Chief of the forces raised, or to be raised, for
the maintenance and preservation of American liberty, with their
lives and fortunes.
He prepared, without delay; to enter upon the arduous du
ties of his station ; and having passed a few days in New York,
where General Schuyler commanded, and where several very im
portant arrangements were to be made, he proceeded with the
utmost dispatch to Cambridge, which was the head quarters of
the American army.
A considerable height, known by the name of Bunker's Hill,
just at the entrance of the peninsula of Charlestown, was so- si
tuated as to make the possession of it a matter of great conse
quence to either of the contending parties. Orders were there
fore, June 16, issued by the provincial commanders, that a de
tachment of 1000 men should entrench upon this height. By
some mistake, Breed's Hill, high and large like the other, but
situated nearer Boston, was marked out for the entrenchments,
instead of Bunker's Hill. The. provincials proceeded to Breed's
Hill, and worked with so much diligence, that betvveen mid
night and the dawn of the morning, they had thrown up a small
redoubt about eight rods square. They kept such a profound si
lence, that they were not heard by the British on-board their
vessels, though very near. These, having derived their first in
formation of what was going on from the sight of the work near
completion, began an incessant firing upon them. The provin
cials bore this with firmness, and, though they were only young
soldiers, continued to labor till they had thrown up a small
breastwork, extending from the east sjde of the breastwork to
the bottom Of the hill. As this eminence overlooked Boston,
General Gage thought it necessary to drive the provincials from
it* About noon, therefore, he detached Major.-generak.Howe,
and- Brigadier-general Pigotj with the flower of the army, con
sisting of four battalions, ten companies of the grenadiers, and
ten of light infantry, w^b * proportion of -field artillery, to, effect
this business; These< troops landed at Moreton's Pointy and,
Jfune 17, formed after landing, but remained in that posi
tion till they were reinforced by a second detachment of, light
infantry and grenadier companies, a battalion of land forces, and

CONTEST BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN, &C. 263
a battalion of marines^ making in the whole near 3000 men.
While the troops who first landed were waiting for this rein
forcement, the provincials, for their farther security, pulled up
some adjoining post and rail fences, and set them down- in two
parallel lines at a small distance from each other, and filled the
space between with hay, which having been lately mowed, re
mained on the adjacent ground.
The king's troops formed in two lines, and advanced slowly,
to give their artillery time to demolish the American woTks.
While the British were advancing to the attack, they received
orders to burn Charlestown. This was not done because they
were fired upon from the houses in that town, but from the mi
litary policy of depriving the enemies of a cover in their -ap-;
proaches. In a short time this ancient town, consisting of
about 500 buildings, chiefly of wood, was in one great blaze.-
The lofty steeple of the meeting-house formed a pyramid of fire
above the rest, and struck the astonished eyes of numerous be-r-
holders with a magnificent but awful spectacle. In Boston, the-
heights of every kind were covered with the citizens,' and such-
of the king's troops as were not on duty* The hills, around the-
adjacent country, which afforded a safe and distinct view, were
occupied by the inhabitants of the country.
Thousands, both within and without Boston, were anxious,
spectators of the bloody scene. The honor of British troops
beat high in the- breasts of many, while others, with a keener
sensibility, felt for the liberties of a great, and growing country.
The British moved on but slowly, which gave the provincials a
better opportunity for taking aim. The latter, in general, re
served themselves till their adversaries were within ten or twelve
rods, but then began a^.farious discharge of small arms. The
stream of the American fire was so incessant, -and did- so great
execution, tlwt the king's troops retreated in disorder and preci
pitation. Their officers rallied them, and pushed them forward
with their swords, but they returned to the attack with great
reluctance. The Americans again, reserved their fire till their
adversaries were near, and then put them a : second time' to
flight. General Howe and the officers redoubled their exertions,
and were at last successful, though the soldiers discovered a-
gijeat aversion to going on. By this time the, powder of the
Americans began to fail. The British also brought some can-

264 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
non to bear, which raked the inside of the breastwork from end
to end : the fire from the ships, batteries, and field artillery, was
redoubled. The redoubt was attacked on three sides at once.
Under these circumstances a retreat from it was ordered, but
the provincials delayed, and made resistance with their dischar
ged muskets as if they had been clubs, so long that the king's
troops, who easily mounted the works, had half filled the re
doubt before it was given up to them.
While these operations were going on at the breastwork and
redoubt, the British light infantry were attempting to force th'e
left point of the former, that they might take the American line
in flank. Though they exhibited the most undaunted courage,
they met with an opposition which called for its greatest exer
tions. The provincials here, in like manner, reserved their fire
till their adversaries were near, and then poured it upon the
light infantry, in so true a direction, as mowed down their
ranks. The engagement was kept up on both sides with great
Resolution. The persevering exertions of the king's troops could
not compel the Americans to retreat, till they observed that their
main body had left the hill. This, when begun, exposed them
to new danger, for it could not be effected But by marching over
Charlestown Neck, every part of which was raked by the shot
df the Glasgow man of war, and two floating batteries. The
incessant fire kept up across this neck prevented any considera
ble reinforcement from joining their countrymen who were enga
ged ; but the few who fell on their retreat over the same ground
proved, that the apprehensions of those provincial officers, who
declined passing over to succour their companions, were without
any solid foundation.
The number of Americans engaged amounted only to 1500,
It was apprehended that the conquerors would push it-he advan
tages they had gained, and march immediately to American
head-quarters at Cambridge, but they advanced no farther than
Bunker's Hill ; there they threw up works for their own security.
The provincials did the same on Prospect Hill in front of them.
Both were guarding against an attack, and both were in a bad
condition to receive one. The loss of the peninsula depressed the
spirits of the Americans, and their great loss of men produced
the same effect on the British. There have been few battles in
modern wars, in which, all circumstances considered, there was

CONTEST BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN, &C. %6&
a greater destruction of men than in this short engagements
The loss of the British, as acknowledged by General Gagej
amounted to 1054. Nineteen commissioned officers were killed;
and seventy more were wounded. The battle of Quebec in 1759;
which gave Great Britain the province of Canada, was not so
destructive to British officers as this affair of a slight entrench*
ment, the work only of a few hours. That the officers suffered
so much, must be imputed to their being aimed at. None of the
provincials in this engagement were riflemen, but they were all
good marksmen. The whole of their previous military know
ledge had been derivedfrom hunting, and the ordinary amuse
ments of sportsmen. The dexterity which by long habit they
had acquired in hitting beasts, birds, and marks; was fatally
applied to the destruction of British officers. From their fall
much confusion was expected ; they were therefore particularly
singled out. Most of those who were near the person of Gene
ral Howe were either killed or Wounded, but the general, though
he greatly exposed himself, was unhurt. The light infantry and
grenadiers lost three-fourths of their men. Of one company not
more than five, and of another not more than fourteen, escaped^.
The -unexpected resistance of the Americans was such as wiped
away the reproaches of cowardice, which had been cast oft them
by their enemies in Britain. The spirited conduct of the British
officers merited and obtained great applause ; but the provinciate
Were justly entitled to a large portion of the same, for having
made the utmost exertions of their adversiaries necessary to dis^
lodge them from lines, which were the work only of a singlfe
night. The Americans lost five pieces of carinon. Their killed
amounted to 139. The wounded and missing to 314. Thirty
of the former fell into the hands of the conquerors. They parti
cularly regretted the death of General Warren.
This action at Breed's Hill, or Bunker's Hill, as it has beeh
commonly called, produced many : and very ¦ important cbrisei-
' quehces. The same determined spirit of resistance now every
where appeared on the part of the Americans. The eommence'-
ment of hostilities at Lexington determined the colony of New
York, which had hitherto continued to waver, to unite with the
rest; and, as the situation of New York renders it unable to re
sist au attack from the sea, it was resolved, before the arrival 6f
a British fleet, to secure the military stores, send off the w^men
12. Ll

S66 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
and children, and to set fire to the city if it was still found in
capable of defence. The exportation of provisions was every
where prohibited, particularly to the British fishery on the bank?
of Newfoundland, or to such colonies of America as should ad
here to the British ihterest. Gongress resolved on the establish
ment of an army, and of a large paper currency in order to sup
port it. In the inland northern colonies, Colonels Easton and
Ethan Allen, without receiving any orders from congress, or
communicating their design to any body, with a party of only
250 men, surprised the forts of Crown Point, Ticonderoga, and
the rest that form a communication betwixt the colonies and
Canada, On this occasion 200 pieces of cannon fell into tlieit
hands, besides mortars, and a large quantity of military storesi
together with two armed vessels, and materials for the construc
tion of others.
After the battle of Bunker's Hill, the provincials erected for?
tifications on the heights which commanded Charlestown, and
strengthened the rest in such a manner that there was no hope
of driving them from thence ; at the same time that their actii
yity and boldness astouished their adversaries, who had been ac;
customed to entertain too mean an opinion of their courage.
The British troops, thus shut up in Boston, were soon redu
ced to distress. Their necessities obliged them to attempt the
carrying off the American cattle on the islands before Boston.
which produced frequent skirmishes ; but the provincials, better
acquainted with the navigation of these shores, landed on th?
islands, destroyed or carried off whatever was of any use, burn
ed the lighthouse at the entrance of the harbour, and took pri
soners the workmen sent to repair it, as well as a party of ma
rines who guarded them. Thus the garrison was reduced to the
necessity of sending out armed vessels to make prizes indiscrimi
nately of all that came in their way, and of landing in different
places to plunder for subsistence as well as they could.
The congress in the mean time continued to act with all the
vigor which its constituents had expected. Articles of confede
ration and perpetual union were drawn up and solemnly . agreed
upon; and they proceeded formally to justify their conduct, in'a
declaration drawn up in terms remarkably expressive, and wejl
calculated to excite attention.
?' Were it possible," said they, " for men who exercise thejf

CONTEST BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN, &C. 267
reason, to believe that the Divine Author of our existence in
tended a part of the human race to hold an absolute property
in, and unbounded power over, others, marked out by his infi-
ftite goodness and wisdom as the objects of a legal domination,
never rightfully resistible, however severe and oppressive; the
inhabitants of these colonies might at least require from the par
liament of Great Britain some evidence that this dreadful au
thority over them had been granted to that body : but a reve
rence for our Great Creator, principles of humanity, and the
dictates of common sense, must convince all those who refleet
upon the subject, that government was instituted to promote the
welfare of mankind, and ought to be administered for the attain
ment of that end.
" The legislature of Great Britain, however, stimulated by an
inordinate passion for power, not only unjustifiable, but which
they know to be peculiarly reprobated by the very constitution of
that kingdom ; and despairing of success in any mode of contest
where regard should be had to law, truth, or right; have at
length, deserting those, attempted to effect their cruel and im
politic purpose of enslaving these colonies by violence, and have
thereby rendered it necessary for us to close with their last ap
peal from reason to arms. Yet, however blinded that assembly
may be, by their intemperate rage for unlimited domination, so
to slight justice in the opinion of mankind', we esteem ourselves
bound by obligations to the rest of the world to make known the
justice of our eause."
After taking notice of the manner in which their ancestors left
Britain, the happiness attending the mutual friendly commerce
betwixt that country and her colonies, and the remarkable suc-
eess of the late war, they proceed as follows : 'ffThe new minis
try, finding the brave foes of Britain, though frequently defeat
ed, yet stall contending, took up the unfortunate idea of grant
ing them a hasty peace, aud of then subduing her faithful
friends. " These devoted colonies were judged to be in such a state as
to present victories without bloodshed, and all the easy emolu
ments of statutable plunder. The uninterrupted tenor of their
peaceable and respectful behaviour from the beginning of their
colonization ; their dutiful, zealous, and useful, services during
the war, though so recently and amply acknowledged in the

268 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
most honorable manner by his majesty, by the late king, and by
parliament, could not save them from the intended innovations.
Parliament- was influenced to adopt the pernicious project; and
assuming a new power over them, has in the course of eleven.
years given such decisive specimens of the spirit and consequen
ces attending this power, as to leave no doubt of the effects of
acquiescence under it.
" They have undertaken to give and grant our money without
our consent, though we have ever exercised an exclusive right to
dispose of our own property. Statutes have been passed for ex
tending the jurisdiction of the courts of admiralty, and vice-ad
miralty, beyond their ancient limits ; for depriving us of the ac
customed and inestimable rights of trial by jury, in cases affect
ing both life and property ; for suspending the legislature of one
of our colonies ; for interdicting all commerce to the capital of
another ; and for altering fundamentally the form of government
established by charter, secured by acts of its own legislature, and
solemnly confirmed by the crown ; for exempting the murderers
pf colonists from legal trial, and in effect from punishment ; for
erecting in a neighbouring province, acquired by the joint arms
of Great Britain and America, a despotism dangerous to our very
existence ; and for quartering soldiers upon the colonists in time
pf a profound peace. It has also been resolved in parliament,
that colonists charged with committing certain offences shall be
transported to England to be tried.
" But why should we enumerate our injuries in detail? By
one statute it was declared, that parliament can of right make
laws to bind us in all cases whatever. What is to defend us
against so enormous, so unlimited, a power ? Not a single per
son who assumes it is chosen by us, or is subject to our control
pr influence ; but on the contrary, they are all of them exempt
from the operation of such laws ; and the American revenue, if
pot diverted from the ostensible purposes for which it is raised,
would actually lighten their own burdens in proportion as it in
creases ours.
"We saw the misery to which such despotism would reduce
us. We for ten years incessantly and ineffectually besieged the
throne as supplicants ; we reasoned, we remonstrated with par
liament in the most mild and decent language; but admistra-

CONTEST BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN, &C. 269.
tion, sensible that we should regard these measures .as freemen.
ought to do, sept oyer fleets and armies to enforce them.
" We have pursued every temperate, every respectful, mea
sure ; we have even proceeded to break off all commercial inter
course with our fellow subjects as our last peaceable admonition,
that our attachment to no nation on earth would supplant our
attachment to liberty : this we flattered ourselves was the ulti
mate step of the controversy ; but subsequent events have shown
how vain was this hope of finding moderation in our enemies !
" The lords and commons, in their address in the month of Fe
bruary, said, that a rebellion at that time actually existed in the
province of Massachussetts Bay ; and that those concerned in it
had been countenanced and encouraged by unlawful combina
tions and engagements entered into by his majesty's subjects in
several of the colonies ; and therefore they besought his majesty
that he would take the most effectual measures to enforce due
obedience to the laws and authority of the supreme legislature..
Soon after the commercial intercourse of whole colonies with fo
reign countries was cut off by an act of parliament ; by another,
several of them were entirely prohibited from the fisheries in the
seas near their coasts, on which they always depended for their
subsistence ; and large reinforcements of ships and troops were
immediately sent over to General Gage.
" Fruitless were all the entreaties, arguments, and eloquence,
of an illustrious band of the most distinguished peers and com
moners, who nobly and strenuously asserted the justice of our
cause, to stay, or even to mitigate, the heedless fury with which
these accumulated outrages were hurried on. Equally fruitless
was the interference of the city of London, of Bristol, and of
many other respectable towns, in our favor."
After some further observations on parliament, and the British
ministry, the declaration thus proceeds : " We are reduced to the
alternative of choosing an unconditional submission to tyranny,.
or resistance by force. The latter is our choice. We haver
counted the cost of this contest, and find nothing so dreadful as
voluntary slavery. Honor, justice, and humanity, forbid us
tamely to surrender that freedom which we received from our
gallant ancestors, and which our innocent posterity have a right,
to receive from us. Our cause is just ; our union is perfect ;
our internal resources are great ; and, if necessary, foreign as-

27© HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
srtstance is undoubtedly attainable. We fight not for glory or
conquest ; we exhibit to mankind the remarkable spectacle of
people attacked by unprovoked enemies. They boast of their
privileges and civilization, and yet proffer no milder conditions
than servitude or death. In our own native land, in defence of
the freedom that is our birthright, for the protection of our pro
perty acquired by the honest industry of our forefathers and our
own, against violence actually offered, we have taken up arms ;
we shall lay them down when hostilities shall cease on the part'
of our aggressors, and all danger of their being renewed shall be,
removed, — and not before."
These are some of the most striking passages in the declara-,
tion of congress on taking up arms against Great Britain, dated
July 6, 1775. In every other respect an equal spirit was shown;
and the rulers of the British nation had the mortification to see
those whom they styled rebels and traitors succeed in negocia
tions in which they themselves were utterly foiled. In the pass
ing of the Quebec bill, ministry had flattered themselves that
the Canadians would be so much attached to them on account
of restoring the French laws, that they would very readily join
ih any attempt against the colonists who had reprobated that
bill in such strong terms : but in this they found themselves mis
taken. A scheme had been formed for General Carleton, go
vernor of the province, to raise an army of Canadians wherewith
to act against the Americans ; and, so sanguine were the hopes
of administration in this respect, that they had sent 20,000
stand of arms, and a great quantity of military stores, to Que
bec for the purpose. But the people, though they did not join
the Americans, yet] were found immoveable in their purpose to
stand neuter. The British administration next tried to engage
the Indians in their cause. But, though agents were dispersed
among them with large presents to the chiefs, the greatest part
replied, that they did not understand the nature of the quarrel,
rior could they distinguish whether those who dwelt in America
dr on the other side of the ocean were in fault : but they were
surprised to see Englishmen ask their assistance against one
another ; and advised them to be reconciled, and not to think of
shedding the blood of their brethren. To the representations of
congress they paid more respect. These set forth, that the Eng
lish on the other side of the ocean had taken up arms to enslave

CONTEST BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN, &C. 21?!
pot only their countrymen in America, but the Indians also;
and, if the latter should enable them to overcome the colonists^
they themselves would soon be reduced to a state of slavery also.
By arguments of this kind most of the savages were engaged to
remain neuter; and thus the colonists were freed from a dange
rous enemy. On this occasion the congress thought proper to
hold a solemn conference with the different tribes of Indians.
The speech made by them on the occasion is curious, but tot*
long to be inserted. The following is a specimen of the Euro
pean mode of addressing these people :
" Brothers, Sachems, and Warriors !
"We, the delegates from the Twelve United Provinces^ now
sitting in general congress at Philadelphia, send their talk to
you our brothers.
" Brothers and Friends, now attend!
" When our fathers crossed the great water, and came over to
-this land, the king of England gave them a talk, assuring them
that they and their children should be his children ; and that if
they would leave their native country, and make settlement*,
and live here, and buy and sell, and trade with their brethteli
beyond the water, they should still keep hold of the same cove
nant-chain, and enjoy peace ; and it was covenanted, that the
fields, houses, goods, and possessions, which our fathers should
acquire, should remain to them as their own, and be their chil
dren's for ever, and at their sole disposal.
" Brothers and Friends, open a kind ear !
" We will now tell you of the quarrel betwixt the counsellors
of king George, and the inhabitants and colonies of America.
" Many of his counsellors have persuaded him to break the
covenant-chain, and not to send us any more good talks. They
have prevailed upon him to enter into a covenant against Us ;
and have torn asunder, and cast behind their back, the good
old covenant which their ancestors and ours entered into, and
took strong hold of. They now tell us they will put their hands
into our pocket without asking, as though it were their own j
and at their pleasure, they- will take from us our charters, 6i
written civil constitution, which we love as our lives ; also our
plantations, our houses, and goods, whenever they please, with
out asking our leave. They tell us, that our vessels may go to
that or. this island in the sea, but to this or that particular island

272 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
we shall not trade any more ; and, in case of our non-eomplU
ance with these new orders, they shut up our harbours.
" Brothers, we live on the same ground with you ; the same
island is our common birth-place. We desire to sit down under
the same tree of peace with you ; let us water its roots, and
cherish the growth, till the large leaves and flourishing branches'
shall extend to the setting sun, and reach the skies. If 'any
thing disagreeable should ever fall out between us, the Twelve
United Colonies, and you, the Six Nations, to wound our peace,
let us immediately seek measures for healing the breach. From
the present situation of our affairs, we judge it expedient to kin
dle up a small fire at Albany, where we may hear each other's
voice, and disclose our minds fully to one another."
The success which had hitherto attended the Americans in all
their measures, now emboldened them to think not only of de
fending themselves, but likewise of acting offensively against
Great Britain. The conquest of Canada appeared an object
within their reach, and one that would be attended with many
advantages; and, as an invasion of that province was already
facilitated by the taking of Crown Point and Ticonderago, it
was resolved if possible to penetrate that way into Canada, and
reduce Quebec during the winter, before the fleets and armies,
which they were well assured would sail thither from Britain,
should arrive. By order of congress, therefore, 3000 men were
put under the command of Generals Montgomery and Schuyler,'
with orders to proceed to Lake Champlain, from whence they
were to be conveyed in flat-bottomed boats to the mouth of (he
river Sorel, a branch of the great river St. Lawrence, and on
which is situated a fort of the same name with the river. On
the other hand, they were opposed by General Carleton, goverV
nor of Canada; an officer of great activity and experience in
war : who, with a very few troops, had hitherto been able to
keep in awe the disaffected people of Canada, notwithstanding
all the representations of the colonists. He had now augmented
his army by a considerable number of Indians, and promised
even in his present situation to make a formidable resistance.
As soon as General Montgomery arrived at Crown Point, he
received information that several armed vessels were stationed at
St. John's, a strong fort on the Sorel, with a view to prevent
his crossing the lake; on which, he took possession of an island

CONTEST BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN, &C. 273
that commands the mouth of the Sorel, and by which he could
prevent them from entering the lake. In conjunction with Ger
neral Schuyler, he next proceeded to St. John's : but, finding
that place too strong, he landed on a part of the country consi
derably distant, and full of woods and swamps. From thence,
however, they were driven by a party of Indians whom Generat
Catrieton had employed.
The provincial army was now obliged to retreat to the island
of which they at first took possession ; where General Schuyler
being taken ill, Montgomery was left to command alone. His
first Step was to gain over the Indians whom General Carleton
had employed, and this he in a great measure accomplished ;
after which he determined to lay siege to St.. John's. In this he
was facilitated by the reduction of Chamble, a small fort in the
neighbourhood where he found a large supply of powder. An
attempt was made by General Carleton to relieve the place ; for
which purpose he with great pains collected about 1000 Cana
dians, while Colonel Maclean proposed to raise a regiment of
the Highlanders who had emigrated from their own country to
America. But, while General Carleton was on his march with
these new levies, he was attacked by a superior force of provin
cials, and utterly defeated ;, which being made known to another
¦body of Canadians who had joined Colonel Maclean, they aban
doned him without striking a blow, and he was obliged to re
treat to Quebec.
The defeat of General Carleton was a sufficient recompence
to the Americans for that of Colonel Ethan Allen, which h«d
happened a little before. The success which had attended this
gentleman against Crown Point and Ticonderago had embol
dened him to make a similar attempt on Montreal ; but, being
attacked by the militia of the place, supported by a detachment
of regulars, he was entirely defeated, and taken prisoner.
, General Carleton's defeat, and the deseition of Maclean's
forces, induced the garrison of St. John's to surrender them
selves prisoners of war ; and they were treated with great hu
manity. They were in number 500 regulars and 200 Canadians,
among whom were many French nobles. General Montgomery
next took measures to prevent the British shipping from passing
down the river from Montreal to Quebec. This he accomplished
so effectually,, that the whole were taken. The town itself was
12. M m

274- HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
obliged to surrender at discretion ; and it was with the utmost
difficulty that General Carleton escaped in an open boat by the
favor of a dark night.
No obstacle now remained to prevent the Americans from ma
king their way to the capital, except what arose from the nature
bf the country; and these were very considerable. Nothing,
however, could damp the ardor of the provincials. Notwith.-
standing it was now the middle of November, and the depth of
winter was at hand, Polonel Arnold formed a design of penetra
ting through woods, morasses, and the most frightful solitudes,
from New England to Canada, by a nearer way than that which
Montgomery had chosen ; and this he accomplished in spite of
every difficulty, to the astonishment of all who saw or heard of
.the attempt. This desperate march, however, cannot be looked
upon as conducive to any good purpose. A third part of his men
under another colonel had abandoned him by the way, under
pretence of want of provisions ; the total want of artillery ren
dered his presence insignificant before a place strongly fortified;
and the smallness of his army rendered it even doubtful whether
he could have taken the town by surprise. The Canadians in
deed were amazed at the exploit, and their inclination to revolt
from Britain was somewhat augmented; but none of them as
yet took up arms in behalf of America. The consternation into
which the town of Quebec was thrown, proved detrimental ra
ther than otherwise to the expedition ; as it doubled the vigi
lance and activity of the inhabitants to prevent any surprise ; and
the appearance of common danger united all parties, who, be
fore the arrival of Arnold, were .contending most violently with
one another. He was therefore obliged to content himself with
blocking up the avenues to the town, in order to distress the
garrison for want of provisions ; and even this he was unable to
do effectually, by reason of the small number of his men. The
matter was not much mended by the arrival of General Montgo?
mery. The force he had with him, even when united to that of
Arnold, was too insignificant to attempt the reduction of a place
so strongly fortified, especially with the assistance only of a few
mortars and field-pieces. After the siege had continued through
the month of December, General Montgomery, conscious that
he could accomplish his end no other way than by surprise, re-?
Solved to make an attempt on the last day of the year 1775j

CONTEST BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN, &C. 275
The method he took at this time was perhaps the best that hu
man wisdom could devise. He advanced by break of day, in
the midst of a heavy fall of snow, which covered his men from
the sight of the enemy. Two real attacks were made by him
self and Colonel Arnold, at the same time that two feigned at
tacks were made on two other places, thus to distract the garri
son, and make them divide their forces. One of the real at
tacks was made by the people of New York, aud the other by
those of New England under Arnold. Their hopes of surprising
the place, however, were defeated by the signal for the attack
being through some mistake given too soon. General Montgo
mery himself had the most dangerous place, being obliged to
pass between the river and some high rocks on which the Upper
Town stands; so that he was forced to make what haste he
could to close with the enemy. His fate, however, was now de
cided. Having forced the first barrier, a violent discharge of
rrfusquetry and grape-shot from the second killed him, his prin^
cipal officers, and the most of the party he commanded; on
which those who remained immediately retreated. Colonel Ar
nold in the mean time made a desperate attack on the Lower
Town, and carried one of the barriers after an obstinate resist
ance for an hour ; but in the action he himself received a wound,
which obliged him to withdraw. The attack, however, was con
tinued by the officers whom he had left, and another barrier
forced : but the garrison now perceiving that nothing was to be
feared except from that quarter, collected their whole force
against it; and after a desperate engagement of three hours,
overpowered the provincials, and obliged them to surrender.
In this action the valor of the provincial troops could not be
exceeded. Yet such a terrible disaster left no hope remaining of
the accomplishment of their purpose, as Arnold could now
scarcely number 800 effective men under his command. He did
not, however, abandon the province, or even remove to a greater
distance than three miles from Quebec ; and here he still found
means to annoy the garrison very considerably by intercepting
their provisions. The Canadians, notwithstanding the bad suc
cess of the American arms, still continued friendly; and thus he
was enabled to sustain the hardships of a winter encampment
in that most severe climate. The congress, far from passing

276 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
any censure on him for his misfortune, created him a brigadier-
general. While hostilities were thus carried on with vigor in the
north, the flame of contention was gradually extending itself in
the south. Lord Dunmore, the governor of Virginia, was in
volved in disputes similar to those which had taken place in
other colonies. These had proceeded so far, that the assembly
was dissolved ; which in this province was attended with a con
sequence unknown to the rest. As Virginia contained a great
number of slaves, it was necessary that a militia should be con
stantly embodied to keep them in awe. During the dissolution
of the assembly the militia laws expired ; and the people, after
Complaining of the danger they were in from the negroes, formed
a convention, which enacted that each county should raise a
quota for the defence of the province. Dunmore, on this, re
moved the powder from Williamsburg ; which created such dis
contents, that an immediate quarrel would probably have en
sued, had not the merchants of the town undertaken to obtain
satisfaction for the injury supposed to be done to the community.
This tranquillity, however, was soon interrupted ; the people,
alarmed by a report that an armed party were on their way from
the man of war where the powder had been deposited, assem
bled in arms, and determined to oppose by force any farther re
movals. In some of the conferences which passed at this time,
the governor let fall some unguarded expressions, such as threat
ening them with setting up the royal standard, proclaiming li
berty to the negroes, destroying the town of Williamsburg, &<:.,
Which were afterwards made public, and much to increase the
public ferment. ,
In this state of confusion the governor thought it necessary to
fortify his palace with artillery, and procure a party of marines
to guard it. Lord North's conciliatory proposal arriving also
about the same time, he used his utmost endeavours to induce
the people to comply with it ; and with this view had called an
assembly for the purpose of laying this conciliatory proposal be
fore them ; but it had been little attended to. The assembly
began their session by enquiries into the state of the magazine.
It had been broken into by some of the townsmen ; for which
reason spring-guns had been placed there by the governor, which
discharged themselves upon the offenders at their entrance:

CONTEST BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN, &C. 277
these circumstances, with others of a similar kind, raised such
a violent uproar, that as soon as the preliminary business of the
session was over, the governor retired on-board a man of war,
informing the assembly that he durst no longer trust himself on
shore. This produced a long course of disputation, which ended
in a positive refusal of the governor to trust himself again in
Williamsburg, even to give his assent to the bills, which could
not be passed without it, though the assembly offered to bind
themselves for his personal safety. In his turn he requested
them to meet him on-board the man of war where he then was;
but this proposal was rejected, and all further correspondence
containing the least appearance of friendship was discontinued.
Lord Dunmore, thus deprived of his government, attempted
to reduce the patriots by force. Some of the most strenuous
adherents to the British cause, whom zeal had rendered obnox-
ious at home, now repaired to him. He was also joined by
numbers of negro slaves. With these auxiliaries, and the assist
ance of the British shipping, he was for some time enabled to
carry on a kind of predatory war, sufficient to wound and exas
perate, but not to subdue. After some inconsiderable attempts
on land, proclaiming liberty to the slaves, and setting up the
royal standard, ' he took up his residence at Norfolk, a maritime
town- of some consequence, where the people were better affect
ed to Britain than in most other places. A considerable force,
however, was collected against him ; and, the natural impetuos
ity of his temper prompting him to act against them with more
courage than prudence, he was entirely defeated, and obliged to
retire to the shipping, which was now crowded by the number of
those who had incurred the resentment of the provincials.
In the mean time a scheme of the utmost magnitude and im
portance was formed by one Mr. Conolly, a Pennsylvanian, of
an intrepid and aspiring disposition, and attached to the cause
of Britain. The first step of this plan was to enter into a league
with the Ohio Indians. This he communicated to Lord Dun
more, and it received his approbation : upon which Conolly set
out and actually succeeded in this part of his design. On his
return, he was dispatched to General Gage, from whom he re
ceived a colonel's commission, and set out in order to accom
plish the remainder of his scheme. The plan in general was,
that he should return to the Ohio, where, by the assistance of

278 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
the British and Indians in these parts, he was to penetrate
through the back settlements into Virginia, and join Lord Dun
more at Alexandria : but, by an accident very likely to occur, he
was discovered, taken prisoner, and thrown into a dungeon.
After the retreat of Lord Dunmore from Norfolk, that place
was taken possession of by the provincials, who treated the loy
alists that had remained there with great cruelty; at the same
time that they greatly distressed those on-board Lord Dunmore's
fleet, by refusing to supply them with any necessaries. Nor was
this all : the vicinity of the shipping was such, as to afford the
riflemen an opportunity of reaching the people on-board These
proceedings at last drew a remonstrance from his lordship; in
which he insisted, that the fleet should be furnished with neces
saries, and that the soldiers should desist from firing at the peo
ple on-board ; but both these demands were rejected : a resolu
tion was taken to set fire to the town. After giving the inhabi
tants a proper warning, a party landed, under cover of a man of
war, and set fire to that part which lay nearest the shore; but
the flames were observed, at the same time, to break forth in
every other quarter, and the whole town was reduced to ashes.
This universal destruction, by which a loss of more than ,£30,000
was incurred, is said to have been occasioned by order of the
congress itself, that the loyalists might find no refuge there for
the future.
In the southern colonies of Carolina, the British governors
were also expelled, and obliged to take refuge on-board the
men of war ; among others, Mr. Martin, governor of North Ca
rolina, was expelled, on a charge of attempting to raise the
back-settlers, consisting chiefly of Scots Highlanders, against
the colony. Having secured themselves against any attempts
from these enemies, they proceeded to regulate their internal
concerns in the same manner as the rest of the colonies ; and,
by the end of the year 1775, Britain beheld the whole of
America united against her in the most determined opposition.
Her vast possessions of that tract of land, since known by the
name of the Thirteen United States, were now reduced to the
single town of Boston ; in which her forces were besieged by an
enemy with whom they were apparently not able to cope, and
by whom they must of course expect in a very short time to be
expelled. The situation of the inhabitants of Boston, indeed,

CONTEST BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN, &C. 279
was peculiarly unhappy. After having failed in their attempts to
leave the town, General Gage had consented to allow them to
retire with their effects ; but afterwards, for what reason does
not well appear, he refused to fulfil his promise. When he re
signed his place to General Howe, in October 1775, the latter,
apprehensive that they might give intelligence of the situation of
the British troops, strictly prohibited every person from leaving
the place, under pain of military execution. Thus matters con
tinued till the month of March, 1776, when the town was eva
cuated. On the second of that month, General Washington opened a
battery on the west side of the town, from whence it was bom
barded with a heavy fire of cannon ; and three days after, it was
attacked by another battery from the eastern shore. This terri
ble attack continued for fourteen days without intermission ;
when General Howe, finding the place po longer tenable, deter
mined if possible to drive the enemy from their works. Prepa
rations were therefore made for a most vigorous attack on a hill
called Dorchester Neck, which the Americans had fortified in
such a manner as would in all probability have rendered the en
terprise next to desperate. No difficulties, however, were suffi
cient to daunt the spirit of the general ; and every thing was in
readiness, when a sudden storm prevented this intended exer
tion of British valor. Next day, upon a more close inspection
of the works they were to attack, it was thought advisable to
desist from the enterprise altogether. The fortifications were
very strong, and extremely well provided with artillery : and, be
sides other implements of destruction, upwards of 100 hogsheads
of stones were - provided to roll down upon the enemy as they
came up ; which, as the ascent was extremely steep, must have
done prodigious execution.
Nothing, therefore, now remained, but to think of a retreat ;
and even this was attended with the utmost difficulty and dan
ger. The Americans, knowing that it was in the power of the
British general to reduce the town to ashes, which could not
have been repaired in many years, did not think proper to give
the least molestation ; and, for the space of a fortnight, the
troops were employed in the evacuation of the place, from
whence they carried along with them 2000 of the inhabitants,
who durst not stay on account of their attachment to the British

280 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
cause. From Boston they sailed to Halifax ; but all their vigi
lance could not prevent a number of valuable ships from falling
into the hands of the enemy. A considerable quantity of can
non and ammunition had also been left at Bunker's Hill and
Boston Neck ; and, in the town, an immense variety of goods,
principally woollen and linen, of which the provincials stood very
much in need. The estates of those who fled to Halifax were
confiscated ; as also those who were attached to government, and
had remained in the -town. As an attack was expected as soon
as the British forces should arrive, every method was employed
to render the fortifications, (already very stong,) impregnable.
For this purpose some foreign engineers were employed, who
had before arrived at Boston ; and so eager were people of all
ranks to accomplish this business, that every able-bodied man in
the place, without distinction of rank, set apart two days in the
week, to complete it the sooner.
The provincial assemblies, under the influence of congress,
took up the question of independence ; and in some instances,
authorised their representatives, in the great national council, tp.
enter into foreign alliances. Except Pennsylvania, Maryland,
and New York, they were in favor of a total and immediate se
paration from Great Britain, and gave instructions to their re
presentatives conforming to this opinion. Measures had been
taken to ascertain the sense of the people respecting it, which
was expressed in instructions to their representatives in the colo
nial assemblies, and was generally in favor of it. " The time
was," said the people of the town of Maiden, in Massachussetts,
" when we loved the king and the people of Great Britain with
an affection truly filial ; we felt ourselves interested in their glo
ry ; we shared in their joys and sorrows ; we cheerfully poured
the fruit of all our labors into the lap of our mother- country,
and, without reluctance, expended our blood and our treasure in
her cause.
" These were our sentiments towards Great Britain, while she^
continued to act the part. of a parent state; we felt ourselves
happy in our connexion with her, nor wished it to be dissolved.
But our sentiments are altered. It is now the ardent wish of
our souls that America may become a free and independent
state." The inhabitants of Boston, ever forward and zealous in the

CONTEST BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN, &C 281
contest, concluded, in their instructions, a recapitulation of the
existing causes of durable animosity, and of the hazards of re
storing the past connexion, with saying, "We therefore think it
almost impracticable for these colonies to be ever again subject
to, or dependant upon, Great Britain, Without endangering thef
very existence of the state. Placing, hbwever, unbounded con
fidence m the supreme councils of the congress, we are determi
ned to wait, most patiently to wait, till their wisdom shall dictate
the necessity of making a declaration of independence. Nor
should we have ventured to express otir Sentiments upon the
subject, but from the presumption that congress would choose to
feel themselves supported by the people of each colony, before
they adopt a resolution so interesting to the whole. The inhabi
tants of this town, therefore, unanimously instruct arid direct
you, that, at the approaching session of the Geneiral Assembly,
ydu use your endeavours, that the delegates1 of this colony, in
congress, be advised, that, in case the congress shall think it
necessary, for the safety of the United Colonies, to declare them
independent of Great Britain, the inhabitants of this colony,
with their lives' and the remnant of their fortunes', Will most
cheerfully support them in that measure."
The people of the other parts of the same province, and in
the other colonies generally, manifested the same spirit, and
expressed the same sentiments. In South Carolina they were
particularly ardent; and, in Virginia, the public s^nse was so'
decisive an the Subject, that the convention not only instructed
their representatives to move the resolution in the grand council
of the continent, but declared that colony an independent state
before the measure was sanctioned by congress.
The public opinion having manifested itself in favor of inde
pendence, the great and decisive step was determined on ; and
|he following resolution was moved by Richard Henry Lee, and
seconded' by John Adams: "Resolved, that these United Colo
nies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent states ;
and that all political connexion between them and the state of
Great Britain is, and ought to he, totally dissolved."^
This resolution was referred to a committee of the whole con
gress, where it was daily debated. All the colonies, except
Pennsylvania and Maryland, had expressed their approbation of
the measure, and no doubt was entertained of its adoption: but
12. Nn

282 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
it was thought prudent to suspend a decision on it till the acqui.
escence of those colonies in the measure should render its adop
tion unanimous*. Great exertions were made in both, by the
strong friends of this resolution, who availed themselves of the
apprehension, that those who did not join in this last and great
est step, would be excluded from the union ; and, at length, in
structions were received from the conventions of those provinces
also, directing their representatives to assent to it.
The resolution was now unanimously agreed to; and the de?
claration, which had been _already prepared by a committee ap
pointed for that purpose, wais taken into consideration, and after
several amendments, received the sanction of the whole con
gress. This important paper commenced with stating, that c?When
in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for one peo?
pie to dissolve the political bands which have connected them
With another, and to assume, among the powers of the earth,
the separate and equal station to which the Laws of Nature, and
of Nature's God, entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions
of mankind requires that they should declare the causes tljat im
pel them to the separation-)-."
The causes are then stated, and a long enumeration of the
oppressions, complained of by Apierica, is closed with saying,
" A prince, whose character is thus marked by every act which
may define a tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free people.''
The fruitless appeals which had been made to the people of
Great Britain, are also recounted ; but " they, too," concludes
this declaration, . " have beep deaf to the voice of justice and of ,
consanguinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce jn the necessity
which denounces our separation, and hold theni, as we would
the rest of mankind, enemies in war — in peace, -friends.
" While this vote was depending, resolutions were entered into by con
gress, declaring that all persons residing within, or passing through, any one
of the United Colonies, owed allegiance to the government thereof} and
that any such person, who should levy war against any of the United Colo
nies, or adhere to the king of Great JJrilain, or .other enemies of the said.
colonies, or any of them, should be guilty of treason ; and it was reconi-
mended to the several legislatures to pass laws for their punishment.
+ Mr Jefferson, Mr. John Adams, Mr. Franklin, Mr. Sherman, and Mr.
R, R. Livingston, were appointed to prepare this declaration ; and the draft
reported by the committee has been generally attributed to Mr Jefferson.

contest Between great Britain, &c. 283
*' We, therefore, the Representatives of the United States of
America, in General Congress assembled, appealing to the Su
preme Judge of the World for the rectitude of our intentions,
do, in the name and by the authority of the good people of
these colonies, solemnly publish and declare, that these United
Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent
states ; that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British
Crown ; and that all political connexion between them and the
State of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved ;
and that as free and independent states, they have full power to
levy war, conclude peace, contract alliances, establish com
merce, and do all other acts and things which independent
states may, of right, do. And, for the support of this declara
tion, with a firm reliance on the protection of divine Providence,
we mutually pledge to each other, our lives, our fortunes, and
our sacred honor*,"
This declaration, which was published on the 4th of July,
1776, was immediately communicated to the armies, where it
was received with enthusiasm. It was also proclaimed through
out the United States, and gave to the people very general joy.
Some individuals, however, who had been very zealous support
ers for all measures which had for their object only a redress of
grievances, and in whose bosoms the hope of accommodation
still lingered, either too timid to meet the arduous conflict which
this measure rendered, in their estimation, certain and inevita
ble, or sincerely believing that the happiness of America would
be best consulted by preserving their political connexion with
* The names of the members, who subscribed the declaration of indepen
dence, were as follow, viz.,
New Hampshire— Josiah Eartlett, Wiliam Whipple, Matthew Thornton,
Mtusachussetts Bay,— Samuel Adams, John Adams, Robert Treat Paine, Elbridge Gerry,
Rhode Island, $c— Stephen Hopkins, William Ellery,
Connecticut— Roger Sherman, Samuel Huntington, William Williams, Oliver Wolcott,
New York— William Floyd, Philip Livingston, Francis Lewis, Lewis Morris,
New Jersey— Richard Stockton, John Witherspoon, Francis Hopkinson, John Hart,
Abram Clark,
Pennsylvania— Robert Morris, Benjamin Rush, Benjamin Franklin, John Morton,
George Clymef, James Smith, George Taylor, James Wilson, George Ross,
Delaware— Cssar Rodney, George Read,
Maryland— Samuel Chase, William Paca, Thomas Stone, Charles Caroll, of Carollton,
Vvrgmia-* George Wythe, Richard Henry Lee, Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Harrison,
Thomas Nelson, jun., Francis Lightfqot Lee, Carter Braxton,"
North Carolina— William Hooper, Joseph Hewes, John Penn,
South Carolina— Edward Rutlege, Thomas Heyward, jun., Thomas Lynch, jun., Arthur
Middleton,
Georgia— Button Gwinnett, Lyman Hall, George Walton.

284 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA-
Great Britain, viewed the dissolution of that connexion with
anxious regret ; and others, who afterwards deserted the Ameri
can cause, which they had at first embraced, attributed their de
fection to this measure. It was also an unfortunate truth, that
in, the whole country, between New England and the Patomac,
which was now to become the great theatre of action, although
the majority was in favor of independence, yet there existed a
formidable minority, whq not only refused to act with their
countrymen, but were ready to giye the enemy every aid in
their power.
It cannot, however, be questioned, that the declaration of in
dependence was wise, and well timed : and that, since the con
tinuance pf fhe war was inevitable, every principle of sound po
licy required that the avowed characters of the parties should be
changed ; and that it should no longer be denominated, or con
sidered, a war between a sovereign and his acknowledged sub
jects. After thus decisively throwing off all allegianee and hope qf
reconciliation, the colonists soon found that an exertion of all
their strength was required in order to, support their newly ac
quired independence. Their arms, indeed, had not, during this
season, been attended with success in Canada. Reinforcements
had been promised to General Arnold, who still continued the
blockade of Quebec; but they did not arrive in time to second
his operations. Being sensible, however, that he must either
desist from the enterprise, or finish it successfully, he re-com
menced in form, attempting to burn the shipping, and even to
storm the town itself. He was unsuccessful, however, by reason
of the smallness of his force; but he succeeded so far as to burn
a number of houses in the suburbs, and the garrison were obli
ged to pull down the remainder in Order to prevent \tyz fire from
spreading. As the Aniericans, though unable to reduce the town, kept
the garrison in continual alarms, and in a very disagreeable situ-
atiqn, some of the nobility collected themselves into a body, un
der the command of one Mt. Beaujeu, in order to rehev* their
capital; but they were met on their march by the provincials,
and so entirely defeated, that they were never afterwards able to
attempt any thipg. The Americans, however, had but little
reason to plume themselves on this success. Their want of ar-

CONTEST BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN, &C. 285
tijlery at last convinced them, that it was impracticable in their
situation to reduce a place so strongly fortified : the small-pox
at the same time made its appearance in their camp, and car
ried off great numbers ; intimidating the rest to such a degree,
that they deserted in crowds. To add to their misfortunes, the
British reinforcements unexpectedly appeared, and the ships
made their way through the ice with such celerity, that the one
part of their army was separated from the other ; and General
Carleton, sallying out as soon as the reinforcement was landed,
obliged them to fly with the utmost precipitation, leaving behind
them all their cannon and military stores ; at the same time that
their shipping was entirely captured by vessels sent up the river
for that purpose. General Carleton now gave a signal instance
of bis humanity : being Weil apprised that many of the provincials
had not been able to accompany the rest 'm their retreat, and
that they were concealed in woods, &c. in a very deplorable1 si
tuation, he generously issued a proclamation, ordering proper
persons to seek them out, and give them relief at the public ex-
pence 5 at the same time, lest through fear of being made pri
soners, they should refuse these offers of humanity, he promised,
that, as soou as their situation enabled them, they should be at
liberty to depart to their respective homes.
The British general, now freed from any danger of an attack,
was soou enabled to act offensively against the provincials, by
the arrival of the forces destined for that purpose from Britain.
By these, he was <put at the head of 1 2,000" regular troops,
among whom were those of Brunswick. With this force he in
stantly set out to the Three Rivers, where he expeeted that Ar
nold would have made a stand; hut he- had fled to Sorel; a place
150 miles distant from Quebec, where he was at last met by the
reinforcements ordered by congress. Here, though the preceding
events wene by no means calculated to inspire much military ar
dor* a very daring enterprise was undertaken ; and this was; to
surprise the British troops posted under Generals Fraser and
Nesbit ; of whom the former commanded those on land, the
latter such as were on-board the transports* and were- but a little
way distant. The enterprise was very hazardous, both on ac
count of the strengths of the parties against whom they were to
act, and as the main body of the British forees were advanced
within fifty miles of the place; besides that, a number of small

286 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
vessels and transports with troops lay between them and the
Three Rivers* Two thousand chosen men, under General
Thomson, engaged in' this enterprise. Their success was by no
means answerable to their spirit and valor. Though they passed
the shipping without being observed, General- Fraser had notice
of their landing ; and, thus being prepared to receive them, they
were soon thrown into disorder, at the same time that General
Nesbit, having landed his forces, prepared to attack them in the
rear. On this occasion some field-pieces did prodigious execu
tion, and a retreat was found to be unavoidable. General Nesbit
had got between them and their boats; so that they were obli
ged to take a circuit through a deep swamp, while they were
vigorously pursued by both parties at the same time, who
marched for some miles on each side of the swamp, till at last
the miserable provincials were sheltered from further danger by
a wood at the end of the swamp. General Thomson was taken,
with 200 of his men.
By this disaster the provincials lost all hopes of making any
impression in Canada. They demolished their works, and car
ried off their artillery with the utmost expedition. They were
pursued by 'Gqweral Burgoyne ; against whom it was expected
that they would have collected all their force, and made a reso
lute stand. But they were for the present too much dispirited by
misfortunes to make any further exertions of valor. On the 18th
of June, the British general arrived at Fort St. John's, which
he found abandoned and burnt. Chamblee had shared the same
fate, as well as all the vessels that were not capable of being
dragged up against the current of the river. It was thought
they would have made some resistance at Nut Island, the en
trance to Lake Champlain ; but this also' they had abandoned,
and retreated across the lake to Crown Point, whither they could
not be immediately followed. Thus was the province of Canada
entirely evacuated by the Americans ; whose loss in their retreat
from Quebec was not calculated at less than 1000 men, of
whom 400 fell at once into the hands of the enemy at a place
called the Cedars, about 50 miles above Montreal. General
Sullivan, however, who conducted this retreat after the affair of.
General Thomson, was acknowledged to have had great merit
in what he did, and received the thanks of the congress accord
ingly.

CONTEST BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN, &C. 287
This bad success in the north was somewhat compensated by
what happened in the southern colonies. We have formerly
taken notice that Mr. Martin, governor of North Carolina, had
been obliged to leaveshis province and take refuge on-board a man
of war. Notwithstanding this, he did not despair of reducing
it again to obedience. For this purpose he applied to the Regu
lators, a daring set of banditti, who lived in a kind of indepen
dent state; and though considered by government as rebels, yet
had never been molested, on account of their numbers and
known skill in the use of fire arms. To the chiefs of these peo
ple-commissions were sent, in order to raise some regiments;
and Colonel Macdonald, a brave and enterprising officer, was
appointed to command them. In the month of February he
erected the king's standard, issued proclamations, &c, and col
lected some forces, expecting to be soon joined by a body of re
gular troops, who were known to be shipped from Great Britain
to act against the southern colonies. The Americans, sensible of
their danger, dispatched immediately what forces they had to act
against the royalists, at the same time that they diligently ex
erted themselves to support these with suitable reinforcements.
Their present force was commanded by General Moore, whose
numbers were inferior to Macdonald ; for which reason the latter
summoned him to join the king's standard, under pain of being
treated as a rebel. But Moore, being well provided with can
non, and conscious that nothing could be attempted against him,
returned the compliment, by acquainting Colonel Macdonald,
that if he and his party would lay down their arms, and sub
scribe an oath of fidelity to congress, they should be treated as
friends ; but, if they persisted in an undertaking for which it
was evident they had not sufficient strength, they could not but
expect, the severest treatment. In a few days, General Moore
found himself at the head of 8000 men, by reason of the conti
nual supplies which daily arrived from all parts. The royal party
amounted only to 2000, and they were destitute of artillery,-
which prevented them from attacking the enemy while they had
the advantage of numbers. They were now, therefore, obliged
to have recourse to a desperate exertion of personal valor; by
dint of which, they effected a retreat for 80 miles, to MoOr's
Creek, within 16 miles of Wilmington. Could they have gained
this place, they expected to have been joined by governor Mar-

288 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
tin and General Clinton, who had lately arrived with a consider
able reinforcement. But Moore, with his army, pursued them
so close, that they were obliged to attempt the passage of the
creek itself, though a considerable body of the enemy, under the
command of Colonel Coswell, in fortifications Well planted with
cannon, was posted on the other side. On attempting the creek,
it was found not to be fordable. They were obliged, therefore,
to cross over a wooden bridge, which the provincials had not
time to destroy entirely. They had, however, by pulling up
part of the planks, and greasing the remainder in order to ren
der them slippery, made the passage so difficult, that the royal
ists could not attempt it. In this situation they were, on the
27th of February, attacked by Moore, with his superior army,
and totally defeated, with the loss of their general, and most of
their leaders, as well as the best and bravest of their men.
Thus was the power of the patriots established in North Ca
rolina. Nor were they less successful in the province of Virginia;
where Lord Dunmore, having long continued an useless preda
tory war, was at last driven from every creek and road in the
province. The people he had on-board were distressed to the
highest degree, by confinement in small vessels. The heat of the
season, and the numbers crowded together, produced a pesti
lential fever, which made a great havoc, especially among the
blacks. At last, finding themselves in the utmost hazard of
perishing by famine as well as disease, they set fire to the least
valuable of their vessels, reserving [only about jfifty for them
selves, in which they bade adieu to Virginia, some sailing to
Florida, some to Bermuda, and the rest to the West Indies.
¦ In South Carolina, the Americans had a more formidable ene
my to deal with. A squadron, whose object Was the reduction
of Charlestown, had been fitted out in December, 1775 ; but,
by reason of .unfavorable weather, did not reach Cape Fear, in
North Carolina, till the month of May, 1776 ; and here it met
with further obstacles till the end of the month. Thus the
Americans, always noted for their alertness in raising fortifica
tions, had time to strengthen those of Charlestown in such a
manner as rendered it extremely difficult to be attacked. The
British squadron consisted of two 50-gun ships, four of 30 guns,
two of 20, an armed schooner, and bomb-ketch, under the
command of Sir Peter Parker. The land forces were commanded

CONTEST BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN, &C. 289
by Lord Cornwallis, with Geneva's Clinton and Vaughan.. As
they had yet no intelligence of the evacuation of Boston, Gene
ral Howe dispatched a vessel to Cape Fear with some instruc
tions ; but it was top late ; and, in the beginning of June, the
squadron anchored off Charlestown-.bar. Here they met with
some difficulty in crossing, being obliged to take, out the guns
from the two large ships, which were, notwithstanding, several
times in danger of sticking fast. The next obstacle was a strong
fort on Sullivan's Island, six miles east from Charlestown ;
which, though not completely finished was very strong. The
British generals resolved, without hesitation, to attack it ; but,
though an attack was easy from the sea, it was very difficult to
obtain a co-operation with the land forces. This was attempted,
by landing them on L°Pg Inland, adjacent to Sullivan's Island
on the east, from which it is separated by a very narrow creek,
said not to be above two feet deep at. low water. Opposite to,
this ford, the provincials had posted a strong body of troops,
with cannon and entrenchments ; while General Lee was posted
on the majn land, w^th a bridge of boats betwixt that and Sul
livan's Island, so that he could at pleasure s,end reinforcements
to the troops in the fort on JSullivan's Island. On the part of
the British, so many delays occurred, that it was the 28th of
June before they were in readiness to make an attack ; and, by
this time, the provincials had abundantly provided for their re
ception. On the morning of that day, the bomb-ketch began
to throw shells into Fort Sullivan ; and, about mid-dav, the two
50:gun ships and 30-gun frigates came up and began a severe
fire. Three other frigates were ordered to take their station be
tween Charlestown and the for^, in order to enfilade the batte
ries, and cut off the comrnunication with the main land j but,
through the ignorance of the pilots, they ajl stuck fast; and*,
though tvyo of them were disentangled, they were found to be
tptally unfit for service : the third was burnt, that she might not
fall into the hands of the enemy. The attack was therefore con
fined to the five armed ships and bomb-ketch, between whom
and the fort a dreadful fire ensued. The Bristol suffered exces
sively. The springs on her cable bejng shot away, she was en
tirely exposed to the enemy's fire. As the renemy, poured in great
quantities of red-hot balls, she was twice in flames. The cap
tain, {Mr. Morris,) after receiving five wounds, was obliged to
13. o o

2*|0 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
go below, in order to have his arm amputated. After undergo1"
ing this operation, he bravely returned to bis place, where he
received another Wound, but still refused to quit his station ; at
last he received a red-hot ball in his belly, which instantly put
an end to his life. Of all the officers and seamen who stood
on the quarter- deck of this vessel, not one escaped without a
Wound, excepting Sir Peter Parker alone ; whose intrepidity and
presence of mind on this occasion were very remarkable. The
engagement lasted till darkness put an end to it. Little damage
was done by the British, as the Works of the enemy lay so low,
that most of the shot flew over; and the fortifications, being
composed of palm-trees mixed with earth, Were extremely well
calculated to resist the impression of cannon. During the height
of the attack, the provincial batteries remained for some time
silent, so that it was concluded that they had been abandoned ;
hut this was found to proceed only froni want of powder; for
as soon as a supply of this article was obtained, the firing was
resumed as briskly as ever. During the whole of this desperate
engagement, it was impossible for the land forces to give the
least assistance to the fleet. The enemy's works were found to
be much stronger than they had been imagined, and the depth
of water effectually prevented them from making any attempt,
In this unsuccessful attack, the killed and wounded, on the part
of the British, amounted to about 200. The Bristol and Expe
riment were so much damaged, that it was thought they' could
riot have been got over the bar ; however, this was at last ac
complished, by a very great exertion of naval skill, to the sur
prise of the provincials, who had expected to make them both
prizes. On the American side the loss was very considerable ;
as most of their guns were dismounted, and reinforcements had
poured into the fort during the whole time of the action.
This year also, the Americans, having so frequently made
trial of their valor by land, became desirous of trying it by sea^
iand of forming a navy that might in some measure be able to
protect their trade, and do essential hurt to the enemy. In the
beginning of March, Commodore Hopkins was dispatched with
five frigates to the Bahama Islands, where he made himself mas
ter of the ordnance and military stores; but the gunpowder,
which had been the principal object, was removed. "On his re
turn he captured several vessels ; but was" foiled in his attempt

CONTEST BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN, &C. 291
on the Glasgow frigate, which found means to escape, notwith
standing the efforts of his whole squadron.
The time was now come, when the fortitude and patience of
the Americans were to .undergo a severe trial. Hitherto they
had been, on the whole, successful in their operations : but now
they were doomed to experience misfortune, misery, and dis
grace ; the enemy over-running their country, and their own
armies not able to face them in the field. The province of New
York, as being the most central colony, and most accessible by
sea, was pitched upon for the object of the main attaek. The
force sent against it consisted of six ships of the line, thirty fri
gates, besides other armed vessels, and a vast number of trans
ports. The fleet was commanded by Lord Howe, and the land
forces by his brother, General Howe, who was now at Halifax.
The latter, however, a considerable time before his brother arri
ved, had set sail from Halifax, and lay before New York, but
without attempting to commence hostilities until he should be
joined by his brother. The Americans had fortified New York,
and the adjacent islands, in an extraordinary manner. General
Howe landed his troops on Staten Island, where he was soon
joined by a number of the inhabitants. About . the middle of
July, Lord Howe arrived with the grand armament ; and, being
one of the commissioners appointed to receive the submission of
the colonists, he published a circular letter to this purpose, to
the several governors who had lately been expelled from their
provinces, desiring them to make the extent of his commission,
and the powers he was invested with by parliament, as public as
possible. Here, however, congress saved him trouble, by order*
ing his letter and declaration to be published in all the newspa
pers, that every one might be convinced, that they might see the
insidiousnes's of the British ministry, and that they had nothing
to trust to besides the exertion of their own valor.
As there was some difficulty in recognising either the t civil or
military character conferred. on individuals by the existing ppw*
ers in America, and yet it was desirable, either for the purpose
of effecting a pacification, or of dividing still more the Ameri
cans, if a pacification should be impracticable, to open negotia
tions, and hold out the semblance of restoring peace, the com
missioners cast about for means to evade this preliminary obsta
cle to any discussion of the terms they were authorised to pro*

292 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
pose ; and, at length, Colonel Patterson, Adjutant General of
the British army, was sent on shore by General Howe, with a
letter directed to George Washington, ice. &c. &c. He was in
troduced to the General, whom he addressed by the title of
"Excellency;" and, after the usual compliments, entered on
business, by saying that General HoWe much regretted the diffi
culties Which had arisen respecting the address of the letters ;
that the mode . adopted was deemed consistent with propriety,
and was founded on precedent, in cases of ambassadors and ple
nipotentiaries, where disputes or difficulties about rank had
arisen. That General Washington might recollect he had, last
summer, addressed a letter to " The Honorable William Howe."
That Lord and General Howe did not mean to derogate from
his rank, or the respect due to him, and that they held his per
son and character in the highest esteem ; but that the direction,
with the addition of &c. &c. &c. implied every thing which
otight to follow. Colonel Patterson then produced a letter,
which he said was the same that had been sent, and Which he
laid on the table.
ThejGeneral declined receiving it; and said, that a letter,
directed to a person in a public Character, should have some de
scription or indication of that character, otherwise it would be
considered as a mere private letter. It was true the et ceteras
implied every thing, and they also implied any tiring. That the
letter to General Howe, alluded to, was an answer to one re
ceived from him under a like address, which, having been taken
T)y the officer on duty, he did not think proper to return, anil
therefore answered in the same mode of address; and t!hat he
Should absolutely decline any letter, relating to his public sta
tion, directed to him as a private person.
Colonel Patterson then said, that General HoWe would not
urge his delicacy further, and repeated his assertions, that no
failure of respect was intended.
Some conversation then passed, relative to the treatment of
prisoners ; after which, Colonel Patterson Said, that the good
ness and benevolence of the king had induced him to appoint
Lord Howe and General Howe his commissioners, to accommo
date the' unhappy dispute at present subsisting: that 'they had
great powers, and would derive much pleasure from effecting (he

CONTEST BETWEEN GREAT BRlTAtN, &C. 203
-accommodation ; and that he wished this visit to be considered
as making the first advance towards so desirable an object.
General Washington replied, that he was not vested with any
powers on this subject, by those from whom he derived his au
thority; but he would observe, that so far as he could judge
from what had as yet transpired, Lord Howe and General Howe
were only empowered to grant pardons : that those who had
committed no fault wanted no parden ; and that the Americans
were only defending what they deemed their indubitable rights.
This Colonel Patterson said, would open a very wide field for
argument ; and after expressing his fears that an adherence to
forms ffiignt obstruct business of the greatest moment and con
cern, he took his leave.
The substance of this conversation Was communicated to con
gress, and was ordered by that body to be published.
The decision of the momentous question at issue being now
by consent of both parties left to the sword, no time was lost,
but hostilities commenced as soon as the British troops could be
collected. This, however, was not done before the month of
August; when they landed on Long island, opposite to the shore
of Staten Island. General Putnam, with a large hody of troops,
ktyencamped and strongly fortified on a peninsula on the oppo
site Shore, with a rangcof hills between the armies, the princi
pal pass of which was near a plase called Flat-bush. Here the
centre of the British army, consisting of Hessians, took post ;
the left wing under General Grant, lying near the shore; and the
right, consisting of the greater part of the British forces, lay
under Lords Percy, Cornwallis, and General Clinton. Putnam
had ordered the passes to be secured by large detachments,
which was executed as to those at hand ; but one of the greatest
importance, Which lay at a distance, was entirely neglected.
This gave an opportunity to a Jarge 'body of troops under Lord
Percy and CliWton to' pass the mountains and attack the Ameri
cans in the rear, while they werfe -engaged with the Hessians in
front. Through this piece of negligence their defeat became
inevitable. Those Who were engaged with the Hessians first
perceived their mistake, and hegan a retreat towards their
camp ; but the passage was intercepted ' by the British troops,
who drove them feack into the Woods. Here they were met hy
the Hessians; and thus were they for many hours Slaughtered

294 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
between two fires, no way' of escape remaining but by breaking
through the British troops, and thus regaining their camp. In
this attempt many perished ; and the right wing, engaged with
General Grant, shared the same fate; The victory was com
plete ; and the Americans lost on this fatal day (August 27th)
between 3 and 4000 men, of whom 2000 were killed in the
battle. Among these a regiment, consisting of young gentlemen
of fortune and family in Maryland, was almost entirely cut in
pieces, and of the survivors not one escaped without a wound.
Eleven hundred of the enemy, among whom were three generals,
were taken prisoners.
The enemy, believing the Americans to be much stronger
than they were in reality, and seeming unwilling to commit any
thing to hazard, fortunately made no immediate attempt to
force the lines. They encamped in front of them; and on the
28th, at night, broke ground in form, within six hundred yards
of a redoubt on the left.
The situation of the army, on Long Island, had now become
extremely critical. In front was a victorious enemy, from whom
much was to be apprehended, in case of assault, but whose
numbers, and formidable train of artillery, rendered the destruc
tion of their works, by regular approaches, inevitable. The
movements of the fleet, too, indicated an intention to make
some attempt on New York, and, so soon as the wind should
be favorable, to force a passage into the East River : should
they succeed in this attempt, and attack him by water, while
the army might assault him by land, they would render his re
treat extremely difficult, if not absolutely impracticable. The
troops, too, being obliged to lie in the lines, without shelter
from the heavy rains which fell, were excessively fatigued and
dispirited. Under these circumstances, it was determined to
withdraw from Long Island ; and this difficult movement was
effected, on the night of the 28th, with such silence and dis
patch, that all the troops and military stores, with the greater
part of the provisions, and all the artillery, except such heavy
pieces as, in the deep roads made by the excessive heavy rains
which had fallen, could not possibly be drawn, were carried over
in safety. Early the next morning, the enemy perceived the
rear-guard crossing the East River, out of reach of their fire.
From the commencement of the action, on the morning of the

CONTEST BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN, &C. 295
27tb, till the troops had crossed the East River on the morning
of the 29th, and were freed from the immediate perils to which
their situation had exposed them, the exertions and fatigues of
the Commander-in-Chief, who personally inspected almost every
thing, were incessant. Throughout that time he never closed
his eyes, and was almost constantly on horseback.
The first use made by Lord Howe of the victory of the 27th
of August, was to avail himself of the impression it had proba
bly made on congress, by opening a negociation, in conformity
with his powers as a commissioner. For this purpose, General
Sullivan was sent on parole to Philadelphia, with a verbal mes
sage, the import of which, when reduced to writing, was, that
though he could not, at present, treat with congress as a politi
cal body, yet he was desirous of having a conference with some
of their members, whom he would consider, for the present only
as private gentlemen, and meet them as such at any place they
would appoint.
That he, in conjunction with General Howe, had full powers
to compromise the dispute between Great Britain and America,
on terms advantageous to, both ; the obtaining of which delayed
him near two months in England, and prevented his arrival at
New York before the declaration of independence took place.
That he wished a compact might be settled at this time, when
no decisive blow was struck, and neither party could alledge be
ing compelled to enter into such agreement.
That in case congress were disposed to treat, many things
which they had not as yet asked, might and ought to be granted
them ; and that, if, upon the conference, they found any proba
ble ground of an accommodation, the authority of congress
must be afterwards acknowledged, - otherwise the compact would
not be complete.
This proposition of Lord Howe was not . without its embar
rassments. To reject it altogether would be to give some coun
tenance to the opinion that, if independence were waved, a re
storation of the ancient connexion between the two countries, on
principles formerly deemed constitutional, was still practicable ;
an opinion believed by congress not to be well founded, but
which would have an unfavorable effect on the public sentiment,
and which, therefore, it was useful to explode. On the other
hand, to enter into a negociation, under such circumstances,

296 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
might excite a suspicion that their determination to manikin
the independence they had declared was not immoveable, ^nd
that things were in such a situation, as to admit of some relax
ation in the measures necessary for the defence of the country.
The answer given to Lord Howe, through General Sullivan,
was, " That congress, being the representatives of the free and
independent states of America, cannot with propriety send ?ny
of its members to confer with his lordship in their private cha
racters ; but that, ever desirous of establishing peace on reason
able terms, they will send a committee of their body, to know
whether he has any authority to treat with persons authorised by
congress for that purpose, on behalf of America j and what that
authority is, and to hear such propositions as he shall think
proper to make respecting the same."
The president was at the same time directed to give to Gene
ral Washington the opinion of congress, that no propositions for
making peace " ought to be received or attended to, unless the
same be made in writing, and addressed to the representative? of
the United States in Congress, or persons authorised by them.
And if application be made to him by any of the commanders of
the British forces on that subject, that he inform them, that the
United States, who entered into the war only for the defence of
their lives and liberties, will cheerfully agree to peace, on rea
sonable terms, whenever such shall be proposed to them in man
ner. aforesaid."
It is worthy of remark, that, in these resolutions, congress
preserve the appearance of insisting on the independence of the
United States, without declaring it to be the indispensable con
dition of peace.
Mr. Franklin, Mr. John Adams, and Mr. Edward Rutlege,
all zealous advocates for independence, were appointed, in pon-
formity with the first resolution, to receive the communications
pf Lord Howe.
They waited on his lordship, and, on their return, reported,
that "he had received them, on the 11th of September, on
Staten Island, opposite to Amboy, with great politeness."
He opened the conversation by acquainting them, that though
he could not treat with thejn as a committee of -congress, yet,
as his powers enabled him to confer and consult with any private
gentlemen of influence in the colonies, on the means of resto-

CONTEST BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN, &C. 297
v.lug peace between the two countries, he was glad of this oppor
tunity of conferring with them on that subject, if they thought
themselves at liberty to enter into a conference with him in that
character. The committee observed to his lordship, that, as
their business was to hear, he might consider them in what light
he pleased, and communicate to them any propositions he might
be authorized to make, for the purpose mentioned; but that
they could consider themselves in no other character than that
in which they were placed by order of congress. His lordship
then entered into a discourse of considerable length, which con
tained no explicit proposition of peace, except one, namely,-
" That the colonies should return to their allegiance and obedi
ence to the government of Great Britain. The rest consisted
principally of assurances, that there was an exceeding good dis
position in the "king and his ministers to make that government
easy to them ; with intimations, that, in case of submission,
they would cause the offensive acts of parliament to be revised,
an'c' the instructions to governors to be reconsidered ; that so, if
any just causes of complaint were found in the acts, or any errors
in government were perceived to have crept into the instructions,
they might be amended or withdrawn."
The committee gave it as their opinion to his lordship, that a
return to the domination of Great Britain was not now to be ex
pected. They mentioned the repeated humble petitions of the
colonies to the king and parliament, which had been treated
with contempt, and answered only by additional injuries; the
unexampled patience which had been shown under their tyranni-
nical government ; and that it was not till the late act of parlia-.
merit, which denounced war against them, and put them out of
the king's protection, that they declared their independence ;
that this declaration had been called for by the people of the
eolonies in general; and that every colony had approved of it
when made ; and all now considered themselves as independent
states, and were settling, or had settled, their governments
accordingly : so that it was not in the power of {congress
to agree for them, that they should return to their former de
pendant state,: that there were no doubt of their inclination to
peace, and tfk^r willingness to entej into a treaty with Britain,
that might be advantageous to both countries ; that though his
lordship had, at present, no power to treat with them as indc-.
13. Pp

298 HISTORY OP NORTH AMERICA.
pendent states, he might, if there were the same good disposl*
tion in Britain, much sooner obtain fresh powers from thencej
for that purpose, than powers could be obtained by congress;
from the several colonies, to consent to a submission.
His lordship then saying, that he was sorry to find that no ac-<
commodation was likely to take place, put an end to the confe
rence. These fruitless negociations produced no suspension of hostili
ties. Lord Howe, Upon the failure of this negociation, published a
manifesto, in Which he declared the refusal of congress, and that
he himself was willing to confer with all well disposed persons
about the means of restoring public tranquillity, set about the
most proper methods for reducing the city of New York. Here
the provincial troops were posted, and from a great number of
batteries kept continually annoying the British shipping. The
East River lay between them, of about 1200 yards in breadth,
which the British troops were extremely desirous of passing. At
last the ships having, after an incessant cannonade of several
days, silenced the most troublesome batteries, a body of troops
were sent up the river to a bay, about three miles distant, where
the fortifications were less s.trong'than in other places. Here
having driven off the provincials by the cannon of the fleet, they
marched directly towards the city; but the enemy, finding that
they should now be attacked on all sides, abandoned the city,
and retired to the north of the island, where . their principal
force was collected. In their passage, thither they skirmished
with the British, but carefully avoided a general engagement;
and it was observed that they did not behave with that ardor
and impetuous valor which had hitherto marked their character.
The British and American armies were not now above two
miles distant from each other : the former lay encamped from
shore to shore for an extent of two miles, being the breadth of
the island, which, though fifteen miles long, exceeds not two in
any part in breadth. The Americans, who lay directly opposite,
had strengthened their camp with many fortifications; at the
same time, being masters pf all the passes and defiles betwixt
the two camps, they Were enabled to defend th#t4Se^ves against
an armj^ much more numerous than their own; and they had
also strongly fortified a pass called King's Bridge, whence they

CONTEST BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN, &C. 299
could secure a passage to the continent in case of any misfortune.
Here General Washington, in order to inure his troops to actual
service, and at the same time to annoy the enemy as much as
possible, employed them in continual skirmishes; by which it
was observed that they soon recovered their spirits, and behaved
with their usual boldness.
As the vicinity of the American army was now highly incon
venient for the British generals, it was resolved to make such
movements as might oblige General Washington to relinquish
his strong situation. The possession of New York had been less
beneficial than was expected. It had been concerted among the
provincials, that the city should be burnt at the time of evacua
tion ; but, as they were forced to depart with precipitation, they"
were prevented from putting the scheme in execution. In a few
days, however, it was attempted by some who had been left be
hind for that purpose. Taking advantage of a high wind and
dry weather, the town' was set on fire in several places at once,
by means of combustibles placed for that purpose ; and, notwith
standing the most active exertions of the soldiery and sailors, a
fourth part of the city was consumed.
On this occasion the British were irritated to the, highest de*
gree ; and many persons, said to be incendiaries, were without
mercy' thrown into the flames. It was determined to force the
provincial army to a greater distance, that they might have it
less in their power, by any emissaries, to engage others in a si
milar attempt. For this purpose, General Howe having left
Lord Percy with sufficient force to garrison New York, he em^
barked his army in flat-bottom boats, by which they were con
veyed through the dangerous passage called Hell Gate, and
landed near the town of West Chester, lying on the continent
towards Connecticut. Here having reeeived a supply of men
and provisions, they moved to New Rochelle, situated on ..the
sound which separates Long Island from the continent. After
this, receiving still fresh reinforcements, they made such move
ments as threatened to distress the provincials very much, by.
cutting off their convoys of provisions from Connecticut, . .and
thus force them to an engagement. This, General Washing,.
ton determined at all events to avoid. He therefore extended
his forces into a long line opposite to the way in which the ene
my marched, keeping the Bruna, a river of .considerable magni*

300 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
tude, between the two armies, with the North River on his rear.
Here again the provincials continued for some time to annoy and
skirmish with the royal army, until at last, by some other ma
noeuvres, the British general found means to attack them advan
tageously at a place called the White Plains, and drove them
from some of their posts. The victory on this occasion was
much less complete than the former; however, it obliged the
provincials once more to shift their ground, and to retreat far
ther up the country. General Howe pursued for some time ; but,
at last, finding all his endeavours vain to bring the Americans to
a pitched battle, he determined to give over such an useless
chace, and employ himself in reducing the forts which the pro
vincials still retained in the neighbourhood of New York. In
this he met with the most complete success. The Americans,
on the approach of the king's forces, retreated from King's
Bridge into Fort Washington ; and this, as well as Fort Lee,
which lay in the neighbourhood, was quickly reduced; though
the garrison made their escape. Thus the Jerseys were laid en
tirely open to the incursions of the British troops ; and so fully
Were these provinces taken possession of by the royal army,
that its winter quarters extended from New Brunswick to the
river Delaware. Had any number of boats been at hand, it is
probable that, Philadelphia would now have fallen into their
hands. All these, however, had been carefully removed by the
Americans. In lieu of this enterprise, Sir Henry Clinton under
took an expediti»n to Rhode Island, and became master of it
without losing a man. His expedition was also attended with
this further advantage, that the American fleet under Commo
dore Hopkins was obliged to sail as far as possible up the river
Providence, and thus remained entirely useless.
The same ill success attended the Americans in other parts.
After their expulsion from Canada, they had crossed the Lake
Champlain, and taken up their quarters at Crown Point, as al
ready mentioned. Here they remained for some time in safety,
as the British had no vessels on the lake, and consequently Ge
neral Burgoyne could not pursue them. To remedy .this defici
ency, there was no possible method, but either to construct ves
sels on the spot, or take to pieces some vessels already con
structed, and drag them up the river into the lake. This was
effected in no longer a space than three months ; and the British

CONTEST BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN, &C. SOI

»

general, after incredible toil and difficulty, saw himself in pos
session of a great number of vessels, by which means he was
enabled to pursue his enemies, and attack them in his turn*
The labor undergone at this time by the sea and land forces
must indeed have been prodigious ; since there were conveyed
over land, and dragged up the rapids of St. Laurence, no fewer
than 30 large long-boats, 400 balteaux, besides a vast number
of flat-bottomed boats, and a gondola of thirty tons. The in
tent of the expedition was to push forward before winter to Al
bany, where the army would take up its winter quarters, and
next spring effect a junction with that under General Howe,
when it was supposed that the united force and skill of these
two commanders would speedily put a termination to the war.
By reason of the difficulties with which the equipment of this
fleet had been attended, it was the beginning of October before
the expedition could be undertaken. It was, now, however, by
every judge, allowed to be completely able to answer the purpose
for which it was intended. It consisted of one large vessel With
three masts, carrying 18 twelve- pounders ; two schooners, the
one carrying 14, the other 12, six-pounders; a large flat-bot
tomed radeau with 6 twenty-four, and 6 twelve, pounders ; and
a gondola with 8 nine-pounders. Besides these were twenty
vessels of a smaller size, called gun-boats, carrying each a piece
of brass ordnance from nine to twenty-four- pounders, or howit
zers. Several long-boats were fitted out in the same manner;
and, besides all these, there were a vast number of boats and '
tenders of various sizes, to be used as transports for the troops
and baggage. It was manned by a number of select seamen,
and the guns were to be served by a detachment from the corps
of artillery; the officers and soldiers for this expedition were also-
chosen out of the whole army.
To oppose this formidable armament the Americans had only
an inconsiderable force, commanded by General Arnold, who,
after engaging a part of the British fleet for a whole day, took
advantage of the darkness of the night to set sail without being
perceived, and next morning was out of sight; but he was so
closely pursued by the British, that on the second day after he
was overtaken, and forced to a second engagement. In this he
behaved with great gallantry ; but, his force being very inferior
to that of the enfcmy, he was obliged to run his ships a-shore

302 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. .*
and set them on fire ; but a few escaped to Lake George. The-
garrison of Crown Point, having destroyed or carried off every
thing of value, retired to Ticonderoga.
Thus the affairs of the Americans seemed every where tending
to ruin : even those who had been most sanguine in their cause
began to waver. The time, also,' for which the soldiers had en
listed themselves, was now expired ; and the bad success of the
preceding campaign had been so very discouraging, that no per
son was willing to engage himself during the continuance of a
war, of which the event seemed to be so doubtful. In conse
quence of this, General Washington found his army daily decreas
ing in strength ; so that from 30,000, of whom it consisted when
General Howe landed on Staten Island, scarcely a tenth part could
now be mustered. To assist the chief commander as much as
possible, General Lee had collected a body of forces in the north;
but on his way southward having imprudently taken up his lodg
ing at some distance from his troops, information was given to
Colonel Harcourt, who happened at that time to be in the neigh
bourhood, and Lee was made prisoner. The loss of this general
was much regretted, the more especially as he was of superior
quality to any prisoner in the possession of the colonists. Six
field-officers were offered in exchange for him, but refused; and
the congress was highly irritated at its being reported that he was
to be treated as a deserter, having been a half-pay officer in the
British service at the commencement of the war. In consequence
of this they issued a proclamation, threatening to retaliate on
the prisoners in their possession whatever punishment should be
inflicted on any of those taken by the British ; and especially,
that their conduct should be regulated by the treatment of Ge
neral Lee.
In the mean time, the congress proceeded with the most
indefatigable diligence to recruit their army, and bound their
soldiers to serve for a term of three years, or during the continu
ance of the war. The army designed for. the ensuing campaign,
was to consist of eighty-eight battalions ; of which, each pro
vince was to contribute its quota; and twenty dollars were offer
ed as a bounty to each soldier, besides an allotment of lands at
the end of the war. In this allotment it was stipulated, that
each soldier should have 100 acres; an ensign, 150; a lieute
nant, 200; a captain, 300; a major, 400; a lieutenant-colonel, ,

CONTEST BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN, &C. 80-9
450; and a colonel, 500. No lands were promised to those whc*
enlisted only for three years. All officers or soldiers disabled
through wounds received in the service, were to enjoy half-pay
during life. To defray the expence, congress borrowed five mil
lions of dollars at five per cent., for payment of which the Uni
ted States became surety. At the same time, in order to ani
mate the people to vigorous exertions, a declaration was publish
ed, in which they set forth the necessity there was for taking
proper methods to ensure success in their cause : they endea
voured to palliate, as much as possible, the misfortunes which
had already happened; and represented the true cause of the
present distress to be the short term of enlistment.
This declaration, combined with the imminent danger of Phi
ladelphia, roused the American people to exert themselves to
the utmost, in order to reinforce General Washington's army ;
and they soon received farther encouragement, by an exploit of
that general against the Hessians. As the royal army extended
in different cantonments for a considerable length, General
Washington, perceiving the imminent danger to which Philadel
phia was exposed, resolved to make some attempt on those di
visions' of the enemy which lay nearest that city. These hap
pened to be the Hessians, who lay in three divisions. On the
25th of December, he set out with an intent to surprise that
body of the enemy which lay at Trenton. His army was divided
into three battalions, one of which he ordered to cross the De
laware at Trenton Ferry, a little below the town ; the second at
a distance below, at a place called Bordentown, where the se
cond division of Hessians was placed^'; while he himself with the
third, directing his course to a ferry some miles above Trenton,
intended to have passed it at midnight, and attack the Hessians
at break of day. But, by reason of various impediments, it was
eight in the morning before he could reach the place of his des
tination. The enemy did not perceive his approach till they
were suddenly attacked. Colonel Ralle, who commanded them,
did all that could he expected from a brave and experienced
officer ; but every thing was in such confusion, that no efforts of
valor or skill could now. avail them. The colonel himself was
mortally wounded, his troops were entirely broken, their artillery
seized, and about 1000 taken prisoners.
This, action, though seemingly of no very decisive nature, was

304 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
of great advantage to the American cause. It tended greatly to
lessen the fear which the provincials had of the Hessians, at the
same time that it equally abated the confidence which the Bri
tish had till now put in them. Reinforcements came irt to Ge
neral Washington's army from all quarters ; so that he was soon
in a condition to leave Philadelphia, and take up his quarters at
Trenton. Emboldened by his success, he determined to make
an attempt on a division of the British forces stationed at Mai
denhead, a town situated half-way between Trenton and Prince-
town. This consisted of three regiments, under the command
of Colonel Mawhood, an officer of great merit. The troops
were surprised on their march; but, though they were separately
surrounded and attacked by a force vastly superior, they charged
the American troops so resolutely with their bayonets, that the
British made good their retreat. These attempts of the Amen*
cans, however, with the hostile disposition of the people, showed
the impossibility of maintaining posts so far advanced in the
enemy's country; so that it was resolved to retreat towards
Brunswick, in order to prevent it, with the troops and maga
zines it contained, from falling into the hands of the provincials.
.General Washington omitted no opportunity of recovering what
had been lost; and, by dividing his army into small parties,
which could be re-united on a few hours warning, he in a man
ner entirely covered the face of the country, and repossessed
himself of all the important places.
Thus ended the campaign of 1776, with scarce any real^ad-
vantage to the royalists, other than the acquisition of the city of
New York, and of a few fortresses in its neighbourhood ; where
the troops were constrained to act with as much circumspection
as if they had been besieged by a victorious army, instead of
being themselves the conquerors.
The British army at New York began, in 1777, to exercise a
kind of predatory war, by sending out parties to destroy maga
zines, make incursions, and take or destroy such forts as lay on
the banks of rivers, to which their great command of shipping
gave them ac'eess. In this they were generally successful ; the
provincial magazines at Peek's Hill, a place about fifty miles
distant from New York, were destroyed, the town of Dunbury,
in Connecticut, burnt, and that of Ridgefield, in the same pro
vince, was taken possession of. In returning from the last ex-

CONTEST BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN, &C. 305
^edition, the British were greatly harassed by the enemy under
Generals Arnold, Wooster, and Sullivan ; but they made good
their retreat in spite of all opposition, with the loss of only 170
killed and wounded. On the American side the loss was much
greater; General Wooster was killed, and Arnold in the most
imminent daugesr. On the other hand, the Americans destroyed
the Store at Sagg Harbour, in Long Island, and made prisoners
of all who defended the place. As this method of making war
could answer but little purpose, and savored more of the barba
rous incursions of savages than of a war carried on by a civilized
people, it was resolved by the British general to make an at
tempt on Philadelphia. At first it was thought that this could
be done through the Jerseys; but General Washington had recei
ved such large reinforcements, and posted himself so strongly,
that it was found to be impracticable. Many stratagems were
used to draw him from this strong situation, but without suc
cess ; so that it was found necessary to make the attempt on
Philadelphia by sea. While the preparations for this expedition
were going forward, the Americans found means to make amends
for the capture of General Lee by that of General -Prescot, who
was seized in his quarters with his aid-de-camp, in much the
same manner as General Lee had been. This was exceedingly
mortifying to the general himself, as he had not long before set
a price upon General Arnold, by offering a sum of money to any
one that apprehended him ; which the latter answered, by setting
a lower .price upon -Genera! Prescot.
The month of July was far advanced before the preparations
far the expedition against Philadelphia were completed ; and it
was the 23d before the fleet was able to sail from Sandy Hook.
The force employedin this expedition consisted of thirty-six bat
talions of British and Hessians, a regiment of light horse,, and a
body of loyalists raised at New York. The remainder of these,
with seventeen battalions, and another body of light horse, were
stationed at New York, under Sir Henry Clinton. Seven batta
lions were stationed at Rhode Island. After a week's sailing,
they arrived at the mouth of the Delaware ; when they received
certain intelligence, that the navigation of the river was so effec
tually obstructed, that no possibility of forcing a passage re
mained. Upon this it was resolved to proceed further south
ward, to Chesapeak Bay, in Maryland, from whence the distance
13. 61 q

466 history of north America.
to Philadelphia was not very great, and where the provincial
army would find less advantage, from the nature of the country,
than in the Jerseys. On the news of their arrival in Chesapeak,
General Washington left the JefseyS, arid histefied to the relief
of Philadelphia ; and, in the b'egirtnifig of September, met thte
royall army at Brandy-wide Creek, about mid-day, between the
head of the Elk and Philadelphia. Here he adhered to his forT
'irier ifiethdd of skirmishing arid harassing the rOyal army on its
march ; but, as this proved insufficient to stop its progress, he
retired to that side of the cfee'k next to Philadelphia, with" an
intent to dispute the passage. This brought on a gerieral en
gagement, "on the 11th of September, in which the Americans
were defeated ; arid it was only through the approach of night
that they Were saved from being entirely destroyed. On 'this
occasion, the provincials lost about 1000 in killed and wounded,
besides 400 taken prisoners.
The loss of this battle proved also the loss of Philadelphia.
: General Washington retired towards Lancaster, an inland towii
at a considerable distance. Here the British general took such
measures as must have forced the provincials to a second en
gagement, but a violent rain, which lasted a day arid a night,
prevented his design. Gerieral Washington, though he ConW
hot prevent the loss of Philadelphia, still adhered to his ririginal
^plan of distressing the royal party, by laying ambushes, 'and cut
ting bff detached parties: but in this he was less successful than
formerly ; and one of his own detachments, which lay in ambush
in a wood, were themselves surprised and entirely defeated, with
"the lbss of 3Q0 killed and Wounded, '•'besides a great lumiber ta
ken, and all their arms and baggage.
General HoWe now perceiving that the Americans 'would hot
risk another battle, even for the sake of their capitaly took
-peaceable possession of it on "the 26th of Sepretofrer. His firit
care was then to cut off, by hieansof strong batteries, the com
munication between the tipper and lower parts of the river:
which was executed', notwithstanding the opposition of some
American armed vessels ; one of which carrying 36 guns, was
taken. His next task was to open a communication with it by
sea, alid this was a work of no small difficulty. ¦ A vast number
of batteries arid forts had been erected, and immense machines,
formed like chevaux defrize, from whence they took their name,

CONTEST BETWEEN GRE4.T, BRITAIN, &C. S0V7
sunk: in the, river to prevent its navigation. As the fleet was sent
round to the mouth qf tlie river, .in order to co-operate with the
array, this work, however difficult, was accomplished ; nor did
the provincials give rriuch opposition, well knowing that all pla
ces of this kind were now untenable. General, Washington,
however, took the advantage qf the royal array hejng divided,
to attack the camp of the principal division of it, -that lay at
German-town, in the ^eighbqurhood pf Philadelphia. In this
he met with -very little success; for, though he reached the place
of destination by three o'clock in. the morning, the patroles had
time to call the troops to arms. .The Americans made a very
resolute attack ; but they were received with such bravery, that
they were compelled to abandon the attempt, and retreat in
great disorder; with the advantage, however, of carrying off
their cannon, though pursued for a considerable way, after hav
ing 300 killed, 600. wounded, and upwards of 4,00 taken prison
ers, among whom were fifty-four officers. Qn the British side,
the loss amounted to .430 wounded and prisoners, and 70 killed ;
among whom were General Agnew and Colonel Bird, with some
other excellent officers.
Thero still remained two strong forts, on the Delaware to be,
reduced. Tljese were Mud Island and Red Bank, jhe various
obstructions which the Americans had thrown ^in the, way ren
dered it gecessary to bring up the Augusta, a shjg of the line,
and the JVlerlin frigate, to the atfack of Mud Isjapd » but, du
ring the beat qf the prion, both were grounded. ,' Upon this,
the Americans sent down four fire-ships, and directed the whole
fire from ^heir galleys agaiipt them. The former were rendered
ineffectual l?y £he courage and ..ski 11 of ^he, British seamen : but,
during the engagement, both the Augusta and Merlin took fire,
and were burnt to ashes, and the other ships obliged to with
draw. The enemy, encouraged by this unsuccessful attempt, pro
ceeded to fhrqw new obstructions in the yvay; but the British ge
neral having found means to convey a number of cannon, and to
erect b^ttofiefj wjl,hin a gunshot of the fort, by land, and bring
ing up thjee^jships of the. line wbieh mounted heavy cannon, the*
garrison, after making a vigorous defence for one day, perceiving
tha£ preparations w^ere making for, a, general assault on the next,
abandoned the place in the night. ' Those who defended. Red
Bank follpvygd their example, and abandoned it on the approach

308 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA/
of Lord Cornwallis. A great number of the American shipping1,
finding themselves entirely destitute of any protection, sailed Bp
the river in the night-time. Seventeen remained, whose retreat
was intercepted by a frigate and some armed vessels; on which'
the Americans ran them ashore and burnt them, to prevent
their failing into the enemy's hands.
Thus the campaign of 1 777, in Pennsylvania, Concluded suc
cessfully ori the part of the British. In the north, however,
matters wore a different aspect. The expedition in that quarter
had been projected by the British ministry, as the most effectual
method that could be taken to crush the colonies at once. The
four provinces of New England had originally begun the confe
deracy against Britain, and they were still considered as the
most active in the continuation of it ; and it was thought, that
any impression made upon them would contribute in an effectual
manner to the reduction of the rest. For this purpose, an army
of 4000 chosen British troops, and 3000 Germans, were pot
under the command of General Burgoyne: General Carleton
was directed to use his interest with the Indians to persuade
them to assist in this expedition ; and the province of Quebec
was to furnish large parties to join in the same. The officers
who commanded under General Burgoyne were, General Philips
of the artillery, Generals Fraser, Powel, and Hamilton; with
the German officers, Generals Reidesel and Speecht. To aid the
principal expedition, another was projected on the Mohawk
river, under Colonel St. Leger, who was to be assisted by Sir
John Johnson, son of the famous Sir William Johnson, who
had so greatly distinguished himself in the war of 1755.
On the 21st of June, 1777, the army encamped on the west
ern side of the Lake Champlain ; where, being joined by a con
siderable body of Indians, General Burgoyne made a speech, in
which he exhorted these new allies to lay aside their ferocious
and barbarous manner of making war ; to kill only such as op
posed them in arms; and to spare prisoners, with such women
and children as should fall into their hands. After issuing a pro
clamation, in which the force of Britain, and that which he
commanded, was set forth in very ostentatious terms, the cam
paign opened with the siege of Ticonderoga. The place was
very strong, and garrisoned by 6000 men, under General Sin
clair; nevertheless, the works were so extensive, that even this

CONTEST BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN, &C. 309
number was scarce sufficient to defend them. They had, there
fore, dmitted to fortify a rugged eminence, called Sugar Hill,
the top of which overlooked and effectually commanded the
whole works ; vainly imagining, that the difficulty of the ascent
would be sufficient to prevent the enemy from taking possession
of it. On the approach of the first division of the army, the
provincials abandoned and sCt fire to their outworks; and so ex
peditions were -the British troops, that by the 5th of July everv
post was secured which was judged neeessary for investing it
completely. A road was soon after made to the very summit of
that eminence, which the Americans had with such confidence
supposed could not be ascended ; and so much were they now
disheartened, that they instantly abandoned the fort entirely,
taking the road to Skenesborough, a place to the south of Lake
George; while their baggage, with what artillery and military
stores they could carry off, were sent to the same place by water.
But the British generals were determined not to let them pass
so easily. Both were pursued, and both overtaken. Their
armed vessels consisted only of five galleys ; two of which were
taken, and three blown up ; on which they set fire to their boats
and fortifications at Skenesborough. On this occasion, the pro
vincials lost 200 boats, 130 pieces of cannon, With all the pro
visions and baggage. Their land forces under Colonel Francis
made a brave defence against General Fraser: and, being greatly
superior in number, had almost overpowered him, when General
Reidesel, with a large body of Germans, came to their assist
ance. The enemy were now overpowered in their turn ; and,
their commander being killed, they fled on air sides with great
precipitation. In this action 200 Americans were killed, as
many taken prisoners, and above 600 wounded, many of whom
perished in the woods for want of assistance.
During the engagement, General Sinclair was at Castleton,
about six miles from the place ; but, instead of going forward to
Fort Anne, the next place of strength, he repaired to the woods
whieh lie between that fortress arid New England. General
Burgoyne detached Colonel Hill, with the ninth regiment, to
intercept such as should atternpt to retreat towards Fort Anne.
On his way he met with a body of the enemy, said to be six
times as numerous as his own; who after an engagement of
three hours, were obliged to retire with great loss. After sn

310 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
many disasters, despairing of being able to make any stand at
Fprt Anne, they set fire to it, and retired to Fort Edward. In
all these engagements, the loss of killed and wfiunded in the
royal army did npt exceed 2Q0 men.
General Burgoyne was now obliged to .suspend his operations
for sonie time, and wait at Skenesbprpngh for the arrival of his
tents, provisions, &c He therefore employed this interval in
making roads through the country about St. Anne, and \a clear
ing a passage for his troops to proceed against the enemy. This
was attended with incredible tqil ; hut a)l piracies were sur
mounted with equal patience and resolution by the army* In
short, ,aft;er undergoing the utniQst difficulties that could be un
dergone, arid making every exertion that man could make, he
arrived with his army before, Fort Edward about the end of July.
Here General Schuyler had been for sotne time endeavpuring tp
recruit the shattered American forces, and had been joined by
General. Sinclair with the remains of his army; the garrison of
Fort George alsp, situated upon the lake of that name, bad eva
cuated the place, and retired tp Fort pchyard. However, on the
apprpacb of the royal army, they retiredthence alsp, and formed
their head-quarters at Saratoga. Notwithstanding the great
successes of the British general, the Americans showed not the
least disposition to submit, but seemed only to consider how
they. might make the most effectual resistance. For this pur
pose, the militia were every where raised and draughted to join
the army at .Saratoga; and such numbers of volunteers were
daily added, that they soon began- to recover frpm the terror info
which they had been thrown. That they might have a. com
mander whose abilities could be relied on, General Arnold was
appointed, who repaired to Saratoga with a considerable train of
artillery ; but receiving intelligence that Colonel St. Leger was
proceeding with great rapidity in his expedition pn the Mohawk
River, he re,moyed to Stillwater, a place about half-way between
Saratoga and the junction of the Mohawk and Hudson's River.
The colonel, in. the mean time, had advanced as far as Fort
Stanwix ; jthe siege of which he pressed with great vigor. On
the 6th of August, understanding that a supply pf provisions,
escorted by eight or nine hundred men, was on the way to the
fort, he dispatched Sir' John Johnson with a strong detachment
to intercept it. This he did go. effectually, that -besides int.er-

CONTEST BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN, &C. 311
ceptirig the provisions', 400 of its giiaW were slain, 200 taken,
and the rest esc&ped with great difficulty. The garrison, how
ever; were not to he intimidated by this disaster, nor by the
threats or representation of St. Leger : on the contrary, they
made several successful "sallies; under Colonel Willetj the second
in command ; and this gentleman; in company with another,
even ventured out of the fort ; and, eluding the vigilance of the
enemy, passed through thethi, in order to hasten the march of
General Arnold to their assistance.
Thus the affairs of Colonel St. Leger, seemed to be hi no very
favorable situation, notwithstanding his late success; and they
were soon totally ruined by the desertion of the Indians. They
had been alarriied hy the Report of Gerieral Arnold's advancing
with 2000 men to the relief of the fort ; and, while the colonel
was attempting to give them encouragernerit, another report was
spread, that General Burgoyne hkd been defeated with great
slaughter, a;nd was now flying before the provincials. On this,
he was obliged, to retreat, with the 'loss of the tents> and some
of' the artillery and military stores.
General Brirgoyne, in the mean time, notwithstanding the
difficulties he nad already sustained, found that he must still en
counter ariore. The roads he had made with so much labor and
pains, were destroyed, either by the wetness of the season, or by
the enemy; sO that theiprovisions he brought from Fort George
could not 'arrive at his camp without prodigious toil. On hearing
of the siege: of Fort Sfcanwix-by Colonel St. Leger, he deterrrim-'
ed.bo move 'forward, in hopes of inclosing the enemy betwixt his
own army and that of St. -Leger, or of obtaining the command
of all the country Between Fort ^Stahwix and Albany} or, at any
rate, a junction with Colonel St. Lege* would be effected, which
could not but be attended with the most happy consequences.
The only difficulty was, the want of provisiPns; and this ft was
pfopbsed =to remedy by reducing the provincial magazines at
Benningfonc Tor this purpose, Colonel Baurrte, a German officer
of great braviery, was chosen, withy a body of 500 men. The
place was about tfwehty mites from Hudson's rRiver ; ahd, to
support Colonel Baume's party, the whole army marched up the
river's bank, and encamped almost opposite to ' Saratoga^ with
the river betwixt it and that place. An advanced party Was
posted at Batten 'Kill, Ibetween the camp and Bennington, in

312 k HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
order to support Colonel Baume. In their way, the British
seized a large supply of cattle and provisions, which were imme
diately sent to the camp ; but -the badness of the roads retarded
their march so much, that intelligence of their design was sent
to Bennington. Understanding now that the American 'force
was greatly superior to his own, the colonel acquainted the ge
neral, who immediately dispatched Colonel Breyman with a
party to his assistance; but, through .the same causes that had
retarded the march of Colonel Baume, this assistance came too
late. General Starke, in the mean time, who commanded at
Bennington, determined to attack the two parties separately;
and, for this purpose, advanced against jGolonel Baume, whom
he surrounded on all sides, and attacked with the utmost vio
lence. The troops defended themselves with great valor, but
were to a man either killed or taken. Colonel Brevman, after
a desperate engagement, had the good luck to effect a retreat
through the darkness of the night, which otherwise he could
not have done, as his men had expended aU their ammunition.
^ General Burgoyne, disappointed in his attempt on Benning
ton, applied himself with indefatigable diligence to procure pro
visions from Fort George ; and, having amassed a sufficient
quantity to last for a month, he threw a bridge of boats over
the river Hudson, which he crossed about the middle of Sep
tember, encamping on the hills and plains near Saratoga. As
soon as he approached the provincial army, encamped at Still
water under General Gates, he determined to make an attack;
for which purpose he put himself at the head of the central divi
sion of his army, having General Fraser and Colonel Breyman
on the right, with Generals Reidesel and Philips on the left. In
this position he advanced towards the enemy pn the ISth of
September. But the Americans did not now wait to be attacked:
on the contrary, they attacked the central division with the
greatest ardor ; and it was not until General Philips with the
artillery came up, that they could be repulsed. On this occa
sion, though the British troops lost only 330 in killed and
wounded, and the enemy no less than 1500, the former were
very much alarmed at the obstinate resolution shown by the
Americans. This did not, however, prevent the British from
advancing towards the enemy, and posting themselves the next
day within cannon-shot of their lines. But their allies the In-

CONTEST BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN, &C. 313
dians began to desert iri great numbers; and at the same time
the general was in the highest degree mortified .by having no in
telligence of any assistance from Sir Henry Clinton, as had been
stipulated. He now received a letter from him, by which he
was informed, that Sir Henry intended to make a diversion on
the North River in his favor. This afforded but little comfort :
however, he returned an auswer by several trusty persons whom
he dispatched different ways, stating his present distressed situ
ation, and mentioning that the provisions and other necessaries
he had would only enable him to hold but till the 12th of Oc
tober. In the mean time the Americans, in order to cut off the re
treat of the British army, undertook an expedition against Ti
conderoga; but were obliged to abandon the enterprise after
having surprised all the out-posts, and taken a great number of
boats with some armed vessels, and a number of prisoners. The
army under General Burgoyne now labored under the greatest
distresses; so that in the beginning of October he • was obliged
to diminish the soldiers' allowance. On the 7th of that month
he determined to move towards the enefay. For this purpose he-
sent a body of. 1500' men to reconnoitre their left wing; intend
ing, if possible, to break through it in order to effect a retreat.
This detachment had not proceeded far, when a dreadful attack
was made upon the left wing of the British army, which was
with great difficulty preserved by a reinforcement brought up by
General Fraser, who was killed in the action. After the troops
had with great difficulty regained their camp, it was furiously
assaulted by General Arnold ; who, notwithstanding all opposi
tion, would have forced the entrenchments, had he not received
a dangerous wound, which- obliged him to retire. Thus the
attack failed on the left, but on the right the camp of the Ger
man reserve was forced, Colone) Breyman killed, and his coun
trymen defeated, with the loss of all their artillery and baggage.
This was by far the heaviest loss the British army had sus
tained since the action at Bunker's Hill. The list of killed and
wounded amounted to near 1200, exclusive of the Germans;
but the greatest misfortune was, that the enemy had now an
opening on the right and rear of the British forces, so that the
army was threatened with entire destruction. This obliged Ge
neral Burgoyne once more to shift his position, that the enemy
14- R r

314 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
might also be obliged to alter theirs. This was accomplished on
the night of the 7th, without any loss, and all the next day he
continued to offer the enemy battle ; but they were now too well
assured of obtaining a complete victory, by cutting off all sup
plies from the British, to risk another engagement. Wherefore
they advanced on the right side, in order to inclose him entirely;
Which obliged the general to direct a retreat towards Saratoga.
But the enemy had stationed a great force on the ford at Hud
son's River, so that the only possibility of retreat was by secu
ring a passage to Lake George; and, to effect this, a body of
workmen were detached, with a strong guard, to repair the
roads and bridges that led to Fort Edward. As soon as they
were gone, the Cnemy seemed to menace an attack ; which ren
dered it necessary to recal the guard, and the workmen, being
of course left exposed, could not proceed. The boats, which
conveyed provisions down Hudson's River, were now exposed to
the continual fire of the American marksmen, who also took
many of them ; so that it became necessary to eonvey the provi
sions over land. In this extreme danger it was resolved to
march by night to Fort Edward, forcing the passages at the
fords either above or below the plaee ; and, in order to effect
this the more easily, it was resolved that the soldiers should
carry their provisions on their backs; leaving behind their bag
gage and every other incumbrance. But, before this could be
executed, intelligence was received that the enemy had raised
Strong entrenchments opposite to these fords, well provided with
cannon, and that they had likewise taken possession of the
rising ground between Fort George and Fort Edward, which in
like manner was provided with cannon.
All this time the American army was increasing by the conti
nual arrival of militia and volunteers from all parts. Their par
ties extended all along the opposite bank of Hudson's River}
and some had even passed it in order to watch the least move
ment of the British army. The whole force under General
Gates was computed at upwards of 16,000 men, while the army
under General Burgoyne did not amount to 6000;. and every
part of the camp was penetrated by the grape and rifle shot of
the enemy, besides discharges from their artillery, which were
almost incessant. In this state of extreme distress and danger,
the army continued with the greatest constancy and perseverance

CONTEST BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN, &C. 313
till the evening of the 13th of October, when, an inventory of
provisions being taken, it was found that no more remained than
what were sufficient to serve for three days , and, a council of
war being called, it was unanimously determined that there was
no method now remaining but to treat with the enemy. In con
sequence of this, a negociation was opened the next day, which
speedily terminated in a capitulation of the whole British army ;
the principal article of which was, that the troops were to have
a free passage to Britain, on condition of not serving against
America during the war. On this occasion, General Gates
ordered his army to keep within their camp, while the British
soldiers went to a place appointed for them to lay down their
arms, that the latter might not have the additional mortification
of being made spectacles of so melancholy an event. The num
ber of those who surrendered at Saratoga, amounted to 5750,
according to the American accounts ; the list of sick and wound
ed left in the camp when the army retreated to Saratoga, to
528; and the number of those lost by other accidents since the
taking of Ticonderoga, to near 3000. But in the evidence
afterwards adduced before the house of commons by General
Burgqyne; it appeared that the number of effective men in the
British army at the time it surrendered, amounted only to 3499;
whilst the number of the American army, according to General
Gates' return, was 18,624. Thirty-five brass field-pieces, 7000
stand of arms, clothing for an equal number of soldiers, with
the tents, military- chest, &c, likewise fell into the hands of the
Americans. Sir Henry Clinton, in the mean time, had sailed up the North
River,, and destroyed the two forts called Montgomery and Clin
ton,' with Fort Constitution, and another place called Continen
tal Village, where were barracks for 2000 men. Seventy large
cannon were carried away, besides a number of smaller artillery,
and a great quantity of stores and ammunition ; a large boom
and Chain reaching across the river from Fort Montgomery to a
point of land called St. Anthony's Nose^ which cost no less thai}
^£70^000 sterling, were partly destroyed and partly carried away,
as was also another boom of little less value at Fort Constitu-'
tion. ¦ Another attack was made hy Sir James Wallace, with
some frigates, and a body of land forces under General Vaughan.
The place which now suffered was named Esopus : the fortifica-

316 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
tions were destroyed/ and the town itself reduced to ashes, as
that called Continental Village had been before. But! these suc
cesses, of whatever . importance they might be, were now dis
regarded by both parties. They served only to irritate the Ame
ricans, flushed with their success ; and they were utterly -insuffi
cient to raise the spirits of the British, who were now thrown
into the utmost dismay.
On the 16th of March, 1778, Lord North acquainted the
house of- commons,, that a paper had been laid before the ¦ kirig
by the French ambassador, . intimating .the conclusion of .an alli
ance between the court of France and the United States of
America. The preliminaries of this treaty had been concluded
in the end of the year 1777,' and a copy of them sent to con
gress, in order to counteract any proposals that might be made
in the mean time, by the British: ministry. Oh February 6,
1778, the articles were signed. ..,.-•;,
The notification of such a treaty as this could not. but '.he
looked upon as a declaratiori of war. On .its being announced
to the house, every one agreed in an address to his majesty, pro
mising to stand by him to the utmost in the present emergency.;
but it was warmly contended by the members in opposition, that
the present ministry ought to be removed on account of their.
riumberless blunders and miscarriages in every instance. ! i Many
were iof opinion, that the only way to extricate the nation from'
its trouble was to acknowledge the independency of America at
once, and thus we might still do with a good grace what must
inevitably be done at last, after expending much more .blood and
treasure than had yet been lavished in this unhappy, eontest.
The ministerial party, however, entertained different ideas. In
stigated by zeal for the national honor,' it was determined, at
once to resent the arrogance of France, and prosecutechostilitie6
against America with more vigor than ever, should the. terms
now offered them be rejected. t,
The Americans, in the mean time, assiduously employed their.
agents at the courts of Spain, Vienna, Prussia, and Tuscany, in
order, if possible, to conclude alliances with them, or at least
to procure an acknowledgment of their independency.1 As it
had been reported that Britain intended to apply for assistance
to Russia, . the American commissioners were enjoined to use
their utmost influence with the German princes to prevent such

CONTEST. BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN, &C. 317
auxiliaries frpm marching through their territories, and to en
deavour to procure the recal. of the Ge™an troops already, sent
to America. To France they offered a cession of such West
India Islands as should j be , taken by the united strength of
France and America ; and, should Britain by their joint endea
vours be dispossessed of, Newfoundland; Cape Breton, and Nova
Scotia, these territories should be, divided betwixt the two na
tions,, and .Great, Britain be totally excluded from the fishery.
The proposals to the Spanish court were, that, in case they
should think proper to espouse the quarrel, the American States
should assist in reducing Pensacola under the dominion of Spain,
provided their subjects were allowed the free navigation of, the
river Mississippi, and. the use of the harbour of Pensacola; and
they further, offered, that, if agreeable to Spain, they would de
clare war against Portugal, should that power expel the Ameri
can ships from its. ports. ,
The troops under General Burgoyne, were about the same pe
riod, preparing to embark for Britain, according to the conven
tion at Saratoga ; but, to their utter surprise, congress positively-
refused to allow them to depart, , under pretence that some sinis
ter designs were harboured on the part of Britain, and that they
only wanted an opportunity to join the other troops at Philadel
phia or New York.
. The season for action was now approaching; and congress was
indefatigable in its preparations for. a new campaign, which, it
was confidently said would be the last. Among other methods
taken for thisr purpose, it was recommended to all the young
gentlemen of the.colonies to form themselves into, bodies, of ca-
yalry tp serve at their own expence during the war. General
Washington, at the same, tinie, . in , order to remove all incum
brances from, his army, , lightened the baggage as much as possi
ble, by substituting. sacks, and , portmanteaus in place of chests
and boxes,: and using pack-horses, instead of waggons... On the
other hand, the British army, expecting. to be speedily reinforced
by 20,000 men, thought pf, nothing hut concluding the war ac
cording to their wishes .before the end of the, campaign. It was
with the utmost concern, as well as indignation, therefore, that
they received the news, of, Lqrd ^North's conciliatory bill. It was
universally looked: upon as a .national ;disgrace; and some even
tore the ; cockades -from their hats, and trampled them under.

318 HISTORY OF NORTH AMEBICA.
their feet as a token, of their indignation. By the colonists it
was received with indifference. The British commissioners en
deavoured to make it as public as possible ; and the congress, as
formerly, ordered it to be printed in all the newspapers. On this
occasion, Governor Tryon inclosed several copies of the bill to
General Washington in a letter, entreating that he would allow
them to be circulated ; to which that general returned for answer
a copy of a newspaper in which the bill was printed, together
with the resolutions of congress upon it. These Were, That
whoever presumed to make a separate agreement with Britain
should be deemed a public enemy; that the United States could
not with any propriety keep correspondence with the commis
sioners until their independence was acknowledged, and the Bri
tish fleets and armies removed from America. At the same time,
the colonies were warned not to suffer themselves to be deceived
into security by any offers that might be made ; hut to use their
utmost endeavours to send their quotas with all diligence into
the field. The individuals with whom the commissioners con
versed on the subject of the conciliatory bill, generally returned
for answer, that the day of reconciliation was past; and that
the haughtiness of Britain had extinguished all -filial regard in
the breasts of the Americans.
About this time also Mr. Silas Deane arrived from Frafice
with two copies of the treaty of commerce and alliance to be
signed by congress. Advices of the most pleasing nature were
also received from various parts, representing in the most favor
able light the dispositions of the European powers ; all of whom,
it was said, wished to see the independence of America settled
upon the most firm and permanent basis. Considering the situ
ation of matters with the colonists at this time, therefore, it is
no wonder that the commissioners found themselves unable to
accomplish the errand on which they came. Their proposals
were utterly rejected, themselves treated as spies, and all inter
course with them interdicted.
But, before any -final answer could be obtained from congress,
Sir Henry Clinton had taken the resolution of evacuating Phila
delphia. Accordingly, on the 10th of June, after having made
all necessary pfepai ations, the army marched Out of the city,
and crossed the Delaware before noon with all its baggage and
other incumbrances. General Washington, apprised of this de-

CONTEST BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN, &C. 31$
sign; had dispatched expresses into the Jerseys with orders to
collect all the forces that could be assembled, to obstruct the
march of the enemy. After various movements on both sides,
Sir Henry Clinton, i with the royal army, arrived on the 27th of
June at a place called Freehold ; where, judging that the enemy
would attack him, tie encamped in a very strong situation.
Here General Washington determined to make an attack as soon
as the army had again begun its march. The night was spent
in making the necessary preparations, and General Lee with his
division was ordered to he ready by day- break. But Sir Henry
Clinton, justly apprehending that the chief object of the enemy
vvas the baggage, committed it to the care of General Knyphau-
sen, whom he ordered to set out early in the morning, while he
followed with the rest of the army. The attack was accordingly
made ; but the British general had taken such care to arrange
his troops properly, and so effectually supported his forces when
engaged with the Americans,, that the latter not only made no
impression, but were with difficulty preserved from a total de
feat, by the arrival of General Washington with the whole army.
The British troops effected their retreat with the loss of 300
men, of whom many died through fatigue. Iu this action Ge
neral Lee was charged by General Washington with disobedi
ence and rhisconduct in retreating before the British army : he
vvas tried by a court-martial, and sentenced to a temporary sus
pension from his command. After they had arrived at Sandy
Hook, a bridge of boats was by Lord Howe's directions thrown
over the channel which separated the island from the main land,
and the troops were conveyed on board the fleet ; after which
they sailed to New York. After sending some light detachments
to watch the enemy's motions, General Washington marched
towards the North River, where a great force had been collected
to join him, and where it was now expected that some capital
operations would take place.
In the. mean time, France had been active in her preparations
for the assistance of the Americans. On the 1 4th of April
Count D'Estaimg sailed from Toulon with a strong squadron of
ships of the line and frigates, and arrived on the coast of Virgi*
nia, in the beginning of July, while the British fleet was em
ployed in conveying the forces from Sandy Hook to New York.
It consisted of one ship of 90 guns, one of 80, six of 74, and

320 HISTORY OF NORTH- AMERICA.
four of 64, besides several' large frigates;' and, exclusive of its
complement of sailors, had 6000 marines and soldiers on-board.'
To oppose this, the British had only six ships of 64 guns, three
of 50, and two of 40, with some. frigates and sloops. ' Notwith
standing this inferiority, however, the < British admiral posted
himself so advantageously,- and showed such superior courage
and skill, that D'Estaing did not think proper to attack him;
He therefore remained at anchor four miles off Sandy Hook, till
the 22nd of July, without effecting any thing more than the
capture of some vessels, which, through ignorance of his'arri-
val, fell into his hands.
The next attempt of the French admiral was, in conjunction
with the Americans, on Rhode- Island. It was proposed that
D'Estaing, with the 6000 troops he brought with him, should
make a descent on the southern part of the -island, while a body
of the Americans should take possession of the north ; at the
same time the French squadron was to enter the- harbour of
Newport, and take or destroy all the British shipping, On the
8th of August the French admiral entered the harbour as was
proposed, but found himself unable to effect any thing material
Lord Howe instantly set sail for Rhode Island; and D'Estaing,
confiding in his superiority, came but of the harbour to meet
him. : A violent storm parted the two fleets, and did so much
damage that they were both rendered unfit for action. The
French suffered most ; and several of their ships, being after
wards attacked, singly by the British, very narrowly escaped be
ing taken. Qn the 20th of August D'Estaing returned to Newr
port in a very shattered condition; and, not thinking himself
safe there, sailed two days after for Boston. General Sullivan
had landed in the mean time on the northern part of Rhode
Island with 10,000 men. On the 17th of August they began
their operations by erecting batteries, and making- their ap
proaches to the British lines. But General Pigot, who corn-
commanded in J Newport, , had taken such effectual care to se
cure himself' on the land-side, that without the assistance "of a
marine force it was altogether impossible to attack him with any
probability of j success.: The conduct of. D'Estaing; therefore,
who had abandoned them when master of the: harbour,, gave the
greatest disgust to' the -people of New England, and. Sullivan
began to think of a retreat. On perceiving his > intentions, the

CONTEST BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN, &C. 321
garrison sallied out upon him with so much vigor, that It was
not without difficulty that be effected his retreat. He had not
been long gone when Sir Henry Clinton arrived with a body of
4000 men , which, had it arrived sooner, would have enabled
the British commander to have gained a decisive advantage over
him, as well as to have destroyed the town of Providence, which
by its vicinity to Rhode Island, and the enterprises which were
continually projected, and carried on iu that place, kept the in-'
habitants of Rhode Island in continual alarm.
The first British expedition was to Buzzard's Bay, in the
neighbourhood of Rhode Island. Here they destroyed a great
number of privateers and merchantmen, magazines, with store
houses, &c., whence proceeding to a fertile and populous island
called Martha's Vineyard, they carried off 10,000 sheep and 300
black cattle. Another expedition took place up the North River,
under Lord Cornwallis and Genera} Knyphausen ; the principal
event of which was the destruction of a regiment of American
cavalry, known by the name of Washington's light-horse. A
third expedition was directed to Little Egg Harbour, in New
Jersey, a place noted for privateers, the destruction of which
was Its principal intention. It was conducted by Captains Fer
guson and Collins, and ended in the destruction of the euemy's
vessels, as well as of the place itself. At the same time part of
another body of American troops, called Pulaski's legion, was
surprised, and a great number of them put to the sword.
The Americans had in the beginning of the year projected
the conquest of West Florida ; and captain Willing with a party
of resolute men, had made a successful incursion into the coun
try. This awakened the attention of the British to the southern
colonies, and an expedition against them was resolved on.
Georgia was the place of destination ; and, the more effectually
to ensure success, Colonel Campbell, with a sufficient force,
under convoy of some ships of war, commanded by Commodore
Hyde Parker, embarked at New York, while General Prevost,
who commanded in East Florida, was directed to set out with
all the forces he could collect. The armament from New Yprk
arrived off the coast of Georgia in December ; and, though the
enemy were strongly posted in an advantageous situation near
the shore, the British troops made good their landing, and ad
vanced towards Savannah the capital of the province. Tha*
14. 5 S

322 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
same day they defeated the- provincials who opposed them; and
took possession of the town with such celerity, that the Ameri
cans had not time to execute a resolution they had taken of set
ting it on fire. In ten days the whole province of Georgia was
reduced, Sunbury alone excepted ; and this was also brought
under subjection by General Prevost in his march northward.
Every proper method was taken to secure the tranquillity of the'
country ; and rewards were offered for apprehending committee
and assembly men, or such as they judged most inimical to the
British interest. On the arrival of General Prevost, the com
mand of the troops devolved on him as the senior officer ; and
the conquest of Carolina was next projected. That country con
tained a great number of friends to government, who now eagerly
.embraced the opportunity of declaring themselves ; many of the
inhabitants of Georgia had joined the royal standard ; and there'
were not in the province any provincial forces capable of oppo
sing the efforts of the regular and well-disciplined troops. On
the news of General Prevost's approach, the loyalists assembled,
imagining themselves able to stand their ground until their allies
should arrive ; but in this they were disappointed. The Ameri
cans attacked and defeated them, with the loss Pf half their "
number. The remainder retreated into Georgia ; and' after un
dergoing many hardships, at last effected a junction with the. Bri
tish forces.
During the time that these operations were going on, General
Lincoln with a considerable reinforcement of American troops,
had encamped within twenty miles of the town of Savannah;
and another strong party had posted themselves at a place called
Briar's Creek, farther up the river of the same name. Thus the
extent of the British government was likely to be circumscribed
within very narrow bounds. General Prevost therefore determin
ed to dislodge the party at Briar's. Creek : and the latter, trust
ing to their strong situation, and being remiss in their guard,
suffered themselves to be surprised on the 30th of March, 1779';
when they were utterly routed, with the loss of 400 killed arid
taken, besides a great number drowned in the river or the
swamps. The whole artillery, stores, baggage, and almost all
the arms, of this unfortunate party, were taken, so that they
could no more make any stand ; and thus a communication was

CONTEST BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN, &C. 323
opened with those places in Carolina where the royalists chiefly
Resided. The victory at Briar's Creek proved of considerable service to
the British cause. Great numbers of the loyalists joined the
army, and considerably increased its force. Hence General Pre
vost was enabled to stretch his posts farther up the river, and to
guard all the principal-passes : so that General Lincoln was re
duced to a state of inaction ; and at last moved off towards Au
gusta, in order to protect the provincial assembly, which was
obliged to sit in that place, the capital being in the hands of the
British. Lincoln had no sooner quitted his post, than it was
judged proper by the British general to put in execution the
grand scheme which had been meditated against Carolina. Ma
ny difficulties indeed lay in his way. The river Savannah was so
swelled by excessive rains, that it seemed impassable; the oppo
site shore was so full of swamps and marshes, that no army
could march over it without the greatest difficulty; and, to ren
der the passage still more difficult, General Moultrie was left
with a considerable body of troops to oppose the enemy's at
tempts'. Yet, in spite of every opposition, the constancy and
, perseverance of the British forces prevailed. General Moultrie
was defeated, and obliged to retire towards Charlestown; and the
victorious army, after having waded through the marshes >for
some time, arrived in an open country, through which they pur
sued their march with great rapidity towards the capital ; while
General Lincoln remained in a state of security at Augusta,
vainly imagining that the obstacles he had left in the way could
¦not be surmounted.
Intelligence of the danger to which Charlestown was exposed,
roused the American general from his lethargy. A chosen body
of infantry, mounted on horseback for the greater expedition,
was dispatched before him ; while Lincoln himself followed with
all the forces he could collect. General Moultrie too, with the
troops he had brought from the ' Savannah, and some others he
. had collected since his retreat from thence, had taken possession
of all the avenues leading to Charlestown, and prepared for a vi
gorous defenee. But all opposition proved ineffectual. The Ame
ricans were defeated in every encounter; and, retreating conti
nually, allowed the British army to come within cannon-shot of
Charlestown on the 1 2th of May. The town was now summon*

324 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
ed to surrender ; and the inhabitants would gladly have agreed
to observe a neutrality during the rest of the war, and would
also have engaged for the Test of the sprovince. But, these terms
ndt being accepted, they made .preparations for a vigorous de<-
-fence. It was not in the power of the British commander at
this time to make an attack with any prospect of success. His
artillery was not of sufficient weight ; there were no ships to sup
port him by sea; and General Lincoln, advancing rapidly with
a superior army, threatened to inclose him between his own for
ces and the town ; so that, should he fail in his first attempt,
certain destruction would be the consequence. For these rea
sons he withdrew his army from before the town, and took pos
session of two islands called St. James' and St. John's, lying to
the southward ; where having waited some time, he was re
inforced by the arrival of two frigates. With these he determin
ed to make 'himself master of Port Royal, an (island possessed of
an excellent harbour and many other natural advantages, from
tits situation also commanding the sea- coast from Charlestown to
Savannah river. The American general, however, did not allow
this to be accomplished without opposition. Perceiving his op
ponent had occupied an advantageous post on St. John's island,
preparatory to his enterprise against Port Royal, he attempted,
on the 20th of June, to dislodge him from it;; .but, after an ob
stinate attack, the provincials were, .as usual, obliged to retire
with considerable loss. -Qn this occasion the success of the Bri
tish was in a .great measure owing to ,an armed float; which
galled the right flank of the enemy so effectually, that 't&ey
could direct their efforts only against the strongest part df the
lines, whieh proved impregnable. This disappointment was in
stantly followed by the loss Of Port Royal, which General Pre
vost took possession of, and put his troops into prqper stations,
waiting for the arrival of .such further reinforcements as were ne
cessary for the intended attack on Charlestown.
In the mean time, Count D'Estaing, who;prit into Boston
harbour to refit, had used his utmostefforts toringratiaSe himself
withithe inhabitants of that city. Zealous also in the cause of
his master, he had published a proclamation .to be dispersed
through ^Canada, inviting itfae people to return to their original
friendship with France, and declaring that all who renounced
their allegiance to Great Britain should certainly find a protects

CONTEST BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN, &C. 325
In the French king. AH his endeavours, however, proved insuf
ficient to produce any revolution, or even to form a party of any
consequence among the Canadians.
As soon as the French admiral had refitted his fleet, he took
the opportunity, while that of Admiral Byron had been shattered
by a storm, of sailing tp the West Indies. During bis operations
there, the Americans having repre$ented his conduct as totally
unserviceable to them, he received orders from Europe to assist
the colonies with all possible speed. He therefore directed his
course towards Georgia, with a design to recover that province,
and to put it, as well as South Carolina, in such a posture of
defence as would effectually secure them from any future attack.
This seemed to he an easy matter, from the little force with
which he knew he should be opposed j and the next object in
contemplation was the destruction of the British fleet and army
at New York. Full of these hopes, the French commiander arri
ved off the coast of Georgia with a fleet of twenty-two sail of
the line and ten frigates. His arrival was so little expected, that
several vessels laden with provisions and military stores fell into
his hands : the Experiment also, a vessel of 50 guns, commanded
by Sir James Wallace, was taken after a stout resistance, Qa
the continent, the British troops were divided. General Prevost,
witih one part, remained at Savannah ; but >the main force was
aiuider Colonel Maftland at Port Royal. On the first .appearance
of the French fleet, as express was dispatched to Colonel Maitr
land* but it was intercepted by the enemy ; so that, before he
eould set out to join the commanderrin- chief, the Americans
had secured most of the passes by land, while the French fleet
effectually blocked >up the passage by sea. Yet by taking advan
tage of creeks and inlets, and marching over land, he arrived
just in time to relieve SaViannah.
D'Estaing allowed General Prevost twenty-four hours to deli
berate whether he would capitulate or not. This time the gene
ral employed in making the best preparations he could for a de?-
fence ; and at this critical juncture !Cplonej Mainland arrived.
D'EstaiBg's summons was now nejfifited ; and, as the jsupeijioijitiy
of the enemy was by no means *0 UUioh out of proportion, there
was every probability pf success on the part of the British. The
garrison consisted of .3000 men, pf approved valor and experi
ence.; &rd, having the advantage ,of a strong .fortification -and

326 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
excellent engineers, the fire of the allies made so little impres-.
sion, that D'Estaing resolved to bombard the town, and a bat
tery of nine mortars was erected for the purpose. This produced
a request from General Prevost, that the women and children
might be allowed to retire to a place of safety. But the allied
commanders had the inhumanity to refuse compliance ; and re
solved upon a general assault. This was accordingly attempted
on the 9th of October : but the assailants were every where re
pulsed with such slaughter, that 1200 were killed and wounded;
among the former was Count Polaski, and among the latter
D'Estaing himself. This disaster entirely overthrew the san
guine hopes of the Americans and French ; mutual reproaches
and animosities took place, and, after waiting eight days, both
parties prepared to retreat ; the French to their shipping, and
the Americans into Carolina.
While the allies were thus unsuccessfully employed in the
southern colonies, their antagonists were no less assiduous in
distressing them in the northern parts. Sir George Collier wa«
sent with a fleet, carrying General Matthews, with a body of
land-forces, into the province of Virginia. Their first attempt
was on the town of Portsmouth; where, though the enemy had
destroyed some ships of great value, the British troops arrived
hi time to save a great number of others. On this occasion
about 120 vessels of different sizes were burnt, and twenty car
ried off; and an immense quantity of provisions designed for
the use of General Washington's army was either taken or de
stroyed, together with a great variety of naval and military
stores. The success with which this expedition was attended,1 soon
gave encouragement to another. The Americans had for some
time been employed in erecting two strong forts on the river ;
the one at Verplanks Neck on the east, and the other at Stoney
Point on the west, side. These when completed would have
been of the utmost service to the Americans, by commanding
the principal pass, called the King's Ferry, between the north
ern and southern colonies. At present, however, they were not
in a condition to make aHy effectual defence ; and it was deter
mined to attack them before the work should be completed,
The force employed on this occasion was divided into two batta
lions ; one of which directed its force against Verplanks, and the

CONTEST BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN, &C. 327
other against Stoney Point. The former was commanded by
General Vaughan, the latter by General Pattison, while the
shipping was under the direction of Sir George Collier. General
Vaughan met with no resistance, the enemy abandoning their
works, and setting fire to every thing they could not carry off.
At Stoney Point, however, a vigorous defence was made, though
the garrison was at last obliged to capitulate. To secure the
possession of this last, which was the more important of the two,
General Clinton removed from his former situation, and en
camped in such a manner that Washington could not give any
assistance. The Americans, in turn, revenged themselves by
distressing, witJi their numerous privateers, the trade to New
York. This occasioned an expedition to Connecticut, where these
privateers were chiefly built and harboured. The command was
given to Governor Tryon and General Garth. Under convoy of
a considerable number of armed vessels they landed at Newha
ven, where they demolished the batteries that had been erected
to oppose them, and destroyed the shipping and naval stores ;
but they spared the town itself, as the inhabitants had abstained
from firing out of their houses upon the troops. From Newha
ven they marched to Fairfield, where they proceeded as before,
and reduced the town to ashes. Norwalk was next attacked,
which in like manner was burnt; as was also Greenfield, a small
sea-port in the neighbourhood. These successes proved very
alarming as well as very detrimental to the Americans ; so that
General Washington determined at all events to drive the enemy
from Stoney Point. For this purpose he sent General Wayne
with a detachment of chosen men, directing them to attempt
the recovery of it by surprise. On this occasion the Americans
showed a spirit and resolution exceeding any thing they had per
formed during the course of the war. Though the fortifications
of this place were very strong, they attacked the British with
bayonets, after passing through a heavy fire of musquetry and
grape-shot ; and, in spite of all opposition, obliged the surviving
part of the garrison, amounting to 500 men, to surrender pri
soners of war. Though the Americans did not retain Stoney
Point, the success they had met with emboldened them to make
a similar attempt on Paulus Hook, a fortified post on the Jersey

328 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
side, opposite to New York ; but they were obliged to retreat*
after they had made themselves masters of one or two posts.
An expedition of greater importance was now projected on
the part of the Americans. This was against a post on the river
Penobscot, on the borders of Nova Scotia, of which the British
had lately taken possession, and where they had begun to erect
a fort, which threatened great inconvenience to the colonists.
The armament destined against it was so soon got in readiness,
that Colonel Maclane, the commanding officer at Penobscot,
found himself obliged to drop the execution of part of his
scheme ; and, instead of a regular fort, to content himself with
putting the works already constructed in as good a posture of
defence as possible. The Americans could not effect a landing
without much difficulty; and, as soon as this was done, they
erected several batteries, and kept up a brisk fire for the space
of a fortnight. They now proposed to carry the fort by a gene
ral assault; but, before this could be effected, they perceived
Sir George Collier, with a British fleet, coming to its relief.
On this, they instantly re-embarked their artillery and military
stores, and sailed up the river, as far as possible, in order to
avoid him. They were so closely pursued, however, that not a
single vessel could escape ; so that the whole fleet, consisting of
19 armed vessels and 24 transports, was destroyed. The sol
diers and sailors were obliged to wander through immense de
serts, where they suffered much for want of provisions ; and, to
add to their calamities, a quarrel arose between the soldiers and
seamen concerning the cause of their disaster, which ended in a
violent fray, wherein a great number were killed.
Thus, the arms of America and France being almost every
where unsuccessful, the independency of the former seemed yet
to be in danger, notwithstanding the assistance of so powerful an
ally, when further encouragement was given by the accession of
Spain to the confederacy against Britain, in the month of June,
1779. The first effect of this appeared in the invasion of West
Florida by the Spaniards, in September following. As the coun
try was in no state of defence, the enemy easily made themselves
masters of it, almost without opposition. Their next enterprise
was against the Bay of Honduras, where the British logwood-
cutters were settled. These, finding themselves too weak to re
sist, applied to the governor of Jamaica for relief; who sent

CONTEST BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN, &C. 329
them a supply of men, ammunition, and military stores, under
Captain Dalrymple. Before the arrival of this detachment, the
principal settlement in those parts, called St. George's Key, had
been taken by the Spaniards, and retaken by the British. In his
way; Captain Dalrymple fell in with a squadron from Admiral
Parker, iu search of some register ships richly laden; but which,
retreating into the harbour of Omoa, wero too strongly protected
by the fort to be attacked with safety. A project was then form
ed, in conjunction with the people of Honduras, to. reduce this
fort. The design was to surprise it ; but, the Spaniards having
discovered them, they were obliged to fight. Victory quickly
declared for the British ; but the fortifications were so strong
that the artillery made no impression. It was then determined
to try the success of an escalade ; and this was executed with so
much spirit, that the Spaniards stood astonished, without ma
king any resistance, and, in spite of all the efforts of the officers,
threw down their arms and surrendered. The spoil was im
mense, being valued at 3,000.000 of dollars. The Spaniards
chiefly lamented the loss of 250 quintals of silver ; a commodity
indispensably necessary in the working of their gold and silver-
mines, so that they offered to ransom it at any price; but1 this
was refused, as well as the ransom of the fort, though the go
vernor offered 300,000 dollars for it. A small garrison was left
for the defence of the place ; but it was soon after attacked by a
superior force, and retaken.
We must now take a view of the transactions in the south
ern colonies; to which the war, in the year 1780, was so effec
tually transferred, that the operations there became at last deci
sive. The success of General- Prevost, iri advancing to the very
capital of South Carolina, has been already stated, together
with the obstacles which prevented him from becoming master
of it at that time. Towards the end of 1779, Sir Henry Clinton
set sail from New York with a considerable body of troops, in
tended for the attack of Charlestown, in a fleet of ships of war
and transports, under the command of Vice-admiral .Aibuthnot.
They had a very tedious voyage; the- weather was uncommonly
bad ; several of the transports were lost, and an ordnance-
ship foundered at sea. Having arrived at Savannah, where they
endeavoured to repair the damages, they proceeded, on the 10th
of February, 1780, to North Edisto, the place. of debarkation
14. Tt

330 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
which had been previously appointed. They had a favorabfe
passage thither; and, though it required time to have the bar
explored and the channel marked, the transports all entered tho
harbour the next day ; and the army took possession of John's
Island withotit opposition. Preparations were then made for
passing the squadron over Charlestown-bar, where the high- wa
ter spring-tides were only nineteen feet deep; but no opportunity
offered of going into the harbour till the 20th of March,' when
it was effected without any accident, though the American gal
leys continually attempted to prevent the English boats from
sounding the channel. The British troops had previously remo
ved from John's to James' Island ; and, on the 29th of the same
month, they effected their landing on Charlestown Neck. On
the 1st of April they broke ground within 800 yards of the Ame*
rican works ; and, by the 8th, the besiegers' guns were mount
ed for action a
As soon as the army began to open their batteries against the
town, Admiral Arbuthnot embraced the first opportunity of pass
ing Sullivan's Island, upon which there was a strong fort, the
chief defence of the harbour. He weighed on the 9th, with the
Boebuck, Richmond, and Romulus, Blonde, Virginia, Raleigh,
and Sandwich armed ship, the Renown bringing up the rear;
and, passing through a severe fire, anchored in about two hours
under James' Island, with the loss of twenty-seven seamen killed
and wounded. The Richmond's fore- top- mast was shot away,
and the ships in general sustained damage in their masts and
rigging; though not materially in their hulls. But the Acetus
transport, having on-board some naval stores, grounded within
gun-shot of Sullivan's Island, and received so much damage,
that she was obliged to be abandoned and burnt.
On the 10th, Sir Henry Clinton and Admiral Arbuthnot sum
moned the town to surrender ; but Major-general Lincoln, who,
commanded in Charlestown, returned them an answer, declaring
it to be his intention to defend the place. The batteries were
now opened against the town ; and from . their effect the fire of
the American advanced works considerably abated, It appears,
that the number of troops under the command of Lincoln, were
by far too few for defending works of such extent as those of
Charlestown ; and that many of these were men little accus
tomed to military service, and very jll provided with clothes and

CONTEST BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN, &C. 331
other necessaries. Lincoln had been for some time expecting
reinforcements and supplies from Virginia, and other places : but
they came in very slowly. Earl Cornwallis and Lieutenant-colo
nel Tarleton were extremely active in intercepting these rein
forcements. They totally defeated a considerable body of cavalry
and militia, which was proceeding to the relief of the town ; and
made themselves masters of some posts, which gave them the
command of the eountry, by which means great supplies of pro
visions fell into their hands. Such was the state of things, and
Fort Sullivan had also been taken by the king's troops, when
General Clinton again summoned the town to surrender; an
offer being made, that the lives and property of the inhabitants
should be preserved to them. Articles' of capitulation were then
agreed upon, and the town surrendered on the 4th of May,
1780. A large quantity of ordnance, arms, and ammunition,
was found in Charlestown ; and, according to Sir Henry Clin
ton's account, the number of prisoners amounted to 5618 men,
exclusively of near 1000 sailors' in arms; but, according to Ge
neral Lincoln's account, transmitted to the congress, the whole
number of continental troops taken prisoners amounted to no
more than 2487. The remainder, therefore, included in Gene
ral Clinton's account, ' must have consisted of militia and inhabi
tants of the town. Several American frigates were also taken or
destroyed in the harbour.
While Sir Henry Clinton was employed in his voyage to
Charlestown, and in the siege of that place, the garrison at New
York were not free from apprehensions for their own safety. An
intense frost, accompanied with great falls of snow, began about
the middle of December, 1779, and shut up the navigation of
the port of New York from the sea, within a few days after the
departure of Admiral Arbuthnot and General Clinton, The se
verity of the weather increased to so great a degree, that to
wards the middle of January all communications with New York
by water were entirely cut off, and as many new ones opened by
the ice. The inhabitants could scarcely be said to be in an in
sular state. Horses with heavy carriages could go over the ice
into the Jerseys, from one island to another. The passage in
North River, ever»-in the widest part, from New York to Paul's
Hook, which was 2000 yards, was, about the 19th of January,
passable for the heaviest cannon : an event which had been un*

332 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
known in the memory of man. Provisions were soon after
transported upon sledges, and a detachment of cavalry marched
upon the ice from New York to Staten Island, which was- a dis
tance of eleven miles.
The city of New York, being thus circumstanced, was much
exposed to the continental troops ; and it was strongly reported,
that General Washington was meditating an attack upon it with
his whole fortie. Some time before this, Major-general Pattison,
commandant at New York, having received an address, from
many of the inhabitants, offering to put themselves in military
array, he thought the present a favorable opportunity of trying
the sincerity of their professions. Accordingly, he issued a pro
clamation, calling upon all the male, inhabitants from sixteen to
sixty to take up arms. The requisition was so readily complied
with, .that, in a few days, forty companies from the six wards o£
the city were enrolled, officered, -and under arms, to. the number
of 26Q0. Other volunteer companies were also formed; and1
the city was put into a strong posture of defence. No attack,
however was made upon New York, whatever design might ori
ginally have been meditated : but an attempt was made upon
Staten Island j where there were about 1800 men, under the
command of Brigadier-general > Sterling. General Washington,
whose army was hutted at Morrisriown, sent a detachment of:
2700 men, with six pieces of cannon, tw.o mortars, and/some
horses, commanded by Lord Sterling, who arrived-, at Staten
Island early in the morning, of, the 15th of January. The ad
vanced posts of the British troops retired i upon the approach, of
the Americans, who formed the line, and made some movements
in the course, of the day ; but they withdrew in the night, and:
carried: off with them aboutc200 head of cattle. Immediately!
on the arrival of the. Americans, on Staten Island, Lieutenant*
general Knyphausen had embarked 600 men to attempt a pas
sage, and to support General Sterling; but the floating ice com
pelled them to return. After Charlestown had surrendered, Ge
neral; Clinton issued two proclamations, and, circulated a hand
bill amongst the inhabitants" , of , South Carolina, to induce them
tp return ,tp their allegiance, and to be ready to join the king's
troops. These_ proclamations appear to have produced some ef
fect, though, they probably operated chiefly upon those who were
before not much: inclined to the cause of. the American indepen-

CONTEST BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN, &C. 333
dence. Two hundred and ten of the inhabitants of Charlestown
signed an address to General Clinton and Admiral Arbuthnot, so
liciting to be re admitted to the character and condition of Bri
tish subjects ; declaring their disapprobation Of tne doctririe of
American independence, and expressing their regret, that, after
the repeal of those statutes which gave rise to the troubles in
America, the overtures of his majesty's commissioners had not
been regarded by the congress.
At this time the people of America were involved in great
difficulties by the depreciation of their paper-currency. At the
time when; the colonies engaged in war with Great Britain, they
had no regular civil government established among them of suffi
cient energy to enforce the collection of taxes, or to provide
funds for the redemption of such bills of credit as their necessi-
tie&bhliged them to issue. In consequence of this^ their bills
inoreased iuquantity far. beyond the- sum necessary for the pur
pose of a: circulating medium : and, as they wanted1 at the same
time specifia funds to rest on for their redemption, they saw-
their paper currency daily sink in value. The depreeiatiorh con
tinued, by a kind of gradual progression; from the year 1777 to '
the year 1780 ; so that, at the latter period, the; continental
dollars were passed* by common consent, in most parts of Ame
rica; at the rate of at least thirty-nine fortieths below their nomi* '¦<.
nal value. The impossibility of keepings up the credit of the
currency to any fixed; standard, occasioned great and almost in-
surmountableerabarrassments in ascertaining the value of proper
ty,, or. carryirig' on trade with any sufficient certainty. Those
who sold, and. those who bought, were left without a rulewh'ere-
on to: form a judgment of their profit or their loss1: and every-
species of commerce or, exchange, whether foreign or domestic,
was ex-posied to. numberless : and increasing- diffkultiest The con
sequences of; thodepreciation of the paper- currency, Were also felt'
with peculiar severity by such of > the Americans as-were engaged
in theif- military services, and greatly augmented by their other
hardships. The requisitions made by the congress tof the several
colonies for supplies, were also far from always' being complied
with: and their troops; were not unfrequently1 in want of the' most
common necessaries;' which naturally occasioned complaints and
discontent among them. Some of these difficulties; resulting
from their circumstances aud situation, perhaps no wisdom could

334; HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
have prevented : but they seem to have arisen in part from the
congress not being sufficiently acquainted with the principles of
finance, and from a defect of system in the departments of their
government. The cause of the Americans appears also to have
suffered by their depending too much on temporary enlistments.
But the congress endeavoured, towards the close of the year
1780, to put their army upon a more permanent footing, and to
give all the satisfaction to their officers and soldiers which their
circumstances would permit. They appointed a committee for
arranging their nuances, and made some new regulations re
specting their war- office and treasury-board; and other public
departments. Notwithstanding the disadvantages under which they labored,
the Americans seemed to entertain no doubts but that they.
should be able to maintain their independence. The 4th of July
was celebrated this year at Philadelphia, as the anniversary of
American independence. A commencement for conferring de
grees in the arts was held the same day, in the hall of the univer
sity there ; at which the president and members of the congress
attended, and other persons in public offices. The Chevalifer de la
Lucerne, minister plenipotentiary from the , French king to the
United States, was also present on the occasion. A charge was
publicly addressed by the provost of the university to the stu
dents; in which he said, that he could not but congratulate them
"on that auspicious day, which, amidst the confusions and deso
lations of war, beheld learning beginning to revive ; and animated
them with the pleasing prospect of seeing the sacred lamp of sci
ence burning with a still brighter flame, and scattering its invi
gorating rays over the' unexplored deserts of that extensive conti
nent; until the whole world should be involved in the united blaze
of knowledge, liberty, and religion. When he stretched his views
forward," he said, " and surveyed the rising glories of America,
the enriching consequences of their determined struggle for li
berty, the extensive fields of intellectual improvement 'and use
ful invention, in science and arts, in agriculture and commerce,
in religion and government, through which the unfettered mind
would range, with increasing delight, in quest of the undisco
vered treasure which yet lay concealed in the animal, vegetable,
and mineral, kingdoms of that new world ; or in the other fer
tile sources of knowledge with which it abounded ; his heart

CONTEST BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN, &C. 335
swelled with the pleasing prospect, that the sons of that institu
tion would distinguish themselves, in the different walks of life,
by their literary contributions to the embellishment and increase-
of human happiness."
On the 10th of July, M. Terna, with a fleet consisting of se
ven ships of the line, besides frigates, and a large body of
French troops commanded by the count de Rbchambeau, arrived
at Rhode Island ; and the following day 6000 men were landed.
A committee from the general assembly of Rhode Island was ap
pointed to congratulate the French general upon his arrival :
whereupon he returned an answer, in which he informed them,
that the king his master had sent them to the assistance of his
good and faithful allies the United States of America. At pre
sent, he said, he only brought over the vanguard of a much
greater force destined for their aid ; and ,the king had ordered
him to assure them, that his whole power should be exerted for
their support. He added, that the- French troops were under
the strictest discipline; and, acting under the orders of general
Washington, would live with the Americans as their brethren.
' Aischeme was soon: after formed, of making a combined at
tack with English ships and troops, under the command of Sir
Henry Clinton and admiral Arbuthnot, against the French fleet
and troops at, Rhode Island. Accordingly a considerable part of
the troops at New York were embarked for that purpose. Ge
neral Washington, having received information of this, passed
the North River by a very rapid movement, and, with an army
increased to 12,000 men, 'proceeded with celerity towards King's
Bridge, in order to attack New York; but, learning that the
British general had changed his intentions, and disembarked his
troops on the 31st of the month, General Washington recrossed
the river, and returned to his former station. Sir Henry Clinton
and the admiral had agreed to relinquish the design of attacking
the French and Americans at Rhode Island as impracticable.
An unsuccessful attempt was also made about this time in the
Jerseys by general Knyphausen, with 7000 British troops under
his ,command, to surprise the advanced posts of general Wash
ington's army. They proceeded rapidly towards Springfield,
meeting little opposition till they came to the bridge there,
which was very gallantly defended by 170 of the continental
troops^ for fifteen minutes, against the British army : but they

336 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
were at length obliged to give up so unequal a contest, with the
loss of thirty-seven men.. After securing this pass, the British
troops marched into the place,, and set fire to most of the hou
ses. They also committed some other depredations in the Jer
seys ; but were obliged to return about the beginning of July,
without effecting any thing material.
In South Carolina the royal arms were attended with more
success. Earl Cornwallis; who commanded the British troops,
obtained a very signal victory over General Gates, on the 16th
of August. The action began at break of day, in a situation
very advantageous for the British troops, but very unfavorable to
the Americans. The latter were much more numerous ; but the
ground on which both armies stood was narrowed by swamps' on
the right and left, so that the Americans could not avail them
selves of their superior numbers; , There seems to have been a
want of generalship in Gates, in suffering himself to be surpri
sed in so disadvantageous a position : but this circumstance was
partly the effect of.; accident ; for both armies set out with a de
sign of attacking each other precisely at- the same time, at ten
the preceding evening, and met together before day-light at the
place where the action happened. The attack was made by the
British troops with great vigor, and in a few minutes the ac
tion was general along the whole line. It was at this time a
dead calm, with a little haziness in the air, which prevented the
smoke from rising, and occasioned so thick a darkness, that it
Was difficult to see the effect of a very heavy arid well- supported
fire on both sides. The British troops either kept up a con
stant fire, or made use of bayonets,, as opportunities1 offered :
and, after an obstinate resistance during three quarters of an
hour, threw the Americans into total confusion, and forced them
to give way in all quarters. The continental troops appear to
have behaved welly but the militia were soon broken, and left
the regulars to oppose the whole force of the British troops.
General Gates did all in his power to rally tlie militia, but with
out effect : the contirientals. retreated in some order ; but the
rout of the militia was so great, that the British cavalry are said
to have continued the pursuit of them to the distance of twenty-
two miles from the place where the action happened. The loss
of the Americans was very considerable : about 1000 prisoners'
were taken, and more said to have heen killed and wounded,

CONTEST BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN, &C. 337
but the number is not very accurately ascertained. Seven pieces
of brass cannon, a number of colors, and all the ammunition-
waggons of the Americans, were taken. Of the British troops^
the killed and wounded amounted to 213. Among the prisoners
was Major-general Baron de Kalb, a Prussian officer in the Ame
rican service, who was mortally wounded, having exhibited great;
gallantry in the action, and received eleven wounds. The British
troops by which this great victory was achieved did not much
exceed 2000, while the American army is said to have amounted
to 6000, of which, however the greatest part was militia.
Lieutenant- colonel Tarleton, who had greatly distinguished
himself in this action, was detached the following day, with
some cavalry and light infantry, amounting to about 350 men,
to attack a corps of Americans under General Sumpter. He
executed this service with great activity and military address.:
He procured good information of Sumpter's movements; and
by force and concealed marches came up with and surprised him
in the middle of the day on the 18th, near the Catawba fords.
He totally destroyed or dispersed his detachment, which con
sisted of 700 men, killing 150 on the spot, and taking two
pieces of brass cannon, 300 prisoners, and forty-four waggons.
Not long after these operations so disastrous to the American
cause, vhilst the American army was almost compelled to dis
perse by the want of food, and its brave Commander-in-Chief
found all his projects for the safety of his country frustrated by
adverse events ; treason found its way into the American camp,
and had nearly achieved the ruin of the new-born liberties of
of the rising republic.
The great services and military talents of General Arnold, his
courage in battle, and the patient fortitude with which he bore
the most excessive hardships, had secured to him a high place in,
the opinion of the army, and a large portion of the confidence of
his country.
Having not sufficiently recovered from the wounds he had re
ceived before Quebec, and at Saratoga, to be fit for active ser
vice; and having large accounts to settle with the continent,
which required leisure ; he was, on the evacuation of Philadel
phia in 1778, appointed to take the command in that place.
Unfortunately with that firmness which he had displayed in
the field and in the most adverse circumstances, were not asso
15. v u

338 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
*iated that strength of principle and correctness of judgment
which might enable him to resist the various seductions to
which his high station exposed him in the metropolis of the
union. His claims against the United States were great, and to them
he looked for the means of extricating himself from the difficul
ties into which his indiscretions had plunged him : but the com
missioners to whom his accounts were referred for settlement,
reduced them considerably ; and on his appeal from their deci
sion to congress, a committee reported that the- sum allowed
him by the commissioners, with which he was dissatisfied, was
more than he was entitled to receive. He was charged with
various acts of extortion, on the citizens of Philadelphia, and
with peculating on the funds of the continent. Not the less
soured and disgusted by these multiplied causes of irritation, in
consequence of their being attributable to his own follies and
vices, he gave full scope to his resentments,; and indulged him
self in expressions of angry reproach against what he termed the
ingratitude of his country, which provoked those around him,
and gave' great offence to congress* Having rendered himself
peculiarly obnoxious to the government of Pennsylvania, as well
as to many of the citizens of Philadelphia, formal charges
against him were brought by the executive of that state\ before
congress, whp directed that he should be arrested and tried by u
court martial.
Such were the various delays occasioned by the movements of
the army, and the difficulty of obtaining testimony, that his
trial, though commenced in June 1778, was not concluded till
the 26th of January 1779, when he was sentenced to be repri
manded by the commander-in-chief. This sentence was appro
ved by congress, and carried soon afterwards into execution.
From the time the sentence against him was approved, if not
sooner, it is probable that his unprincipled spirit revolted from the
cause of his country, and determined him to seek occasion for
making the objects of his resentment the victims of his vengeance.
Every history of the American war exhibits the importance of
West Point. Its preservation had been the principal object of
more than one campaign ; and its loss, it was believed, would
enfeeble all the military operations of the continent. Selected
for the natural strength of its situation, immense labour, di?

CONTEST BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN, &C. 339
tected by skilful engineers, had been employed on its' fortifica
tions, and it was justly termed the Gibraltar of America.
To this fortress Arnold turned his eyes, as an acquisition
which would give value to treason, while its loss would inflict a
mortal wound on his former friends. As affording the means of
enabling him to gratify both his avarice and his hate, he sought
the command of it.
To New York the safety of West Point was peculiarly inte
resting; and in that state, the reputation of Arnold was parti
cularly high. To its delegation he addressed himself : and from
a respectable member (Mr. Livingston) belonging to it, a letter
had been written to General Washington, suggesting doubts re
specting the military character of Howe, to whom its defence
was then intrusted, and recommending Arnold for that service.
From motives of delicacy, this request could not be immediately
complied with ; but it was not forgotten. Some short time
afterwards, General Schuyler who was then in camp, mentioned
to the commander-in-chief a letter he had received from Arnold,
intimating his wish to join the army, and render such service as
might be in his power ; but stating his inability, in consequence
of his wounds, to perform the active duties of the field. The
letter also suggested that he could discharge the duties of a
stationary command, without much inconvenience or uneasiness
from his wounds. General Washington observed, that as there
was a prospect of an active and vigorous campaign^ he should
be gratified with the aid of General Arnold, but did not believe
there would be at his disposal any such command as that gentle
man had suggested. That so soon as the operations against
New York should commence, he designed to draw his whole
force into the field, leaving even West Point to the care of inva
lids and a small garrison of militia. Recollecting, however, the :
former application on the part of a member of congress respect
ing this particular post, he added, " that if, with this previous
information, that situation would be more agreeable to him than
a command in the field, his wishes should certainly be indul
ged." This conversation being communicated to Arnold, that
officer, without openly discovering any solicitude on the subject,
caught with eagerness at a proposition which promised to place
in his possession the object of his most ardent wishes ; and in
the beginning of August, he repaired to camp, where he renewed

340 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA^
in person the solicitations which had before been indirectly
made. It was at this juncture that the principal part of the British
force was embarked on the expedition against Rhode Island;
and that General Washington was advancing on New York, in
order to avail himself of the weakened state of that place. He
offered Arnold the left wing of the army; which he declined
under the pretexts mentioned in his letter to General Schuyler.
Incapable of suspecting a man who had given such distinguished
proofs of courage and patriotism, the commander-in-chief was
neither alarmed at his refusal to embrace so splendid an oppor
tunity as this promised to be, of recovering the favor of his.
countrymen, nor at the embarrassment accompanying that re
fusal. Pressing him no further, he assented to the request which
had been made ; and Arnold was invested with the command of
West Point. Previous to his soliciting this station, he had, in
q, letter to Colonel Robinson, signified his change of principles,
and his wish to restore himself to the favor of his prince by
some signal proof of his repentance. This letter opened to him
a correspondence with Sir Henry Clinton ; the immediate object
of which, after obtaining the appointment he had solicited, was
to concert the means of putting the important posts he com
manded into the possession of the British general.
Major John Andre, an aid- de-camp of Sir Henry Clinton,
and adjutant- general of the British army, a young gentleman
who had in an uncommon degree improved the liberal endow
ments of, nature, and who seems to have held a very high place
in the esteem and affections of his general, was selected as the
person to whom the maturing of Arnold's treason, and the ar
rangements for its execution, should be committed. A corre
spondence was for some time carried on between them, under a
mercantile disguise, and the feigned names of Gustavus and
Anderson; and at length, to facilitate their communications,
the Vulture sloop of war moved up the North river, and took a
station convenient for the purpose, but not so near as to excite.
suspicion. The particulars of the plan digested between them are un
known ; but from acts and expressions of Arnold since recol
lected, its general outlines have been conjectured. Under the
ptetext of fighting the enemy in the defiles and narrow passes

CONTEST BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN, &C. 341
leading to the fortress, he is understood to have designed so to
post the greater part of his army in the gorges of the moun
tains, as to leave unguarded a particular pass, through which
the assailants might securely approach and surprise West Point.
It is also understood that he was so to have disposed of that part
of the garrison which remained in the works, as to make the
least possible opposition to those who should attack them ; and
at the same time, to place his troops in a situation which would
compel them to surrender, or be cut to pieces. Arnold had ex
pressed a wish to obtain copies of those exact and minute maps
of the neighbouring country, especially on the east side of the
river, which General Washington had caused to be made ; and,
in conversation with his officers, he had frequently avowed a de
cided opinion, that the enemy ought not to be waited for in the
works, but should be met and fought in the narrow passes lead
ing through the mountains.
The time when General Washington was at Hartford was se
lected for finally adjusting every part of the plan: and, as a
personal interview with Arnold would be necessary to complete
their arrangements, Major Andre came up the river, and went
on board the Vulture. The place appointed for the interview
was the house of a Mr. Smith, without the American posts.
Both parties repaired thither in the night at the hour agreed on.
Major Andre was brought under a pass in the name of John
Anderson, in a boat dispatched for the purpose from the shore.
While the conference was yet unfinished; daylight approached ;
and to avoid the danger of discovery, it was proposed that Andre
should remain concealed till the succeeding night. He is un
derstood to have refused peremptorily to be carried within the
American posts ; but the promise made him by Arnold to respect
this objection, was not observed. They continued together the
succeeding day; and when, on the following night, his return
on-board the Vulture was proposed, the boatmen refused to
carry him, because she had, during the day, shifted her station ;
in consequence of a gun having been moved, to the shore, with
out the knowledge of Arnold, and brought to bear upon her.
This embarrassing circumstance reduced him to the necessity of
endeavouring to reach New York by land. To render this more
practicable, he reluctantly yielded to the urgent representations
of Arnold, and, laying aside his regimentals, which, he had

342 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.'
hitherto worn under a sirtout, put on a plain suit of cloaths;
and received a pass from General Arnold, authorising him, under
the feigned name of John Anderson, to proceed on the public
service to the White Plains, or lower if he thought proper.
With this permit, he had, passed all the guards and posts on
the road without suspicion ; and was proceeding to New York
in perfect security, when one of three militia-men, who were
employed with others in scouting parties between the lines of
the two armies, springing suddenly from his covert into the
road, seized the reins of his bridle and stopped his horse. With
a want of self- possession, so difficult to he accouhted for in a
mind equally brave and intelligent, that it would almost seem
providential, Major Andre, instead of producing the pass from
General Arnold, , asked the man hastily where he belonged to ?
He replied, " To below ;" a term designating him to be from
New York. " And so," said Andre, without suspecting the de
ception practised on him, "am I." He then declared himself
to be a British officer on urgent business, and begged that he
might not be detained. The other two militia-men coming up
immediately, he discovered his mistake, but it was too late to
repair it. He offered a purse of gold, and a valuable watch;
to which he added the most tempting promises of ample reward,
and permanent provision from the government, if they would
permit him to escape : but his offers- were rejected without hesi
tation by his captors, who proceeded to search him. They found
concealed in his boots exact returns; in Arnold's hand-writing,
of the state of the forces, ordnance, and defences, at West
Point and its dependencies ; critical remarks on the works, and
an estimate of the men ordinarily employed in them; with other
interesting papers. He was carried before Lieutenant-colonel
Jameson, the officer commanding the scouting parties on the
lines ; where, regardless of himself, and only anxious for the
safety of Arnold, he still maintained the character he had assu
med, and requested Jameson to inform his commanding officer
that Anderson was taken. Faithful himself, the mind of Jame
son rejected the suspicion, that in a gallant soldier, whose blood
had flowed liberally in the service of his country, was to be
found a traitor. He therefore dispatched an express with the
communication which he had been requested to make. On re
ceiving it, Arnold comprehended at once the danger with which

CONTEST BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN, &C. 343
he was menaced ; and, flying from the punishment he merited,
took refuge on board the Vulture, and afterwards proceeded to
New York.
When sufficient time for Arnold to make his escape was sup
posed to have elapsed, when Andre no longer affected disguise
or concealment, and acknowledged himself to be the adjutant-
general of the British army.
Seeking to correct the mischief which might have been occa
sioned by the slowness with which-he had given faith to circum
stances that seem sufficient to have forced conviction on the
most incredulous, Jameson immediately dispatched a packet to
the corqmander-in- chief, containing the papers which had been
discovered. This packet was accompanied by a letter from
Andr6, in which he related the manner of his capture, and
accounted for the disguise he had assumed.
The man conveying these dispatches was directed to meet the
commander-in-chief, who was then on his return from Hartford.
Taking different roads, they missed each other; and a delay
attended the delivery of the papers, which secured the escape of
Arnold. Some time elapsed before they were received ; and then
the measures taken to apprehend him proved too late. Before
the officers dispatched for that purpose could reach Verplank's,
he -had passed that post ; and had got on-board the Vulture,
which lay a few miles below it.
Every precaution was immediately taken for the security of
West Point. The garrison was put on the watch ; and General
Greene, on whom the commaud of the army had devolved in
the absence of General Washington, was directed to march the
nearest division instantly up to King's Ferry, where he would
receive further orders. The defection, however, appears not to
have extended beyond Arnold himself; and the exact report he
was capable of making to Sir Henry Clinton of the situation
of West Point, was not such as to induce that officer to hazard
an enterprise against it, when unaided by the treason of its com
mander. These measures of security being taken, it remained to deter
mine the fate of the gallant and unfortunate Andre. A board of
general officers, of which Major-general Greene was president,
and the two foreign generals, La Fayette and Steuben, were
merhbers, was called to report a precise state of his case, and to

844 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
determine in what character he was to be consideied^ and to
what punishment he was liable.
The candour, openness, and magnanimity, with which Andre
had conducted himself from the first moment of his appearance
in his real character, had made a very favorable impression on
all those with whom he had held any intercourse. From this
cause he experienced every mark of indulgent attention ; and
from a sense of justice, as well as of delicacy, he was informed,
on the first opening of the examination, that he was at perfect
liberty not to answer any interrogatory which might embarrass
his own feelings. But, as if only mindful of his fame; and
desirous, by the noble frankness of his conduct, to rescue his
character from imputations which he dreaded more than death ;
he disdained every evasion ; and, rendering the examination of
any witness unnecessary, he confessed every thing material to his
own condemnation, while he would divulge nothing which might
involve others.
The board reported the essential facts which had appeared;
with their opinion, that Major Andre was a spy, and ought to
suffer death. The execution of this sentence was ordered on
the day succeeding that on which it was declared.
Superior to the terrors of death, but dreading disgrace, Andr6
was deeply affected by the mode of dying which the laws of war
had decreed to persons in his situation. He wished to die like a
soldier, not as a criminal.
To obtain a mitigation of his sentence in this respect, he ad
dressed a letter to General Washington, replete with all the feel
ings of a man of sentiment and honor. But the occasion required
that the example should make its full impression, and his re
quest could not be granted. He encountered his fate with com
posure, dignity, and fortitude ; and such was his whole conduct,
as to excite the admiration, and interest the feelings, of all who
witnessed it.
The general officers lamented the sentence which the usages
of war compelled them to pronounce ; and perhaps on no occa
sion of his life did the commander-in-chief* obey with more

« Miss Anna Seward, the author of the monody on the death of this brave
officer, gives the following interestiug anecdote on this subject, in a letter
dated 1798; addressed to Miss Ponsonby: "I was not as you supposed fa
vored with a letter from General Washington ; but a few years after peace

CONTEST BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN, &C. 345
reluctance the stern mandates of duty and of policy. The sym
pathy excited among the American officers by his fate was as
universal as it is unusual on such occasions.
Great exertions were made by Sir Henry Clinton, to whom
Andre vvas particularly dear, first to have him considered as pro
tected by a flag of truce, and afterwards as a prisoner of war.
Even Arnold had the hardihood to interpose. After giving a
certificate of facts which he supposed might tend to exculpate
the prisoner, exhausting his powers of reasoning on the case,
and appealing to the humanity of the American general, he
sought to intimidate him by stating the situation of many of the
principal characters of South Carolina who had forfeited their
lives, but had hitherto been spared through the clemency of the
British general. This clemency, he said, could no longer in
justice be extended to them should Major Andre suffer.
It may well be supposed that the interposition of Arnold was
without any influence on the mind of Washington. He conveyed
Mrs Arnold to her husband in New York, and also transmitted '
to him his clothes and baggage for which he had written; but in

was signed between this country and America, an officer introduced himself,
commissioned from General Washington to call upon me, and to assure me
from the general himself, that no circumstance of his life had been so morti
fying as to be censured in the Monody on Andre, as the pililess author of his
ignominious fate, that he had labored to save him — that he requested my at
tention to papers on the subject which he had sent by this officer for ray per
usal. On examining them, continues Miss Seward, I found they entirely
acquitted the general. They filled me with contrition for the rash injustice
of my censure. With a copy of the proceedings of the court martial that
determined Andre's condemnation, there was a copy of a letter from General
Washington to General Clinton, offering to give up Andre for Arnold, who
had fled to the British camp, observing the reason there was to believe, that
the apostate general had exposed that gallant English officer (o unnecessary
danger, to facilitate his own escape; also the copy of another letter from
General Washington to Major AndrS, adjuring- him to state to the command
er-in-chief his unavoidable conviction of the selfish perfidy of Arnold, in
suggesting that plan of disguise, which exposed Andr£, if -taken, -to certain
condemnation as a spy, when if he had come openly in his regimentals, and
under a flag of truce to the then unsuspected American general, he would
have been perfectly safe ; there was also a copy of Andre's high souled an
swer, thanking General Washington for the interest he took in his destiny;
but observing, that even under conviction of General Arnold's inattention
to his safety, he could not suggest to General Clinton any thing which might
influence him to save his less important life by such an exchange." Vidt
Seward's letters, Vol. 5, page 143.
15. xx

346 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
every other respect, his letters, which were altogether unan
swered, were also entirely unnoticed. '
The mingled sentiments of admiration and compassion exci
ted in every bosom for the unfortunate Andre, seemed to add
fresh vigor to the detestation in which Arnold was held. "An
dre," says General Washington in a private letter, "has met his
fate with that fortitude which was to be expected from an ac
complished man and a gallant officer ; but I am mistaken if, at
this time, Arnold is not undergoing the torments of a mental
hell. He wants feeling. From some traits of his character, which
have lately come to my knowledge, he seems to have been so
hackneyed in crime, so lost to all sense of honor and shame,
that, while his faculties still enable him to continue his sordid
- pursuits, there will be no time for remorse."
From motives of policy or of faith, Arnold was made a briga
dier-general in the British service, which rank he preserved
throughout the war. Yet it is impossible that this, or a still
higher rank, could have rescued him from the contempt and
detestation in which the generous, the honorable, and the brave,
could not cease to hold him. It was impossible for men of this
description, while obeying or acting with him, to bury the recol
lection of his being a traitor, a sordid traitor; first the slave of
his rage, then purchased with gold, and finally secured by the
blood of one of the most accomplished officers in the British
army. As all men wish to preserve at least the appearances of
honor, Arnold affected to ascribe his defection from the Ameri
can cause to principle. He originally took up arms, he said,
because he really believed the rights of his country endangered ;
and although he thought the declaration of independence preci
pitate, yet he was led by the many plausible arguments urged in
its favor to acquiesce in it as a measure necessary to procure a
redress of grievances. But the rejection of the overtures made
by Great Britain in 177S, and the French alliance, had opened
his eyes to the ambitious views of those who would sacrifice the
happiness of their country to their own aggrandisement, and had
made him a confirmed loyalist.
His representations of the discontent of the country, and of
the army, concurring with reports from other quarters, had
raised the expectation that the loyalists and the dissatisfied,
allured by British gold and the hope of rank in the British ser-

CONTEST BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN, &C. 347
Vice,' would flock to his standard, and form a corps, at the head
of which he might again display in the field those military quali
ties he had proved himself to possess.
With this hope he published an address to the inhabitants of
America, in which he labored to palliate his own guilt, and to
render them dissatisfied with the existing state of things. He
dilated on the motives which had induced him to join the Bri
tish standard, and on all those topics which had most influence
with the royalists throughout the United States. ,With peculiar
bitterness he execrated the alliance with France, and endeavour
ed to revive ancient prejudices against that nation. He was
profuse in his invectives against congress and their leaders gene
rally, whom he accused of sinister views in protracting the war
at the public expence, and with general tyranny and usurpation.
With these charges he artfully mingled assertions of their sove
reign contempt for the people, particularly manifested in refu
sing to take their collective sentiments on the proposals offered
by Great Britain.
This appeal to the public was followed by a proclamation par
ticularly addressed " To the officers and soldiers of the continen
tal army, who have the real interest of their country at heart,
and who are determined to be no longer the tools and dupes of
congress or of France."
The object of this proclamation was to induce the officers and
soldiers of the American army to desert the cause they had em
braced from principle, by holding up to them very flattering
terms from the British general, and contrasting the substantial
emoluments of the British service with their present deplorable
condition. He attempted to cover this dishonorable proposition
with the garb of decency and principle, by representing the base
step he invited them to take, as the only measure which could
restore to their country peace, real liberty, and happiness.
" You are promised liberty," he exclaims,. " but is there an in
dividual in the enjoyment of it saving your oppressors ? Who
among you dare speak or write what he thinks against the
tyranny which has robbed you of your property, imprisons your
persons, drags you to the field of battle, and is daily deluging
your country with your blood.
" You are flattered with independence as preferable to a re
dress of grievances ; and for that shadow, instead of real felicity,

348 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
are sunk in all the wretchedness of poverty, by the rapacity <»f
your own rulers. Already you are disqualified to support the
pride of character they taught you to aim at, and must inevita-
tably shortly belong to one or the other of those great powers
their folly aud wickedness have drawn into the conflict.
" What!" he exclaims again, "is America now but a land of
widows, orphans, and beggars ?
" As to you who have been soldiers in the continental army,
can you at this day want evidence that the funds of your country
are exhausted, or that the managers have applied them to their
own private uses ? In either case, you surely can no longer con
tinue in their service with honor or advantage. Yet you have
hitherto been their supporters in that cruelty, which, with an
equal indifference to yours, as well as to the labor and blood of
others, is devouring a country that, from the moment you quit
their colors, will be redeemed from their tyranny."
The terms he offered as inducements to enter into the corps
which he proposed to form were highly flattering, but were
attended with no effect. Although the temper of the army
might be irritated by their real sufferings, and by the supposed
neglect of government, no diminution of patriotism, or of zeal
for the cause in which they had already sacrificed so much, had
been produced.
Through all the hardships, sufferings, and irritations, of the
American war, notwithstanding the almost desperate aspect
which their affairs Often wore, and the gloom with which their
political horizon was frequently overcast, Arnold remains a soli
tary instance of an American officer who abandoned the side
first embraced in this civil contest, and turned his sword upon
his former companions in arms.
When the probable consequences of this plot, had it been
successful, came to be considered ; and the combination of ap
parent accidents, by which it vvas discovered and defeated, was
recollected ; all were filled with a kind of awful astonishment,
and the pious men perceived in the transaction the hand of Pro
vidence guiding America to independence.
The thanks of congress were voted to the three militia-men*
who had rendered to their country this invaluable service ; and a
silver medal, with an inscription expressive of their fidelity and
* Their names were, John Paulding, David Williams, and Isaac Yanwert.

CONTEST BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN, &C. 349
patriotism, was directed to be presented to each of them. In
addition to this flattering testimony of their worth, and as a
further evidence of national gratitude, two hundred dollars per
annum during life, to be paid in specie, or an equivalent in cur
rent money, was voted to each of them ; a reward, it must be
admitted, much more accurately apportioned to the poverty of
the public treasury, than to the service which had been received.
The efforts of General Washington were unabated to obtain
a permanent military force, or its best substitute, a regular
system for filling the vacant ranks with draughts who should join
the army on the first day of January in each year, and serve for
twelve months after they should arrive in camp, have been more
than once adverted to.
To place the officers of the army in a situation which would
render their commissions valuable ; and hold out to them the
prospect of a comfortable old age, in a country saved by their
blood, their sufferings, and the labors of their best years ; and
thus to rescue from the contempt and misery too often attendant
on poverty, men who had devoted their prime of life, and many
of whom had employed their little all, in the service of the pub
lic ; was also an object which had always been dear to the heart
of the commander-in-chief. Sound policy, real justice, and
affection for men whose sufferings he had witnessed, and whose
merits he prized, all combined to place the establishment of this
principle among the first of his desires. He had seized every
opportunity to press it on congress. That body had approached
it slowly ; taking with apparent reluctance step after step, as the
necessity of the measure became more and more obvious.
The first resolution on the subject passed in May, 1778. This
allowed to all military officers who should continue in service
during the war, and not hold any office of profit under the Uni
ted States or any of them, half-pay for seven years, if they lived
so long. At the same time a reward of eighty dollars, in addi
tion to his pay, was granted to every non-commissioned officer
and soldier who should serve to the end of the war. In. 1779
this subject was again taken up ^ and, after much debate, its
further consideration was postponed, and the officers and soldiers
were recommended to the attention of their several states ; with
a declaration that their patriotism, valor, and perseverance in
defence of the rights and liberties of their country, had entitled

§50 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
them to the gratitude as well as the approbation of their fel-
low citizens.
Irt 1780, a memorial from the general officers, depicting in
strong terms the situation of the army, and requiring present
support and some future provision, was answered by a reference
to what had been already done, and a declaration " that pa
tience, self-denial, fortitude, and perseverance, and the cheerful
sacrifice of time and health, are necessary virtues, which both
the citizen and soldier are called to exercise, while struggling for
the liberties of their country ; and that moderation, frugality and
temperance, must be among the chief supports, as well as the
brightest ornaments, of that kind of civil government which is
wisely instituted by the several states in this union."
It may well be supposed that this philosophic lecture on the
virtues of temperance, to men who were often without food, and
nearly half their time with a very limited supply of it, was but
ill calculated to assuage the irritations fomented by the neglect
which was believed to have been sustained.
In a few days afterwards, this subject was again brought be
fore congress, when a temper of greater conciliation was mani
fested. The odious restriction on the half-pay for seven years,
by which it was limited to those who should hold no post of
profit'under the United States or any of them, was taken off;
and the bounty allowed the men was extended to the widows
and orphans of those who had died or should die in the service.
At length the vote passed .which has been stated, allowing half-
pay for life to all those who should serve in the armies of the
United States to the end of the war.
Resolutions were also passed, recommending it to the several
states to make up the depreciation on the pay which had been
received by the army ; and it was determined that their future
services should be compensated in the money of the new emis
sion, the value of which it was supposed might be kept up by
taxes and by loans.
While the government of the union was thus employed in
measures essential to the preservation of its military establish
ment, the time for action passed away without furnishing airy
material event. The hostile armies continued, however, to
watch each other, till the season of the year forced them out of
the field.

CONTEST BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN, &C. 351
Just before retiring into winter quarters, a spirited enterprise,
though on a small scale, was planned and executed by Major
Talmadge, of Colonel Sheldon's regiment of light dragoons.
This gentleman had been generally stationed on the lines, on
the east side of the North river ; and had been particularly dis
tinguished for the accuracy of his intelligence, and the skill em
ployed in obtaining it.
He was informed of a large magazine of forage collected at
Coram on Long Island, protected only by the militia of the
country, the cruizers in the Sound, and a small garrison in its
neighbourhood stationed in Fort St. George on South Haven.
With a detachment of eighty dismounted dragoons, - under the
command of Captain Edgar, and eight or ten who were mounted,
he passed the Sound on the 21st of November, where it was up
wards of twenty miles over. He then marched across the island
in the night, and so completely surprised the fort, that his
troops entered the works on three different sides, before the gar
rison was prepared to resist them. The British took refuge in
two houses connected with the fortification, and commenced a
fire from the doors and windows. These were instantly forced
open ; and except seven killed and wounded, the whole party,
amounting to fifty-four, among whom were a lieutenant- colonel,
captain, and subaltern, were made prisoners". Stores to a consi
derable amount in the fort and in a vessel lying in South Haven,
were destroyed ; the fort was demolished, and the magazines at
Coram were consumed by fire.
The objects of the expedition being thus completely effected,
Major Talmadge recrossed the Sound without having lost a sin
gle man,
Although this expedition was by no means important for its
magnitude,- yet those employed on it had manifested so much
address and courage in its execution, that the general recom
mended them to the particular attention of|congress, who pass
ed a resolution, expressing the high sense entertained of their
merit. No objects for enterprise presenting themselves, the troops
were, early in December, withdrawn into winter- quarters. The
Pennsylvania line was stationed hear Morristown ; the Jersey
line about Pompton, on the confines of New York and New

352 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
Jersey ; and the troops belonging to the New England states in
West Point, and in its vicinity, on both sides the North river,
The line of the state of New York remained at Albany, to
which place it had .been detached for the purpose of opposing
an invasion from Canada.
Major Carlton, at the head of 1000 men, composed of Euro
peans, Indians, and tories, had made a sudden irruption into
the northern parts of New York, where he took Forts Anne and
George, and made their garrisons prisoners. At the same time
Sir John Johnson, at the head of a body of men, also composed
of Europeans, Indians, and tories, appeared on the Mohawk.
Several sharp skirmishes were fought in that quarter with the
continental troops, and a regiment of new levies, aided by the
militia of the country. General Clinton's brigade was ordered to
their assistance ; but before he could reach the scene of action,
the invading armies had retired, after laying waste the whole
country through which they passed.
While the disorder of the American finances, the exhausted
state of the country, and the debility of the government, kept
alive the hopes of conquest, and determined the British crown
to persevere in offensive war against the United States, Europe
assumed an aspect not less formidable to the permanent gran
deur of England than hostile to its present views. In the sum
mer of 1780, Russia, Sweden, and Denmark, entered into the
celebrated compact which has been generally denominated the
armed neutrality; the principal objects of which were, to
reduce the list of articles which should be deemed contraband ;
and to impart to goods the character of the bottom which con-
, veyed them. Holland had also manifested unequivocally a de
termination to accede to the same confederacy; and it is not im
probable, that this measure contributed, in no inconsiderable
degree, to the declaration of war which was made by Great
Britain against that power towards the close of the present year.
The long and intimate friendship which had existed between
these two nations, had been visibly impaired from the com
mencement of the American war. Although not concurring
with the house of Bourbon in the wish to weaken a rival, Hol
land yielded to neither France nor Spain in the desire of partici
pating in that commerce, which the independence of America
would open to the world. From the commencement of hostili-

CONTEST BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN, &C. 353
ties, therefore, the merchants of Holland, and especially of the
great commercial city of Amsterdam, watched with anxiety the
progress of the war, and engaged in speculations which were
profitable to themselves, and at the same time beneficial to the
United States. The remonstrances made by the British minister
at the Hague against this conduct, were answered in the most
amicable manner by the government; but the practice of indivi
duals remained the same.
When the war broke out between France and England, a
great number of Dutch vessels trading with France, laden with
materials for ship-building, were seized and carried into the
ports of Great Britain, although the existing treaties between
the two nations were understood to exclude those articles from
the list of contraband war. Attributing these acts of violence
to the necessity of her situation, Great Britain persisted in refu
sing to permit naval stores to be carried to her enemy in neutral
bottoms. This refusal, however, was accompanied with friendly
professions, with an offer to pay for the vessels and cargoes
already seized, and with proposals to form new stipulations for
the future regulation of that commerce.
The states-general refused to enter into any negociations for
modifying the subsisting treaties ; and the merchants of all the
great trading towns of Holland, and especially those of Amster
dam, expressed the utmost indignation at the injuries they had
sustained. In consequence of this conduct, the British government, re
quired those succours which had been stipulated in ancient trea
ties, and insisted that the casus foederis had now occurred.
Advantage was taken of the refusal of the states-general to com
ply with this demand, to declare the treaties between the two
nations at an end.
It may well be supposed that the temper produced by this
state of things was favorable to the comprehending of Holland
in the treaty for an armed neutrality, and that the Dutch go
vernment was well disposed to enter into it. They acceded to it
in November; yet some unknown causes prevented the actual
signature of the treaty on the part of the states-general, till a
circumstance occurred which was used for the purpose of pla
cing them in a situation not to avail themselves of the aid they
15. y y

354 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
Would otherwise have been entitled 'to as a member of that con
federacy. While Mr. Lee, one of the ministers of the United States,
was on his mission to the courts of Vienna and Berlin, he fell
in company with Mr. John de Neufville, a merchant of Amster
dam, with whom he held several conversations on the subject of
a commercial intercourse between the two nations ; the result of
which was, that the plan of an eventual commercial treaty was
sketched out, as one which might subsequently be concluded be
tween them. This paper had received the approbation of the
pensionary Van Berkel, and the city of Amsterdam, but not of
the states-general.
Mr. Henry Laurens, late president of congress, was deputed
to the states- general with this plan of a treaty, for the double
purpose of endeavouring to complete it, and of negociating a
loan for the use of his government. On his voyage, he was cap
tured by a British frigate ; and his papers, which he had previ
ously thrown overboard, were rescued from the waves by the
skill and courage of a British sailor. Among these papers,
which were preserved for the minister, was found the plan of a
treaty which has been mentioned. This was immediately-trans
mitted to Sir Joseph Yorke, the British minister at the Hague,
to be laid before the Dutch government. Mr. Laurens after be
ing examined by the privy council was committed close prisoner
to the tower on a charge of high treason.
The explanation of this transaction not being deemed satis
factory by the court of London, Sir Joseph Yorke received or
ders to withdraw from the Hague; soon after which war was
declared against Holland.
At the beginning of the year 1781, an affair happened in
America, from which expectations were formed by Sir Henry
Clinton, that some considerable advantage might be derived to
the royal cause. The long continuance of the war, and the dif
ficulties under which the congress labored, had prevented their
troops from being properly supplied with necessaries and conve
niences. In consequence of this, on January 1st, the American
troops that were hutted at Morristown, and who formed what
was called the Pennsylvanian line, turned out, being in number
about 1300, and declared that they would serve no longer unless
their grievances were redressed, as they had not received their

CONTEST BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN, &C. 355
pay, or been furnished with the necessary clothing or provisions.
It is said they were somewhat inflamed with liquor, in conse
quence of rum having been distributed to them more liberally
than usual, New-year's day being considered as a kind of festival.
A riot ensued, in which an officer was killed and four wounded ;
five or six of the insurgents were also wounded. They then col
lected the artillery, stores, provisions, and waggons, and marched
out of the camp. They passed by the quarters of General Wayne,
who sent a message to them, requesting them to desist, or the
consequences would prove fatal. They refused, and proceeded on
their march till the evening, when they took post on an advan
tageous piece of ground, and elected .officers from among them
selves. Oil the second, they marched to Middlebrook, and on
the third to Princetown, where they fixed their quarters. On
that day a flag of truce was sent to them from the officers of the
American camp, with a message, desiring to know what were
their intentions. Some of them answered, that they had already
served longer than the time for which they were enlisted, and
would serve no longer ; and others, that they would not return
unless their grievances were redressed. But at the same time
they repeatedly, and in the strongest terms, denied being influ
enced by the least disaffection to the American cause, or having
any intention of deserting to the enemy.
Intelligence of this transaction was soon conveyed to New
York. A large body of British troops were immediately ordered
to hold themselves in readiness to move on the shortest notice,
it being hoped that the American revolters might be induced to
join the royal army. Messengers were also sent to them from
General Clinton, acquainting them that they should directly be
taken under the protection of the British government; that they
should have a free pardon for all former offences ; and that the
pay due to them from the congress should be faithfully paid them,
without any expectation of military service, unless it should be
voluntary, upon condition of their laying down their arms and
returning to their allegiance. It was also recommended to them
to move beyond the South river; and they were assured, that a
body of the British troops should be ready to protect them
whenever they desired it. These propositions were rejected with
disdain ; and they even delivered up two of Sir Henry Clinton's
messengers to the congress. Joseph Reed, Esq., president of

356 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
the state of Pennsylvania, afterwards repaired to them at Prince-
town, and an accommodation took place ; such of them as had
served out their full term were permitted to return to their
homes, and others again joined the American army, upon re
ceiving satisfactory assurances that their grievances should be re
dressed. Earl Cornwallis now made vigorous preparations to penetrate
into North Carolina. On the 11th of January his lordship's ar
my was in motion; but was somewhat delayed by an attempt
made by the Americans, under General Morgan, to make them
selves masters of the valuable district of Ninety-six. To prevent
this, Lord Cornwallis detached Lieutenant-colonel Tarleton, with
300 cavalry, 300 light infantry, the 7th regiment, the first bat
talion of the 71st regiment, and two 3-pounders, to oppose the
progress of Morgan, not doubting but that he should be able to
perform this service effectually. The British troops came up
withthe Americans on the 17th of January. They were drawn
up in an open wood, and having been lately joined by some mi
litia, were more numerous than the British ; but the latter were
so much better disciplined, that they had the utmost confidence
of obtaining a speedy victory. The attack was begun by the
first line of infantry, consisting of the 7th regiment and a corps
of light infantry, with a troop of cavalry placed on each flank.
The first battalion of the 71st and the remainder of the cavalry
formed the reserve. The American line soon gave way, and
their militia quitted the field ; upon which the royal troops, sup
posing the victory already gained, engaged with ardor in the pur
suit, and were thereby thrown into some disorder. General Mor
gan's corps, who were supposed to have been routed, immediately
faced about, and began a heavy fire upon the king's troops,
which occasioned the utmost confusion amongst them ; and they
were at length totally defeated by the Americans. Four hundred
of the British infantry were either killed, wounded, or taken
prisoners : the loss of the cavalry was much less considerable ;
but the two 3-pounders fell into the hands of the Americans,
together. with the colors of the 7th regiment. Lieutenant- colo
nel Tarleton gallantly made another effort; having assembled
about fifty of his cavalry, with which he charged and repulsed
Colonel Washington's horse, retook his baggage, and killed the
Americans who were appointed to guard it. He then retreated

CONTEST BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN, &C. 357
to Hamilton's Ford, near the mouth of Bullock's Creek, carry
ing with him part of the baggage, and destroying the remain
der. This defeat was a severe stroke to Lord Cornwallis, as the
loss of his light infantry was a great disadvantage to him. The
day after that event, he employed in collecting the remains of
Tarleton's Corps, and in endeavouring to form a junction with
General Leslie, who had been ordered to march towards him
with some British troops from Wynnesborough. Considerable
exertions were then made by part of the army, without baggage,
to retake the prisoners in the hands of the Americans, and to
intercept General Morgan's corps on its retreat to the Catawba.
But that officer had made forced marches up the country, and
crossed the Catawba the evening before a great rain, which
swelled the river to such a degree, as to prevent the royal army
from crossing for several days ; by which time the British prison
ers were got quite out of reach.
On the first of February, the king's troops crossed the Cataw
ba at M'Cowan's Ford, where General Davidson, with a party
of the American militia, was ordered to oppose their passage ;
but, that officer being killed by the first discharge, the royal
troops made good their landing, and the militia retreated.
When Lord Cornwallis arrived at Hillsborough, he erected the
king's-standard, and invited, by proclamation, all loyal subjects
to repair to it, and to stand forth and take an active part in
assisting his lordship to restore order and government. He had
been taught to believe that the king's friends were numerous in
that part of the country : but the event did not confirm the
truth of the representations that had been made. The royalists
were but few in number, and some of them too timid to join
the king's standard. There were, indeed, about 200 who were
proceeding to Hillsborough, under Colonel Pyle, in order to
avow' their attachment to the royal cause ; but they were met
accidentally, and surrounded, by a detachment from the Ameri
can army, by whom a number of them arc said to have been
killed when they were begging for quarter, without making the
least resistance. Meanwhile General Greene was marching with
great expedition to form a junction with another corps of Ame
rican troops, in order to put a stop to the progress of Lord
Cornwallis.

358 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
In other places considerable advantages were obtained by the
royal arms. On the 4th of January, some ships of war, with- a
number of transports, on-board which was a large body of troops
under the command of General Arnold, arrived at Westover,
about 140 miles from the Capes of Virginia, where the troops
immediately landed and marched to Richmond ; which they
reached without opposition, the provincials having retreated on
their approach. Lieutenant-colonel Simcoe marched from hence
with a detachment of the British troops at Westham, where he
destroyed one of the finest founderies for cannon in America,
and a large quantity of stores and ammunition. General Arnold,
on his arrival at Richmond, found large quantities of salt, rum,
sail-cloth, tobacco, and other merchandise ; and that part which
was public property he destroyed. The British troops afterwards
attacked and dispersed some small parties of the Americans,
took some stores, and a few pieces of cannon ; and, on the 20th
of the same month, marched into Portsmouth. On the 25th,
Captain Barclay, with several ships of war, and a body of
troops under the command of Major Craig, arrived in Cape Fear
river. The troops landed about nine miles from Wilmington,
and, on the 28th, entered that town. It was understood, that
their having possession of that town, and being masters of Cape
Fear river, would be productive of very beneficial effects to Lord
Cornwallis' army.
General Greene, having effected a junction, about the 10th of
March, with a continental regiment, and two large bodies of
militia, resolved to attack the British troops under Lord Corn
wallis. The American army marched from the High Rock Ford
on the 12th of the month, and on the 14th arrived at Guildford.
Lord Cornwallis, from the information he had received of the
motions of the American general, easily conjectured his designs.
As they approached more nearly to each other, a few skirmishes
ensued between some advanced parties, in which the king's
troops had the advantage. On the morning of the 15th, Lord
Cornwallis marched at day-break to meet the Americans, or to
attack them in their camp. About four miles from Guildford,
the advanced guard of the British army, commanded by Lieute
nant-colonel Tarleton, fell in with a corps of the Americans,
consisting of Lieutenant-colonel Lee's legion, which he de-
eated.

CONTEST BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN, &C. 359
The greater part of the country in which the action took
place is a' wilderness of trees, and thick underwood, with a few
cleared fields interspersed. The American army, which was
superior to the British in point of numbers, was posted on a
rising ground. It Was drawn up in three lines: the front line
was composed of the North Carolina militia, under the com
mand of Generals Butler and Eaton; the second line was of
Virginia militia, commanded by Generals Stephens and Lawson,
forming two brigades ; the third line, consisting of two bri
gades, one of Virginia and one of -Maryland continental troops,
was commanded by General Hugar, and Colonel Williams.
Lieutenent- colonel Washington, with the dragoons of the first
and third regiments, a detachment of light infantry, composed
of continental troops, and a regiment of riflemen, under Colonel
Lynch, formed a corps of observation for the security of their
right flank. Lieutenant-colonel Lee, with his legion, a detach
ment of light infantry, and a corps of riflemen under Colonel
Campbell, formed a corps of observation for the security of their
left flank. The attack was made by lord Cornwallis, in the fol
lowing order: on the right, the regiment of Bose and the 71st
regiment, led by Major-general Leslie, and supported by the
first battalion of guards ; on the left, the 23d and 33d regi
ments, led by Lieutenant-colonel Webster, and supported by the
grenadiers and second battalion of guards commanded by Gene
ral O'Hara; the yagers and light infantry of the guards remain
ed in a wood, on the left of the guns, and the cavalry in the
road, ready to act as circumstances might require.
About half an hour after one in the afternoon, the action
commenced by a cannonade, which lasted about twenty minutes;
when the British troops advanced in three columns and attacked
the North Carolina brigade with great vigor, and soon obliged
part of these troops, who behaved very ill, to quit the field :
but the Virginia militia kept up a heavy fire for a long time,
till, being beaten back, the action became general every where.
The American corps, under Colonels Washington and Lee, did
considerable execution. Lieutenant-colonel Tarleton had direc
tions to keep his cavalry compact, and not to charge without
positive orders, excepting to protect any of the corps from the
most evident danger of being defeated. The excessive thickness
of the woods rendered the British bayonets of little use, and

360 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
enabled the broken corps of Americans to make frequent stands
with an irregular fire. The second battalion of the guards first
gained the clear ground near Guildford court-house, and found a
corps of continental infantry, superior in number, formed in an
open field on the left of the road. Desirous of signalizing them
selves, they immediately attacked and soon defeated them, ta
king two six-pounders; but, as they pursued the Americans into
the wood with too much ardor, they were thrown into confusion,
and were instantly charged and driven back into the field by Ge
neral Washington's dragoons, with the loss of the six-pounders
they had taken. But the American cavalry were in turn repuls
ed, and the two six-pounders again fell into the hands of the
British troops. The British troops having at length broken the
second Maryland regiment, and turned the left flank of the
Americans, got into the rear of the Virginia brigade, and ap
peared to be gaining their right, which would have encircled the
whole of the continental troops, when General Greene thought
it prudent to retreat. Many of the American militia dispersed
in the woods ; but the continental troops fell back in good order
to the Reedy Fork river, and crossed at the ford, about three
miles from the field of action. When they had collected their
stragglers, they retreated to the iron-works, ten miles distant
from Guildford, where they encamped. They lost their artillery,
and two waggons laden with ammunition. It was a hard fought
battle, and lasted an hour and a half. Of the British troops,
th§ loss, as stated by Lord Cornwallis, was 532 killed, wound
ed, and missing. General Greene, in his account of the action
transmitted to the congress, stated the loss of the continental
troops to be 329 killed, wounded, and missing; but he made no
estimate of the loss of the militia. Lieutenant-colonel Stuart
was killed in the action; and Lieutenant- colonel Webster, and
Captains Schutz, Maynard, and Goodriche, died of their wounds.
General O'Hara, General Howard, and Lieutenant-colonel Tarle
ton, were also wounded. Of the Americans, the principal offi
cer killed was Major Anderson, of the Maryland line ; and Ge
nerals Stephens and Huger were wounded.
The British troops underwent great hardships in the course of
this campaign ; and, in a letter from Lord Cornwallis to Lord
George Germaine, dated March 17th, he observed, that "the
soldiers had been two days without bread." His lordship quitted

'*'*;'

»a-

CONTEST BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN, &C. $0
Guildford three days after the battle ; and, on the 7th oJjiApril,
arrived at Wilmington. General Greene, notwithstanding hjs
latedefeat* endeavoured to make some fresh attempts against
the king's forces iri South Carolina. Lord Rawdon had been
appointed to defend the post of Camden, with about 800 Bri
tish; and, on the 19th of April, General Greene appeared be
fore that place with a large body of continentals and militia.
He found it impossible to storm the town with any prospect of
success ; and therefore endeavoured to take such a position as
should induce the British troops to sally forth from their works;
He posted the Americans about a mile from the town, on an
eminence which was covered with woods, and flanked on the left
by an impassable swamp. On the- morning of the 25th, Lord
Rawdon marched out of Camden, and with great gallantry at
tacked General Greene in his camp. The Americans made a vi
gorous resistance, but were at last compelled to give way, and
the pursuit is said to have been continued three miles. The
loss of the English was about 100 killed and wounded. Up
wards of 100 of the Americans were taken prisoners,; and ^ac
cording to the account published by General Greene, they*- had
126 killed and wounded.
Notwithstanding the advantage which Lord Rawdon had ob
tained, he soon found it necessary to quit his po^t ; and the
Americans made themselves masters of several other posts that
were occupied by the king's troops, aud the garrisons were made
prisoners of war. These were afterwards exchanged under a
cartel which took place between Lord Cornwallis and General
Greene, for the release of all prisoners in the southern district.
After this, General Greene laid siege to Ninety- six, which was
the most commanding and important of all the posts in the
back-settlements ; and, on the 19th of June, he attempted to
storm the garrison, but was repulsed by the British troops, with
the loss of 75 killed and 150 wounded. General Greene then
raised the siege,, and retired behind the Saluda, to a strong situ
ation within sixteeri miles of Ninety-six.
On the 18th of April, a large body of British troops, . under
the command of General Philips and General Arnold, embarked
at Portsmouth, in Virginia, on an expedition for the purpose of
destroying some of the American stores. A party of light infan
try were sent ten miles up the Chickahomany ; where they de-
16. zz

362 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
stroyed several armed ships, sundry warehouses, and the Ameri
can ship-yards. At Petersburgh, they destroyed 4000 hogsheads
of tobacco, one ship, and a number of small vessels on the
stocks and in the river. At Chesterfield, they burnt a range of
barracks for 2000 men, and 300 barrels of flour. At a place
called Osbom's, they made themselves masters of several vessels
loaded with cordage and flour, and destroyed 2000. hogsheads of
tobacco, and sundry vessels were sunk and burnt. At Warwick,
they burnt 500 barrels of flour, some mills belonging to Colonel
Carey, a large range of public rope- walks and store-houses, tan
and bark houses full of hides and bark, and great quantities of
tobacco. A like destruction of stores and goods was made in
other parts of Virginia.
Lord Cornwallis, after his victory over General Greene, at
Guildford, proceeded, as we have seen, to Wilmington , and, on
the 20th of May, his lordship arrived at Petersburg, in Virginia,
where he joined the British troops that had been under the
command of General Philips and General Arnold. Before this
junction, he had encountered considerable inconveniences from
the difficulty of procuring provisions and forage ; so that, in a
letter to Sir Henry Clinton, he informed him, that his cavalry
wanted every thing ; and his infantry every thing but shoes. He
added that he had experienced the distresses of marching hun
dreds of miles in a country chiefly hostile, without one active or
useful friend, without intelligence, and without communication
with any part of the country.
On the 26th of June, about six miles from Williamsburgh,
Lieutenant-colonel Simcoe, and 350 of the queen's rangers^
with 80 mounted yagers, were attacked by a much superior body
of the Americans ; but whom they repulsed with great gallantry
and with equal success, making four officers and twenty private
men prisoners. The loss of the Americans in this action is said
to have been upwards of 120, and that of the British troops'not
more than 40 On the 6th of July, another action happened
near the Green Springs, in Virginia, between a. reconnoitring
party of the Americans, under General Wayne, amounting to
about 800, and a large part of the British army, under Lord
Cornwallis; in which, the Americans had 127 killed and wound
ed ; and the loss of the royal troops is supposed to have been con
siderably greater. It- was an action in which no small degree of

CONTEST BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN, &C. 363
military skill and courage was exhibited by the Americans. In a
variety of skirmishes, the Marquis la Fayette very much distin
guished hknself, and displayed the utmost ardor in the American
cause. Notwithstanding the signal advantages Lord Cornwallis had
obtained, his situation in Virginia began to be very critical ; and
the rather, because he did not receive those reinforcements from
Sir Henry Clinton which he conceived to be necessary for the
success of his operations. Indeed, the commander-in chief was
prevented from sending those reinforcements, by his fears respect
ing New York, against which he entertained apprehensions that
General Washington intended to make a formidable attack. In
fact, the American general appears to have taken much pains,
and to have employed great finesse, to lead Sir Henry Clinton
into this imagination. Letters, expressive of this intention; fell
into the hands of Sir Henry, which were manifestly written to
be intercepted, with a view to amuse and deceive the British
general. The project was successful ; and, by a variety of ma
noeuvres, in which he completely out-generalled the British
commanders, he increased his apprehensions about New York,
and prevented him from sending proper assistance to Lord Corn
wallis. Having thus kept Sir Henry Clinton in perpetual alarm,
General Washington suddenly quitted his camp at White Plains,
crossed the Delaware, and marched towards Virginia, with a
design to attack Lord Cornwallis. Sir Henry Clinton now re
ceived information, that the Count de Grasse, with a large
French fleet, was expected every moment in the Chesapeak, to
co-operate with general Washington. He therefore endeavoured
to communicate this information to Lord Cornwallis; and also
sent him assurances, that he would either reinforce him by every
possible means, or make the best diversion he could in his favor.
In the mean time, Lord Cornwallis had taken possession of the
posts of Yorktown and Gloucester, in Virginia, where he forti
fied himself in the best manner he could.
On the 28th of August, Sir Samuel Hood, with a squadron
from the West Indies, joined the fleet under Admiral Graves,
before New York. It was then necessary, on account of the
situation of Lord Cornwallis, that they should immediately pro
ceed to. the Chesapeak; but much time appears to have been
lost, though Admiral Hood was extremely anxious that no delay

364 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
might be made. They arrived in the Chesapeak on the 5th of
September, with nineteen ships of the line ; where they found
the Count de Grasse, who had come to an anchor, on the 30th
of August, with twenty four ships of the line. The French ad
miral had previously landed a large body of troops, which had
marched to join the American army under General Washington.
The British and French fleets came to an action on the same
day in which the former arrived in the Chesapeak. On-board
the British fleet, 90 were killed and 246 wounded ; some of the
ships were greatly damaged in the engagement, and the Terri
ble, a 74-gun ship, was so much shattered, that it was after
wards found necessary to set her on fire. That this action was
not favorable to the English, was manifest from the event : the
fleets continued in sight of each other for five days succes
sively, and sometimes were very near ; but at length the French
all anchored within the Cape, so as to block up the passage.
Admiral Graves then called a council of war, in which it was
resolved, that the fleet should return to New York, that the
ships might be put into the best state for the service : and thus
were the French left masters of the Chesapeak.
Before the news of this engagement had reached New York, a
council of war had been held, in which it was resolved, that
5000 men should be embarked on-board the king's ships, in or
der to proceed to the assistance of Lord Cornwallis. But, when
it was known that the French were absolute masters of the navi
gation of the Chesapeak, it was thought inexpedient to send off
that reinforcement. In another council of war, it was resolved,
that, as Lord Cornwallis had provisions to last him to the end
of October, it vvas advisable to wait for more favorable accounts
from Admiral Graves, or for the arrival of Admiral Digby, who
was expected with three ships of the line.
In the mean time, the most effectual measures were taken by
General Washington, for surrounding the army under Lord Corn
wallis. A large body of French troops, under the command of
the. Count de Rochambeau, with a considerable train of artillery,
assisted in the enterprise. The Americans amounted to near
8000 continentals, and 5000 militia, General Washington was
commander-in chief of the combined forces of America and
France. On the 29th of September, the investment of Yorktown
was complete, and the British army were quite blocked up. The

CONTEST BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN, &C. 365
day following, Sir Henry Clinton wrote a letter to Lord Corn
wallis, containing assurances that he would do every thing in
his power to relieve him. A duplicate of this letter was sent to
his lordship by Major Cochran, on the 3d of October. That
gentleman, who was a very gallant officer, went in a vessel to
the Capes, and made his way to Lord Cornwallis, undiscovered,
through the whole French fleet, in an open boat. He got to
Yorktown on the 10th of the month ; and, soon after his arrival,
had his head, carried off by a cannon-ball.
York is a small village on the south side of the river which
bears that name, where the long peninsula between the York
and the James is only eight miles wide. In this broad and bold
river a ship of the line may ride in safety. Its southern banks
are high ; and some batteries facing the water had been con
structed on them by a small corps of artillery belonging to the
state of Virginia, formerly stationed at this place. On the op
posite shore is Gloucester Point; a piece of land projecting deep
into the river, and narrowing it at that place, so that it does not
exceed one- mile. Both these posts were occupied by Lord
Cornwallis, who had been assiduous in fortifying them. The
communication between them was commanded by his batteries,
and by some ships of war which lay under his guns.
The main body of his army was encamped in the open ground*
about Yorktown, within a range of outward redoubts and field-
works, calculated to command the peninsula, and impede the
approach of the assailants : and Colonel Tarleton, with a small
detachment, consisting of six or seven hundred men, held the
post at Gloucester Point.
The legion of Lauzun, and a brigade of militia under General
Weedon, the whole commanded by the French general De
Choise, were directed to watch and restrain the enemy on the
side of Gloucester; and on the 28th, the grand combined army
moved down on the south side of the river, by different routes,
towards Yorktown. About noon the heads of the columns ¦
reached the ground respectively assigned to them; and, after
driving in the piquets and some cavalry, encamped for the even
ing. The next day was principally employed in reconnoitring
the situation and works of the garrison, and in digesting the
plans of approach: after which the right wing, consisting of
Americans, extended further to the right, and occupied the

366 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
ground east of Beaver Dam creek; while the left wing, consist
ing of the French, were stationed on the west side of that
creek. In the course of the night Lord Cornwallis withdrew
within his inner lines ; and the next day the works he had eva
cuated were possessed by the besieging army, which now com
pletely and closely invested the town on that side.
No attack on Gloucester Point being intended, the arrange
ments in that quarter were only calculated to keep up a rigorous
blockade ; and the force allotted to this service consisted of ra
ther more than 2000 men. On approaching the lines a sharp
skirmish took place, which terminated unfavorably for the Bri
tish ; after which they remained under cover of their works, and
the blockade sustained no further interruption.
Until the 6th of October, the besieging army was incessantly
employed in disembarking their heavy artillery and military
stores, and drawing them from the landing-place on James river
to camp, a distance of six miles. This work being at length
accomplished, the first parallel was commenced in the night of
the 6th of October, within six hundred yards of the British
lines, with so much silence, that the operation appears to have
been unperceived, till the return of daylight disclosed it to the
garrison. By that time the trenches were in such forwardness
as to cover the men. The loss on this occasion was consequently
inconsiderable. In killed and wounded, it amounted only to one
officer and twenty men, and was principally sustained by the
corps of the Marquis de St. Simon on the left. By the evening
of the 9th several batteries and redoubts were completed, and
cannon mounted in them. A heavy fire was immediately com
menced on the besieged, the effect of which was soon perceived.
Many of their guns were dismounted and silenced, and their
works were in different places demolished. The next day-netv
batteries were opened; and the fire became so heavy that the be
sieged withdrew their cannon from their embrasures, and scarce
ly returned a shot. The shells and red-hot balls from the Ame
rican batteries reached the ships in the harbour ; and in the
evening set fire to the Charon, of forty-four guns, and three large
transports, which were entirely consumed. Reciprocal esteem,
and a spirit of emulation between the French and Americans,
being cultivated with great care by the commander-in-chief, the
siege was carried on with unexampled rapidity. On the night

CONTEST BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN, &C. 367
of the 11th, the second parallel was opened within three hun
dred yards of the British lines. This advance was made so se
cretly, and so much sooner than had been expected, that no
suspicion of the measure seems to have been entertained by the
besieged till day-light discovered the working parties to their
piquets, by which time the trenches had advanced so far, as in a
great measure to cover the men employed in them. The thiee
succeeding days were devoted to the completion of the second
parallel, and of the batteries constructed in it; during which,
the fire of the garrison, who, with indefatigable labor, had
opened several new embrasures, became more destructive than at
any previous time. The men in the trenches were particularly
annoyed by two redoubts, advanced three hundred yards in front
of the British works, which flanked the second parallel of the
besiegers. It was necessary to possess these redoubts; and on
the 14th preparations were made to carry them both by storm.
To avail himself of the spirit of emulation existing between the
troops of the two nations, and to avoid furnishing matter to ex
cite the jealousy of either, the attack of the one was committed
to the Americans, and of the other to the French. The Marquis
de la Fayette commanded the American detachment, composed
of the light infantry, which was intended to act against the re
doubt on the left of the British works on the river bank, and
the Baron de Viominel led the grenadiers and chasseurs of his
country against that which, being further to the British right
approached rather nearer the French lines. Towards the close
of day, the two detachments marched with equal firmness to
the assault. Emulous for glory both for themselves and their
country, every exertion was made by each. Colonel Hamilton
who throughout this campaign, had commanded a battalion of
light infantry, led the advanced corps of the Americans, con
sisting of his own and of Colonel Gimat's battalions ; and Co
lonel Laurens, another aid of the commander-in-chief, turned
the redoubt at the head of eighty men, in order to take the gar
rison in reverse, and intercept their retreat. The troops rushed
on to the charge without firing a single piece ; and so great was
their ardor, that they did not give the sappers time to remove
the abattis and palisades. Passing over them, they assaulted
the works with irresistible impetuosity on all sides at once, and
^ntesed them with such rapidity that their loss was1 inconsi*

868 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
derable. This redoubt was defended by Major Campbell, with
some inferior officers, and forty-five privates. The major, a
captain, an ensign, and seventeen privates, were made prisoners;
eight privates were killed while the Americans were entering the
works, and a few escaped. The redoubt attacked by the French
was defended by a greater number of men ; and the resistance
being greater, was not overcome so quickly, or with so little
loss. Of 120 men commanded by a lieutenant-colonel, who
were originally in this work, 18 were killed, and 42, among
whom were a captain and two subaltern officers, were made
prisoners. In killed and wounded the assailants lost near 100
men. The commander- in chief was highly gratified with the
active courage displayed in the assault. Speaking of it in his
diary, he says, " The bravery exhibited by the attacking troops
was emulous and praiseworthy. Few cases have exhibited greater
proofs of intrepidity, coolness, and firmness, than were shown on
this occasion." The orders of the succeeding day, congratulating
the army on the capture of these important works, expressed a
high sense of the judicious dispositions and gallant conduct of
both the Baron de Viominel and the Marquis de la Fayette ; and
requested them to convey to every officer and man engaged in
the enterprise, the acknowledgments of the commander-in-chief,
for the spirit and rapidity with which they advanced to the at
tack, and for the admirable firmness with which they supported
themselves under the fire of the enemy without returning a shot.
" The general reflects," the orders conclude, " with the highest
degree of pleasure on the confidence which the troops of the
two nations must hereafter have in each other. Assured of mu
tual support, he is convinced there is no danger which they will
not cheerfully encounter, no difficulty which they will not bravely
overcome." In the same night on which these two redoubts were taken,
they were included in the seeond parallel ; and in the cqurse of
the next day, some howitzers were placed in them, which, by
five o'clock in the afternoon, were opened on the besieged.
The situation of Lord Cornwallis was now becoming despe
rate. His works in every quarter were sinking under the fire of
the besiegers. The batteries already playing on him had silenced
nearly all his guns ; and the second parallel was about to openy
which in a few hours must infallibly render the town altogether

CONTEST BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN, &C. 369
untenable. To suspend for a short time a catastrophe which ap
peared almost inevitable, he resolved on attempting to retard the
completion of the second parallel, by a vigorous sortie against
two batteries which appeared to be in the greatest readiness;
and which were guarded by French troops. The party making
this sortie consisted of 350 men, commanded by Lieutenant -colo
nel Abercrombie. It was formed into two detachments ; which*
about four in the morning of the 16th, attacked the two batte
ries with great impetuosity, and carried both with inconsiderable
loss ; but the guards from the trenches immediately advancing
on them, they retreated without being able to effect any thing
important, and the few pieces which they had hastily spiked
were soon rendered fit for service.
About four in the afternoon, the besiegers opened several bat
teries in their second parallel ; and it was apparent that, in the
course of the ensuing day, the whole line of batteries in that
parallel, in which was mounting an immense quantity of artille
ry, would be ready to play on the town. The works of the be
sieged were in no condition to sustain so tremendous a fire.
They were every where in ruins. Their batteries were so over
powered, that in the whole front which was attacked they could
not show a single gun ; and their shells were nearly expended.
In this extremity, Lord Cornwallis formed the bold design of en
deavouring to escape by land with the greater part of his army.
He determined to leave his sick and baggage behind, and N
crossing over in the night with his effectives to Gloucester shore,
to attack de Choice. After cutting to pieces or dispersing the
troops under that officer, he intended to mount his infantry on
the horses belonging to that detachment, and on others to be
seized on the road, arid by a rapid march to gain the fords of
the great rivers ; and, forcing his way through Maryland, Penn
sylvania, and Jersey, to form a junction with the army in New
York. Scarcely a possibility existed that this desperate attempt could'
be crowned with success ; but the actual situation of the British
general had become so absolutely hopeless, that it could scarcely
be changed for the worse.
Boats prepared under other pretexts were held in readiness to
receive the troops at ten at night, in order to convey them over
the river. The arrangements were made with the utmost secre.-
16. 3 a

3f0 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
cy ; and the first embarkation had arrived at the Point unper-
ceived, and part of the troops were landed, when a sudden and
violent storm of wind and rain interrupted the further execution
of this hazardous plan, and drove the boats down the river. It
was not till the appearance of daylight that the storm ceased, so
that the boats could return. They were sent to bring back the
soldiers ; who, without much loss, were relanded on the southern
shore in the course of the forenoon.
,In the morning of the 17th, several new batteries were open
ed in the second parallel, which poured in a weight of fire
no longer to be resisted. Neither the works, nor any of the
town, afforded security to the garrison ; and in the opinion
of Lord Cornwallis, as well as of his engineers, the place was
no longer tenable. About ten in the forenoon his lordship beat
a parley, and proposed a cessation of hostilities for twenty-four
hours, that commissioners might meet at Moore's house, which
was just in the rear of the first parallel, to settle terms for the
surrender of the posts of York and Gloucester. To this letter
the American general immediately returned an answer, declaring
his " ardent desire to spare the further effusion of blood, and his
.readiness to listen to such terms as were admissible;" but as,
in the present crisis, he could not consent to lose a moment in
fruitless negociations, he desired that, " previous to the meeting
of the commissioners, the proposals of his lordship might be
transmitted in writing, for which purpose a suspension of hosti
lities for two hours should be granted." The general propositions
stated by Lord Cornwallis, as forming the basis of the negocia
tion to be entered into, though not all of them admissible, being
such as led to the opinion that no great difficulty would occur in
adjusting the terms of the capitulation, the suspension of hosti-
tilities was prolonged for the night. In the mean time, to avoid
the delay of useless discussion, the commander-in-chief drew
up and proposed such articles as he would be willing to grant.
These were transmitted to Lord Cornwallis; who was at the
same time informed, that if he approved them, commissioners
might immediately be appointed to digest them into form. In
consequence of this message, the* Viscount de Noailles and
Lieutenant- Colonel Laurens were met on the 18th by Colonel
Dundas and Major Ross; but, being unable to adjust defini
tively the terms of the capitulation, only a rough draught of them

CONTEST BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN, &C. 371
could be prepared, which was to be submitted to the considera
tion of the British general. Determined not to expose himself to
those accidents which time might produce, General Washington
could not permit any suspense on the part of Lord Cornwallis.
He therefore immediately directed the rough articles which had
been prepared by the commissioners to be fairly transcribed, and
sent them to his lordship early the next morning, with, a letter
expressing his expectation that they would be signed by eleven,
and that the garrison would march out by two in the afternoon.
Finding all attempts to obtain better terms unavailing, Lord
Cornwallis submitted to a necessity no longer to be avoided ;
and on the 19th of October, surrendered the posts of York
Town and Gloucester Point, with the garrisons which had de
fended them, and the shipping in the harbour with their seamen,
to the land and naval officers of America and France.
The army with the artillery, arms, accoutrements, military
chest, and public stores of every denomination, were surrendered
to General Washington ; the ships and seamen to the Count de
Grasse. The total amount of prisoners, exclusive of seamen,
rather exceeded 7000 men, of whom 5963 were rank and file.
Of this number 4017 are stated to have been fit for duty. The
loss sustained by the garrison during the siege, in killed, wound
ed, prisoners, and missing, amounted to 552 men, including
six officers. The soldiers, accompanied by a due proportion of
officers, were to remain in Virginia, Maryland, and Pennsylvania.
The officers not required for this service were permitted to go on
parole to Europe, or to any maritime port occupied by the Eng
lish in America. Lord Cornwallis earnestly endeavoured to ob
tain permission for his European troops to return to their re-
spfective countries, under the single restriction of not serving
against France or America; but this indulgence was perempto
rily refused. His effort to introduce an article for the security
of those Americans who had joined the British army, was not
more successful. The subject was declared to belong to the civil
authority, and the article was rejected. Its object, however,
was granted without the appearance of conceding it. Lord
Cornwallis was permitted to send the Bonetta sloop of war, un-
searched, with dispatches to Sir Henry Clinton ; and on-board
this vessel were embarked the Americans who were most obnox
ious to their countrymen.

•372 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
There are some circumstances which would indicate that in
this transaction the commander-in-chief held in recollection the
capitulation of Charlestown. The garrison was obliged to march
out of the town with colors cased, but with drums beating either
a British or German march ; and General Lincoln was appoint
ed to receive them on their going through the ceremony of
grounding their arms.
The allied army to which that of Lord Cornwallis surrendered,
may be estimated at 16,000 men. The French were stated, by
the Count de Rochambeauj at 7000. The continental troops
amounted to about 5500, and the militia to about 3500. In the
course of the siege, their loss in killed and wounded was about
300. It is full evidence of the vigor and skill with which the
operations of the besiegers were conducted, that the treaty was
opened on the I lth, and the capitulation signed on the 13th,
day after the ground was first broken before the works. The
whole army merited a high degree of approbation ; but from the
nature of the service, the artillery and engineers were enabled
particularly to distinguish themselves. Generals Du Portail and
Knox were each promoted to the rank of major-general ; Colo
nel Gouvain and Captain Rochfontaine of the corps of engineers,
were each advanced a step by brevet. In addition to the offi
cers belonging to those departments, Generals Lincoln, De la
Fayette, and Steuben, were particularly mentioned by the com
manded in -chief, in the orders issued the day after the capi
tulation ; and terms of peculiar warmth were applied to Gover
nor Nelson, who continued in the field during the whole siege
at the head of the militia of Virginia, and also exerted himself
in a particular manner to furnish the army with all those sup
plies which the country afforded. The highest acknowledg
ments were made to the Count de Rochambeau ; and several
other French officers were named with distinction.
The exultation manifested throughout the United States at
the capture of this formidable army, was equal to the terror it
had inspired. At all times disposed to draw flattering conclu
sions from any favorable event, the Americans now, with more
reason than heretofore, yielded to the suggestions of this san
guine temper, and confidently indulged the hope that the termi
nation of their toils and privations was fast approaching. In

CONTEST BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN, &C. S7S
congress the intelligence was received with a joy proportioned to
the magnitude of the event ; and the sense entertained by that
body of this brilliant achievement was manifested- in various re
solutions returning the thanks of the United States to the com
mander-in-chief, to the Count de Rochambeau, to the Count
de Grasse, to the officers of the allied army generally, and to
the corps of artillery and engineers in particular. In addition to
these testimonials of a grateful nation, it was resolved that a
marble column should be erected at York-town in Virginia, with
emblems of the alliance between the United States and his Most
Christian majesty: and inscribed with a succinct narrative of the
surrender of Earl Cornwallis to his Excellency General Washing
ton, commander-iii-rchief of the combined forces of America and
France; to his Excellency the Count de Rochambeau, command
ing the auxiliary troops of his Most Christian Majesty in Ameri
ca ;' and to his Excellency the Count de Grasse, commanding in
chief the naval armanent of France in the Chesapeak. Two stand
of colors taken in Yorktown were presented to General Washing
ton ; two pieces of field-ordnance to the Count de Rochambeau ;
and application was made to his Most Christian Majesty, to
permit the admiral to accept a testimonial of their approbation,
similar to that presented to the Count de Rochambeau. Con
gress determined to go in solemn procession to the Dutch Lu
theran church, to return thanks to Almighty God for crowning
the allied arms with success by the surrender of the whole Bri
tish army under Lord Cornwallis ; and also issued a proclama
tion appointing the 13th day of December as a day of general
thanksgiving and prayer on account of this signal interposition
of divine Providence.
It was not by congress alone that the public joy for this great
event, and the public approbation of the conduct of General
Washington, were displayed. The most flattering and affec
tionate addresses of congratulation were presented from every
part of the union; and state governments, city authorities, and
learned institutions, vied with each other in the testimonials they
gave of the high sense they entertained of his important servi
ces, and of their attachment to his person and character.
As no rational expectation now remained of a subjugation of
the colonies, the military operations that succeeded in America
were of little consequence. On the 5th of May, 1782, Sir Guy

374 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
Carleton arrived at New York, being appointed to the command
of the British troops in America, in the room of Sir Henry
Clinton. Fortunately for the United States, the temper of the British
nation on the question of continuing the American war was now
materially changed. That war, into which the nation had en
tered with at least as much eagerness as the minister, had now
become almost universally unpopular. Motions against the mea
sures of administration respecting America were repeated by the
opposition, and on every new experiment the strength of the
minority increased. At length, on the 27th of February, Ge
neral Conway moved in the house of commons, " That it is the
opinion of this house that a further prosecution of offensive waT
against America would, under present circumstances, be the
means of weakening the efforts of this country against her Eu
ropean enemies, and tend to increase the mutual enmity so fatal
to the interests both of Great Britain and America." The whole
force of administration was exerted to get rid of this question,
but was exerted in vain, and the resolution was carried. An
address to the king in the words of the motion was immediately
voted, and was presented by the whole house. The answer of
the crown being deemed inexplicit, it was on the 4th of March
resolved by the commons, " That the house will consider as ene
mies to his majesty and the country, 'all those who should
advise or attempt a further prosecution of offensive war on the
continent of North America."
These votes were soon followed by a change of administra
tion, and by conformable instructions to the commanding offi
cers of his Britannic Majesty's forces in America.
While the commander-in-chief was employed in addressing cir
cular letters to the state governments, suggesting all those motives
which concurred to stimulate them to exertions better propor
tioned to the exigency of public affairs, English papers contain
ing the debates in parliament on the various propositions which
had been made respecting America, reached the United States,
Alarmed at the impression these debates might make, he intro
duced the opinions it was deemed prudent to inculcate respect
ing them into the letters he was then about to transmit to the
governors of the several states. " I have perused these debates,"
said he, " with great attention and care ; with a view, if possi*

CONTEST BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN, &C. 375
ble, to penetrate their real design : and upon the most mature
deliberation I can bestow, I am obliged to declare it as my can
did opinion, that the measure, in all its views, so far as it re
spects America, is merely delusory ; having no serious intention
to admit our independence upon its true principles, but is calcu
lated to produce a change of ministers to quiet the minds of
their own people, and reconcile them to a continuance of the
war, while it is meant to amuse this country with a false idea of
peace, to draw us from our connexion with France, and to lull
us into a state of security and inactivity, which taking place,
the ministry will be left to prosecute the war in other parts of
the world with greater vigor and effect. Your Excellency will
permit me on this occasion to observe, that even if the nation
and parliament are really in earnest to obtain peace with Ame
rica, it will undoubtedly be wisdom in us to meet them with
great caution and circumspection, and by all means to keep our
arms firm in our hands ; and instead of relaxing one iota in our
exertions, rather to spring forward with redoubled vigor, that
we may take the advantage of every favorable opportunity until
our wishes are fully obtained. No nation yet suffered in treaty
by preparing (even in the moment of negociation) most vigo
rously for the field. The industry which the enemy are using to
propagate their pacific reports, appears to me a circumstance
very suspicious ; and the eagerness with which the people, as I
am informed, are catching at them, is, in my opinion, equally
dangerous." Early in May, Sir Guy Carleton, who had succeeded Sir Hen
ry Clinton in the command of all the British forces in the Uni
ted States, arrived at New York. Having been also appointed,
in conjunction with Admiral Digby, a commissioner to negociate
a peace, he lost no time in conveying to General Washington
copies of the votes of the British parliament, and of a bill which
had been introduced on the part of administration, authorising
his Majesty to conclude a peace or truce with those who were
still denominated the revolted colonies of North America. These
papers, he said, would manifest the dispositions prevailing with
the government and people of England towards those of Ameri
ca; and if the- like pacific temper should prevail in this country,
both inclination and duty would lead him to meet it with the
most zealous concurrence. He had addressed to congress, he

376 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
said, a letter containing the same communications, and he
solicited from the American general a passport for the person
who should convey it.
At this time, the bill enabling the British Monarch to con
clude a "peace or truce with America had not passed into a law;
nor was any assurance given that the present commissioners pos
sessed the power to offer other terms than those which had for
merly been rejected. General Carleton therefore could not hope
that negociations would commence on such a basis ; nor be dis
appointed that the passports he requested were refused by con-!.
gress, to whom the application- was, of course, referred. The
letter might have been written for the general purpose of conci
liation, and of producing in the United States on the subject of
hostilities a disposition corresponding with that which had been
expressed in the house of commons. But the situation of the
United States justified a suspicion of different motives ; and
prudence required that their conduct should be influenced by
that suspicion. The unwillingness with which the king would
assent to the dismemberment of the empire, was understood ; and
it was thought not improbable that the sentiments expressed in
the house of commons might be attributable rather to the desire
of changing those who had administered the government, than
to any fixed determination to relinquish the design of reannex-
ing America to the British crown. Under these impressions, the
overtures now made were considered as opiates administered to
lull into a state of fatal repose the spirit of vigilance which the
guardians of the public safety labored still to keep up, and to pre
vent those measures of security which it might yet be necessary
to adopt. This jealousy was nourished by all the intelligence re
ceived from Europe. Either to avoid an acknowledgment of the
independence of the United States, or to obtain a peace on
terms more favorable than could be expected from a conjoint ne
gociation with all the powers engaged" in the war, the utmost
address of the British cabinet had been employed to detach her
enemies from each other. The. mediation of Russia had been
accepted to procure a separate peace with Holland ; propositions
had been submitted both to France and Spain, tending to an
accommodation of differences with those powers singly; and in
quiries had been made of Mr. Adams, the American minister at
the Hague, which seemed to contemplate the same object with

CONTEST BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN, &C. 377
regard to the United States. ' These political manoeuvres were
communicated to congress, and the communication furnished
additional motives for doubting the sincerity of the English ca
binet. But whatever views migt actuate the court of St. James
on this subject, the resolution pf the American government to
enter into no separate treaty was unalterable. On this occasion
the several states passed resolutions expressing their objections
to separate negociations, and declaring those to be enemies to
America who should attempt to treat without the authority of
congress. But the public votes which have been stated, and
probably the private instructions given to the British general,
restrained him from offensive war, and the state of the American
army disabled General Washington from making any attempt on
the posts held by the enemy. The campaign of 1782 conse
quently passed away without furnishing any military operations of
moment between the armies under the immediate direction of the
respective commanders-in-chief. Early in August, .a letter was
received by General Washington from Sir Guy Carleton and
Admiral Digby, which, among other communications,* mani
festing a pacific disposition' on the part of England, contained
the information that they had received official assurances that
Mr. Grenville was at Paris, invested with full powers to treat
with all the parties at war, and that negociations for a general
peace had already commenced. They further stated, that in
order to remove all obstacles' to a peace, his Majesty had com
manded his ministers to direct Mr. Grenville, that the indepen
dence of the thirteen provinces should be proposed by him in
the first instance, instead of being made a condition of a general
treaty ; but that this proposition would be made in the confi
dence that the loyalists would be restored to their possessions, or
a full compensation allowed them for whatever confiscations
might have taken place.
This letter was not long afterwards followed by one from Sir
Guy Carleton, in which he declared that he could discern no
further object of contest ; and that he disapproved of all further
hostilities both by sea and land, which could only tend tomulti-
ply the miseries of individuals, without any possible advantage
* This letter gave intelligence of the liberation of Mr. Laurens, and that
transports were prepared to convey American prisoners hitherto detained in
England.
16. 3 b

378 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. i
to either nation. In pursuance of this opinion, he had, soorr
after his arrival in New York, restrained the practice of detach
ing parties of Indians against the frontiers of the United States,
and had recalled those which were previously engaged in those
bloody incursions. These communications appear to have
alarmed the jealousy of the minister of France. To quiet his
fears, the resolution was renewed, '•' that congress would enter
into no discussion of any overtures for pacification, but in confi
dence and in concert with his Most Christian Majesty." At the
same time it was again recommended to the several states to
adopt such measures as would most effectually guard against all
intercourse with any subjects of the British crown during the
War The inactivity which prevailed in the north, was in some
measure communicated to the armies of the south.
On the 4th of January, General St. Clair reached the head
quarters of General Greene, with the troops detached from
Yorktown; but they had been so weakened by the casualties
of a long march, that they did not much more than supply the
places of those soldiers who were entitled to a discharge on the
lasl day of December. Soon after receiving this reinforcement,
General Wayne was detached with a part of the army over the
Savannah river, for the purpose of protecting the state of Geor
gia. On his approach, the British troops in that state were
concentred in the town of Savannah, where they were frequently
insulted by Wayne. Some sharp skirmishes took place between
them which terminated to the advantage of the Americans. > But
the evacuation of their posts being a necessary part of the plan
for discontinuing offensive operations in America, the garrisou
Was withdrawn from the town of Savannah on the 11th of July.
Charlestown was held until the 14th of December, although
the intention of evacuating that place had been announced in
the general orders of the 7th of August. Previous to"that time,
General Leslie had proposed a suspension of hostilities, to which
General Greene did not think himself at liberty to accede. But
no further military operations took place, than a few light skir
mishes with foraging parties.
From the arrival of Sir Guy Carleton at New York, the con
duct of the British armies on the American continent was regu
lated by the spirit then recently displayed in the house of com-

CONTEST BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN, &C. 379
snons ; and all the sentiments expressed by their general were
pacific, and in a high degree conciliatory. But to these flatter
ing appearances it was dangerous to yield implicit confidence.
With a change of men, a change of -measures might also take
place ; and in addition to the ordinary suggestions of prudence,
the military events in the West Indies were well calculated to
keep alive the attention, and to continue the anxieties, of the
United States.
Immense preparations had been made for the invasion of Ja
maica; and early in April, Admiral Count de Grasse sailed from
Martinique with a powerful fleet, having on-board the land for
ces and artillery which were to be employed in the operations
-against that island. His intention was to form a junction with
the Spanish Admiral Don Solano, who lay at Hispaniola ; after
which, the combined fleet, whose superiority promised to render
it irresistible, was to proceed immediately on the important en
terprise which had been concerted. On his way to Hispaniola, .
De Grasse was overtaken by Rodney, and brought to an engage
ment, in which he was totally defeated, and was himself made a
prisoner. This decisive victory disconcerted the plans of the
combined- powers, and gave security to the British islands; in
the United States it was feared that this alteration in the aspect
of affairs might influence the deliberations of the" English cabi
net on the question of peace ; and these apprehensions increased
the uneasiness with which all intelligent men contemplated the
state of the American finances.
The small and inadequate sums which were paid by the states,
came so slowly into the hands of the minister of finance, that
neither the military nor civil establishments • could have been
supported, had not the high reputation of that officer enabled ,
him to make anticipations to a great extent ; and had he not
firmly resisted every temptation to divert the funds he could com
mand, from the most essential objects to others which, though
pressing heavily on him, were yet of minor importance Almost
every other expenditure yielded to the subsistence of the army ;
and it was with difficulty scarcely to be credited that money eyen
for this purpose could be obtained. - v
So late as the month of August, not more than 80,000 dol
lars had been received from all the states. In every department
the utmost distress prevailed. To the bare subsistence of the

380 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
army scarcely any thing could be added: to pay the troops was
impossible. After an intricate negociation, in which the penetration, judg
ment, and firmness, of the American commissioners were emi--
nently displayed, eventual and preliminary articles were signed
on the 30th of November. By this treaty every 'reasonable wish
of America, especially on the questions of the fisheries and of
boundaries, was gratified. The liberality of the articles on these
points attests the success which attended the endeavours of the
plenipotentiaries on the part of the United States, to prove that
the real interests of England required that America should be
come independent in fact as well as name, and that every cause
of future discord between the two nations should be removed.
On the part of the United States, it was stipulated that creditors
should be permitted to recover their debts ; that congress would
recommend the restoration of the estates of real British subjects
which had been confiscated during the war, and that no future
confiscations should be made. The effect of this treaty was sus
pended till peace should be concluded between France and Great
Britain. The connexions between his Most Christian and Most
Catholic Majesty not admitting of a separate peace on the part
of either, the negociations between the belligerent powers of
Europe had been protracted by the perseverance with which
Spain persisted in her endeavours to obtain the cession of Gib
raltar. At length, the formidable armanent which had invested
that fortress was repulsed with immense slaughter ; after which,
the place was relieved by Lord Howe, and the besiegers in de
spair abandoned the enterprise. Negociations were then taken
up with sincerity; and preliminary articles of peace between
Great Britain, France, and Spain, were signed on the 20th of
January, 1783.
In America, the approaoh of peace, combined with other
causes, produced a state of things highly interesting and critical.
There was much reason to fear that congress possessed neither
the power nor the inclination to comply with its engagements to
the army ; and the officers who had wasted their fortunes and
their prime of life in unrewarded service, could not look with
unconcern at the prospect which was opening to them. In De
cember, soon after going into winter quarters, they presented a
petition to congress respecting the money actually due to them;

CONTEST BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN, &C. 381
and a commutation of the half-pay stipulated by the resolutions
of October 1780, for a sum in gross, which they flattered them
selves would be less objectionable than the half-pay establish
ment. Some security that the engagements of the government
would be complied with, was also requested.
A committee of officers were deputed to solicit the attention
of congress to this memorial, and to attend its progress through
the house.
Among the most distinguished members of the federal legis
lature were persons sincerely disposed to do ample justice to the
public creditors generally, and to that class of them in particular,
whose claims were founded in military service. But there were
many who viewed the army with a jealous eye, who acknow
ledged their merits with unwillingness, and involuntarily betray
ed their repugnance to a faithful observance of the public en
gagements. With this question was connected one of equal im
portance, on which congress was divided almost in the same
manner. One party was attached to state, the other to conti
nental, politics. The latter labored to fund the public debts on
solid continental securities, while the former opposed their whole
weight to measures calculated to effect that object. In the last
party were to be found the best talents and the most discerning
patriotism of America ; but the system of government opposed
to their views obstacles not to be surmounted. In consequence
of these divisions on the most interesting points, the business of
the army advanced slowly; and -the important question respect
ing the commutation of their half- pay remained undecided in
March, when intelligence was received of the signature of the
preliminary and eventual articles of peace between the United
States and Great Britain.
Soured by tbeir past sufferings, their present wants, and their
gloomy prospects ; and exasperated by the neglect with which
they believed themselves to be treated, and by the injustice sup
posed to be meditated against them : the ill temper of the army
was almost universal, and seemed to require only a slight im
pulse to give it activity. To render this temper the more dange
rous, an opinion had been insinuated, that the commander-in-
chief was restrained hy extreme delicacy from advocating their
interests with that zeal which his feelings and knowledge of
their situation had inspired. Early in March, a letter was re-

382 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA*
ceived from their committee in Philadelphia, purporting that the
objects they solicited had not been obtained. On the 10th of
that month, an anonymous paper was circulated, requiring a
meeting of the general and field officers at the public building
on the succeeding day at eleven in the morning. It was also
announced, that an officer from each company, and a delegate
from the medical staff, would be expected. The object of the
convention was to be, " to consider the late letter from their re
presentatives in Philadelphia, and what measures (if any) should
be adopted to obtain that redress of grievances which they
seemed to have solicited in vain." On the same day was pri
vately circulated an address to the army, admirably well prepa
red to work on the passions of the moment, and to conduct
them to the most desperate resolutions.
Persuaded as the officers in general were of the indisposition
of government to remunerate their services, this eloquent and
passionate address, dictated by genius and by feeling, found in
almost every bosom a kindred though latent sentiment, prepared
to receive its impression. Like the train to which a torch is ap
plied, the passions quickly caught its flame, and nothing seemed
to be required but the assemblage invited on the succeeding day
to communicate the conflagration to the combustible mass, and
to produce an explosion alike tremendous and ruinous. Fortu
nately the commander-in-chief was in camp. His characteristic
firmness and decision did not forsake him in this crisis. The
occasion required that his measures should be firm, but prudent
and conciliatory ; evincing his fixed determination to oppose any
rash proceedings, but calculated to assuage the irritation which
was excited, and to restore a confidence in government.
This course he at once adopted. Knowing well that is was
much easier to avoid intemperate measures, than to correct
them, he thought it of essential importance to prevent the im
mediate meeting of the officers ; but knowing also that a sense
of injury and fear of injustice had made a deep impression on
them, and that their sensibilities were all alive to the proceed
ings of congress on their memorial, he thought it more advisable
to guide than to discountenance their deliberations on that inte
resting subject. With these views, he noticed in his orders the
anonymous paper proposing a meeting of the officers, and ex
pressed the conviction he felt that their good sense would secure

CONTEST BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN, &C. 333
them from paying any " attention to such an irregular invita
tion ; but his own duty," he conceived, " as well as the reputa
tion and true interest of the army, required his disapprobation
of such disorderly proceedings. At the same time he requested
the general and field officers, with one officer from each compa
ny, and a proper representative from the staff of the army, to
Assemble at twelve on Saturday the 15th, at the New Building,
to hear the report of the committee deputed by the army to
congress. After mature deliberation, they will devise what fur
ther measures ought to be adopted as most rational, and best
calculated to obtain the just and important object in view."
The senior officer in rank, present, was' directed to preside, and
to report the result of the deliberations to the commander-in-
chief. The day succeeding that on which these orders were
published, a second anonymous address appeared from the same
pen which had written the former.
Acquainted with the discontents of the army, its author did
not despair of impelling the officers to the desired point. Af
fecting to consider the orders in a light favorable to his views,
he said: "Till now, the commander-in-chief has regarded the
steps you have taken for redress with good wishes alone. His
ostensible silence has authorised your meetings, and his pri
vate opinion has sanctified your claims. Had he disliked the
object in view, would not the same sense of duty which forbade
you from meeting on the third day of the week, have forbidden
you from meeting on the seventh ? is not the same subject held
up for your discussion ? and has it not passed the seal of office,
and taken all the solemnity of an order ? This will give system-
to your proceedings, and stability to your resolves. It will ripen
speculation into fact; and while it adds to the unanimity, it can
not possibly lessen the iadependence, of your sentiments. It
may be necessary to add upon this subject, that from the in
junction with which the general orders close, every man is at
liberty to conclude that the report to be made to head-quarters
is intended for congress. Hence will arise another motive for
that energy which has been recommended : for can you give the
lie to the pathetic descriptions of your representations, and the
more alarming predictions of your friends ?"
But, incapable of acting on motives not to be'avowed, Wash
ington would not permit himself to be misunderstood. The in-

384 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
teryal between his orders and the general meeting they invited,
was employed in impressing on those officers individually who
possessed the greatest share of the general confidence, a just
sense of what the exigency required ; and the whole weight of
his influence was exerted to bring the agitations of the moment
to a happy termination. This was a work of no inconsiderable
difficulty. So convinced were many of them, that government
designed to deal unfairly by them, that only the reliance they
placed on their general, and their attachment to him, could
have moderated their resentments so far as to induce them to
adopt the measures he recommended :
On the 15th the convention of officers assembled, and Gene
ral Gates took the chair. The commander-in-chief then ad
dressed them in a speech the most impressive ; in which he pla
ced the perfidious counsels of the anonymous incendiary in so
clear and convincing point of view, as to remove entirely the
unfavorable impression which had been made upon their minds ;
and the officers after passing a vote of thanks to their venerated
chief, unanimously agreed to the following resolutions.
" Resolved unanimously, That at the commencement of the
present war the officers of the American army engaged in the
service of their country, from the purest love and attachment to
the rights and liberties of human nature, which motives still exist
in the highest degree; and that no circumstance of distress' or
danger shall induce a conduct that may tend to sully the reputa
tion and glory which they have acquired, at the price of their
blood and eight years' faithful services.
" Resolved unanimously, That the army continue to have an
unshaken confidence in the justice of congress and their country,
and are fully convinced that the representatives of America will
not disband or disperse the army until their accounts are liqui
dated, the balances accurately ascertained, and adequate funds
established for payment ; and in this arrangement, the officers
expect that the half-pay, or a commutation for it, should be
efficaciously comprehended.
"Resolved unanimously, That his excellency the commander-
in-chief be requested to write to his excellency the, president of
congress, earnestly entreating the most speedy decision of that
honorable body upon the subject of our late address, which was
forwarded by a committee of the army, some of whom are wait-

CONTEST BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN, &C. 385
itig upon congress for the result.. In the alternative of peace or
war, this event would be highly satisfactory ; aud would produce
immediate tranquillity in the minds of the army, and prevent any
further machinations of designing men to sow discord between
the civil and military powers of the United States.
"On motion, resolved unanimously, That the officers of the
American army view with abhorrence, and reject with disdain,
the infamous propositions contained in a late anonymous address
to the officers of the army, and resent with indignation the secret
attempts of, some unknown persons to collect the officers toge
ther, in a manner totally subversive of all discipline and good
order. " Resolved unanimously, That the thanks of the officers of
the army be given to the committee who presented to congress
the late address of the army, for the wisdom and prudence with
which they have conducted that business : and that a copy of
the proceedings of this day be transmitted by the president to
Major-general M'Dougall ; and that he be requested to continue
his solicitations at congress, until the objects of his mission are
accomplished." The storm which had so suddenly and unexpectedly been
raised being thus happily dissipated, the commander-in-chief
exerted all his influence in support of the application the officers
had made to congress. The letter written by him on the occa--
sion will show that he was not impelled to this measure by the
engagements he had entered into more strongly than by his
feelings. " The result of the proceedings of the grand convention of the
officers, which I have the honor of enclosing to your excellency,
for the inspection of congress, will, I flatter myself, be consi
dered as the last glorious proof of patriotism which could have
been given by men who aspired to the distinction of a patriot
army, and will not only confirm their claim to the justice, but
will increase their title to the gratitude of their country.
" Having seen the proceedings on the part of the army termi
nate with perfect unanimity, and in a manner entirely consonant
to my wishes ; being impressed with the liveliest sentiments of
affection for those who have so long, so patiently, and so cheer
fully, suffered and fought under my immediate direction ; having,
from motives of justice, duty, and gratitude, spontaneously of-
17. 3 C

386 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
fered myself as an advocate for their rights ; and having been
requested to write to your excellency, earnestly entreating the
most speedy decision of congress upon the subjects of the late
address from the army to that honorable body ; it now only re
mains for me to perform the task I have assumed, and to inter
cede in their behalf, as I now do, that the sovereign power will
be pleased to verify the predictions I have pronounced of, and
the confidence the army have reposed in, the justice of their
country. "And here I humbly conceive it is altogether unnecessary
(while I am pleading the cause of an army which have done and
suffered more than any other army ever did in the defence of the
rights and liberties of human nature) to expatiate on their claims
to the most ample compensation for their meritorious services;
because they are perfectly known to the whole world, and be
cause (although the topics are inexhaustible) enough has already
been said on the subject. To prove these assertions, to evince
that my sentiments have ever been uniform, and to show what
my ideas of the rewards in question have always been, I appeal
to the archives of congress, and call on those sacred deposits to
witness for me. And in order that my observations and argu
ments in favor of a future adequate provision for the officers of
the army may be brought to remembrance again, and considered
in a single point of view, without giving congress the trouble of
having recourse to their files, I will beg leave to transmit here
with an extract from a representation made by me to a commit
tee of congress, so long ago as the 20th of January, 1778, and
also the transcript of a letter to the president of congress, dated
near Passaic Falls, October 11, 1780.
"That in the critical and perilous moment when the last-
mentioned communication was made, there was the utmost dan
ger a dissolution of the army would have taken place, unless
measures similar to those recommended had been adopted, will
not admit of a doubt. That the adoption of the resolution
granting half-pay for life has been attended with all the happy
consequences I had foretold, so far as respected the good of the
service, let the astonishing contrast between the state of the
armv at this instant and at the former period determine. And
that the establishment of funds, and security of the payment of
all the just demands of the army, will be the most certain means

CONTEST BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN, &C. 387
of preserving the national faith and future tranquillity of this
extensive continent, is my decided opinion.
" By the preceding remarks it will be readily imagined, that
instead of retracting and reprehending (from farther experience
and reflection), the mode of compensation so strenuously urged
iri the enclosures, I am more and more confirmed in the senti
ment ; and if in the wrong, suffer me to please myself in the
grateful delusion. For if, besides the simple pajment of their
wages, a further compensation is not due to the sufferings and
sacrifices of the officers, then have I been mistaken indeed. If
the whole army have not merited whatever a grateful people can
bestow, then have I been beguiled by prejudice, and built opi
nion on the basis of error. If this country should not in the
event perform every thing which has been requested in the late
memorial to congress, then will my belief become vain, and the
hope that. has been excited void of foundation. And if (as has
been suggested for the purpose of inflaming their passions) the
officers of the army ' are to be the only sufferers, by this revolu
tion ; if, retiring from the field, they are to grow old in poverty,
wretchedness, and contempt ; if they are to wade through the
vile mire of dependency, and owe the miserable remnant of that
life to charity, which has hitherto been spent in honor;' then
shall I have learned what ingratitude is ; then shall I have real
ized a tale which will embitter every moment of my future life.
" But I am under no such apprehensions : a country rescued
by their arms from impending ruin, will never leave unpaid the
debt of gratitude.
" Should any intemperate and improper warmth have mingled
itself among the foregoing observations, I must entreat your ex
cellency and congress that it may be attributed to the effusions
of an honest zeal in the best of causes, and that my peculiar si
tuation may be my apology ; and 1 hope I need not on this mo
mentous occasion make any new protestations of disinterested
ness, having ever renounced for myself the idea of pecuniary
reward. The consciousness of having attempted faithfully to
discharge my duty, and the approbation of my country, will b?
a sufficient recompence for my services.
" I have the honor to be," &C.
These proceedings of the army produced a concurrence of

388 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
nine states in favor of a resolution commuting the half-pay into*
a sum in gross equal to five years frill pay.
But the value of this resolution depended on the success of re.
quisitions, and of applications to the respective states to place
permanent funds in the power of congress.
The treaty between the United States and Great Britain being
eventual, it furnished no security against a continuance of the
calamities of war, and the most serious fears were entertained
that the difficulties opposed to a general pacification would not
be removed. On the 24th of March these fears were entirely
dispelled by a letter from the Marquis de la Fayette, announcing
a general peace. This intelligence, though not official, was cer
tain; and orders wore immediately issued recalling all armed ves
sels cruising under the authority of the United States. Early in
April the copy of a declaration, published in Paris, and signed by
the American commissioners, notifying the exchange of ratifica
tions of the preliminary articles between Great Britain and France,
was received; and on the 19th of that month the cessation of
hostilities was proclaimed.
The attention of congress might now safely be turned to the
reduction of the continental army. This Was a critical operation,
'and in the present state of the funds by no means exempt from
"danger. Independent of the anxieties which the officers would
naturally feel respecting their future provision, Which of neces
sity remained unsecured, large arrears of pay were due to them,
the immediate receipt of part of which was necessary to supply
the most urgent wants. To disband an army to which the go
vernment was greatly indebted, without furnishing the means of
conveying the individuals who composed it to their respective
'homes, could scarcely be undertaken ; and congress was unable
to advance the pay of a single month. Although, for the year
"17S2j eight millions had been required, the payments made into
the public treasury under that requisition had amounted to only
420,03 1§£ dollars, and the foreign loans had not been sufficient
to defray expences it was impossible to avoid. At the close of
that year, the expenditures of the superintendent of the finances
had exceeded his receipts by 404,7 13$y dollars, and the excess
continued to increase.
Although it was deemed a necessary precaution to declare
that the troops entered for the war should not be considered as

CONTEST BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN, &C. 38<?
entitled to' a discharge till the definitive treaty of peace should
be signed, the commander-in-chief was instructed to grant fur
loughs to the non-commissioned officers and soldiers of this de
scription, who were not required to rejoin their regiments. By
this prudent measure, it was intended to diminish the hazard of
disbanding an unpaid army. Congress urged the states to com
ply so far with the requisitions as to enable the superintendent of
the finances to advance a part of the arrears due to the soldiers ;
but as the foreign danger diminished, they became still less at
tentive to these demands ; and the financier was under the ne
cessity of making further anticipations of the revenue. Mea
sures were taken to advance three months pay in his notes-; but
before they could be prepared, the orders were issued for com
plying with the resolution of congress for granting furloughs.
These orders produced a serious alarm. The generals and other
officers commanding regiments and corps cantoned on the Hud
son assembled, and presented an address to the commander-in-
chief, in which the most ardent affection to his person, and con
fidence in his attachment to the interests of the army, were min
gled with expressions of profound duty arid respect for the go
vernment. But they declared, that after the late explanations
on their claims, they had confidently expected that their ac
counts Would be liquidated, the balances ascertained, and ade
quate funds for the payment of those balances provided, before
they should be dispersed or disbanded.
Bound to the army by the strongest ties of affection and of
gratitude, intimately convinced of the justice of their claims,
and of the patriotic principles by which, they were influenced,
the general was induced by sentiment, not less than by pru
dence, to regard their application. On the succeeding day he
returned an answer, in which, after declaring, "that as no man
could possibly be better acquainted than himself with the past
merits and services of the army, so no one could be more strong
ly impressed with their present ineligible situation, feel ;a keener
.sensibility at their distresses, or more ardently desire to alleviate
or remove them ;" he added : " Although the officers of the
army very well know my official situation, that I am only a ser
vant of the public, and that it is not for me to dispense with
orders which it is my duty to carry into execution; yet, as
furloughs in all services are considered as a matter of indulgence,

390 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
and not of compulsion ; as congress, I am persuaded, entertain
the best disposition towards the army ; and as, I apprehend, in
a very short time the two principal articles of complaint will be
removed ; until the further pleasure of congress can be known,
I shall not hesitate to comply with the wishes of the army,
under these reservations only : that officers sufficient to conduct
the men who choose to have furloughs will attend them, either
on furlough, or by detachment."
With this answer the officers were completely satisfied. The
utmost good temper was universally manifested, and the arrange
ments for retiring on furlough were made without a murmur.
In the course of the summer, a considerable proportion of the
ttoops enlisted for three years were also permitted to return to
their homes : and in October a proclamation was issued by con
gress, declaring all those who had engaged for the war to be dis
charged on the 3d of December.
While these excellent dispositions were manifested by the ve
terans serving under the immediate eye of their patriot chief,
the government was exposed to insult and outrage from the mu
tinous spirit of a small party of the new levies. About eighty of
this description of troops belonging to the state of Pennsylvania,
were stationed at Lancaster. Revolting against the authority of
their officers, they marched in a body to Philadelphia, with the
avowed purpose of obtaining a redress of their grievances from
the executive council of the state.
The march of these insolent mutineers was unobstructed ; and
after arriving in Philadelphia, they were joined by some other
troops quartered in the barracks, so as to amount to about three
hundred men.
They then marched in military parade, with fixed bayonets, to
the state-house, where congress and the executive council of the
state were sitting. After placing sentinels at all the doors, they
sent in a written message, threatening the president and council
of the state to let loose an enraged soldiery upon them, if their
demands were not gratified in twenty minutes. Although the
resentments of this banditti were not directed particularly against
Congress, the government of the union was grossly insulted, and
those who administered it were blockaded for several hours by
an insolent and licentious soldiery. After remaining in this situ
ation about three hours, congress separated, having fixed on

CONTEST BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN, &C. 391
Princeton as the place at which they should reassemble. On re
ceiving information of this outrage, the commander-in-chief in
stantly detached 1500 men, under the command of Major-ge
neral Howe, to suppress the mutiny. The indignation which
this insult to the civil authority had occasioned, and the mortifi
cation with which he viewed the misconduct of any portion of
the American troops, were strongly marked in his letter written
on that occasion to the president of congress.
" While," said he, " I suffer the most poignant distress in ob
serving that a handful of men, contemptible in numbers, and
equally so in point of service, if the veteran troops from the
southward have not been seduced by their example, and who are
not worthy to be called soldiers, should disgrace themselves and
their country as the Pennsylvania mutineers have done, by in
sulting the sovereign authority of the United States, and that of
their own ; I feel an inexpressible Satisfaction, that even this"
behaviour cannot stain the fame of the American soldiery. It
cannot be imputable to, or reflect dishonor on, the army at
large ; but, on the contrary, it will, by the striking contrast it
exhibits, hold up to public view the troops in the most advanta
geous point of light. Upon taking all the circumstances into
consideration, I cannot sufficiently express my surprise and in
dignation at the arrogance, the folly, and the wickedness, of the
mutineers; nor can I sufficiently admire the fidelity, the bravery,
and patriotism, which must for ever signalize the unsullied cha
racter of the other corps of our army. For when we consider
that these Pennsylvanian levies, who have now mutinied, are
recruits, and soldiers of a day, who have not borne the heat and
burden of the war, and who can have in reality very few hard
ships to complain of; and when we, at the same time, recollect
that those soldiers, who have lately been furloughed from this
army, are the veterans who have patiently endured hunger, na
kedness, and cold, who have suffered and bled without a mur
mur, and who, with perfect good order, have retired to their
homes, without a settlement of their accounts, or a farthing of
money in their pockets ; we shall be as much astonished at the
virtues of the latter as we are struck with horror and detestation
at the proceedings of the former : and every candid mind, with
out indulging ill-grounded prejudices, will undoubtedly make the
proper discrimination."

392 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
Before the detachment from the army could reach Philadel
phia, the disturbances were in a great degree quieted without
bloodshed; but Major-general Howe was ordered by congress to
-continue his march into Pennsylvania, " in order that immediate
measures might be taken to confine and bring to trial all such
persons belonging to the army as have been principally active in
the late mutiny, to disarm the remainder, aud to examine fully
into all the circumstances relating thereto."
The interval between the treaty with great Britain, and his
retiring into private life, was devoted by the- commander-in-chief
to objects of permanent utility. The independence of his coun
try being established, he looked forward with anxiety to its fu
ture destinies. These might greatly depend on the- systems to be
adopted on the return of peace ; and to those systems much .pf
his attention was directed. Among the various interesting
subjects which at this period claimed the consideration of con
gress, was the future peace-establishment of the United States.
As the experience of General Washington would certainly1 enable
him to suggest many useful ideas on this imp'ortant point, his
opinions respecting it were requested by the committee to whom
it was referred. His letter on this occasion, which, it is presu
med, was deposited in the archives of state, will long deserve
the attention of those to whom the interests of the United
States may be confided. On a well regulated and disciplined
militia during peace,, his strongest hopes of securing the future
tranquillity, dignity, and respectability of his country were pla
ced ; and his sentiments on this subject are entitled to the more
regard, as a long course of severe experience had enabled him to
mark the total incompetency of the existing system to the great.
purposes of national defence.
At length, on the 25th of November, the British troops eva-.
cuated New York, and a detachment from the American army
took possession of that town. The guards; being posted for the
security of the citizens, General Washington, accompanied by
Governor Clinton, and attended by many civil and military offi
cers, and a large number of respectable inhabitants on horse
back, made his public entry into the city, where he was received
with every mark of respect and attention. His military course
was now on the point of terminating ; and, previous to divesting

CONTEST BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN, &C. 393
himself of the supreme command, he was about to bid adieu to
his comrades in arms.
This affecting interview took place on the 4th of December.
At noon, the principal officers of the army assembled at Fran
ces' tavern ; soon after which, their beloved commander entered
the room. His emotions were too strong to be concealed. Fillr
ing a glass, he turned to them, and said, " With a heart full of
love and gratitude, I now take leave of you : I most devoutly
wish that your latter days may be as prosperous and happy, as
your former ones have been glorious and honorable." Having
drunk, he added : " I cannot come to each of you to take my
leave, but shall be obliged to you, if each of you will come and
take me by the hand." General Knox, being nearest, turned to
him. Incapable of utterance, Washington grasped his hand,
and embraced him. In the same affectionate manner he took
leave of eaeh succeeding officer. In every eye was the tear of
dignified sensibility, and not a word was articulated to interrupt
the majestic silence, and the tenderness of the scene. Leaving
the room, he passed through the corps of light infantry, and
walked to Whitehall, where a barge waited to convey him to
Powles-hook. The whole company followed in mute and solemn
procession, with dejected countenances, testifying feelings of de
licious melancholy, which no language can describe. Having
entered the barge, he turned to the company, and, waving hjs
hat, bade them a silent adieu.
They paid him the same affectionate compliment, and after
the barge had left them, returned in the same solemn manner to
the place where they had assembled.
Congress was then in session at Annapolis in Maryland, to
which place General Washington repaired, for the purpose of re
signing into their hands the authority with which they had in
vested him.* He arrived on the 19th of December. The next
* On his way he stopped a few days at Philadelphia, for the purpose of
settling his accounts with the comptroller. The following account of this
part of his duty is extracted from Mr. Gordon. '* While in the city, he de
livered in his accounts to the comptroller down to December the 13th, all in
his own hand-writing, and every entry made in the most particular manner,
stating the occasion of each charge, so as to give the least trouble in examin
ing and comparing them with the vouchers with which they were attended.
" The heads are as follows, copied from the felio manuscript paper book,
in the file of the treasury-office, No. 3700; being a black box of tin, eon-
taining. under lock and key, both that and the vouchers,
17. 3d

HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
day, he informed that body of his intention to ask leave to re*
sign the commission he had the honor of holding in their ser
vice, and requested to know whether it would be their pleasure
that he should offer his resignation in writing, or at an audience.
To give the more dignity to the act, they determined that it
should be offered at a public audience on the following Tuesday,
December 23d, at twelve o'clock.
When the hoUr arrived for performing a ceremony so well cal
culated to recal to the mind the Various interesting scenes which
had passed since the commission now to be returned was grant-
' Total of expenditures from 1175 to 1783, exclusive of provi
sions from commissaries and contractors, and of liquors, &c. £. t. d.
from them and others ....... 3387 14 4
Secret intelligence and service ...... 1982 100
Spent in reconnoitring and travelling ----- 1874 88
Miscellaneous charges - ..... 2952 10 1
Expended besides, dollars according to the scale of deprecia
tion  » 6114 14.0

10,311 17 I
' Two hundred guineas advanced to Genera! M'Dowgall are not included
In the 1982/. 10s. not bsing yet settled, but included in some of the other
charges, and so reckoned in the general sum,
'Note, 104,364 of the dollars were received after Match 1780, und al
though credited at forty for one, maDy did not fetch at the rate of a hundred
for one; which 27,775 of them are returned without deducting any thing
from the above account, and therefore actually made a present of to the
public. ' General Washington's account from June 1775 to the end of £. s. d.
June 1783  16,311 17 1
Expenditure from July 1st, 1783, to December 13th - 1717 5 4
Added afterwards from that date to December - - 213 8 4
Mrs. Washington's travelling expences in coming to the Gene
ral and returning .... . 1064 1 0
19,306 11 9

* Lawful money of Virginia, the same as the Massachus
setts, or  14,479 18 9|
"The general entered in' his book, 'I find upon the final adjustment of
these accounts, that I am a considerable loser, my disbursements falling a
o-ood deal short of my receipts, and the money I had upon hand of my own ;
for besides the sums I carried with me to Cambridge in 1775, I received mo
nies afterwards on private account in 1777 and since, which, except small
sums that I had occasion now and then to apply to private uses, were all ex
pended in the public service. Through hurry, I suppose, and the perplexity
of business (for I know not how else to account for the deficiency) I have
omitted to charge the same, whilst every debt against me is here credited.
July 1st, 1783."

CONTEST BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN, &C. 395
ed, the gallery was crowded with spectators ; and many respecta
ble persons, among whom -were the legislative and executive
characters of the state, several general officers, and the consul-
general of France, were admitted on the floor of congress.
The representatives of the sovereignty of the union remained
seated and covered. The spectators were standing and uncover
ed. The general was introduced by the secretary, and conducted
to a chair. After a decent interval, silence was commanded, and
a short pause ensued. The president (General Mifflin,) then in
formed him, that "the United States in congress assembled
were prepared to receive his communications." With a native
dignity improved by the solemnity of the occasion, the general
rose, and delivered the following address.
" Mit. President,
" The great events on which my resignation depended, having
at length taken place, I have now the honor of offering my sin
cere congratulations to congress, and of presenting myself to
them, to surrender into their hands the trust committed to me,
and to claim the indulgence of retiring from the service of my
country. " Happy in the confirmation of our independence and sove
reignty, and pleased with the opportunity afforded the United
States, of becoming a respectable nation, I resign with satisfac
tion the appointment I accepted with diffidence ; a diffidence in
my abilities to accomplish so arduous a task, which, however,
was superseded by a confidence in the rectitude of our cause,
the support of the supreme power of the union, and the patron
age of Heaven. The successful termination of the war has veri
fied the most sanguine expectations; and my gratitude for, the
interposition of Providence, and the assistance I have received
from my countrymen, increases with every review of the momen
tous contest.
"While I repeat my obligations to the army in general, I
should do injustice to my own feelings not to acknowledge in
this place, the peculiar services and distinguished merits of the
gentlemen who have been attached to my person during the war.
It was impossible the choice of confidential officers to compose my
family should have been more fortunate. Permit me, Sir, to re
commend in particular, those who have continued in the service

396 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
to the present moment, as worthy of the favorable notice and
patronage of congress.
" I consider it as an indispensable duty, to close this last act
of my official life by commending the interests of our dearest
country to the protection of Almighty God, and those who have
the superintendence of them to his holy keeping.
" Having now finished the work assigned me, I retire from
the great theatre of action, and bidding an affectionate farewell
to this august body, wider whose orders I have so long acted, I
here offer my commission, and take my leave of all- the employ
ments of public life."
After advancing to the chair, and delivering his commission to
the president, he returned to his place, and received, standing,
the following answer of congress, which was delivered by the
president. "Sir.
" The United States in congress assembled, receive with emo
tions too affecting for utterance, the solemn resignation of the
authorities under which you have led their troops with success
through a perilous and a doubtful war. Called upon by your coun
try to defend its invaded rights, you accepted the sacred charge,
before it had formed alliances, and whilst it was without funds
or a government to support you. You have conducted the great
military contest with wisdom and fortitude, invariably regarding
the rights of the civil power through all disasters and changes.
You have, by the love and confidence of your fellow citizens,
enabled them to display their martial genius, and transmit their
fame to posterity. You have persevered, till these United States,
' aided by a magnanimous king and nation, have been enabled,
under a just Providence, to close the war in freedom, safety, and
independence ; on which happy event, we sincerely join you in
congratulations. " Having defended the standard of liberty in this new world ;
having taught a lesson useful to those who inflict, and those who
feel oppression, you retire from the great theatre of action with
the blessings of your fellow citizens : but the glory of your vir
tues will not terminate with your military command; it will
continue to animate remotest ages.
"We feel with you our obligations to the army in general, and
will particularly charge ourselves with the interests of those con-

"CONTEST BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN, &C. 397
fidential officers, who have attended your person to this affecting
moment. "We join you in commending the interests of our dearest
eountiy to the protection of Almighty God, beseeching him to
dispose the hearts and minds of its citizens, to improve the op
portunity afforded them of becoming a happy and respectable
nation. And for you, we address to him our earnest prayers,
that a life so beloved, may be fostered with all his care ; that
your days may be happy as they have been illustrious ; and that
he will finally give you that reward which this world cannot
give." This scene being closed, a scene rendered peculiarly interest
ing by the personages who appeared in it, by the great events it
recalled to the memory, and by the singularity of the circum
stances under which it was displayed ; the American chief with
drew from the hall of congress, leaving the silent and admiring
spectators deeply impressed with those sentiments which its so
lemnity and dignity were well calculated to inspire. Having
laid down his military character, General Washington retired to
Mount Vernon, to which place he was followed by the enthusi
astic love, esteem, and admiration of his countrymen. Relieved
from the agitations of a doubtful contest, and from the toils of
an exalted station, he returned with increased delight to the du
ties and the enjoyments of a private citizen.
In the shade of retirement, under the protection of a free go
vernment, and the benignant influence of mild and equal laws
he indulged the hope of tasting that felicity which is the reward
of a mind at peace with itself, and conscious of its own purity.
No sooner was peace restored by the definitive treaty, and
the British troops withdrawn from the country, than the United
States began to experience the defects of their general govern
ment. While an enemy was in the country, fear, which had
first impelled the colonists to associate in mutual defence, conti
nued to operate as a band of political union. It gave to the
resolutions and recommendations of congress the force of laws,
and generally commanded a ready acquiescence on the part of
the state legislatures. Articles of confederation and perpetual
union had been framed in congress, and submitted to the consi
deration of the states, in the year 1778. Some of the states
immediately acceded to them ; but others, which had not unap-

398 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
propriated lands, hesitated to subscribe a compact, which would
give an advantage to the states which possessed large tracts of
uulocated lands, and were thus capable of a great superiority in
wealth and population. All objections however had been over
come, and by the accession of Maryland in March 1781, the
articles of confederation were ratified, as the frame of govern
ment for the United States.
These articles however were framed during the rage of war,
When a principle of common safety supplied the place of a coer
cive power in government; by men who could have had no expe
rience in the art of governing an extensive country, and under cir
cumstances the most critical and embarrassing. To have offered
to the people, at that time, a system of government armed with
the powers necessary to regulate and control the contending in
terest of thirteen states, and the possessions of millions of peo*
pie, might have raised a jealousy between the states, or in the
minds of the people at large, that would have weakened the
operations of war, and perhaps have rendered a union impracti
cable. Hence the numerous defects of the confederation.
On the conclusion of peace, these defects began to be felt.
Each state assumed the right of disputing the propriety of the
resolutions of congress, and the interest of an individual state
vvas placed in opposition to the common interest of the union.
In addition to this source of division, a jealousy of the powers
of congress began to be excited in the minds of people.
This jealousy of the privileges of freemen, had been roused by
the oppressive acts of the British parliament ; and no sooner had
the danger from this quarter ceased, than the fears of people
changed their object, and were turned against their own rulers.
In this situation, there were not wanting men of industry and
talents. Who had been enemies to the revolution, and who em
braced the opportunity to multiply the apprehensions of people,
and increase the popular discontents. A remarkable instance of
this happened in Connecticut. As soon as the tumults of war
hatl subsided, an attempt was made to convince the people, that
¦the act of congress passed in 1778, granted to the officers of
the army half pay for life, was highly unjust and tyrannical ;»>and
that it was but the first step towards the establishment of pen
sions, and an uncontrolable despotism. The act of congress,
passed in 1783, commuting half pay for life for five years full

CONTEST BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN, &C. 399
pay, was designed to appease the apprehensions of the people,
and to convince them that this gratuity was intended merely to
indemnify the officers for their losses by the depreciation of the
paper currency ; and not to establish a precedent for the grant
ing of pensions. This act however did not satisfy the people,
who supposed that the officers had been generally indemnified
for the loss of their pay, by the grants made them from time
to time by the legislatures of the several states. Besides the
act, while it gave five years full pay to the officers, allowed but
one year's pay to the privates ; a distinction which had great in
fluence in exciting and continuing the popular ferment, and one
that turned a large share of the public rage against the officers
themselves. The moment an alarm was raised respecting this act of con
gress, the enemies of our independence became active in blowing
up the flame, by spreading reports unfavorable to the general
government, and tending to create public dissensions. Newspa
pers, in some parts of the country, were filled with inflammatory-
publications; while false reports and groundless insinuations were
industriously circulated to the prejudice of congress and the offi
cers of the late army. Among a people feelingly alive to every
thing that could affect the rights for which they had been con
tending, these reports could npt fail of having a powerful effect •
the clamor soou became general ; the officers of the army, it
was believed, had attempted to raise their fortunes on the dis
tresses of their fellow citizens, and congress become the tyrants
of their country
Connecticut was the seat of this uneasiness ; although other
states were much agitated on the occasion. But the inhabitants
of that state, accustomed to order and a due subordination to
the laws, did not proceed to outrages; they took their usual
mode of collecting the sense of the state — assembled in town-
meetings — appointed committees to meet in convention, and
consult what measures should be adopted to procure a redress of
their grievances. In this convention, which was held at Middle-
town, some nugatory resolves were passed, expressing a disap
probation of the half-pay act, and the subsequent commutation
of the grant for five years whole pay. The same spirit also dis
covered itself in the assembly at their October session in "l 783.
A remonstrance against the acts in favor of the officers, was

400 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
framed in the house of representatives, and notwithstanding the
upper house refused to concur in the measure, it was sent to
congress. During this situation of affairs, the public odium against the
officers was augmented by another circumstance. The officers,
just before the disbanding of the army, had formed a society,
called by the name of the Cincinnati, after the Roman Dictator,
Cincinnatus, which, it was said, was intended to perpetuate the
memory of the revolution, the friendship of the officers, and the
union of the states ; and also to raise a fund for the relief of
poor widows and orphans, whose husbands and fathers had fallen
during the war, and for their des<^ndants. The society was di
vided into state societies, which were to meet on the 4th of
July, and with other business, depute a number of their mem
bers to convene annually in general meeting. The members of
the institution were to be distinguished by wearing a medal, em
blematical of the design of the society, and the honors and ad
vantages were to be hereditary in the eldest male heirs, and in
default of male issue, in the collateral male heirs. Honorary
members were to be admitted, but without the hereditary ad
vantages of the society, and provided their number should
never exceed the ratio of one to four of the officers or their de
scendants. Whatever were the real views of the framers of this institu
tion, its design was generally understood to be harmless and
honorable. The ostensible views of the society could not how
ever screen it from popular jealousy. A spirited pamphlet ap
peared in South Carolina, the avowed production of Mr. Burke,
one of the Judges of the supreme court in that state, in which
the author attempted to prove, that the principles on which the
society was formed, would, in process of time, originate and
establish an order of nobility in this country, which would be
repugnant to the genius of our republican governments and dan
gerous to liberty. This pamphlet appeared in Connecticut, du
ring the commotions raised by the half-pay and commutation
acts, and contributed not a little to spread the flame of opposi
tion. Nothing could exceed the odium which prevailed at this
time, against the men who had hazarded their persons and pro
perties in the revolution.
Notwithstanding the discontents of the people were general,

CONTEST BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN, &C. 401
and ready to burst forth in insurrection, yet men of information,'
viz. the officers of government, the clergy, and persons of liberal
education, were generally opposed to the unconstitutional steps
taken by the committees and convention at Middletown. They
supported the propriety of the measures of congress, both by
conversation and writing, proved that such grants to the army
were necessary to keep the troops together, and that the ex-
pence would not be enormous nor oppressive. During the close
of the year 1783, every possible exertion was made to enlighten
the people, and such was the effect of the arguments used by
the minority, that in the beginning of the following year, the
opposition subsided, the committees were dismissed, and tran
quillity restored to the state. In May, the legislature were able
to carry several measures which had before been extremely un
popular. An act was passed granting the impost of 5 per cent.
to congress ; another giving great encouragement to commerce,
and several towns were incorporated with extensive privileges, for
the puipose of regulating the exports of the state, and facilita
ting the collection of debts.
The opposition to the congressional acts in favor of the offi
cers, and to the order of the Cincinnati, - did not rise to the
same pitch in the other states as in Connecticut; yet it produced
much disturbance in Massachussetts, and some others. Jealousy
of power had been universally spread among the people of the
United States. The destruction of the old forms of govern
ment, and the licentiousness of war had, in a great measure,
broken their habits of obedience ; their passions had been infla
med by the cry of despotism ; and like centinels, who have been
suddenly surprised by the approach of an enemy, the rustling of
a leaf was sufficient to give them an alarm. This spirit of jea
lousy, which has not yet subsided, and which will probably con
tinue visible during the present generation, operated with other
causes to relax the energy of our federal operations.
During the war, vast sums of paper currency had been issued
by congress, and large quantities of specie had been introduced,
towards the close of the war, by the French army, and the
Spanish trade. This plenty of money enabled the states to com
ply with the first requisitions of congress ; so that during two or
three years, the federal treasury was, in some measure, supplied.
But when the danger of war had ceased, and the vast importa*
17. 3 E

402 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
lions of foreign goods had lessened the quantity of circulating
specie, the states began to be very remiss in furnishing their
proportion of monies. The annihilation of the credit of the
paper bills- had totally stopped their circulation, and the specie
was leaving the country in cargoes, for remittances to Great
Britain ; still the luxurious habits of the people, contracted du
ring the war, called for new supplies of goods, and private gra*
tification seconded the narrow policy of state- interest in defeat
ing the operations of the general government.
Thus the revenues of congress were annually diminished;
some of the states wholly neglecting to make provision for pay
ing the interest of the national debt; others making but a par
tial provision, until the scanty supplies received from a few of
the rich states, would hardly satisfy the demands of the civil
list. This weakness of the federal government, in conjunction with .
the flood of certificates or public securities, which congress could
neither fund nor pay, occasioned them to depreciate to a very
inconsiderable value. The officers and Soldiers of the late army,
were obliged to receive for wages these certificates, or promis
sory notes, which passed at a fifth, or eighth, or a tenth of
their nominal value; being thus deprived at once of the greatest
part of the reward due for their services. Some indeed profited
by speculations in these evidences of the public debt; but such
as were under a necessity of parting with them, were robbed of
that support which they had a right to expect and demand from
their countrymen.
Pennsylvania indeed made provision for paying the interest of
her debts, both state and federal ; assuming her supposed pro
portion of the continental debt, and giving the creditors her own
state notes in exchange for those of the United States. The
resources of that state are immense, but she has not been able
to make punctual payments, even in a depreciated paper cur
rency. Massachussetts, in her zeal to comply fully with the requisi
tions of congress,-and satisfy the demands of her own creditors,
laid a heavy tax upon the people. This was the immediate
cause of the rebellion in that state, in 1786. But a heavy debt
lying on the state, added to burdens of the same nature, upon
almost every incorporation within it , a decline, or rather an ex-

CONTEST BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN, &C. 403
tinction of public credit ; a relaxation and corruption of manners,
and a free use of foreign luxuries ; a decay of trade and manu
factures, with a prevailing scarcity of money; and above all,
individuals involved in debt to each other — these were the real,
though more remote causes of the insurrection. It was the tax
which the people were required to pay, that caused them to feel
the evils which we have enumerated— -this ca'Ied' forth all their
other grievances ; and the first act of violence committed, was
the burning or destroying of a tax bill. This sedition threw the
state into a convulsion which lasted about a year ; courts of jus
tice were violently obstructed ; the collection of debts Was sus
pended ; and a body of armed troops, under the eommand of
General Lincoln, was employed, during the' winter of 1786, to
disperse the insurgents. Yet so numerous were the latter in the
counties- of Worcester, Hampshire, and Berkshire, and so obsti
nately combined to oppose the execution of law by force, that
the governor and council of the state thought' proper1 not to in
trust General Liucoln with military powers, except to act on- the
defensive, and to repel force with force, in case the insurgents
should attack him. The leaders of the rebels, however, were
not men of talents; they were desperate, but Without fortitude;
And while'they were supported with a superior force, they ap
peared to be impressed with that consciousness of guilt, which
awes the most daring wretch, and makes him1 shrink from his
purpose. This appears by the conduct of a1 large party of the
rebels before the maga'zine at Springfield'; where General Shep-
ard, with a small guard, was' stationed- to protect the continental
stores. The insurgents appeared' Upon the plain, with a vast
superiority- of number^ but- a few- shot from the artillery made
the multitude retreat in disorder witti the loss >of» four men. This
spirited' conduct of General Shepard, with the< industry, perse
verance, and prudent firmness -of Geherai Lirieoln> dispersed the
rebelsj drove the 'leaders from the state, and restored tranquillity.
An' aot of ' indemnity was passedi'hvtbe legislature for all tin? in
surgents, except'a few leaders, on1 condition they should become
peaceable subjects and take the oath itf allegiance; The leaders
afterwards petitioned for pardon, which, from motives of policy,
was granted'by the legislature. ' >
But the loss of public credit, popular disturbances^ and in
surrections, were not the only evils which were generated. by the

404 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
peculiar circumstances of the times. The emissions of bills of
credit and tender laws, were added to the black catalogue of po
litical disorders.
The expedient of supplying the deficiencies of specie, by
emissions of paper bills, was adopted very early in the colonies.
The expedient was obvious, and produced good effects. In a
new country, where population is rapid, and the value of lands
increasing, the farmer finds an advantage in paying legal interest
for money ; for if he can pay the interest by his profits, the in
creasing value of his lands will, in a few years, discharge the
principal. In no colony was this advantage more sensibly experienced
than in Pennsylvania. The emigrations to that province were
numerous — the natural population rapid — and these circumstan
ces combined, advanced the value of real property to an asto
nishing degree. As the first settlers there, as well as in other
provinces were poor, the purchase of a few foreign articles drain
ed them of specie. Indeed for many years, the balance of trade
must have necessarily been greatly against the colonies.
The advantages the colonies had derived from bills of credit,
under the British government, suggested to congress, in 1775,
the idea of issuing bills for the purpose of carrying on the war.
And this was perhaps their only expedient. Money could not be
raised by taxation — it could not be borrowed. The first emis
sions had no other effect upon the medium of commerce, tKan
to drive" the specie from circulation. But when the paper substi
tuted for specie had, by repeated emissions, augmented the sum
in circulation, much beyond the usual sum of specie, the bills
began to lose their value. The depreciation continued , in pro-i
portion to the sums emitted, until seventy, and even one hun
dred and fifty nominal paper dollars, were hardly an equivalent
for one Spanish milled dollar. Still from the year 1775 to 1781,
this depreciating paper currency was almost the only medium of
trade. It supplied the place of specie, and enabled congress to
support a numerous army; until the. sum in circulation amounted
to two hundred millions of dollars,* But about the year 1780,
* A dollar in Sterling money is is. 6d. But the price of a dollar rose in
Ne-w England currency to 6s. in New York, to 8s. in New Jersey, Penn
sylvania, and Maryland, to 7«. tid. ; in Virginia, to 6s, in North Carolina,
to 8-. in South Carolina and Georgia, to 4s. 8rf, This difference, originating

CONTEST BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN, &C. 405
specie began to be plentiful, being introduced by the French
army, a private trade with the Spanish islands, and an illicit in
tercourse with the British garrison at New York. This circum
stance accelerated the depreciation of the paper bills, until their
value had sunk almost to nothing. In 1781, the merchants and
brokers in the southern states, apprehensive of the approach
ing fate of the currency, pushed immense quantities of it sud
denly into New England— made vast purchases of goods in Bos
ton — and instantly the bills vanished from circulation.
The whole history of this continental paper is a history of
public and private frauds. Old specie debts were often paid in a
depreciated currency — and even new contracts, for a few weeks
or days, were often discharged with a small part of the value
received. From this plenty and fluctuating state of the medium,
sprung hosts of speculators and itinerant traders, who left their
honest occupations for the prospect of immense gains, in a frau
dulent business, that depended on «o fixed principles, and the
profits .of which could be reduced to no certain calculations.
To increase these evils, a project was formed to fix the prices
of articles, and restrain persons from giving or receiving more
for any commodity than the prices stated by authority. These
regulating acts were reprobated by every man acquainted with
commerce and finance; as they were intended to prevent an
effect without removing the cause. To attempt to fix the value
of money, while streams of bills were incessantly flowing from
the treasury of the United States, was as ridiculous as an at
tempt to restrain the rising of water in rivers amidst showers of
rain. Notwithstanding all opposition, some states framed and at
tempted to enforce these regulating acts. The effect was, a mo
mentary apparent stand in the price of articles; innumerable
acts of collusion and evasion among* the dishonest ; numberless
injuries done to the honest; and finally, a total disregard of all
such regulations, and the consequential contempt of laws, and
the authority of the magistrate.
Industry likewise had suffered by the flood of money which
had deluged the states. The prices of produce had arisen in
between paper and specie, or hills, continued afterwards to exist in the no
minal estimation of gold and silver. Franklin's Miscellaneous Works, p. 217.

406 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
proportion to the quantity of money in circulation, and the de
mand for the commodities of the country. This made the ac
quisition of money easy, and indolence and luxury, with their
train of desolating consequences, spread themselves among all
descriptions of people.
But as soon as hostilities between Great Britain and America
were suspended, the seene was changed. The bills emitted by
congress had long before ceased to circulate ; and the specie of
the country was soon drained off to pay for foreign goods, the
importations of which exceeded all calculation. Within two
years from the close of the war, a scarcity of money was the ge
neral cry. The merchants found it impossible to collect their
debts, and make punctual' remittances to their creditors in Great
Britain ; and the consumers were driven to the necessity of re
trenching their superfluities in living, and of returning to their
ancient habits of industry and economy.
The change was however progressive and slow. In many of
the states which suffered by the numerous debts they had con
tracted, and by the distresses of war, the people called aloud for
emissions of paper bills to supply the deficiency of a medium.
The depreciation of the continental bills, was a recent example
of the ill effects of such an expedient, and the impossibility of
supporting the credit of paper, was urged by the opposers of the
measure as a substantial argument against adopting it. But no
thing would silence the popular elamor ; and many men of the
first talents and eminence, united their voice with that of the
populace. Paper money had formerly maintained its credit,, and
been of singular utility ; and past experience, notwithstanding a
change of circumstances, was an argument in its favor that bore
down all opposition'.
Pennsylvania, although one of the richest states in the union,
'was- the first, to emit bills of credit, as a substitute for specie.
But the revolution had removed the necessity of it, at the same
time that it had destroyed the means- by which its- former credit
had been supported. Lands, at the close of the war, were not
rising in value — bills on London could not so readily be purcha
sed, as while the province was dependant on Great Britain —
the state was split into parties, one of which attempted to defeat
the measures most popular with the other — and tne depreciation

CONTEST BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN, &C. 407
of continental bills, with the injuries which it had done to indi
viduals, inspired a general distrust of ail public promises.
Notwithstanding a part of the money was loaned on good
landed security,, and the faith of that wealthy state pledged for
the redemption of the whole at its nominal value, yet the ad
vantages of specie as a medium of commerce, especially as an
article of remittance to London, soon made a difference of ten
per cent, between the bills of credit and specie. This difference.
may be considered rather as an appreciation of'gold and silver,
than a depreciation of paper; but its effects, in a commercial
state, must be highly prejudicial. It opens the door to frauds.
of all kinds, and frauds are usually practised on the honest and"
Unsuspecting, especially upon all classes of laborers.
This currency of Pennsylvania is receivable in all payments
at the custom-house, and for certain taxes, at its nominal value;
vet it has sunk to two- thirds of this value, in the few commer-
cial transactions where it is received.
North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia, had recourse
to the same wretched expedient to supply themselves with mo
ney; not reflecting that industry, frugality, and good commer
cial laws are the only means of turning the balance of trade in
favor of a country, and that this balance is the only permanent
source of solid wealth and ready money. But the bills they
emitted shared a worse fate than those of Pennsylvania ; they
expelled almost all the circulating cash from the states ; they
lost a great part of their nominal value, they impoverished the
merchants, and embarrassed the planters.
The state of Virginia had too much wisdom to emit bills ; but
tolerated a practice among the inhabitants of cutting dollars and
smaller pieces of silver, in order to prevent it from leaving the
state. This pernicious practice prevailed also in Georgia.*
Maryland escaped the calamity of a paper currency. The
house of delegates brought forward a bill for the emission of bills
of credit to a large amount; but the senate firmly and success
fully resisted the pernicious scheme. The opposition between
the two houses was violent and tumultuous; it threatened the
state with anarchy; but the question was carried to the people,
and the good sense of the senate finally prevailed.
* A dollar was usually cut in five pieces, and each passed by toll for a
quarter ; so that the man who cut it gained a fifth.

408 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
"New Jersey is situated between two of the largest commercial
towns in America, and consequently drained of specie. This
state also emitted a large sum in bills of credit, which served to
pay the interest of the public debt ; but the currency deprecia
ted, as in other states.
Rhode Island exhibited a melancholy proof of that licentious
ness and anarchy which always follows a relaxation of the moral
principles. In a rage for supplying the state with money the
legislature passed an act for making 100,000 pounds in bills; a
sum much more than sufficient for a medium of trade in that
state, even without any specie. The merchants in Newport and
Providence opposed the act with firmness ; their opposition add
ed fresh vigor to the resolution of the assembly, and induced
them to enforce the scheme by a legal tender of a most extraor
dinary nature. They passed an act, ordaining that if any cre
ditor should refuse to take their bills, for aqy debt whatever,
the debtor might lodge the sum due, with a justice of the peace,
who should give notice of it in the public papers ; and if the
creditor did not appear and -receive the money within six months
from the first notice, his debt should be forfeited. This act
astonished all honest men ; and even the promoters of paper-
money- making in other states, and on other principles, reproba
ted this act of Rhode Island, as wicked and oppressive. But
the state was governed by faction. During the cry for paper
money, a number of boisterous ignorant men were elected into
the legislature, from the smaller towns in the state. Finding
themselves united with a majority in opinion, they formed and
executed any plan their inclination suggested ; they opposed
every measure that was agreeable to the mercantile interest;
they not only made bad laws to suit their own wicked purposes,
but appointed their own corrupt creatures to fill the judicial and
executive departments. Their money depreciated sufficiently to
answer all their vile purposes in the discharge of debts — business
almost totally ceased, all confidence was lost, the state was
thrown into confusion at home, and was execrated abroad.
Massachussetts Bay had the good fortune, amidst her political
calamities, to prevent an emission of bills of credit. New
Hampshire made no paper ; but in the distresses which followed
her loss of business after the war, the legislature" made horses,
lumber, and most articles o. jroduce a legal tender in the fulfil-

CONTEST BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN, &C. 409
faient of contracts. It is doubtless unjust to oblige a creditor to
receive any thing for his debt, which he had not in contempla
tion at the time of the contract. But as the commodities which
were to be a tender by the law of -N.ew Hampshire, were of an
intrinsic value, bearing some proportion to~ the amount of the
debt, the injustice of the law was less flagrant,- than that which
enforced the tender of paper in Rhode Island. Indeed a similar
law prevailed for some time'in Massachussetts ; and in Connec
ticut it is a standing law, that a creditor shall take land on an
execution, at a price to be' fixed by three indifferent freeholders ;
proyided no other means of payment shall appear to satisfy the
demand. In a state that %as but little foreign commerce, and
but little money in circulation, such a law may not only be to
lerable, but, if people are satisfied with it, may produce good
effects. It must not hoWever be omitted, that while the most
flourishing commercial states introduced a paper medium, to the
great injury or honest men, 'a bill for an emission of paper in
Connecticut, where there is very little specie, could never com
mand more than one-eighth of the votes of, the legislature. The
movers of the bill have hardly escaped ridicule; so generally is
the measure reprobated as a 'source of frauds and public mis
chief. ,.-;
The legislature- of New York, a state that had the least ne-
¦ cessity and apology for making paper money, as her commercial
advantages always furnish her with specie sufficient for a medi-
% um, issued a large sum in bills of credit, which support their
value better than the currency of any other state. ' Still the pa
per has raised the value of'specie, wjiieh is always in demand
for exportation, and this difference of exchange between paper
and specie, ^exposes commerce to most of the inconveniences re
sulting from a depreciated medium.
Such is the history of paper money thus far ; a miserable sub
stitute for real coin, in all countries ; and which produces ha the
ultimate result, consequences of the. most ruinous nature.
While the state's were thus- endeavouring to repair the loss of
specie by empty promises, and to support their business by sha
dows, rather than by reality, the British ministry formed some
commercial regulations that deprived them of the profits of their
trade to the West Indies and to Great Britain. "* Heavy duties
were laid upon such articles as were remitted to the London
18. 3 F

410 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
merchants for their goods, and such were the duties upon Ame
rican bottoms, that the states were almost wholly deprived of
the carrying trade. A prohibition, as has been mentioned, was
laid upon the produce of the United States, shipped to the
English West India Islands in Arhericah built vessels, and in
those manned by American seamen. These restrictions fell hea
vy upon the eastern states, which depended much upon ship
building for the support of their trade; and they materially in
jured the business of the other states.
Without a union that was able to form and execute a general
system -of commercial regulations, some of the states attempted
to impose restraints upon the British* trade that should indemnify
the merchant for the losses he had suffered, or induce the British
ministry to enter into a commercial treaty, and >-eIax the rigor of
their navigation laws. These measures however produced no
thing but mischief. The states did not act in concert, and the
restraints laid on the trade of one state operated to throw the
business into the hands of its neighbour. "'Massachussetts, in
her zeal to counteract the effect of- the English navigation laws,
laid enormous duties upon British ' goods imported into that
state; but the other states did not adopt a similar measure; and
the loss of business soon obliged that state to repeal or suspend
the law. Thus when Pennsylvania laid heavy duties on British
goods, Delaware and New Jersey made a number of free ports to
encourage the landing Of goods within the limits of those states;
and the duties in Pennsylvania served no purpose, but to create
smuggling. Thus divided, the states began to feel their weakness. • Most
of the legislatures had neglected to comply with- the requisitions
of congress for furnishing the federal treastffy; the resolves of
congress were disregarded ; the proposition for a general impost
to be laid and collected by congress was negatived first by Rhode
Island, and afterwards by New York. The British troops con
tinued,- under a pretence of- a breach of treaty on the' part o.
America, to hold possession Of the'forts on the frontiers of- the
statesj and thus commanded1 the fur trade. Man)*' of the states
individually were infested with popular commotions or iniquitous
tender laws',' while they were oppressed With public : debts ; the
certificates or public notes had lost most of their value, and cir-
'culated merely as the object* of speculation; congress lost their

CONTEST BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN, &C. 411
respectability, and the, United States their credit and impor
tance. .'
, In the midst of. these, calamities, a proposition was made in
1785, in the house of delegates in Virginia, to appoint commis-.
sion.ers, to. meet such as might be appointed in the other states,
who should formi a system jof commercial regulations for the Uni
ted States, and recommend it ;,to the several legislatures for
adoption. Commissioners were accordingly appointed, and a
request was made to the legislatures of the other states to ac
cede to the proposition. , Accordingly several of the states ap
pointed commissioners, who met at Annapolis in the summer of
1786, to consult, what measures should be taken to unite the
states in some general and efficient commercial system. But as
the states were not all represented, and the powers of the com
missioners were, in their opinion, too limited to propose a sys-.
tern of regulations adequate to the purposes of government, they
agreed to recommend a general convention to be held at Phila
delphia the next year, with powers to frame a general plan of
government for the United States. This measure appeared to
the commissioners absolutely necessary. The old confederation
was essentially defective. It was destitute of almost every prin
ciple necessary to give effect to legislation.
.It was defective in the article of legislating over states, instead
of individuals. AH history testifies that recommendations will
not operate, as laws, and compulsion cannot be exercised over
states, without violence, war and anarchy. -The,, confederation
was also destitute of a sanction to its laws. When resolutions
w.ere passed in congress, there was no power to compel obedi
ence by fine, by suspension of privileges, or- other means. It
was also - destitute of a guarantee for the state governments.
Had one state been invaded by its neighbour, the union was' not
constitutionally bound to assist in repelling the invasion, and
supporting the constitution of the invaded state. The confede
ration was further deficient in the ^principle of apportioning the
quotas of money to be furnished by each state ; in a want of
power to form commercial laws, and to raise troops for the de
fence and security of the' union ; in the equal suffrage of the
states, which placed Rhode Island on a footing in congress with
Virginia ; and to crown all the defects, we may add the want of
a judiciary power, to define the laws of the union, and to recon-

412 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
cile the contradictory decisions of a number of independent judi»
catories. These and many inferior defects were obvious to the commis
sioners, and therefore they urged a general convention, with
powers to form and offer to the consideration of the states, a
system of general government that should be less exceptionable.
Accordingly in May, 1787, delegates from all the states, except
Rhode Island,, assembled at Philadelphia; and chose General
Washington for their president. After four months deliberation,;
in which the clashing interests of the several states appeared in
all their force, the convention agreed to recommend the plan of
federal government which we shall hereafter lay before the
reader. As soon as the plan of the federal constitution was submitted
to the legislatures of the several states, they proceeded to take
measures for collecting the sense of the people upon the propriety
of adopting it. In the small state of" Delaware, a convention
was called in November, which, after a few days deliberation,
ratified the constitution, without a dissenting voice.
In the convention of Pennsylvania, held the same month,.
there was a spirited opposition to the new form of government.
The debates were long and interesting. Great abilities and
firmness were displayed on both sides ; but on the 13th of De
cember, the constitution was received by two-thirds of the
meffibers. The minority was dissatisfied, and with an obstinacy
that ill became the representatives of a free people, published
their reasons of dissent, which were calculated to inflame a party
already violent, and which, in fact, produced some disturbances
in the western parts of, the state. But the opposition, has since
gradually subsided.
In New Jersey, the convention which met in December were i
unanimous in adopting the constitution ; as was likewise that of
Georgia. In Connecticut there was some opposition ; but the constitu
tion was, on the 9th of January, 1788, ratified by three- fourths
of the votes in convention, and the minority peaceably acquiesced
in the decision.
In Massachussetts, the opposition was large and respectable.
The convention, consisting of more than three hundred dele
gates, were assembled in January, and continued their debates,

CONTEST BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN, &C. 4l3
With great candor and liberality, about five weeks. At length
the question was carried for the constitution by a small majority,
and the minority, with, that manly condescension which becomes
great minds, .submitted to the; measure, and united to support
the government.
In New Hampshire, the federal cause was, for some time,
doubtful. The greatest number of delegates hi convention were
at first on the side of the opposition ; and some, who might have
had their objections removed by the discussion of the subject,
instructed to reject the constitution. Although the instructions
of constituents cannot, on the true principles of representation,
be binding upon a deptfty, in any legislative assembly, because
his constituents are but a part of the state, and have not heard
the arguments and objections of the wjiole, whereas his act is to
affect the whole state, and ^therefore is to be directed bv the
sense or wisdom of the whole, collected in the legislative assem
bly ; yet the delegates in the New Hampshire convention con
ceived, very erroneously,, that the sense of the freemen in the
towns, those little districts where no act of - legislation can be
performed, imposed a restraint upon their own wills*. An ad
journment was therefore moved and carried. .This gave the peo
ple opportunity to gain a farther knowledge of the merits of the
constitution, and at the second meeting of the convention, it
was ratified by a respectable majority; >
In Maryland, several men of abilities appeared in the opposi
tion, and were unremitted in their endeavours to persuade the
people, that the proposed plan.. of government was artfully calcu
lated to deprive them of their dearest rights ; yet in convention
it appeared that five-sixths of the voices'were in favor of it.
In South Carolina, the opposition was respectable ; but two-
thirds of the convention appeared to advocate and vote for the
constitution. In Virginia, many of the principal characters opposed the ra
tification of the constitution with great abilities and industry.
But after a full discussion of the subject, a small majority of a
numerous convention, appeared for its adoption.
' In New York, two-thirds of the delegates in convention were,
at their first meeting, determined to reject the constitution.
•'This pernicious opinion has prevailed in all the stales, and done infinite
mischief.

414 HISTORY OF'NGRTH'AMEKIOsAif
Here therefore the debates were the most interesting, and . the/
event extremely doubtful. , The argument Was managed with un
common address and abilities on both sides of the question.
But during the session, the ninth and tenth states had acceded
to the proposed plan, so that by the constitution; :Congress were
empowered to issue an ordinance for organizing the new govern
ment. This event placed the , opposition on new ground ; and
the expediency of uniting with the other^states — the generous
motives of conciliating all differences, and . the danger of a re
jection, influenced a respectable number, 4.wb,o were originally
opposed to the constitution, to join the federal, interest. The
constitution was accordingly . ratified by a smalL majority ; but
the ratification was accompanied: here, as in Virginia, with a bill
of rights, declaratory of the sense of the convention, as to cer
tain great principles, and:-with a catalogue of amendments,
which were to be recommended to the consideration of the new
congress, and the several state legislatures.
North Carolina met in convention in July,, to deliberate on
the new constitution. After a short session they rejected it, by
a majority of 176 against 76. This is the first state that has,
in a formal manner, rejected the constitution. -(Upon what prin
ciple they did it, it is difficult to tell, and delicate to conjecture.
The miseries that will probably arise from their separation from
the union, and their internal divisions, may eventually occasion a
reconsideration.; ft is .certain, that their rejection of the new plan
of government, will have no effect in impeding its organization
and establishment between the ratifying states.
Rhode Island was doomed to be the sport of a blind and sin
gular policy. The legislature, in consistency with the measures
which had been before pursued, -did not call a convention, to col
lect the sense of the state upon the proposed constitution ; but
in an unconstitutional and absurd manner, submitted the plan of
government to the, consideration of the people. Accordingly it
was brought before town-meetings, and in most of them rejected,.
In some of the large towns, particularly in Newport and Provi
dence, the people collected and resolved, with great propriety,
that they could not take up the subject ; and that the proposi
tion for embracing or rejecting the federal constitution, could
come before no tribunal but that of the State in convention or
legislature.

CONTEST BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN, &C 415
From the moment the proceedings of the general convention
at Philadelphia transpired, the public mind was exceedingly agi
tated, and suspended between hope and fear, until nine states
had ratified their plan of a federal government. Indeed the
anxiety continued until Virginia and New York had acceded to
the system. But this did not prevent the demonstrations of their
joy, on the accession of each state.
On the ratification in Massachussetts, the citizens of Boston,
in the elevation of their'joy? formed a procession in honor of the
happy event', which vvas novel, splendid and magnificent. This
example was afterwards followed, and in some instances impro
ved upon, in Baltimore, Charleston, Philadelphia, New Haven,
Portsmouth and New York successively.- Nothing could equal
the beauty and grandeur of these exhibitions. A ship was
mounted upon wheels, and drawn through, the streets ; mecha
nics erected stages, and exhibited specimens of labor in their
several occupations, as they moved along the road ; flags with
emblems, descriptive* of all the arts and of the federal union,
were invented. and displayed in honor of toe government ; multi
tudes of all ranks in life assembled to view the majestic scenes;
while sobriety, joy and harmony marked the brilliant exhibitions,
by which the Americans celebrated the establishment of their
Empire.

HISTORY

OF

NORTH AMERICA.

»8ee®USg£>|©<»«o-

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, SOIL, S$c.
SECTION IV.
BOUNDARIES OF THE UNITED STATES.
X HE boundaries of the United States were determined by the
treaty of peace of 1783, which confirmed the independence of
the Republic.
Northern Boundary. — According to the second article of this
.-treaty, the northern boundary extends from the source of the
St. Croix river, which falls into the Bay of Furrdy, northward,
¦to the elevated ridge of mountains which separate the waters
that run into the river St. Lawrence, from" those that empty
themselves into the Atlantic Ocean, along this same ridge to the
most north-western source of Connecticut river, and thence
along its current to the forty-fifth degree of north latitude: from
this point the line runs due west on this parallel to the river Iro
quois, or Cataraquis, along the channel of this river to the Lake
Ontario, through the middle of this lake and that of Erie, Hu
ron and' Superior, following the line of water communication be
tween each, and through this last lake, in a northern direction,
to the isles Royales, or Philippeaux, to and across Long Lake,
and the Lake of the Woods, as far as the most north-western
point of the latter, thence by a due west line to the riveT Mis-

UNITED STATES, BOUNDARIES. 417
sissippi. From this point the Western Boundary extends along
the middle of this river to the thirty-first degree of north lati
tude. Southern Boundary. — From the place where the thirty-first
parallel intersects the Mississippi, by a line running due east to
the river Apalachicola, or Catahouche, following the stream of
this river to its junction with Flint River ; thence in a direct line
to St. Mary's, and along the middle of this river to the Atlantic
Ocean. The Eastern Limit passes along the shores of the At
lantic Ocean northward, till it reaches the mouth of the river St.
Croix, in the Bay of Fundy, and thence to its source ; including
all islands Within twenty leagues of the American coast, except
those within the limits of the British province of Nova Scotia.
Louisiana, which was afterwards ceded to the United States,
and more than doubled their original extent, was so imperfectly
known at the date of this treaty, that its western boundaries
were considered as indefinite. On the north, according to the
treaty of Utrecht, it vvas considered as joining Canada in the
forty-ninth parallel of latitude.
These boundaries appeared to be marked with sufficient pre
cision, hut doubts afterwards arose on various points. The river
St. Croix, which runs into Passamaquoddy Bay, was designated
as the eastern limit; but this river having three-distinct branches,
it became a subject of discussion which of these led to its true
source; and the matter being submitted to the decision of com
missioners appointed by the two contending powers, vvas settled,
by treaty, in 1794. The north-western limits of the district of
Maine, which approach near to the river St. Lawrence, remain
ed undetermined, and being considered as very important, in a
military point of view, they were brought under consideration
during the late negotiations at Ghent, 'when it was agreed to
leave the subject to the decision of commissioners appointed by
the respective parties. The commissioners are also to determine
to whom the several islands of right belong, which are situated
near the mouth of the St. Croix River in the St. Lawrence, and
the Western Lakes,* and which are claimed both by England
* In these lakes, through the middle of which the line of demarkatinn
runs, there are no less than fifty-seven islands; namely, twelve in Lake Erie,
nine in Lake Huron, twenty-four in Ontario, five in St. Clair, and seven in
Lake Superior.
18. 3 G

418 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
and the United States. By the same treaty of 1783, part of the
northern boundary is marked by a line running due west from
the most north-western point of the Lake of the Woods to the
river Mississippi. But it has since been ascertained by the geo
graphical observations of Mr. Mackenzie and Mr. Thomson,*
that this river does not extend so far north, by two degrees ; the
north-western extremity of the lake being in latitude 49° 37',
and longitude 94° 31' west from London, and the source of the
most-northern branch of the Mississippi in latitude 47° 30'
north, and 95° 6' of west longitude. This western line will not
even touch the Missouri; for the great northern bend df this
river is in 47° 32' of north latitude, and 101° 25' west longitude
from London. If the line of limits, therefore, as observed by
Major Pike, were to run from the head of the Lake of the
Woods to the source of the Mississippi, taking a direction nearly
south, it would give to Britain the upper part of Red River, and
nearly two-thirds of the territory of Louisiana; but if carried
due west, it will cross Red Riv^r nearly at its embouchure, and
probably strike the Western Ocean at Birch Bay in Queen
Charlotte Sound. Though a long period must elapse before this
remote territory be permanently occupied by a civilized popula
tion, it is already of some value for the for trade; and it appears
from Major Pike's statements, that the British North-West
Company have trading establishments on the south side of Lake
Superior, and at other places within the American limits, by
which the United States have been defrauded of duties to the
amount of 26,000 dollars. It will be seen, therefore, that the
proper settling of these limits, desolate as the country is, in
volves interests of considerable importance. The survey agreed
upon by the treaty of 1794 was never executed. The subject
was, however, reconsidered in the negociations at Ghent, and by.
the treaty signed there on 24th December IS 14, the contracting
parties agreed, that the boundary line of the United States
should extend twenty leagues from the shore ; that the claim of
each to the islands situated in the Bay of Passamaquoddy be
referred to the decision of two commissioners ; the St. Croix
river to be surveyed to its source ; the point of Highlands at the
north-west angle of Nova Scotia, and the north- west head of
Connecticut river, to be determined; the islands in the lakes to
* Astronomer to the English North- West Company.

UNITED STATES, BOUNDARIES. 419
foe surveyed, and also the line of boundary to the most north
western point of the Lake of the Woods, from the forty-fifth de
gree of latitude.
A line passing along the thirty- first parallel of latitude, was
fixed as the boundary between the United States aud Florida.
As the latter country, however, when held by Britain, extended
as far north as the river Yazoo, Spain, at first, refused to give
the United States possession of the intervening track ; but she
afterwards abandoned her claim to it, and, in the treaty of 1795,
recognized the boundaries fixed at the peace of 1783.
By the treaty of the 30th April 1803, Louisiana was ceded by
France to the United States, with the same extent as when in
possession of Spain or France, and such as it should be accord
ing to treaties subsequently entered into between Spain and other
states ; in consequence of which it was taken possession of, and
united with the American Republic, on the 20th of December
next, after the date of the above treaty.
The terms of this treaty left the extent and boundaries of
Louisiana to be ascertained from a variety of anterior circum
stances and agreements. A great part of the country was, indeed,
at the time, unexplored and unknown; but the information
6ince obtained, and the changes that have been gradually taking
place, have raised the importance of the question regarding it§
limits, which have latterly been made the subject of much in
quiry and negociatioh between the parties interested. Louisiana,
as ceded to the United States, taken even in its most limited
extent, includes a surface equal to the whole of Europe, exclu
sive of Russia; and this not of poor or useless land, but, for the
greater part, of a soil remarkably rich, situated in the most fa
vored climate in the world, intersected every where with navigable
streams, and possessing, in an unequalled degree, all the other
advantages requisite to facilitate its settlement. Besides, the
rapid increase in the population of the United States, and the
results which the laws that regulate this increase enable us to
anticipate, show, that the occupation of the region west of the
Mississippi by a civilized population, is not a very distant event,
A great part of it is yet but a wilderness, inhabited by a few
savages; but the shifting of a boundary a little the one way or
the other, in so great a field, will take or give a space equal to
one or two European kingdoms, in extent, and which? at no dj§9

420 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
tant period, may be the seat of industry and wealth. Both Spain
and the United States have felt the weight of these considerations,
and the question as to boundaries has been discussed with a de
gree of interest which the present situation of the territory would
scarcely seem to justify. For the sake of those who may wish
to understand the controversy, we shall here state briefly the
grounds upon which the claims of the United States rest, so far
as they have been determined by treaties and agreements ; sub
joining, in a note, those which are derived from historical facts
and other circumstances.*

* As the United States by this treaty entered into the same rights which
the French enjoyed, considerable pains have been taken by officers acting
under the Federal Government, to trace out the facts and circumstances con
nected with the discovery and settlement of the country, especially those
parts of it which have been the subject of dispute. The following' details
eni brace the substance of the information collected, to far as it relates to
discovery, and priority of occupation, or shows the understanding of the
parties themselves at early periods, with regard to the limits of their pos
session. It appears that Delasalle and his party, in the years 1680, 1681, 1683, and
1683, explored the country from the Canadian lakes to the Mississippi, and
this river, from the falls of Si. Anthony to its outlet io the Gulf of Mexico;
made treaties with the Indian tribes which then occupied it, and established
the forts Creaecosur and Prud'homme, on the Illinois river, and that of St.
Louis on the Mississippi, Proceeding by sea, Delasalle disembarked in the
Hay of St. Bernard in 1685, about 150 leagues to the west of the mouth of
the Mississippi, near that of the small river Aux Cannes, and advancing
towards the former, across the country of the Cenis, and other Indian tribes,
he fell a victim to the perfidy of his own men.
Tn 1699, Ibberville transported troops and inhabitants to Louisiana by the
mouth of the Mississippi river, erected a fort and formed an establishment
in the Bay of Biloxi, near the Pascagoulas river, and afterwards entered
Mobile Bay; where, in 1701, a fort was erected, and a new establishment
formed. The year following, Fort Dauphine, to the south of the bay, was
established and fortified, and afterwards Fort Louis, or Mobile, at the dis
tance of sixteen leagues from Dauphine Isle : iu 1702, Fort Tombache, fifty
leagues north of the former, and Fort Toulouse, sixty leagues higher on
the north-eastern branch.
Major Stoddart, in his Sketches of Louisiana, p 136, states, " that Ibber
ville, the first royal governor of Louisiana, planted a colony at the mouth of
the river Perdido, in 1699, where he built a fort and mounted twelve pieces
of cannon."
The same year, Bienville, brother to Ibberville, ascended on the western
side of the Mobile towards its sources, through the villages of the Chattas
or Flatheads, and to those of the Chickasaws. He also ascended Red River
to Natchitoches, without finding any Spanish settlements; but this nation,
jealous of those of the French, afterwards formed a settlement in the coun-

UNITED STATES, BOUNDARIES. 421
France having lost her possessions in Canada by the war of
1756, ceded to Great Britain the territory south of the thirty-
first degree of north latitude, and extending to the river Perdido,
on the east side of the Mississippi; and Spain, who had been
her unfortunate ally, exchanged all her possessions in Florida,

try of the Assinais," and erected a fort near the place where stood that of
Delasalle, but did not claim the country eastward of the Rio Bravo, except
for commercial purposes. We find in 1712, that in the letters patent to Cro-
zat, all the rivers were included which run into the Mississippi, and all the
lands, coasts, and islands situated in the Gulf of Mexico, between Carolina
on the east, and Old and New Mexico on the west. These countries did not
extend east of the Rio Bravo, from which the newest Spanish settlement was
150 miles remote, at the date of this grant. The first Spanish fort on the
western side of the river St. John Baptist was erected in 1714, when the pro
vince of Texas was created, but not inhabited.
In 1719, Bernard La Harpe, with a body of troops, penetrated up Red
River, 400 miles beyond Natchitoches, to the Cadoqiies villages, in latitude
35° 55', and constructed the Fort St. Louis de Carlouette. The same year a
garrison was established" by an officer named Berenger, in the Bay of St.
Bernard, in latitude 27s 45', 390 miles to the west of the Mississippi, which.
was afterwards destroyed by the Indians.
In consequence of the establishments at Natchitoches, the Spaniards erect
ed a military post, seven leagues to the south-west of this place at the Ada-
yes, which was afterwards transferred to Nazodoches; but before the esta
blishment of La Salle, in the Bay of St. Bernard, in 1685, no part of the
territory east of the Rio Norte was occupied by the Spaniards, for tneir
nearest settlement to the mouth of the Mississippi river was St. Augustine.
In 1720, the Missouri post was established oh the river of the same names
In 1717, the French erected Fort Crevecceur on a branch of the Apalachico-
la river, which empties itself into the Bay of St. Joseph, but abandoned it
in the following year, on the representations made by the governor of Pensa
cola, that this bay belonged to his Catholic Majesty.
Dupratz, the historian of Louisiana, defines its boundaries as follows :
" Louisiana, situated in the northern part of America, is hounded on the
south by the Gulf of Mexico; on the east by Carolina, an English colony,
and a part of Canada; on the west, by New Mexico; on the north, by a
part of Canada; ihe rest has no bounds, and extends to the unknown lands'
adjoining to Hudson's Bay. lis breadth extending between the English and
Spanish establishments, is. about 200 leagues. Its Teihgth fs undetermined,
because it is unknown. Nevertheless, the source of the Mississippi will
throw some light on this head." The Map of Dupratz, which accompanies
bis work, includes all that part of Louisiana now known by the name of
West Florida, and the whole country to the Rio Bravo or Del Norte.
De la Harpe describes Louisiana as extending from the bay which he en
tered in 1721, in latitude 29° 12' longitude, 282° east from Ferro, or 95«
from Greenwich, to the river Perdido, including about 160 marine leagues
of coast.
According to D'Anville, a good authority in all geographical matters, the

422 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
including St. Augustine and ^Pensacola, for the port of Havan>
nah, which had been taken by the English. This treaty, of
which the preliminaries were signed at Fontainbleau on the 3d
of November 1762, was ratified at London on the 10th of Fe
bruary 1763. By a separate act of the former date, France

western limits of Florida extend no farther than the Rio Perdido, and a line
running north to the Apalachian mountains. His map was published in 1746,
at a moment when this country was considered as of little interest to France ;
and this most scrupulous geographer described the western line as commen
cing on the coast of the Gulf of Mexico, at the Cabo del Norte, (on modern
maps called Pointe de la Chenierc au Tigre,) passing between the Presidio des
Adayes and Fort Natchitoches, and separating the Rio Mexicano, or Mer-
mentas, from the Red River of Natchitoches and its branches, which are
within Louisiana.
In " the Account of the first Discovery and Natural History of Florida,"
by William Roberts, illustrated by a general map, and geographical de
scription of that country, by Jeffreys, geographer to his Majesty, this river
is also described as the most western boundary on the coast of Florida, to
wards Louisiana. The publisher has also inserted a letter written by Captain
Robinson, who visited that coast in 1754, and who resided for some time at Villa t
Rica, in which he states, "that Pensacola is most excellently situated as a bar
rier to cover the Spanish territories in that quarter, which extended no far
ther than to the river Perdido." In the description of Louisiana, contained in
the history of the British Empire in North America, it is observed, "that the
coast which was first inhabited extends from the river Perdido to the Lake
St. Louis." According to the map and historical journal of Yentel, one of
the party of La Salle, the first disembarkation was made at the mouth of a
small river situated in 28° 17' north latitude, and 277° of longitude, and the
first habitation established on an arm of this river, which runs into the bay
of St. Louis, near which it forms an islet. On the map, the confluence of
this river is between the entry of the Bay of St. Louis, and the river Del
Oro. The second habitation was erected on the south-west side of the Boeuf
River, above its junction, from which La Salle and his party proceeded, to
near the union of ils two great branches, where they crossed this river, the
Aux Cannes, and all the others lo the fork of the Akansas, where they
found a house marked R, inhabited bv two Frenchmen. There embarking,
they descended to the river Mississippi, which they afterwards ascended, to
the junction of the Illinois. Bellin, engineer of the French department of
marine, and of the depot of maps, &c. who, in 1744, published a map pf
Louisiana for the history of New France, by Charleroix, remarks that the
coast of Louisiana extends, on the Gulf of Mexico, the space of at least 1G0
leagues from the Bay of Mobile to that of St. Bernard or St. Louis. Ac
cording to the map of Delille, (member of the Royal Academy of Sciences,)
entitled Carte de la Louisiane, et du Cours du Mississippi uwc les Colonies
jlnglaises, revised, corrected, and considerably augmented, in 1782 ; the
Rio del Norte, or Bravo, is the western, and the Mobile the eastern b&undary.
In another, published in 1785, for the use of the king, by Dezauche, suc
cessor of his first geographer Delille, and Buache, examined and approved

UNITED STATES, BOUNDARIES. 423
Ceded to Spain all Louisiana, west of the river Mississippi, in
cluding the city and island of New Orleans. This cession was
never published, but is referred to in the letter of the French
king to D'Abbadie, director-general and commandant of this
colony, dated the 21st of April 1764. The country thus ceded
under the name of Florida, extended, by the Spanish accounts,
according to the most accurate observations, from about 25° 6'-
to 39° 38' north latitude; and its most eastern coast lies in
about .81° 30' west longitude from London; its whole length be
ing nearly a thousand English miles. It is separated from Lou
isiana on the west by the Rio Perdido. In the year 1 764, when
by the Royal Academy of Sciences, the Perdido is the eastern boundary;
and the western, the Rio Bravo or del Norte, to its eastern branch, the Rio
Salado, and along this stream to near the 40" of latitude ; and thence, in a
westerly direction, across the upper branch of the Rio del Norte to the Rio'
Colorado river; on the north to near the 45e of latitude, including the sup.
posed sources of the Missouri river. This map is entitled Carte if Amirique,
dressee pour l'usage du Roi, par Guil. Delisle et Phil. Buac'he, Premier
Gtographes du Roi, et de l'Academie Royale des Sciences, par Dezauche
Geographe, 1785. Le Rouge, geographer to the king, published his Ameri
can Atlas in 1778, and, in his map of North America, Louisiana has the
same boundary on the west and north ; on the east, the Perdido river. This
map is entitled, L'Amerique suivant le R. P. Charlevoix, et M. de la Con-
damioe, et plusieurs autres nouvelles observations, Paris, 1774. The Mobile
is the eastern line of demarkation between Florida and Louisiana on the
French marine charts contained in the work entitled Ilydrographie Franqais
executed by orders of the French government. In a map published in 1778
by the instructions of Sartine, the French minister and secretary of state
the river Tensas is the eastern boundary. In a map of Homan of Nurem
berg, publ shed in the year 1687, and entitled " Ampliesimai Regionis Mis
sissippi, sen Provincia: Ludoviciantc, a R P. Ludovico Hennepin Francisc.
Miss, in America Septentrional!, anno 1687 delecto;" the western limits of
Louisiana is the Rio del Norte to its great eastern branch; the Rio Salado
de Apaches de Ios Sieta river, now St. Paul's river and along this stream to
the thirty-fourth parallel of latitude; thence in a noiti.-easterly direction
across the Rio de San Marco, or Colorado, or Aux Cmnnes, to the chain cf
parallel mountains; thence north-west to the great stream of the Rio del
Norte in 385" of latitude. The eastern boundary is the Mobile Bay, and
thence along the river Alibama, which enters therein to near its south-east
ern bend, and from this part eastward to the river Des Chattaux, or Apala-
chicolas, and to the mountains. The establishment of Lasalle, in 1685, is
marked on the south-west side of the little river Aux Cannes, near its junc
tion with the great river of the same name, on the Bay of St. Louis. The
Spanish establishment, made in 16S9, is a little to the north-west towards the
river Guadeloupe or Madeleine, and their route thither is traced from the
Rio Salinas de Madadores of the Del Norte at the" point of junction of the'
southern branch.

424 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
Great Britain took possession of this country, they gave the
name of East Florida to all the country situated on the eastern
side of the Apalachicola river, and south of the St. Mary, to
the extremity of the Peninsula, and of West Florida to that ex
tending from the former river to the Mississippi, and south of
the thirty-first degree of north latitude. Spain having, at the
solicitation of France, taken a friendly part in the American
Revolution, seized the opportunity of regaining her possessions,
which was effected in the years 1779 and 1780; and by the
treaty of peace of 1 783 between Great Britain and the United
States, the former ceded to the latter that part of Louisiana si
tuated on the east side of the Mississippi, and north of the
thirty-first parallel of latitude ; and the country below this line,
known by the name of West and East Florida, was guaranteed
to Spain, who agreed to evacuate all her posts above the thirty-
first degree of latitude, which formed her northern, and the river
Mississippi, her western, boundary. By another treaty between
the United States and Spain of 1 795, this was formally acknow
ledged as the line of boundary. Spain, however, continued to
keep possession of the country above the thirty- first parallel,
and refused to acknowledge the free navigation of the Missis
sippi and the right of deposit at New Orleans. In eonsequence
of this, an armed force was preparing on the Ohio to take pos
session of this place, when Spain, thus menaced, sold the co
lony to the French Republic on 21st March 1801. The Repre
sentative Assembly of this country ordered an army of 25,000
men to be embarked in Holland for the purpose of taking pos
session of Louisiana ; but the port of embarkation was so well
blockaded by an English squadron, that the project was aban
doned ; and Louisiana was ceded by treaty to the United States
on the 30th of April 1 803, with the same extent it then had in
the hands of Spain, and when possessed by France, and such as
it should be under the treaties subsequently entered into between
Spain and the United States. In the same terms this province
had been ceded to France by Spain, by the treaty of St. Ilde-
phonso, in the year 1800, which was confirmed by that of Ma
drid in 1801. The general phraseology of this treaty, and espe
cially of the term " retrocession," has given rise to a claim on
the part of Spain, to that tract of country situated to the east
of the rivers Mississippi and the Ibberville, which had been

UNITED STATES, BOUNDARIES. 425
ceded by France to Great Britain in 1763; by the latter to
Spain in 1783, and which she pretends is not included in the
country that Spain had received from France. It is evident that
the. words of this treaty embrace Louisiana in its whole extent
on each side of the Mississippi ; but it is to be regretted that the
real boundaries were not described. The boundary between
Louisiana and the province of Florida, when the former belong
ed to France, and the latter to Spain, was acknowledged to be
the river Perdido by the respective authorities ; and the United
States claiming this line of boundary, took possession of the
country in 1812, except the port of Mobile, on Mobile Bay,
which surrendered to their forces the following year. The en
trance of the harbour of Pensacola is about twelve miles to the
eastward of the Perdido, and sixty from Mobile Bay. In 1719,
the town was taken by the French, retaken by the Spaniards,
who were afterwards driven out by the former, to whom it was
confirmed in 1722 ; and the Perdido, both before and after this
period, was always considered as the line of demarkation be
tween these two powers. Louisiana was retroceded to France
"with the same extent it then had in the hands of Spain;" and
the territory in question, by whatever name Spain chose to call
it, was then substantially in her hands. Louisiana was retroce
ded to the United States " with the same extent that it had
when France possessed it ;" and not only vvas the territory be
tween the Mississippi and the Perdido part of Louisiana when
France possessed it, but she never held this country a single day
without that territory as part of it. For, as has been stated,
she ceded on the same day the eastern part of Louisiana to Eng
land, and the western part to Spain. Louisiana was retroceded,
" such as it should be after the treaties subsequently entered into
between Spain and the other States ;" and Spain never had
since she acquired Louisiana in 1762, made any treaties relative
to this country but that of 1783 with Great Britain, and that of
1795 with the United States. She had entered into no treaty
whatever which affected Louisiana west of the Mississippi. The
fine tract of country called Texas, lying to the south of the wa
ters of Red River, being also claimed by Spain, who had formed
an establishment there posterior to the occupation of Louisiana
by the French, it was mutually agreed between her and the
United States in 1806, that till this was settled, the Spaniards
18. 3 H

426 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
should not cross the Sabinas, nor the Americans extend their
settlements, or claim of jurisdiction, to the borders of this river;
and to prevent disputes, the officers of the United States had
instructions not to survey any of the public lands lying to the
west of a meridian passing by Natchitoches. The ports of Ma
tagorda and Galvestown, situated in this province, were taken
possession of in September 1816, in the name of the Mexican
Republic, by Joseph Manuel de Horrera. The country traversed
by Lewis and Clarke has been claimed to the Pacific Ocean by
right of discovery. The Spaniards, however, have a permanent
establishment on the south side of the bay of St. Francisco, in
latitude 37° 42', and 132° west longitude from London, (about
600 miles from the mouth of the Columbia river,) to which,
point they claim possession. The boundaries of Louisiana, there
fore, as claimed by the American Government, are as follows :
North, by the 49° of latitude, which, according to the treaty
of Utrecht, was the ancient line of limits between the English
possessions and Louisiana. South, by the Gulf of Mexico.
East, by the river Perdido. West, by the Rio Colorado of
Texas, (which was also the boundary according to the treaty of
Utrecht ;) from the mouth of this rivgr in the Bay of St. Ber
nard to its source ; thence along the chain of mountains which
separates the waters that flow into the Rio del Norte, from
those that fall into the Mississippi and Missouri. According to
these boundaries, Louisiana is more extensive than the rest of
the United States, containing about 1,030,192 square miles.
OF THE GENERAL ASPECT OF THE COUNTRY, ITS
EXTENT, AND THE NATURE OF THE SOIL.
General Aspect of the Country.— The south-eastern side of
the American continent, from the extremity of Maine to Florida,
was naturally divided by the Indian inhabitants into three re
gions ; the Lowlands, or flats, the Highlands, and the Moun
tains. The first, in their language termed Ahkyni, extends
from the Atlantic Ocean to the falls of the great rivers that run
through them, a breadth of nearly ninety miles. The Highlands
called Ahkontshack, stretch from those, falls to the foot of the
great range of mountains. These Mountains, called by the
northern Indians Alleghany, by those towards the south Apala-

UNITED STATES, SOIL, &C. 427
thes, or Pamontinck, and by the Spaniards Apalaki, from the
nation Apaloken, run through the midst of the Continent from
north-east to south-west.
Apalachian Mountains. — These form the most remarkable
feature of the country, traversing it from the river St. Lawrence
to Georgia, from the thirty-fourth to the forty-second degree of
north latitude, in a direction nearly parallel with the Atlantic
•coast, the highest ridge separating the waters which descend
towards the Atlantic, from those which run in an opposite direc
tion to the western country, and to the rivers of St. Lawrence and
Mississippi. The whole length of this chain may be estimated
at 900 miles. The mean breadth at 110, though it varies from
.60 to 200. The highest, or Alleghany ridge, preserves nearly
an equal distance of 250 miles from the Atlantic shore, and an
almost uniform elevation above it of about 3000 feet. These
mountains, however, are separated into two distinct chains, the
eastern and western. The first known by the name of Blue
Ridge, or Blue Mountains, runs in a north-easterly direction,
across the states of Virginia, Pennsylvania, the western parts of
North Carolina, the northern parts of New Jersey, and southern
angle of New York, to the Hudson river at West Point, where,
under the name of Green Mountains, it takes a northerly direc
tion, through the states of Connecticut, Massachussetts, and
Vermont, towards the Bay of Chaleur in Canada, dividing the
waters of the Connecticut river from those of the Hudson and
Lake Champlain. The distance of this chain from the general
line of sea-coast is from 130 to 200 miles, and is greatest to
wards the southern extremity. On the western side this ridge
rises gradually to the summit ; and also on the eastern, except
at West Point, where the rocks are more rugged and steep.
The plain here is 180 feet, and the most elevated point (New
Beacon) 1585 feet above the level of the Hudson river. Near
the borders of Virginia and Carolina, this ridge unites with the
great western chain. Its base along the level of the western
waters is found to be' higher than on the eastern, or Atlantic
side, by 800 or 1000 feet. This chain is crossed nearly at right
angles by several of the larger rivers in their passage to the sea.
Western Chain. — The western chain, near the southern extre
mity, is known by the name of Cumberland and Gauley moun-
ains, and afterwards by that of Alleghany. It is hrpader and

428 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
more elevated than the former, and particularly in Virginia and
Pennsylvania, where it separates the waters of the Kenhawa,
and the Monongahela and Alleghany branches of the Ohio,
(which flows into the Mississippi,) from those of James River,
the Potomac, and Susquehannah, that run into the Atlantic
Ocean. From the northernmost and less elevated spurs of this
chain the Genessee river, which flows into Lake Ontario, takes
its rise, as do also some of the northern branches of the Susque
hannah, which traverse the highest parts in their passage to the
main stream. Above this river the chain takes a more eastward-
iy direction to its termination, under the name of the Catskill
Mountains, near the Mohawk branch of the Hudson, where it
gives rise to the Delaware river, which empties itself into the
bay of the same name in the Atlantic Sea. The Blue Moun
tains, united by a transverse ridge with the western chain, on
the borders of Virginia and North Carolina, become more ele
vated than the former, and, by spurs running irregularly, send
into the Atlantic the waters of the Roanoke, Pedee, Santee, and
Savannah, in an eastern direction ; in a southern, some of those
of the Alabama, which are discharged into the. Gulf of Mexico;
and, in a western, those of Broad River, which traverses the
Alleghany chain to join the Holstein branch of the Tennessee,
that empties itself into the Ohio.
Height oj different Points of this great Chain. — The mean
elevation of the western ridge, as has been already stated, is>
about 3000 feet above the level of the sea ; but, at particular
parts, it falls much below, and rises much above this. The
height of different peaks, as ascertained by means of the baro
meter, or from trigonometrical mensuration, is as follows :
The Green Mountains extend from Canada through Vermont,
Massachussetts, and Connecticut, from north north-east, to
south south-west, 400 miles in length, and from ten to fifteen in
breadth. They have a peak in the State of Vermont, known by
the name of Killington, which, according to actual mensuration,
is elevated 3454 feet above the level of the ocean, and 3184
above the level of Lake Champlain, at the mouth of Otter Creek.
According to the barometrical observations of Captain Partridge,
(of the corps of engineers, professor of Mathematics in the mi
litary academy at West Point,) Killington Peak is elevated 3924

UNITED STATES, SOIL, &C. 429
feet above the sea, and 2994 above its base, the difference being
930 feet.
The White Mountains of New Hampshire, according to the
barometrical observations of the same professor, have their high
est point, Mount Washington, elevated 6600 feet above the sea,
and 4712 above its base.
The next, situated to the south of the former, ?
-------- 5623 above the sea.
The 3d. do. - 5393
The 4th,  5190
The 5th,  5025
The 6th, - „ . - 4646
The height of the base of these mountains above the sea is
1888. By the more recent barometrical calculations of Dr. Cutler
and Professor Peck, their elevation above the level of the sea
does not exceed 7000 feet; and, by the last calculation made by
Professor Bigelew and others, they do not much exceed 6000
feet. The altitude of the most elevated of Catskill mountains,
in the State of New York, town of Windham, and county of
Green, has been ascertained from barometrical observations by
Captain Partridge. The point called Round Top is 3804 feet
above the level of the sea, and 3105 above its base. The base
of this range is 699 feet above the sea. Schooley's Mountain in
New Jersey, which projects in a southern direction from the
great ridge, rises 600 feet above its faase, which itself is 500
above tide-water. According to the barometrical observations of
Captain Partridge, the greatest height of the Never Sink Hills,
near;Sandy Hook, does not exceed 300 feet. ''¦
The height of some of the most .elevated parts of the moun
tains in Virginia above tide-water, ascertained by Colonel Wil
liams, President of the United States' Military Philosophical So
ciety, &c. was as follows :
The highest point of the Blue Ridge near Rock Pit -Gap,-
- - . - - - t : - - 1908-feet.
The foot of the Blue Ridge on the western side, 895 ' '
The summit of the (first mountain near the warm
springs, --_._-_ 2018
The summit of the second mountain; near the warm
springs, - - . - ' n' - - 2380;

430 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
The summit of the Alleghany ridge about six miles
east of the sweet springs, - 2998
Highest Mountains of South Carolina. — Table Mountain, si
tuated a little westward of the south fork of Saluda River, and
between four -and five miles from the northern boundary of the
state, is elevated above its base 3168 feet, according to the tri
gonometrical observation, and is supposed to be 4300 feet above
the level of the Atlantic Ocean.
Highest Mountains of Georgia. -^Oanawhee Mountain, the'
southern extremity of- the Blue Ridge, about sixty miles from
the northern boundary of the state, is elevated 1500 feet above
the level of the sea. Mr. Williamson remarks, that the general
height of the Apalachian mountains is found to be near 1100
yards. In some parts, they rise three quarters of a mile above
the Common surface of the earth ; but in many places, they do
not exceed half a mile.
The double chain of the Alleghanies, as already observed, se
parates the streams that flow into the Mississippi from those
that run to the Atlantic Ocean; and the direct distance in miles,
from four of the sea-ports to the nearest branch of the four great
western rivers beyond the mountains, is as follows :— "-From Phi
ladelphia to the confluence of the Conemaugb and Loyal hannen
branches of the Alleghany, 220 miles. From the city of Wash
ington to the confluence of the Monongahela and Cheat rivers,,
150 miles. From Richmond to Morris, on the Kanhawa, below
all the falls of that river, 210 miles. From Savannah or Charles'-
ton to any navigable branch of Tennessee, the. distance is nearly
300 miles. The: upper navigation of the rivers of the Atlantic
corresponding with these western points being susceptible of con
siderable improvement, the distance between them is not exactly
ascertained. Between the waters of the Patomac and those of
the Monongahela, the shortest portage from West Port on the
former to a point just below the falls of Cheat river, is about
fifty miles in a straight line. On account of the navigation of
the Potomac,- a longer rdute has been preferred, extending from
Cumberland to Brownville, (Red Stone old fort,) a distance of
72 miles. Between the north fork of the Juniata branch of the
Susquehannah and the corresponding waters of the river Alle
ghany, the portage is somewhat shorter. Between Pattenbo-
rough, on James River, and the falls of the Kanhawa, it exceeds

UNITED STATES, SOIL, &C. 431
100 miles. The lower falls of the Atlantic rivers are formed by
a ridge, rising about 130 feet above tide- water, and extending
from the Hudson to beyond James River, after which it recedes
from the sea, pursuing a southerly direction, nearly parallel to
the mountains, leaving a longer and better navigation between
the tide and the falls. In all this distance the granitic ridge
forms a barrier to the tide, which does not approach nearer than
30 miles to the eastern chain ; but, in the north, or Hudson's
River, it passes through the Blue Ridge at West Point, and as
cends above the eastern termination of the Catskill, or Great
Western Chain, to Albany, 160 miles above New York, affotd-
ing a fine navigation throughout all this distance for vessels of
80 tons. Geological Structure and Nature of the Soil.
The soil, in relation to its interior structure, has been divided
by Volney into five regions.
Granitic Region. — This region extends from Long Island, in
the Atlantic Ocean, to the mouth of the river St. Lawrence, is
bounded by that river to the place called the Thousand Isles,
and thence proceeding to the source of the Mohawk, and along
this stream to its confluence with the Hudson, and down that
river to Long Island. Granite is traced along the coast of
Connecticut, Rhode Island, Massachussetts, New Hampshire,
and Maine. It forms the great body of the White Mountains,
and, with some exceptions, is the bed or stratum on which the
superficial soil reposes throughout all this space. Descending
towards the south-west, it appears to form a great part of the
mountains on the Susquehannah, between Harrisburgh and Sun-
bury, and also of the south-west chain in Virginia, particularly
«n the borders of the Rivannah.
The strata of a different nature interspersed throughout the
north-eastern granitic region are — 1. Long Island, which con
tains no granite, except a small space near Hell Gate, the ridge
of hills which run across it being composed of limestone, sand,
gravel, and loam. 2. Cape Cod, which is formed of sand, de
posited by the current of the Gulf of Mexico and the Bahamas.
3. Above Poughkeepsie the rocks are schistus, composing a cal
careous stratum, of which there is a mass of 800 acres near

432 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
Claverack, on the banks of the Hudson, 140 miles from the sea.
4. The summit of the Catskill mountains is argillaceous or sili
ceous. 5. The valley of Fort George, some of the islands of the
lake of the same name, and a tract of several miles round the
great falls of the Hudson are of limestone. 6. The rocks of
Ticonderoga are of sandstone. 7. The bed of the cataract or
falls of the Cohoez is of serpentine. 8. The banks of Lake
Champlain, and the rocks which form the isle on which stands
the city of Montreal, are calcareous. According to the minera-
logical reports of Dr. Mitchell, the bed of the Mohawk does not
separate the granite from the sandstone country ; for on the
eastern side of Hudson River towards the north, there is no gra
nite except on the tract called the Western Line of Connecticut.
He further remarks, that from Stockbridge to Vermont the rock
is calcareous : that the bed of the river Cohoez is of slate ; of
which substance are also the rapids of Fort Millar and Fort Ed-
Ward, and the bed of the Kyaderossa stream near the Battstown
springs. According to M. Maclure, the region of primitive
rocks, after crossing the Hudson, is much diminished in breadth
throughout the middle states, but is enlarged in the southern,
and again diminishes towards its apparent extremity near the
Tombigbee River, where commences the alluvial soil : after
crossing the Hudson River, its north-western boundary, it passes
ten or fifteen miles eastward from Easton on the Delaware, a
few miles eastward of Reading on 'the Schuylkill, and of Mid
dleton on the Susquehannah, where it joins the Blue Ridge,
along which it continues to Magolhy Gap, and thence in a
south-westerly direction to its extremity. It varies in breadth
from 20 to 150 miles, and includes within it a range of transi
tion and secondary rocks from 15 to 25 miles in breadth, and
about 300 miles in length, though with some interruptions. The
former extend from Rhode Island to Boston : they again appear
to the south-west side of. the Delaware ; and traversing Lancas
ter, &c. stretch to the upper branches of the great Pedee River
in North Carolina; forming a deposit of great length, varying in
breadth from two to fifteen miles. The secondary rocks extend
on the western side of Connecticut River from Newhaven to
Northampton, again appear south-west of the Hudson, cross
the Delaware, where their breadth is diminished ; pass a few
miles west of York in Pennsylvania, and crossing the transition

UNITED STATES, SOIL, &C. 433
rocks near Fredericktown in Maryland, they terminate a little
south-west of the Rappahanock River. A bed of coal, twenty
miles in length, and ten in breadth, superposed on the primitive
rock, commences twelve miles from Richmond. This substance
is mixed with whitish sand-stone, and argillaceous schistus, and
exhibits vegetable impressions. The transition rocks are compo
sed of fine grained limestone of various hues, mixed with silex,
white grained marble, calcareous spar, cubical pyrites, galena,
&c. The secondary rocks are composed of sandstone, limestone,
agglomerated flints, and wacke, which generally covers the sand
stone on the heights. The strata of the primitive region, which
contains a great variety of minerals and metals, incline to the
south-east at a greater angle than 45 degrees, and are Some
times almost vertical. The grit, or sandstone region, comprises
all the mountainous country of the Blue Ridge, Alleghany, and
Laurel Hill, the sources of the great Kanhaway, and the knot
or bow of the Alleghany to Georgia. It does not appear in the
state of Tennessee, and the Cumberland mountains. Towards
the north and north-east, it is bounded by the sources of the
.Susquehannah and the Genessee; and the right bank of the Mo- >
hawk and the Hudson, where commence the slaty schist and
blue marble, which appear to form the beds of the lakes Genes
see, Ontario, and Erie. It was traced by Mr. Guillamard, from
Philadelphia to Pittsburg, by the way of Sunbury, as far as the
western side of the Alleghany chain, except in some vallies of a
calcareous structure ; by M. Volney, across ten or twelve ridges
in Virginia, from Charlottesville to the river Gauley, except in
the vallies of Staunton and Green Briar, which are also calcare
ous. In some places it is blended with grey and white quartz.
It sometimes appears in the granitic and calcareous region, and
is most extensive in Massachussetts, in the county of Worcester;
between Green Briar and Gauley rivers, and from above the
sources of the Potomac to those of the Yohogany, in the track
known by the name of the Green Glades, where there is a most
brilliant verdure.
The transition rocks form a long and narrow zone, from 20 to
40 miles in breadth, which extends from beyond the Green
Mountains, in the state of New York, the north-eastern side of
the Hudson, to the south-western borders of the Tombigbee.
The strata generally dip to the north-west, and, in many places.,
19. 8 i

434 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
the inclination is less than forty-five degrees. Among these
rocks are found limestone of various colors, breccias, siliceous,
and calcareous rocks, greywacke, siliceous slate, amygdaloid, &c.
The Calcareous, or Limestone Region, includes all the west»
ern or back country, extending between the Apalachian moun
tains and the great lakes of Canada, in one direction, and from
the Hudson to the Mississippi, in another, descending as low as
Natchez. It forms the beds of all the rivers of Kentucky, from
the Kanhaway to the rapids of the Ohio. The limestone, dispo
sed in horizontal layers from one to several inches in thickness,
is of a close texture, and generally, of a grey color. Sometimes
the layers undulate with the inequalities of the land. In this
region, which occupies a surface of from 200 to 500 miles in
width, coal abounds from the sources of the Ohio to those of the
Tombigbee ; also gypsum aud sal gem. The only metals which
it contains are pyrites and argillaceous iron. Without the track
of limestone above described, veins of the sank mineral exist in
Pennsylvania, Virginia, and New York, along the extern side
of the Blue Ridge. In Ulster county, the hills above Kingston
consist of limestope, in regular forms of prystalization. It is
remarked, that the strata on the eastern side are more irregular,
generally of a deep blue color, interspersed with veins of white
quartz. At Stockbridge, Staunton, Fredericktown, York, and
Lancaster, and as far as Nazareth, the inclination is commonly
from forty to fifty degrees. The cataract of Niagara is formed
of a limestone rock, which extends into the Genessee county.
This great stratum of limestone is covered with black mould,
which, on the slopes and heights, is but a few inches in depth,
but in the vales and bottoms increases, in some places, to four
teen or fifteen feet.
Region of Sea Sand.-— This fourth region comprises all the
maritime plajns, from Sandy Hook, opposite Long Island, to
Florida, between the granitic ridge and the ocean, running from
south-west to north-east, and elevated about 130 feet above
tide- water, of which it forms the limits, occupying a breadth of
from 30 to 100 miles. It strikes the Delaware at Trenton; the
Schuylkill six miles above Philadelphia ; the Susquehannah
above the- mouth of Octoraro ; Gunpowder Creek above Jappa ;
the Patapsa above Elkridge; the Potomac above Georgetown;
the Rappahanock above Frederickburgh ; the Pamunky bejpw its

UNITED STATES, SOIL, &C« 435
two branches, fifty miles above Hanover ; James River at Rich
mond; the Apamatox above Petersburgh; and the Roanoke
above Halifax. Throughout all this extent the sand is about
twenty feet in depth, and of a black color ; it resembles that of
the adjacent sea, except at the mouths and on the borders of
rivers, where, in many places, there is a rich stratum of clay
and vegetable soil deposited by the waters in their descent from
the mountains. Pownall observes, " that this reef, which forms
a regular curve, was the ancient maritime boundary of America ;
and that the. land between this and the sea may be denominated
the lower plains, which, when not penetrated by rivers, are a
white sea sand, about twenty feet deep, and perfectly barren ;
but the borders of rivers are rendered fertile by the soil washed
down by the floods."
The Alluvial Soil extends, in an undulating surface, from the
granitic ridge to the foot of the mountains, including the whole
coast, from 10 to 200 miles in breadth. Its line of boundary,
on the north-west, passes near Amboy, Trenton, Philadelphia,
Baltimore, Washington, Frederickburgh, Richmond, a little west
of Halifax, and Fayetteville, in North Carolina, and of Camden
in South Carolina; near Columbia, Augusta on the Savannah,
and thence taking a westerly direction, crosses the Ogeehei,
Oakmulgee, Alibama, and Tombigbee rivers, 'and passes to
Natchez on the Mississippi. From the Hudson to the Missis
sippi river, this track gradually enlarges towards the latter, ex
tending up both its banks as high as the confluence of the Illi
nois, nearly on an equal level, and rising insensibly towards the
Alleghany. From the foot of the mountains to the sea, there is
a gradual descent of above 1800 feet: a similar inclination is
observable from the valley of Natchez to the Bay of Mexico,
down which immense masses of earthy matter and trees are an
nually borne by numerous rivers of great dimensions, which
sometimes swell to the height of twenty or thirty feet above the
ordinary level. Proceeding from Georgia to New York, the ele
vation of this soil above the level of the sea gradually diminishes.
It is formed of horizontal layers of black vegetable mould, peat,
gravel, sand, clay. On the more elevated parts are found pudding
stone of a round form ; in the lower parts bog-iron and tufa. It
contains marine shells and animal remains, of which there are
immense beds in the Carolinas and Georgia, twenty or thirty

436 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
miles from the borders of the sea, and at the depth of eighteen'
or twenty feet. In Maryland, a ridge of sandstone runs in a
parallel direction to the primitive ridge, and at the distance of
fifteen miles south. The banks of the Mississippi, to the dis
tance of more than 300 miles from the sea, are formed of trunks
of trees cemented by mud, which have gradually risen from
twelve to sixteen feet above the adjacent land. The valley of
Natchez, which is thirty miles wide, has been formed by the
deposits of the Mississippi. This soil, at the town of Natchez,
is a hundred feet above the level of the sea. " On the shores of
York river," says the author of the British Spy, " the bones of
whales abound, and in washing the sand beach of that river, du
ring the recess of the tide, and looking up at the high cliff or
bank above, we find strata of sea shells in perfect preservation,
of the same kind as those which lie on the beach under the feet,
interposed with strata of earth, (the joint result, no doubt, of
sand and putrid vegetables,) exhibiting at once a sample of the
manner in which the adjacent soil had been formed, and proof
of the comparatively recent subsidence of the waters." In the
district of Columbia, near the capital, mineralized wood, and
trunks in a natural state, have been dug up from the depth of
forty- five or fifty feet. In cutting the Santee canal, in South
Carolina, several teeth of the shark were found, one of which
is four inches long, and its base three and three quarters. On
the banks of the Meherim River, in North Carolina, the skele
ton of a shark, forty feet in length, has been lately discovered ;
one of the vertebra weighs twelve pounds and a half, a tooth
sixteen ounces. The great rise of James River, in September
1816, when its waters covered the wharfs six or seven feet in
depth, gave rise to the following calculation : allowing the river
here (Richmond) to be 2000 feet in width, and the water, on an
average, to be six feet deep, the waters moving at the rate of
ten feet a second, (a calculation within the bounds of reality,)
then 7,200,000 cubic feet, or 200,000 tons pass every minute.
The water is very yellow, probably a twenty-fifth part is earth;
supposing this, when deposited, to weigh double the same bulk
of water, there would be 663,000 square feet ; now, by extract
ing the cube root, we have the cubic bulk, which is only eighty-
six feet, which would cover a square mile about one- third of a
square inch. This deposition, though slow in its progress, will

UNITED STATES, SOIL, &C. 437
yet, in process of time, make great encroachments on the At
lantic. Mr. Melish, estimating the Mississippi at two miles in
breadth, twenty feet in depth, and its mean velocity four miles
an hour, found the discharge of water to be 94,000,000 of gal
lons per second. But Mr. Bradbury, who has since considered
this subject, remarks that, according to these data, the quantity
is only 1 8,537,325 gallons, and that this estimate was made on
the dimensions of this river near its mouth, without considering
the water which escapes by the different bayous. That the depth
is also greater than forty feet ; for in no place, from Orleans to its
mouth, is it less than thirteen fathoms, or seventy-eight feet; and
that the mean state of the river, when it maintains its full mag
nitude, from below Red River to the Bayon Chiffalie, a distance
of three miles, is perhaps about 60,000,000 gallons per second.
(p. 239.) In the southern states the rivers often change their beds,
and the land, in many parts, has, within a short period of time,
encroached upon the ocean. On the coast of North Carolina,
at Cape Lookout, there was a harbour, which in 1771, was ca
pable of receiving a hundred sail, and now the whole is solid
ground. Dr. Mitchell remarks, that from the Bay of New York
to the Gulf of Mexico is a low, flat, sandy beach ; the soil, for
a great distance from it, sandy and barren, in which nothing is
to be found, either on the surface or in the bowels of the earth,
biit beds of sea-shells instead of stones, metals, and other mi
nerals. Lakes that have disappeared. — Mr Volney is of opinion, that
the chain of Blue Mountains was once entire, and the great val
ley to the west a lake or, internal sea, which became dry by
openings that gradually deepened, and afforded passage to the
great rivers. He remarks, that this operation would not be dif
ficult, as this ridge is not entire, but composed of separate blocks
of various dimensions, the interstices of which are filled with
earth. In proportion as these openings were made the waters
sunk, forming small lakes, by the heights or ridges which rose
above the level of the bottom of the primitive gaps, and at last
became dry by the deepening of the beds of the rivers. The
waters of the Hudson were shut up by the transverse ridge called
the Highlands, and raised thereby to a considerable height, and
probably connected with lakes George and Champlain. The
formation of the Cohoez took place after the disruption at West

438 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
Point. The Ohio, dammed up by a ridge at Silver Creek, or*.
by some other eminence, would form a lake of vast extent, for
the land lying between the Ohio and the great lakes is so level,
that a mound 200 feet in height, placed at the above creek,
would not only spread the waters towards Lake Erie, but extend
them from the rampart of the Alleghany to the north of Lake
Superior. The , beds of coal, in the vale of the Ohio, were,
most probably, formed by the trees deposited by the rivers flow
ing from the Alleghany and Laurel ridges. An examination of
some of the fossil shells of this country led Lamark to the same
opinion, that it must have been once covered with water. Of this
the salines afford another proof, the richest of which contains one-
eighteenth of the whole weight in salt, while the northern seas
contain but one-thirty-second, and those within the tropics one-
twelfth part. Dr. Brown, in his essay on the medical topogra
phy of the country watered by the Mohawk, is of opinion, that
the tract west of the little falls, from five to fifteen or twenty
miles on each side of the river, has been once a lake. The ap
pearance of the hills, of the limestone, shells, and loose stones,
confirm his opinion ; and, nearly a mile below the present falls,
the rock in several places, is excavated in large, circular, and
smooth cavities, from twenty to forty feet above the highest
water. Earthquakes. — On the maritime coast earthquakes have been
numerous since the arrival of the first English colonists, in 1628.
The first is thus described in the history pf the earliest establish
ments, entitled, Wonder-working Providence, (page 131.) This'
year, (1638,) the first day of the fourth month, about two
o'clock in the afternoon, the Lord caused a great and terrible
earthquake, which was general throughout all the English plan
tations. The motion of the earth was such, that it caused divers
men, (that had never known an earthquake before,) being at
work in the fields, to cast down their working tools, and run,
with ghastly terrified looks, to the next company they could
meet withal. It came from the western and uninhabited part of
this wilderness, and went the direct course. In the course of
150 years from that period, mention is made of forty-five ; and
Mr. Voltiey remarks, that the line of this subterraneous fire runs
north-west and south-west, affecting very much the direction of
the sea and Lake Ontario, the bed of Which lake he supposes to

UNITED STATES, SOIL", &C.

439

be the crater of an extinguished volcano. This opinion is
strengthened by its circular form ; by its fathomless depth, even
near the shores, and by volcanic substances found therein. In
1812, New Madrid, on the Mississippi river, was nearly destroy
ed by an earthquake.
Of the extent and quality of the land susceptible of cultiva
tion. — According to the calcinations of Hutchins, the boundary
of the United States, as defined by the peace of 1783, circum
scribed a surface of about 1,000,000 of English square miles, or
640,000,000 acres, 51,000,000 of which are covered with the
water of lakes, rivers, and bays, as exhibited in the following
table made by computation, and not by actual survey.

Lake Superior,
Lake of , the Woods, -
Rain Lake, - - - - -
Red Lake, - -
Lake Michigan, -
Bay Puan, -
Lake Huron, -
Lake St. Clair, -
Lake Erie, (western part of,) -
Sundry small lakes and rivers,
Lake Ontario, -
Lake Champlain, -
Chesapeak Bay, -
Albemarle Bay,
Delaware Bay, -
All the rivers within the thirteen states,

21,952,760 acres.
1,133,800 165,200
551,000
10,368,000 1,216,000
5,009,920 89,500
2,662,800 301,000
2,390,000 500,000
1,700,000 330,000 630,000
2,000,000

51,000,000 acres.

The name of western country, now extending to Louisiana,
includes the state of Kentucky, Tennessee, Alibama territory,
and state of Mississippi, to the south of the Ohio river ; on the
north, Ohio, Indiana, Michigan, Illinois, and the north-west
territoryj all situated on the east of the Mississippi, and on the
north and west of the Ohio. The state of Louisiana and the
Missouri territory, of great extent, lie on the western side of the
Mississippi. This region, extending from the Alleghany .moun
tains on the east, and from the Gulf of Mexico on the south, to

440 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
the great lakes on the north, and on the west to the high chain
called Rocky, or Snowy Mountains, contains nearly a thousand
millions of acres. This immense surface is intersected by in
numerable rivers and streams, some of which far surpass the
greatest of Europe, and afford an interna! navigation for ships
and boats of more than fifty thousand miles. In spring, during
the rise of the waters, those of .Lake Michigan form a commu
nication with the Illinois river, and afford an uninterrupted pas
sage for boats by this channel to the falls of the Missouri river.
No plan has yet been adopted by the general or state govern
ment, for ascertaining the proportions of soil -capable of cultiva
tion, through the mode of fixing the value of lands by assessors,
for the purpose of levying the direct tax, will, in a short time,
afford materials for this calculation. From the Atlantic to the
bottom of the great chain of mountains, the country is generally
cultivated and settled, though there are many tracts of sandy or
meagre soil which do not admit of a thick population. The
mountains themselves are, in general, too steep and rugged for
agricultural purposes, except in some parts of Virginia, where
they terminate in an almost even surface of considerable extent.
The vallies formed by the great ridges are generally fertile ; and
the immense country to the west of the Apalachian, or endless
chain, forming an elevated plain extending to the great lakes, is
supposed to contain a greater proportion of arable surface than
any country of Europe, covered with fine forests, here and there
intersected by natural meadows of remarkable fertility. The
climate is so mild that the labors of the plough are seldom in
terrupted by the frost. There are few steep hills, rocks or
stones. The deep vegetable mould reposes on a bed of lime
stone. The country is every where intersected by rivers and
streams. These advantages, so important in the formation of
agricultural establishments, first struck the attention of some in
dividuals in the year 1775, who established themselves in Ken
tucky, and the migration thither was thenceforth so considera
ble, that, in the course of ten years, the population, though
constantly annoyed by the neighbouring Indians, increased to
-the number of 30,000. In 1810; it was found to be 406,511,
at which period that of the new territories on the other side of
the Ohio were increasing nearly in the same ratio.
This country, formerly called the " territory north-west of the

UNITED STATES, SOIL, &.C. 441
Ohio," from the situation with regard to this river, extending to
the Mississippi on the west, and on the north to the line of
boundary running through the great 'lakes, contained, according
to Hutchins, 263,040,000 acres, of which 43,040,000 are water,
leaving 220,000,000 of acres of soil. The country on the west
side of the Mississippi, known by the name pf Louisiana, is less
fertile than on the eastern side. The lands of this territory be
longing to the United States have been computed at 400,000,000
of acres, one half of which has been said to be uninhabitable.
This opinion, however, is grounded on the want of timber for
buildings, fuel, and fences, without considering how this article
may be dispensed with by the substitution of others which the
country affords. Beds of coal hive been seen in several places
nearthe surface; and the subsoil almost every where consists of
a tenacious clay of which bricks may be manufactured, or mud
walls made like those of Ireland. Besides, trees may be planted,
which, in a short time, will supply all the necessary uses of tim
ber in relation to domestic and agricultural life. Mr. Bradbury
is of opinion, that the Prairie will, in the course of time, be
peopled and cultivated, and be one of the most beautiful coun
tries in the world. If, says he, I may be permitted to judge
from travelling nearly 500 miles through it, I must pronounce
the soil to be excellent, and in almost every part where I saw it
in a state of nature, it was covered with the finest verdure ima
ginable, (p. 272.) Towards the borders of Mexico there is an
immense plain of sand, almost without any vegetable produc
tions; and, in general, the country is very thinly wooded, where
as, on the eastern side of the Mississippi river, the whole sur
face, from the Apalachian mountains to the great lakes, is co
vered in its natural state with immense forests, except those
tracts known by the name of Prairies, or natural meadows,
which are remarkable for their great fertility. In general, the
soil from the Nevesink hills in Jersey, to the extremity of Geor
gia, between the lower falls and the sea, 40 or 50 miles in
breadth, consists of sand, except along the borders of rivers,
which are rendered extremely fertile by the soil washed down by
the floods. From this ridge to that chain of hills called the
South Mountain, a distance of from 50 to 70 miles, which may
be denominated the Upland, there are stripes of different kinds
of soil, and subsoil, for some scores of miles in length, and iu
19. 3 K

442 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
some places overlaid with little ridges and chains of hills. The
declivity of the whole gives great rapidity to the streams, and
the violent gusts of rain have washed it all into gullies, and car
ried down the soil to enrich the borders of the rivers in the lower
plains. These inequalities render half the country now easily
capable of culture, and impoverish it when turned with the
plough, by the constant washing away of the richer mould that
covers the surface. Between the South Mountain and the high
er chain of the Endless mountains, there is a valley of pretty
even good land, eight, ten* or twenty miles wide, which is the
most considerable quantity of valuable land on the eastern side,
and runs through New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, and
Virginia. The soil of New England is most fertile in the southern and
south-eastern parts, consisting of a black mould on a red loam,
or clay. Some tracts are stony, some sandy, and others clayey.
The low lands afford fine meadows and pasture; and there is a
great diversity of soil, almost the whole of which, in Connecti
cut, Massachussetts, and Rhode Island, has been cleared, ex
cept spots reserved for fuel, and the sides and summits of the
mountains. The soil of New York in general exceeds that of
Maryland : on the coast it is sandy; but at some distance from
the sea it swells into fine hills, many of which have a rich deep
soil. Between these there are fine vallies, with a rich black
mould, red loam, or friable clays ; all covered in the natural
state, with fine forest trees. The Hudson River passes through
a fine, dry and low country, and its banks, now covered with
plantations and farms, exhibit a wonderful variety of situations
and scenery. Vast tracts in the western parts are yet unsettled.
The lands along the Mohawk River are excellent, as are also
those in the Genessee country, where large tracts, without woods?
are so covered with grass as to conceal an ox from the sight at
the distance of thirty feet from the path. In Jersey the soil in
general is sandy or marshy, and inferior to that of New York.
On the Rariton and other streams the soil is richer ; the country
variegated, and almost entirely cultivated. In Pennsylvania
there is every kind of soil. The soil in the maritime parts ge
nerally consists of a light sandy loam : in the back parts there
are immense tracts of a rich loam, or black mould. The mea
dows along the Delaware and Schuylkill are covered with a lux?

UNITED STATES, SOIL, &C, 443
uriant herbage. In Maryland and Virginia, the surface along
the sea-coast, for above 100 miles, is low, flat, and sandy, spread
with marshes and swamps, except along the banks of the rivers,
where there is a fine black mould of more than a foot deep. In
the next 100 miles, and at the distance of from 100 to 150
miles from the coast, the country rises with an unequal surface,
to meet the range of Alleghany mountains; and presents a beau
tiful appearance, spread with fine forests, and intersected with
navigable rivers. It is also very fertile throughout all the back
parts. The summits of the mountains in Virginia, between
Green Briar and Gauley Rivers, elevated 2400 feet above the
sea ; and all the high country, known by the name of the Green
Glades, extending from the heads of the Potomac to those of
Yoghogheny, are covered with fine woods and herbage. But the
Gauley Ridge, and Laurel Hill are dry and stony, with not more
than one tenth part capable of cultivation.
The states of Ohio and Kentucky are the most fruitful in
North America. The lands have a greater depth and fertility.
Natural meadows of great extent furnish fine pasture. The cli
mate is favorable to the culture of the vine, the mulberry tree,
and silk worm. In many parts of Kentucky, the soil is so fertile
as to be too rich for wheat. On the tributary streams of the
Ohio, there are large natural meadows from 20 to 50 miles in
circuit, of which the soil is extremely rich ; and there is but a
small proportion of waste land, for most of the hills admit of
cultivation to the very summit. The soil in the maritime parts
of North Carolina is flat and sandy, except along the borders of
the rivers, and swampy places, which are very unhealthy. In the
back parts the soil is a rich black mould, and very fertile. In
South Carolina, the maritime parts, to the distance of a hun
dred miles from the coast, consist of a white dry sand, covered
with pines, intersected by narrow stripes of a black rich sand,
which run between the swamps and the pine barrens, and be
tween the latter and the creeks or rivers. The first poor soil oc
cupies nearly four-fifths of the surface. The sand hills, which
extend from twenty to forty miles in breadth, from Savannah
River to the upper part of Pedee River, and thence into North
Carolina, are in general unproductive : but the hilly country, ex
tending to the Apalachian Mountains, is covered with pine trees,
or spreading into extensive meadows, with a dry, rich, and deep

444 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
soil. The climate is also mild, healthy and agreeable. ' The soil
of Table Mountain, the most elevated in this state, situated
about four or five miles from the northern boundary, is described
to be peculiarly good, and abundantly covered with the Papaw
and other shrubs, and with a profusion of excellent grass. The
soil of the other mountains is more sterile and stony : but fine
rivulets spring almost from their summits, which are bordered
with beautiful shrubs. The soil of Georgia, in the maritime
and' inland parts, resembles that of South Carolina, The flat
country extends to the distance of about 200 miles from the sea,
and thence to the Apalachian Mountains; 100 more, there is a
high dry surface with waving hills, equal, if not exceeding in
fertility, the back parts of South Carolina. The soil of Tennes
see is in general fertile on the Mississippi and Cumberland
rivers ; it consists of light black earth with a mixture of sand.
The whole country of Louisiana, from the sea to the mouth of
Red River, 350 miles in length and 90 in breadth, is intersected
by lakes and morasses, except along the water courses, and a
small ridge below Coupee. All Lower Louisiana has been evi
dently formed from the sea. The basis of the soil is a fine white
sand, and trees and marine shells, buried at the depth of twenty
feet, are found at the distance of 100 leagues from the gulf;
The state of Mississippi, in the maritime parts, resembles the
southern countries, consisting of sandy tracts covered with white
pine, swamps, and marshes, except along the banks of the-
rivers, which are extremely fertile. The new state of Indiana
and the Illinois territory rank among the most fruitful and most
agreeable in the United States, abounding inhigh, dry, and hilly
tracts.

HISTORY OF
NORTH AMERICA.
STATISTICAL VIEW of the UNITED STATES.

SECTION V.
MASSACHUSSETTS.
SITUATION,— Between 41° 13', and 42° 52' north latitude
and 3° 20', and 6° 55' east longitude from Washington.
Extent. — It extends from the Atlantic Ocean on the east, to
the state of New York on the west, and its length, computed by
the northern boundary, which separates it from Vermont and
New Hampshire, is 130 miles; by the southern boundary, which
separates it from Connecticut and Rhode Island, 190. Its gene
ral breadth is about 50 miles; its greatest breadth 100; and
near Cape Cod it contracts to about 15 miles.
Area. — 6250 square miles.
Mountains. — Different ridges of mountains intersect the west
ern parts, one of which, named Hoosack mountain, has an ele
vation of 3500 feet above the level of the ocean ; and Saddle
mountain, the highest point of land in the state, rises to 400O
feet. Between these ridges the country is hilly, and, in many
parts, incapable of cultivation. The western side of mount
Holyoke, three miles from Northampton, is composed of basaltic
columns, resembling those of the Giants' Causeway in Ireland,
extending to the distance of ten or twelve rods, and rising to the

446 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
height of from sixty to a hundred feet. The diameter of the
prisms, which are truly hexagonal, is from two to five feet.
Soil.*— The predominating soil of the hills and mountains is a
brown loam, mixed with sand, gravel and clay. That of the
plains covered with white pine is a light loam ; and in those co
vered with yellow pine, it consists of sand and gravel. The val
leys which have a rich soil are the only tracts free from loose
stones and gravel. In general, the soil of the south-eastern
counties is light and sandy, and not so favorable to the purposes
of agriculture as the northern, middle, and western parts. The
valley of the Connecticut river, from two to twenty miles in
breadth, is exceedingly fertile.
Temperature. — The climate of Massachussetts is much warmer
in summer and colder in winter than in the same parallel of Eu
rope; and the changes of temperature are more rapid. At Salem
the difference during the year, is nearly 115° of Fahrenheit;
while at Rome it is but 84°, at Marseilles 69°, and at Padua
88°. The mean monthly variation is about 50° in January, and
34° in July. The daily variation in winter is about 8°; in sum
mer 12Q or 13°. The mean temperature, or that of deep wells
or caverns, has been ascertained to be nearly 49°. The winter
commences about the middle of December, and terminates
about the middle of March. During this period the ground is
covered With snow, which, in the mountainous parts, is from
three to four feet in depth. The thermometer (Fahren.) ranges
generally between 43° and 10, and the mercury has sometimes
fallen to 20° below zero. On the 12th of Febrnary, 1817, in
some places, it sunk, even to 30°, at sun-rise. The ice of the
rivers is sufficiently strong to bear loaded waggons ; and some
times the sea is frozen to a considerable distance from the coast.
In 1807 the ice that floated down the Deerfield river was two
feet nine inches in thickness, and the level ground, near the vil
lage of the same name, was frozen to the depth of three feet.
This great degree of cold was owing to the prevalence of the
north-west winds, which pass over an extensive uncultivated and
frozen country. The spring season is of short duration, termi
nating before the close of May ; but during this period the pro
gress of vegetation is uncommonly rapid. The heat of summer
is often so great, that the mercury, for more than a month, at
the commencement of the solstice, remains above 77QJ some-

STATISTICAL VIEW OF THE UNITED STATES. 44f
limes it rises to 86° and 90", and in the year 1811 was observ
ed, at Cambridge, at the height of 101|°. The temperature,
both in summer and winter, and particularly near the sea coast,
is liable to great changes. In the months of January and Fe
bruary it sometimes varies from 14° to 28", in the course of
twenty-four hours. Similar changes take place in summer. At
noon the mercury is sometimes at 90" ; the ensuing night it falls
to 60". From the 1st of June to the 1st of October the weather,
in common seasons, is sufficiently warm to render fires unneces
sary. The autumn affords six weeks of a delightful temperature,
and closes frequently with a period of two or three weeks of
south-west winds, which has been called the Indian summer.
Miner als.-r— There are iron ores in different parts of the state;
particularly in the counties of Plymouth, Bristol, and Berkshire.
In the former bog ore forms the bed of several ponds. Copper
ore is found at Leverett, in the county of Hampshire, and at
Attleborough, in Bristol. Galena, or lead ore, is found at
Southampton, in the county of Hampshire, and is wrought by a
company, associated at Boston for that purpose. The vein is
from six to eight feet jn diameter, and extends from Montgome
ry to Hatfield, a distance of twenty miles. The produce of lead
is from 50 to 60 per cent. Black lead has been discovered at
Brimfield in Hampshire; sidphuret of antimony near South Had-
ley; and barytes (sulphate) at Hatfield and Northampton. Mar--
ble of various colors, and rather coarse texture, has been found
in Berkshire county, in Lanesborough, Sheffield, Dalton, and
Pittsfield. At the last mentioned place a species of elastic mar
ble has been lately discovered, a specimen of which, presented
to the New York Philosophical Society, was four feet in length,
three inches in breadth, and one in thickness. Another, after
wards procured by Dr. Mitchell, was twenty- two inches in
breadth, five feet in length, and two inches in thickness, con
taining a mass of 2640 cubic inches. The color is of a snowy
whiteness, and so great is its elasticity, that, when supported at
the two extremities, it bends down by its own weight, and forms
a segment of a circle, the depth of which is two inches. Expo
sed to heat, it loses its flexibility, which it recovers when plun
ged in water, according to the report of Dr. Mead, by whom
this property was first discovered.
Slate. — There is a quarry in Bernardstown, in Franklin coun-

448 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
ty, -which is chiefly employed for tombstones. Soapstone, or ste
atite, exists in Middlefield, in the county of Hampshire, twenty-
one miles west of Connecticut river, and is found in regular
strata of five feet in depth. When taken from the quarry, it
may be sawn with as much facility as hard timber. It is em
ployed for building houses; and also for chimneys and stoves,
being found to resist a common fire heat, for many years.
Limestone abounds in the county of Berkshire, and is manu
factured into lime for building and manure. Sand, of a white
color, is found, in extensive beds, on a high hill in Cheshire, and
is used for the manufacture of glass. Mixed with lime, it forms
an excellent mortar for building. Serpentine, near Newbury
port, of a deep or blackish green, and very beautiful. It is found
jn beds of granular limestone. Turkey, or whitstone, is found
at Dorchester, presenting alternate strata of white and brownish
red. Ochres, yellow and red, and pipe-clay, have been found at
Martha's Vineyard. Anthracite, or blind-coal, which is used as
a pigment, is found near Worcester.
Mineral Waters. — Those in the town of Sym, in the county
of Essex, are most frequented. The mineral waters in Boston
and in Brighton, about five miles distance from each other, are
said to possess qualities similar to those of Ballstown. None of
these waters have been properly analyzed.
Vegetable Kingdom.- — Forest Trees. — The hilly and moun
tainous country produces oak, walnut, pine, birch, maple, ash,
cedar, cherry, chesnut, poplar, bitternut, and boxwood. The
pine is almost the only tree that grows on the plains. The val
lies and banks of the rivers produce elm, cherry, maple, button-
Wood, aspen, and bitternut. The red cedar is found on a dry,
gravelly, and almost barren soil ; the white species, in low mar
shy situations, called Cedar swamps. In 1736, a white pine
was cut, a little above Dunstable, near Merrimack river, the
thick end of which was seven feet eight inches diameter. Colo
nel Dudley, in his surveys of new townships, about 50 or 60
miles inland, observed white ash trees straight and without
branches, for about 80 feet, and about three feet diameter at the
hick end. list of the Principal Forest Trees.
Ash, mountain, - - - Sorbus aucuparia.
——white, - Fr-axinus Americana, Mich.

STATISTICAL VIEW OF THE UNITED STATES. 449

Aspen, American,
Beech tree, -
Beaver tree, -
Birch, common white,
 black, or mahogany, -
Butternut, oilnut, -
Cedar, red, -
 white, -
Cherry, wild, *
Chestnut tree,
Cornel, dwarf, j»
 white berried, - «
 broad leaved, - -
Dogwood tree, -
Elm, common, -
Hazel, common, -
Hickory, or white walnut,
— —  shell bark,
Iron Wood, or hop hornbeam,
Larch, red, - - - -
Lime tree, or bass wood,
Maple, red or swamp,
 rock or sugar, -
Oak, white, ....
— — black, - - -
 scarlet, -
 red, -
 shrub, -
Pine, pitch, -
 white, -
 black, or double spruce,
 hemlock spruce,
Plane tree, button wood, or Sy
camore, - - - -
Tupelo tree, or swamp hornbeam,

Populus tremuloides.
Fagus ferruginea, Ait
Magnolia glauca, L.
Betula populifolia, Ait.
i  lenta, L.
Juglans cinerea, L.
Juniperus Virginiana.
 thioides, L.
Prunus Virginiana, L.
Castanea Vesca, Wild,
Cornus Canadensis.
.¦i i u alba.

-circinata.
—Jhrida. L.

Ulmus Americana, L.
Corylus Americana, Wak.
Juglans alba, Wild. •
Juglans squamosa, Mich,
Ostryia Virginica.
Laryx Americana, L.
Tilia Americana.
Acer rubrum, L.
 saccharinum, L.
Quercus ulba, L.
 tinctoria, East.
 coccinea, Mich.
 rubra, L.
-hanulsri, Mich.

Pinus rigida, L.
 strobus, L.
..  nigra, Mich.
 Canadensis, L.
Platanus occidentalis, L.
Nyssa villosa, Mich.

ANIMAL KINGDOM.
Quadrupeds. — The panther, wild cat, wolves, and bears, have
retreated to the mountains,, and seldom appear in the low coun
try. In 1814, a male and female wolf visited Springfield, and
19. 3 L

450 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
some neighbouring towns, where they destroyed a hundred and
fifty sheep; but no circumstance of this kind had before occurred
during half a century. The wood-chuck burrows in the gtound,
and destroys the crops. The grey, striped, and flying squirrels
are numerous.
Fishes. — The bays and rivers abound with salmon, mackerel,
and other kinds of excellent fish. The salmon are daily becom
ing more rare, and have disappeared in some rivers, owing to,
the erection of dams and mills. The shell-fish on the coast are
the lobster, (Cancer hamarus, L.,J scollop, (Ostrea pectines,)
and the clam, (Venus mercenaria.) There is a species of shell
fish known by the name of horse shoe, or king's crab, which is
sometimes a foot in breadth.
The whale fishery occupies most of the inhabitants of Nan
tucket. In 1811, the number of sailors amounted to 1200, and
and there were established on the island from 15 to 20 manu
factories of oil and candles.
The whales, of which great numbers were formerly taken in
the bay, have become rare ; but a species of this genus, called
the black fish, weighing about nine tons, arrives there in shoals,
and yielding an oil resembling that of the whale. By means of
boats they are driven on the flats, where, left by the tide, they
fall an easy prey to their pursuers. Cod and haddock, pollock,
mackerel, and herring, frequent the inner coast of the bay. The
two first are taken with the hook ; the others with the seine.
Cod, halibut, sturgeon, shad, herring, bass, eels, and other
fishes, swarm around Nantucket islands.
Insects. — Among the insects injurious to agricultural produc
tions, is a species of grasshopper, known by the name of locust,
which in May 1817, overran some counties, destroying every
kind of herbage. It was of the size pf a grain of rye, it had
a black head, was from f to f of an inch in length, and was
supposed to be the migratory locust of Linnaeus, (Gryllus.)
POPULATION.
Progress of Population.
In 1731, ... l'2O,0OO Including blacks.
1742, - - - 164,000 
1753, .... 220,000 
1763, ... - 241,024 5214
1784, - 357,510 4377

STATISTICAL VIEW OF THE UNITED STATES. 451
1790, by the census - 378,787 5463
1800,. -. - - - 422,845 , 6453
1810, . - - - - 472,040 6737
This table gives an increase, in these last ten years, of 49,195
only, or ll-^j per cent, nearly. The smallness of this increase is
attributed to the emigration to the state of New York, and the
western country, which is greater from this than from any olher
state. Massachussetts, in 1810, was the fourth state in point of
population; in 1790, it was the second.
Free white males under 10 years of age, in 1810, - - 68,930
Females, -  66,881
Males of 10, and under 16, - - - 34,964
Females,  33,191 '
Males of 16, and under 26, - - - . - 45,018
Females,  46,966
Males of 26, and under 45, - 45,394
Females, - .... 49>,229
Males of 45 and upwards, - - - 34,9.76
Females,  39,894
Males, - - 229,743'
Females - - 239,561
Excess of Females, - - . 9,819
The number of slaves was, - - 6,737
Diseases. — Notwithstanding the great extremes of heat and
cold, and the sudden changes of temperature, the climate is not
unfavorable to health and longevity. The inhabitants are of a
good stature, and have a healthy complexion. The farmers lead
an industrious and frugal life, though, of late, the use of spiritu
ous liquors has increased, to the great injury of health. The
consumption of cider, molasses, and spruce beer, is still, how
ever, greater in this than in any other state. The dress and
manner of living, in all classes of society, resemble those of the
corresponding classes in England. That of females, in winter,
is too light for the climate ; and is probably- the great cause of
the increase of consumption. Small pox and dysentery are said
tb have decreased ; and yellow fever has not appeared for twenty
years past. A part of the state, by its natural position, is free
from this afflicting disease, which has never existed above the
43° of latitude. Diseases are much more frequent than formerly.
The following is a copy of the bill of mortality, in Boston, for
the year 1814, when the population was 34,000.

452 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
Deaths, , - 72T
Age under 1 year ... 161
1 to 2  76'
2 to 5  3*
5 to 10  28
10 to 20  35
20 to 30 - - - - ' - 114
30 to 40  87
40 to 50 - - - - - 56*
50 to 60  33
60 to 70  25
70 to 80  27
80 to 90  21
90 to 100  1
T2T
Of this number 399 Were males and 328 females. The greatest
number of deaths was in October, amounting to 100 ; the least,
in June, 40.
The diseases, and the number of persons who died of each,
were as follows: consumption 193, typhus fever 77, other fevers
44, infantile diseases 208, old age 39, still born 32.
Habits and Character. — The growth of population and inter
course with other people have effaced much of that severity of
character which long distinguished the people of New England.
The nubile state of the female sex is from sixteen to twenty
years. That of men from eighteen to twenty-five ; and the mar
riage vows are religiously observed. The amusements, of winter
are balls and sleighing. Those of summer are fishing, walking
in the evening, or riding on horseback. Tea parties are held at
an early hour, and, like the Italian conversazioni, are extremely
social and interesting. In the upper circles they are of late
years more fashionable, and seldom commence before eight of
nine o'clock.
The people of this state are strict in their attention to reli
gious worship, which is considered as an affair of conscience,
with which no authority has a right to interfere. How different
was the character of the first colonists, who expelled from ;the
province all those who refused to adhere to the tenets of the ec
clesiastical court. Anabaptists, Jesuits, and Quakers, in 1644,
were banished as "incendiaries of the commonwealth, the in-
fectors of persons in main matters of religion, and the troublers
of churches, in all places where they have been." " Every per-

STATISTICAL VIEW OF THE UNITED STATES. 453
son who imported, dispersed, or concealed Quakers' books, or
writing's concerning their devilish opinions, forfeited £5 of law
ful money, for open contempt of God's word. The offender was
obliged to pay this sum to the public treasury, or to stand two
hours, upon a block, or stool, four feet high, on a lecture day,
with a paper fixed to his breast, written in capital letters, " An
open and obstinate contemner of God's holy ordinances '." No
body is forced to go to church ; but greater respect is paid to
those who do* The English is the only language in use.
Eminent Persons. — Benjamin Franklin, Samuel Adams, John
Adams, John Hancock, General Knox, General Lincoln, and
Fisher Ames, all natives of this state, have added to its celebrity
by their superior talents and patriotic virtues.
Mr. Dickinson, in his View of this state, observes, " that from
the almost equal division of the two political parties, the asperi
ties of language and disposition attending political conflicts,
have existed in a high degree, and been represented by strangers
as having extensively undermined the confidence of society, and
laid waste most of the blessings of private life ; but this repre
sentation," he observes, " must be understood with great limita
tions, as, notwithstanding, personal merit is duly estimated; and
among those of opposite sentiments there are intermarriages,
and a free interchange of relative duties/'
Capital crimes are rare ; and it is stated by Dr. Morse, that,
uin 1812, the number of prisoners in the states' prison or peni
tentiary did not amount to 200. In a Massachussetts prison £§
of those it contains are said to be foreigners."
In 1786 the new plan of taxation furnished a pretext for in
surrection, which was chiefly confined to the western counties,
particularly that of Hampshire. The leader was Daniel Strays,
who, the ensuing year, surrendered to General Shepherd, the
commander of the militia employed to suppress the revolt.
Constitution. — In the year 1684 the first charter of Massa
chussetts Bay was granted by King James the Second, by which
the people, in virtue of a judgment in chancery, were empowered
to elect all their own officers, except those of the admiralty and
customs. In the third year of King William and Queen Mary,
another was obtained, which reserved to the crown the appoint
ment of the governor, lieutenant-governor, secretary, the officers
of the admiralty and customs. The governor, with the consent

454 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA^
of the council, appointed the judges and other officers of the
courts of justice, and of the council ; others were appointed by
the council and assembly. The upper house of legislature, or
house of representatives, elected by the freeholders, chose the
speaker and council. The general court consisted of the gover
nor, council, and the house of representatives ; and was a legis
lative court, a court of equity and appeals.
The republican form of government was published, and had
the force of law in the year 1780, (2d March.) The legislative
power consists of a Senate and House of Representatives, which
united form the General Assembly, or General Court of Massa
chussetts. Senators. — The senators, forty in number, are elected annu
ally in districts, by the male inhabitants of twenty-one years of
age and upwards, living and having a freehold estate within the
commonwealth, of the annual income of three pounds, or any
estate to the value of sixty pounds. No person can be elected
a senator who is not possessed of a freehold estate to the value
of three hundred pounds, or of personal and freehold property
worth twice this amount.
Representatives. — The representatives are also elected annu
ally by voters, who have the same qualification as for senators,
and by corporate towns in proportion to the number of inhabit
ants. A representative must have resided one year in the town
he represents, and there possess a freehold of a hundred pounds,
or two hundred of any rateable estate. When a town is found to
contain 150 rateable polls, it is entitled to one representative ;
when the number increases to 375, it has a right to two; and
to an additional member for every 225 additional polls.
The Executive power is vested1 in a governor, lietenant gover
nor, and nine councillors. The two first officers are chosen an
nually, on the first Monday of April, by persons qualified to vote
for senators and representatives. The councillors are also chosen
annually, by the joint ballot of the two houses, from among the
persons returned as councillors and senators ; and the place of
those who refuse to serve is supplied from the mass of the peo
ple. The supreme executive magistrate, or governor, who has the
title of excellency, must have a freehold property in the state of
a thousand pounds, and declare his sincere belief of the Chris-

STATISTICAL VIEW OF THE UNITED STATES. 455
ian religion ; he must also have resided in the state seven years
immediately preceding his election. The governor is command
er-in-chief of the naval and military forces of the state ; and,
with the advice and consent of the council, which he can assem
ble at discretion, he is empowered to appoint the. attorney and
solicitor-general, and other judicial officers ; also to grant par
don for offences, except such as have been tried and decided be
fore the senate, by an impeachment of the house. All commis
sions are signed by him, and attested by his secretary.
The lieutenant-governor, who is a member of the council, and
styled his " honor," has the same qualifications as the governor,
as to religion, property, and residence ; and, when the chair of
governor is vacant by death or absence, he has also the same
powers and authority.
The members of the council are next in rank to the lieute
nant-governor ; not more than two are chosen in the same dis
trict. The governor assembles them at his discretion, and five,
with him, make a board. The powers and authority of the go
vernor and lieutenant-governor, in case of death, absence, or
other cause, devolve upon the councillors. The legislature
assemble twice a-year, in May and January. A bill cannot be
passed into a law without the assent of the governor, unless,
after his refusal, it be reconsidered and approved of by two
thirds of both houses.
The constitution contains a declaration of.rights, consisting of
thirty articles, which embrace all the great principles of civil and
religious freedom.
Slavery, declared to be unjust, was abolished by this instru
ment, and afterwards by an act of the legislature. Though the
proprietors of slaves were not compelled to set them free, there
have,. for a long course of years, been no slaves in New Eng
land. Judiciary. — The judges are appointed by the governor and
council, and, for misbehaviour, are liable to removal from office
by the authority from which they hold their commission, if de
manded by both houses of legislature. There is a supreme judi
cial court, and three circuit courts of common pleas. All the
English provincial laws are preserved, except such as were found
to be in opposition to the rights and liberties established by the
new government. The opinion of the supreme court, on any

456 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
important question, may be demanded by either branch of the
legislature, or by the governor and council. Jnstices of the peace
are appointed for the term of seven years by the council; and if
they are found to have faithfully discharged the duties of the
office, their commission may be renewed. Appeals from the
judges oj the probate of wills go to the superior court, and are
there finally judged.
The judiciary officers of the United States, for the state of
Massachussetts, are : — a district judge, with a salary of a thou
sand dollars ; an attorney, with 200 ; a marshal, with 200 ; a
clerk, with fees.
Finances. — The revenue is principally derived from an annual
tax on real and personal estates, and a capitation tax on all
male persons, of sixteen years and upwards. Six per cent, is
paid on the actual value of all rateable estates, both real and
personal, except wild or uncleared lands, on which the rate is
two per cent.
Internal government. — The state is divided into districts or
townships of unequal size, the largest six miles square, each of
which has a local jurisdiction with regard to the management of
its own affairs. The municipal police is exercised by magis
trates, called select men, who are bound to attend to every thing
which concerns the safety and welfaro of the citizens. Town
officers are elected by the male citizens of twenty-one years and
upwards, who pay taxes, and have resided one year in the town
in which they vote.
Public Instruction. — Great praise is due to the inhabitants of
this state for the liberal spirit manifested in their scientific and
and literary institutions, and particularly for the organization
and support of free schools, where poor children of both sexes
may be instructed in reading, writing and arithmetic. Every
town having fifty householders is obliged to provide a school of
this description ; and when the number increases to two hundred
families, the town or district is obliged to establish another for
the instruction of youth in the Latin, Greek, and English lan
guage. Neglect of this statute (of 29th June 1789.) is punished
by a pecuniary fine, proportioned to the time of neglect and
number of inhabitants, at the rate of ten pounds currency for
every fifty families ; so that the penalty for one hundred and fifty
families is thirty pounds. The limits of school districts are de=>

STATISTICAL VIEW OF THE UNITED STATES. 457
termined by town meetings ; and the assessment and collection
of taxes, for the support of such schools, is provided for by a
law of the 28th February 1800.
Religion. — The public ordinances of religion are generally
well attended to ; though it is stated by Mr. Beecher that there
is a deficiency of 178 competent religious instructors.
The constitution has secured the free exercise of religious
worship. The Congregationalists, the most numerous denomi
nation, have 390 churches ; the Baptists aie next in point of
numbers ; according to the report of the general convention of
this body, held in Philadelphia in May 1817, the number of
churches was 91 j of members, 7731. The Episcopalians have
14 churches and 8 ministers; the other sects are the Methodists,
Universalists, and a few Quakers.
Agriculture. — The agricultural art has been carried on to
great perfection in this state, owing to the increased value of
lands, and their equal partition among all the children of every
family. The farms generally consist of from one to two hundred,
and rarely exceed three hundred acres. A part is cultivated,
another is reserved for meadow and pasturage, and from five to
twenty acres for wood.
The principal agricultural productions are Indian corn, wheat,
rye, oats, barley, buck wheat, potatoes, hemp, flax, hops, and
pumpkins. The principal grain is Indian corn, the average crop of which
is about 28 bushels per acre, and the interval lands, well culti
vated, yield from 60 to 80 bushels. It is planted in rows at the
distance of three feet from each other, in the latter part of April
and beginning of May ; it is hoed three times, and arrives at
maturity in the beginning of October. The stalks and envelope
of the grain are dried in bundles, and, for cattle and sheep, are
equal to the best hay. An acre yields about half a ton. This
grain is superior to all others for fattening cattle, hogs, and
poultry. The flour mixed with rye, in the proportion of a third,
constitutes the common brown bread of perhaps four- fifths of
the inhabitants.
Rye, also much cultivated, is sown in September, and the
average produce per acre is about 1 2 bushels. Wheat is now
little cultivated, being subject to blight, especially near the sea,
and also to the ravages of an insect called the Hessian fly. The
20. 3 M-

458 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
average crop is about 15 bushels per acre ; in good soils, about
20 ; on old lands, it is generally sown in spring ; on those newly
cultivated, in autumn.
Oats are cultivated for horses; and in some places are sown
with pease ; ground with Indian com, they constitute an excel
lent food for cattle. Of rye, the average produce is 15 bushels
per acre; that of the best soil, from 25 to 35 bushels. In 1817,
the premium of 40 dollars, proposed by the Massachussetts
Agricultural Society, for the greatest crop of wheat, was award
ed to a farmer of Worcester county, who raised 36-.V hushels
from an acre and four roods. A premium to the same amount,
for the greatest quantity of potatoes, was given to a farmer of
Dedham, who raised 450 bushels from an acre. Pease, when
sown early, have been lately attacked by a bug, but when sown
after the middle of June, they escape its ravages. Beans are
raised in great quantity for domestic consumption, and sea pro
vision. Barley and buck wheat are not much cultivated. Of
potatoes, most farmers plant from half an acre to four acres, for
family use, and also as food for domestic animals; the average
produce of good lands is about 200 bushels per acre. Pumpkins
are cultivated between the rows of Indian corn, and afford nou
rishment to cattle and swine till the 1st of January, after which
it is difficult to preserve them. Hops are raised in the interior
of the state for domestic and foreign consumption. Flax is cul
tivated for family use; and the value of the seed for exportation
• is considered as equal to the expence of cultivation. Hemp has
been, of late years, much cultivated on low tracts called bottoms,
where the produce is found even greater than in Europe, and the
quality not inferior to that of Russia. In Deerfleld, Franklin
county, 23cwt. 2qrs. 161bs. were produced from three acres of
rich interval land, and this quantity, at the ordinary price of 13-§-
dollars, amounted to 319 dollars. The land was purchased in
1801 for 200 dollars, so that this crop exceeded in value that of
both the land and the labor. Clover, and other grasses employ
ed for forage, thrive well, except in a few districts, where their
growth is retarded by the upright crowfoot, and eye daisy ; the
former, except in a dry state, is said to be injurious to cows.
Timothy, or herds grass, or fox-tail grass, (Phleum pratense,)
is generally cultivated, and is often mixed with common spear
grass, (Poa pratensis,) and annual spear grass, (Poa annua.)

STATISTICAL VIEW OF THE UNITED STATES. 459
The low lands yield from two to four tons per acre. The cattle
are large, and resemble those of the north of France, especially
in the four western counties. The ox is more used than the
horse in agricultural labors. Cattle are housed seven months in
the year. Of horses, there were originally three distinct races,
which, by crossing the breed, have lost much of their original
form and qualities. The Narragan breed, supposed to be of
English origin, is nearly extinct. The others are the English
courser, and the Norman horse, of which the qualities are much
deteriorated. The horses of Massachussetts, being little employ
ed in works of agriculture, have been neglected, and are inferior
to those of Virginia and Pennsylvania. The swine are pf a large
size, and excellent quality. The rearing of sheep has lately be
come an object of great interest. In July 1815, the. number of
sheep, belonging to gentlemen residing within a mile of the
centre of the town of Pittsfield, was found to be 8478, of which,
435 were of full blood or merinos, 852 of common breed, and the
remainder of a mixed kind. A difficulty attending the rearing of ,
sheep is the facility with which they leap over the stone fences;
and owing to this circumstance, a breed called the otter breed is
now propagated, which, owing to their particular conformation,
cannot leap a fence or wall, while their flesh and wool are not
inferior to those of others. Gardening is now much attended to,
and every farmer has an orchard, containing from one hundred
to three hundred apple trees. The fruits most cultivated are
apples, peaches, pears, quinces, plums, and cherries. The or
chards are generally kept in grass.
Of the Value of Lands and Houses. Dollars.
. In 1799, the lands were valued at - ... 59,445,642
The houses at - - - 24,546,82683,992,468
In 1814, the value of both houses and lands was 149,253,514
Increase in 15 years ...... 65,2G1,046
According to the valuations made in 1814, the average value of
lands per acre, including all the buildings thereon, was 13 dollars
and 75 cents.
Industry. — Domestic manufactures have lately increased to an

460

HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.

amazing extent. Ship-building is prosecuted with more ardor
than in any other state. The eastern shore, which has fine har
bours for shipping, and rich fisheries, likewise abounds in seamen,
the most hardy, intelligent, and enterprising, perhaps, that ever
the world produced. Products of Mineral Substances. Dollar?.
25,295,000 bricks,  value 139.06T
Buttons, ....  20,000
446 clocks and watches, - -  16,185
GIass>  J  36,000
12,976 pounds of brass guns, ---.-.. 7,136
32,159 do. of copper,  22,828
20,845 do. of bells, ---  8,555
99,288 do. of brass and pewter, .... . 41,700
251,503 do. of composition, ....... 109,781
37 forges, 978 toils of bar iron, ....... 12t,980
140 do. of anchors,  92,712
2340 do. of hollow ware,  - 132,200
Wrought iron,  .... 521,718
Edge tools  44,000
Yearly amount of jewellery', .-..--• 161,625
Lead mines, .......... 200
8 factories, 19,095 muskets,  229,085
16 mills, 89,490 feet of marble,  38,000
36 factories, 5,218 tons of wronght nails, ..... 69,235
2,925 do. cut do.  644,990
Small do.  1,360
Ores, ochre, and nitre beds, -  - 1,350
Soap stone,  1.300
Spectacles.  10,000
20 tons of manufactured steel, ...... 4,000
23,600 pounds of salt-petre,  - 9,303
118,757 bushels of salt,  79,526
334,238 pounds of Glauber's salts,  13,369
2,777 dozen of steel thimbles, ....... 10,000
1 1,000,000 tacks or small nails,  2,000
Tin plate work,  72,015
Earthenware,  .... 18,700
Wire factories - ........ 24,912.
A manufacture of chemical and medicinal articles was estab
lished at Salem in 1812.
At Springfield, in the county of Hampden, the United States
have an extensive establishment for the manufacture of arms; in
1810, the number of workmen employed was 220; the muskets
manufactured 10,240.

STATISTICAL VIEW OF THE UNITED STATES. 461

Products of Vegetable Substances

Shipping, $3,410 tons, .
Cabinet wares.
Chairs, if>99 dozen,
Coopers* wares, 37,995 casks.
Rakes, 11,000 in number.
Wooden ware, unnamed.
Oil, 46,460 gallons.
Spirits from grain and fruit, 540,510, —

- from molasses

Seer, ale, and porter, 34,409 barrels of 31} gallons
Spruce, essence, 1250 pounds, . . .
Oil of turpentine, &c, 6000 gallons,
Paper, 99,629 reams, ....
Sugar refined, 422,000 pounds.
Tobacco and snuff, 118,400,
Cables and cordage, 3432 tons, . . •
Playing cards, to the value of
Chocolate, 255,500 pounds,
Corn brooms, 70,000 in number,
Musical instruments, to the value of
Straw bonnets, ....
Flour and meal ground, 509,530 bushels,
Sawmills, 11,215,000 feet sawed,
Pot and pearl ashes, 133 tons,
Carriages, (Maine,)
 (Massachussetts,) 733,

Dollars. 656 095
318,Gi2 96,060 69,318 1,870
31,000 49,982
1,735,526"' 86,450 2,500
18,000
306,951 82,400 37,28 1
1,302,644 97,500
73,100 4,000
17,880
551,983
386, 169
87,335 20,619 9,000
122,674

The oak is chiefly employed for ship timber. The white pine
for masts and boards. The white cedar for boards and shingles.
Red cedar for posts fixed in the earth. The common chestnut
tor rails. The wood of the birch tree for cabinet work. The
hombean and buttonwood trees for windlasses, blocks, and tur
nery work. The fir of the low lands yields a balsam of great
medicinal value. A decoction of the young branches of the yel
low pine, mixed with a sufficient quanty of molasses, constitutes
spruce-beer, a pleasant beverage in the summer months. The
bark of the hemlock fir and common birch serve to cover the
cabin of the poor laborer and fisherman. The bark of the oak
and yellow birch is employed in tanning. Of hemp, there is a
great consumption for the cordage of vessels. The blue berry,
ah agreeable fruit, is eaten at breakfast, and with tea in the
evening. The bread in common use is made of mixture of In
dian corn and rye ; of the former is made a dish called hasty-
pudding, which is eaten with butter.
Products of Animal Substances.

Mackerel, 5,400 barrels,
Horn combs, 4g,g05do?en,
Whips 7,050 do.
Catgut,

Dollars.
value 44,550
. 80,6-24 7,990 2,000

462

HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.

Tallow candles, 1,436,550 pounds
Spermaceti, 465,000 do.
Gloves, 4,375 dozen,
Boots, . 63,307 pair,
Men's shoes, 844,861 do.
Women's shoes', 1,3'I0,500 do.
Sadlery, harness, and jockey caps,
Oil, spermaceti, 77,696 gallons,
— whale, 249,728 do.
— mills, 44,400 do.
Hard soap, 1,0* 1,720 pounds.
Soft soap, 4,190 barrels,
Woollen stockings, 37,951 pair,
Morocco skins, 261,800 do.

Tanneries.

Hides, 174,596
Calves skins, 65,888
Do. 2,800
Sheepskins, 62,536

Dollars. 217,060 178,300 14,625
412,50g 973,033
816,250 188,826 68,832
171,688 46,982
289,697 18,400
28,453
139,660

Dollars.
1,022,661 129,078 9,100
52, 140

Wh

ips,

7,050

7,900

In the island of Nantucket there are from fifteen to twenty
manufactories for lamp oil and spermaceti candles. A great
number of vessels are there fitted out yearly for the whale fishery
in remote seas.
Salted cod fish is a favorite dish in Massachussetts throughout
the year. It is kept several hours in fresh water before it is boil
ed, and is eaten with fresh melted butter. The skins of squir
rels, particularly those of the striped species, are dressed and
sold as furs.
The whole amount of the manufactures in Massachussetts, in
1810, was 1S,536,933 dollars, including articles considered as of
a doubtful nature in relation to manufactures, to the amount of
687,043 dollars. These are flour and meal, saw-mills, sugar,
bricks, saltpetre, pot and pearl ashes.
COMMERCE.
Domestic Articles of Export. — Flour, corn, rice, cotton, to
bacco, breadstuff, beef, pork, bacon, lard, butter, cheese, pickled
and dried fish, oil, spermaceti, whalebone, lumber, naval stores,
beans, peas, potatoes, apples, candles, soap, New Orleans sugar,
loaf-sugar, hops, wax, furniture, beer, boots, shoes, New Eng
land rum, gin, linseed oil, spirits of turpentine, cables and cord
age, nails, iron, clover seed, cotton yarn, onions, vinegar, and
manufactures of various kinds.
Foreign Articles Imported, of which a great quantity are sent

Registered,

permanent, .

Do.

temporary,

Enrolled and licensed,

permanent, .

Do.

temporary,

Licenced under 20 tons.

coasting trade.

Do.

cod fishery,

STATISTICAL VIEW OF THE UNITED STATES. 46S
to a foreign market. — Dye woods; English, India, German,
Russian, French, Scotch, and Irish piece goods and "hardware,
wines, spirits, teas, sugars, coffee, cocoa, fruits, spices, mo
lasses, indigo, cotton, cochineal, manufactures of lead, paints,
cordage, hemp, porter, segars, cheese, candles, nails, iron, iron
hoops, &c, &c. In 1809, the exports of rice, cotton, flour,
tobacco, staves, and naval stores, principally the produce of the
southern states, amounted to 2,294,109 dollars. In 1810, the
whole amount of exports was 13,013,048 dollars, of which
7,251,277 were of foreign, and 5,761,771 of, domestic produce.
The net amount of the duties on imports, in 1810, amounted to
2,542,338 dollars.
The tonnage, in 1807, was 321,032 tons, viz. 191,550 tons.
19.248
' 92,170 3,305 1,476 5,280
321,032
Proportion of the enrolled andlicensed tonnage employed in the
coasting trade, ....... 51,712
The whale fishery, . . . . . . 1.27
The cod fishery, . . ... 43,635
In 1807, 693 vessels cleared out at the office of the district of
Boston and Charlestown, for different ports, as follows :
37 for France.
73 for Spain, Italy and the Mediterranean.
51 for Holland, Germany, and the Hanse towns.
18 for England, Scotland, and Ireland.
229 for ports of Europe, Asia, and Africa, and the north
west coast,
The sale of English prizes near the close of the year 1813
brought into the port of Salem, amounted to 675,695 dollars.
The value of privateers from this port captured by the English
was estimated at 164,100 dollars.
Banks.. — In Massachussetts Proper there are 16 banks, of
which the capital, in 1812, amounted to 10,250,000 dollars.
The banks of this commonwealth are incorporated on the fol
lowing conditions, required by the statutes: 1. Any loss or de
ficiency arising from the official mismanagement of the directors,
is made up by the stockholders in their individual capacity, but
not for" a greater sum than the amount of stock actually held by

464

HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.

each. 2. When the act of incorporation expires, the stockhold
ers are bound to pay, in their individual capacities, all bills issu
ed by them which then remain unpaid, in proportion to the.
stock respectively held by each. 3. One tenth of the whole
funds of each bank is appropriated to loans made to citizens, in
relation to the agricultural and manufacturing interests. 4. Each
corporation is liable for the payment of the original amount of
any bank note altered to a greater amount in the course of its
circulation, and this payment is due to the bona fide holder. 5.
A tax of one half of one per cent, on the amount of the original
stock actually paid in, is paid to the treasurer of the common
wealth for public use, within ten days after each semi-annual di
vidend. 6. The commonwealth, when authorized by a law of
legislature, may subscribe a sum not exceeding one half of the
capital stock of each corporation. 7. If required by the legis
lature, each corporation is obliged to lend to the commonwealth
any sum of money not exceeding ten per cent, of the amount of
the capital stock actually paid in at any one time, reimbursable
at five annual instalments, or at a shorter period, if convenient,
with the annual payments of interest, not exceeding five per
-cent, per annum.
A Table of the Banks in Massachussetts Proper, 18 in number.

Name of Banks.

Counties.

Towns. ,

Date of In
corporation.

Time of
Expiration.

Capital.

Dollars.
State
Suffolk
Boston
1811
1831
3,000.000
Massachussetts
— r
—
1812
1831
1,600,000
Union

—
—
—
1 ,200,000
Boston

—
—
—
1,800,000
Merchants
Essex
Salem
IBM
—
300,000
Essex
—
—
1799
1819
400,000
Salem

—
1812
1831
200,000
Gloucester

G'oucester
—
—
120,000
Marblehead

Marblehead
—
—
120,000
Beverly
—
Beverly
—
—
160,000
Mechanis
—
Newbury Port
—
—
200,000
Newbury Port
—
—
—
— ¦
350,00f
Plymoui.li
Plymouth
Plymouth
—
—
100,000
Taunton
Bristol
Taunton
—
- "
100,000
Bedford
—
New Bedford
—
—
200,000
Phoenix
Nantucket
Nantucket
—
100,000
Nantucket Pacific
—
—
—
-
100,000
Worcester
Worcester
Worcester
—
; 200,000
Bridges.-
-The number of toll bridges is very considerable,
and some are remarkable for their construction and extent.
Maiden bridge, across Mystic river, connecting Charlestown
with Maiden, is 2420 feet in length, and 32 in breadth. The
Charles river bridge, which connects Boston with Charlestown,
AMKHSI<Ci\S' COIH'S.

<^»TOk \- - - -
•fit i_ - ¦ 111111
it B8i I I Ml

Hi

||H

usite

¦I

i^^^^^^^^^^^^^M
ib
as
Iizds. fklfohxl by DawJu Sc^alU,.
Amterkda"^ corns
1

IMHBOBHi

WmmSSSSW^

.Leads, JhSZustied Try Dcwies oC $po$u..

STATISTICAL VIEW OF THE UNITED STATES. 465
built on 75 piers, is 1503 feet in length, and A3 in width. On
each side there is a railing for the protection of foot passengers ;
and, by means of a drawbridge, vessels pass through the chan
nel, without being retarded in their course. West Boston bridge
is 3500 feet in length. Two other bridges, Craigie's and South
Boston, are no less remarkable. Across Connecticut river there
are twenty-two bridges, six of which are in Massachussetts; and
several, of an elegant and novel construction, have been erected
across the Merrimack river.
Canals. — The Middlesex canal, completed in 1804, extends
from the harbour of Boston to the river Merrimack, in the town
of Chelmsford, a distance of 25 miles, and opens a communica
tion with the state of New Hampshire. Concord river, which
is the reservoir of this canal, is 21 feet higher than the Merri
mack, and 107 feet above the full tide in Boston harbour. The
locks, three in number, are of freestone. That nearest the river
is 90 feet in length, and 12 in breadth. It is.navigated by long
boats of 24 tons, which are drawn by two horses, at the rate of
three miles an honr. The expence of this work amounted to
550,000 dollars. The tolls have not produced more than 17,000
dollars a-year. Two other canals extend along the eastern bank
of Connecticut river. The upper, called the Montague Canal,
in Franklin county, opened in 1800, saves a land-carriage of six
miles. The canal extends three miles through a light sandy
plain, and the only descent is 65 feet. There are eight locks,
each 75 feet long, 20 in width, and 12 in depth, supported by
walls of stone. The lower, or South Hadley Canal, in the county
of Hampshire, is two miles in length, twenty feet in width, and
draws three feet water. The whole descent is forty feet, and the
canal saves a land-carriage of six miles. The five lower locks
are each twenty feet in breadth, and seventy-five in length, ex
cept the upper one, which is a hundred and fifty feet long. The
Essex Canal runs along the Patucket falls of the Merrimack, of
which the descent is thirty-four feet. The canal with three
locks is four miles in length, and is sufficiently deep for boats
drawing three feet and a half water.
Several other canals, along different parts of the Merrimack,
have been projected. The stock of the two companies concern
ed in these canals is divided into 1008 shares, one half of which*
belongs to Hollanders. 200,000 dollars were expended in 1812.
20. 3 N

466 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
On the Middlesex canal there is a steam-boat for the convey
ance of passengers, which moves at the rate of between seven
and eight miles an hour.
Public Carriages. — The mail stage-coach, common to all the
states, is a light carriage, drawn by two or four horses, and
fitted for the accommodation of nine passengers, whose trunks
or luggage are placed behind, by means of a leathern strap, or
fixed under the seats. The driver is not separated from the
passengers, to which no objection is made, as he is often the
son of a farmer, proprietor of the stage. In summer this car
riage is agreeable, but in winter uncomfortable ; as there is no
other protection against the weather than a curtain of leather,
often fastened in a negligent manner to the posts which support
the roof. But some of the stages in this state are nearly as good
as those in England. Roads in Massachussetts.

From Boston to Gloucester

30

do.

to Portsmouth

63 upper road.

do.

to Haverhill

41

do.

to Amherst

61

do.

to Groton

33 on the turnpike road.

do.

to Winchendon

68

do.

to Brattleborough

116

do.

to Pomfrefc

57

do.

to Newport

65 turnpike road

do.

to Provincetown

122

do.

to Chatam

94

do.

to Nantucket

123

do.

to Holmeshole

91

From Sandwich to Holmeshole

84

From Middleborough to Newport

41

From Worcester to Providence

42

do.

to Lancaster

20

From Leominster to Greenfield

47

From Kuthland to Northampton

35

From Spr

ingfield"to Stockbridge

31

From Williamston to Salisbury

56

OF THE DISTRICT OF MAINE,*
Which forms a Part of the State of Massachussetts.
Situation and Extent. — This district, situated between the
* So called by way of compliment to the Queen of Charles I. who had a
private estate.of the same name in France, her native country.

STATISTICAL VIEW OF THE UNITED STATES. 467
43° and 47p of north latitude, is bounded on the north by Lower
Canada, the highlands forming the line of separation ; on the
east by New Brunswick, the boundary being the St. Croix River,
and a line running north from its source to the highlands ; on
the south-east and south by the Atlantic Ocean ; on the west by
the Piscataqua River, for a distance of forty miles,- and thence
by a line running due north, separating this state from New
Hampshire. The length on the eastern frontier is about 210
miles ; on the northern 280. The greatest length from north to
south is 225 miles. The greatest breadth from east to west 195.
It extends along the sea-coast 240 miles, for 180 of which there
is a good road leading from Piscataqua to the St, Croix River.
Area. — 32,628 square miles, or 20,882,354 acres.
Soil. — Near the sea-coast the soil is light and poor, but in the
interior, and particularly between the Kennebeck and Penobscot
Rivers, it is as fertile as in the western parts of New England,
producing good crops of grain and grass. The whole surface is
divided by Mr. Greenleaf into three sections, the soil and pro
ducts of which are distinctly marked ; the first extends along the
whole sea- coast, and to the distance of from ten to twenty miles
therefrom, with an intermixture of sandy, gravelly, clayey, and
loamy soil, which in many places is tolerably fertile, producing
Indian corn, rye, barley, grass, &c. The second, lying to the
north of the former, and extending fifty miles from the sea in
the western, and ninety in the eastern parts, has a similar com
position of soil, but more uniform, and more fertile ; it produces
good crops of grass, Indian corn, wheat, barley, rye, flax, &c.
In the third or last section, which is yet but little known, there
is a great diversity of soil, fitted, as is believed, for the culture
of wheat, barley, flax, and hemp, and particularly for the first,
which it is supposed will succeed better here than in other parts.
Concerning the interior parts yet unpeopled, Mr. Greenleaf
has furnished the following information. The soil, in the west
ern side, extending east to the Kennebeck, and north to the
heads of the Chaudiere River, is mountainous and rugged, but
towards the Penobscot', and northward to the source of its east
ern b'ranch, the soil is well adapted for agricultural purposes.
On the eastern side of this river,. and south of Passamaquoddy
and JSchoodich Lakes, it is less fertile; but it is watered by rivers
which afford an easy communication with the sea. Between the

468 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
Passadumkeay and Mitawumkeay, there is a large proportion of
good land ; but to the north of those waters, and to the extent
of fifty miles on the latter, it is low and swampy. On the east
and west are large tracts of good soil. The country watered by
the St. John is generally fertile, and particularly along its border.
There is not more waste land in this district than iu any part of
New England of the same extent. The lands of the interior
which we have just described, are estimated at 16,031,000 acres,
of which 4,352,000 belong to different persons, and ] 1,779,000
to the state. The whole of this extent does not contain a popu
lation of more than fifteen hundred families.
Rivers. — 1. The river St. John, the largest in the district,
issues from the highlands, and runs about half its course in
Maine. 2. The Kennebeck River rises in the north-western
parts of the state, and empties itself into the Atlantic to the
east of Casa Bay. It is navigable for large vessels forty-six miles
from the sea, where the falls commence, known by the name of
Teconic and Karatunk, the latter of which are the largest. The
outlet of the Kennebeck forms a considerable bay. At the dis
tance of twenty miles from the sea it receives the Androscoggin
River, a large western branch, which rises in New Hampshire.
3. The Saco River issues from the White Mountains in New
Hampshire, and flows into Saco Bay, from which it is navigable
to the distance of six miles. 4. The Piscataqua River, which
forms the boundary of Maine on the west, runs through part of
New Hampshire, and afterwards crosses Maine to its outlet in the
ocean, thirty miles from the head of Cape Ann. 5. York River
is navigable for vessels of '250 tons to the distance of six or seven
miles from the sea.
Temperature. — The winter is very severe from the 1st of No
vember to the 1st of April. During this period the ground is
covered with snow, the rivers and lakes with ice. Vegetation is
several days later in the northern than in the southern parts. In
regard to climate, Mr. Greenleaf observes, that the whole dis
trict may be divided into four sections : In the first, extending
about twenty miles from the sea, there are sudden transitions
from heat to cold, and from drought to fogs and rain ; in the
winter, from cold and snow, to thaws and storms of rain. In
the south-west part, where the surface is more cleared of woods
and cultivated, the summers are warmer, and the winters are

STATISTICAL VIEW OF THE UNITED STATES. 469
less regular than in the north-eastern parts. The second divi
sion, extending about twenty miles farther into the country, has
a more regular temperature throughout the year. In the third
section, which includes all the settlements yet formed, the win
ter is long and colder ; the summer more uniform, cooler, less
subject to droughts, or to long and heavy rains. Towards the
western extremity, the frosts continue longer, and come on ear
lier than near the opposite side ; and the north-west winds are
more frequent and violent.
Of the fourth, or last section, very little is known, except
that, at the French settlement in the river St. John, the summer
is favorable to the cultivation of most of the agricultural plants.
The opinion concerning the climate and soil of this country
was for a long time so unfavorable, that, until the commence
ment of the American revolution, most of the, bread consumed
by its inhabitants was imported from the middle states. The
climate, notwithstanding the great degree of cold' which prevails
in winter, is found to be very healthy^ and the soil is adapted to
the purposes of agriculture. Vegetation is later than in the more
southern parts of New England ; but it is more rapid. Indian
corn, which constitutes the principal food of the inhabitants,
thrives well, except near the northern extremity, where the heat
is not sufficiently great to bring it to maturity, if it were not
also liable to be injured or destroyed by the frosts of spring and
autumn. It appears that the climate of this region is not mate
rially different from that of Massachussetts, New Hampshire, or
Vermont, and, like these, will become less rude in proportion as
the surface is cleared of the woods and marshes. Of this there
is a remarkable proof, towards the centre, or middle parts, in a
strait containing about 400,000 acres, where the trees, levelled
by a hurricane in 1798, were afterwards burnt by the Indians
and other hunters, and the soil exposed to the influence of the
sun, which has created so great a change of temperature, that
the vegetation is from two to three weeks earlier in spring j and
the weather is warmer, particularly during the night, than in
any part of the surrounding country, to the distance of forty or
fifty miles.
The wolf and bear are still numerous, but are not dangerous,
except when pressed by hunger, or closely pursued. The beaver,

470 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
fox, and squirrel, are numerous. The rattlesnake is the. only
poisonous serpent in the district.
The mosquito is the only insect which annoys during the sum
mer heats.
Population.— It is stated by Douglas, that the militia, or fen-
cible men, at the breaking out -of the French war, amounted to
2485 : in 1750, the population was 10,000 by estimate; 1790,
96,540; 1800, 151,719; 1810, 228,705.
Religion. — The religious denominations are Congregational-,
ists, Baptists, Quakers, Methodists^ Episcopalians, Catholics,
and Universalists. The first are the most numerous, having 91
churches. In May 1817, the number of Baptist churches, ac
cording to the report of the general convention, held in Phila
delphia, was 1 12 ; that of numbers, 6287. Mr. Bescher states,
that one-half of the population have not the advantage of re
ligious instruction.
Agriculture. — The crops generally cultivated eonsist of wheat,,
rye, barley, oats, peas, hemp, and flax. Hops grow spontane
ously. Mr. Greenleaf states, that, in the settled parts of the
district, of each 1000 acres, 838 consist of improveable lands,
102 of waste lands, 47 of water, and 13 are occupied by roads.
According to the return of the assessors, the average product of
bread stuff per acre, from the lands in tillage, is about seventeen
bushels ; but this is a low valuation, and the lands under a more
improved system of husbandry would give a greater produce.
That of wheat on the sea-board land is from seven to twelve
bushels per acre ; in the interior from fifteen to forty. In the
most northerly settlements, near the north-eastern parts, thirty-
three bushels, and in Penobscot from forty to sixty bushels, of
Indian corn ; in the eastern parts, from twenty to thirty bushels ;
in the western, from thirty to forty. The country is Well adapted
for grazing, and produces large stocks of neat cattle. The coast
furnishes a marine vegetable called rock-weed, which is found to
be an excellent manure, in the proportion of ten loads to an
acre. It has been estimated that there are 4000 acres on the
coast, each of which yields annually twenty loads of this article.
Public Lands. — A large extent of surface, called Eastern
Lands, still belong to the state in 1795. The legislature sold a
portion to the amount of 269,000 dollars, and contracted for the
fale of 2,839,453 acres, of which 103,680 have been retained

STATISTICAL VIEW OF THE UNITED STATES. 471
for the ship masts, leaving at the disposal of the legislature
about 8,700,000 acres, of which a considerable portion hah
been since allotted for the encouragement of literature, and
other useful purposes. The lands in incorporated towns and
plantations amount to 4,850,356 acres, valued at 27 dollars an
acre, with an average population of twenty persons to a square
mile. The wild lands sell from one half to two dollars, and up
wards, according to their situation and quality.
Manufactures. — The manufactures, which consist chiefly of
coarse cloth and farming utensils, amounted, in 1810, according
to the marshal's return, to 2,135,781 dollars. The white pine
and spruce trees afford a great quantity of masts, boards, and
shingles. Yellow birch is much used for cabinet work, on ac
count of the fine polish it receives; the layers of the outer bark
serve as a substitute for paper.
Price of Labor. — Farm laborers have from 9 to 12 dollars a-
month, with food and clothing, and half a pint of rum per day,
and 20 dollars without provisions. A day laborer has a dollar,
with provisions; carpenters a dollar and a half; mechanics a
dollar and a quarter per day.
Commerce. — The exports consist chiefly of dried fish, white
pine boards, ship timber and lumber, potash, beef, pork, and
grain. A portion of the trade is carried on through Massachus
setts and other states. The imports consist of colonial produce
from the West Indies, manufactured articles, and salt, hemp,
iron, from Europe. The inhabitants of Portland carry on a con
siderable foreign trade.

472 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.

NEW HAMPSHIRE.
Situation and Extent.— This state is situated between 42i> 42'
and 45° 13' north latitude, and 4° 23' and .6° 10' east longitude
from Washington. The Atlantic Ocean washes eighteen miles of
its coast, from which it extends to Lower Canada. Its length,
from north to south, is 168 miles, and its greatest .breadth, on
the 43d parallel, is about 90;; but it gradually decreases as it
runs northerly, being only 55 miles on the forty-fourth degree of
latitude, and at the northern extremity not more than 19.
Boundaries. — North by Lower Canada ; south by Massachus
setts ; east by the province of Maine and the Atlantic Ocean ;
¦west by Vermont. The area is about 9491 square miles,
6,074,240 acres, of which nearly 100,000 are covered with
water. Aspect of the Country, and Nature of the Soil. — The coun
try, to the distance of twenty or thirty miles from the sea shore,
is generally level ; then rising gradually, it swells into hills ; and
lastly, into a chain called the "White Mountains," the highest
parts of which are elevated 3000 feet above the level of the sea.
The soil of the lower hills, vallies, and banks of the rivers, is
very fertile, and produces excellent grain of every kind. The
most valuable lands are along the borders of the large streams.
These being annually overflowed, are enriched with a fat sub
stance brought down from the hills, and there deposited. They
are notwithstanding, better calculated for pasture than tillage.
The shores are sandy, but in some places produce large crops of
what the natives call " salt hay," of which the cattle are very
fond. In the town of Rye there are 150 acres of this description,
formerly covered with fresh water, and since the year 1719, re
gularly overflowed by the tide.
Temperature.— r The cold weather generally sets in about the
middle o£ September, and continues till the close of May, du
ring all which time fires are kept up in every house, though
sometimes the necessity for them ceases after the 1st of April.
The frosts are light in September and October. In November
the weather is variable ; the frosts are moderate, but not lasting.
In December the frost becomes intense and durable, The snow

-STATISTICAL VIEW OF THE UNITED STATES. 473
falls to the depth of from two to four feet before the close of Fe
bruary ; and if a thaw takes place in January, which often hap
pens, it is generally followed by a very severe frost. March is
blustering and cold, but the snow sensibly sinks under the influ
ence of the sun. In April it disappears in the open country.
In winter the prevailing wind is from the north-west, which never
blows in summer except after thunder, accompanied with rain.
The greatest change of weather ever known in -this state was in
January 1810. On the 18th of that .month, -the thermometer,
at noon, stood at 42°, and on the following day at the same hour,
it had fallen 12° below 0; and from the 19th to the 22nd, it
fluctuated between 7° and 14° below 0, indicating a greater de
gree of cold than was ever before experienced in the state.
Rivers. — The. chief rivers are : 1 . The Connecticut, which
bends its- course along the western side, above a hundred and
seventy miles. It annually swells after the melting of the snow,
ten feet above its summer level, and sometimes, after a sudden
thaw and copious rains, it has been known to double this ele
vation. 2. The Merrimac, formed of the waters of the Pemi-
gewasset and Winipiseogee streams, which issue from a moun
tain west of the White Hills j after their union, the course of the
river is sixty-five miles south-east, and thirty-five north-east, to
its .outlet in the ocean at Newbury Port. It receives several
streams ; the principal of which are from the west. Contoocook,
which joins it above Concord, is from sixty to seventy miles in
length. 3. The Piscataqua river issues from a pond in the
township of Wakefield, and runs in a south-eastern direction to
the sea, a distance of about fifty miles, forming the boundary
line between this state and the province of Maine. A branch
of this river, called the Swanscal, has sufficient depth of water
for vessels of five hundred tons. The navigation of all these
rivers, at different distances from the sea, is interrupted by fre
quent and rapid cascades.
Animals. — The moose deer have become scarce. The black
bear is numerous, and makes great havock in the fields of In
dian corn when it is nearly ripe. 'The racoon lives in hollow
trees, and is also destructive to this grain. The wolf is very
common, and commits great ravages among the sheep. A
bounty of twenty dollars is given for the head of this animal.
20. 3 O

474 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
He is taken by means of long traps, into which he is decoyed by
a bait. The red and grey fox are common in the woods not far
remote from population. Their skin is valuable, -and they are
often entrapped and taken. The wild cat is pursued for its skin,
which is also valuable, especially the black kind. The beaver
has become rare. The black squirrel is rare; but the grey,
striped, and flying, are common. The forests abound with game.
The partridge, quail, and wild pigeon, are the same as in Mas
sachussetts. The wild turkey has retired to the inland moun
tainous country. The grous, or heath-bird, is rarely seen except
on the high mountains. The bays and rivers abound with cod,,
salmon, shad, eels, trouts, &c. The first, dried and salted near
the Isle of Shoals, is called dumb-fish, and is highly valued. It
is taken near the coast in all seasons, and on the Piscataqua
River in spring and fall. The largest fish is the halibut, some of
which have been known to weigh 500 pounds. The bass and
salmon have forsaken the rivers since the erection of dams.
Population.
In 1749 it was estimated at 30,000
1707 - - - a'2,700
1775 - - - 82,200
1790 - - - 141,895
1800 - - - 183,858
1810 - - - 214,460
The increase per cent, in the last ten years was about 16|.
This population, which is most considerable along the fertile
borders of rivers, and on the sea-coast where commerce is most
active, gives about twenty-two individuals to a square mile.
New Hampshire ranks as the fourteenth state of the Union in
point of population. The rapid increase^ is partly owing to emi
gration from the neighbouring states, and from different coun
tries of Europe. Londonderry, an inland town, was peopled
chiefly by natives of Ireland, who introduced there the manu
facture of linen.
Longevity. — Diseases. — The robust form and florid complex
ion of the inhabitants indicate the salutary influence of the cli
mate. Several instances of longevity are recorded, the most re
markable of which is that of a baker, Robert Macklin, a na
tive of Scotland, who died in 1 787, at the age of 115; and
when more than eighty he walked in one day from Portsmouth
to Boston, a distance of 66 miles, and returned the next. In

STATISTICAL VIEW OF THE UNITED STATES. 475
the bill of mortality of Portsmouth fof 1810, then containing
6934 inhabitants, the number of deaths was 111.
Cliaracter. — Dr. Belknap observes, " That firmness of nerve,
patience in fatigue, intrepidity in danger, and alertness in ac
tion, are to be numbered among the native and essential cha
racteristics of the people of New Hampshire." Marriage is so
general, that in the country it is rare to find an unmarried man
of thirty years of age. Many women are grandmothers at forty,
and it is not uncommon to see the mother and daughter suckle
children at the same time, and the father, son, and grandson,
working together in the same field. The women spin and weave
their own flax and wool. Dancing is a favorite amusement, and
the young people often assemble for this purpose, particularly at
the time of military musters, sittings of the courts of justice, the
erection of wooden houses, the launching of ships, the ordina
tion of ministers, and the husking of Indian corn. Indulgence
in spirituous liquors increases ; but the common drink is cyder,
or a fermented liquor made of spruce twigs boiled in maple
juice. The, political character of this State has hitherto resembled
that of the other states of New England. Two years after the
adoption of the constitution, the scarcity of money and clamor
for paper currency, united with other minor causes of popular
complaint, led to open insurrection; and the rioters, finding
their petition rejected by the assembly, placed centinels at the
doors, and held the members prisoners till the evening, when
they were dispersed by the militia of Exeter. The leaders were
afterwards taken and tried for treason, but received pardon from
the court, on giving security for their future allegiance,
Constitution.— The legislative power now resides in a senate
and house of representatives, which together form the General
Court, or Assembly; and each branch has a negative on the
other. Money bills originate in the house of representatives,
but may be amended by the senate, by which impeachments are
tried. The senators, thirteen in number, are elected annually,
by citizens paying taxes. The qualifications for a candidate are
these : 1st, To be thirty years of age. 2d, To be seized of a
freehold estate, of the value of two hundred pounds, within the
state. 3d, To have been an inhabitant of the state seven years
immediately preceding his election ; and an actual resident of

476 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
the district for which he is chosen. The house of representa
tives is comprised of delegates from the different towns, the
number of which is proportioned to the population, as in Mas
sachussetts, at the rate of one representative for every 150 rate
able male polls of twenty-one years of age, two for 450, and so
on, at the rate of one representative for every additional 300.
The election is by ballot, and no person can be a candidate who
has not an estate within his district of a hundred pounds value,
one half of which is a freehold in his own right ; he must also
be an inhabitant of the district at the time of his election, and
of the state, two years previous thereto. Every male inhabitant,
of twenty-one years of age, (except paupers, and persons ex
empted from paying taxes by their own request,) has a right to
Vote for senators and representatives. The executive power is
invested in a governor and five councillors.
The governor is chosen annually by the electors, as above de
scribed ; and, if two persons have an equal number of votes
one of the two is chosen by the joint ballot of the assembly.
No person is eligible to the office of governor unless he be thirty
years of age, and have been an inhabitant of the state seven
years next preceding his election. He must also be the proprie
tor of an estate of the value of five hundred pounds, one half
of which must consist of a freehold in his own right,- Within the
state. The governor, as president of the council, has the same
powers and privileges as those of the governor of Massachus
setts. Councillors are elected by ballot, by the freeholders, and
the same qualifications are required for this office as for that of
governor, except that three hundred pounds or more of the
estate must be a freehold in his own right. The secretary, trea
surer, and commissary-general, are chosen by the joint ballot of
the senators and representatives. The treasurer of the county and
register of deeds are elected by the inhabitants of the several
towns. Representatives to congress are chosen by the inhabi
tants in town meetings ; and the votes of each are returned to
the secretary's office, and laid before the general court. In the
same manner are chosen the electors for president and vice pre
sident. The two senators in congress are elected by the general
court. Internal Government.- — The police, or protection of persons
and property, is under the same regulations as in Massachussetts.

STATISTICAL VIEW OF THE UNITED STATES. 477
Every township is a distinct corporation, in which officers are
chosen for managing its affairs, and raising money, by taxes, for
the support of ministers, schools, paupers, bridges and high
ways, and other public purposes. The general superintendence
is intrusted to three or five select men, by whom the taxes are
laid, if not voted by the inhabitants. The observance of the
Sabbath, and the execution of the laws relating thereto, is under
the direction of tything men in the several towns.
Manners, Religion, and Laws. — When a marriage is to be
celebrated, the intention of the parties is published three diffe
rent times- in the town of their residence. The ceremony may
be performed within the limits of the county by either ministers
of the gospel or justices of the peace, and the act is recorded by
the town-clerk. Any other person, except a Quaker, against
whom there is proof of having performed this ceremony, is sub
jected to a fine of £ 100. Liberty in matters of religion is de
clared to be a natural and unalienable right; and no person is to
be molested on account of his religions sentiments ; no subordi
nation of sect can be established by law. All unnecessary travel
ling, loitering, or indecent behaviour on the Sabbath, is for
bidden under certain penalties. The religious denominations in
this state are — Presbyterians, Episcopalians, Baptists, Quakers,
Congregationalists, and Universalists. According to the report
of the general convention of Baptists, held in Philadelphia in
May 1817, the number of churches at this Epoch was 53 ; that
of members, 3738. There is a society of Sandemanians at
Portsmouth, and another of Shakers at Enfield. It has been
ascertained, that about one-third of the population is unprovided
with regular religious instruction. The people, however, in ge
neral, profess the christian religion. Slavery is not prohibited
by any express law, but there are few slaves. Some purchased
their freedom by serving three years in the Revolutionary war ;
others have received it from their, masters. Those who remain
slaves are well fed, and treated like white servants. They are
also under the protection of a law, 4th George I., still in force,
namely, that, "If any man smite out the eye or tooth of his man
or maid servant, or otherwise maim or disfigure them, he shall
let him or her go free from his service, and shall allow such far
ther recofnpence as the court of quarter-sessions shall adjudge ;

478 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
also, that, if any person kill his Indian or Negro servant, he
shall be punished with death."
Agriculture.— The great business of life in this state is agri
culture. The banks of the rivers and vallies produce fine crops
of wheat, corn, and rye ; also flax, hemp, and culinary plants.
The soil is favorable to -the grazing of cattle, and the, produce
of the dairy is excellent. In good lands the first crops of hay
average about a ton an acre, and two tons of clover. The low
lands along the large rivers produce from forty to fifty bushels of
wheat per acre, the uplands half this quantity. The new lands
produce good crops of Indian corn and winter rye. Of the for
mer the produce is from thirty to forty bushels an acre. Barley,
oats, pease, and flax, thrive best on land that has been under
cultivation for some years. In the western parts of the state
agriculture has made great progress. Every agriculturist has an
orchard, where the apple and pear tree furnish great abundance
of excellent fruit. The farm-houses and farm-yards are neat
and commodious. The quality of lands is indicated by the na
tural growth of the trees. Chesnut, walnut, and beech, are
found on the best soils. Alder indicates good meadow ground.
Of plants injurious to agriculture the Canada thistle (Serratula
arvensis, Lin.) is the most difficult to eradicate. It lias spread
over the loamy and sandy soil of the middle and northern parts,
where it grows from three to six feet in height. Cattle are
housed from the beginning of November till the 21st of May,
except when there is a scarcity of fodder, in which case they
feed on the young grass, which shoots up about the beginning of
May. Land is cleared of the trees by girdling them in summer.
By this operation the vegetation is destroyed. The ground be
tween them is sowed in August with winter rye and grass seed,
and the next year it yields a good pasture ; or the trees are all
cut down in June, when the sap is in circulation, and burnt in
the ensuing spring. Indian corn is then sown in holes made
with a hoe. If the trees be destroyed late in summer, wheat or
rye is sown on the new land, mixed with grass, and raked with
an iron-toothed rake, or with the hoe. Sometimes a crop of
Indian corn is raised the first year, and the second year a crop
of rye or wheat, sown with grass seed, which is employed for
pasture or mowing the third year. When the soil is good, the
two first crops will pay the .expence of all the labor, and it is

STATISTICAL VIEW OF THE UNITED STATES. 479
customary for the proprietor of lands to let them on this condi
tion, he paying for felling the trees, and purchasing the grass
seed, especially husbandmen, who fatten cattle for the market.
It is found, that all esculent roots are larger and sweeter in the
new than in the old soil. Light frosts sometimes take place in
June and August, and destroy the crops of Indian corn. The
only manure employed is that of the stables and cow-houses,
which is spread over the fields in spring, or put into the holes
where corn and potatoes are planted. The neat cattle of New
Hampshire are of a large breed, of which the first, of a yellow
color, were procured from Denmark, and sent thither in 1633,
by Captain John Mason and his associates, for the purpose of
drawing lumber. The breed of horses has been neglected, as
this animal is little used for draught. The proportion of horses
to neat cattle is not more than one to twenty. Asses have been
lately introduced. There are great numbers of sheep and swine.
The latter are suffered to run in the woods in summer; after
harvest they are shut up, and fattened on Indian coin.
Manufactures and Products of tlie Soil in 1810. — The inha
bitants generally prepare their own clothing, and various manu
factures have been lately established, some for the purpose of
exportation. Those of tow cloth are very extensive. In 1810
there were ninety looms in the township of Hanover. Iron
works at Exeter produce sufficient iron for the consumption of
the state. Bricks and pottery are made in different places. Of
gunpowder 1000 pounds are manufactured, value 750 dollars.
Spirits, 20,580 gallons, value 22,160 dollars; 135,950 gallons
of brewed liquors, from fruit and grain, value 74,450 dollars.
Pot and pearl ashes. The number of brushes made in this state
in 1810 was 1666, valued at 5000 dollars. At Exeter there is a
manufactory of sadlery, a duck manufactory, six saw- mills, and
a paper-mill. White pine for masts, .yards, and planks of ves
sels. The masts are the finest in the world, being from 140 to
150 feet in length, and so durable, that, if protected from
moisture, they will last twenty years. The roots of this tree are
employed for fences, and it is said will last for a century. Hoops,
from the saplings of white oak and hickery. Staves, from white
and red oak. Cyder, one barrel of which is obtained from ten
to twelve bushels of apples, and gives about four gallons of proof
spirits. Charcoal, of which one cord of wood, eight feet in

480

HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.

length, four feet in breadth, and four in depth, yielded from
forty to fifty bushels. One acre of wood-land yields fifty cords
of wood.
Commerce.— The staple commodities are ships, lumber, pro
visions, fish, horses, pot and pearl ashes, flax seed.
Exports.— \nd\an .corn, live stock, beef and pork, pickled
fish, whale o.l, ship timber, tar, lumber, pot and pearl ashes,
tow cloth, butter and cheese, flax seed, and bricks, which are
carried to different ports, according to the cheapness and facility
of transport, -to Boston, Portsmouth, Portland, Hartford, and
New York. Amount. qf Exports.
In 1795, - 230,000 dollars,
1799, - 361,000
1810, - 234,650
Imports. — West India rum, gin, molasses, wine, sugars, tea,
coffee, cotton, cheese, salt, nails, sea-coal, steel, lead, and
grindstones. About 27 schooners, and 20 boats, exclusive of
those belonging to the Isles of Shoals, are employed in the fish
eries, which, in 1791, produced 25,850 quintals. From a me
morial of the ship-owners and persons concerned in foreign com
merce, assembled at Portsmouth in February 1817, it appears,
that the commerce of this state has of late greatly declined.
During the year 1806, 103 vessels cleared for the West Indies |
in 1816 the number was but 44.
Tonnage Registered and Enrolled.
In 1798 it amounted to 19,220 tons.
1806 - - - 22,798
1810 - , - 2S,S20
1816 - - 30,861
In 1817 no vessel was building in the state. The following ob
servations are from the address of the governor to the people,
dated the 5th of June 1817.
" In New Hampshire the balance of trade is against us. Our
imports from foreign countries, and from the southern section of
our own country, exceed our exports. This order of things must
necessarily drain off our money, and tend to produce a state of
dependance on other nations, and other states, injurious to our

"STATISTICAL VIEW OF THE UNITED STATES. 481
interest, and dangerous to our freedom and independence. For
it is with a state as with an individual, he that continues to buy
much more than he sells, must be involved in debt, and sooner
or later become poor. We may increase the number of our
banking institutions, but they will not inerease our wealth ; the
precious metals will be sent to other countries to purchase goods
we do not want, or such as we can make ourselves. For these
evils we may apply a gradual but effectual remedy, by the in
crease of agriculture and of manufactures."
Caiwls. — By means of locks and a canal, tne Merrimac River
affords a direct communication -between Concord and Boston.
There are two canals on Connecticut River, within the limits
of New Hampshire. Along Amos Reag Falls in the Merrimac,
and others farther up, short canals have been opened. A canal
runs eight miles through the marshes of Hampton and Salisbury,
and meets the Merrimac opposite Newbury Port.
VERMONT.*
Vermont, situated between 42° 44' and 45° of north latitude,
and 3° 38' and 5° 27' east longitude from Washington is a
mountainous and inland country. The boundary line that sepa
rates it from Canada on the north, is ninety miles long, and
from Massachussetts on the south, forty miles. It has New
York on the west, and New Hampshire on the east, and its
mean length, from north to south, is 157 miles. The distance
frota the ocean to the nearest point of this state is about 80
miles. Area, 10,237 square miles, or 6,551,680 acres.
Aspect of the Country, and Nature of the Soil. — The -Green
Mountains/)- from ten to fifteen miles in breadth, traverse this
* The name Vermont, or Green Mountain, is descriptive of the natural
growth of the trees of this soil, many of which are evergreens, hemlock,
pine, spruce, &c.
+ This chain begins in Canada, near the bay of Chateur, and passes
through Massachussetts into Connecticut, near Newhaven. The height of,
Killington Peak in Sherburne, was found by actual mensuration, to be 3454
feet above the ocean, and 3184 above the revel of Lake Champlain, at the
mouth of Otter Creek.
21. 3 P

482 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
state in a direction, from north to south. These mountains,
which run nearly parallel with the course of Connecticut River
are intersected by numerous vallies, the soil of which is deep,
rich and loamy. That of the hilly parts is also well adapted to
pasturage, and other agricultural purposes. The most level
tract is on the borders of Canada; , Adjoining the rivers are fine
plains and meadows j and between the banks of Lake Cham
plain and the mountains, there is a valuable tract of arable land,
extending 100 miles in length, and thirty in breadth. The
whole surface in its natural state is thickly wooded. Along the
banks of the river, the whjteoafc, beech* and elm, are abun
dant. The higher parts are covered with white oak, sugar-ma
ple, butternut^ ash, birch, &c, and the mountains are clothed
with evergreens to their very summit.
Temperaiure<^*rThe climate is nearly similar to that of New
Hampshire. The snow lies from the middle of December to the
middle of March, during which period it is customary to travel
in sledges. On the sides of the hills it is often from two to four
feet in depth. It disappears about the middle of April, except
on the highest parts of the mountains, where it lies till May. It
is generally permanent from the 10th or 12th of December to
the beginning of April, when it suddenly dissolves by the influ
ence of a warm sun. Ift the low grounds it is from one to two
Snd a half feet deep, and remains till about the 20th of March.
The temperature of deep wells is about forty- three one-half
throughout the year, which corresponds with the mean degree
Of heat deduced from thermom-etrical obsefvations. The trees
and' shrubs put forth their buds from the 6th to the 20th of
April, and flower from the first to the close of May. Wheat
and oats are sown about the middle of April, and are reaped
about the middle erf August. The frosts commence from the
middle of September to the first of October, and cease about
the 20th of April or beginning of May. Notwithstanding the
severity of "winter, which is ten or eleven degrees colder than in
the same latitude of Eurdpe, Young trees are seldom killed by
the frost, and the cattle live in the woods. The weather during
this season is generally fair and constant, and rain seldom falls,
though hail is not unfreqtient. Where there is little or no snow,
the frost is found to penetrate to the depth of between three and
four feet. The ice of lakes and stagnant waters, in the severest

STATISTICAL VIEW OF THE UNITED STATES. 483
winter, seldom exceeds thirty inches in thickness ; that of run
ning streams is somewhat less. It generally dissolves in the last
days of March. In April and May the weather is mild and plea
sant, with frequent showers. The heat of summer, in the mid
dle of the day, is often uncomfortable, but the evenings and
nights are cool and pleasant. The most agreeable season is from
the beginning of September to the middle of October, after
which, to the close of November, there are frequent rains, winds,
and snow. Thunder and lightning are common in the months
of May, June, July, and August. The extreme heat is 94° of
Fahrenheit ; the extreme cold 27? below zero, the mean heat
43|. The north, north-west, and west winds, which are the
most prevalent, are dry, elastic, and invigorating 5 those from
the south, and south-west, are warm and relaxing.
Rivers. — The rivers descend from the Green Mountains, and
run on the east side into Connecticut River, on the west into
Lake Champlain, except some few which, having a northerly di
rection, flow into Lake Meftiphremagog, and through the river
St. Francis into that of St. "Lawrence. Of these the most con
siderable are, Otter Creek, Onion River, Lamoille, and Michis-
coui, on the west side ; on the east, Waniastie, or West River,
White River, and Sassumsick. Otter Creek, which flows in a
northern course, nearly ninety miles, is navigable from its source
for large vessels to the" Falls of Vergennes, eight miles from its
mouth in Lake Champlain, and between these and other falls at
Rutland, Pitsford, and Middleburg, it has water for the largest
boats. Winouski, or Onion River, rises in Cabot, runs first
south-west twenty miles, and afterwards north-west sixty to
Lake Champlain ; it is navigable for small vessels five miles from
its mouth, and higher up for boats between the different falls
and cataracts. The river Michiscoui rises in Belvidere, passes
through a part of Canada, re-enters the state at Richford, and
runs in a western course to Michiscoui Bay, a distance of seven
ty-five miles. It is navigable, for large boats to S wanton, seven
miles from its mouth. The Lamoille issues from a pond in
Glover, and runs in a north-west course of seventy- five miles to
Lake Champlain. White River, so called from the color which
its waters derive from the white stones and gravel of its bed,
rises near the centre of the state, and empties itself into the
Connecticut River four miles befow Hanover. Its width, to sorng

484 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
distance from its mouth, is from 100 to 150 yards". Oupompa-
noosuck, which empties itself into the same river at Norwich, is
forty or fifty yards wide, and pn account of its' rapidity, is unna-
vigable. Passumpsick. is about 100 yards in width, but its
course is short and, rapid. Wild's River is forty yards across,
its course is also short and rapid. The navigation of the other
rivers is obstructed by numerous falls and rapids-.
Minerals. — Iron ore exists in great abundance On trie west
side of the Green Mountains, and near Lake Champlain. The
mines are worked at Tinmouth, Shaftesbury, Rutland, Shore
ham,- Monklon, and Milton. The Bog ore at the north end of
Lake Champlain, the brown hematites., at Monk-ton, and the
magnetic ore on the west side of the lake, are worked at the
Vergennes furnaces. Ores of lead at Thetford, and Sunderland,
of copper, of ochre, red and yellow.
Flint is found on Mount Independence in Orlwell. Jasper of
a beautiful red color has been lately discovered. Kaolin, or
porcelain clay, is found at Monk-ton, which retains its white
color m the fire.
Limestone. — -Marble of a- fine grain, white and clouded, ex
tends from Bennington to the Michiscoui River. It is worked at
Middleburg, Pittsford, and other places. Some of it is as white
as the Carara marble. Soapstone (steatite)'is found at Oxford,
Grafton, Athens, &c. Slate is found in strata nearly vertical at
Dummarstown, also at Rockingham and Castleton, where it is
of a pale red color. Turkey, or -whitstone, is found at Thet
ford; ore of Manganese at Monktonj clay for bricks, pipe- clay
in Rutland ; and millstones and marl in several plaees. Pyrites
are found in Shrewsbury.. A natural stone bridge, seven or eight
rods in length, affords a passage over the river Lamoille.
Mineral Waters.— There are two chalybeate springs, one at
Orwee, near Mount Independence, another at Bridport, the wa
ters of which are said to contain Epsom salt in great quantity^
another was discovered in 1770 in the low lands, near the great
Ox Bow, or bend of the Connecticut River, It has a strong sul
phureous smell, and the surface, when not agitated, is covered
with a thick yel.low scum. It throws up continually a whitish
sand; and is said to disappear in one place and spring up in
another, at intervals of two or three years.
Vegetable Kingdom.— The pine, maple, buttonwood, elm,

STATISTICAL VIEW OF THE UNITED STATES. 485
hemlock, oak, basswood, ash, and birch, are from three to sis
feet in diameter, and from a hundred to* two hundred in height.
The most common trees are hemlock, elm, spruce, sugar maple,
and beech. , On the summit of the highest mountains, the trees,
which are chiefly spruce, hemlock, and pine, do not grow to
more than two or three feet in height, and their branches are
interwoven, so as to form an impenetrable thicket. It is rernark-
ahle, that there is a much greater proportion of evergreen trees
on the western, than on the eastern side of the mountains.
Quadrupeds. — The quadrupeds enumerated by Dr. Williams
are thirty-six in number ; of these the most remarkable are the
bear, black-cat, wild-cat, catamount, deer j fox, red, grey, cross,
and black ; hare, martin, ermine, mole, mouse, porcupine, rab
bit, racoon, skunk ; squirrel, grey, black, red, striped, and fly
ing ; weasel, wolf, and wood-chuck. In the rivers, pond's, and
lakes, are the beaver, mink, musk-raf, and otter. Among the
early settlers of this state these animals were so valuable for their
flesh or fur, that they were constantly pursued, ana1, in many
parts, several of them have entirely disappeared. The right of
hunting, fishing, and fowling, is eommon to all, and at all sea
sons. The deer, which cannot be pursued during the two last
months of the year, is the only animal that finds protection.
Population.-** ;It is stated by Dr. Williams, that, in Rutland,
one of the principal towns, the deaths, in the years 1789,-90,-
91, were to the births, as one to four. Hence it seems, that
the population doubled in a period of little more than nineteen
years. In the town of Cavendish, the ratio of deaths to that
of births, during seven years^ was as one to seven, which gives a
still more rapid increase.
The number of Inhabitants amounted in
1790 to 83,589, including 271 free blacks.
1800 - 154,465,-  557 
1810 - 217,895,  750 
which gives upwards of twenty persons to a square mile; from
which it appears, that this , state is the thirteenth in point of
population. From the year 1790 to. 1800, the increase was
68,860; during the next ten. years it amounted to 63,446.
According to theeensus of 1810, the males under 16 years were 56,429
Females under 16 . > • • 53,962
Total, 110,391

486 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
Males between 16 and 45 years, . . 40,469?
Females, , 41)'775,
Total, 82,244
Males 45 years and upwards, . . . 13,053
Females, .... H,45T
, Total, 24,510
Number of males, . . . 109,951
Females .... 107,194

Excess pf males, 2,757
Character and Manners.— The people of Vermont have s
florid complexion, are well formed, active, and robust. Their
clothing is adapted to the climate, which, though very cold in
wiiiter, is regular, and not subject to those great and sudden
changes, which on the sea-coast are found to be so injurious to
health. The pursuits of agriculture, in which all are more or
less engaged, are favorable to temperate, habits, and diseases are
rare. Constitution.— The declaration of rights, which forms a part
of the constitution, states, that men have the right of enjoying
liberty of conscience ; of publishing theft opinions ; of trial by
jury ; freedom of election ; freedom from search or seizure in
relation to their houses, papers, and possessions, unless by a
warrant on oath for the purpose ; that they are not liable to
transportation, for trial, out of the state, for any offence com
mitted therein ; nor obliged to give evidence against themselves;
that all power being derived from the people, the people have
a right to establish their own government, and to reform or abo
lish it for the common benefit. The legislative power resides in
a general assembly, composed of the representatives of the peo
ple, chosen annually by hallot, on the first Tuesday in Septem
ber, by the male taxable citizens of twenty-one years, of a quiet
and peaceable behaviour, who have resided in the state during
the year preceding the election. Every town having eighty tax
able inhabitants, at the expiration of seven years from the date
of the constitution, is entitled to two representatives ; and du
ring this interval, each inhabited town is entitled to one. A re
presentative must have resided two years in the state, and the
last in the town for which he is elected.
The legislature assembles on the second Thursday in October,

STATISTICAL VIEW OF THE UNITED STATES. 487
and two-thirds of the whole number form a quorum. The su
preme executive power, is vested in a governor, lieutenant-go-
<vernor, and twelve counsellors, chosen by the freemen on the
day of the election of representatives. The governor is com
mander-in-chief of -the forces of the state, but cannot command
in person without the advice and approbation of the council.
The lieutenant-governor, by virtue of his office, is second in au
thority* The council have power to judge cases of impeachment
and murder, to remit fines and grant pardons, except in capital
cases. During the recess of the legislature, they may grant re
prieves, and they have power to lay embargoes, or prohibit the
exportation of any commodity for the space of thirty days. All
bills are submitted for their revision and concurrence ; and
though not -vested with a negative authority, they may suspend
their execution until the next session of the legislature. A par
ticular feature of this constitution is the " council of censors "
thirteen in number, chosen every seven years, (commencing with
the year 1785,) byithe people, whose duty it is to examine the
conduct of public officers, with regard to the expenditure of pub
lic monies, taxes, and the regular execution of the laws ; to
ascertain whether the representatives and superior officers have
performed their duty as the guardians of public rights. For
these purposes, they are empowered to examine persons aud
papers; to order impeachments, and to recommend the repeal of
all laws contrary to the constitution. They are also empowered
to call a convention, for the purpose of revising or amending the
constitution, and to meet within two years after their sitting,
having published the proposed alterations six months before the
election of delegates', none of whom can be of the council or
assembly. Judiciary. — The judges are chosen annually by the' council
and assembly, and, if im[ eached by this authority, are subject to
removal by the governo and council. The common law of
England, and the statute laws by which it is explained or alter
ed prior to the year 176(, have beeii adopted, except when re
pugnant to the constitution, or to legislative acts. Of a hundred
and sixty crimes punishable with death by the English criminal
code, nine only are subjected to this punishment by the laws of
Vermont. Religion.— In the declaration of rights it is stated, "that n»

488 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
man^can be justly deprived or abridged of "any civil right as a
citizen, on account of his religious sentiments, or peculiar mode
of religious worship ; and that no authority can, or ought to be
vested in, or assumed by any power whatever, that shall in any
case interfere with, or in any manner control the rights of con
science, in the free exercise of religious worship." In the plan
of government of 1786, a religious test was imposed upon legis
lators, .which was annulled by that of 1792. In the grants of
townships, the first settled minister, of any denomination, has a
grant of land, which becomes his property ; another is reserved
for a parsonage right, or the support of a regular minister, whose
salary is regulated by a formal and voluntary contract with his
church, which has the force and obligation of other contracts, in
virtue of an act passed in 1787. In the towns established under
grants from New Hampshire, 1 14 in number, 330 acres were
reserved for the first settled minister ; another portion, to the
same extent, called a right,, as a glebe for the church of Eng
land ; a third for the support of a school ; and a fourth for the
propagation of the gospel, 'by means of an organized society.
Under the grants made by Vermont, one right was reserved for a
university, one for a town, one for a county grammar school,
and one for the support of religion. The actual number of the
different churches is as follows ;
Congregational .churches, ... 89
Baptists, . . . . . .23
Presbyterians, . . . . . 2
Episcopalians, . .... 2
Universalisls, ..... 1
Friends, ...... 1
118
Education.— -The legislature, sensible that the diffusion of
knowledge is the best means of promoting the good of mankind,
have made provision in land,, exceeding 80,000 acres, for the
support of common schools in every town ; and, in 100 of the
townships, tracts of 350 acres each, estimated at about 33,000 in
all, have been allqtted for the use of grammar schools. In every
county there are grammar schools, and in most of them one or
two academies. So great has been the attention paid to this
object, that it is rare to find a person in the state who cannot
read and write.
Slavery.— In the bill of rights it is declared, that no male

STATISTICAL VIE;W OF THE UNITED STATES. 489
horn in the country, Or introduced from beyond sea, can be held
'.•in bondage after. twenty-one, lior a female after eighteen years
of age.
Agriculture. i — Agriculture, which affords the most easy and
comfortable means of existence, is the occupation of nearly the
whole population. Property in the soil is easily acquired. One
hundred acres of land, in a new township, do not cost the pur
chaser more >than he can spare 'from the wages of one or two
years as a laborer ; and the first crop of wheat will pay all the
expences of clearing, sowing, and fencing, while the value of
his lands is thereby increased to eight or ten times the original
cost. An acre, which in its natural state,, costs but half of the
price of a day's labor, will produce from fifteen to twenty- five
bushels of wheat, or other grain of equal value; and, in the
.course of some few years, the cultivator may acquire for himself
and family a comfortable and independent subsistence. The soil
is well adapted to wheat, rye, barley, corn, oats, peas, -flax, hemp,
and culinary plants. Potatoes thrive well without manure.
Spring wheat, barley, oats, and peas, are sown from the 16th
to the 20th of April. The first is ripe about the middle, of Au
gust; barley the 1st of that month; oats about the 20th; and
peas the first of July. Indian cqrn is sown about the middle of
May, and is ripe towards the first of Octdber. Hay is cut about
the beginning of July. Red and white clover, Timothy, and
other grasses, are sown in May and September. The hay is cut
in July. The natural pasture is excellent ; the beeves sent to
market are esteemed the best in the United States, though when
young they have no other nourishment than what the woods af
ford. In winter, when grown, they are fed with hay, clover,
turnips, pumpkins, &c. and the milch cows with wheat, bran,
oats, and Indian corn.
Manufactures. — The whole value of manufactures in 1810
was 4,325,824 dollars, not including those of a doubtful nature,
amounting to 286,537 dollars, and consisting of maple sugar,
pot and pearl ashes, and yellow ochre.
Commerce.— The exports consist of grain, flour,- bar iron,
nails, pot and pearl ashes, live cattle, horses, beef, pork, cheese
and butter, lumber, peltry, and flax, which are sent to Montreal
in Canada, and by the cheapest river communication, to the
cities and towns of New York, Portland, Hartford, and Boston.
21. 3 Q

490 HfsTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
Flocks of cows and sheep are driven to the neighbouring stated
The imports across Lake Champlain into Lower Canada consist
Of oak and pine, square timber and boards, staves, pearl ashes,
provisions, &c. whieh, before the embargo in 1808, amounted
to .£160,000 sterling; the exports from Lower Canada, through
the same channel, to about one half of that value, and consist
ing chiefly of peltry and salt.
Canals.— In 1785, the English employed Captain Twist, one
Of their engineers in Canada, to ascertain the expence of a canal
from the river St. Lawrence to Lake Champlain. By actual
survey and level, extending from the rapids of St. John's, along
the river Sorrel, to Chamble, it appeared, that a canal, suffi
cient for the navigation of a ship of 200 tons, would cost the
sum of £27,000 sterling, It was observed, that this canal,
when opened, would extend the navigation 180 miles into a fer
tile country. A company was, some years ago, incorporated for
the purpose of improving the navigation of the Connecticut
river, by establishing locks at Bellow's Falls ; and this work was
to be completed within the space of four years from the date of
the act.

RHODE ISLAND.
Situation and E&tent.v-This state lies between 41° 22' and
42° of north latitude, and between 5y and 5° 50' east longitude.
It is bounded on the north by Massachussetts ; south by the At
lantic Ocean ; east by Massachussetts ; west by Connecticut.
It extends forty-nine miles from the Atlantic on the south to the
Massachussetts line of boundary on the north, and. the greatest
width is 37 miles. It stretches along the west coast of the bay
twenty-two miles, and five along the eastern coast, containing
about 1580 square miles, of which 190 are covered with water,
and 90 consist of islands,
Surface and Soil.^-*This small territory, which includes Rhode
Island* and Providence plantations, has a low surface, except in
* Called Isle of Rhodes by the first settlers, who in ]638, purchased rt
from an Indian chief for a pair of spectacles.

I I

STATISTICAL VIEW" OF THE UNITED' STATES. 49,1
the north-western parts, and the township of Bristol, where
Mount Haup fe situated, formerly the seat of the Indian king
Philip. The soil is interspersed with Tocks and stones, and,
though not fertile, it has been adapted by improvement for the
reception and growth of all the vegetable produce common to
the climate of New England. The pasture is generally fine, and
more particularly, in the Narraganset country, situated between
South Kingston and the Connecticut line of boundary. The
land of South Kingston, near the sea-coast* and Narraganset
Bay, is very fertile and productive, consisting of a deep rich
loam, with a very small portion of sand or gravel ; and. the tem
perature is so mild, that it is seldom injured by drought or frost,
The most barren parts are towards the north- ivest.
Temperature. — Extending on the south along the shore of
the ocean, and embracing towards the east considerable islands,
the climate of this state, owing to its particular situation,, is
somewhat milder than that of Massachussetts, situated to the
north and cast. The cold of winter, though nearly pf the same
duration, is less intense, and the heat of summer is not so op
pressive. For many Ayears Newport has 'been the resort of the
rich southern planters during autumn, which season, always un
healthy is the low lands of the Carolinas, is here delightful,
from the first of September to the close of October, A late
writer observes, " that, were he to select the most favorable spot
in America as the place of his abode, his choice would fall upon
the southern point of Rhode Island," Another writer observes,
"that, in point of climate and. productions, as' well as of appear-*
ance, Rhode Island is perhaps the most similar to Great Britain
of any state in the Union. The winters are somewhat longer,
and more severe; the summers^ perhaps, a little warmer; but it
resembles G*eat Britain in some measure in the defects of the
climate, being from its situation subject to a moister atmosphere
than many^of the other states." The month of April is generally
cold and rainy ; May is temperate, regular;, and favorable to
rapid veg€*atk>in- The heat generally prevails during three
months— J*iBe,.Juliy, and August. The winteris cold and rigor
reus during four months— from the first of November to the first
of March* The snow falls from the first to the middle of Der
cember, and sometimes at an earlier period. The air, throughout
$he year, is pure and wholesome, especially in the Narraganset

492 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
track, where no destructive disease has ever been known to pre1-
vaih The Narragansets were distinguished for their sacrifices.
They had a spacious temple, and stated times for their public
assemblies. A fire was kindled in the temple, into which the
Powacks cast the most valuable riches of the people, voluntarily
brought by them, as skins, beads, hatchets, and knives. The
Irtdians farther north, though not disposed to imitate their ex
ample, admired their piety, imagining that this was the reason
why the' plague or yellow fever, which had depopulated their
country, had not raged there.
Rivers* — The chief rivers are Providence and Taunton, Both
of which empty themselves into Narraganset Bay. The former,
which has one of its sources in Massachussetts, is navigable for
ships of nine hundred tons, to the town of Providence, thirty
miles from the sea. Taunton river, which also rises in Massar-
chussetts, is navigable for small vessels to the town of the same
name, where the rise of the common tide is about four feet.
Islands. — In- the bay of Narraganset, whieh is from two to
fifteen miles in breadth, and thirty-three in length, there are se
veral islandsy of which the principal are,- 1. Rhode Island^ from
which the state takes its name, fifteen miles in length, and
nearly five in its greatest breadth, contains about fifty- two
square miles, including three townships ; Newport, Portsmouth,
and Middleton. It is called the Eden ©f America, being consi
dered as superior to all other places, in point of situation, soil,
and climate. 2. The next in point of magnitude is Block
Island, or Manasses, which is seven miles in length, and four in
breadth, containing about twenty square miles. It ires, seven
miles to the sooth of Charleston, and fifteen south-west, from
Point Judith. The fuel of the inhabitants of this island is peat
or turf. 3. The next in size is Cannonicut Island, situated
three miles west of the first ; it is ten miles in length, and one
in breadth. The soil of this and the first is rich, and the pas
ture is very favorable to. the growth of cattle and sheep. ,4.
Prudence Island, situated to the north of the river, and to the
west of Rhode Island, is about six miles in length, and one in
breadth. There are several other smaller islands interspersed
throughout the gulf.
Minerals.— Iron ore is here abundant and rich ; that lying in-
» valley at the distance of seven miles west of the town of Pro-

STATISTICAL VIEW OF THE UNITED STATES. 493
vidence, formerly belonging to Mr. Brown, gave fifty per cent.
of iron at the first fusion1/ Some of the ore is of a blaek color,
containing small pieees of gahena, and mixed with ochre. Cop
per ore, with magnetic iron ore, is found in Cumberland, near
Diamond Hill. Limestone is plentiful in Providence county.
Marble is there frequent, and of a good quality. Serpentine,
near Newfort. Loadstone has been discovered in small quanti
ties in the township of Cumberland.- Coal has been lately found,
of a good quality, on the north-west end of Rhode Island, op
posite the mouth of Providence river* Blind-coaly or anthracite,
at Portsmouth.
Population. — The enumeration or Census for the year 1730
was, whites, 15,302 ; blacks, 1648; Indians, . 985,; in all,
17,935. Increase of Population. Including Blacks,
In 1730 it amounted to 17,935 3,633
1748 32,7?S 4,373
17tfl 40,636 4,697"
1774 59,678 5,243
1783 51,899* 3,361
1790 68,825 948 Slaves. 3,407 "Free Blacks.
1S0O 69,122 380 3,304
1810 76,931 108 3,609
This last enumeration gives forty-nine persons to a -square
mile. The increase per cent, in ten years was nearly eleven
three-tenths. The remains of the native Indians reside chiefly
in the township of Charleston, speak the English language, and
are treated with great civility. Their number, a few years ago,
was about 500.
The principal part of agricultural labor was formerly executed
by negro slaves, which accustomed white children to idle habits,
and thus retarded the progress of the country. In the erection
of churches, schoolhduses, and every species of useful and orna
mental improvement, the people of this state are at least thirty
years behind their neighbours in Connecticut and Massachus
setts. Their general appearance indicates health and strength,
and bears evidence to the salubrity of the climate. The women
especially have been long celebrated as among the finest in the
United States.

* This diminution was occasioned by the war. See American Museum,
Vol. I. p. 8P5,

494S HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
Diseases.— EndemiCal disease is rare. The dysentery has
sometimes prevailed in and after the warm season, owing proba
bly to an immoderate use of .fruit, and the negleet of warm
clothing, at the first approach of cold. Pulmonary consumption
has made terrible ravages among females about the age of mar
riage; young women,- however^ are j still more numerous than
men of the same age, owing to, the great number of seamen
which this state sends out* and. the emigration of young men
who go to find an easier subsistence in. the new states and terri
tories of the western country. The. yellow fever prevailed in
some parts of the year 1797.
Political Character— The Rhode Islanders supported the re
volutionary war with- great gallantry,, but they persisted till the
year 1790 in refusing to ratify the new federal constitution,
though established with the consent of the other states in 1787.
They were accused of refusing to assist in suppressing the rebel
lion in Massachussetts, and of having given a free asylum to the
offenders ; for which reason the place for some time received the
injurious name of Rogue's Island. They deserve great praise,
however, for abolishing the slave trade,, which had enriched ma
ny of the people, in Newport. This was done some years ago,
by an act of the legislature,, prohibiting the trade between Africa
and the West India islands. Rhode Island has the honor of
having produced, one of; the most distinguished heroes of the
revolutionary war, Nathaniel Green,, and the misfortune of hav
ing given birth to the noted traitor Benedict Arnold, who at
tempted to deliver into the hands of the enemy the commander-
in-chief of the republican forces. ;
Constitution.; — The charter of incorporation, granted by
Charles II. in the fifteenth year of his reign, was to the inhabi
tants of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, in the name
of the Governor and Compafly, to , be holden of him, his heirs,
and successors, as of his manor of East Greenwich in Kent, in
free and common sockage. The king reserved to himself, as an
acknowledgment, of his sovereignty, the fifth part of the gpld
and silver ore that should be found within the territory. This
charter forms the basis of the present form of government,
which consists of a council of twelve members and house of re
presentatives, chosen by the freemen. The former, which in
cludes the governor and deputy-governor, is chosen annually ;

STATISTICAL VIEW OF THE UNITED STATES. 495
the latter, by the citizens twice a year. Each township has one
representative. In his legislative capacity the governor has but
one voice, and cannot give a negative to any act of the two
houses. All judicial and executive officers are annually elected
by the governor and company, or by the upper and lower house
of assembly. Every process is issued in the name of the gover
nor and company. The oaths of office and allegiance are made1
conformable to the principles of the revolution.
Religious Professions.— AU men professing a belief in the ex
istence of a Supreme Being, are equally protected by the laws,
which leave the support of clergymen to the voluntary contribu
tions of individuals. There are no days set apart for public
fasting, as in some of the other states, but there is an annual
thanksgiving, authorized by a proclamation from the governsr.
The Religious denominations are: Baptists, Congregationalists,
Quakers, Episcopalians, Moravians, and Jews. The( first, the
most numerous, have- five churches in the towns of Newport and
Providence. According to the report of the general convention
of Baptists, held in Philadelphia, in May 1817, the number of
churches was fifty-seven; that of members. 5945, The second
sect have the same number, in the same places ; the Quakers
and Episcopalians eaeh two; the Moravians one ; the Jews a
•synagogue. In the western parts, including a surface of thirty
miles in breadth and fifty in length, and embracing one half of
the population, there is but one minister of a regular classical
education. Humane Societies. — The slave trade has greatly-interested the
humanity of the inhabitants of Rhode Island, who have establish
ed a society, not only for its abolition, but also for the improve
ment of the African race. A Marine Society has been established
at Newport, for the relief of the widows and orphans of seamen.
Literature. — It was a favorite tenet among the first clergymen
of Rhode Island, "that human learning is no way necessary to a
Gospel preacher," and this unfortunate opinion has probably
operated against literary institutions, for which no great zeal is
yet manifested. Dr. Morse observes, " that' in the whole region
west of the bay, scarcely a meeting-house or school-house is to
he seen. Only a small part of the people have a Bible in their
houses, and a very great proportion of them are unable to read
or write. The college, founded in 1764, , at Warren, and re-

496 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
moved to Providence in 1770, was broken up during the revolu
tionary war, the edifice being occupied as an hospital and bar
racks by the French and American troops. In 1804 it received
the name of Brown University, in honor of Nicolaus Brown,
who enriched the institution by a donation ot 5000 dollars. The
building, a brick structure of four' stories, containing forty-eight ,
rooms, is 150 feet in length, and forty-six in width. The libra
ry contains about 3000 volumes, and the philosophical apparatus
is valuable. There are a president, five professors, two tutors,
and a librarian. The professorships are, of law, of moral philo
sophy, and metaphysics, of materia medica and botany, of anato
my and surgery, of chemistry. This seminary is under the di
rection of a board of trustees, and a board of fellows of. twelve
members. The last includes the president, who, with seven of
this number, must be Baptists. This board have the power of
conferring degrees. The former consists of thirtysix trustees, of
whom twenty-two are BaptistSj five Friends, five Episcopalians,
and four Congregationalists. In the passing of collegiate acts
and regulations, both boards must concur. The president is pro
fessor of mathematics and natural philosophy. The professors
and tutors may be of any religious denomination. There are
three vacations; the first of three weeks, beginning with the
college commencement, the first Wednesday in September; the
second of eight weeks, from the last Wednesday in December;
the third of two weeks, from the third Wednesday in May.
The number of students, in 1815, was 130; the number of
graduates 47.
Agriculture.— Though the soil be light, it produces conside
rable crops of Indian corn, rye, barley, and oats. Wheat is also
cultivated, but not in sufficient quantity for the wants of the in
habitants. Culinary plants art: in great abundance. The pas
ture, owing to the maritime situation and mildness of the winter,
is of an excellent quality, especially in Hancock and Washington
> counties, where neat cattle have grown to the enormous weight
of sixteen, and even eighteen hundred pounds. There are nu
merous dairies, and the butter and cheese is of an excellent qua
lity. The number of sheep reared upon the island is, upon an
average, about 30,000. Fruit thrives here extremely, especially
the apple, of which more cider is made than is required for a
home consumption, particularly at Cranston, Johnston, and

STATISTICAL VIEW OF THE UNITED STATES. 497
Smithfield. The farms and dairies of the Narraganset country
were celebrated before the revolutionary war; but during this
period they suffered greatly. The English troops in possession
of Rhode Island cut down the fruit trees for fuel, ravaged the
plantations, and seized the cattle for their own use. Of several
thousand head there remained but 300 in 1786. The Nar
raganset tract, which terminates on the bay of the same name,
produces a breed of pacing horses remarkable for their speed
and vigor.
Products of Mineral and Vegetable Substances.— This state,
siuce-the commencement of the late war, has made a wonderful
progress in manufactures. As early as the year 1796, there were
established at North Providence a -slitting-mill, three anchor
forges, two machines for cutting nails, one grist mill, one' oil
mill, three snuff mills, three fulling mills; and .the number of each
has since greatly increased. In 1810 the annual produce of salt
was 800 bushels, value 600 dollars. In 1809, in the town and
vicinity of Providence, there were seventeen cotton mills, with
14,296 spindles, yielding 510,000 pounds of yarn from 640,000
pounds of cotton ; and seven additional mills were then erecting.
The weaving looms amounted to 1 100. The cloths manufactu
red, consisting of bed-ticking, shirting, counterpanes, stripes,
checks, and ginghams, were considered equal to any imported
goods of the same kind.

Dollars.

Flax seed oil,

gallons,

9,560

value 11,950

Spirits from grain and fruit,

do.

1,193,398

do. 848,240

Currant wine,

barrels,

75

do. 4,990

Bark,

mills,

2

do.

Paper,

reams,

14,625

do. 53,297

Cable and cordage,

tons,

545

do. 163,500

Paper stamped,

pieces,

8,000

do. 8,000

Straw bonnets,

dozens,

7,260

do. 25,800

Grist mills,

22
Saw mills,
28
There are woollen manufactures at Warwick and Portsmouth.
The number of hats manufactured in 1809 amounted to 50,000.
The average value of each five dollars. The rivers and bays
abound with fish, - which are constantly used as an article of
food ; and the. fishery gives employment to a great number of
hands. Manufactures.— rThe whole amount of manufactures, in 1810,
21. 3 R
498 HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.
was 3,079,556 dollars, besides articles of a doubtful nature, vi*.
grist and saw mills, 58,000, in all,* 3, 138,356 dollars. This re
turn of the marshal was stated to fall short pf the real amount
by twenty- five or thirty-five per cent.
Commerce.**-Thte state, favored with excellent harbours, and
an easy access to the ocean, is admirably fitted for foreign com
merce, in which upwards of 600 vessels are employed. The ex
ports consist of barley, grain, flax seed, spirits, horses, cattle,
sheep, beef, pork, fish, poultry, cheese, and cider; of cotton
and linen goods, sail cloth, paper, bar and sheet iron, nails, an
chors, and the iron work of vessels. The present imports are
West India produce, logwood from Honduras Bay, and the ma
nufactures of Europe and of India.
Banks.— There are thirteen banksj ©£ which the capital , in
1813, amounted to 1,895,000 dollars.

END OF VOL. I.

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