Yale University Library .-¦¦¦ YALE UNIVERSITY LIBRARY Gift of Anne Burr Jennings A SHORT HISTORY OF ART 'Evening, ' accompanying figure 'Dawn, ' on the Tomb of Lorenzo de' Medici, in the Church of San Lorenzo, Florence. The head is left intentionally rough hewn, as if the form were melting back into the marble. A SHORT HISTORY OF ART BY JULIA B. DE FOREST i * i EDITED, REVISED, AND LARGELY REWRITTEN BY CHARLES H. CAFFIN Author of "How to Study Pictures," "The Story of French Painting," etc. WITH 289 ILLUSTRATIONS NEW YORK DODD, MEAD AND COMPANY 1913 Copyright, 1881, 1918, by DODD, MEAD AND COMPANY Published, September, 191S CONTENTS Primitive Art . Egyptian Art . The Art or Central Asia Persian Art Art or Eastern Asia Art of Western Asia Greek Art Greek Sculpture Greek Painting Etruscan Art . Roman Art Roman Architecture Roman Sculpture Roman Painting Early Christian Art Christian Architecture Roman Christian Architecture Byzantine Architecture . Byzantine Painting and Mosaics Mohammedan Art Romanesque Art Early Christian, Byzantine, and Romanesque Sculp ture Gothic Architecture Gothic Sculpture in the North Medieval Sculpture in Italy (1200-1400) Medueval Painting .... The Renaissance .... Renaissance Architecture Renaissance Sculpture High-Renaissance Sculpture in Italy V 1 7 233339 52 5781 94 100104107122127130135 136 143151156168178181198 207213224 231239247 CONTENTS vi PAGE Early-Renaissance Sculpture in the North . . 258 Renaissance Sculpture in Germany .... 259 The Late-Renaissance School of Sculpture in Europe 264 Renaissance Painting ...... 266 The Early Renaissance in Italy .... 270 Painting in North Italy ...... 276 Early-Renaissance Painting in Venice . . . 284 High-Renaissance Painting in Italy .... 291 High-Renaissance Painting in Venice . . . 305 Post-Renaissance Painting in Italy .... 314 Painting in the North ...... 327 Early-Renaissance Painting in the Netherlands . 330 Second Netherlandish, Flemish Period . . . 341 Third Netherlandish, Flemish Period . . . 347 Seventeenth Century Painting in Holland . . 355 Early-Renaissance Painting in Germany . . . 376 The High Renaissance of Germany .... 385 Seventeenth Century Painting in Spain . . . 392 Pre-Renaissance Painting in France .... 415 Painting of the French Renaissance . . . 422 Seventeenth Century Painting in France . . 429 French Painting of the Eighteenth Century . . 439 Architecture in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries ........ 448 British Painting of the Eighteenth and Early Nine teenth Centuries ....... 463 Early British Landscape Painting .... 481 Classical Revival in France ..... 490 Classical Sculpture — Late Eighteenth and Early Nineteenth Centuries ...... 501 French Romantic School of Painting . . . 514 French School of Poetic Landscape .... 521 British Historical and Genre Painting . . . 538 Naturalistic Motive in French Painting . . . 548 The Pre-Raphaelite Movement ..... 560 Painting in Germany ...... 574 Impressionism in French Painting .... 584 CONTENTS vii PAGE Architecture of the Nineteenth Century . . . 597 French Sculpture of the Nineteenth Century . . 619 British Sculpture ....... 632 Modern Sculpture in America ..... 639 Beginnings of Painting in America .... 653 Painting in America — Hudson River School . . 660 Development of Foreign Influence in America . . 666 Summary of Modern Painting ..... 673 Painting in America — Supplementary Summary . . 708 French Painting — Supplementary Summary . . 726 Index ......... 739 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS " Evening," accompanying figure " DaWn," on the Tomb of Lorenzo de Medici, in the Church of San Lorenzo, Florence Frontispiece PAGE The Sphinx — Thebes: representing the God Armachis . 9 Restored Temple of Karnak 10 Egyptian Painting: Hunting Scene .... 13 Concavo-convex Relief: Temple of Kalabsheh in Upper Egypt 14 Rameses the Great — Abu Simbel 19 The Palace op Sargon at Khorsabad: Conjectural Re construction after Perrot 20 Assyrian Winged Lion — British Museum .... 25 Assyrian: Hunt of Assur-boni-pat 26 Siva — Caves of Elephanta 43 The Temple of Madura 44 The Porcelain Pagoda 49 The Daiboudhs of Kamakoura — Japan .... 50 PiESTUM — Ruins of the Temple of Neptune ... 59 The Parthenon 60 South Porch of the Erechtheion — Athens ... 67 Lysicrates Monument 68 The Acropolis of Athens (Restored) .... 75 From the Parthenon Frieze 76 Eastern Pediment of the Parthenon — British Museum 79 The Victory of Samothrace — Louvre .... 80 Venus of Milo — Louvre 83 Discobolus — British Museum 84 Venus de Medici — Cleomenes. Uffizi Gallery ... 87 Apollo Belvedere — Vatican 88 The Laocoon — Vatican 91 ix x LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS FA(JH The Dying Gaul — Capitoline, Rome 92 Portrait from Fayoum Collection — Metropolitan Mu seum of Art, N. Y 95 Portrait from Fayoum Collection — Metropolitan Mu seum of Art, N. Y 96 Base of Trojan's Column 105 The Pantheon — Rome 106 The Colosseum — Rome 113 Arch of Constantine — Rome 114 Augustus Cesar — Rome 119 Marcus Aurelius — Rome 120 Pompeiian Wall-Painting 125 Victory of Alexander — Neapolitan Museum . . . 126 Interior of " St. Paul, Without the Walls " — Rome . 141 The Mosque of Santa-Sofia 142 Interior of St. Sophia 147 St. Mark's — Venice 148 Vassili-Blagennoi — Moscow 157 Cathedral of Cordova 158 Court of the Lions — AJhambra 161 Room of the Two Sisters — Alhambra . . . .162 The Taj Mahal , 165 Notre Dame — Paris. 166 The Cathedral of Amiens 183 Chartres Cathedral 184 Rheims Cathedral 189 The Town Hall of Louvain 190 The Cathedral of Burgos 195 The Cathedral of Lincoln 196 The Cathedral of Siena 201 York Minster: West Front 202 Rheims Cathedral: South Transept, West Side of Porch 205 Rheims Cathedral: Statues on Portal 206 Chartres Cathedral: South Porch; Central Doorway . 211 Madonna and Child — Cimabue 212 The Entombment — Giotto 219 Flight into Egypt — Fra Angelico. Florence Academy . 220 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xi PAGE The Duomo — Florence 225 Campanile — Giotto. Florence 226 Strozzi , Palace— Florence 229 St. Peter's Cathedral and Part of the Vatican — Rome 230 The Vendramin — Calergi 235 Porte Jean Goujon — Louvre 236 Bronze Doors — Ghiberti. Baptistery, Florence . . 241 St. George — Donatello. Florence 242 Child Musicians — L. della Robbia. Opera del Duomo, Florence 243 Statue of Bartolommeo Colleoni — Verrocchio. Venice 244 Perseus — Cellini. Loggia Dei Lanzi, Florence . . 249 Moses — Michelangelo. S. Pietro in Vincoli, Rome . . 250 Tomb of L. de Medici — Michelangelo. San Lorenzo, Florence 251 Tomb of St. Sebald — Vischer. Nuremberg Cathedral . 252 King Arthur — Vischer. Innsbruck 255 Cheminee Henri II. — Germain Pilon. Louvre . . 256 The Flying Mercury — John of Bologna. Bargello, Flor ence 261 Fountain of Trevi — Bernini. Rome 262 The Annunciation — Fra Lippo Lippi .... 267 The Birth of Venus — Botticelli 268 The Nativity — Botticelli 273 Parnassus — Mantegna 274 Pavia Altar-Piece — Perugino. National Gallery . . 279 Madonna and Four Saints — Perugino .... 280 Miracle of the Holy Cross — Gentile Bellini. Venice Academy 281 Madonna of the Two Trees — Giovanni Bellini. Venice Academy 282 The Doge Loredano — Giovanni Bellini .... 287 The English Ambassadors — Carpaccio .... 288 The Dream of St. Ursula — Carpaccio .... 289 Monna Lisa — L. da Vinci 290 The Last Supper — L. da Vinci. Monastery S. Maria Delle Grazi, Milan 297 xii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE St. Anne — L. da Vinci 298 The Columbine — Luini 299 Creation of Adam — Michelangelo. Sistine Chapel of the Vatican, Rome 300 Marriage of the Virgin — Raphael. The Brera . . 307 La Belle Jardiniere — Raphael 308 St. Cecilia — Raphael 309 Madonna Di San Francesco — Andrea del Sarto. Uffizi . 310 La Notte — Cor reggio 315 The Concert — Giorgione 316 The Assumption of the Virgin — Titian . . . .317 Bacchus and Ariadne — Titian 318 Presentation of the Virgin — Titian. Venice Academy . 323 Lavinia Vecelli with Fruit — Titian .... 324 Rape of Europa — Veronese 325 Bacchus and Ariadne — Tintoretto 326 The Adoration of the Lamb — Van Eyck . . . .331 The Angel Musicians — Van Eyck ..... 332 The Man with the Pinks — Van Eyck .... 337 Christ as King of Heaven — Memling. Antwerp . . 338 Christ Presented to the People — Van Leyden. Metro politan Museum of Art, N. Y 343 The Crucifixion — Rubens 344 Helena Fourment — Rubens 345 Children with Garland — Rubens. Munich . . . 346 Charles I. — Van Dyck 351 Virgin of the Partridges — Van Dyck. The Hermitage . 352 The Rustic Wedding — Teniers the Younger . . . 353 Hille Bobbe — Frans Hals 354 The Laughing Cavalier — Frans Hals .... 357 The Young Mother — Gerard Dou 358 The Buttery — Pieter de Hooch 359 Girl Reading a Letter — Jan Vermeer van Delft . . 360 The Parrot Cage — Jan Steen. Rijks Museum . . . 365 Dordrecht — J. Van Goyen. Rijks Museum . . . 366 The Avenue of Middelharnis — Hobbema . . . 367 Jewish Burying-Ground — Jacob Ruisdael .... 868 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xiii PAGE The Bull — Paul Potter 371 The Night Watch — Rembrandt 372 The Syndics — Rembrandt 373 Elizabeth Bas — Rembrandt 374 Adoration of the Magi — Diirer - 383 H. Holzschuher — Diirer 384 The Ambassadors — Holbein. National Gallery . . . 389 The Adoration of the Shepherds — Ribera . . . 390 Apotheosis of St. Thomas Aquinas — Zurbaran. Seville Museum 395 St. Elizabeth of Hungary — Murillo .... 396 The Immaculate Conception — Murillo .... 397 The Surrender of Breda — Velasquez .... 398 The Adoration of the Shepherds — Velasquez . . . 403 Forge of Vulcan — Velasquez 404 Maid of Honour — Velasquez 405 La Maya — Goya 406 Christ in the Arms of the Father — El Greco . . .411 The Virgin and Infant Jesus — Fouquet. Antwerp Museum 412 Portrait of a Boy — Francois Clouet 417 Diana — Jean Goujon. Louvre 418 Cardinal Richelieu — P. de Champaigne .... 419 Gallery of Battles — Versailles 420 Marie Marguerite Lambert de Thorigny — De Largil- liere 425 Fairies and Nymphs — Poussin. Metropolitan Museum of Art, N. Y 426 The Landing of Cleopatra at Tarsus — Claude Lorrain. Louvre 427 Embarkation for Cythera — Watteau. Louvre . . 428 Fete Champetre — Pater. Louvre 433 A Hunt Picnic — Carle Van Loo. Louvre .... 434 Children at Play — Lancret. National Gallery . . 435 Joseph II. of Austria — Frangois Hubert Drouais . . 436 Pastoral Subject — Boucher. Louvre .... 441 Madame Louise — Nattier. Versailles 442 xiv LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE The Bxessing — Chardin. Louvre 443 The Broken Jug — Greuze. Louvre 444 Palace of Fontainebleau: Salon of Louis XIII., or "Oval Salon" 449 Le Pavillon Richelieu — Louvre 450 The Pantheon — Paris 451 The Luxembourg Palace — France 452 St. Paul's: West Front — Sir Christopher Wren. London 457 St. Paul's Church — New York 458 Faneuil Hall — Boston 459 Old State House — Boston 460 Marriage a-la-Mode — Hogarth 465 Lavinia Fenton, as Polly Peachum — Hogarth . . . 466 Nelly O'Brien — Reynolds 467 Lady Cockburn and Children — Reynolds. National Gallery 468 The Market-Cart — Gainsborough 473 The Blue Boy — Gainsborough 474 Lady Hamilton — Romney. National Portrait Gallery . 475 Mrs. Siddons — Lawrence 476 Mrs. Campbell of Balliemore — Henry Raeburn . . 479 The Storm — Richard Wilson 480 Hautbois Common — John (Old) Crome .... 483 The Hay Wain — John Constable 484 The Fighting Temeraire — Turner 487 The Sabines — David. Louvre 488 The Abduction of Psyche — Prud'hon. Louvre . . 493 Eylau — Gros. Louvre 494 Portrait of Mme. De Vaucay — Ingres .... 499 Pauline Buonaparte — Canova 500 Lion of Lucerne — Thorwaldsen 505 Michael and Satan — Flaxman. South Kensington Mu seum 506 The Greek Slave — Hiram Powers. Corcoran Art Gallery 511 Orpheus — Thomas Crawford. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston 512 The Raft of the Medusa — Gericault. Louvre . . .517 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xv PAGE The Crusaders Take Constantinople, April 12, 1204- Delacroix. Louvre 518 Edge of the Forest — Rousseau 523 The Big Oak — Dupre 524, Bathers — Diaz. Louvre 525 River Pise — Daubigny, 1874. Metropolitan Museum of Art, N. Y 526 Morning — Corot 531 Returning Home — Troyon. Louvre . . . . 532 The Gleaners — Millet 533 The Man with the Hoe — Millet. Louvre . . . 534 Youth on the Prow and Pleasure at the Helm — William Elty 539 Midday Meal — George Morland 540 The Last In — William Mulready, R. A 545 Uncle Toby and Widow Wadman — Charles Robert Leslie 546 Where the Deer Meet — Courbet. Louvre . . . 549 Hay-makers — Bastien-Lepage. Luxembourg . . . 550 Pay Day — Leon August Lhermitte. Luxembourg . . 553 Breton Dance — Lucien Simon 554 On the Bench — Jules Adler 557 Skirmish with Cossacks — Detaille. Metropolitan Mu seum of Art, N. Y 558 The Shadow of the Cross — Holman Hunt . . . 563 Beata Beatrix — Rossetti 564 The Mirror of Venus — Burne-Jones 569 Hope — George Frederick Watts 570 The Dream After the Ball — Hans Makart. Metro politan Museum of Art, N. Y 579 Eleanor Duse and Maria Lenbach — Lenbach . . . 580 The Good Bock — Manet. Paris 585 Danseuse Etoile — Degas 586 Le Moulin de la Galette — Renoir. Luxembourg . . 589 View on the Seine — Monet 590 The Model — Henri Edouard Cross 595 Staircase of Opera House — Paris 596 Houses of Parliament — London 599 xvi LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE New York Life Insurance Building — Alois Hausman, Arch. Budapest 600 The Imperial Institute — London 601 The New Rathaus in Munich — Bavaria .... 602 The Capitol — Washington 607 The City Hall — Mangin. New York .... 608 Trinity Church — Upjohn. New York .... 609 Trinity Church — Richardson. Boston .... 610 The Public Library — Chicago 615 Metropolitan Life Building — New York . . . 616 Woolworth Building — New York 617 Bust of Francois Arago — David d' Angers . . . 618 Lion and Serpent — Barye. Tuileries . . . .621 Walking Lion — Barye. Metropolitan Museum of Art, N. Y 622 John the Baptist — Paul Dubois 623 Genius Guarding the Soul of the Tomb — Saint Mar- ceaux 624 Group of the Dance — Carpeaux 627 Joan of Arc — Emmanuel Fremiet 628 Le Penseur — A. Rodin 629 John the Baptist — A. Rodin 630 The Archer — Thornycroft 633 The Singer — Onslow Ford 634 The Shaw Memorial — Augustus Saint-Gaudens. Boston 637 Bacchante — Frederick Macmonnies. Metropolitan Mu seum of Art, N. Y 638 Mourning Victory — Daniel C. French. Concord, Mass. . 641 Statue of Chief Justice John Marshall — Herbert Adams. Cleveland Court House 642 Monument to Captain Buckly O'Neill — Solon H. Borglum. Prescott, Arizona 643 The Signing of the Louisiana Purchase Treaty, for the Jefferson Memorial — Karl Bitter. St. Louis . 644 The Sun Vow— H. A. MacNeil 647 Appeal to the Great Spirit — Cyrus E. Dallin . . 648 Abraham Lincoln — Gutzon Borglum 649 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xvii PAGE Two Natures of Man — George Grey Barnard. Metro politan Museum of Art, N. Y 650 George Washington — Gilbert Stuart. Boston Museum . 655 In the Woods — Asher Brown Durand. Metropolitan Mu seum of Art, N. Y 656 Oxbow — Thomas Cole. Metropolitan Museum of Art, N. Y 663 The Ascension — John La Farge 664 Portrait of His Mother — Whistler 669 Carmencita — Sargent 670 The Bashful Lover — Israels. Metropolitan Museum of Art, N. Y ' . . ' . . .677 Landscape and Sheep — Mauve 678 Sappho — Alma-Tadema 681 The Hammer Man — Meunier 682 Mlle. Lucienne Breval as Carmen — Ignacio Zuloaga . 691 Ploughing in the Engadine — Segantini .... 692 A Portrait— T. C. Gotch 695 The Mowers — George Clausen 696 The Net-Menders — Liebermann 701 The Conqueror — Franz Stuck 702 Champs-Elysees — Bocklin 705 Portrait of Himself — Hans Thoma 706 The Delaware Valley — George Inness. Metropolitan Museum of Art, N. Y 709 View on the Seine — Homer D. Martin .... 710 Forenoon in the Adirondacks — Alexander H. Wyant. Metropolitan Museum of Art, N. Y 711 Northeaster — Winslow Homer. Metropolitan Museum of Art, N. Y 712 In the Garden — George de Forest Brush. Metropolitan Museum of Art, N. Y 715 Young Woman — Abbott H. Thayer. Metropolitan Mu seum of Art, N. Y 716 Study in Black and Green — John W. Alexander. Metro politan Museum of Art, N. Y 717 xviii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE Dream — Arthur B. Brown. Metropolitan Museum of Art, N. Y 718 The Letter — T. W. Dewing. Metropolitan Museum of Art, N. Y 721 Idle Hours — Julian Alden Weir. Metropolitan Museum of Art, N. Y 722 Lunette, Minnesota State Capitol — Kenyon Cox . . 723 Sainte Genevieve Marked with the Divine Seal — Puvis de Chavannes 724 Decoration — Maurice Denis 727 Hagar and Ishmael — Cazin 728 Family Scene — Carriere. Luxembourg .... 731 ^Portrait — Cezanne 732 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART A SHORT HISTORY OF ART PRIMITIVE ART It used to be customary to divide the stages of primitive civilisation into the Rough Stone Age, the Polished Stone Age, the Bronze Age, and the Iron Age. But such division has been abandoned, because these Ages are not found to have been occurring at the same time in different parts of the world. For example, when the white man reached the continent of America he found the Indians still in the Stone Age. The best that can be said of the division is that it marks the stages of development among certain people, in certain countries. The Art of every people grew, firstly, out of its necessities of making a living, and, secondly, in response to its beliefs and ideals. It needed tools to help it to till the soil, vessels to hold its food and drink, weapons to kill game and to make war on its enemies. It began by using some product of nature — a sharp-pointed stone, for example. By degrees it learned to shape the rude product so as to fit it better to the required purpose. Later it discovered how to mingle certain products of nature and by the action of fire or otherwise to manufacture a material ; as in the case of bronze. The metal was soft and easily beaten into shape, though as easily bent and broken in use. Accordingly, the ingenuity of man devised the harder and more reliable material of iron. Meanwhile, he had learned how to model in clay vessels of daily utility, baking them first in the sun and later in ovens. The individuals who made these various discoveries and developed them must have been held in high honour by the rest of the people. They were creators ; in their way, gods. 1 2 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART Such was the beginning of the artist. He was the inventor and the maker; and by degrees another maker, a poet — for that is the meaning of the title " poet " — arose and made the poems and sagas of the people. And there were other makers or artists who invented the art of weaving. Further, it was only a question of time before men ceased to be satisfied with the utility of the objects made. They began to display their pride in their art and their joy of work in decorating the objects, with raised ornaments or incised ornaments, or with colour. The designs were of two kinds: representations, at first crude, of objects of nature; and invented designs, often suggested by the interlace of weaving, or by the repetitions of forms in nature, such as the growth of leaves upon a stalk. Meanwhile, as man developed he became more and more desirous that all memory of him should not perish utterly from the earth. He began to raise monumental structures ; temples to the honour of his gods ; tombs to his own belief in a future life, and fine palaces to the glorification of the rulers in this life. Thus Architecture was born; and in the decoration of it Sculpture and Painting reached higher pos sibilities of grandeur, while at the same time the importance of vessels employed in these buildings gave an impetus to the various Arts of Craftsmanship. Here we have in brief the rudimentary evolution of Art out of the Life of Man. For Art is not a thing separated from Life or merely a phase of it, as is too often supposed to-day. It is the product of the very instinct of Life itself, working naturally in the primitive mind of man, and con stantly growing finer as the mind of a people advances in civilisation. If some people in our day have no instinct for Art, it is simply because they are not as civilised as the civilisation in which they happen to find themselves. Their instinct has been blunted; they are, in this respect, inferior PRIMITIVE ART ' 3 to the primitive man. Nature has been distorted by sophis tication. Sources of Knowledge We are dependent for our actual knowledge of primitive development chiefly upon the remains of monumental struc- e»o«o «¦» «, " .;' "" ^ ^ it s 0 * <%& CS9 PLAN OF STONEHENGE Concentric Circles and Centre Stone, Presumably an Altar tures and the objects which have been buried in them. The latter include implements of war and chase and objects of ceremonial use and of every-day utility. Foremost in inter est and beauty are the treasures of the art of the potter, the discovery of which, especially in the deserts of central Asia, has been one of the greatest triumphs of modern archaeolog ical research. The simplest form of primitive monumental structures was the mound or tumulus, which survives in varied styles in different parts of the world. There are many in North 4 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART America, which served as burial-places for one or more per sons, and seem to have been intended to be or to have become the centres of the religious and ceremonial life of the people. Often, as in the case of the Altun-Oba sepulchre, near Ketsch, Crimea, they contain a sepulchral chamber, entered by a passageway. These were formed of large stones, firmly joined together; while the exterior of the mound was also THE TEOCALLI OF GUATUSCO Pyramidal and Constructed of Cut Stone held in place by a continuous layer of stones, which formed a facing to the earth. Next appears the structure, built without the aid of earth, of upright monoliths, surmounted by a huge stone. They consisted either of a few uprights, supporting a flat stone in the manner of a gigantic table, or of more elaborate struc tures, like that of Stonehenge in England, where the mono liths were arranged in concentric circles and topped by a continuous circle of stones. These of various size and degrees of elaboration are found in Scandinavia, England, PRIMITIVE ART 5 Ireland, North Germany; and also in India, Asia Minor, Egypt, the north coast of Africa, and the region around the Atlas Mountains. The general design of these is based on the principle of posts and lintels; but sometimes, as at Delos, the horizontal top stone is replaced by two, supporting each other at an angle, thus forming the rudimentary arch. The further stage comes when cut and polished stone is substituted for the unhewn monoliths. Central America, VESSELS OF THE BRONZE PERIOD c, f, Cooking Vessels; a, b, d, 6, Vessels for Food Richly Ornamented with Incised or Raised Patterns; g, Details of the Patterns Mexico, and Peru yield many examples of these structures; which preserve the mound character. Sometimes they show a flight of steps on one at least of the sides, marking a stage towards the development of the pyramid. These are seen in the Teocalli of Guatusco, where the pyramidal structure is truncated and surmounted by a building, which may have been both tomb and temple. In many instances the pyram- 6 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART idal form broadened out into a series of terraces by which ascent was made to the tomb or temple at the top. It is noticeable that the sculptural embellishments of those early temple-tombs in Mexico and Central America not only involve monstrous and horrible forms, but are over done. The character and form of the building are over whelmed in the superabundance of accessory decoration. Abundant examples of pottery have been found in the cemeteries of Peru, and in the ceremonial villages of Arizona and New Mexico. These resemble in decorative design the textile fabrics and carved wooden objects made during the nineteenth century in the islands of the Pacific; thus showing that the inhabitants of the latter were in a corre sponding stage of development to that attained much earlier by the North American Indians. EGYPTIAN ART In Egyptian art we find architecture, sculpture, and paint ing well developed and under definite rules. It has been said with truth that " the Nile is Egypt." For the alluvial deposit, annually renewed by the river's flood, has alone made agriculture possible. Meanwhile, the nature of the country reacted on the people. Compelled to utilise the water by canals and irrigation, they developed re markable engineering skill and practical capacity, as well as a habit of hard and persistent toil. The need also of an ticipating the approach of the floods led them to astronom ical studies, to which they added the study of geometry and other sciences. Further, the fact that throughout its course of nearly a thousand miles the river has no tributaries whatever, and that it is flanked by mountain ranges, beyond which is the desert, tended to isolate the people and breed in them a character of self-reliance and exclusiveness. The race is supposed to have migrated from Asia across the Isthmus of Suez, and the early sculpture reveals a sinewy, slender, elastic type. " Breast and shoulders are without roundness, broad and powerful; arms, long and muscular; legs, inclined to leanness. The character of the head is firm and masterful. Later, however, the influence of Syrian and Semitic captives from successful wars affected the type. The form of the skull is flat, and this, joined to a low and receding brow, gives a suggestion of a lack of ideality. The small eyes, oval and obliquely set, have an expression of alert ness and cunning. The nose is delicate and curved, between high cheek-bones, and the lips are voluptuous and drawn up at the corners : the whole face having an air of sensuous love of ease." — Lubke. 7 8 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART Sources of History Our knowledge of Egyptian history is derived from Greek and Roman authors, from a list of kings drawn up by an Egyptian priest Manetho, who lived in the third century before Christ, and from inscriptions on the monuments them selves. The last were deciphered by means of the Rosetta stone, now in the British Museum, which was found by a French soldier near Rosetta, in Egypt, in 1799. It is of black basalt and contains a copy of a decree promulgated by the priests in 195 b.c, inscribed in three forms of writing: the hieroglyphic or picture-writing of the priests, the demotic writing of the people, and the Greek, which formed the key to the others. There is diversity of opinion between scholars as to the date of the accession of Menes, the first Egyptian king whose name we know. Some believe that the dynasties mentioned by Manetho succeeded one another; others, that they were contemporaneous in different parts of the country. A table is given on p. 22, in which the important authorities for the chronology are noted, and the great monuments of Egyp tian art are named in connection with the dynasties to which they are ascribed. The religious belief of the Egyptian was rooted in a polytheistic system, the forms of which were, for the most part, only symbols of events and circumstances connected with the peculiar nature of the country. Thus the gods were represented in the form of the Pharaoh, who was himself esteemed a god and worshipped after death ; but to the upper part of the figure, and especially to the head, was given the form of a distinct animal or bird. Each temple was dedicated to a triad of gods, — the father, the mother, and the son ; and different triads were worshipped in different places. At Thebes, Ammon, and at Memphis, Phtah was looked upon as the father of gods and men. Only THE SPHINX, THEBES Representing the God, Armachis,- 65 feet high. RESTORED TEMPLE OF KARNAK Showing probable construction of the roof and how the main hypostyle hall was lighted. EGYPTIAN ART 11 Osiris, the god of the world of departed spirits, was honoured in all parts of the country, every devout Egyptian speaking of the dead as " in Osiris." The transmigration of souls was one of the chief features of belief, and embalming the dead was a religious duty. The Egyptians believed in a perpetual existence after death, and in the separate life of the spirit ; and, further, in a double, or more spiritual body — the " Ka," for whose sake the earthly body must be preserved against the time when the " Ka " might seek its own earthly home. Hence their extraordinary care for the dead and their systematic rev erence for tombs. The ancient cities of Egypt are " heaps " : and we have only one example of palace architecture, — that of Rameses III. at Medinet-Abu. The land, however, is rich in ruins of tombs and temples. There are three distinct varieties of tombs : the first and most important are Pyramids. Pyramids It is said that the step-shaped Pyramid of Sakkarah is more ancient than the Pyramids of Gizeh, which are situated in one of the necropoli or burial-places of the ancient city of Memphis. Before studying the construction of the largest Pyramid, we must settle it in our minds that it is but a gigantic tomb among many hundreds of smaller tombs of the same description. It was to the others what Cheops was to his subjects; for Egyptian art, in architecture as in sculp ture, expressed power and superiority by size. The surroundings of the Pyramids are desert sands, dis mantled brick walls, human bones bleaching in the sun, and desolation, which tell us we are in the region of the dead. Near the eastern facade of each Pyramid was a temple, prob ably for funeral rites. The world-renowned Sphinx, a figure sixty-five feet high, cut from the solid rock, and representing 12 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART the god Armachis, is about nine hundred feet southeast of the Pyramid of Cheops, and is older than the Pyramid itself. The Great Pyramid (Cheops), which will serve as an example of all the rest, was built in steps, and then covered with a smooth casing from the top down. This casing has disap peared. The entrance to the Pyramid was originally con- SECTION OF GREAT PYRAMID Showing Sepulchral Chambers and Stone Built Passages cealed, and an intricate system of passages was devised to deceive those who might attempt to rob the dead. As typical examples of the second variety of tombs, we may take those of Beni-Hassan. There are two parts to these tombs : first, an outer construction of one or more rooms, either built or excavated in the rock. These were used as places of assembly for the relatives of the deceased. Second, a well opening in the floor of one of these rooms, and leading EGYPTIAN PAINTING Hunting scene. Mingling of naturalistic and conventionalism. The nobility of the chief figure is suggested by the smallness of the attendants. CONCAVO-CONVEX RELIEF Temple of Kalabsheh in Upper Egypt (the ancient Talmis). EGYPTIAN ART 15 into an undecorated subterranean chamber where the mummy was deposited. The entrance to this well was closed up after the mummy had been put in its place. The third class of tombs includes those of the kings of the eighteenth, nineteenth, and twentieth dynasties. They were marked by no visible buildings, and the entrances were care fully concealed. They consisted of a series of chambers excavated in the mountain side. When a king ascended the throne he began to construct his tomb. At his death the work ceased abruptly, as we see from unfinished chambers and wall-paintings. Thus the length of a king's reign de termined the size of his tomb. In the earlier tombs, as those at Beni-Hassan, we have scenes from the life of the de parted; in later ones, as those of the kings, strange sym bolical pictures representing the judgment of the soul, and its journeys in the lower world. Temples From the tombs we pass to the consideration of the tem ples and their accessories. A complete Egyptian temple was always surrounded by a high outer wall of crude bricks. From the gate of this wall an avenue of colossal statues or sphinxes led to the pylon towers which flanked the entrance to the open fore-court. Some temples had two pairs of pylons, and two fore-courts. The fore-court was usually enclosed by a colonnade. You next passed into a dark, col umned hall, and from this again into the inner sanctuary, which was surrounded by a number of small chambers used for various ceremonial purposes. The columns of the tem ples were of great size. The capitals represented open or closed lotus-flowers. In later temples, as at Edfu, more complicated orders may be found, as the Osiride columns which had figures of Osiris in high relief on one side, as well as four-sided capitals with faces of the goddess Hathor. 16 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART EGYPTIAN COLUMNS With Capitals of Conventionalised Open or Closed Lotus-Flowers The columns, ceilings, friezes, and other parts of the temples, were coloured. Red, blue, green, and yellow were used ; and in many cases the colours retain their brilliancy to the pres ent day. The walls of the temples and the columns were EGYPTIAN ART 17 usually covered with low reliefs or intaglios. The subjects of these decorations related to the king who founded the temple. He is depicted adoring the gods, offering sacrifice, or victorious in battle. In later or Ptolemaic temples the subjects of the pictures in the different courts have distinct reference to the use of the courts. In the fore-court, for RESTORED FRONT OF AN EGYPTIAN TEMPLE WITH PYLONS AND GATEWAY instance, the king is being recognised by the gods. The most celebrated temple is the Great Temple at Karnak, and its columned or so-called hypostyle hall was one of the wonders of the world. The Temple of Denderah is in a more perfect state of preservation. Obelisks, huge monoliths of granite, were often erected at the entrance of temples. Their form is supposed to sym bolise the rays of the sun. They were decorated with hieroglyphics. 18 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART Sculpture and Painting Sculpture and painting, like architecture, had their fixed types in Egypt; and, although some of the earliest statues seem to point to a degree of freedom of execution unknown in later times, they form the exception and not the rule. The paintings in the tombs and temples were executed " a secco," that is, on a dry coat of plaster or stucco, and are to be dis tinguished from " fresco " paintings, or those executed while the plaster was wet. The colours were simple, and laid on without any attempt at shading. The bas-reliefs were often covered with a thin coat of stucco, and painted. They were sometimes bona-fde low reliefs, but ordinarily they were ex ecuted " en creux "; that is to say, the reliefs were sunk so that the highest parts were on a level with the surface of the wall. Perspective was ignored: objects were represented as on a map. The head and feet of figures were in profile, but the body and the eyes were in full view. We must not be lieve that this was done because the Egyptians lacked skill : a much more satisfactory reason for it is that the artist wished to tell more than he could if he depicted objects as they actually appeared from one point of view. In fact, the end and aim of Egyptian painting and sculpture was to commemorate and to decorate rather than to represent. The statues of Memnon on the plain of Thebes, the only two left of an avenue of similar colossi, are examples of a class of Egyptian figures that impress us by their vast size. There are many small portrait-statues of the kings. In these there is a stony individuality about the faces ; and, although the attitude is almost always the same, it is an attitude of solemn repose that seems to fit our ideal of a Pharaoh. In sculpture, as in painting, the forms of the body are treated throughout with intelligence. The firm build of the whole, the meaning and the movement of the limbs, are clearly comprehended. The drapery for the most part is limited to ABU-SIMBEL RAMESES THE GREAT Hewn out of the rock, the figures preserve a rocklike and elemental grandeur. ^t:J: '^*aJSs •!;"'¦> Nl£&? m^^% THE PALACE OF SARGON AT KHORSABAD Conjectural reconstruction after Perrot. Note the stepped pyramid. The whole built of sun-dried bricks, faced with baked bricks. EGYPTIAN ART 21 an apron ; even the fuller and richer draperies being of light, transparent material. The hair was concealed by a cap, and in the case of rulers was combined with the double crown of upper and lower Egypt, or by a fantastic head-dress com posed of symbolic attributes. The beard was wound and bent into the semblance of a hook. The artist worked under a fixed canon of arithmetical proportions, enjoined by law, which for several thousand years was only varied slightly in EGYPTIAN HEADS IN RELIEF Eighteenth Dynasty; Showing Traces of Semitic Blood response to the changing fashions, due to foreign influence. Hence he was unable to reach such highly wrought study of nature as the Greeks produced, beginning with the seventh century b.c. Meanwhile, in contrast with the serious and formal char acter of the detached works of Egyptian sculpture was the abundance of reliefs exhibited on the walls of temples, palaces, and tombs. In their infinite variety, embracing all forms of existence and occupation, rendered with ani mated and lifelike reality, they represent a faithful his torical narration of the whole life of the Egyptians. CHART I. — Chbonologt and Aet in Egypt. M— MarietteBey. B — Bunsen. L— Lepsiue. W— Wilkinson. M. B. L. W. Ancient Empire. B.C. 5004 B.C. 4400 B.C. 3892 B.C. 2691 Date of accession of Menes. DYNASTIES I. and II. Thinite. 1 III. Memphite. ' Possibly Pyramid of Sakkarah. IV. Memphite. The Great Pyramids. V. Memphite. Tombs at Necropolis of Sakkarah, as Tih and Phtah-hotep. VI. Elephantine. El Kab rocks, Necropolis at Abydos, and Zaw- VII. and VIII. Memphite. yet el Maltin. IX. and X. Heracleopolite. M. B. L. W. Middle Empire. B.C. 3064 B.C. 2801 B.C. 2330 B.C. 2031 XI. Theban. Necropolis at Thebes. Drah-abu'l Neggah. XII. Theban. Tombs of Beni-Hassan. Obelisk at Heliop- XIII. Theban; XIV. Xoite. olis. XV., XVI., and XVII. Shepherds. Traces of- Shepherds at SSn, the Tanis of the Bible. M. B. L. W. New Empire. B.C. 1703 B.C. 1638 B.C. 1520 XVIII., XIX., and XX. Theban. Karnak enlarged. Deir-el - Bahari. Luxor. Goornah. Eameseum. Bab-el-Molonk. Medinet-Abu. Tombs in Valley of West. XXI. Tanite. Temple of KhonB. Wall of Bubastites at Earnak. XXII. Bubastite. XXIII. Tanite; XXIV. Saite. XXV. Ethiopian. Part of south wall of Karnak. Small Temple XXVI. Saite. north of Karnak. XXVII. Persian. Eocks of Hamamat near Keneh. Some build XXVIII. Saite; XXIX. Mendesian. ings at Philse. XXX. Sebennyte; XXXI. Persian. M. B. L. W. B.C. 332 B.C. 332 B.C. 332 B.C. 332 XXXII. Macedonian. Portal at Elephantnm. Granite Sanctuary at Karnak restored. XXXIII. Greek. Philse. Portal of Temple of Khons. Deir-el- Medineh. Edfu hypostyle ball at Esneh. Kom Ombos. "Speos. Denderah. Erment. XXXIV. Roman. Eestorations on existing monuments. 22 THE ART OF CENTRAL ASIA CHALDEAN, BABYLONIAN, AND ASSYRIAN Central Asia, in connection with the study of art, is under stood to be the alluvial plain of Mesopotamia, comprised between the river Tigris on the east and the Euphrates on the west, before they join their streams and pass into the Persian Gulf. The natural conditions to some extent are similar to those of Egypt, and produced corresponding re sults in the character of the inhabitants. Thus the peri odical inundations, especially of the Euphrates, developed resourcefulness and hardiness in the people, who, like the Egyptians, were skilled in engineering, while the priests, who formed a privileged caste supported by the government, were learned in the sciences and astronomical lore. On the other hand, unlike the Nile, these rivers afforded communication with the outside world. Moreover, the surrounding coun tries being broken up into spots of fertile land, separated by intervals of desert, the neighbouring people were migra tory, adventurous, and aggressive. Accordingly, the rich plain of Mesopotamia was a marked point for the ambition of outside nations, and passed successively under the su premacy of different rulers, who, by the need of holding what they had against others, were obliged to keep them selves in a constant condition of vigour and alertness. Thus the type of the figures represented in the sculpture differs from that of the Egyptians ; being characterised by muscular development and more energy of action; while the occupation in which they are engaged is chiefly that of war or of the hunting of big game, such as lions and bulls. Further, the absence of mountains affected the character 23 24 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART of the architecture. Stone was rarely used, the material being for the most part sun-dried bricks, which have crum bled into ruins, so that the great cities have become buried in heaps of debris. The most important of those which have been examined are the ruins of Nimrud, Khorsabad, and Kuyunjik. It is not known whether the beginning of culture in this territory antedates that of Egypt ; but the first settlers were, perhaps, the inventors of the cuneiform or wedge-shaped system of writing upon tablets of baked clay. As early as 4000 b.c, or earlier, the territory was invaded by Semites. From 2300 b.c the history of the country is intimately con nected with that of the city of Babylon. Meanwhile, the Babylonians were subject to the frequent rivalry of their warlike neighbours, the Chaldaeans, who seem to have been of Semitic origin. Finally, in b.c. 900 began the assaults of the Assyrians, who streamed down from the mountain dis tricts of Armenia, and took possession of upper and lower Mesopotamia. Their supremacy was wrested from them about b.c 560 by the Persians. Temples The most important buildings of the Assyrian and Chal- dasan period were temples of pyramidal form, built of sun- dried or baked bricks. They were constructed of upright stories decreasing in size towards the top, and from three to seven in number. The ornamentation consisted of but tresses, half-columns, shallow recesses, or patterns in terra cotta cones. Neither cornice, capital, base, nor diminution of shaft is to be discovered. Arches are employed in nar row doorways, but not as a decorative feature. It is be lieved that a vaulting of brick or gypsum plaster was used in some large chambers. The inhabitants displayed great skill in carving gems and in weaving different fabrics, while the BBITISH MUSEUM ASSYRIAN "WINGED LION Note the extra leg, so that whether viewed from the front or either end the figure will be seen to have four legs. •****&* ASSYRIAN: HUNT OF ASSUR-BONI-PAT THE ART OF CENTRAL ASIA 27 remains of the glazed pottery which have been discovered are among the most beautiful examples known. The government of the Assyrians was monarchical; but they had a written code of laws, and the absolute power of the king was moderated by the advice of his counsellors and the officers who were placed over the different depart ments of state. The king was commander-in-chief of the army, supreme judge, and high-priest of Assur, the god " who created himself." The priests were a privileged class, sup ported by the temple revenues. A portion of the spoils of war belonged to them. They studied astrology, and prac tised the arts of divination. Their sabbaths were their most interesting religious feasts. These days were observed in a way that calls to mind Jewish regulations. We may add that this is not the only point of similarity between Jewish and Assyrian manners, customs, and legislation. A special interest, however, attaches to their palaces and cities, for they were for the most part built by the kings whose names are familiar to us in the wars of Israel ; and the discoveries that have been made in the various excavations have been of such a nature as to confirm the truth of the Bible records. In the chart on p. 32 we have a list of the important build ings, and we shall mention particularly only the ruins of the palace of Khorsabad, the most perfect yet uncovered. Ruins of Khorsabad Khorsabad is situated about fifteen miles north of Nineveh. The city is nearly an English mile square. Its gates have been discovered: they were in pairs, one entrance for chariots, the other for foot-passengers. The palace is built so that the entrance is protected by the city. The river Tigris flowed in front of Kuyunjik and Nimrud, and protected them; and at Khorsabad there is an insig nificant brook, the Kausser, which was probably dammed up 28 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART so as to make a lake in front of the palace, which was built upon an artificial terrace. This terrace. was 650 feet by 30 feet, the cubic contents 12,675,000 feet. It was faced with stone. There were in the palace itself thirty courts, around ASSYRIAN WALL-PAINTING Enamelled Tiles which were grouped two hundred and ten separate rooms, halls, and galleries. The women's apartments were care fully secluded. The walls of the principal rooms were wainscoted with alabaster slabs carved in relief. Other THE ART OF CENTRAL ASIA 29 rooms were decorated with paintings. The upper story of the palace was of wood. The portals were guarded by huge symbolic figures of winged bulls. On the palace terrace are the ruins of the only authentic Assyrian temple yet discov ered: it was a pyramid of seven diminishing stages, four of which remain. They were probably painted different colours, and dedicated to the seven planets. So little is known of the state of painting in Assyria, that it is hardly worth while to touch upon the subject at all. Traces of colour are visible in the bas-reliefs, and a few fragments of wall-paintings show that the art was not un known ; but we are ignorant regarding the perfection which it had attained. Sculpture The sculpture of Assyria, however, is a field for the study of which we have the most ample materials. It resembles the Egyptian in certain prominent characteristics. It is conventional. The artist strives to represent the " actual, and the historically true," not the picturesque. " Unless in the case of a few mythic figures connected with the re ligion of the country, there is nothing in the Assyrian bas- reliefs which is not from nature. The imitation is always laborious, and often most accurate and exact. The laws of representation, as we understand them, are sometimes departed from, but it is always to impress the spectator with ideas in accordance with truth. Thus the colossal bulls and lions are represented with five legs, that they may be seen from every point of -view with four; the ladders are placed edgewise against the walls of besieged towns, to show that they are ladders and not mere poles ; walls of cities are made disproportionally small, but it is done, like Raphael's boat, to bring them within the picture, which would otherwise be a less complete representation of the actual fact. The care- 30 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART ful finish, the minute detail, the elaboration of every hair in a beard, and every stitch in the embroidery of a dress, il lustrate strongly the spirit of faithfulness and honesty which pervades the sculptures, and gives them so great a portion of their value. In conception, in grace, in freedom and correctness of outline, they fall undoubtedly far behind the inimitable productions of the Greeks; but they have a grandeur, a dignity, a boldness, a strength, and an appear ance of life, which render them even intrinsically valuable as works of art; and, considering the time at which they were produced, must excite our surprise and admira tion." — Herodotus, by G. Rawlinson, vol. i., pp. 495-497, first ed. The bas-reliefs represent the life of the king in war and in peace. In battle he is seen with the Feroher or bird over his head, symbolising the protecting care of the deity. The kings of Assyria had a park stocked with wild animals supplied by the tributes and presents of subject peoples. Some of the finest sculptures are those where the king is hunting these animals. The spirited appearance of the horses, the power with which the lions are represented, im press every observer. It is interesting to note the decadence of the spirit of the hunt as represented in the later period of Assyrian art. The lions are carried to the spot, and let out of cages, rather than started in the open. Indeed, we may detect even in sculpture the incipient signs of a de caying empire, which in less than fifty years crumbles to pieces. Wall Surfaces The Assyrians treated their wall surfaces as vast tapestries, covering them with a number of representations in relief. These were executed upon thick alabaster slabs, measuring as much as twelve feet square, fastened on the walls in rows THE ABT OF CENTRAL ASIA 31 one above the other. The walls in part, as well as the pave ments, were decorated with baked tiles, ornamented with de signs in enamelled colours, of which the favourites were yel low, blue, green, and black. The motives of the designs in cluded palm leaves and open and closed lotus-flowers. CHART II. — Chronology and Art in Chald^ba and Assyria. Babylonish or Temple of Bowariyeh at Wurka, part of Mugheyr Chalb.ean Empire — Temple. B.C. 3834-1230. Birs Nimrud, restored by Nebuchadnezzar probably ou ancient plan. Mujelibe, probably base of Temple of Belus. Assyrian Empire — 1st Period. B.C. 1230-909. Assyrian Empire— 2d Period. B.C. 909-745. ASSHUR-BANIPAL. Northwest palace of Nimrud. Nimrud supposed to be B.C. 884-850. ancient Calah. Shalmaneser 11., his Son. Central palace of Nimrud. Black obelisk, Nimrud. B.C. 850-823. Assyrian Empire— 3d Period. B.C. 745-647. TlOLATH PlLESER IV. Central palace of Nimrud rebuilt, and southeast palace B.C. 745-727. built. Sargon. Khorsabad. 721-704. Sennacherib. Kuyunjlk. B.C. 705-681. Esarhaddon. Southwest palace of Nimrud. B.C. 681-667. ASSHUR-BANIPAL OR Central palace. Kuyunjik. Sardanapalus. B.C. 667-647. CHART 111. — Chronology and Art in Persia. 1. — Early Persian Ach.emenid.e. B.C. 558 to B.C. 331. Cyrus ... . to 558 Founds Passargadse . B.C. 580 Cambyscs . . . 558-529 Builds at Paesargadre 525 Darius .... 521-486 Persepolis palace 521 Xerxes . . 486-465 Halls at Persepolis aud Susa 465 Artaxerxes II. Mnemon . 405-359 Repairs Persepolis and Susa 405 Alexander at Arbela . . 831 2.— ARSACLUffl. B.C. 250-A.D. 226. 3.— Sassanidje. A.D. 226-A.D. 641. 32 PERSIAN ART Under Cyrus the Great (559-529 b.c) the Persians ob tained ascendency over the effeminate Medes and spread their conquering hosts throughout the whole of Central and Western Asia. Their building activity, which lasted about two hundred years, may be regarded as the last echo of Central Asiatic art in the lands of Mesopotamia. Both Medes and Persians belong to the Aryan race, and the family known as Indo-European. Their civilisation seems to have begun in the fifteenth century b.c, in Bactria; and the only knowledge that we have of it is gained from the study of the earliest portions of the Zendic writings. Their religion was based on the doctrines of Zoroaster, and seems to have consisted chiefly in the worship of one all-wise and supreme god, Ahura Mazda. About the middle of the ninth century B.C., the Medes settled in that tract of country which bears their name, and were brought into contact with As syrian civilisation. We can trace its influence in both Median and Persian arts. In sculpture it seems to have predominated ; but architecture, which must have been developed previous to any intercourse with Assyria, in spite of many points of similarity, bears the stamp of original fancy and genius. Following the plan which we have already adopted, we shall refer readers to the chart for a chronological list of Persian ruins, and confine our attention to the most cele brated, i.e., the ruins of Persepolis. They are situated upon a vast platform ; its greatest length fifteen hundred feet, its greatest breadth nine hundred and fifty feet. The stones used are very large, some of them from forty-nine to fifty-five feet long, and from six and a 33 34 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART third to nine and four-fifths feet broad. This platform is composed of three distinct terraces, at different heights above the level of the plain. The southern is twenty-three feet, the northern thirty-five feet, and the central forty-five feet high. A magnificent staircase leads from the plain to the platform, and smaller staircases connect the terraces. The ascent is very gradual, the rise of the steps not more than four inches. " The arrangement of these stairs is peculiar ; none of them RUINS OF THE PALACE OF PERSEPOLIS Compare Platform and Approaches with Those at Khorsabad being at right angles to the buildings they approach, but all being double, apparently to permit of processions passing the throne, situated in the porches at their summit, without in terruption, and without altering the line of march." There are five important and distinct buildings upon the platform ; four on the central terrace. These buildings are the palaces of Darius, Xerxes, and Artaxerxes III., the " Hall of Audience," and the " Eastern Edifice." PERSIAN ART 35 Type of Building The type of all the buildings is very much the same. A square hall with a roof supported by four, sixteen, thirty-six, or a hundred pillars, is surrounded by smaller rooms or cor ridors and porticos. The stairs that lead up to the palace of Xerxes are decorated with bas-reliefs. The doors are nmnmiSHi iiiiiililiiiiiBHiiii| I lip' il DETAILS OF PERSIAN ARCHITECTURE Marble Columns — the Bases and Shafts Reflecting Egyptian and Greek- Ionic Influences; the Capitals Persian and Designed to Support the Timber-beams of the Roof guarded by huge bulls strikingly like those of Assyria. It is interesting to notice that at Persepolis we have several ex amples of those buildings mentioned in the Bible as " gates." These were not the entrance to a city, but buildings where business was transacted. In some such " gate " Abraham bought his field, and Mordecai sat at Susa. The " gate " attached to the palace of Xerxes has two public entrances guarded by bulls, and one entrance leading to the palace. The roof is supported by four columns. 36 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART The palace of Darius has been restored by Mr. Fergusson from the tomb known as that of Darius at Naksh-i-Rustam. " This tomb," he says, " is an exact reproduction, not only of the architectural features of the palace, but on the same scale, and in every respect so similar, that it seems impos sible to doubt but that the one was intended as a literal copy of the other. Assuming it to be so, we learn what kind of a cornice rested on the double-bull capitals." — Fergusson, Hist. Arch., p. 176, vol. i. The most magnificent of the square halls is the Hall of Xerxes. The bases of seventy-two columns still remain in place. It has been said that " in linear horizontal dimensions the only edifice of the Middle Ages that comes up to it is the Milan Cathedral, which covers 107,800 feet, and (taken all in all) is perhaps the building that resembles it most in style and in the general character of the effect it must have produced on the spectator." The Great Hall of Audience is the last work we shall men tion, and is in many respects the most remarkable on the whole platform. Its ruins consist of four groups of pillars sixty-four feet high. They bear capitals of half-gryphons or half-bulls back to back. The slender shafts are orna mented with varying richness. The bell-shaped bases of the columns are decorated with two or three rows of pendent lotus-leaves. Very little doubt can exist respecting the fact that the roofs were of wood, the form of the capital is so evidently adapted to support the ends of the beams. Much controversy exists regarding the material of which the walls of this audience-chamber were constructed. We cannot enter into the details of the matter here; but we may say that the heat of the Persian summer suggests the likelihood of an arrangement of hangings such as is described in Esther i. 5, 6. In such a summer palace the beauties of art must have been enhanced by the blue sky, green prairies, PERSIAN ART 37 and distant mountains of Khurdistan, seen through the spaces between the hangings. RELIEF PORTRAIT OF CYRUS Note the Head-dress, Egyptian in Character, and the Wings, Symbolic of Power Sculpture The remains of Persian sculpture are much less complete than the Assyrian, which have been well preserved under the 38 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART crumbled bricks that buried them; while the Persian sculp tures, on the contrary, have suffered much from exposure RELIEF FROM PERSEPOLIS Glorifying the King, Who is Represented in a Median Cap and Flowing Median Draperies to the weather. The subjects and their treatment bear a close affinity to Assyrian; but a style of higher relief seems to have been adopted in many cases. ART OF EASTERN ASIA EAST INDIAN ART The introduction of Eastern Asiatic Art at this point of our story involves a violation of chronological sequence. Mean while, it no less violates chronology to postpone its considera tion until after we have traced the course of Western art. For two reasons, therefore, it is convenient to consider it here. Firstly, the Indian race is a branch of the Indo- Germanic family, to which the races of Europe mainly belong. Secondly, until some fifty years ago, Indian civilisation, as well as that of the Chinese and Japanese, was a sealed book to the Occidental nations ; while the Oriental ideals and modes of expression are so different to our own, that the art of the East, though it may have been created in com paratively recent times, still seems remote from Western consciousness. The ancient glory of the Hindu empire first flourished in the land enclosed by the two sacred rivers, Ganges and Jumna, where even in the twelfth century b.c stood mag nificent cities, under the sway of Brahminical rulers. Be tween 600 and 540 B.C. appeared Buddha, who preached a purer, more human, and comforting religion than that in volved in the old polytheistic belief of Brahminism. About 250 b.c Buddhism, under King Asoka, obtained supremacy over the old faith, though the latter some centuries later reasserted its power, driving out the adherents of Buddhism, who sought refuge in China, Japan, and the Malayan islands. With the triumph of Buddhism in India, the monumental art creations seem to have begun. King Asoka is said to .39 40 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART have erected 84,000 buildings, in which were distributed the relics of Buddha. The earliest form of those " topes or dagobas " was that of a mound, containing a small chamber. It was raised upon a circular platform, which, like the structure itself, was built of solid brickwork, coated THUPARAMAYA-DAGOBA Note the Cupola-like Building and the Stone Column-posts on the outside with dressed stones. Sometimes these build ings presented a series of cupola-like forms, diminishing in size, and had four handsome portals, with slender columns and lintels, the design of which was based on an older form of wooden construction. Further, the whole was often sur rounded by a circle of stone column-posts, slender like reeds, and surmounted by a capital. A second characteristic form of Buddhistic architecture appears in the Viharas. Buddha had set the example of the ART OF EASTERN ASIA 41 contemplative life, and his followers returned to caves for meditation. Soon the natural hollows became transformed into regular underground chambers, the ceilings of which were hewn smooth and supported by pillars wrought out of the living rock. Some of these, such as the " Cave of Karli," ' ' ";'^'.-\."~r'' .v>': gr%o \ LmSjm,,,—r — ¦ — : — i ajia.aa.s.B a.n* CAVE OF KARLI. SECTION AND GROUND-PLAN Note the Resemblance of the Latter to that of the Roman Basilica, Type of Early Christian Church bore a remarkable resemblance in their plan to the Christian Basilica, having even an apse at one end, in which rested a statue of Buddha. By degrees the adherents of Brahminism began to vie with the Buddhists in the creation of rock-temples; but theirs, as may be seen in the Cave of Elephanta, are distin guished by greater elaboration of plan and more exuberance of ornament. 42 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART Further, both religions inspired a development of the tope, which took the form of pagoda-temples. Sculpture Sculpture was at first influenced by- the severe simplicity of the Buddhistic faith, and mainly confined to statues of Buddha in contemplation. But Brahminism continued to hold the imagination of the masses and gradually affected Buddhism and the latter's expression in art. The sculp tured bas-reliefs became occupied with representative sub jects, treated naturalistically, and with increasing violence of gesture and composition, while the polytheistic belief of Brahminism encouraged the fashioning of weirdly fan tastical and horrible forms both in the interior and on the outside of the temples and tombs. Painting Painting at an early period was adopted for wall decora tions ; processions, battle and hunting scenes, and the figure of Buddha being represented in lively colours, particularly red, blue, white, and brown. They were executed with free dom and naturalistic skill. At a later period the Indian artists were occupied with miniature painting. By this time symbolism had hardened into a conventional tradition; yet, where the subjects are drawn from actual life, convention ality yields to a poetic feeling, full of tenderness and grace. The first Hindu style of architecture is called the Dra- vidian style. Temples Hindu temples had four parts. The temple proper, cor responding to the cella of Greek architecture, contained the shrine for the sacred image. It was square in plan, with a pyramidal roof of several stories. This was called the SIVA, CAVES OF ELEPHANTA Brahmin Sculpture; expressing the symbolism of a mystic religion in monstrous forms. 3*; 3i '"#. - 111- ""iT-. >'iif. ir;T7° THE TEMPLE OF MADURA Buddhist example of surpassing richness and beauty. ART OF EASTERN ASIA 45 Vimana. The Mantapa, or porch, formed the entrance to the cell. The Gopuras, or gate-pyramids, were the chief features of the quadrangular enclosures. The Choultries were pillared halls. Most of the temples had tanks or wells of water connected with them. The Ramisseram is one of the finest temples in the Dravidian style. Its outer wall was twenty feet high, and it had four stone gopuras. The most remarkable features of the temple were the long corridors in the columned hall. The height of these corridors was about thirty feet, the width from twenty to thirty feet. They were seven hundred feet long, a hundred feet longer than St. Peter's in Rome. The side corridors are the finest, because they were comparatively free from the debased figure-sculpture which detracts a little from the effect of the central corridors. Civil architecture in the Dravidian style was a late growth and was the result of Mohammedan influence. The second Hindu style, or Chalukyan style, is less known than any of the other varieties of Hindu architecture. Chalukyan temples had peculiar star-shaped ground-plans. The third Hindu style is the Northern, or Indo-Aryan. The outlines of the pyramidal spires and pinnacles of the temples were curvilinear. The towers were not divided into stories, and there were neither pillars nor pilasters. We shall select the great Temple of Bhuvaneswar to illus trate this style. It was built 617 to 657 a.d. Its length was three hundred feet, its breadth from sixty to seventy- five feet. Its chief feature was a solid plain square stone tower, a hundred and eighty feet high, which curved slightly towards the top. Every stone in the tower had a pattern carved on it. The monotony of the building was thus re lieved without breaking the outline. In Central and Northern India we find some interesting monuments of civil architecture, such as tombs and palaces. 46 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART One of the most magnificent of the palaces is that of Gwalior, erected by Man Sing 1486-1516, three hundred feet by one hundred and sixty feet externally. On the east side, this palace is a hundred feet high ; and, built as it is upon a rock, it has two underground stories that look out over the country. In Cashmere we find an interesting group of temples ( 600 a.d. to 1200 a.d.). The sloping roofs of Cashmere temples, broken by dormer windows like those of mediaeval buildings in Europe, are modelled after wooden forms. The roofs of the porches and doorways have the same sloping lines as the main roofs. The shafts of the columns have a curious like ness to Greek Doric forms. The typical example of Cash mere architecture is the Temple of Marttand, five miles east of Islamabad, the ancient capital of the valley. Its beauty is due, in a great measure, to its situation. " It stands well on an elevated plateau, from which a most extensive view is obtained over a great part of the valley. No tree or house interferes with its solitary grandeur; and its ruins — shaken down apparently by an earthquake — lie scattered as they fell, and are unobscured by vegetation, nor are they vulgarised by any modern accretions. Add to this the mystery that hangs over their origin, and a Western impress on its details unusual in the East, but which calls back the memory of familiar forms, and suggests thoughts that throw a veil of poetry over its history more than suf ficient to excite admiration in the most prosaic spectators." — Fergusson. Its plan is interesting, from its resemblance to the plan of the Temple of the Jews. The dimensions of the court that encloses the cella are two hundred and twenty feet by a hun dred and forty-two feet. The interior of this court was prob ably filled with water, and stepping-stones led from the en trance-gate to the cella. The reason for erecting temples in water was, that they might be more directly under " the pro- ART OF EASTERN ASIA 47 tection of the Nagas, or human-bodied and snake-tailed gods, who were jealously worshipped for ages throughout Cash mere." The monuments in Nepal are comparatively modern, — none earlier than the fourteenth century. The Nepalese temples are in many stories, divided from each other by sloping roofs. In Farther India, in Burmah, the monastic system of Buddhism flourishes at the present day. There are a num ber of stone pagodas there, but the monasteries are built of wood. Siamese architecture had many local peculiarities, which we cannot notice here. Chinese Art Chinese art, so far as it was employed for religious pur poses, was inspired by Buddhism, which began to spread through the country about 50 a.d. The temples were usu ally of the pagoda type, but of wood construction ; the lowest gallery being formed of highly painted posts, often filled in with gilded fret-work, while the projections of the beams in the second stories were embellished with fantastically twisted carvings, in which the symbol of the dragon pre vailed, and numberless bells were suspended over the whole. Another favourite architectural form was the " Tha," a slender tower, rising through many stories, and tapering to a point. The most famous was the porcelain tower of Nanking, destroyed in the Taiping rebellion of 1850. Further are to be noted the triumphal gateways, called Pal-Lu, placed in the streets and forming a single or three fold passageway. As early as the twelfth century of our era there existed a great school of Chinese painting. It treated both landscape and the figure in a symbolical spirit, and with a noble 48 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART grandeur of feeling and technique. This disappeared after the Manchu conquest of 1640, and was succeeded by genre painting, characterised by lively naturalness of representa tion and delightful colour qualities. Meanwhile the inventive genius of the race continued to express itself in enamels, metal-work, textiles, embroidery, and, particularly, in porce- EXAMPLE OF CHINESE PAL-LU Or Triumphal Gateway in Honour of Some Distinguished Citizen lains and potteries, in which last the Chinese have excelled all other nations. Japanese Art The arts of the Japanese were derived originally from China, but received from this versatile and artistic people a native character. Their temples were of wood, richly adorned with lacquer and gilding, and carved work of ex quisite imagination and craftsmanship. And, as in the ¦t <•: :~..-.-.^. THE PORCELAIN PAGODA 200 feet high; destroyed iri Taiping Rebellion (1850). THE DAIBOUDHS OF KAMAKOURA, JAPAN ART OF EASTERN ASIA 51 Chinese buildings, the roof and ceiling were treated as of emphatic importance in the design. The colour instinct of the Japanese differed from that of the Chinese. While the latter excelled in the harmonies of positive hues of red, white, blue, dark green, light green, and yellow, the former have preferred the secondary colours, and show a marked tendency toward golden browns, dark reds, black, and exquisite tones of grey. Both nations used gold with a wonderful reserve of tone, which harmonised the other colours. The painting of Japan was the product of successive schools, preserving the tradition of some great master and, though fertilised by constantly renewed observation of na ture, restrained by the severest laws of design. The motive is not naturalistic, but symbolical or interpretative, and, as in the case of China, the finest examples are the earlier ones. They are executed on silk or paper, kept rolled and stored away, to be occasionally brought forth and displayed upon the wall for separate and intimate enjoyment. In some cases they are mounted on screens. The later work, especially that of Hokusai, exhibits a more vivid delight in the actu alities of life, and, accordingly, has been most popular in Europe and America. It is since 1865 that the knowledge of Japanese art has penetrated the Occident. Its influence has been immense, particularly in the way of composition and colour ; encouraging a taste for subtle harmonies and flat treatment of colour, and supplying " Impressionism " with an apparently unstudied kind of composition, adapted to mo mentary and fugitive effects. ART OF WESTERN ASIA We now return to the chronological sequence, which was in terrupted by the consideration of Eastern Asiatic Art. The traveller who has pointed out to him the sites of Tyre and Sidon on the Mediterranean coast of Syria finds it dif ficult to realise that they were once the central points of the commerce of the world. The Phoenicians, who founded them, were of Semitic origin, and emphatically a nation of merchants. They ex celled in the casting of metals and the manufacture of glass. They possessed the secret of a beautiful purple dye, and were skilled in the execution of gold and silver embroidery. Their spirit of commercial enterprise induced them to found colonies in Greece and the neighbouring islands, in Sicily, Africa, and Spain ; and they were the medium through which the civilisation and art of Central and Eastern Asia were imported into Europe. What we read of their architecture reminds us of the buildings of Assyria and Persia, with their wooden and brazen columns, their ceilings panelled with cedar, and their walls covered with gold. The only distinctively Phoenician form in architecture that we know of is that represented in the accompanying illustra tion of a tomb from Amrith. It is built in cylinders, decreasing in size towards the top, which is shaped like a dome. Great as is the interest which centres around the results of recent explorations in the neighbourhood of Jerusalem, the discoveries have not been of a nature to enlighten us con cerning the art of the Hebrews. Some of the original courses of stone in Solomon's Temple, and a few tombs which 52 ART OF WESTERN ASIA 53 belong to late Jewish or Roman times, afford very little basis for restorations of Jewish buildings. The description of Solomon's Temple in the Bible reminds us of Egyptian temples ; but, for the present at least, the student of art can TOMB AT AMRITH (RESTORED). FROM RENAN Note the Rude-cut Half-figures of Lions, Primitive in Character., and the Dentated Frieze and Stepped Embattlements Above, Very Usual Designs in Central and Western Asia form no accurate idea of its appearance. ( See Fergusson, p. 191, vol. i.) Painting and sculpture were forbidden among the Jews. The only important artistic remains left by the early in habitants of Asia Minor are tombs. For our present pur poses these may be classified under three heads : — ^4 ROCK-CUT TOMBS AT MYRA ART OF WESTERN ASIA 55 (1) Those of Lydia are the most primitive. (2) In Phrygia we find many rock-cut tombs with a facade carved in imitation of tapestry. (3) In Lycia the rock tombs seem to be modelled after wooden buildings. The few remains that we have of early sculpture in Asia SO-CALLED TOMB OF MIDAS 36 Feet Broad; 40 Feet High. Note Plaster Decoration and also Arrangement of the Lintel Stones to Support the Rock Minor are insignificant. Their style, if they can be said to possess one, is a combination of the styles of Egypt and of Persia. Whether art in Asia Minor would have developed any originality or not, it is difficult to say ; for, when Greek col- 56 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART onies established themselves there, Greek ideas extinguished whatever life there may have been in the indigenous art of the country. Most of the architectural and sculptural re mains that have been discovered belong to one or other of the periods of Greek art. GREEK ART The kinship of the Greek race with that of the Persians and Indians is proved by the testimony of language; but history is silent as to when and how the branch of the Indo- European family reached the country afterwards known as Greece. The Greeks themselves called their progenitors Pelasgi, and spoke of them as barbarians. Their civilisation was Oriental in character, and probably touched its highest point of development at the time of the Trojan war. Meanwhile the geographical nature of the country exer cised an influence upon the character of the race. Greece is not only cut up into separate divisions by mountain bar riers, but also has a seaboard that is very extensive in com parison with the actual area of the country. Meanwhile it is continued in an archipelago of islands which lie luxuri antly in the sunny sea. Thus the people of the mainland combined the energies of mountaineers and of sea-going folk, and at the same time, through the isolation of the small divisions of the country, became strongly individualised and attached to their respective communities. Meanwhile, the islanders, no less active upon the sea, were distinguished by their love of ease and luxury. At some time subsequent to the Trojan war, a hardy tribe or branch of these people, known as Dorians, descended from the mountains in the north and conquered the Pelo ponnesus. They continued to be the rivals of the Ionians, who had occupied the southern part of the peninsula and the adjacent islands. Out of this rivalry grew an amalga mation of characteristics which reached their highest de velopment in Attica, and its capital, the city of Athens. For it is a mark of Greek civilisation that it was based 57 58 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART upon the commercial principle, and reached its highest ex pression in centres of organised city life. There was nothing awful in the Greek religion: the gods and goddesses were men and women, differing from the men and women of Athens only in the possession of greater beauty and keener intellect. Given such circumstances and such a race, and the product was classic art, that carefully rounded system which never undertook what it could not perform, and which, if it de scribed a smaller circle than has been attempted by art in other times, described one which could be completed by the mind and the hands of men. Greek architecture well deserves the name which has been applied to it. It is an order; an intelligent, logical work ing-out of the principles of construction involved in the use of the post and lintel. The post is the upright, the lintel the horizontal support; in other words, the post is the column, the lintel the entablature. The Orders There are three important members in the entablature of a Greek order, — the architrave or principal beam, which rests directly upon the capitals of the, columns; the frieze or ornamental band; and the projecting cornice, which pro tects the frieze and architrave, as the capital protects the column from the inclemencies of the weather. The col umn is also divided into three parts, — the base, which is an expansion of the shaft, having the same relation to it that the foot has to the human figure ; the shaft or upright sup port ; and the capital or bearer, which has been likened to a hand spread out to receive the weight of the architrave. The pediment or gable is the triangular space at either end of a building between the cornice of the entablature and the cornice of the sloping roof. PAESTUM Ruins of the Temple of Neptune. Compare the heavier, less refined style of this with the Parthenon. zoV. EdKHPiKK < GREEK ART 61 There are three varieties of columns and entablature, — the Doric, invented and most frequently used by the Dorians ; Temple at Corinth Parthenon at Athens DORIC ORDER Temple at Delos the Ionic, named after the lonians; and the Corinthian, a more elaborate style of later date. These are called the three orders of Greek architecture. We shall now proceed 62 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART to note the points of resemblance and difference between them. Doric The Doric is the simplest of the three. The shaft has no independent base, and rests directly upon the stylobate or floor of the building. In order to emphasize the column as a vertical support, and to give variety in the effect of light and shade upon it, the shaft is cut in channels or flutes vary ing from sixteen to twenty in number. The decrease in the size of the column towards the top is not effected by a straight line, but by a curve called the entasis. This is a curve outwards one-eighth of the height of the column, and thence a curve inwards to the capital. Several fillets or nar row bands, and a cavetto or concave moulding, separate the echinus, or lower member of the capital, from the abacus or square block upon which the architrave rests. The Doric architrave is plain, without ornament of any kind. The frieze is divided into triglyphs and metopes. The metopes were originally open spaces, and the power of support was concentrated in the triglyphs, short rectangular blocks with two flutings on the flat surface, and two half-flutings at the angles. A triglyph was placed over each column and in the middle of the space between ; and the vertical flutings gave it the appearance of greater strength, and served to point out its place in the construction. If you will glance a moment at the illustration of the Doric order, you will see that if the corner triglyph were placed as usual over the middle of the column, and the frieze were filled but with a half -metope, it would give us the impression that the corner of the building was very insecure. Suppose the metopes to be open spaces, this apparent weakness would be a real one. To avoid this difficulty the triglyph was moved to the extreme corner of the frieze; and, in order that the space between it and its next GREEK ART 63 neighbour might more nearly correspond with the spacing of the other metopes, the interval between the corner column and the one next it was slightly decreased. The little " drops " of stone which were placed above and below the triglyphs under the mutules were called guttae. The cornice projected over the frieze, and was finished by the cyma recta, or gutter from which the water was carried off through carved lions' heads. Acroteria were the pedestals at the apex and lower angles of the pediment, on which palm-shaped ornaments or small statues of men or animals were placed. " They offered," says Rosengarten, " an aesthetic contrast to the sliding effect which would otherwise have been produced by the oblique lines of the pediment." Ionic The Ionic order is lighter and more graceful than the Doric. The height of the column is from eight and a half to nine times the diameter of its base, while the best Doric was only about five and a half times its diameter. The col umns are farther apart, being separated by two diameters in place of one and a half, as in the Doric. A greater appear ance of lightness was given by increasing the number of flutings which divided the surface of the column. These are twenty-four in number. They are deeper than in the Doric order, and are separated from each other by a fillet or nar row band. They are finished above and below with a circular ending. The Ionic column has an independent base; the most common form is the so-called Attic base, which consists of two tori or convex mouldings and a cavetto or concave. In our example we have a more complicated form in which there are several cavetti, and the tori are cut in a series of annulets or rings. The diminution of the shaft is less than in the Doric order. An ovolo (a convex moulding), richly decorated, 64 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART takes the place of the Doric echinus. It was partly hidden by the cushion-like scroll which surmounted it, and which was finished on either side by strongly projecting whorls or IONIC ORDER From the Temple of Pallas Athene, at Priene (Caria) CAPITAL AND ENTABLA TURE From the Choragic Monument of Lysicrates at Athens volutes. The Ionic column was not adapted to be used at a corner, as it did not look well in profile. To avoid this difficulty, the volutes of corner columns were sometimes made GREEK ART 65 Siii'iiii-i.i-Iiiiii illi, iooooc gooaonoDODgBBm RM?Ml@®Sgp»!p5P!!^ ATTIC- IONIC STYLE From the Erechtheum at Athens to meet diagonally at both sides. (See cor ner column of Erech theum.) A moulded band sep arated the whorled abacus from the archi trave, which was di vided into several lay ers, or fascias, project ing slightly one above the other. The frieze is not di vided into blocks as in the Doric order, but consists of a continuous line of ornament. The cornice is constructed of a series of bands and mouldings, each one projecting above the other, and is termi nated by the richly carved cyma recta. The square tooth-like orna ments on the cornice are the so-called dentils. Corinthian The Corinthian dif fers' from the Ionic and Doric chiefly in the form of the capital. Its proportions, however, are more slender than the Ionic, as the height of the column is sometimes ten times its diam- 66 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART eter. The base mentioned in connection with the Ionic order as the Attic base is usually employed. Much more space is devoted to the capital in the Corinthian order than in either of the others. Its shape is that of an expanded calyx, and the decora tions upon it are borrowed from the vegetable kingdom. Just above the astragal, a narrow moulding encircling the column, two rows of leaves spring up. There are eight leaves in each row, and the leaves of the second row spring from the interstices of the first. Stems and buds curl up from among the leaves, and form a scroll at each side, and a volute at each angle of the capital. There are many vari eties of the Corinthian capitals, but our illustration will serve as a specimen of them all. The most common decoration is the conventionalised leaf of the acanthus, a species of thistle. The Corinthian entablature differs from the Ionic only in its ornamental details. We shall now consider the different classes of Greek buildings, referring students to the chart for a chronological arrangement of the existing remains. We shall direct atten tion first to the temple. Temples Its earliest and simplest form in Greece was the templum in antis, where columns were introduced to form a portico be tween the projecting walls of the cella. The prostyle was a temple in which the corner columns of the portico were de tached from the cella walls. The peripteral temple was entirely surrounded by a colonnade; the double peripteral had a double colonnade. In the pseudo or false-dipteral, space was left for a second row of columns, but the columns themselves were omitted. We must distinguish between the three stages of the SOUTH PORCH OF THE ERECHTHEION, ATHENS Showing the famous Caryatides, or supporting figures, in place of columns. LYSICRATES MONUMENT The purpose of this and other Choragic Monuments was to support the tripod which had been gained in the musical contest and dedicated by the individual to the glory of the community. GREEK ART 69 archaic, the transition, and the perfect Doric temple. The first of these is the peripteral temple of Poseidon at Paestum. GROUND-PLANS Prostyles Double Templum in Antis fiii © 1 > i« M • e • 0 0 m m 0 — • I i • 0 ® • 1 # il* 0 I 9 9 1 .v' # 0 m M ¦¦¦ . HBiHr ^11 ,- • 4 i c • • • © • • 9 0 0 9 Peripteral The proportions of the columns are heavy and massive, the diminution of the shaft is very great, and the height of the entablature is equal to about half the height of the column. 70 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART The temple was an hypaethral temple; that is, the cella was lighted by an open space in the roof. The temple of Theseus, built to contain the remains of that hero brought to Athens eight hundred years after his death, belongs to the transition style. The columns are of more slender proportions. This building is in an excellent state of preservation. The temple of Athene Parthenos towers above the other buildings of the Acropolis at Athens. HiiiiiiiiiiiiffiBiiiiiiHiiffliiaiii BllfflllffllllllBllllliHBHIlllHIl 1 H si m • • • • I * • • • • I ! Ipiiiiieiiiiiiiiiii ^SUHSHHIDllfflKimiSaBIlBHlH GROUND-PLAN OF DOUBLE PERIPTERAL It was built under the direction of Pericles by the architects Ictinus and Callicrates, 448-438 B.C. This temple was built upon a base of stone-work, and is both peripteral and amphi- prostylus. There are eight columns at each end, and sev enteen on each side. We must bear in mind that, in reck oning the columns, the corner column is counted twice. The proportions are those of the best epoch of Doric. Proportions The height of the columns at this period varied from five and a half to six diameters. The upper diameter of the GREEK ART 71 column equalled about five-sixths of the lower, and the height of the entablature and pediment was about one-third the height of the column. In its decadence the proportions of the Doric order were slender even to effeminacy. Steps led up to the pronaos, which had a six-columned portico. Here the offerings to the goddess were kept behind iron railings, where they could be seen, but not approached. The cella proper was entered by a large door, and was divided into three aisles by two rows of columns, nine in each row. According to some authorities it was hyprethral, and the central nave was not roofed over. The celebrated gold and ivory statue of Athene stood in this nave. In the opisthodomus, the third division of the cella, treasures and documents were kept. The sculptures which decorated the temple we shall study later. Erechtheum As an example of an odd form of Greek temple, showing that when there was any reason for deviating from the usual plan, Greek architects did not consider themselves bound by conventionalities, we may instance the Erechtheum, another one of the buildings on the Acropolis at Athens. It is a double temple in the Attic-Ionic style, and is dedicated to Athene Polias and Poseidon Erechtheus, the two gods who, according to ancient legend, contended for the patronage of Attica. The main building consists of a long cella running east and west. A portico of six Ionic columns leads to the shrine consecrated to Athene Polias. A solid wall of ma sonry separates this from the western cella of Poseidon. A portico on the north, supported by six Ionic columns, leads into a narrow corridor, from which the shrine of Poseidon is entered by three doors with a short ascent of steps. The western f acade was adorned with a row of columns and windows, an unusual feature in Greek temples. At the 72 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART southern end of the corridor was a small portico inaccessible from without. Its entablature was supported by six cary atides, figures of maidens, sometimes used in Greek archi tecture in place of columns, but only when there was a light weight to be carried. The sacred olive-tree, which Athene gave to Athens, was kept in this enclosure, which was called. the Pandroseum. The salt well and the dents of Poseidon's trident were to be found in his sanctuary. From the temple we turn to the temple-enclosures with their entrances. The Lion Gate of the Acropolis at Mycenas belongs to the archaic period of Greek art, and is celebrated on account of the relief from which it takes its name, and which is one of the few sculptures of the time now extant. Acropolis By far the most splendid of these portal-erections is that of the Acropolis, or citadel, of Athens. Indeed, it has ac quired an almost exclusive right to the name of Propykea. It was erected 437-432 B.C. ; its architect was Mnesicles, and it cost two thousand and twelve talents. A broad flight of marble steps led up to a portico fifty-eight feet wide, supported by six Doric columns. Five entrances corre sponded to the spaces between the columns, while a paved marble road with grooves cut for the wheels of the chariots broke the line of the marble staircase, and passed through the middle entrance, which was broader than the others. The interior of the Propylaea was divided into three naves by six Ionic columns. Steps led up into a kind of posticum with six Doric columns and an entablature and pediment similar to those of the portico. Two wings of the propylasa present blank walls to the front, so as not to attract attention from the central building. They had porticos which opened upon the flight of steps. The northern wing contained the cele-, GREEK ART 73 brated paintings by Polygnotos from subjects out of the Iliad and Odyssey, and was called the Pinakothek. We have no ruins of Greek dwelling-houses or palaces, and can judge of them only from descriptions. It is highly probable that the Pelasgians, with their Oriental tastes, built many palaces ; and in some cases the treasure-houses which are supposed to have belonged to them remain. The most interesting of these is the so-called Treasury of Atreus at Mycenai. It contains a large chamber, forty-eight feet six inches in diameter. The roof is built of courses of stone, each one projecting beyond the next lowest until one stone caps the whole. The decorative details are quite interest ing, and are evidently of Asiatic origin. Tombs Greek tombs are very numerous, but are not so im portant as in some other countries, where they are the chief monuments of art. Earth mounds and rock tombs belong ing to the early periods of Greek art are found in Asia Minor, in the Greek islands, and in Greece itself. The stelai, " narrow, slender slabs of stone, gently taper ing towards the top, with the name of the deceased upon them," are the most common form of monuments for the dead throughout Greece. Among the more elaborate tombs, the most splendid is the tomb of Mausolus, one of the wonders of the world. It was erected to the memory of her husband by Queen Arte misia. Theatres The ruins of the Greek theatres date from the fourth century b.c They are thus a century later than the classic period of the Drama, but are presumed to follow closely the plan which was then in use. The most important feature 74 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART was the circular space, technically called the " orchestra," in which the play was performed. It was on the level of the ground, formed originally of earth trodden or beaten hard, and contained only one fixture. This was the altar of the god, Dionysos, raised upon a small square platform, which, occupied the centre of the circle. The latter repre sented the stage, on which both the principals and the chorus played their parts. The chorus stood or moved around the altar, while the principal mingled with them on the level ground or made his speech from the altar's platform, ac cording to the requirements of the dialogue. After the chorus had made their entrance, they continued on the stage until the conclusion of the play. Meanwhile the principals appeared and disappeared as the action of the piece de manded. To accommodate them when they were " off stage," a hut or screen of skins or woodwork was created, which served them as a dressing- or retiring-room. This was tech nically called the " skene," and was the original of what we call scenery to-day. It was erected outside of the circle, on the side opposite to the spectators. The latter grouped themselves around the remaining three-quarters of the circle. Originally they probably stood upon the ground; but later seats were provided for the more important of the spec tators. In time these seats were made permanent and built in concentric tiers ; the slope of a hill, where it existed, being taken advantage of to form a foundation for the rise of the seats. Gradually, as the theatres became permanent structures, the " skene " was elaborated into a simple archi tectural screen, furnished with a centre door for the entrance and exit of the principals, and with side doors through which the procession of the chorus entered and left the orchestra. This plan and design remained substantially the same through the whole period of the Greek drama. The Ro mans, however, when they based their drama on that of the 1IPL i^lWP^* M THE ACROPOLIS OF ATHENS (RESTORED) Observe the skill with which the various buildings are grouped so as to produce an imposing ensemble. FROM THE PARTHENON FRIEZE Note the repetition with variety of the curving lines, producing a sense of rhythm. GREEK ART 77 Greeks, deviated in important particulars from the plan of the Greek theatre. The drama had lost all religious sig nificance, so that an altar was no longer needed. It had also dispensed with the chorus, wherefore the orchestra was abandoned as a stage and filled with seats, occupied by dis tinguished spectators. To enable them to see, as they sat on the level floor, the stage was raised, sometimes as much as ten feet. It extended across between the ends of the horseshoe, formed by the tiers of the seats, and was backed by an architectural screen, the design of which tended to be come increasingly elaborate. But this background was a permanent fixture, in which respect it differed essentially from our modern use of scenery, prepared for a special play, and changed in the course of its performance. This innovation was not introduced until many centuries after the Roman time. Choragic monuments were erected to hold the tripod or three-legged stool, the prize given to the victor in a musical contest. They were often very beautiful. General Characteristics In conclusion we may make a few remarks upon some of the general characteristics of Greek architecture. The building material was stone; and although wood was em ployed for roofs, or in portions of the interior, the construc tion was not in any way influenced by its use. There is no doubt that polychromatic decoration was em ployed by Greek architects, but there is difference of opinion in regard to where and how it was applied. Greek buildings impress us not by their size, but by the beauty of their outlines and the harmony of their propor tions. It is now a well-known fact that every line in the Parthenon is a section of a circle ; but the curves are so del icate as to have remained unnoticed for centuries. There 78 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART is, perhaps, no better tribute to the merits of Greek art than this very circumstance that we are conscious of the beautiful without seeing the processes by which it is pro duced. The prominent lines in Greek architecture were horizontal and not vertical. Principles, not rules, governed the architect, as we see from the variations which he made from commonly received plans where circumstances re quired it. Above all, Greek architecture was an organic whole, and not an amalgamation of borrowed elements. It attempted to express nothing by means of symbolism. All its forms were simple and easily understood, and appealed, therefore, not only to the man born and bred a Greek in the days of Pericles, but to all nations and all time. BRITISH SIVSEUM EASTERN PEDIMENT OF THE PARTHENON Fragments of a composition commemorating the birth of Athens. LOUVKE THE VICTORY OF SAMOTHRACE Drapery more florid than in the earlier Victory of Paeonius, which also has no wings. GREEK SCULPTURE The first plastic works of Greece were undoubtedly marked with a strong Oriental impress. They were the creations of the artisan rather than of the artist, and consisted of sumptu ous decorations applied to armour, household utensils, and the like. The description of Achilles' shield in the Iliad gives us an idea of the splendour of this kind of work. The first representations of the gods were symbolic, a stone or a piece of wood; and the earliest complete images were of wood. These wooden idols were very rude, but were con sidered specially sacred, even in later times. They were supplied with elaborate wardrobes, and were dressed and washed by regular attendants. Metal statues and clay images of the gods were introduced towards the close of the archaic period of Greek art. The Cesnola marbles now in the Metropolitan Museum form a link between Oriental and Greek art, and are of great value on this account. According to Miiller, the custom of making statues of ath letes began about the fifty-eighth Olympiad ; and it is clearly apparent that life was infused into art through the study of nature necessary for the production of these semi-portrait statues. The sculptures from the Temple of iEgina now in Munich afford an excellent opportunity for verifying the truth of this statement. In the beginning of the next period of art, we have two leading schools in Greece, Athens and Argos, and two artists whom we may look upon as the advance-guard of the Phidian style. These are Calamis and Pythagoras. We will not touch upon their works, but will pass on to those 81 82 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART of Phidias, who superintended the public buildings that were erected during the administration of Pericles. Phidias Judging from the praises of his contemporaries, his forte lay in the production of chryselephantine or gold-and-ivory statues. None of these statues are now in existence. One of Athene stood in the cella of the Parthenon : it was thirty-eight feet high. The goddess was erect: the delicate folds of the tunic, or chiton, contrasted with the heavier folds of the gold peplus, or veil, which could be removed at will. On the aegis, or breastplate, was a golden Gorgon's head. The face and hands were of ivory. In her left hand the goddess held a spear, and in her outstretched right hand a figure of Victory six feet high. On the base of the statue the battles with the Amazons and the birth of Pandora were carved in relief. The most celebrated works of this period, and those which we can study most carefully because we have them in a most perfect state of preservation, are the sculptures from the Parthenon, the work of Phidias and of his pupils. Parthenon Frieze The cella of the Parthenon was surrounded by a frieze five hundred and twenty-four feet long, on which the great Pan- Athenaic procession was represented in relief. The festival of this goddess took place every four years. It terminated in a procession, in which all the> people took part. The ob ject of the procession was to convey in solemn state to the temple of Athene Polias the peplus, or sacred veil, upon which some mythological subject had been embroidered in the Propylaea by virgins chosen from the best families in Athens. The veil was probably placed on the knees of the goddess. LOUVRE VENUS OF MILO Probably belongs to second century B. C, that of the Samothrace Victory, but the grand dignity of the figure recalls the great period preceding Praxiteles. BY MYRON BRITISH MUSEUM DISCOBOLUS Period just preceding Phidias, characterized by closest observation of life and suggestion of action. GREEK SCULPTURE 85 On the western side of the cella we have the procession forming. Some are mounting their horses, some seem to be waiting for friends, others are holding back their impatient steeds. On the northern and southern sides we have two streams of the procession : on the north, horsemen, victors of the games, in chariots with drivers, and representatives of the alien residents in Attica, who were obliged to bear sun shades, chairs, vases, saucers, pitchers, etc., to remind them of their dependent position; on the south we have again horsemen and chariots, led by the presiding magistrates of Athens, with deputations from the colonies bringing cattle sent to be sacrificed on the occasion. On the eastern pedi ment are the twelve gods, virgins carrying gifts, and the chief magistrates who marshal the two streams of the pro cession. In the centre a priest receives the sacred peplus from the hands of a boy. The reins of the horses, staffs, and other accessories now missing, were of metal; and the hair and draperies were gilded and coloured. In these reliefs we see that the archaic stiffness that char acterised earlier works has vanished. The exaggerations and angles in the muscular development have been softened, but not to the point of effeminacy. The drapery is ex tremely graceful, and not so elaborate as in earlier times; while a similar change may be seen in the arrangement of the hair. Above all, expression takes the place of the blank smile of more archaic faces. Pediments The fragments of the sculptures of the eastern pediment seem to mark it as the masterpiece and crowning feature of the whole. The birth of Athene was the subject, and the attention of the attendant deities was fixed on that one central point. Lloyd speaks of the wonderful effect of 86 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART space suggested by the declining chariot of the moon-goddess in one angle of the pediment, while the horses of the sun- god rise from the sea in the opposite angle, — an effect which he thinks must have been heightened by varying degrees of interest and excitement displayed by the gods, increasing in intensity with their proximity to the central figure. The news of the new birth on Olympus reaches the extremities of the firmament as a vague and indistinct rumour. The at titudes of the Fates and Seasons, which are pendants in the extreme ends of the pediments, bear out this theory. The statues of the western pediment are in a less perfect state of preservation than those at the eastern end. Athene, as the tutelary goddess of Athens, is staying the inunda tion which Poseidon would bring upon the land. Waves, and groups of marine deities, occupy the space behind Poseidon, who draws back at the command of the goddess. On the other side we have the chariot of Athene, Erechtheus, Cecrops, the ancestor of the Athenians, and other figures, who join in rejoicing that the land has been preserved from the desolation of the sea. The metopes rep resent combats with centaurs. Phidias may be said to have revealed the gods anew to the Greeks in the types which he created. The Venus de Milo is a reproduction of one of these. In it we have a pure and elevated ideal of the goddess of love. Jupiter Olympus, as represented in the gold-and-ivory statue made for the great temple of Olympia, was another of these types. We can probably form some idea of it from the impression of an existing coin of Elis. The Greeks looked upon it as a misfortune not to have seen this statue, before death ; for in seeing it they saw Zeus, the omnipotent ruler and the benefactor of men, face to face. We are tempted to close this account of the Phidian period CLEOMENES UFFIZI GALLERY VENUS DE MEDICI Example of decline, when sculpture had lost its high spirit of ab straction and the type has been individualized. VATICAN APOLLO BELVEDERE The hands are poor, modern restorations. A bronze statuette, dis covered near Janina, corresponds to the pose and gesture of this one, but shows the left hand holding a head of Medusa, not a bow. GREEK SCULPTURE 89 of sculpture with a quotation from North's " Plutarch," given in Lloyd's " Age of Pericles " : " For this cause therefore the works of Pericles . . . are more wonderful because they were perfectly made in so short a time, and have continued so long a season. For every one of those that were finished up at that time, seemed then to be very ancient touching the beauty thereof ; and yet for the grace and continuance of the same it looketh at this day as if it were but newly done and finished, there is such a cer tain kind of flourishing freshness in it, which telleth that the injury of time cannot impair the sight thereof; as if every of those foresaid works had some living spirit in it, to make it seem young and fresh, and a soul that lived ever which kept them in their good continuing state." — North's Plutarch, p. 165. Colour Colour was frequently applied to sculpture ; not, however, to increase its resemblance to life, but solely for decorative purposes. Thus, for example, the hair was occasionally gilded. Sometimes the whole of the draperies were painted ; in other cases only the borders, and the latter were often en riched with metal or precious stones. Polycletus Athens, as we have said, was not the only centre of Greek sculpture at this time. The school at Argos reached its highest point during the same period, under Polycletus. His colossal statue of Hera, which has been preserved only in the doubtful excellence of a copy, was said by some to have ri valled the works of Phidias. He carried the representation of athletes to great perfec tion, and one of his statues was looked upon as a canon of proportions for the human figure. 90 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART Scopas; Praxiteles; Lysippus At the close of the Peloponnesian war there was a revival of sculpture under Scopas and Praxiteles. Their works were characterised by increased softness and delicacy of outline, great sweetness of expression, and almost too much finish in details. The naturalistic tendencies of the Argive school under Lysippus present a stronger contrast to the idealism of the Attic school than in the time of Phidias. After the Macedonian conquest in Persia, art again re vived; but it was no longer associated with freedom and the state, but existed to gratify luxurious rulers, and to add its charms to the splendour of court life. Schools of Rhodes and Pergamos The most influential schools were at Rhodes and Pergamos. The character of the works of the time was theatrical; and pathos was expressed to an extent almost inadmissible in marble, certainly inadmissible according to the Phidian ideal. The Laocoon group is one of the most characteristic and well-known works of the school of Rhodes. Laocoon was a priest of Apollo, and was destroyed at the altar with his two sons by serpents sent from the gods to punish his blas phemy. The central figure of the father expresses the most intense mental and physical agony, as he struggles in the coils of the serpents, and sees his two sons inextricably en tangled by the venomous beasts. The figures of the sons are subordinated in size to the central figure. Some portions of the sons have been restored. The greatest works of the school at Pergamos now in ex istence are the so-called Gigantomachia, reliefs representing the battles between the gods and the giants, recently ex cavated at Pergamos, and now in the museum at Berlin. Of the famous compositions of battles between Attalus and VATICAN THE LAOCOON Of the Rhodian School, after the death of Alexander the Great. represents theatrical sensation rather than truly dramatic emotion. It CAPITOLINE, ROME THE DYING GAUL Of the School of Pergamos, which distinguished itself by depicting battles of Attalus and Eumenes against the Gauls. GREEK SCULPTURE 93 Eumenes and the Gauls, there are but a few single figures now in existence, of which the so-called Dying Gladiator, at Rome, is one. The Farnese Bull, now in the Naples Museum, is another work of the Rhodian school. During the Macedonian period, portrait-statues, glori fying the different kings by representing them as deities, ex ercised the skill of the greatest artists. GREEK PAINTING The Greek authors speak enthusiastically of their painters. Cleanthes is said to have made the first silhouettes. Polyg- notus, a native of the island of Thasos, decorated a wall in Athens with a representation of the battles of the. Athenians and Lacedaemonians. After the Peloponnesian war painting deserted Attica and flourished in the Ionian cities of Asia Minor; Zeuxis and Parrhasius being the chief masters of this period. At the end of the fourth century b.c Apelles was the favourite painter of Alexander the Great. A few relics of this epoch were discovered in the sepulchral chambers at Passtum, and are now in the Naples Museum. A very remarkable collection, comprising sev enty-eight portraits, male and female, painted upon mummy cases, was found near Kerki in the Fayoum province of Egypt. They became the property of M. Th. Graff of Vienna ; and a few examples have been acquired by the Metro politan Museum of Art in New York. The Greeks also thoroughly explored and developed the principles of polychrome decoration in connection with archi tecture and sculpture. Meanwhile the most complete rec ord of their achievements in painting is to be traced in the great number of decorated vases which have survived, while all but a few examples of pictures and mural decorations have perished. Though the vase-painting was done by crafts men rather than artists, it is to be presumed that the de velopment of the latter is in a measure reflected. Vase-Painting There are two archaic styles of Greek vase-paintings. In the earliest there are no traces of Oriental influence: figures 94 THE METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART, N. Y. PORTRAIT FROM FAYOUM COLLECTION Painted on a mummy case. THE METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART, N. Y. PORTRAIT FROM FAYOUM COLLECTION From a mummy case. GREEK PAINTING 97 are rudely represented in profile, black or brown on yellow ground. These vases are fair examples of that process of Examples of the Late Period; Less Choice in Form and More Elaborate in Ornament. Covered with Polished Black, on which the De tails Stand Out in the Red Clay or Sometimes in White or Yellow Tones painting called skiagraphy, which was said to have originated in drawing from shadows. The next step in advance was the pencilling of lines on the black figures, and it was probably in this style of outline painting that Polygnotus excelled. From these we pass to 98 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART vases where the groundwork was painted black, and the figures left in the original red, and then lined in black. In these " red-figured " vases we can trace the advance of paint ing in attempts to produce illusion. The compositions of scenes on the vases of this late period are stiff ; in the plate we have two rows of figures, the upper row supposed to be behind the lower, but this circumstance is not indicated by any attempt at perspective. Many of the figures were personifications of the powers of nature. About 65 B.C. the manufacture of painted vases ceases. " The art," says Woltmann, " had lasted long enough to give us a faithful reflection, if only with the imperfections proper to a humble industry, of the graphic arts of Greece in the several phases of their history." CHART IV.— Greek Abt. Chronology. Architecture. Sculpture. 1st. Archaic Period. Treasury of Atreus at Mycenae. Remains of Ancient Troy.(f) Lion Gate at Mycenae. 2d. Period of Greek Art,— JSgina.— Temple of Minerva. Pediment Sculptures From Solon, 580 B.C. , from Temple of to Persian Wars, 460 Pcestum (Italy). — Temple of iEgina; now at Mu B.C. ' Poseidon. Perip. and hypse- thral. Doric. Temple of Demeler. Perip. nich. Doric. Metopes from Selinus. A stoa and an inferior temple. Statue of Didymsean Syracuse. — Temple of Athena Apollo. in Ortygia. Selinus. — 3 Temples on the Acropolis. Hexast. Perip. Temple of Theseus. Athens. Sculpture from Par 3d. From Pericles to Perip. Doric. thenon — greater part Alexander. Parthenon. Perip. Doric. in London. So-called 460-366 B.C. Propylaea. Doric and Ionic. Elgin Marbles. Erechtheum. Double temple. Frieze and Metopes _o . Ionic. from Temple of The ^ Great Temple at Eleusis. seus. Doric. Fragments of Metopes Temple of Nemesis at Rham- from Temple of Zeus nus. Doric. at Olympia— Labours Temple of Pallas at Sunium. of Hercules. . Doric. Temple of Zeus at Olympia. Frieze of Temple of Temple of Apollo at Phe- Apollo at Phegalia, | galia. Doric and Ionic. Centaurs and Ama s. Temple of Athena Elea at zons, British Museum. si Tegea. Ionic, Doric, and Metopes from Selinus. "S Corinthian. si Temple of Zeus at Ncmea. Doric. e Didymsean at Miletus. Ionic S and Corinthian. Sculptures from Harpy 3 Temple of Pallas Polias at Monument at Zan- Priene. Ionic. thus. S3O Temple of Dionysius at Teos. 1 Temple of Apollo at Delos. S . Doric. a. 1' Temple of Zeus Olympus. Temples at Selinus. 4th. From Alexander to 'Building of Alexandria and Laocoon. Destruction of Corinth. Antioch. 336-146 B.C. Mausoleum of Carian Queen Artemisia. Farnese Bull. Temple of Apollo at Daphne. Dying Gladiator and Temple of Olympian Zeus at Statues of Gauls. Syracuse. Monument of Andronicus Pergamos Marbles. Cyrrhestes. 99 ETEUSCAN AET The "Etruscans are supposed to have been related to the primitive inhabitants of Greece. They established them selves at an early period in the central part of Italy; and from the sites of their towns, which were such as could be easily defended, we may infer that they supplanted the previous inhabitants. Their cast of mind was practical and gloomy. Their religion, judging from the tomb paintings, was a dualism, good and evil spirits contending for the souls of the dead. In Etruscan architecture we find Greek forms imperfectly Understood, as, for example, the triglyphs. The most important elements in the architecture of this ancient people are the arch and vault. The arch was known to the Assyrians ; but the Etruscans were the first to use it ex tensively, and the Romans, as we shall see, borrowed it from them. Architecture The only important architectural works of Etruscan times that remain are city-walls and tombs. The latter are very interesting and numerous. Some of them are mounds of earth and stone, with a foundation of masonry ; others are cut in the rock, and have Egyptian-looking pillars to sup port the roof. The paintings found in many of these tombs are extremely interesting. Sculpture The earliest Etruscan sculptures have a marked likeness to Egyptian work. The outlines are square, and the figures without action. The drapery fits the body closely, the feet are joined together, and the eyes are wide open. In the 100 ETRUSCAN WALL-PAINTING Note the Usual Device of Placing Green Branches Between the Figures 10a A SHORT HISTORY OF ART later period of Etruscan art, Greek influence preponderates over the native style. The Etruscans excelled in bronze-work, and executed vast numbers of statues in this material. We can form some idea of the extent to which they carried this art, when we WALL-PAINTING IN ETRUSCAN SEPULCHRE Scenes Represent Hunting, Banquets, Festivals, Etc., the Figures Being Drawn in Outline and Filled in with Bright Colour are told that the Romans are said to have taken two thou sand bronze statues from Volsinium after its capture. Painting Painting was a favourite art with the Etruscans. The walls of their tombs were usually covered with coloured out line sketches. The subjects of these paintings were scenes from every-day life, such as dances, hunts, banquets, repre- ETRUSCAN ART 103 sentations of the worship of the dead, of funeral ceremonies, or of the condition of the soul after death. The importance of Etruscan wall-paintings in the history of classic painting is very great. For, whereas our knowl edge of Greek painting is nearly limited to the pictures on vases, in Etruscan tombs we can trace the progress of the art from the archaic style through its different phases until it disappears in Graaco-Roman work. In the illustration we have a painting from an Etruscan tomb in which Greek influence is quite perceptible. The upper row of figures rep resents a luxurious feast ; in the lower row we have a boar- hunt in a wood. The wood is indicated by a few sparse trees. The picture is taken from the Grotto della Querciola, one of the tombs at Corneto. Metal Work The Etruscans were also celebrated for their small metal works, candelabra, jewelry, armour, and vases. Many of their vases can with difficulty be distinguished from Greek work. These lesser productions were much prized in foreign lands, even in Greece ; and it is probable that Etruscan art degenerated to a mere trade during the latter part of its existence. The art of working in metal was highly developed in the East, and it was introduced into the West through the medium of the Phoenician traders. Probably the imitation of Oriental decorative work first created a taste for Eastern forms in Europe. ROMAN ART When we pass from Greece to Rome, we find ourselves in a totally different atmosphere. The individual is merged in the state, and the relations of life are studied from a purely practical standpoint. The Greek was a diplomat: the Ro man was a cibizen, a soldier, and a legislator. The Greeks were inventors: the Romans were conquerors and con structors. Greek culture spread over the whole world; but Roman conquest, Roman laws, and Roman civilisation paved the way for it. The gods of Rome were not idealised men and women as in Greece : they were the " rulers of human affairs, and the pro totypes of human virtues." Their will was not ascertained through the ambiguous utterances of oracles: it was a decisive " yes " or " no," revealed by signs in the heavens, and interpreted by augural science. Whatever the Greeks borrowed became thoroughly incor porated in the body of Greek life. The Romans had the wisdom to appropriate what was good in the institutions of the nations they conquered; but, while they made it their own in one sense, it never lost its original character, so that Roman laws, Roman religion, and Roman life form, as it were, a long and splendid triumphal procession, bearing spoils from the nations that one by one acknowledged the power of Roman arms, and sought the privileges of Roman citizenship. 104 BASE OF TROJAN'S COLUMN Note the lintel of the door. THE PANTHEON. ROME, ITALY Note the application of a pedimented portion to the circular building. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE Among the Greeks the outward form revealed the internal structure of a building. Their architectural decorations, like the drapery of their statues, served to show off to better advantage the grace or strength of that which they con cealed. The Romans took the prominent features of their construction from the Etruscans, i.e., the arch and vault, and, adding to them the Greek column and entablature, pro duced a system of architecture that, in spite of all its magnificence, never became an organic whole. The Romans had neither the desire nor the ingenuity to conceal their plagiarism. Practical good sense and executive ability are everywhere shown in the construction of their buildings ; but, as a rule, we have to look for these merits under a mass of magnificent but sometimes inappropriate decoration, — a splendid but ill-fitting garment that gives the casual observer no adequate conception of the use or beauty of the forms which it covers. We shall now say a word in regard to the three orders of columns and entablature which the Romans borrowed from the Greeks, and to which they added two of their own, the Tuscan and the Composite. Tuscan The so-called Tuscan, or Roman Doric, is in reality only a modification of the Greek Doric. The shaft in this order is plain, the column has an independent base, and in the frieze a triglyph is placed over the middle of the corner column with a half-metope beyond it, showing that the practical Roman mind failed to grasp the principles which 107 108 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART COMPOSITE CAPITAL ROMAN CORINTHIAN CAPITAL CORINTHIAN CORNICE FROM THE ARCH OF TITUS ROMAN DORIC ORDER had actuated Greek architects in their deviation from the laws of symmetry in the arrangement of their frieze. Roman Ionic The principles upon which the beauty of the Ionic order depended were not much better understood by the Romans ROMAN ARCHITECTURE 109 than those of the Doric, and the Volutes of the capital were often transformed into meaningless whorls. Corinthian With the richer decorations of the Corinthian order, how ever, the Romans were more in sympathy, although even here they do not seem to have grasped the thought underlying th'e whole ; i.e., the derivation of the ornament from plant- forms. They used heavy Ionic volutes in place of the tendril- shaped whorls of the Greek Corinthian. It must be said, however, that, if they lost thereby the unity of the decora tion, this loss is made good by a decided gain in the appear ance of strengbh. Composite The Composite, as its name indicates, is not an original order: it is a combination of the upper part of the Ionic and the lower part of the Corinthian capital. In some cases it pan with difficulty be distinguished from the Corin thian. An arch, says the dictionary, is " a curved structure open below and closed above." The wedge-shaped stones of which a true arch is composed are called voussoirs, and the middle one is designated as the keystone. Every simple arch has a centre towards which the lines formed by the junction of the voussoirs point. In complicated arch forms, as the trefoil or flat arch, there is more than one centre. The outer line of an arch is called the extrados ; the inner one, the intrados. The ends of an arch rest on columns or piers, which must be sufficiently strong to bear the thrust or out ward pressure. The distance between the columns or piers on which the two ends of an arch rest is called the span of the arch. 110 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART A vault is an arched ceiling, and a dome a spherical vault covering a circular or oblong space. The great advantage in using the dome and the arch is the facility with which large spaces can be roofed over without multiplying points of support or using lintels of vast size. We shall now consider the different classes of Roman buildings ; and here, as in Greece, we begin with the temple. Temples The requirements of the Roman ritual led them to adopt the square form of the Tuscan temple, which was modified and finally supplanted by the oblong of the Greeks. The " Maison Carree " at Nimes in France is a good example of the transition from the Tuscan to the Greek ground-plan. It is a prostylos ; the portico or pronaos advances three col umns from the cella-walls, which have no external colonnade, but are decorated with pilasters or half columns. It is interesting to remember that there is a great variety in the so-called orientation of Roman temples, that is, their position with reference to the east. They were usually built to face the sun as it rose on the day sacred to the god to whom the temple was dedicated, which was the day ordinarily selected for the laying of the corner-stone. The Romans used vaulted ceilings in their square and oblong temples, but the external form of the temple was not modified by their use. Another form of Roman temple was round : a circular cella was enclosed by a colonnade, as is the case in the temple of Vesta at Tivoli ; or the colonnade was omitted, and a portico added to the circular building, as in the Pantheon at Rome. The Pantheon was built by M. Agrippa. It was com pleted b.c. 25. The main building is a rotunda one hundred and thirty-two feet in diameter, lighted by an opening twenty- ROMAN ARCHITECTURE 111 five feet in diameter at the apex of the dome. The walls were nineteen feet thick, and contained eight apertures or niches, one of which formed the entrance. These niches were alternately semicircular and quadrangular. They originally contained statues of gods and goddesses, but now, with the exception of the one opposite the en trance, are enclosed by columns. The building is divided SECTION OF THE PANTHEON Note the Increased Depth of the Dome as Seen from Inside, so that Its Main Thrust is Downward into stories marked by pilasters and columns supporting cor nices. On the second story, doors lead into chambers built in the thickness of the walls. A simple decoration of large and small arches on the exterior corresponds to the stories of the interior. The bronze plates which once ornamented the roof have been removed. The portico is divided into three naves, and has a frontage of eight columns. Its roof is gabled, and a second and higher gable crowns that portion 112 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART of "it nearest the main building. The Pantheon was con verted into a Christian church in the seventh century, and at the present day is one of the most remarkable monuments of Rome. " That which produces the most lively impression in the Pantheon," says Viollet-le-Duc, " is the immense dome, which BATHS OF DIOCLETIAN Showing Vaulted Ceilings and Supporting Columns derives all its decoration from its own structure and that single aperture, twenty-five feet in diameter, pierced at its summit, open to the zenith, and shedding upon the porphyry and granite pavement a great circle of light. So great is the elevation of this eye of the dome, that its immense open ing has no sensible effect on the temperature of the interior. The most violent storms scarcely breathe upon the head of THE COLOSSEUM, ROME In the ruin you can see the actual principles of construction and that the outside columns are merely applied ornament. *»^ ARCH OF CONSTANTINE, ROME Built by Constantine, who died in 337.- Sculpture taken from earlier buildings except the reliefs over the arches, which are of same date as arch and show debased taste in design. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE 115 him who stands beneath it ; and the rain falls vertically and slowly through the immense void in a cylinder of drops, and marks the pavement with a humid circle." The baths built in honour of Jupiter Ultor were among the most extensive public buildings, and were erected on a magnificent scale. Separate apartments were provided for warm, tepid, cold baths, and shower-baths, for rubbing and oiling the body. There were also rooms for dressing and undressing, for conversation, and for various kinds of amusements.Basilicas The attention paid to the basilicas or halls of justice is characteristic of the temper of the Romans. They were usually oblong, terminating in a circular apse in which was the seat of the judge. The main building was divided into aisles by rows of columns. These basilicas were built of light materials, and, with one or two exceptions, have been de stroyed. Both wooden and vaulted roofs were used. Theatres How the Roman theatres differed from the Greek has been noted. The amphitheatres had an oblong space in the cen tre. The reason for making them oblong in place of round was in order to give more space for the extensive shows that were conducted in them, such as gladiatorial contests. If the arena were a circle, the action would of necessity be con centrated around a central point. The largest Roman amphitheatre is the Flavian or Col osseum at Rome. In the illustration we have a section and a portion of the elevation of the Colosseum. It was built in four stories, each one formed by a series of arches, which are framed by columns with their entablature. We may instance this as a good 116 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART example of the way in which the Romans used Greek orders for ornament, and not for use. The colonnade on the first story is Tuscan, on the second Ionic, on the third Corinthian; while on the fourth story, which is somewhat higher than the others, pilasters support SECTION AND PORTION OF THE ELEVATION OF THE COLOSSEUM the cornice of the building, and take the place of the arcade. Sockets are to be found in the upper story for the inser tion of poles which carried the canvas sails that protected the audience from the weather. Three tiers of seats inside correspond to the external stories ; the upper one is enclosed in a colonnade. The space below the seats was occupied by stairways, cells, and vaulted corridors. The ground-plan is six hundred feet long by five hundred feet wide. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE 117 It was not merely the public buildings of the Romans that were characterised by luxury and richness : private houses were often erected at great cost, and fitted up with much magnificence. Their general plan was that of a number of small rooms opening out of one or more large halls or central courts. The Roman palaces were really little cities, contain ing on a small scale baths, temples, and other buildings. ATRIUM IN THE SO-CALLED HOUSE OF SALLUST AT POMPEII The Walls are Veneered with Marble and Decorated with Mural Paintings. The Ceiling Has a Central Opening, under which in the Floor is an Impluvium to Catch the Rain-water A great variety of Roman tombs have come down to us. An important class are the so-called " columbaria," named from the little niches resembling pigeon-holes, which were provided for the reception of the urns which contained the ashes of the deceased. Lack of space prevents us from speaking of many of the different kinds of buildings produced by Roman hands. 118 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART Sewers, aqueducts, artificial harbours, and fortified camps, roads, and bridges, are all characterised by the most ad mirable adaptation of means to the end in view, and by the greatest economy of material and labour consistent with thoroughness and durability. Arches Splendid arches, decorated with sculpture, were often erected to commemorate the founding of a road, or some great victory; and columns with richly carved reliefs served ^ss^Mum fMliiMPBg ispi mi rr :"iiiiiiii|^^^8| il H_jWS r-i p s is a ¦j-,B-.gi'!*|r r_i_ S9BBI III SECTION OF THE HOUSE OF PANSA AT POMPEII There are Two Divisions, Each Grouped About an Atrium. The Inner One is the Intimate Abode of the Family, the Outer for General Use and Entertainment. Slaves' Quarters are in Upper Story similar purposes. Towards the later period of Roman art, designs for whole cities were made, and carried out on a magnificent scale, as at Tadmor and Baalbek. In the build ings in these places, and in many tombs scattered over Arabia Petra, strong Oriental influences are at work modifying Roman forms, and producing a style that may be called a classic Rococo. The strong family likeness which exists between Roman buildings in all parts of the world that came under Roman sway, is fully accounted for by the methods by which they were erected. Soldiers and slaves were the numerous, but unskilled, labourers who brought the materials, " moulded the bricks, slacked the lime, and carted the sand " ; then " the AUGUSTUS CAESAR Note the general dignity of the- design and tlie delicate richness of details. MARCUS AURELIUS, ROME Excellent in bronze and gilt. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE 121 architects designated the points of support, and the position and character of the walls to be reared; hundreds of work men, under military supervision and strict mechanical super intendence, proceeded to mix the mortar, and bring to the site in their arms rubble stone, gravel, and bricks ; and, while selected workmen laid up the rough faces of the walls, the masses behind were filled with compact concrete. When they had thus reared the walls to the desired height, the science of the architect again intervened to prepare and lay in place temporary centres or forms of wood from the abundant for ests of Gaul or Germany, on which the masons and labourers moulded the arches and vaults of the structure with their brick, their rubble, and their mortar or concrete." Thus, says Viollet-le-Duc, " a skilful superintendent, a few carpenters and masons and hundreds of strong and disciplined arms could elevate the greatest monument in a few months." — Viollet-le-Duc, Discourses on Architec ture, p. 82. If there was sufficient wealth at the disposal of the build ers, an artist was employed to decorate the building when it was finished; but frequently the decoration was never ap plied, and the walls were left in the rough state; and then we see the bare sinews of Roman architecture. When the artist has done his work, we are tempted to exclaim with the sculptor of old, " Not being able to make thy Venus beauti ful, thou hast made her rich." ROMAN SCULPTURE We have already said that art was not a natural growth in Rome ; and there is no doubt that in sculpture, as in architec ture, the earliest works were strongly tinctured with Etrus can influence. Their conquests in Sicily, and later in Greece and Asia Minor, brought the Romans more directly under Greek influences. Masterpieces of sculpture graced the tri umphs of Roman generals ; and, although they were at first regarded merely in the light of trophies, their beauty soon began to be recognised, and a taste for them arose in the Capital. In the absence of any native artists who could gratify this taste, Greek sculptors were induced to emigrate to Rome, and a Grasco-Roman school of sculpture was founded. The works produced were after Greek models and in the Greek style; but heaviness and lack of beauty in the Roman costume as compared with the Greek, and elaborate finish and a want of subordination in the detail, marked the school as an inferior one, although many of its works exe cuted before the time of Augustus are among the most prized treasures of our galleries. Among these are the torso of the Belvedere Hercules, the Farnese Hercules, the Medicean Venus, and the Sleeping Ari adne. Portraiture Portraiture was a favourite branch of Roman art. There were two kinds of portraits, the iconic, or real portrait, and the heroic, or ideal. In the latter the person depicted was made in the likeness and with the attributes of some god or hero. One of the finest of these portrait-statues is that of Augustus in armour. 122 ROMAN SCULPTURE 123 During the time of the emperors, from Augustus to Ha drian, the elements of a native Roman school are to be found in the shape of historical reliefs. On the column of Trajan, erected in the forum of the same emperor, to commemorate the close of the Parthian war, 113 a.d., we find most in teresting examples of this class of work. A spiral band of relief winds round the column. Half-way up is a figure of Victory writing the names of heroes on her shield. There are more than a hundred different compositions of scenes from the war. The emperor constantly appears leading the soldiers, while the barbarians are easily recognised by their dress. Decadence In the time of Hadrian, Greek sculpture was again re vived ; and the numerous statues that remain to us of Antin- ous, the favourite of the emperor, who suffered martyrdom for him in some mysterious way in Egypt, are the last ideal statues of classic art. From this time forward sculpture declined with the decline of Roman liberty and Roman in stitutions ; while the Romans sought in vain among the gods of the East and of Greece the religious inspiration which they could not find in their own Pantheon. The various stages of the decadence of Roman sculpture are marked by portraits of the emperors. That of Caracalla, which is the last, has the degraded features which we should expect to find in such a monster. " At his head," says Burckhardt, " Roman art pauses as if in horror ; from this time it has scarcely produced a portrait with any lifelike feeling." With Constantine, the last gleam of life in sculpture became ex tinct in Rome; and only upon the reliefs of sarcophagi do we find any traces of ideal conception, or even of moderate execution. Here pagan and Christian ideas are sometimes curiously intermingled under the influence of an eclectic 124 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART philosophy. On one of the most celebrated of these sarcoph agi, the Pamphili Dorian, we find the birth and death of man depicted. " Prometheus is moulding a human figure, and Minerva is imparting life to it by placing Psyche (the human soul), in the shape of a butterfly, upon its head. Near at hand the genius of Death holds the inverted torch on the breast of the dying youth, Psyche as a butterfly rests upon it, while Mercury is carrying away the soul to the lower world. Farther on we see Prometheus chained to a rock, and Her cules shooting the vulture. The figure of a man going up to heaven in a chariot may be Elijah." — Lubke's Sculpture, p. 306. POMPEIIAN WALL-PAINTING A characteristic blend of natural and architectural features; no figures in this case. METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF AKT, N. Y. VICTORY OF ALEXANDER Mosaic in the Neapolitan Museum. ROMAN PAINTING The great painters of classic times are not known to us by any works executed by their own hands; and we must re member that it is not easy to obtain an idea of the perfection of Greek or even Grasco-Roman painting from the descrip tions of classic authors, and from copies of celebrated works executed by house-decorators who of necessity must have been inferior to the artists who produced the originals. Any one who has been in one of the galleries of Europe, and who happens to have turned some day from a great picture which he has been admiring to glance at the copyists who are working from it, can realise the difference that must have existed between the fresco of the Aldobrandini Marriage, for example, and the painting which was its prototype. • Antique painting is known to us from wall-paintings, many of them frescos, discovered at Herculaneum, Pom peii, Stabia?, and in Rome and its vicinity. They may be divided into three classes : — 1. Representations of historical or mythological scenes. 2. The same with architectural or landscape backgrounds. 3. Purely decorative figures in a light decorative archi tectural framework. " The Aldobrandini Marriage " is an example of the first class. The picture was discovered in 1606, and named after its first owner, Cardinal Aldobrandini. In the central group the veiled bride is seated on the nuptial couch with a woman beside her. At the right is the bridegroom. At one side of the picture a group of women offer a sacrifice with songs and playing; and at the other side women prepare the bath. As an example of the second class we may take one of the celebrated Odyssey landscapes found in 1848-50 in exca- 127 128 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART vations on the Esquiline in Rome. It represents the visit of Ulysses to the lower world. The third class (mosaic pictures) is a very important branch of ancient art. The so-called " Battle of Alexander " found at Pompeii is one of the most interesting that have been discovered. The subject may be the victory of Alexander over Darius at Issus. The horseman who has been overthrown is the Barbarian king. " The highest merit of this work, unique in its kind, is not to be sought for in faultless drawing, or in the expressiveness of each single figure; but rather in the power with which a momentous crisis is presented to us with the slightest possible means. On the right, by the turn given to the chariot and horses, and by some telling attitudes and gestures, a picture of helplessness and consternation is given which could not be more significant or, save in an outward sense, more complete." — Burckhaedt's Cicerone, p. 6. CHART. V.— Roman Aet. Chronology. Abohiteoturb. Sculpture. Etruscan or Republican Appian Way. Aqueducts. Period. Cloaca Maxima. Temple of Vesta at Tivoli. Temple of Fortuna Virilis. Tabularium. 2d or Augustan Period, 'Temple of Palatine Apollo. Medicean Venus. to 37 A.D. Temple of Saturn. Farnese Hercules. Temple of Quirinus. Belvedere Torso. Temple of Mars TJltor on i Capitol. Belvedere Apollo. J Roman Forum. Borghese Gladiator. Theatre of Marcellus. Diana of Versailles. Mausoleum of Augustus. Colossus of Nile. Pantheon. Sleeping Ariadne. v Pyramid of Caius Cestius. Temple of Herod at Jerusalem. Portraits of Emperors. Maison C'arree at Nimes. The Claudil to 69 A.D. Praetorian Camp. Rome rebuilt after Nero. Harbour of Ostia. Palace of Csesars. Arch of Claudius. Remains of Pompeii, Hercula neum, and Stabise, buried A.D. 79, belong to this early period. 3d Epoch,— A.D. The Flavii .... Rebuilding Capitol. Vespasian .... 69 Temple of Peace by Vespasian. Colosseum. ' Arch of Titus. Reliefs on Arch of Titus. Domitian .... 81 Rebuilding Capitol. Forum of Nerva. Forum of Trajan. Reliefs on Column of Trajan. Hadrian .... 117 Statues of Antinous. Antoninus Pius . . 138 Column of Antoninus Pius. Reliefs from Column of Temple of Antoninus and Faus Antoninus Pius. tina. Marcus Aurelius . 161 Temple of Marcus Aurelius. Reliefs from Arch of Septimus Severus . 193 Arch of Septimus Severus. Constantine. Caracalla .... 211 Baths of Caracalla. Works of period not in Rome. Buildings at Antioch, Heliopolis, Palmyra, Decapolis, and Byzantium. Ruins at Petra. Tombs near Jerusalem. Sarcophagus reliefs. 139 EARLY CHRISTIAN ART There are many advantages to be gained from dividing the course of history into periods, such as Ancient, Classic, and CEILING PAINTING FROM THE CATACOMB OF ST. CALIXTUS Mediaeval. It is easier to remember important events and distinguished men when they are, as it were, grouped to gether; and a comparison of the manners and customs of a 130 EARLY CHRISTIAN ART 131 given time with those of some preceding time enables us to realise distinctly the changes that have taken place. We must guard, however, against one impression that may arise from this method of study, i.e., that human progress is effected by a series of mighty revolutions, in place of being a gradual growth. Bearing this in mind, we turn from so-called classic to Christian art, and we fix our attention for the time being upon the three centuries which intervene between the death of Christ and the accession of Constantine. History tells us that during these three centuries the Christians were alter nately tolerated and persecuted ; that the persecutions varied in intensity; and that, under Maximinus (237 a.d.), even the burial-places of the saints and martyrs were confiscated by the government. It is around these burial-places that our interest centres ; for they are the most important Christian remains of the period under discussion. They are under ground cemeteries, and are called catacombs. They are found near Naples, Paris, Alexandria, and Rome ; but those near Rome are the most important. Catacombs It is probable that the early Christians had burial-clubs, similar to pagan burial-clubs ; that a catacomb, or a portion of a catacomb, was owned by a club, and paid for and kept in order by contributions from the different members, who thus acquired the right of burial there for themselves and their families. These burial-clubs were probably legalised under charters similar to those given to other associations of a like nature. The different catacombs were originally separate ceme teries. They were connected and extended in times of per secution, in order to afford means of escape to the living who took refuge in them. Those in the vicinity of Rome are 132 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART nearly all within an area of three miles, outside the walls of Servius Tullius. They are excavated in the strata of poz- zolani, a soft volcanic rock which is very common in the neighbourhood. They consist of narrow underground pas sages. The passages usually branch off from one another at right angles, and space enough is left between them to avoid any risk of the roof's caving in for lack of support. Sometimes there are distinct stories connected by flights of steps. On either side of the passageways are tiers of niches in the wall (loculi), where the bodies of the faithful were laid. The stones which closed these niches were called tabula. The name of the dead was placed upon them, and frequently a brief inscription or some Christian symbol. At certain irregular intervals the passages widen into cubic- ula, or small chapels. These were private family vaults, or places of special sanctity, where some martyr was buried. A shaft (luminare) usually connects the cubiculum with the outer air, and admits light and ventilation. The grave-dig gers were called fossores, and were often represented in the frescos. When it became necessary to conceal the catacombs, en trances were made to them from old and deserted sand-pits, and the original entrances stopped up. After the time of Constantine, cemeteries above ground were used as well as the subterranean ones ; but it was not until Rome was taken by Alaric (410) that the practice of burial in the cata combs ceased altogether. The early Christians were not required to cast away every thing that had a pagan origin, but only such things as " had been offered in sacrifice to idols "; and, just as the Christian mode of burial undoubtedly originated in a copy of the out ward customs of the Romans, so early Christian art for a long time had no vigorous life of its own, but bore fruit that resembled in form, if not in flavour, the fruit of the parent- EARLY CHRISTIAN ART 133 tree. We must not be surprised, then, at finding the earliest frescos in the catacombs identical in many respects with the pagan decorations of the same period ; nor must we be dis appointed at detecting a falling-off in the excellence of exe cution contemporary with the decline of art in Rome. Painting Christian painting did not aim at a naturalistic represen tation of historic scenes, but at a pictorial and symbolic pres entation of those doctrines which the early believers dwelt upon, and which they wished to keep constantly before their minds. Hence the study of the paintings in the catacombs has an interest above and beyond that which belongs to it from a technical point of view. From it we discover the rela tions in which art stood to Christianity in the first centuries ; and in it, and not in the later productions of Byzantine lux ury, we find the germ which sprang to life in Italian art of the eleventh century. There are three classes of pictures in the catacombs, — the first symbolical, the second typical, and the third, and latest in point of time, historical. A symbol is an object chosen to stand for a thought or person with which it may possess some analogy, but which it would not in itself suggest. Thus Christ is represented by the lamb and the fish; the latter symbol originating in the fact that in Greek the word " fish " is formed by the initial letters of the sentence " Jesus, Son of God, Saviour." A type is an historical or imaginary story or person described or represented in order to convey to the mind some truth of which it is a figure. Thus Orpheus and the Good Shepherd are types of Christ; and the story of Jonah and the whale is painted in the cata combs, not for its own sake, but as typical of the resurrec tion. We find very few paintings of Bible scenes in the catacombs that are not susceptible of a typical interpreta- 134 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART tion; for the early Christians dwelt upon the divinity of Christ and the glories of the Church Triumphant, rather than on His suffering and humanity and the persecuted Church Militant. The pictures of the fossores, or grave- diggers, come under this head. In the illustration we have a ceiling-painting from a cubic- ulum in the catacomb of St. Calixtus, which is the most inter esting of the Roman catacombs. It furnishes good examples of both symbolic and typical pictures. The figure of Orpheus taming the wild beasts, in the central compartment, is typical of Christ and his Church; Moses striking the rock, of bap tism ; the sower with his seed, of the preacher ; Daniel in the lions' den, of the strength and help given to saints in time of trouble; the raising of Lazarus, of the resurrection. In the four alternate compartments are figures of animals and trees, chosen, doubtless, as symbols of the rest of the saints in Paradise. CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE We pass from the study of the catacombs to early Christian architecture above ground, which we shall divide into the following periods : — I. Roman Christian. Under this head we shall classify the early Christian edifices which are modelled after Roman buildings, such as basilicas, temples, and tombs. The period embraced extends from the second century to the reign of Justinian, a.d. 527. (In the nature of the case, the dates given are only approximate dates.) II. Byzantine. This style was developed under the in fluence of the Eastern Church, and was formulated, if we may so speak, by Justinian (527 a.d.), and perpetuated in those countries where the Greek Church was established; so that we cannot assign any definite limit to its historical duration. III. The Architecture of the Western Church, which is to be subdivided into three periods : — 1. Romanesque, or round-arched, 527 a.d. to 1100 a.d. 2. Gothic, or pointed-arched, 1100 a.d. to 1400 a.d. 3. Renaissance, or the revived classic, 1400 a.d. to 1800 a.d. 135 ROMAN CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE It is probable that " upper rooms " and guest-chambers for some time supplied the accommodations necessary for the religious assemblies of the early Christians ; and it was not until they outgrew the capacities of these places that it be came necessary to erect separate edifices for worship. The persecutions which prevented the erection of such buildings above ground did not extend over the whole Roman Empire at one and the same time : so that churches were built during the period when Roman Christians were forced to take refuge in the catacombs. The most ancient church edifices are to be found in Africa and Syria. The earliest to which a date can be assigned with any certainty belongs to the third century. It would have been quite impossible for the Christians to have invented entirely new architectural forms ; and it is not surprising that the general plan and the construction of the first distinctively Christian buildings should resemble the plan and construction of contemporary Roman buildings, with such changes as the new religion imperatively required. The most important of these modifications was the trans fer of external decorative features to the interior. It will be wise to dwell upon this point for a moment, because in it lies the essential difference between classic and Christian religious architecture. That portion of the worship of the Greeks and Romans in which the people had an active part consisted chiefly of pro cessions, which took place out of doors, not inside the tem ples. Their sacred edifices were all erected so as to produce the most complete artistic effect externally, and the very sites were chosen with this end in view. The requirements 136 ROMAN CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE 137 of the Christians were diametrically opposite. They wanted a covered hall, where the voice of the preacher could be heard ; they desired to be shut off from the sights and sounds of the world without; and it was the interior, and not the exterior, of their buildings, which was of paramount im portance in their eyes. This is illustrated in the circular churches and baptisteries which are modelled after temples and tombs. The col onnade is transferred to the interior, and forms an impor tant architectural feature there. In Africa and Syria churches have been found resembling square temples in all important respects, where the same transfer of the columns to the interior is observable. Basilicas The most important class of early Christian churches are the so-called basilicas. The Roman basilica, or hall of jus tice, offered a plan that could very readily be adapted to the Christian requirements; and there seems to have been some thing appropriate in the very name it bore, which meant the " hall of the king." It was an oblong building, with a central nave, which, although usually roofed over, had the effect of a court surrounded by a colonnade formed by the side naves, apse, and vestibule. The side naves were usually one-third the width of the middle nave, and apparently only half as high, owing to the fact that they were divided into two stories. The side naves, either two or four in number, were divided from the middle nave and from each other by rows of columns. Columns also separated the apse from the central nave. In adapting the pagan basilica to Christian uses, the col umns between the apse and the nave were omitted, and the floor of the apse was slightly raised, so that the celebration 138 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART of the different religious services might be visible to specta tors in all parts of the church. The second stories of the side naves were suppressed as useless ; and " clere-story " windows were introduced in the wall of the middle nave, above the roof of the side naves. Flat arches usually took the place of the architrave, which in classic basilicas rested directly upon the capitals of the columns. An entirely new feature was introduced in the cross-nave, which was placed between the apse and the longi tudinal naves. A large arch, called the arch of triumph, spanned the middle nave, where it was joined to this transept or cross-nave. The seats for the higher clergy were arranged in a semi circle against the wall of the apse, the bishop's chair (cathe dra) in the middle. The altar stood in front of the apse, in the space formed by the intersection of the middle nave and the transept. A baldachino, or canopy of metal, sup ported on columns, was often placed over it. Beneath the altar we find the crypt, — a subterranean hall or vault, which was the burial-place of the saint to whom the church was dedicated. The origin of these crypts may be traced to the practice of building churches over the cubicula of catacombs where the bodies of martyrs rested. A space in front of the altar was enclosed by marble railings, and appropriated to the use of the lower clergy, who comprised the choir; hence its name. At either side of the choir there were pulpits, from one of which the Gospel was read, and from the other the Epistle. In the earliest basilicas, a court (atrium), enclosed by a covered colonnade, occupied a space in front of the building. This court was frequented by penitents who were not allowed to enter the main building. In the middle of it was a foun tain for the symbolic washing of the hands and face, sig nificant of the cleansing of sins. The cantharus, or bowl for ROMAN CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE 139 holy water, placed near the entrance of the churches, took the place of this fountain when the courts fell into disuse. A porch or portico, the same width as the basilica, formed the entrance; and near this portico, in the interior of the building, a narrow space," called the narthex, or scourge, was appropriated to the use of penitents who had the right -4 y 4 ? PLAN OF THE OLD BASILICA OF ST. PETER AT ROME of access to the sanctuary, but were not yet admitted to the full enjoyment of religious privileges. The basilicas, as a rule, had wooden roofs. Sometimes the beams were concealed by a flat panelling, richly gilded ; sometimes the rafters showed, and were gaily coloured. Mosaics or frescos decorated the walls of the middle nave, the arch of triumph, and the semi-dome of the apse. Exte rior ornament was used sparingly. The prominent lines of the construction were emphasised by mouldings, and occa sionally the fafade was decorated with mosaics or frescos. We find little originality in the designs for capitals and cor nices. They were usually fragments of pagan buildings, which were looked upon by the Christians as lawful spoil. The knowledge of architecture had greatly declined in Rome, and the principles of construction were imperfectly understood. It is partly on this account that so few ex amples of early basilicas remain. The high walls were readily 140 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART overthrown, the wooden roofs were exceedingly combustible, and the passion for restoring and altering swept away what the ravages of time would have spared. San Clemente at Rome is the only basilica now in exist ence with an atrium. The old basilica of St. Paul Outside- the-Walls, at Rome, was burned in 1823. It has been re stored; but the extreme polish and newness of the interior, PLAN OF BASILICA OF SAN CLEMENTE AT ROME and the alteration of some of the important features of the plan, prevent it from impressing us as the original building would have done. Basilicas continued to be the favourite style of churches at Rome long after other forms had been introduced else where ; but, as we have said before, we have not space to con cern ourselves with the details of the history of art, and can only indicate the leading characteristics of the buildings of different sorts. INTERIOR OF "ST. PAUL, WITHOUT THE WALLS," ROME In vastness this outranks all basilicas. Original was destroyed by fire in 1838. THE MOSQUE OF SANTA-SOFIA Note the immense transverse buttresses to support dome. BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE In 330 a.d. Constantine transferred the capital of the Roman Empire to Byzantium, changing the name of the ancient Greek city to New Rome or Constantinople. Out of the splendid works which he and his successors inaugurated grew Byzantine art. It was an art of mingled influence; developed out of Roman traditions, modified by Greek tastes, and liberally tinctured with Oriental elements. It is the first distinctive Christian national art, says A. D. F. Ham lin, being especially rich in decorative details and the use of colour, displaying the weakness as well as the merits inci dental to its transitional character. Its period of finest in spiration and achievement was the sixth century ; after which it gradually lost its vigour and became formalised, finally disappearing after the conquest of Constantinople by the Turks, in 1453. Santa Sophia The Romans had used the dome and vault with equal facility, but after the dismemberment of the Empire the vault became the leading feature of Western architecture, the dome of Byzantine. The noblest example of the latter is the Church of Santa Sophia, the Holy Wisdom, which was founded by Constantine in the year a.d. 325, the year when the Council of Nice was held. It was burned down during the early part of the reign of Justinian, and rebuilt only to be destroyed again by the falling of the dome twenty years later. It was again rebuilt by the same emperor with more than its former magnificence, and was consecrated in 561. When the emperor visited the church after its comple tion, with his court retinue, he is said to have prostrated him- 143 144 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART self before the altar, and to have uttered the memorable words, expressive of the highest pride he could imagine: " I have surpassed thee, 0 Solomon ! " The prominent feature of the building is the great dome, which rests on four piers twenty-five feet wide, and- seventy-five feet deep. They are pierced with small arches on the ground floor UL -»»E&L S. SOPHIA, CONSTANTINOPLE Note the Smaller Half-domes Leading up to the Main Dome 180 Feet in the Air. It Rests on a Crown of Windows and is so Disposed That Its Summit is Visible from Every Point of the Nave and in the galleries, but these openings are not large enough to interfere with the apparent or actual supporting power of the massive piers. Two semi-domes, equal in diameter to the great dome, are joined to it on the east and west. To each of these semi-domes three smaller semi-domes are added: the middle one extending at one extremity of the church over the vestibule, and at the other over the apse. The oblong space arched by this magnificent system of domes is enclosed by a low aisle or side nave, which is surmounted by a gallery for the women. The lines of the gallery and aisles are broken where they pass through the arches in the piers, and BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE 145 the general effect is that of a vast central court surrounded by tiers of arcades. Light was introduced through small windows around the dome. The details of the interior were as fine as the plan and proportions. The walls were inlaid with mosaics on a gold ground. They were covered by whitewash when the building GROUND-PLAN OF THE CHURCH OF S. SOPHIA The Nave is 200 by 100 Feet was turned into a Mohammedan mosque, but the outlines of the figures can be dimly distinguished even now under the thin coating of lime. At the four pendentives of the dome, just above the piers, are figures of seraphim with six wings: " with twain they covered their heads, with twain they cov ered their feet, and with twain they did fly." Their faces have been concealed by four shields, on which are inscribed texts from the Koran. The floor is paved with a rich mosaic of marbles. Various heathen temples were despoiled to sup ply the columns, which were of coloured marbles that vied in richness with the mosaics of the walls and the pavement. The capitals are of a purely Byzantine type. They have 146 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART SAN APOLLINARE NUOVO, RAVENNA Shows the Byzantine Influence that Existed in Ravenna after It Had Become the Residence of Byzantine Exarchs a convex in place of a concave outline, and are covered with rich carving. The character of Byzantine decorative sculp ture is Phoenician, and resembles fragments of ornament that come from Jewish buildings. INTERIOR OF ST. SOPHIA The walls arc incrusted witli precious marbles up to the beginning of the vaulting. The capitals, goffers and spandrels are decorated with incised ornament; the vaults with mosaics. The masterpieces of Byzantine decoration. ST. MARK'S, VENICE Begun in 1063, the work of Byzantine builders. BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE 149 Whether the exterior of Santa Sophia was left unorna- mented in order that it should not resemble a pagan temple, or because Justinian's death (he died one year after the dedication) and the ensuing political disturbances prevented its completion, we cannot say. Fergusson thinks it was to have been coated with marble, and adduces as proof the ex terior finish of contemporary buildings. Byzantine Influences in Italy Byzantine influences are strongly represented in Venice and northeastern Italy. Ravenna is rich in monuments of Byzantine art, witness the Church of St. Vitale. In the eleventh and following centuries the Cathedral of St. Mark, the patron saint of Venice, was remodelled in Byzantine style; the older Romanesque church being surmounted with domes, while the interior was lavishly adorned with mosaic, gold, marble, veneer, and sculpture. Ruskin speaks of this method of " incrusted architecture " as the " only one in which perfect and permanent chromatic decoration is pos sible " ; the effects depend upon colour, " the most subtle, variable, inexpressible colour in the world: the colour of glass, transparent alabaster, polished marble and gold." Later Developments The later developments of Byzantine architecture may be traced in Greece, in Armenia, in Georgia, and in Russia. The most important variation from the style of Santa Sophia is the transfer of the windows from the dome to the drum, which was elongated while the dome itself became more con tracted. As the later churches were all insignificant in size, this feature is not as objectionable as it might otherwise have been. Byzantine architecture was naturalised in Russia by the Greek Church. At the close of the fifteenth century, Tartar 150 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART influence corrupted the style; but it was not completely ex tinguished until Peter the Great sent for Renaissance archi tects to adorn his capital with buildings in the architectural style of Southern Europe. The church of Vasili Blagen- noi at Moscow is a curious example of the mingling of Tartar and Byzantine forms. The domes are bulbous, and their diameter is greater than that of the drums on which they rest. The curious colouring and gorgeous gild ing give them a rich but barbaric effect. Singular bell- towers exist in Russia, but they were not connected with the churches until a late date. The Byzantine style was moulded in great measure by the requirements of the ritual of the Greek Church. The separation of the clergy from the laity was accomplished in the West by the length of the nave, but in the East by the introduction of the iconostasis, or screen, behind which the officiating priest retired, to issue forth for a moment, and show himself with the host to the expectant worshippers, and then to return to his holy of holies. The long processions which became an important part of the services of the Roman Church were unknown to the Greek, so that there was no necessity for edifices so vast as those we find in Western Europe. We must not conclude, how ever, from this circumstance, that the architecture or ritual of the Greek Church lacked completeness and magnificence. The Oriental love of splendour and of symbolism was clearly shown and fully gratified by intricate ceremonies, gorgeous vestments, and beautiful decorative details. BYZANTINE PAINTING AND MOSAICS In Constantinople mosaic art was developed and formulated as early as architecture had been. The gradual growth of types in Rome had in it some ele ments of living freedom. But at Constantinople, as early as the reign of Justinian and Theodora (a.d. 527), fixed rules had been laid down for the treatment of every detail. From that time forward the art was the repetition of some thing learnt by heart, — growing poorer and poorer as time went on. Holiness assumed a morose form: the faces were long, the lips thin and parched, the flesh-tints of a greenish hue. The artist was not permitted to exercise his own free will, even in arranging the folds of the drapery ; and the use of gorgeous materials was poor compensation for the loss of artistic thought. When Leo III., the Isaurian, ascended the throne in a.d. 717, the iconoclastic movement reached its height; and in the general destruction of pictures and statues that ensued, the most important works of the best Byzantine period per ished. The mosaics in Santa Sophia, which were copied when the whitewash was temporarily removed from the walls, are probably restorations of the time of Basil I. It is quite possible that in the figure prostrate with Oriental servility before the Saviour we see Basil himself. Certainly it can not be Justinian, for there is no trace of likeness between it and his portrait in St. Vitale at Ravenna. One of the most interesting monuments of Byzantine art yet discovered is the so-called " Handbook of Mount Athos." It was found by Didron in 1839, in the convent of Mount Athos, and was probably written in the eleventh or twelfth century. It is in three parts. The first contains directions 151 152 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART for different methods of painting, as fresco, oil, or mosaic. The second lays down rules for the representation of scenes from Scripture history and for allegorical pictures. The third states the order in which pictures should be arranged in churches. While mosaics represented the most highly developed of Byzantine arts, ivory carving, illumination of manuscripts, and the production of splendid fabrics were almost equally advanced. We have already said that Christian painting, in its out ward manifestations, declined with the decline of Roman art. The fact that the mosaics we are about to consider are in ad vance of the catacomb-paintings is no proof of the inaccuracy of this statement. The increased wealth of the Church now enabled it to employ the best artists of the time, and the richest materials ; whereas the comparative poverty and obscurity of the early Christians condemned them to the poorest quality of art in their days. " Painting," says Gregory IL, " is employed in churches for the reason that those who are ignorant of the Scriptures may at least see on the walls what they are unable to read in books." Mosaics This is the keynote to early Christian art. The Church was creating an artistic phraseology for herself; and, in order that her words might be understood by all, a conven tional representation of Scripture scenes, and an individual type for saints and apostles, must, of necessity, be adopted. The progress in this direction, as evidenced by Roman mosaics, is gradual but steady. The beardless Christ of classic times gives place to the Christ with a long beard, familiar to us in mediaeval pictures. An ideal dress, consist ing of the Roman toga, becomes the adopted costume of MOSAIC FROM STS. COSMAS AND DAMIAN AT ROME 154 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART i the apostles. The earth is represented by a simple flat sur face, sometimes adorned with flowers. Attempts to make the -meaning of the picture clear by the expression and grouping of the figures are gradually abandoned. Their position, or a simple gesture, says all that is required. Prophets and apostles are placed opposite each other, to ex press promise and fulfilment. The bowing of the knee sig nifies worship ; and in a thousand such conventional ways the story is told to the initiated, with ever-increasing ac curacy; while the knowledge of anatomy declines, and artis tic taste is on the wane. In the apse of Sts. Cosmas and Damian (526-530) we have a spendid example of the Roman mosaics of the time. The background is blue. The full-length colossal figure in the middle is Christ. He stands upon gold-edged clouds. His mantle is draped over his left arm in classic style; in fact, all the figures remind us of antique portrait-statues. In his left hand he holds a roll, while the right is stretched out, as if to command. Peter and Paul leading Sts. Cosmas and Damian to the Saviour, with St. Theodore and Pope Felix IV., form two groups, on either side of Christ. The pope holds a model of the Church in his hand, and is thus designated as its founder. His figure has been restored. St. Peter has the bald head, and St. Paul the short brown hair, which distinguished them in later pictures. The simplicity of the ideal costume of the apostles and Christ is in strong contrast with the violet mantles and rich embroideries of the late Roman dress of the saints. We may notice, also, that the saints and apostles are not looking at the Saviour, but out of the picture at the worshippers. In one of the two palm-trees, which complete the com position, we see the phoenix bird, the emblem of immortality. The river Jordan is indicated by water-plants. The lambs in the band below the main picture symbolise the twelve BYZANTINE MOSAICS 155 apostles. The middle one, with the nimbus around its head, is Christ, standing upon a hill, from which flow the four rivers of Paradise. At Ravenna we find a series of mosaics that rival the Roman in splendour and execution. Byzantine influence min gles here with the late classic style. When Byzantine influence died out in Italy, the new spirit of the North was creeping in, — the barbarous spirit, if we may call it so ; but the power that was destined to give new life to the dry bones of classic days. The apse mosaic from St. Agnese Outside-the-Walls (Rome, a.d. 625-638) is a fair example of the work of the time, which is neither classic nor Byzantine. Pope Honorius holds the model of the Church. At the feet of St. Agnese is the sword which symbolises her martyrdom ; while " the flames, which could not hurt her, play around her." The Byzantine mosaics are not to be judged from a naturalistic point of view. They had a twofold purpose : — (1) To educate the people in certain principles of the faith, and (2) to decorate the space they occupied. The method of telling the story was reduced as far as possible to symbols, and the very abstraction of the figures assists the decorative character of the whole. The flatness of the latter makes it seem to be a part of the wall, and the distribution of the figures and the open spaces around them is managed with such breadth, simplicity, and handsomeness of design, that these mosaics are among the finest examples of mural dec oration in existence. To realise their value compare them with the paltry imitations in mosaic of some of Raphael's pictures in St. Peter's. MOHAMMEDAN ART The Byzantine period overlaps the Romanesque art, out of which the Gothic grew. Meanwhile, it was also contem porary with the rise and spread of Mohammedan art. It is therefore convenient to consider the latter now, even though it extended far beyond the Romanesque period, in order that the path may be cleared for an uninterrupted survey of Christian Western art. /^l Mohammed was born about A^rrS^Qi The wandering Arab tribes were welded together by the religion which he founded, and before the close of the seventh century had not only become a powerful nation themselves, but had carried the faith of Islam by the might of the sword from the Atlantic Ocean to the Ganges. As pictures and images were forbidden by the Koran, the artistic genius of the Arabians found a vent in architecture. The style of their architecture was more or less modified by the character of the buildings already existing in the differ ent countries that they conquered; but the general plans of mosques, the use of the pointed arch, and an elaborate and beautiful system of surface-decoration, are the common property of all the Mohammedan styles. A Mohammedan mosque had four essential parts : — 1st. The mihrab, or large hall for prayers. 2d. The kiblah, or holy place, where the Koran was kept. 3d. A court containing a fountain for the ablutions of the faithful. 4th. One or more slender towers, called minarets, from the top of which the muezzin, or priest, gave the summons for prayer four times a day. 1S6 HI i VASSILI-BLAGENNOI, MOSCOW Curious application of Byzantine principles, note the bulbous domes and central spire instead of dome. CATHEDRAL OF CORDOVA Built about 800. The columns are antique. The arches are in white stone and red brick. Full height 40 feet. MOHAMMEDAN ART 159 There are two typical forms of mosques : — 1st. Those with a large square court enclosed by corri dors, deepest on the side nearest the inner sanctuary. 2d. Those with a central dome in the Byzantine style. The arches in Saracenic or Mohammedan architecture were usually pointed, although horseshoe and wedge-shaped arches were common. The domes were very similar to Byzantine domes, but they were more pointed on the exterior. The decorations of Mohammedan architecture were very beautiful. Conventionalised plants and animals, intricate geometric figures, and texts from the Koran in Kufic char acters, were interwoven in an exquisite surface ornamenta tion of gold and gorgeous colours, which is known as ara besque. The earliest monuments of Arabian architecture are to be found in Egypt at Cairo. The Mosque of Amru in Old Cairo was founded as early as a.d. 643. It consists of a quadrangular court two hundred and forty-five feet square, with a fountain in the middle. A single corridor, formed by one row of columns, occupies the front of the court. There are four rows of columns on the left, three on the right, and six rows of columns form the hall of prayer on the remaining side. The columns are all taken from old Roman buildings, and their height is equalised by bases of different sizes. The capitals are surmounted by tall cubical blocks, on which the arches of the arcades rest. The arches are horseshoe arches slightly pointed at the apex. Wooden braces stretch from column to column. Mohammedan architecture in Egypt is more massive than in Spain, India, or Persia ; and the pointed arch was used in preference to the keel and horseshoe arches. Dwelling-houses were plain externally, but were built around courts upon which many windows opened. The in- 160 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART terior decorations were often very gorgeous and beau tiful. Mohammedan architecture in Spain may be divided into three periods, or styles: — 1st, Byzantine Arabic ; 2d, Mauritan-Almohade ; 3d, Mudejar, or Granadine. Mosque of Cordova As an example of the architecture of the first period, which extended from the eighth to the tenth century, we shall select the Mosque of Cordova. It was built about 786 a.d. The original hall of prayer consisted of eleven rows of columns: eight more were added in the tenth century. A court forms the approach to the hall of prayer, and occupies about a third of the extent of the building, which covers an area of five hundred and sixty by four hundred feet. The system of arching is peculiar; a row of arches spring from the columns, and above these we find a second row of arches springing from pilasters resting on the capitals of the columns. The second period of Arabic architecture in Spain was a transitional period, and lasted during the eleventh and twelfth centuries. The buildings of the time were compara tively insignificant, as the Spanish Moors were neither rich nor powerful. It was the prelude to the brilliant develop ment of Saracenic art in Spain which began in the thirteenth century, produced the Alhambra, and was terminated by the conquest of Granada in 1492. The Alhambra The Alhambra is built close to a rocky descent, and com mands a magnificent view of the surrounding country. It is the Acropolis, the palace-fortress, of Granada. It was originally a castle. Charles V. transformed a por- COURT OF THE LIONS, ALHAMBRA Note the stalactite arches and vaulting. ROOM OF THE TWO SISTERS, ALHAMBRA The dado is of glazed tiles; above is stucco ornament of extreme in tricacy, coloured in red, blue and gold. Through the windows is view of a small garden. MOHAMMEDAN ART 163 tion of it into a Renaissance palace which was never com pleted, but the most beautiful parts of the Moorish original have been preserved. The larger of the two open courts is called the Court of the Alberca. It is seventy feet broad, and one hun dred and seventy-six feet long, and has a corridor on the two short sides. Opposite the entrance there is a vestibule which leads into a room in a four-cornered tower, designated as the Hall of the Ambassadors. It is thirty-four feet square, with deep window-niches in the walls on three sides. The walls are enormously thick. The views from the win dows are superb. The royal throne was probably placed in the recess opposite the entrance. Part of the inscrip tion on the walls runs as follows : " From me this throne thou art welcomed morning and evening by the tongues of blessing, prosperity, happiness, and friendship; that is the elevated dome, and we the several recesses are her daughters ; yet I possess excellence and dignity above all those of my race. Surely we are all members of the same body; but I am like the heart in the midst of them, and from the heart springs all energy of soul and life." The dado of tiles in this hall is the finest in the Alhambra. The dome is of wood, and the vaulting is the so-called stalactite vaulting. The second open court is called the Court of the Lions, from the twelve-sided alabaster fountain in the mid dle, resting on the backs of lions. " These Arabian sculp tures," says Murray, " make up for want of reality by a sort of quaint, heraldic antiquity. Their faces are barbe cued, and their manes cut like scales of a griffin, and the legs like bedposts, with the feet concealed by the pave ment, while a water-pipe stuck in their mouths does not add to their dignity." Slender pillars form corridors round the court, and pavilions containing fountains are on the two 164 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART shorter sides. On the longer sides are entrances to halls: the Hall of the Sisters, named from two great marble tiles in the pavement; and a smaller one called Hall of the Abencerrages. The columns in the Alhambra are very slender and grace ful ; the capitals of a cubiform shape, raised above the shaft of the column by a long neck; the bases are simple. The arches are covered with stucco decorations somewhat like embroidery, which often assume the shape of stalactites. The patterns on the walls of the different chambers vary, but the system of decoration is the same. A mosaic work of glazed tiles forms a dado from three to four feet high. Over this is a narrow band of ornamental inscriptions, and, still higher up, artistically interwoven arabesques. The colour of the patterns is most gorgeous and at the same time per fectly harmonious. Persia In Persia Mohammedan architecture was characterised by the extensive use of the keel arch. The domes were of a bulbous shape, and the ornamentation was a more direct imitation of nature than in Spain. India In India the building period of Mohammedan art extends from about 1100 a.d. to 1700 a.d. The most celebrated monument of Saracenic art in India is the Taj Mahal, at Agra, which was erected by Shah Jehan (1628-1658) for his favourite wife. The Taj, or tomb, with its dome and its minarets, stands on a platform in a court eight hundred and eighty feet square. Beyond this there is an outer court, the same width and half the depth. It has three gateways of its own, and in the middle of the inner wall is the far-famed gateway of the garden r- THE TAJ MAHAL Constructed of white marble, decorated with glass mosaics. Xote tbe beautiful setting of water basins and foliage. NOTRE DAME, PARIS Observe the orderliness as well as vigor of the design of the West Front, and the harmony of proportion of the parts to themselves and to the whole, MOHAMMEDAN ART 167 court. The plan of the mausoleum is a square a hundred and eighty-six feet, with the corners cut off. The dome is fifty- eight feet in diameter, and eighty feet high. The tombs are under the dome. The bodies, in accordance with the Indian practice, are interred in vaults directly below the apparent tomb. The whole building is of white marble ; light is ad mitted through double screens of white marble trellis-work, which, in the brilliant Indian climate, temper the light very agreeably. The ornamentation of the building consists of precious stones inlaid in the walls. " The long rows of cypress, which line the marble paths that intersect the garden at right angles, are all of venerable age, and, backed up by masses of evergreen foliage, lend a charm to the whole which the founder and his children could hardly have realised. Each of the main avenues among these trees has a canal along its centre studded with marble foun tains, and each vista leads to some beautiful architectural object. With the Jumna in front, and this garden with its fountains and gateways behind, with its own purity of material and grace of. form, the Taj may challenge compari son with any creation of the same sort in the whole world. Its beauty may not be of the highest class, but in its class it is unsurpassed." — Fergusson's Indian and Eastern Archi tecture. ROMANESQUE ART We now return to the chronological sequence which marks the development of Romanesque art out of the Byzantine and Christian Roman. Contemporaneously (writes A. D. F. Hamlin) with the later phases of Byzantine art in the East, the spread of WAVY, WINDING ZIGZAGS AND BROKEN LINES ABOVE THE FRAMES OF DOORS Christianity through Western and Northern Europe was calling into existence a new architecture. It varied in detail according to locality, but was marked everywhere by certain common characteristics which have given it the name of Romanesque. While in Italy the early middle ages show a strange con fusion of styles, with the Lombard in the northwest, the Byzantine in the northeast, the Basilican in Rome, and Norman, Arab, and Byzantine mingled picturesquely in Sicily and the south, all Western Europe was endeavouring to solve one and the same problem; namely, the conversion of the 168 ROMANESQUE ART 169 three-aisled Roman basilica into a vaulted structure. This problem is the key to the whole of Mediaeval architecture in Western Europe ; of which the Romanesque styles are simply the first stages and the magnificent cathedrals of the thir teenth and fourteenth centuries the consummate achieve ment. The Romanesque is essentially a form of religious archi tecture and represents the Gallic and the German develop- CUBIFORM OR BLOCK CAPITAL FROM THE CATHEDRAL AT GURK ment of the basilica. Columns, marble veneer and splendid mosaics were not to be had; the builders were comparatively unskilled and stone was the chief material. Their object was to reproduce the basilica in simpler form and as far as possible fire-proof. Hence the substitution for the wooden ceiling of the stone vaulting. In Venice, Ravenna, and other cities which had commerce with the East, the Romanesque style appears in union with Byzantine features. In Lom- bardy and Tuscany the German feeling is still affected by the classic. It was in Germany and Western Europe that the Romanesque appeared most characteristically. 170 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART There are a vast number of Romanesque churches scat tered over Europe. They differ widely from one another in details, arid all that we can do is to lay down a few broad principles that characterise the style as a whole. We find the general plan of the three-naved basilica pre served in the ground-plans of Ro- mafiesque churches. The length of the building is greatly increased; but the atrium and narthex are abolished, and a narrow vestibule which is occasionally introduced is the only trace of these two im portant features of the early churches. The transept is fre quently lengthened, and the nave extended beyond the transept, so that the ground-plan has the form of a Latin cross. The side aisles are sometimes prolonged beyond the transept, and terminate in subordinate apses. In other cases they are carried round the apse in the form of a semicircular corridor. Churches were also built with an apse at each end. ST. GODEHARD AT HILDESHEIM Vaulted Roof As we have before remarked, the most important change that characterises the architecture of this period is therediscovery of the vaulted stone roof, which had fallen into oblivion in late classic times. At first the simple tunnel vault was used; but it soon became apparent that the thrust of this kind of ROMANESQUE ART 171 roof was liable to spread the side walls. In order to meet this difficulty, the walls had to be made exceedingly heavy and thick, and the consequent increase in the expense of building was very great. Architects soon had recourse to a new and better plan. Massive piers were built at certain intervals, and when neces- CRYPT OF THE CATHEDRAL AT VIBORG Showing System of Vaulting and Pillar Supports sary were strengthened by pilasters. Opposite piers were connected by arches, and arches were also thrown diagonally from pier to pier. This kind of vaulting is called cross- vaulting. Its advantages are obvious. The supporting power is concentrated in the piers, which can be easily 172 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART strengthened ; the intermediate wall space is relieved from strain, and can be made correspondingly light. The diag onal thrust of the cross-arches in a measure counteracts the outward thrust of the arches that connect opposite piers. By degrees the pilasters which strengthened the piers were incorporated in the piers, the vaulting was ribbed to cor respond with the ribs produced on the piers by the pilasters, and we see the simple cross-vault passing into the more complicated ribbed vaultings of Gothic architecture. The additional strength given to the buildings by the new system of vaulting enabled the architect to introduce galleries over the side aisle. A colonnade shut them off from the middle nave. In time these galleries became so important as a deco rative feature, that an arcade or false gallery was frequently introduced when no real gallery existed. As architects became bolder, the spaces between the piers were increased, and columns were frequently alternated with the piers. In such cases a large arch sprang from pier to pier, and smaller arches connected the columns with the piers. As the weight was carried by the large arch, ornamental openings were often made in the wall space be tween the column and the upper arch. The doors were sunk into the wall, and framed by a series of carved mouldings, which grew richer and richer as time went on. The main entrance was often placed on the long side of the building, instead of opposite the apse. We find the pointed arch over windows before it was used in the con struction. Rose-windows — i.e., round windows over the door — were introduced towards the close of the Romanesque period. Towers were often added to the church edifices, and in the progress of time became a very important feature of the buildings. The cubiform Byzantine capital was the favourite form ROMANESQUE ART 173 with Romanesque architects, although they did not confine themselves to it. The abacus of the capital was higher and less projecting than in classic models. Carved leaves or figures occupy the corners of the square plinth upon which the round bases of the columns rested, and made SAN MICHELE, LUCCA In Which the Pisan Style of Romanesque is Reproduced, Though More Fantastically. Note the Two Stories Added to the Top for Effect the transition from the round to the square form less abrupt. Before bringing this brief notice of Romanesque architec ture to a close, we shall describe two typical Romanesque churches, — one from Italy, where the style had many inter esting local peculiarities ; and one from Germany, where, as 174 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART in the other countries of the North, the Romanesque is closely allied to the Pointed Gothic. INTERIOR OF THE CATHEDRAL AT SPEYER Begun in 1030, Finished Nearly a Century Later. Exhibits the Pic turesque Grouping of Imposing Masses Characteristic of the Rhenish Development St. Michele at Lucca The Italian church that we shall choose to illustrate Ro manesque architecture is the Church of St. Michele at Lucca. ROMANESQUE ART 175 It was dedicated, as its name indicates, to the Archangel Michael, a favourite patron saint in Lombardy. The colossal statue of the saint is on the apex of the fac:ade. The wings are so fashioned of several plates of bronze as to allow the wind to pass through them, and thus avoid the danger of exposing so large a mass to its power. The greater part of the church was built in 764 ; but the western facade, which is the chief beauty of the edifice, was added in 1288. It is in the same style as the Cathedral of Pisa, although less severely classic. We would call attention first to the high false facade, next to the curious colonnades, then to the com parative smallness of the windows and the insignificance of the doors, and lastly to the square tower incorporated in the building. Cathedral of Speyer The Cathedral of Speyer was begun in 1030, by Conrad II. , and the crypt was intended as a burial-place for the German emperors. The work on the cathedral was carried on for nearly a century. The central nave is forty-four feet wide, and the entire length of the building four hun dred and eighteen feet. The exterior is as fine as the in terior. The domes and towers are exceedingly picturesque, and a gallery extends around the principal portions of the building. The cathedral was ruined by the French in 1689, and restored in 1772. There is a simple grandeur about the lofty pilasters and bare walls of the- interior which is very impressive. English Styles The classification of architectural styles in England is somewhat different from the classification of styles on the Continent. The earliest English style is the Anglo-Saxon. It was gradually superseded by the Norman style after Duke 176 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART William's conquest of England in 1066. The Norman style in England corresponds to the Romanesque style in Europe. CATHEDRAL AT LIMBURG Late Romanesque Influence. A Superb Example of the Rhenish Transition Epoch. Consecrated 1235 Norman towers had neither buttresses nor staircases. They never tapered, but were either of the same size from top to ROMANESQUE ART 177 bottom, or else diminished in stories. The windows and doors had either triangular or round heads. The walls were very thick, and the doorways and windows were often splayed, that is to say, widened by slanting the sides, on the outside as well as inside. EARLY CHRISTIAN, BYZANTINE, AND ROMANESQUE SCULPTURE Classic sculpture scarcely deserved the name when Chris tianity took it into her service. Old types had been copied and re-copied until the original meaning and beauty were lost in imitations of imitations. Sculpture was not a favourite art with the early Chris tians, and we have very few examples of their skill in that line. There are in the Lateran Museum at Rome some small statues of the Good Shepherd, and a statue of St. Hip- polytus, executed in the fifth century. The bronze statue of St. Peter, in St. Peter's at Rome, is of about the same date. This brief list includes the only important statues of the first few centuries that have been preserved. The drapery and pose of the figures is strikingly like that of late Roman portrait-statues. We find a marked resemblance to classic funeral sculpture in the reliefs from Christian sarcophagi, and the same evi dences of declining skill in both cases. The features and limbs gradually increase in heaviness, the relations of the different parts of the body to each other are misunderstood, and the figures are awkward and badly grouped. The sar cophagus of Junius Bassus, now in the vaults of St. Peter's, is one of the best and most interesting examples of marble. relief in this age. It is divided into two stories, and the subjects are separated from each other by an architectural framework. We see " The Sacrifice of Isaac," " The Temptation," "The Triumphant Entry into Jerusalem," and " Daniel in the Lions' Den," treated in the same con ventional style as in the catacomb-paintings, 178 CHRISTIAN AND BYZANTINE SCULPTURE 179 Decorative Sculpture Decorative sculpture survived the hopeless decline of the art in its higher branches. Small ivory carvings were exe cuted with extraordinary skill, and many beautiful examples have been preserved in public and private collections. The diptychs are the most interesting class of these ivory carv ings. A diptych consisted of two writing-tablets fastened together. The outside was carved; the inside surface cov ered with wax, on which the owner wrote with a sharp point. They were much used by the consuls. The early Christians used them as covers for the Scriptures, and in some cases they served the purpose of portable altars. About the seventh century the classic style died out, and was replaced by the Northern and Byzantine. Byzantine influence had begun to make itself felt while classicism was still powerful, as we see in the episcopal chair of Bishop Maximianus from the sacristy of the Duomo at Ravenna. The precise date of its execution is uncertain, but it was prior to the sixth century. Different degrees of excellence are displayed in various parts of the work, showing that different hands were employed upon it. We have charac terised Byzantine work elsewhere, and it exhibits the same peculiarities in sculpture as in painting. Northern Adaptations Northern nations were captivated by the love of splendour which led to the production of magnificent decorative works in the East and in Italy ; and the early artistic attempts of the North are peculiarly interesting, because in them we see the germs of the first original inspiration of Christian art. Curious scroll-work patterns, intertwined animals, figures reminding one of calligraphic art, are the characteristics of this Northern decoration. During the Romanesque period the Northern spirit was 180 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART slowly but surely gaining the ascendant. " The antique ele ments," says Liibke, " were of course received in the already stiffened and distorted shape which they gained in the old Christian epoch. ... A period of acclimatisation, as it were, was necessary for the foreign seed to overcome the rigid chill of the yet uncultivated Northern soil, and to prepare that soil for its better reception. A fresh growth then followed, which was still characterised by antique conceptions of form, but in which the German spirit expressed itself in original adaptations and modulations." There is a power and life in the very imperfections of Northern sculpture, but we must still look to Byzantium for beauty of execution. Many fine bronze works belong to the eleventh-century period ; and prominent among them are the bronze doors of the Cathedral at Hildesheim, with sixteen scenes in bas- relief from the Old and New Testaments. The tomb-slab of Rudolph of Swabia is a good example of bronze work. A relief from the church at Wechselberg, Abel offering up a lamb, exemplifies the further emancipation of sculpture towards the close of the Romanesque period. GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE The transition from Romanesque to Gothic was made possible by the discovery and application of the rib system of vaulting. The earlier method was the groin vaulting, in which the curves of the vaulting intersected at an angle. But since this required a solid centring of timber to sup port the stones during the process of construction, the great weight of the superincumbent mass made the method im practicable for wide spaces, and even difficult for narrow ones in districts where timber was scarce. Such a district was Lombardy, and it is here that the latest researches have discovered that rib vaulting started. Mr. Arthur Kingsley Porter has shown conclusively that the rib vault was em ployed in Italy as early as 1040, or eighty-five years earlier than what had been supposed to be the earliest example of the principle, namely, in the lie de France. The value of the rib vaulting consisted in the slight support that was needed to construct the ribs, which themselves became the support to the subsequent groining of the vaults. The term " Gothic " is a misnomer and an insulting one. It was applied by the Italians of the Renaissance, who in their zeal for the classic revival dubbed the art of the North " Gothic," in allusion to the fact that Goths originally over threw the Roman Empire. But the builders of the great cathedrals were no longer barbarians. They represented the highest religious, intellectual, and artistic genius of the times in which they lived. Further, the Gothic cathedrals were an expression of the nation's love of liberty, springing up as centres of culture in the free cities. In their upward soaring and spreading vistas they symbolised the aspira tions, adventure, and dauntless energy of the Northern and 181 182 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART Western races. They differ from the classic architecture in that, while the latter was based upon formulas aiming at a completely harmonised unity, they embody " differences in unity " and emulate the growth of nature. Pointed Arch The way in which the pointed arch was introduced into Europe is a disputed point among critics. Some say that it was im ported from the East by the Cru saders: others hold that it was an original and independent invention in the West. However this may be, the advantages of using it are plain enough. The round arch is the seg ment of a circle: the pointed arch is made from segments of two circles, and is more or less pointed in propor tion to the length of the radii of the circle from which the segments are taken. Round Arch In a round arch the weakest point is the apex of the arch, where the curve is almost imperceptible: this weakness disappears in the pointed- arch form. In order that the pitch of the roof might be sufficiently steep to make a good water-shed, a space had to be filled in between the top of the round arch or vault, and the top of the roof. When architects used the pointed arch in their vaults, they could obtain the needful pitch of the roof, INTERIOR SYSTEM OF WORCESTER CATHEDRAL THE CATHEDRAL OF AMIENS Same period as Notre Dame, last years of twelfth and beginning of thir teenth centuries. Typical cathedral of France. Having less charm than one or two others, but having nearly every feature of a great Gothic church in a perfect state of development. CHARTRES CATHEDRAL Note the impressive simplicity, with the one central jewel of the "wheel" window. GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE 185 and lay it directly upon the vaulting. Another great ad vantage of pointed arches over round arches was the facility with which unequal distances could be spanned by arches of the same height. The introduction of the pointed arch and the rib vaulting marks the transition from Ro manesque to Gothic architec ture. Plans The ground-plans of Gothic architecture do not materially differ from the Romanesque ground-plans, but the space oc cupied by points of support de creases. The piers introduced when cross-vaults came into use were, if we may so speak, sec tions of the wall turned at right angles to their former position. After a series of experiments, architects began to realise that a given amount of wall, concen trated in piers and buttresses, had a greater supporting power than the same amount of wall distributed evenly the whole length of the building. During the late Romanesque period the piers were already being made lighter, and Gothic architects became more and more daring as time went on. We have already noticed the incorporation of the pilaster with the pier. The transformation of the piers into more and more complicated forms of cluster columns was but GROUND-PLAN OF THE CATHEDRAL OF AMIENS 186 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART another step in the same direction. The mouldings of the ribs of the vaulting developed in a style that corresponded with the perpendicular mouldings of the piers. The ground- plans of the piers, and the profiles of the ribs of the vaulting, are important factors in determining the period to which a Gothic building belongs. In early Gothic, as in Romanesque buildings, the square compartments of the vaulting were divided into four tri angles, by transverse ribs connecting the principal points of support. The rib which connected opposite points of support was called the formeret. From this simple form were developed all the complicated kinds of vaulting, known as fan vaulting and net vaulting. Intricate kinds of vault ing were used more frequently in England than on the Continent. Carved stones called bosses were often placed at the inter section of the ribs of the vaulting. In treating of the Romanesque style, we spoke of the gal leries and false galleries (triforia) which were introduced over the arches that separated the middle from the side naves. In the best arrangement of these galleries in the Gothic period, the proportions were about as follows : — The height of the middle nave was divided into two parts. One of these parts represented the height of the side aisle. One-third of the remaining half was devoted to the tri- forium, and represented the height of the pitch of the roof of the side nave. The wall-space above the triforium was the clerestory, and was pierced with windows. After the introduction of painted glass, the roof of the side nave was often flattened, and a row of windows intro duced in the triforium. These proportions varied, of course, with different churches. The galleries added greatly to the containing power of GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE 187 the churches, and afforded an excellent view for those who wished to witness the great religious ceremonies. The bays were the spaces between the columns of the nave arcade. When Gothic architects wished to increase the size of a building, they added to the number of bays, in place of increasing the scale of the bays. The most important internal decorative features are the windows, with their varied tracery and their painted glass. In early Gothic buildings they are small, and frequently round-arched. Painted Glass When painted glass was introduced, the size of the win dows increased. As they became more prominent, they were always finished with pointed arches, that they might har monise better with the remainder of the building. The com mon early form, known in England as " Early English," was a round window over two lancet-shaped windows. Later, an arch was thrown from pier to pier, enclosing both lancet windows in its span. The space above the lancet windows was then cut in various patterns. These patterns are the so-called window tracery, and its progress is very interesting. From geometric forms we pass to the flowing tracery which harmonized the discord between circles and spherical tri angles. The next step in advance is called the Flamboyant style. The lines are beautiful and graceful, but are a little lacking in strength. In England, the Perpendicu lar style was contemporary with the French Flamboyant. Circular windows, called rose-windows, are found in the transepts of almost all French cathedrals. In England they are frequently replaced by large, straight, mullioned win dows. Painted glass, which was the excuse for the increase of large windows, was more extensively used in the North than 188 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART in Italy, where the great clearness of the atmosphere made large windows not only superfluous, but objectionable. Frescos took the place of painted glass in Italy. The col ours in the windows were very rich; and the light, tinted as it passed through, gave a finish and gorgeousness to the in terior effect of Gothic buildings which we have to imagine GEOMETRIC TRACERY in many of the finest cathedrals, where the glass has been destroyed. Rich sculptural decoration was lavish upon choir enclos ures, stalls for the clergy, altars, and rood-screens, a feature in many French cathedrals. Colour was also employed' to heighten the interior effect. Much of the beauty of the interior decorations has been destroyed by the ravages of time, sharing the fate of the painted glass. Gothic Exteriors Previous to the Gothic period, the exterior of Christian churches had received little attention. A few mouldings, RHEIMS CATHEDRAL Note the five apses of the choir. The combination of massiveness and elegance in the pews and the superb length. THE TOWN HALL OF LOUVAIN Fifteenth century. The finest in its varied beauty of all the town halls in Flanders. GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE 191 which have been called an " architect's substitute for lines," emphasised the construction; and these mouldings were for the most part horizontal. Towards the close of the Romanesque period, architects began to pay more attention to external effect; but it was left to the Gothic architects to perfect the exterior of their building, and to complete the Christian cathe dral. A buttress is a projection to strengthen a wall at those points where the abutments of the arches increase the pres sure of the roof. Simple buttresses consist of solid masses of masonry built close to the wall. Flying buttresses are built at some distance from the wall they are intended to strengthen, and are connected with it by one or more arches. Pinnacles or little spires were placed on the top of flying but tresses to increase their supporting power by adding to their weight. The ends of the transepts and the main fa9ade of Gothic buildings were finished with gables. The gable of the middle nave often contained a large circular or " rose " window. Windows in the gables lighted those portions of the building that were above the vaults. The spire, the crowning feature of the Gothic cathedral, was a development of the Romanesque tower. Some churches possessed one, some two spires. A square tower was usually carried up to a certain height, and its square form was then changed to an octagon, the corners softened by pinnacles. From this octagonal base the spire tapered to the crowning cross. Sometimes the spire, as, for example, that of Ant werp Cathedral, was so beautifully carved that it looked like lace-work. For the sculptured decorations of the exterior of Gothic cathedrals, we must refer readers to the chapter on sculpture. In addition to the statues and reliefs, fantastic animal and 192 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART vegetable forms appear in every conceivable corner of gables, capitals, and hollow mouldings. Gothic architecture may be said to have been developed in the twelfth century. It was perfected in the thirteenth, CATHEDRAL OF AMIENS Section, to Show Construction of Vaulting declined in the fifteenth, and gradually fell into disuse in the sixteenth. It originated in France, and was perfected there under Louis IX. The development passed through three stages. The Early Pointed was succeeded by the Middle or perfect Pointed, known in England as the Decorated style. The late or degenerate Gothic, called the Flamboyant, was con temporary with the English Perpendicular, and was sup planted by the Renaissance, under Francis I. The cathe- GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE 193 drals of Paris, Chartres, Rheims, and Amiens are the four great typical French cathedrals. The development of the Gothic style in Germany was very nearly contemporary with its development in France. The Cathedral of Cologne is one of the finest specimens of Gothic architecture in Germany. It was begun during the best period of Gothic. Its proportions are more mathematical, but less fancifully beautiful, than those of many French and English buildings. In the spire of St. Stephen's at Vienna the transition from the square tower to the cone is so admirably concealed by the ornamentation, that we can hardly tell where one ends and the other begins. In Belgium we find fine examples of secular Gothic archi tecture in the town-halls, trade-halls, and guild-halls. In Scandinavia there are interesting Gothic remains ; and, in some instances, churches with local peculiarities, for which it is difficult to account. They are not, however, of sufficient importance to be treated here. In Scotland we find traces of French influence in Gothic buildings. Spain took its Gothic architecture from France and Germany. In England the length of the cathedrals was very great in proportion to their width. In the Cathedral of Salisbury we have an excellent example of English Gothic. English cathedrals sometimes had two transepts, and the apse had a square in place of a circular termination. Italian Gothic always showed a few traces of classic in fluence in the predominance of horizontal lines and mould ings. " In Italy and the South," says Milman, " the sun is a tyrant. Breadth of shadow must mitigate his force; the wide eaves, the bold projecting cornice, must afford protec tion from his burning and direct rays. There would be a reluctance to abandon altogether those horizontal lines, which cast a continuous and unbroken shadow; or to ascend, 194 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART as it were, with the vertical, up into the unslaked depths of noonday blaze." The Gothic style was invented and perfected, not by the great Head of the Church at Rome, but by the monks and secular clergy of the North aided by the laity. It embodies the spirit of the Middle Ages. In the Gothic cathe dral we find a complete and perfect development of symbol ism. " Its form and distribution was a confession of faith: it typified the creed. Everywhere was the mystic number. The Trinity was proclaimed by the nave and the aisles (mul tiplied sometimes to the other sacred number seven ) , the three richly ornamented recesses of the portal, the three towers. The rose over the west was the Unity, the whole building was a Cross. The altar with its decorations announced the real perpetual Presence. The solemn crypt below repre sented the under world, the soul of man in darkness and the shadow of death, the body awaiting the resurrection." Gothic Periods In concluding this brief survey of Gothic architecture it will assist the student to note the three periods into which its history is divided. They are most readily distinguished by the character of the windows. 1. The Early Pointed Period, dating in France from 1160 to 1275. It is characterised by simple groined vaults; narrow windows coupled under a pointed arch with circular foiled openings in the window-head ; great simplicity and vigor of design and detail ; the decoration including con ventionalised foliage. 2. Middle Pointed Period (1275-1375). Vaults more perfect ; in England multiple ribs ; greater slenderness and height of pillars ; decoration richer but less vigorous ; more naturalistic carving of foliage forms; walls nearly sup- THE CATHEDRAL OF BURGOS A mingling of French plan, Moorish detail and German influence in the plain facade and openwork spires. THE CATHEDRAL OF LINCOLN Shows gradual development. The lower central part Norman; late Gothic windows added and central arch pointed; enclosed end and top by thirteenth century work, to which a fourteenth century parapet is added. Lower part of towers twelfth century, the upper fourteenth and fifteenth. GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE 197 pressed, windows of great size; bar tracery with slender mullions and geometric combinations in window-heads ; cir cular rose-windows. 3. Florid Gothic Period (1375-1525), called Flamboyant in France; Perpendicular in England. Vaults of varied and richly decorated design ; in England fan vaulting and pend ants ; in Germany and Spain, vault ribs curved into fanciful patterns; profuse and minute decoration; highly natural istic carving. In France, flowing or flamboyant tracery ; in England, perpendicular bars with horizontal transoms and four-centred arches ; branch tracery in Germany. (Adapted from A. D. F. Hamlin's History of Architecture.) GOTHIC SCULPTURE IN THE NORTH Gothic sculpture, being chiefly employed as an accessory to architecture, included figures, bas-reliefs, and purely decora tive work. Its ideal differed from that of Greek sculpture. The latter's ideal was of a human body, more beautiful and perfect than that of any actual man or woman; the Gothic ideal, of a spirit triumphant over suffering and sin. The Christian ideal was attained at the sacrifice of the physical beauty which had satisfied the eye and senses in the classic times. Gothic sculpture had a decided tendency towards the ex pression of emotions, especially spiritual ones, and towards the picturesque. It was essentially naturalistic in its motive, though this did not pledge it to the necessity of accuracy in representation. Like the Greeks, the German and French sculptors had their canons for the rendering of the human body, but these were established with a view to expressional and decorative effect, rather than resemblance to life. More over, they permitted themselves a variety of choice and in ventiveness that was denied to the Greek decorators. The Northern imagination drew its inspiration direct from nature, using plant and flower forms and forms of animals, with an exuberance that emulated nature's prodigality of design. Nor did they shrink from grotesque and ugly forms. Mean while, in all their work the genius of the decorator was ap parent, seen perhaps at its best in the effective disposition of the draperies of the figures. The Gothic sculptor was left to choose his subjects from a very extensive field of Bible scenes and legends of the saints. The choice of subjects varied to some extent with each building; but, as we cannot go into exhaustive detail, 198 GOTHIC SCULPTURE IN THE NORTH 199 we shall select the sculptures from Rheims Cathedral as typical examples, and describe them. Rheims Cathedral was built in the latter part of the thirteenth century, when Gothic architecture and sculpture were at their prime in France. Rheims Cathedral The facade is a perfect gallery of statues, and thirty-four of them are life-size. The Madonna occupies the central position in the main portal, — a position not usually accorded to her. The statues at the sides of the main portal, as well as those in the two side portals, are combined in groups. The figures in these groups remind us of the saints in the so- called Santa Conversazione of Italian painting. They are engaged in no violent action ; and their relation to one another is expressed by a graceful gesture or a turn of the head, suggesting some scene from sacred history. The Angel of the Annunciation turns to Mary, Isaac kneels beside Abraham, Zacharias stretches out his arms to receive the infant Saviour. The picturesque tendency of Gothic sculpture comes out forcibly in the reliefs in the tympanums of the door. Over the main entrance we have three scenes. " The Coronation of the Virgin " is the central one ; on the left is the " Cruci fixion " ; and on the right " Christ Enthroned," surrounded by angels with instruments of torture. On the central pillar of one of the portals of the north transept we have St. Remigius, while five strips of relief in the tympanum represent scenes from his life. The central pillar of the third portal is occupied by a very fine statue of Christ ; while the strips of relief in the tympa num show us the Last Judgment and the Resurrection. Small angels are introduced upon the buttresses of the choir-chapels: larger ones in the baldachinos of the but- 200 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART tresses. We must bear in mind that the sculptures we have mentioned are only the most important ones, and that we have simply noticed those on the exterior. The artists were in no wise partial to any particular portion of the building, and were lavish with their decoration within as well as with out. They worked with religious fervour in the service of THE ADORATION OF THE THREE KINGS Relief from Nlccola Pisano's Pulpit in the Cathedral of Pisa men inspired with equal fervour ; and the sculptures that are out of sight are finished with the same care that is displayed in the execution of those that are more prominent. German Gothic In Germany the Gothic style replaced the Romanesque later than in France, and its development was neither as rich nor as complete. Great attention, however, was paid THE CATHEDRAL OF SIENA Italian Gothic; retaining the dome and Romanesque campanile. YORK MINSTER; WEST FRONT Considered the finest cathedral facade in England. GOTHIC SCULPTURE IN THE NORTH 203 to small works in bronze, and to funeral monuments. As we selected an extensive religious work in France to show the development of Gothic sculpture there, we will take a secular work as an example of German Gothic. It is the Beautiful Fountain in the old town of Nuremberg. Sixteen full-length figures stand under canopies on the eight pillars. Seven of them represent electors ; three are Christian heroes, — Clovis, Charlemagne, and Godfrey of Bouillon; three are Jewish, — Joshua, Judas Maccabaeus, and David ; and three are chosen from the heroes of paganism, — Hector, Alexander the Great, and Caesar. Higher up we find Moses and the seven greater prophets. Besides these fig ures, we have numerous heads of men and beasts, as well as fantastic gargoyles. The fancy for what is humorous and grotesque is ap parent in all Northern Gothic work. The taste found a vent in the odd figures on the gargoyles, and in little comic episodes introduced into large compositions. In a scene from the life of St. Remigius, on the portal at Rheims, for instance, the saint is chasing away some devils, and one frightened little one clings to the foot of a larger one. Many of the comic elements in sculpture were doubtless derived from the miracle plays of the day, where the humorous element was strongly developed, at times even running into coarseness. Liibke gives several instances : one of " St. Peter receiving the blessed dead with the gigantic keys of heaven; while the inhabitants of the celestial regions are looking from their windows at the new arrivals." In England, religious sculpture was not in high favour, and the most important works produced were tombs. " Where no ideal tasks are undertaken, in addition to por traiture," says Liibke, " sculpture loses the fountain from which it would have drawn its advancement to pure beauty, 204 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART freedom of composition, nobleness of lines, and grace of forms." , There is a visible decline in Gothic sculpture in the North during the latter part of the fourteenth century, and with its close the sceptre of Christian sculpture passes to Italy. RHEIMS CATHEDRAL South transept, west side of porch, the photograph being reversed. STATUES ON PORTAL OF RHEIMS CATHEDRAL MEDIEVAL SCULPTURE IN ITALY (1200-1400) The man whose genius gave the impulse and direction to Italian sculpture -in the thirteenth century was Niccola Pi- sano. He was born at Pisa, 1205-7. Sculpture, as we have already said, was closely allied to architecture ; and Niccola, skilled in both branches of art, prior to 1260 showed more taste for architecture than for sculpture. Sculpture in Italy, before his days, was in a debased con dition ; and it is very improbable that he had any master after whom to model his style. Vasari says he studied from antique sarcophagi, and he seems to have had a natural aptitude for sculpture, which led him to make the most of his small opportunities. His first great work was a pulpit for the Baptistery in his native town. He struck out in a new line in the very form of this pulpit, discarding the conventional square supported on four columns, and adopting an hexagonal form, which gave better opportunities for decoration. The lions on which some of the columns rested were typical of the watch fulness of the priests. Through a fable related by Pliny and Aristotle to the effect that if a lion-whelp were born dead, the mother kept him three days, after which the father breathed in his face and restored him to life, the lion had also become a type of the Resurrection and of Christ. The columns which supported the pulpit connected the arches. The spandrils were filled in with Gothic tracery and small statuettes. Five slabs of bas-relief, separated at the angles by small columns, formed the body of the pulpit. The subjects of the bas-reliefs were the Birth of Christ, the 207 208 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART Adoration of the Magi, the Circumcision, Crucifixion, and Last Judgment. The Adoration is the best composition. The Virgin is almost classic, as are the spirited horses on the extreme left. The infant Saviour leans forward to take RELIEF FROM THE SOUTH DOOR OF THE BAPTISTERY AT FLORENCE By Andrea Pisano from Caspar, king of the Ethiopians, the myrrh, significant of death and burial. Balthazar, king of Saba, standing next, offers the priestly incense; while Melchior, king of the Arabians, holds out the golden apple, symbolising allegiance to a king. An angel and St. Joseph fill up the space behind the Virgin. The figures are not in proportion to each MEDLEVAL SCULPTURE IN ITALY 209 other, and in many other respects we see the rudeness of Romanesque sculpture struggling with the newly awakened classic spirit. The style of Niccola Pisano may be called a pre-Renais- THE BETROTHAL OF THE VIRGIN From Orcagna's Shrine in Or San Michele. After C. C. Perkins sance. He raised the lost beauty of form from the dead; and although his work is in no respect equal to the antique, it is important in its relations to painting, as well as in its influence on the sculptors who succeeded him. 210 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART Giovanni Pisano (1240-1320), son of the great Niccola, showed much skill in the execution of allegorical statues. His compositions are crowded and dramatic. He showed more inclination for the picturesque than his father had done. Andrea Pisano (1270-1349), another son of Niccola, re vived bronze sculpture. He was called to Florence, and designed and executed the first bronze doors of the Bap tistery there. The talent for sculpture seems to have been inherited by the whole family; and Nino, the youngest son, had no mean reputation, — he excelled in drapery. Andrea Orcagna (1329-1368) also deserves mention. He was a man of universal genius, painter, sculptor, and archi tect. We shall not pause to name a number of artists whose works form the connecting link between Gothic sculpture and the Renaissance. Mediaeval traditions were followed in Venice longer than in other parts of Italy; but the whole country, as if it recognised an old friend in the revived classic spirit, shook itself free from the trammels of North ern art in a very brief space of time. The next step was to conquer those countries which, for a while, had imposed their artistic canons upon the heirs of the treasures of Greece and Rome. CHARTRES CATHEDRAL; SOUTH PORCH; CENTRAL DOORWAY The sculpture is of about 1275. CIMAHUE MADONNA AND CHILD Beginning of reaction from the flat, expressionless Byzantine conventions. MEDIAEVAL PAINTING After the fall of the Roman Empire, painting, like the other arts, was submerged. When a revival set in through the influence of Byzantine artists, mosaics were used for mural decorations in preference to painting, and the latter was chiefly confined to illuminated manuscripts. This art of miniature painting, so far as Europe was concerned, flourished particularly in Ireland. In comparative retire ment from the chaos of conflict which prevailed elsewhere, the Celtic scholars cherished the classics, while their artists produced goldsmith's work and illuminations of extraordi nary beauty. " The Book of Kells," now in the Trinity College Library in Dublin, is a famous example. Produced probably between the years 680 and 700, it is a work of ex quisite imagination and marvellous skill. The Celtic monks established colonies in Scotland, Eng land, and some parts of Europe. Their influence in Eng land resulted in a school of miniature painters, which flour ished from the end of the tenth century to the early years of the fifteenth and produced the finest illuminations of the period. Meanwhile, the walls of the churches in Eng land and other countries were decorated with paintings of which but a few fragments have survived. A similar fate has befallen almost all the pictures painted upon panels for the embellishment of altars. The figures in these panel-pictures, shown against a gilded background, were painted "in tempera"; that is to say, in colours mixed with water, to which some glutinous medium was added, such as white of egg, in order that the colours should not flake or powder. The same process was adopted in the case of wall-paintings, which were executed 213 214 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART " in secco " or " in fresco." Those terms, used by the Italians, denoted that the plaster surface, when the artist commenced to paint on it, was, in the one case, " dry," and in the other, " fresh " or damp. It is from the end of the thirteenth century that the his tory of modern painting dates, for then not only did the art begin to revive but the names of the artists have been recorded. The first in the roll of fame which has extended to the present day were Cimabue and Giotto. They both belonged to Northern Italy, and the fact that it was in this region that the revival commenced may be due to two causes. The first was the rise of the religious mendicant orders, the Franciscan and Dominican; the second, the awakening of religious fervour which they stirred. While the latter found vent in the enrichment of churches and monasteries, the large spaces of blank walls which the architecture of these involved, offered a peculiar opportunity for decorative paint ing. The earliest of these orders was that of the Franciscans, soon to be followed by the Dominicans. The former was founded by St. Francis of Assisi, who, not satisfied with trying to imitate the mind of the Saviour, attempted to re produce in his own life the very outward circumstances of the life of Christ. That he succeeded in a measure in his efforts, according to the estimate of his contemporaries, is evidenced by the circumstance that both artists and writers of the day treated him as a type of the Redeemer. In a series of paint ings now in the Academy of Florence, scenes from the life of Francis form companion pieces to scenes from the life of Christ, and have a typical reference to them : as, " The Birth of Christ," " The Infant Christ Appearing to Francis on Christmas Eve," " The Dispute with the Doctors," and " St. Francis Defending the Rules of His Order." MEDIAEVAL PAINTING 215 The whole spirit of the age was mystical. Symbols be came living realities ; and poets, saints, and painters han dled incorporate things by the might of their newly-awak ened imaginations. Dante, " in the mid-journey of life below," descends into the world unseen. St. Francis receives the stigmata, — a tangible recognition of his having received Christ; and Giotto, called to paint the life of the Francis whom he had seen and loved, painted him, as he saw him, with the people he knew around him, while the spellbound saints and martyrs of the olden days stepped down from their Byzantine glories to join the blessed company. Florence and Siena There were two great art centres in Italy in the four teenth century, — Florence and Siena. Giotto Cimabue is the first Florentine painter known to iis; but his fame is overshadowed by the reputation of his great pupil Giotto di Bondone. Giotto was born in 1276, and died in 1337. The period of the revival of Italian art bears such unmistakable marks of his individual genius, that it has been justly named for him Giottesque, while his followers are called Giotteschi. The aim of the Giottesque painting, like that of the early Christian, was primarily to tell a story in a simple, un affected way. It had the advantage of early Christian painting, in that the story it had to tell was not entirely of things unseen, but of the life of Christ and his saints on earth. In the stories told by Giottesque art, there is no redundancy of words. The differences between the textures of drapery, flesh, earth, or sky were defined. Anatomy is studied sufliciently to express the necessary 216 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART mental and bodily actions of the figures; but the artist sel dom attempts to make an exhibition of his skill in portraying violent motion or passion. The ideal drapery follows the traditions of early Chris tian art. It hangs in ample folds, and tends more and more to show off the action of the forms it conceals. In the accessories of the pictures, as rocks, architectural or landscape backgrounds, no attempt is made to imitate nature exactly. They are conceived of simply in their re lation to the scene represented, and are, in all cases, sub ordinate to the figures. The type of the head differs with different artists, and contrasts strongly with the Byzantine type. The eyes are almond-shaped, the tones of colouring light and pale. The works of the Giottesque school may be divided into two classes,— historical and allegorical. The series of pictures illustrating the life of Christ, of the Virgin, and St. Francis, belong to the first of these classes. The allegorical pictures are very numerous and important. Indeed, the tendency to make abstract truths plain, by cloth ing them in allegorical material forms, is a prominent char acteristic, not merely of the Giottesque school of painting, but of the age which produced the school. As examples of this class of paintings, we may name Giotto's frescos, in the Lower Church at Assisi, of the rules of the Order of St. Francis, the frequent representations of the Last Judgment, and many single figures of virtues and vices. We shall pause a moment before proceeding to study in detail some of the great creations of the Giottesque school, and say a word on the subject of angels and glories. The original significance of the nimbus, or nebulous light around the head, was power, either good or evil. " An MEDIAEVAL PAINTING 217 oblong glory," says Mrs. Jameson, " surrounding the whole person, is confined to figures of Christ and the Virgin, and saints who are in the act of ascending into heaven. " The cruciform or triangular glory designates one of the persons of the Trinity. The square nimbus, a person living when the picture was executed. The hexagonal nimbus is used by Giotto for some allegorical figures. The usual form is a circular disc. After the fifteenth century it becomes a bright fillet, and disappears entirely in the seventeenth century." The angels of the Giottesque school are in many cases very beautiful. Their faces and forms are youthful, but they are never those of children. They never appear as mere accessories in the pictures, but are represented in the act of performing some service. In the Madonnas of Cimabue and Duccio, the angels wait around the infant Saviour in silent adoration, as witnesses of his divinity, or sound his praises upon some musical in strument. The angels in the fresco in the Campo Santo at Pisa are singularly attractive. Floating drapery or wings form their extremities, in place of feet, and give them a very light and airy appearance. They have not yet become allied to the pagan cupids, two of whom are to be seen in the right-hand corner of the fresco of " The Triumph of Death." As it would be quite impossible to notice all the important works of the Giottesque school, we must content ourselves with a few examples. The two that we shall mention first belong to the historical class. In one of the scenes from the "Life of the Virgin," in the Arena Chapel at Padua, Joachim's offering for the sins of Israel has been rejected by the priests, because he is childless in Israel. He has left his home in deep grief, and wandered out among the shep- 218 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART herds. He is so absorbed that apparently he does not see them, and even the dog fails to attract his attention. Quiet wonder is expressed in the faces of the two shepherds. The sheep that follow them are stiff and wooden. The house and rocks and trees are out of proportion to the figures, but they suggest what the artist intended they should. The resurrection of Lazarus, from the series of the " Life of Christ," is in the same chapel. Mary and Martha are pros trate at the feet of Christ, whose hand is raised. Lazarus preserves the antique type, and stands erect, bound in grave- clothes. The figure which occupies the middle of the picture seems to have risen from its knees, and to have turned with surprise and emotion towards Lazarus. The attitude is very expressive, and the figure is a connecting link between the commanding Saviour and the risen man, explaining the rela tions in which they stand to each other. The next picture of Giotto's that we shall describe is allegorical. It is one of the four frescos from the Lower Church of St. Francis at Assisi, which represent the three vows of the Order, and the glorification of St. Francis. The figures described are from the vow of Poverty. . St. Francis is in the act of marrying a woman dressed in rags and patches, and standing among brambles. She represents Pov erty. A dog is barking at her, and two children are insulting her. Christ holds her hand, while Francis places a ring on her finger. The Sienese school is said to have been founded by a certain Guido, whose name and works are lost in obscurity. Duccio seems to have occupied at Siena somewhat the posi tion that Cimabue occupied in Florence, and their works are not unlike. There was, however, a delicacy and devotional sentiment about Sienese art, which is not to be found in the stronger work of the Florentines. THE ENTOMBMENT Note the action of the whole group, the variety and expressiveness of the gestures, and the simple but effective treatment of the draperies. FRA ANGELICO FLORENCE ACADEMY FLIGHT INTO EGYPT A mingling of naivete and religious fervor. MEDIAEVAL PAINTING 221 Simone Martini was the Giotto of the Sienese school. His " Madonna Enthroned " speaks for itself. Some of the most interesting monuments of early Italian painting are to be found at the Campo Santo, or burial-place of Pisa. The exterior presents a high, blank wall to the curious eye ; but within, a large open court is surrounded by a cloister. Inside this cloister, on the blank walls, we find a series of frescos : " The History of Job," " The Life of the Hermits of the Thebaid," " The Triumph of Death," and " The Last Judgment." The authorship of the latter two is disputed. Tradition attributes them to Orcagna ; but the weight of evidence ascribes them to the Lorenzetti broth ers, of Siena. Be this as it may, we find in these frescos an interesting mingling of the Florentine and Sienese manner. " Triumph of Death " We shall describe one of them, the most singular of all. It is a vast allegorical composition, representing " The Triumph of Death." A procession of gay knights on horseback comes upon three corpses, at a turn in the road. One knight holds his nose in disgust, another turns away in fright, while a third turns to comment upon the scene. In the middle- ground, some beggars stretch out their hands, and invite Death to come to them ; but Death, represented as a winged female with a scythe, turns from the beggars to strike at a happy pair who are sitting under the trees with a company of friends. Angels and devils in the air contend for the souls of the departed. There are some old monks to the left, who are engaged in different occupations. The picture is well worth a careful study, as many of the most interest ing features of the Giottesque style are exhibited in it. We shall not pause to consider the followers of Giotto. They worked after his manner; and, like all imitators, their work grew poorer as their distance from their master in- A SHORT HISTORY OF ART creased. Taddeo Gaddi (1300P-1366?) is the most im portant.Fra Angelico Before we leave the period of early Italian painting to study the painting of the Renaissance, we must pause a few moments over the works of Fra Angelico. In point of time, he belongs to the circle of Florentine artists of the fifteenth century; but his works are, as it were, the flower of the art ideal of the preceding century. He was a Dominican monk'; and, says Vasari, " he shunned the worldly in all things; and during his pure and simple life was such a friend to the poor, that I think his soul must now be in heaven." His best works are the frescos in the Convent of St. Mark's in Florence, and those in the Chapel of Nicholas V. in the Vatican at Rome. In the latter, the modern dramatic element is more apparent than in his easel pictures, or in the frescos of St. Mark's. The faces of his saints are singularly pure and lovely. He seems to have found it more difficult to represent wickedness. The scenes from Scripture history that he painted on the walls of the cells of his brethren in Christ in his convent at Florence are represented from a devotional, not from an historical, standpoint. The spectators of the holy mysteries, as Fra Angelico painted them, are not the curious idlers of Jerusalem, nor the cruel Roman soldiers, nor the hateful Jews. The Holy Mother, the believing women, the little band of disciples, and the monks of the Order of St. Dominic, sur round the Saviour to the exclusion of those who knew him not. The masterpiece of the series is "The Crucifixion," de scribed by Burckhardt as follows : — " Christ crucified with the two thieves, his disciples, and Sts. Cosmas, Damian, Lawrence, Mark, John the Baptist, MEDIAEVAL PAINTING 223 Dominic, Ambrose, Augustine, Jerome, Francis, Benedict, Bernard, Bernardino of Siena, Romuald, Peter Martyr, and Thomas Aquinas. It is a mournful lament of the whole Church here assembled at the foot of the Cross in the per sons of its great teachers and founders of orders." THE RENAISSANCE During the Middle Ages, under the influence of deep re ligious fervour, men had renounced all freedom of thought and action, and had submitted unreservedly to the authority of the Church. Their minds had been in an unnatural state of tension and religious excitement during the Crusades, and the excitement had been kept up by the preaching of the new religious Orders of St. Francis and St. Dominic. Such a condition of things, in the nature of the case, could not continue longer. Unfortunately, political power and great wealth had corrupted the primitive purity of the Roman Church; and when the reaction from the state of exaltation came, the Church was in no condition to prevent popular opinion from swinging to the other extreme. The reaction from mediaevalism produced the modern spirit of political and religious disunion. Classic art and literature were rediscovered. A realising sense of the attractions of the material world led men to study anatomy, physiology, natural history, and astronomy ; while novelists and poets dwelt upon the value and the beauty of life. In the Northern countries the change displayed itself in an awakened desire of religious and political freedom, which produced the Reformation and paved the way, especially in the case of Holland, to a more democratic attitude towards life. Meanwhile, in Italy, the freedom of the people and the cities was crushed by internecine wars and foreign invasions ; society was corrupt and faith was almost as dead as patriot ism. The people could share in the enjoyment of the visible beauty created by the artists, but the impulse of the Italian 224 o O O a GIOTTO'S CAMPANILE Noble in proportion, yet as choice in detail as a jewel. THE RENAISSANCE 227 Renaissance was from the upper classes and they were the chief beneficiaries. We must dispose of this most interesting subject in these few brief words, and pass on to the study of the great re vival of art, produced by the newly awakened love of life and the increased intellectual activity of the Renaissance. It will be well, however, to preface our notice of the art of the period by defining two terms, which from this time forward will be employed very frequently. These terms are " idealism " and " naturalism." Naturalism and Idealism The aim of the naturalistic artist is to produce an illusion of nature. He must understand perspective, must render differences in the substance and texture of things as they exist in nature, and must give correct ideas of distance and space. His powers of representation, in the very nature of the case, are limited to a single aspect of a person or scene ; and, as he cannot transfer every detail of nature to canvas or marble, he must show his discrimination in the selection of the characteristic and important features of the subject to be represented. With these unavoidable limitations, his de sire is to produce a likeness, and his work is to be judged partly by its success in that respect and partly by the beauty of expression in the rendering of the facts. The idealistic artist, on the contrary, seeks, by means of his art, to express either his own ideas, or the ideas of others. His work is not to be criticised because it does not give correct reproductions of nature or of man: the point to be decided is, whether it expresses the artist's meaning. Idealistic art, like a dead language, may have been perfectly intelligible at the time, and in the place, of its origin, and yet may be to us an unknown tongue until we can reproduce 228 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART in our minds the conditions under which it arose. This is pre eminently the case with the symbolical pictures in the cata combs. Of course the highest aim of an artist who idealises is to create a universal language, an ideal so perfect as to be permanently intelligible. To attain this end, he must rise above the conventional signs which express to a limited au dience the ideas which he wishes to communicate; and must study nature, selecting from what he sees traits universally understood, and combining them to form an ideal representa tion which shall express what he has in his mind. Giotto's art is a higher kind of idealistic art than that of the catacombs : his figures are life-like, and he is conventional only in his treatment of landscape, architecture, and space. In the works of the artists of the High Renaissance we find that perfect idealism which is the result of complete mastery of technical knowledge, and its thorough subordination to the lofty conceptions which it embodies. STROZZI PALACE, FLORENCE An imposing facade of great simplicity and refinement; "one of the noblest palaces in Italy.'' From a Photograph. ST. PETER'S CATHEDRAL AND PART OF THE VATICAN, ROME Showing Michael Angelo's dome, the facade by Maderna, and the portico and approaches designed by Sernini. - RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE i During the fifteenth century Gothic architecture began to decline, and men's minds were ripe for a change. This change first came in Italy, and was brought about by the revival of classic art. The most marked characteristic of the new style was a symmetry of the whole and the parts of buildings. In Italy classic simplicity had never been quite obsolete, and the ground-plans of its Gothic churches were readily adapted to the requirements of Renaissance architecture. A conspicuous difference is to be noticed in the number of bays into which large Renaissance churches are divided, when com pared with Gothic cathedrals of similar proportions. The Renaissance architect increased the size of his piers and bays when he wished to increase the size of a building: the Gothic architect increased their number. As a result of this difference, we see that the most casual observer can appreciate the vast extent of a Gothic cathedral with its forest of columns and piers, while the size of the piers and bays in a Renaissance church is comprehended by an effort of the rea son, and not by the imagination. The small stones used in the construction of walls by Gothic architects were abandoned in Renaissance buildings; or, if they were used from necessity, they were concealed by a facing of stone or plaster. Where the joints of the stones are deeply chambered or the surfaces picked into holes the name rustic-work is applied. The classic orders reappeared as decorative features applied to the surface of the facade, and classic porticos with pediments were often used. An interesting feature of many 231 232 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART Italian palaces is the heavy projecting cornice of the upper story. The windows in Renaissance palaces were often so grouped as to produce a very picturesque effect. They were seldom pointed. Wood was a favourite material at this time, and vaulted stone roofs were unusual. The passion for order, which ani mated Renaissance architects, often induced them to con ceal the interior arrangements of their buildings under a symmetrical exterior. Many objections have been made to this practice, and also to the use of plaster cornices, mould ings, and architectural details in imitation of stone. We must remember, however, that the great buildings of the time owe their success to their perfect and pleasing propor tions as wholes, rather than to the beauty or completeness of their individual parts. Italian Periods Renaissance architecture in Italy may be divided into the following periods : — Early Renaissance, 1420-1500. High Renaissance, 1500-1580. Late Renaissance, or Baroque, 1550-1600. The greatest Italian architect of the first period was Bru- nelleschi (1379-1446), the great art centre was Florence, and the most important buildings the Pitti and Strozzi palaces, and the dome of Santa Maria del Fiore, the cathedral in Florence. Brunelleschi studied the remains of ancient art in Rome so diligently that people fancied he was seeking for hidden treasures among the half -buried ruins. It was not until many years later that it became apparent he had found the treas ure which he sought. In 1418 a public proclamation was made, to the effect that fair payment would be made by the Board of Works of RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE Florence for any designs or models that would solve the problem of erecting a dome for the cathedral. Fifteen models were presented, and among them one by Brunelleschi, which was subsequently adopted. Ghiberti was associated with him in the superintendence of the work, which, in spite of many difficulties and embarrass ments, was completed in 1436. To Brunelleschi belongs the glory of having erected the first great dome of the Renaissance. The problems involved in its construction having been solved and its magnificent effect both in the interior and exterior demonstrated, the dome became one of the most characteristic features of Re naissance architecture. The Strozzi Palace was designed by Cronaca, and begun in 1498. A heavy cornice crowned the upper story. Semi circular arches formed headings to the windows and the door. It is almost impossible to appreciate the effect of the massive palaces of Renaissance architecture from a mere illustration, which lacks the contrasts of light and shade produced by the bold cornices and clearly-defined openings. St. Peter's at Rome is the greatest monument of the High Renaissance in Italy. Pope Julius II. employed Bramante (1444-1514) to make a plan for a cathedral, which was to surpass every building previously erected in Europe. The corner-stone was laid in 1506. The work had been carried on for six or seven years when Bramante's death made it necessary to appoint a new arch itect. The position was given first to one, then to another, and was at last entrusted to Michael Angelo, who superin tended the work for eighteen years. The building, as he planned it, was a Greek cross, with a dome over the inter section of the arms. The changes that were made in this plan during the period of the Late Renaissance have been A SHORT HISTORY OF ART much criticised. Maderna lengthened the nave, and de signed the portico; and Bernini in 1661 added the great court, surrounded by colonnades, as an approach to the facade. The long nave and portico prevent the effect of the INTERIOR OF ST. PETER'S CHURCH, ROME Example of Grandiose Colossal Architecture dome from being seen from the facade, and it is not as im pressive a feature as it would have been had Michael Angelo's designs been carried out. There are four colossal bays in the middle nave, and the transepts and choir are each formed by a bay. The walls are faced with coloured marble, and the dome is richly dec orated. The court of the Palace of the Cancellaria at Rome will -*sr- 1 t^» (f^^B t^N* ™ '7- -jr****9, ^.v* ¥ *s VAN LEYDEN METROPOLITAN museum of art, n. y. CHRIST PRESENTED TO THE PEOPLE Illustrates the German love of local truth. THE CRUCIFIXION Done shortly after the artist's return from Italy, but already suggestive of his own freedom and power of composition. HELENA FOURMENT The artist's second wife. CHILDREN WITH GARLAND A beautiful study of children and decorative composition. THIRD NETHERLANDISH, FLEMISH PERIOD Peter Paul Rubens (1577-1640) Peter Paul Rubens, the leader of the Flemish revival, was a " consummate painter, an enlightened scholar, a skilful diplomatist, and an accomplished man of the world." He pursued his early studies, first with Adam van Noort, and later with Otto van Veen. In 1600 he went to Italy, where he was profoundly impressed with the Venetian colouring. A rich pension, and an appointment as court painter to Albert and Isabella, Regents of the Netherlands, bound him by " a chain of gold " to his own native country, whither he always returned after his journeyings. He built himself a splendid house at Antwerp in the Italian style. Rubens was a most prolific artist, of abundant force and fervid imagination, yet of a cool and concise intellectuality which enabled him to work with deliberate calculation. He is represented not only in Flanders, but in all the great galleries of the world, while in the Louvre is his famous series of decorative compositions in honour of Marie de Medici, the wife of Henry IV. of France. After his return from Italy his work showed for a time the immediate influ ence of the Italian masters. Examples of this period are the famous " Descent from the Cross " in the Antwerp Cathedral, and the " Crucifixion," which is now in the museum of that city. Very soon, however, Rubens de veloped his own style, which represents what is most ex uberant, vigorous, and wholesome in the Flemish character. His fondness for figures of ample proportions, which again is characteristically Flemish, has caused him to be considered coarse, while other people are offended by the excessive 347 348 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART action sometimes displayed in the composition and by the lack of religious feeling in his sacred subjects. As to the last point, the same criticism can be made of a great num ber of painters both in Italy and elsewhere. The cause is to be found partly in the attitude of the public towards religion. Meanwhile, to appreciate Rubens it is often necessary to disregard the personality of his figures and to look at them as instruments for the expression of abstract qualities of material and emotional life. So comprehended, Rubens is one of the very greatest masters of painting. The splendour of his expression, the mastery of his drawing, and the beauty of his colour have exerted an immense influence upon other artists, and on none more conspicuously than some of the most important of the French school. Jacob Jordaens (1593-1678) Jacob Jordaens was one of the most prominent of Rubens's contemporaries and fellow-students in the school of Adam van Noort. Jordaens married Van Noort's daughter when he was quite young, so that he was prevented from visiting Italy; but he studied the works- of the great Venetians that were within his reach, as well as the works of Rubens. His style greatly resembled that of Rubens, although it never equalled his. He was an excellent colourist. Sir Anthony Van Dyck (1 599-1 641) Van Dyck was born in Antwerp, and finished his studies in the school of Rubens. The latter part of his life was spent in England, and he died there. Like the other artists of his school, Van Dyck, during his travels in Italy, was greatly attracted by Venetian art. He spent some time at Genoa, where he became very popular, and was employed to paint many portraits, as well as pictures for churches and private collections. THIRD NETHERLANDISH, FLEMISH PERIOD 349 Van Dyck's religious pictures are characterised by great refinement, but their emotional expression is inclined to be superficial. His best work was done in portraits. They are distinguished in character, and painted with a technical dexterity that helps to obscure their frequent affectation. Van Dyck was probably the most consummate society por trait painter who ever lived, but this very fact marks him as inferior to the great portraitists of human character, such as Jan van Eyck, Holbein, Titian, Rembrandt, and Velasquez.Frans Snyders (1579-1657) Frans Snyders of Antwerp was noted for his skilful delineation of animals, fruit, and still life; as was also JanFyt (1611-1661). Philippe de Champaigne (1602-1674) Philippe de Champaigne, although born at Brussels, be longs more properly to the French school. He was eminent as a portrait painter. Sir Peter Lely (161 8-1 680) Sir Peter Lely was completely identified with the English school. He was a skilful portrait painter, who rendered the elegance of courtly costumes and endowed his sitters with graceful, if somewhat affected, gestures. David Teniers the Elder (1582-1649) David Teniers the Elder, a member of the school of Rubens, studied with Adam Elsheimer in Rome for six years. He was fond of genre subjects. His fame has been eclipsed by that of his son, who greatly excelled him in his delineation of a similar class of subjects. 360 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART Teniers the Younger, while he preferred rustic genre and scenes of so-called " low life," was not only an excellent, but also a most refined, painter. Under the influence of Rubens he proved himself a colourist of rare distinction. VAN DYCK CHARLES I. Refined and gravely dignified. VAN DYCK TILE HERMITAGE VIRGIN OF THE PARTRIDGES Gracefully decorative but rather too sweetly sentimental. TENIERS THE YOUNGER THE RUSTIC WEDDING FRANS HALS HILLE BOBBE A picturesque old character of Haarlem. SEVENTEENTH CENTURY PAINTING IN HOLLAND In 1581 the Northern Provinces of the Netherlands by the Declaration of Independence separated themselves from the Southern and disclaimed their allegiance to Spain. With the new nation of Holland was gradually built up a new school of painting. The people by their previous acceptance of the Reformed faith had cut themselves off from ceremonial worship, while their political independence equally removed them from the ceremony of the court life. Their art reflects the change. It is no longer expended on large and decorative works, but on small ones, suitable to the adornment of burghers' homes. What it lacked in magnificence it atoned for by intimate and affectionate rendering of the facts of every-day life. It was an art of portraiture; interpreting faithfully not only the personalities of men and women, but the character of the life and the country. The school as a whole was absorbed with the naturalistic motive, and it developed three new kinds of motive in the way of subjects: the genre, or representation of the indoor and outdoor life of the people, still-life, and landscape. The latter had been used previously mostly as a background to the figures; it became with the Hollanders a subject suf ficient in itself. There were two artists of special prominence whose in fluence affected the development of the whole school. These are Frans Hals and Rembrandt. Frans Hals (1584- 1666) Frans Hals was a native of Haarlem, and it is in the town hall of that city that some of his most famous works 355 356 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART are to be seen. These are the so-called " Corporation Pic tures," or group-portraits of the military guilds of the period. These compositions, involving a great many figures, are woven into a unity with scarcely any aid from light and shade, for the figures are shown in a uniform, clear light. The principle employed is that of the " relativity of values." By the value of a colour artists understand two things, both of which are matters of light. In the first place, the value of any colour is the amount of white light contained in it. There is less white light, for example, in red than in yellow ; and still less in blue or green. So an artist, instead of get ting contrasts into his composition by employing light and shade, may obtain them by opposing colours of lighter value to those of darker. In the second place, the value of the colour is understood to mean the quality and quantity of light reflected from the various surfaces of any given colour. Thus, for example, more light is reflected from the edge and tip of a nose than from the side of it, from the forehead than the hollows 'of the eyes, and so on. By observing these differences of light and rendering them, the artist is able to produce the illusion of modelling without the aid of light and shade. Hals worked by values in both these senses, and by combining their differences and simi larities into harmonious relation, secured the unity of his composition. Moreover, he used a brush full of pigment and laid the colour fluently and freely on the canvas; juxta posing the hues and values so knowingly that no subsequent alteration was necessary. He was, in fact, a consummate " brushman." In both these respects Hals influenced the other painters of Holland, so that the school as a whole displayed a tech nical proficiency that has never been excelled. Further, his corporation pictures exhibit a beautiful rendering of the fabrics of costumes, and of the articles of still-life, table- FRANS HALS THE LAUGHING CAVALIER Observe the authority of the treatment. The artist has complete mastery over the technical rendering. GERVRD DOU THE YOUNG MOTHER Note the concave space, variously lighted, and how the figures and objects take their place in it. PIETER DE HOOCH THE BUTTERY Illustrates the artist's study of light, as it comes into the scene from various sources. JAN VERMEER VAN DELFT GIRL READING A LETTER In the original a composition of tones of colour exquisitely harmonious. 17th CENTURY PAINTING IN HOLLAND 361 cloths, goblets, swords, fruit, and the like. He revealed the beauty that is inherent in things of every-day life, and in this manner also influenced the whole school of Holland. Correspondingly, if one wishes to enjoy the pictures of this school, it is necessary to think less about the character of the subject than the character of the way in which it has been represented. The influence of Rembrandt, whose own work we will dis cuss later, was exercised partly in encouraging some of the genre painters to express sentiment — a quality that, as a rule, is absent from the Dutch pictures of the seventeenth cen tury — and partly in the direction of light and shade. Through his example it became a very usual practice with the genre painters to represent their subjects, the interiors especially, as concavities of space, rather dimly lighted, in which some figures and objects are more clearly illuminated, while others are immersed in gradations of shadow. In fact, the beauty of the genre pictures largely consists in the exquisite precision with which everything in these hol low spaces occupies its just place and reflects its several values of light. The harmony thus produced is the product not only of correct observation, but of delightful imagination. Gerard Dou (1613-1675) Among these genre painters may be mentioned, par ticularly: Gerard Dou, Nicolaas Maes, Pieter de Hooch, Gabriel Metsu, Gerard Terborch, Jan Vermeer, and Jan Steen. Dou was a pupil of Rembrandt in their native city, Ley den. He experimented with his master's method of chiar oscuro in several night scenes, such as the " Nightschool," in the Ryks Museum, Amsterdam, where the pupils are as sembled around their teacher in a kitchen, the obscurity of A SHORT HISTORY OF ART which is pricked by several small lights. A favourite example of his is "The Young Mother," of the Hague Museum; very tender in sentiment and characterised by minute de tails. Yet it is not because of the excessive finish of de tails that this picture should be admired, but because the details have been so well harmonised with the whole effect of the scene. For there is no value in details merely as details, and often they detract from the merit of the whole. Nicolaas Maes (1632-1693) Maes, another pupil of Rembrandt, learned from him a feeling of reverent sentiment for old age, and interpreted it in many pictures, such as the "Old Woman Spinning," in the Ryks Museum. And it was by his use of light and shade, learned from Rembrandt, that he rendered the effect of sentiment. Pieter de Hooch (1632-1681) De Hooch was devoted to interpreting the effects of light, selecting compositions which offered variety of degrees of illumination. Thus he would show one room opening into another, or an interior with a view beyond of a garden, street, or canal. Figures are introduced; but they are not so skilfully rendered as the surroundings. Indeed, it was the beauty of light and the gladness inherent in its miracles of variety, which occupied the imagination and the technique of De Hooch. Gabriel Metsu (1630-1667) Metsu is particularly identified with charming interiors, showing the gracious, comfortable life of the well-to-do burgher class. He excelled in the delineation of the figures, and, moreover, in making them absolutely a part and an expression of their environment, in which everything, to the 17th CENTURY PAINTING IN HOLLAND 363 smallest detail of furniture and accessories, contributes to the harmony of the whole. Gerard Terborch (1617-1681) Terborch had the advantage of good birth and education, reinforced by foreign travel. He painted portraits, which, though small in size, are large in feeling and full of dignity and charm. Meanwhile, his genre pictures are distinguished by their beautiful composition, drawing, and most refined use of colour. Jan Vermeer of Delft (1632-1675) Vermeer during his comparatively short life executed, so far as is known, only about thirty pictures, one of which was a remarkable landscape of his native city, Delft. The rest are genre subjects, in which Vermeer displayed a skill in the handling of colour values which probably has never been surpassed. His " Young Woman at a Window," in the Metropolitan Museum, New York, is a celebrated example. Th« subject has little interest, but the delight of the picture is to be found in the skill and imagination with which the artist has woven a fabric of lighted colour, which the more it is studied the more wonderful and beautiful it appears. Jan Steen (1626-1679) Steen differed from most of the other genre painters in the interest that he displayed in the subjects of his pictures. He had something of the large-hearted observation of life displayed by Shakespeare; something also of Moliere's wit and satire, and, occasionally, a little of Rabelais' gross- ness. But, while he chose subjects which interested or amused him, it was as a painter relying on the resources of his own art, that, when he was at his best, he represented them. Some of his choicest examples are those in which a few 364 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART figures appear, such as those in which we see a physician visiting his patient. Meanwhile, he excelled in the manage ment of crowded scenes, among which the happiest are those depicting his own family circle. Among the portrait painters of the period must be men tioned Thomas de Keyser (1596-1667), Bartholomeus van der Heist (1613-1670), and Albert Cuyp (1620-1691 ). The last also painted landscapes, with figures and cattle, the whole scene bathed in mellow sunlight. Van Goyen (1596- 1656) Jan van Goyen was one of the earliest of the Dutch land- scapists, his work being distinguished by its tonal qualities. That is to say, he translated the actual hues of nature into an equivalent scheme of light and dark colours, based upon one or two hues. He was partial to grey and brown, these colours predominating, while such others as are used combine with them in a harmony of tone. Thus his landscapes sug gest nature, without exactly representing it. Hobbema (1638-1709) More naturalistic in his rendering of nature's appearances is Meindert Hobbema. His masterpiece is the "Road to Middelharnis," of the National Gallery, in which by ar rangement of the rows of tall poplars against the high, spacious sky he has invested a simple scene with very noble suggestion. He was a pupil of Jacob Ruisdael. Jacob Ruisdael (1625-1682) The latter was a native of Haarlem, who began by paint ing in the environs of that city and later worked around Amsterdam. But there was little call for his pictures, the public being more attracted by the romantic landscapes of Albert van Everdingen (1621-1675), who had been ship- JAN STEEN RIJKS MUSEUM THE PARROT CAGE One of the artist's inimitable scenes of actual life. afr . n 'flijsM ^^ifr, J. VAN U01EX RIJKS MUSEUM DORDRECHT Note the part played by the great sky. HOBBEMA THE AVENUE OF MIDDELHARNIS The artist's masterpiece; observe the effect of the tall trees against the height and breadth of the sky. JACOB RUISDAEL JEWISH BURYING GROUND Intensely dramatic and lurid sky, fitfully lighted ruins and grave stones, the artist's name — without date as yet — on the one in the left corner. 17th CENTURY PAINTING IN HOLLAND 369 wrecked on the coast of Sweden and brought home sketches of its rocky shores, interrupted with pines and waterfalls. Ruisdael was driven to paint similar subjects, drawn from his own imagination; but even so failed of recognition and died in a poorhouse. It is by these pictures that he is popu larly known; but his most characteristic and best examples are those of his earlier manner. Few artists have made so much of the contrast which a vast and cloud-laden sky pre sents to the flat lands of Holland, and in works like the " Mill near Wyck," in the Ryks Museum, Ruisdael stands among the greatest of all landscape painters. Paul Potter (1625-1654) Potter in his short life, terminated by consumption, exe cuted many good landscapes, though his fame chiefly rests on his " Young Bull," of the Hague Museum. The animal in question is represented with amazing fidelity to life. It is as if Potter had determined that once and for all he would master the secret of naturalistic representation. So far as the bull is concerned he succeeded, but the accessories are poorly executed and the whole, as a picture, is disappointing. Philip Wouverman (1619-1668) is justly popular for his landscapes, enlivened by riding and hunting parties. Rembrandt (1606- 1669) Rembrandt Harmens Z. van Rijn, the son of Harmens of the Rhine, on the banks of which his father maintained a mill at Leyden, is not only the greatest of the Holland seven teenth century school, but one of the original geniuses of all schools of painting. While his contemporaries were mainly satisfied to portray the externals of life, .he pene trated into its mystery. He also translated the old Bible story into the vernacular of his day ; representing the Christ, his mother, and his followers as humble every-day folk, 370 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART but at the same time seeking to express the inward signifi cance of the sacred theme. He early experimented with principles of light and shade, and finally evolved a method which may be described as that of constructing by means of light within a concavity of more or less complete obscurity. The latter becomes the depth, out of which he extracts and draws into light such figures or parts of them as will interpret the expression he desires. In a series of religious pictures, now in the New Pinakothek in Munich, we may see him experimenting with this principle, and in the "Disciples at Emmaus," of the Louvre, find its achievement most complete. Meanwhile, in his early days he also practised himself in close and faithful studies of the objective appearances, and began the pursuit of etching, oh which his fame depends no less than upon his paintings. In 1631 Rembrandt settled in Amsterdam, where the rest of his life was spent'. The following year he painted the "Lesson in Anatomy " (Hague Gallery), in which he repre sented the celebrated surgeon, Doctor Tulp, performing an autopsy in the presence of his students. The picture made Rembrandt famous. In 1634 he married Saskia van Uglen- borch, who died in 1642, the same year that Rembrandt painted the so-called " Night Watch." It was commis sioned as a " Corporation Picture," for which each mem ber of the party had paid his share, so that he expected in return a good likeness of himself. But Rembrandt sac rificed the equal showing of each person to an arrangement of light and shade, which subordinated the importance of many of the figures. While fine as a picture, it failed as a portrait group. His patrons disapproved of it and Rem brandt's popularity declined. His carelessness as to money and business involved him in trouble, ending in bankruptcy. Meanwhile his courage never abated, and some of his greatest PAUL POTTER THE BULL The bull is a master-study of natural facts. Rest of the picture is poor. REMBRANDT THE NIGHT WATCH What should have been a group of portraits has been turned into an experiment in Chiaroscuro. REMBRANDT THE SYNDICS A masterpiece in which the mere facts have been made the groundwork for a picture of intense and v'tal expression. REMBRANDT ELIZABETH BAS An example of the artist's regard for detail when he felt the latter to be expressive of the character. 17th CENTURY PAINTING IN HOLLAND 375 works were achieved during embarrassment and possibly pov erty, cheered, however, by his second wife, Hendrickje Stoffels. The student of Rembrandt will find in some examples the utmost fidelity to objective details, as in the portrait of "Elizabeth Bas " (Ryks Museum), and then, again, in others a gleam, or shimmer, or burning luminosity of lighted colour, involved in waves of deepening shadow. Among the master pieces must be mentioned the " Syndics of the Clothworkers' Guild," in which the individual characterisation of the dif ferent merchants is as remarkable as is the feeling of abso lutely harmonious unity which knits together the whole group. The Hollanders were skilled cultivators of flowers and fruit, and their fondness for sport led them to breed game of all kinds. These national tastes were reflected in the still- life pictures which form so important and beautiful a branch of Holland painting. Further, the seafaring side of the nation's life was represented in pictures of shipping and harbour scenes. In one or two instances the artists have de picted the victories of the Holland navy. On the other hand, it is an interesting fact that, although the country was en gaged in almost continuous warfare for some eighty years, the evidence of it seldom occurs in the pictures. The rea son seems to be that the Hollanders regarded war merely as incidental to their real life, which was the building up of a self-reliant and prosperous nation. And it is this ideal of life that the art of the period reflects. In the eighteenth century the originality and technical proficiency of the Holland school disappeared, since it no longer relied on its own national temperament but imitated the manner of the Italians. EARLY-RENAISSANCE PAINTING IN GERMANY In Germany, as in the Netherlands and France, the char acter of the Cathedral architecture offered very little wall space and consequently afforded little opportunity for fresco painting. The painters of the North were thus deprived of the experience which the Italians of the same period enjoyed. They could not undertake subjects on a large scale, en couraging them to breadth and freedom of line and mass. They passed instead from missal painting to the larger, but still restricted, scope of the panel-picture. We have men tioned the masterpiece of the Van Eycks, and that assemblage of panels into a triptych with wings or folding doors was typical of the usual altar-piece. The smallness of the sur face, combined with the method of painting in tempera, con duced to refinement and delicacy of brush-work. As long as this was a spontaneous expression of the artist's feeling, it was a source of beauty; but it tended, in course of time, to become a mannerism, which expended itself on the multi plication of details and a passion for details as details, in which the greater importance of the figures and the spirit of the subject were apt to be swamped. This tendency was further increased by another beautiful characteristic of Northern art, the racial fondness for nature. But since the artists were confined to small sur faces, they gradually ceased to feel the larger aspects of nature and became unduly engrossed with the minutiae of blades of grass, separate leaves, and delicately formed and coloured flowers. Correspondingly, their naturalistic bias affected the senti ment of their pictures. Among the earliest extant examples of the panel-painters is Master Wilhelm van Herle, whose 376 EARLY RENAISSANCE IN GERMANY 377 scenes illustrating the childhood and suffering of Christ may be seen in Cologne Cathedral. The latter possesses also a celebrated picture, called the "Dombild," by Master Stephan Lochner. The central panel represents the adora tion of the three kings, while on the wings are seen the patron saints of Cologne: St. Jerome, with his followers, and St. Ursula and her maiden companions. On the out side is figured the Annunciation. Another beautiful ex ample of this artist is the "Virgin of the Rosebush," in the Cologne Museum. These pictures date from the early part of the fifteenth century, being a little later than Master Wil- helm's. But the work of both artists is distinguished by " a childlike innocence, tenderness of sentiment, and a radiant purity of expression, embodied in graceful, slender forms; and by an exquisite softness of colouring, which gives to earthly things a kind of divine halo." (Liibke.) They represent the spirit of piety, as idealised by the Northern imagination. But as the naturalistic tendency grew, this sweetness gave way to the delineation of more ascetic types, and to a senti ment of patience and endurance under suffering. The Ger man artists began to be influenced by the Netherlander Rogier van der Weyden. This change is illustrated in the " Betrayal of Christ," by the Master of the Lyversberg Pas sion, an artist so styled because of his masterpiece in the Museum of Cologne. With the spread of the naturalistic tendency painting also became influenced in its style by the work of the sculptors and wood-carvers. The action of the figures grew more angular ; more angular also became the folds of the drapery. That style is coloured with the feeling which, for lack of a better term, is usually called " Gothic," by which is also implied that the sentiment of meekness or agony is apt to be excessive. MADONNA OF THE ROSE HEDGE By M. Schongauer The Disposition of the Draperies Remains Somewhat Mediaeval and Suggestive of Sculpture, yet a Marked Feeling for Nature Prevails EARLY RENAISSANCE IN GERMANY 379 But a few artists stand out distinguished for more gentle ness of expression, more ease and naturalness in the action of the figures, and a suppler handling of the draperies. Preeminent in these finer qualities was Martin Schongauer, who was born at Kolmar about 1445, the son of a goldsmith. His masterpiece is the " Virgin in a Garden of Roses," now in the Church of St. Martin, in Kolmar. Schongauer was also the most accomplished engraver of his day. The best col lection of his prints is in the Berlin Museum, while a good one is to be seen in the British Museum. His type of the Christ is dignified, and his Madonnas and Saints are char acterised by tenderness, purity, and reverence. He died in 1491, a worthy forerunner of Diirer. The city of Ulm produced a school of artists, among whom may be mentioned Bartholomaus Zeitblom (about 1460-1516), Hans Schiichlin (about 1440-1505), and Mar tin Schaffner, who flourished from 1508 to 1535. Zeit- blom's figures " have a nobler bearing, more largeness in the forms of the body, and simpler drapery than in the case of most artists of his time." Schiichlin's best work is the altar-piece in the Church at Tiefenbroun in Baden. Four panels by Schaffner, in the Munich Pinakothek, show the influence of Italian art, which was then stealing into Ger many. " Noble grouping of the figures, delicacy of senti ment, and great sense of beauty unite in almost entirely overcoming the narrowness of conception peculiar to all contemporaneous German art." This is the summary of Liibke, who, perhaps, does less than justice to the intrinsic value of the characteristically German feeling of this period. Another centre of art was the rich city of Augsburg, situated on the great trade route between Italy and Flanders. Here lived Hans Holbein the Elder, father of the more famous Hans Holbein the Younger. He was born probably 380 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART in 1460 and died in 1524, the latter part of his life being burdened with financial embarrassment. Yet he was an in- NATIVITY By Zeitblom Observe the Greater Freedom of the Draperies dustrious worker, whose misfortune it apparently was to be poorly paid. His best works are in the Gallery at Augs- THE BIRTH OF CHRIST By Martin Schaffner Shows Italian Influence A SHORT HISTORY OF ART burg, among them being a series of paintings of Roman churches which the nuns of the Convent of St. Catherine employed him to make, so that they might avoid the expense of an actual pilgrimage to Rome. In the same collection are four altar leaves which formerly were attributed to Holbein the Younger. But they are now credited to the father, and in the " free, noble, even grand handling of the forms, lofty refinement of drawing and modelling and in brilliantly" clear colouring are among the most genuinely beautiful works of the older German art." Another early artist of importance who worked in Augs burg was Hans Burgkmair (1473-1531). He was a friend of Diirer and worked with him in the service of Maximilian I. It was as an engraver on wood that he specially ex celled, his prints being remarkable for their spirited execu tion and richness of accessories. Among the very numerous works that he produced was a set of one hundred and thirty- five prints, showing the various countries and princes sub ject to the emperor, with their heraldry; all the different corps of cavalry and foot in his service, and the guilds with their various officers. He also published two hundred designs for the German translation of Petrarch's prose treatise on " Fortuna." ADORATION OF THE MAGI Detail is controlled by largeness of feeling, and the expression is not only emotional but intellectual. H. HOLZSCHUHER A justly celebrated masterpiece of keen and sympathetic characterization. THE HIGH RENAISSANCE OF GERMANY At the beginning of the sixteenth century Nuremberg vied with Augsburg in wealth and importance. They were the chief distributing centres on the highway of commerce between Italy and the Netherlands. Each produced an artist of the highest rank. Augsburg gave the world Hans Holbein the Younger; Nuremberg, Albrecht Diirer. Albrecht Diirer (1471-1528) Diirer at first followed his father's profession of gold smith; and later was apprenticed to Michael Wohlgemuth (1434-1519). The latter's studio was rather a workshop in which numerous assistants worked under the superin tendence of the chief. The output was distinguished by art- lessness of technical arrangement — the figures placed side by side as in an ordinary crowd, the chief aim of the picture being to tell the story with every possible detail. Instead of this entirely commonplace grouping Diirer employed the principle of calculated balance and harmonious unity, so that his compositions, while still characterised by naturalness, are also distinguished by dignity and decorative beauty. Moreover, this treatment of the subject was in spired by a creative richness of imagination, profound thought, and intense moral earnestness. It was in this re spect that he embodied the finest qualities of his race, and proved himself the truly representative artist of Germany. After his student days were over he travelled for four •years, though his own statement of the fact does not in clude the places he visited. Later, however, he paid at least two visits to Italy, making Venice his headquarters. But, while he thus enriched his experience and matured his style, 385 386 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART the latter remained distinctly Northern in character. Diirer is celebrated as an engraver as well as a painter. Among his oil paintings the masterpiece is the " Adoration of the Trinity," now in the Imperial Gallery in Vienna. In this superb picture the lowest part is occupied by a strip of landscape, while in the clouds above kneel ranks of the Blessed Dead, gazing in adoration at the Crucified, who is supported in the arms of the Father. Over the latter's head floats the Dove, while angels throng the air, and the com pany of saints is grouped on each side of the cross; and one side maidens, headed by the Virgin; on the other men, with John the Baptist and King David conspicuous at their head. Diirer's last great work in oil was the four mag nificent panels of SS. Peter, John, Paul, and Mark, which now hang in the Munich Gallery. Others of his principal paintings are the "Virgin and Child, with SS. Antony and Sebastian" (Dresden Gallery), the "Adoration of the Magi " (Uffizi), and the " Feast of the Rose-Garland," in the monastery of Strahow near Prague. Diirer's engraved work consists of copper-plate engrav ings and woodcuts. Of the former, the most famous are " Knight, Death, and the Devil," " Melancholia," and " St. Jerome in His Cell." The first named may be singled out as characteristic of the Northern mingling of intense earnest ness, grotesqueness, and naturalistic detail. Death, haggard and crowned, and mounted on a shambling horse, lifts an hour-glass, while the Devil follows in the guise of a hideous animal ; but the Knight, unmoved by these warnings of des tiny, rides towards his goal, wrapt in profound meditation. While Diirer made the designs for his wood engravings, the blocks were actually cut by his assistants. The most famous are the several sets of the " Life of the Virgin," the " Great Passion," and the " Little Passion " ; the last two being so- called in consequence of their difference of size. THE HIGH RENAISSANCE OF GERMANY 387 " The peculiar achievement," says Sidney Colvin of Diirer, " is this : that living in the midst of the Renaissance and hav ing mastered its acquisitions, he used this mastery to carry to its highest expression, not the old spirit of the Renais sance, but the old spirit of Northern art, as it had existed before the Renaissance. While other artists, both in South and North, were learning to be classical and . graceful, Diirer, mightiest of his race, remained, whether in grandeur or pathos, rugged and homely to the end." Holbein the Younger (1497-1543) Hans Holbein the Younger is supposed to have received instruction in art from his father. He was of precocious talent, and when seventeen years of age moved from Augsburg to Basel, attracted to the latter city by the fame of its printing presses. Here he found employment with the cele brated printer John Froben, for whom he made a great number of woodcuts. Some of these illustrated the " Praise of Folly," by Erasmus. He painted several superb por traits of the burgher Jakob Meyer and his wife, and some years later executed for this patron the magnificent altar- piece which is known as the Meyer Madonna. In a niche, surmounted by a shell-like canopy, stands the Virgin, crowned as the Queen of Heaven. At her right kneels Jakob Meyer with his two sons, while kneeling on the opposite side of the picture are the burgher's late wife, his present one and daughter. But the Reformation had discouraged the painting of such pictures, and the demand for any kind of art was at a low ebb in Augsburg. Accordingly, Holbein, following the advice of Erasmus, visited England with letters of introduc tion to the chief minister of Henry VIII., Sir Thomas More. He painted portraits of the latter and of members of his family and of other persons, including Archbishop War- 388 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART ham. At the end of two years he returned to Basel, but the iconoclastic storm was raging in that city, and after vainly striving to make a living in the face of it, Holbein revisited England and entered the service of Henry VIII. The only portraits of the king indisputably by Holbein are: a fragment of a cartoon, which contains figures of Henry VII. and Henry VIII., now in possession of the Duke of Devonshire ; a drawing in the print room at Munich ; a small portrait at Althorp in Northamptonshire ; and a sketch in the British Museum. The king employed Holbein on several commissions to foreign countries. On one of these occasions he painted the beautiful portrait of Christina of Denmark, whom Henry was proposing to marry. The picture is now in the Na tional Gallery. On one of these visits abroad the artist arranged with the publisher Trechsel, in Lyons, to issue the full set of his wood engravings of Death, wrongly known as the " Dance of Death." Holbein died in London in 1543, a victim, as it is sup posed, of the plague. His high rank in art is chiefly based upon his portraits, in which he " extenuated nothing nor set down aught in malice," but preserved an extraordinary fidelity to nature, while elevating the personality of his sit ter by the grave dignity of his art. Nor was it only in oil painting that he excelled as a portraitist. His series of portrait-drawings, preserved in Windsor Castle, are among the finest character studies and examples of tech nical beauty that exist. The following artists are known as the Little Masters, from the small size of the prints they produced: — Heinrich Aldegrever (1502-1562) was an eminent en graver as well as a painter. He was a pupil of Albrecht : . .. NATIONAL GAI.LERT THE AMBASSADORS Two highly significant personalities with a suggestion of the bond of intellect and task which waits them. THE ADORATION OF THE SHEPHERDS Observe the Spanish types in the faces and the natural gestures and action. THE HIGH RENAISSANCE OF GERMANY 391 Diirer's, but his designs are somewhat in the earlier Gothic style. Barthel Beham (1502-1540), like Aldegrever, was both an engraver and painter. Hans Sebald Beham (1500-1552) engraved on both wood and copper. Albrecht Altdorfer (1488-1538) was one of the most im portant and most original of all Albrecht Diirer's followers. In his paintings the colour is excellent, the drawing not as good. Like most of his fellow-artists, he was fond of fan tastic subjects, but his conceptions are often quite poetical. The subject of his greatest painting is the "Victory of Alex ander the Great over Darius," painted in 1529, for Duke William IV. of Bavaria. He engraved both on wood and copper. George Pentz (1500-1550?) was another very important follower of Albrecht Diirer. He improved his style by a study of Italian art after he left the school of Diirer. His heads are full of expression, and his drawing is correct. James Binck's (b. 1504) style resembles that of Alde grever, but his drawing is better. Hans Baldung (1476-1545), among other works, painted scenes from the life of the Virgin for the altar-piece at Freiburg Minister. Lucas Cranach (1472-1553) was a celebrated German painter and engraver of the Franconian school. His his torical pictures and portraits are in the stiff style that was prevalent in Germany before the time of Diirer. SEVENTEENTH CENTURY PAINTING IN SPAIN The great period of Spanish painting occupies the seven teenth century, when artists appeared who represented the national characteristics. The earliest name of a Spanish painter is that of Rincon, who was one of the brilliant court which circled round Ferdinand and Isabella, after their conquest of Granada had broken the last resistance of the Moors, and made them sovereigns over united Spain. Next to nothing of Rincon's work survives ; but examples of the painting of the period, preserved in the Museum of the Prado, show the influence of Flemish art. This is explained by the tradition that in 1428 Jan van Eyck, while engaged in an embassy to the court of Portugal, had visited Spain. Meanwhile, it is certain that Spain had active relations, trade and other wise, with the Netherlands, and it is likely that Flemish pictures were included in the imports. In the sixteenth century, however, Spain was drawn into close political relations with Italy, and the influence of Italian artists, particularly of Leonardo da Vinci and Raphael, began to affect the Spanish painters. The influ ence was good so far as it directed their study to principles of drawing and composition; but bad in so far as it en couraged them to imitate the manner of the Italians at the expense of their own individuality. In consequence, the painters of this period are usually called Mannerists, and their work is regarded mainly as a necessary transition in the development of the really native art. The latter was not achieved until the seventeenth century, which for Spain was a time of political, commercial, and social decadence and yet produced her greatest artists. 392 17th CENTURY PAINTING IN SPAIN 393 Their greatness is primarily due to the fact that they represented in the most original way the characteristics peculiar to the Spanish race. Foremost among these is the intense preoccupation of the Spaniards with themselves and their own affairs, which, as in the case of the Hollanders of the same period, made naturalism the chief motive of their art. Conditions in Spain were such that the principal patrons were royalty and the Church. The kings of Spain clung to their title of " Catholic Sovereigns," and the Church in Spain was the most devout, as well as the most active, upholder of the Catholic faith in Christendom. The pic tures, therefore, demanded by royal and ecclesiastical patrons were almost exclusively portraits or religious sub jects. The mode in which the latter should be represented was prescribed by the Church; and, since the taste of the people was for facts, it insisted upon the most naturalistic delineation of the Sacred Story. The Crucifixion and scenes of martyrdom and asceticism were multiplied, and always with a literal exposition of the horrors of the incident. Blood and wounds and exhibitions of excessive emotion, whether of fury, anguish, or patient submission, were relied upon to strengthen the faith and kindle the devotion of the people. There had developed early in Spain three schools of painting: those of Valencia, Seville, and Castile or Madrid. Each of these produced in the seventeenth century one or more artists of superior distinction. We may begin with the school of Valencia, though it is the least important of the three, because its great representative, Ribera, was the first distinctively Spanish artist of the century. Jose de Rihera was born in 1588 near Valencia, in the little town of Jativa, which was also the cradle of the Bor gia family. Their favour had enriched the province of Valencia, whose nearness to Italy caused it to be the main 394 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART route by which Italian influences passed into Spain. The school of Valencia had been the first to become Italianised, while the marked devotion of the Church in this locality had set its impress upon the character of the painting. Jose, as a boy, was wild and adventurous, and early made his way to Rome, where he preferred a life of poverty to the restraints of a home in the house of a cardinal who wished to befriend him. He made copies of the Raphaels and Caraccis in the Farnese Palace, and even found means of visiting Parma and Modena, where he studied the works of Correggio. But in time he came under the spell of Caravaggio, the leader of the contemporary school of nat uralism in Italy. It made its headquarters in Naples, which was then under the rule of the Spaniards. The two rea sons induced Ribera to settle there. He soon attracted the notice of the Spanish viceroy and by his forceful personality and great ability as an artist became celebrated both in Italy and Spain. The Italians, not without some jealousy of his reputation, called him " Lo Spagnoletto," " The Little Spaniard." Ribera's impetuous nature and naturalistic ardour com bined to give his portrayal of martyrs and ascetics a force and poignancy which were completely to the taste of his patrons in both countries. Further, he could satisfy, when called upon to do so, the fondness for pictures of religious sentimentality. But there was another side of him which appears in many of his pictures in the Prado, a grave and serious vein, expressed in canvases of great dignity and of very refined colour. The influence of his work upon his Spanish contempo raries was strong and immediate. It was so essentially char acteristic of the naturalistic tendency, which, notwithstand ing the idealism borrowed from Italy, lay deep in the hearts pf all Spaniards, Ribera, in fact, taught the Spanish artists ZURBARAN SEVILLE MUSEUM APOTHEOSIS OF ST. THOMAS AQUINAS Combines the science of Italian composition with characterization and feeling distinctly Spanish. MURILLO ST. ELIZABETH OF HUNGARY A mingling of the classical and naturalistic. Xote the unpleasant grossness of some of the details, characteristic of much Spanish painting1. THE IMMACULATE CONCEPTION The subject in which Murillo excelled. VELASQUEZ THE SURRENDER OF BREDA A decorative canvas painted after the artist's first visit to Italy. 17th CENTURY PAINTING IN SPAIN 399 to turn from Italian imitators and mannerism and rely upon the inspiration of their native temperament. Ribera's pictures, brought into Valencia, soon reached the neighbouring province of Andalusia and affected the school of painting in Seville, turning it definitely into the direc tion of naturalism. Under this influence, the school pro duced three artists of distinguished importance: Zurbaran, Murillo, and Velasquez. But the last named, while still a young man, migrated to Madrid, and is accordingly reck oned in that school. Zurbaran (1598-1662) Francisco de Zurbaran, the son of a small farmer in the province of Estremadura, went to Seville and studied with a painter named Roelas (1560-1625). But, influenced by the naturalism of Ribera, he learned to rely upon and to express his own individuality. His quiet and simple dis position led him to find congeniality in the retired and methodically conducted life of the monasteries. Though he was not one of them, he consorted much with monks and portrayed the most attractive features of the monastery life. He was particularly at home among the white-frocked brethren of the Carthusian order, and no one has ever painted the ample folds of white habits with more dignity and tech nical charm or given more character to the varied types of humanity which they clothed, than Zurbaran. His pictures are distinguished by a large simplicity of composition, a finely ordered balance, and a feeling some what austere, but characterised by virile wholesomeness. His colour also and handling of light and shade are ad mirable. His masterpiece is the "Apotheosis of St. Thomas Aquinas," now in the Provincial Museum of Seville. It was 400 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART painted for the Church of the College of St. Thomas, whose founder, Archbishop Diego de Deza, is represented in prayer, accompanied by three brothers of the order in black cloaks over white habits. Opposite them kneels the Emperor Charles V., a patron of the order, with three courtiers. Beside " the Angelic Doctor " sit four doctors of the Church, Gregory, Ambrose, Augustine, Jerome, while in the " glory " above appear Christ and the Virgin and St. Paul and St. Dominic. With the simple black and white of the doctor's figure are contrasted the red of the cardinal's robe and the superb embroideries on the copes and the rich brocade of the emperor's cloak. The characterisation of the several groups will repay study. Each represents a different gen eral type, individualised in the separate figures. The picture has elevation of feeling and devotional expression, but lacks the religious sentimentality which the Andalusian taste craved. This is characteristic of Zurbaran and probably ac counts for the fact that his reputation did not survive into the eighteenth century. Indeed, it is only of late years that his greatness as an artist is being recognised. Murillo (1618-1682) Bartolome Esteban Murillo was born in Seville, in the same year in which " the Virgin Mary, in the mystery of her Immaculate Conception, had been proclaimed the patroness of the Dominions of Philip IV." He became celebrated as the " Painter of the Conceptions." He was nineteen years the junior of Velasquez, who re ceived his fellow-townsman kindly when the latter arrived in Madrid to study. He introduced him to the king's gal lery. Here the young Murillo studied and copied the works of Titian, Rubens, Van Dyck, Ribera, and of Velasquez him self, to such good purpose that the last-named advised him to visit Italy. But Murillo was independent and self-reliant. 17th CENTURY PAINTING IN SPAIN 401 He had gained enough experience to enable him to express himself and he preferred to return to Seville. Here an op portunity soon presented itself. The monks of the mon astery of St. Francis wished their cloister decorated but had not sufficient money to employ one of the " leading " art ists. With some misgiving they gave the commission to Murillo. He spent three years on the work and at its com pletion found himself the most famous painter in Seville. He had taken from the great masters whom he had studied enough hints of technique to form a style of his own. But it was the character of his subjects and his treatment of them which captivated the Sevillians. Murillo had proved himself not only a great story-painter, but also one who could make the facts and the feeling of the story appeal to the hearts and minds of the masses of the people, rich or poor, educated or uneducated. This was a gift pos sessed by Raphael and many other artists of the Renais sance, who, at a time when there were few books and fewer readers, illustrated in the finest sense the Sacred Story. Mu rillo, like those earlier masters, was a " prince of illustrators." This explains both the fascination that he exercised upon his contemporaries and posterity and also the defects which the present age, with its abundant facilities of reading and more critical attitude towards the technical aspects of paint ing, have discovered in his work. Murillo was not a great master of composition, as Raphael was, nor as Zur baran. Nor were his compositions as lucidly natural as those of the latter. His famous " Miracle of the Loaves and Fishes," and " Moses Striking the Rock," for example, are partly conventional and partly naturalistic. And this med ley of motives appears in much of his work ; for instance, in the well-known " St. Elizabeth of Hungary," which com bines the imposing paraphernalia of a Renaissance classic building with the most disgusting details of naturalism. 402 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART Moreover, his preoccupation with the incidents of the story and particularly with excess of sentiment frequently inter fered with the qualities of colour and craftsmanship. Ac cordingly, as a painter he is often at his best in the frankly natural pictures of urchins, lazy in the sunshine, and in some of his " Holy Families," such as that with the little bird, in which Murillo has simply transplanted the story into the home of a workman of his own day. It is, however, in his " Conceptions " that he reaches his highest point. In these he has portrayed the Virgin as a girl of the people, yet has idealised the type. And for his subject he discovered a method of technique admirably ex pressive. It preserves the plasticity of the form and yet invests 'it with a suggestion of being impalpable and buoyant, so that it seems to float by its own inherent lightness. But the quality of feeling expressed is rather emotional than spiritual. Velasquez (1599-1660) The great representative of the school of Castile or Madrid is Diego Rodriguez de Silva y Velasquez ; de Silva being his father's name ; Velasquez, that of his mother, added according to the Andalusian custom. He was born in Se ville and studied with the painter Pacheco, whose daughter he married. In 1622 Velasquez went to Madrid with an in troduction to his fellow-townsman, Count-Duke Olivarez, who was the young king's minister. The following year Olivarez presented Velasquez to Philip IV., and there began the friendship between the sovereign and the artist which lasted until the latter's death. During this period of nearly thirty-seven years Velasquez twice visited Italy. The experience helped to broaden and deepen his mind and taste, but otherwise left him untouched by Italian influence. He remained staunch to the naturalistic VELASQUEZ THE ADORATION OF THE SHEPHERDS Spanish in character but Academic in treatment. VELASQUEZ FORGE OF VULCAN Except for the figure of the god, the composition is highly natural and constructed of relations of tone. VELASQUEZ MAID OF HONOUR The masterpiece of a unity of vision, achieved by the relation of tones of colour. LA MAYA Costume and flesh painted with extraordinary sureness and delicacy. 17th CENTURY PAINTING IN SPAIN 407 motive, of which he is the finest exponent in the art of painting. His duties at court compelled him to be mainly a painter of portraits of the king and royal family and other mem bers of the court, including one or two of the favourite actors and some of the dwarfs, who were the royal play things. He also supervised the decoration of the king's summer-house, Buen Retiro, and painted for it equestrian portraits of the king, his son, the little Don Balthasar Car los, and of Olivarez ; as well as a decorative canvas com memorating the " Surrender of Breda." With these works were interspersed occasional figure-subjects, concluding with his masterpiece, "Las Mefiinas," or the "Maids of Honour." Outside of his associations with Philip IV., he painted during his second visit to Italy the "Pope Innocent X.," one of the greatest portraits in the world. Velasquez's career presents a continuous advance in his conception "and treatment of naturalistic expression. His motto was " Truth, not Painting." Briefly, his aim was to render a " unity of vision " ; to unify the impression which the eye received. In this respect he became in the nine teenth century the example which inspired the modern " Im pressionists." His efforts towards " unity of vision " can be traced in his works. Before he moved to Madrid he had painted the "Adoration of the Shepherds" (National Gallery). In this he secured a unity of arbitrary distribution of lights and shades, and the picture is dark and blackish in the shadows. Some ten years later he produced the " Topers," or " Los Borrachos " (Prado). Here the shadows are warm and luminous and the colour throughout brilliant as gems. But the unity is that of a number of parts fitted together like a mosaic ; you are conscious of the parts as well as the whole. It is not a unity of natural vision. During his first visit to 408 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART Italy the "Forge of Vulcan " was painted, in which the artist shows himself to be feeling after tone. The colours do not include many hues ; but, instead, many varieties of tone of the blacks and browns and greys which are used. By this " relation of values," as it is called, a great advance in unity of vision is secured. Henceforth, tone occupied him more and more, reaching its finest expression in such can vases as " Menippus " and " ^Esop." There was an interrup tion in the case of the " Surrender of Breda," and the eques trian portraits. In these, being decorations, he rather re sorted to the mosaic manner of producing a colour unity. As Velasquez became absorbed in tone he grew increas ingly interested in light; in the way in which light, accord ing to its quantity and quality and the direction in which it strikes an object, affects the form and colours. He learned, too, how light in nature tends to subdue contrasts of colour and definiteness of outlines and to draw everything into a unity of effect. He pressed forward to the solution of the problem of the unity of vision by painting the effects of light. He solved it triumphantly in the unified impression of " Las Mefiinas," the most wonderful rendering of nature's as pects that has ever been achieved in painting. The scene is the artist's own studio, and he appears in it standing before a canvas on which he is engaged in painting a portrait of the king and queen. Their figures are reflected in a mirror at the end of the room. The story is that the sitting was interrupted by the entrance of the little princess with her maids of honour and two dwarfs. The child asks for a glass of water, and it is being presented to her by one of the maids. All the figures are wonderfully painted ; but the marvel of the picture is in the brushing in of the greys of the walls and ceiling, so that the whole scene appears to be permeated with lighted atmosphere, which draws everything into a single vision. 17th CENTURY PAINTING IN SPAIN 409 In his gradual discovery of how to create a unity of vision, Velasquez found that he must not represent more than the eye can take in at a single sight. Accordingly, much must be left out, and what is retained must be repre sented only by essential details. It is through his growing practice of leaving out everything but what is essential to the main motive, and of representing what is put in with broad and simple suggestiveness, as well as by his masterly rendering of light, that Velasquez has influenced modern impressionists. For in the efforts of the latter to render the impression of a scene as the eye receives it at a single sight, they have been inspired and guided by the great Spaniard. Goya (1746-1828) More than a hundred years after Velasquez's death there appeared in Madrid Francisco Goya y Lucientes. Yet he may be fitly mentioned here, because he was the great suc cessor of Velasquez and handed on the principles of im pressionism to the nineteenth century. Goya, after a tur bulent apprenticeship to painting in Saragossa and Rome, interrupted by a short experience as a bull-fighter, became court-painter to Charles III. and his successor, Charles IV. The latter's queen was Maria Luisa, notorious for her amours, one of her favourites being an ex-guardsman, Godoy, who became the virtual ruler of the country and eventually plunged it into war with France. In this masquerade of court life Goya moved as in his element. Gallant and fear less, he was the darling of the women, while the men had a prudent dread of his prowess with the sword. But, though he joined in the prevailing license, he was a pitiless satirist of king, queen, and courtiers. Even the Church and the pro fessions did not escape the lash of his pictorial satires. Some of these were painted in oils; but more frequently were 410 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART done in etching. Particularly in his series of " Caprices," " Proverbs," and " Horrors of War," he displayed a most original and powerful use of the needle, inspired by an imagination of extraordinary inventiveness, which mingled beauty with the grotesque and horrible. Two of his famous pictures in the Prado have for sub ject a " Maia," or girl of the people. In one case she is nude, the impression of young firm flesh being conveyed with most delicate charm. The other is clothed, and here the piquancy of the costume is interpreted with marvellous skill and feeling for beauty. Similarly in his numerous portraits, it is the character of the personality and the distinction of the clothes that are hit off with a wonderful sureness and economy of method. Goya worked rapidly and under the impulse of moods. Accordingly, his work is uneven; but at its best brilliantly impressionistic. It was a saying of his that in nature there is no colour, only light and dark. By this paradox he anticipated the modern use of colour, largely derived from his example, which relies not so much upon the hues of colour as upon the subtle discriminations of tone in a few colours. El Greco (i548?-i625) During the first quarter of the seventeenth century flour ished Domenico Theotocopuli, called " El Greco," from the fact that he was born in Crete. A student of Titian's, he migrated to Spain and settled in Toledo. The latter city, which once had been the nucleus of Moorish culture, was now the burning centre of Catholic devotion; its cathedral the richest in Spain, its priesthood most fervent, its laity fore most in loyalty to the Faith. It was of this religious zeal that El Greco, the foreigner, himself a devout Catholic, became the exponent. He was a contemporary of Cervantes, who, in a vein of satire, interpreted the chivalric spirit of EL GRECO CHRIST IN THE ARMS OF THE FATHER Observe the type of the angels' faces, characteristically Toledan; and the feeling of deep reverence that prevails. «inmm««ni»»iiiipn; im (JET ANTWERP MUSEUM THE VIRGIN AXD IXFANT JESUS Strangely fascinating blend of symbolism and naturalism. 17th CENTURY PAINTING IN SPAIN 413 Spain while El Greco expressed the religious. By many of his own day El Greco was reckoned a madman, for his style was so different from the naturalistic one, which was gain ing ground at that time. But, to-day, he is an artist who is commanding a very profound, though still limited, ap preciation. The reason is, that for some fifty years past naturalism has held sway in painting, until now a reaction has set in. Many people have grown weary of the skill with which painters represent the appearances of nature. They are de manding that more shall be made of the expressional pos sibilities of painting. It is here that the example of El Greco is suggestive. El Greco, when he chose, could represent his subject nat urally. But usually this was only a foil to his spiritual expression. In order to render the latter he exercised a liberty to deviate from natural appearances; or so to treat them that it should no longer be their truth to nature that was obvious, but their capacity to stimulate the spiritual imagination. His masterpiece is the " Funeral of Count Orgaz," in the Church of San Tome, in Toledo. This pic ture represents the legend that, when the pious Count, the builder of the church, was being buried, the saints Augus tine and Stephen appeared and deposited the body in the grave. In the lower part of the picture this incident is depicted with frank naturalism; round about the principal figures being a rank of mourners, many of whom represent portraits of famous men of Toledo of the artist's own day. Meanwhile, above, the curtains of the clouds have been drawn back and a vision is revealed of the sainted Count, appear ing naked at the feet of his Redeemer, while the Virgin intercedes in his behalf. The length of the Count's body has been exaggerated and the heavens are filled with angels and the holy dead, forming a composition strange, and even 414 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART bizarre. Yet the very unexpectedness of its organised dis order captures the imagination and lifts it up in ecstasy. At least, that is how the picture affects those who have learned to appreciate it. Meanwhile, to those who have not, this upper part of the composition seems to be a disturb ingly incongruous contradiction of the studied regularity of the lower part. PRE-RENAISSANCE PAINTING IN FRANCE The French nation is a blend of several strains : Ger manic, Roman, Celtic, and a little Greek. It has been cus tomary for foreigners to think of the French as a " Latin " race; but while they have a strong infusion of Latin blood, and have inherited certajn distinctively Roman character istics, such as a love of logic and order and constructive skill, the genius of the race is conspicuously Northern. We have seen how this produced from the twelfth to the fifteenth century a great era of cathedral building with an accompanying art of decorative sculpture. It is to be noted also that during this period there was an extensive and vigorous growth of literature. Of early painting fewer evidences survive. It began, as elsewhere, with illuminated manuscripts, many of which are preserved in the Bibliotheque Nationale; and developed into mural paintings, almost all of which have perished. But of the early panel-pictures on wood and canvas a fair representation is to be found in the Louvre. They date from the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. In some the figures are projected on a gilded background, which in other and usually later examples is replaced by architectural settings or landscapes. Of the first kind is the " Last Communion and Martyrdom of St. Denis," the patron saint of Paris. In the centre Christ hangs upon the cross, while above him appears the Holy Father. At the left, Christ stands outside a prison, ad ministering the Blessed Sacrament to the saint, whose head shows at a barred window. Balancing this incident, at the right, the saint kneels before a block awaiting the blow of the executioner's ax, while the head and trunk of another ecclesiastic lie at the foot of the cross. The details of blood 415 416 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART and wounds are rendered with repulsive naturalism, yet the flesh tints are tender and delicate as in a miniature. In fact, here, as in other examples of the fourteenth century, the style of the painting is that of a miniature on a large scale. By the following century, however, the style has become broader ; the modelling of the figures vigorous, while the faces are more individualised in character and varied in their expression of emotion. The first example is a " Pieta " by some unknown painter of the school of Avignon. This city during the greater part of the fourteenth century was the abode of the popes, and artists had been brought from Italy, followers of the Giottesque style, to decorate the palace. Their influence may possibly have had a share in developing the local school; but the style of this picture is also suggestive of the Flemish school. Flanders, at that time, was closely connected with France, forming part of the possessions of the Duke of Burgundy, which extended south along the western bank of the Rhine. The Duchy was thus a connecting link between the North and South, and Burgundian painters seem to have combined the naturalism of the North with Southern sentiment. This " Pieta " is probably the work of one of them who was settled in Avignon. Among the earliest names of painters appears that of Nicolas Froment, of Avignon. His work, which belongs to the fifteenth century, included still-life, landscape, and por traits. Fine examples of the last are the portraits of King Rene of Anjou and his wife, now in the Louvre. But the most important artist of this period is Jean Fouquet. He Fouquet (1415-1490) was a native of Tours and spent part of his life in Italy, where he found in the work of the Tuscan primitives some thing congenial to his own Northern bias. He is represented FRANCOIS CLOUET PORTRAIT OF A BOY Refinement of style and expression of an individual personality. " Reproduced from RndcliftVs ' Schools and Masters of Sculpture ' Copyright, 1894, by D. Applaton & Company." JEAN GOUJON DIANA Italian learning is shown in the composition, but the feeling is French. LOUVRE, PARIS T. DE CHAMPAIGNE CARDINAL RICHELIEU Fine personal characterization and superb pictorial effect. 11 w JHH <«C I* A W < PRE-RENAISSANCE PAINTING IN FRANCE 421 in the Louvre by two portraits, one of them being of Charles VII., who was crowned at Rheims by Joan of Arc. It is a sad face, the painfulness of which is in no wise mitigated by the character and painting of the costume. Yet it is an extraordinarily human document ; arresting and haunt ing by reason of its direct and simple appeal. The Rerlin Museum possesses a very fine example of this artist in the "Portrait of Etienne Chevalier with St. Stephen," while the Museum of Antwerp has a curious and strangely fascinating " Virgin and Child." The model for the Virgin is said to have been Agnes Sorel, the king's mistress ; which, whether it be a fact or legend, throws an interesting side light on the re ligious sentiment of the times. Jean Fouquet is the artist of the transition period, pre luding the direct influence of the Italian Renaissance, which appeared in France in the sixteenth century. PAINTING OF THE FRENCH RENAISSANCE With, the accession of Francis I., in 1515, the direct influ ence of the Italian Renaissance was introduced into France. He was enamoured of everything Italian, and, although his military ambitions in that country as the rival of Charles V. ended in his being taken prisoner at the battle of Pavia in 1525 and held a captive in Madrid for a year, he sig nalised his return to sovereignty by inviting Italian artists to enlarge and beautify the palace of Fontainebleau. Among ¦ those who came for longer or shorter stay were Leonardo da Vinci, Andrea del Sarto, II Rosso, Primaticcio, Niccolo dell'Abbate, and Benvenuto Cellini. It must be understood that in using the term Renaissance in connection with France, one employs it otherwise than in the case of Italy. The Italian Renaissance was actually a rebirth of art, bringing life to what had become the dead bones of Mediasvalism. France, on the contrary, as we have seen, was in artistic matters vigorously alive even before the beginning of the Italian Renaissance, and was still vig orously growing when the Italian influence arrived. What the latter did for the French art was to improve it tech nically ; to teach lessons of composition, drawing, perspec tive and technical expression; to emphasise the importance of the form in which the subject is embodied. And so thoroughly did this lesson represent the actual need of the French genius and so completely did the latter absorb it, that when the preeminence of Italy in the fine arts declined at the end of the sixteenth century, France succeeded to it and has held it ever since. " For the French have proved themselves the only race since the Italians of the Renais- 422 PAINTING OF THE FRENCH RENAISSANCE 423 sance and the Greeks of antiquity, to whom art in its various forms is a natural and inevitable expression of what is for the time being their attitude towards life." Meanwhile, although French naturalism needed to be ferti lised by Italian idealism, the French genius did not capitulate to foreign influence. Even Francis, while employing the for eigners to embellish Fontainebleau, encouraged Northern art ists. Foremost among these was the family of Clouets. The father, Jean Clouet, was a native of Flanders, who set tled in Tours, where Francois, the most famous of the three sons, was born in 1500. Their work was chiefly portraiture. The Louvre possesses a splendid example of the father in the " Portrait of Francis I." It represents the king at about thirty years old, dressed in a pearl-grey doublet, striped with black velvet and embroidered in gold. The expression of the face is sly and sensual. As a portrait it suggests a keen analysis of character; as a canvas it is magnificently decorative. Titian's portrait of the same monarch is also in the Louvre. While it shows a much greater command of technical resources, it is inferior in characterisation to the searching truth of Clouet's. Yet in the decorative splendour of the latter's composition it is possible to detect the Italian influence. Another instance of the Northern genius being fertilised by the Italian is to be seen in the sculptor Jean Goujon, who has been mentioned already. He had before him the example of Benvenuto Cellini's " Nymph of Fontainebleau " when he modelled his own " Diana," a group in which the god dess is reclining upon a stag, surrounded by her hounds. Her figure is nude and to some extent idealised ; yet it still preserves a sort of impersonal naturalness, which renders the conception very superior to that of Cellini. The latter has tried to imitate the style of Michael Angelo, and succeeded 424 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART only in giving his figure a rather vulgar exuberance of form and turbulence of action. The point is, that the French genius, so far from suc cumbing to foreign influence, took from it what it needed to complete its own development. DE LARGILLIERE MARIE MARGUERITE LAMBERT DE THORIGXY Affected in sentiment but very decorative. METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART, N. Y. FAIRIES AND NYMPHS Illustrating his blend of classic and naturalistic motion. CLAUDE LORRAIN LOUVRE, PARIS THE LANDING OF CLEOPATRA AT TARSUS A stately composition to which the figures supply a piquant loveliness. LOUVRE, PARIS EMBARKATION FOR CYTHERA A vision of ideal loveliness. SEVENTEENTH CENTURY PAINTING IN FRANCE It was in the seventeenth century, and particularly under the rule of Louis XIV., that French painting came near to being Italianised. Painters went to Italy to study and returned home to emulate the Italian " grand style," and in this way were encouraged by Louis XIV., whose courtiers flattered him by calling the period " Le Grand Siecle, le siecle de Louis Quatorze." He had inaugurated his assump tion of authority with the autocratic phrase " L'etat, c'est moi," and affected the absolutism of a Roman emperor, bent on reducing government, including that of literature and the fine arts, to a Roman form of systematisation. The earliest of these Italianised French painters were Mar tin Freminet (1567-1619) and Simon Vouet (1590-1649). They were followed by Eustache Lesueur and Charles Lebrun. Lesueur (1617-1655) The former was called by his contemporaries " the French Raphael." His religious pictures in the Louvre explain the allusion. They are graceful and refined, but woefully deficient in originality and force. Charles Lebrun, on the contrary, was conspicuous for both these qualities; prolific in inven tion, and a rapid and skilful worker. His talents exactly suited the Grand Monarch's love of pomp and ostentation. Lebrun (1619-1690) Lebrun, accordingly, was engaged to embellish the gardens of Versailles with fountains and statues and the interior with painted decorations extolling the power and magnificence of the king. They display amazing versatility, but are ex travagant in the wealth of details and meretricious in senti- 439 430 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART ment. In 1648 Lebrun took the principal part in founding the Academy of Fine Arts in Paris and the French School of the Fine Arts in Rome. He was also the first director of the Tapestry Factory of the Gobelins, which was originated by Colbert. Philippe de Champaigne (1610-1695) Contemporary with the historical and decorative painters flourished the court painters of portraits. The most serious artist among them was Philippe de Champaigne. He was born in Flanders and inherited the Flemish love of rich colour ing and capacity to render the character of his sitters. This he did with a grave dignity that was in complete contrast to the display-portraits, which were more to the taste of the king and his courtiers. Pierre Mignard (1610-1695) The earliest of these was Pierre Mignard, who also rivalled Lebrun in the field of historical and decorative painting. He was famous as a painter of the court beauties and set the fashion for elegant and rather shallow representation of female loveliness, which became a characteristic department of French painting. Largilliere (1656-1746) The vogue was continued by Nicolas Largilliere, whose portraits are very ornate in composition, with profuse dis play of velvets, satins, and jewelry excellently depicted. Meanwhile, the portrait of pomp, or " portrait d'apparat," as the French call this style, was brought to its highest point by Hyacinthe Rigaud. Louis was advanced in years Rigaud (1659-1743) when Rigaud painted him and the portrait is a very kingly 17th CENTURY PAINTING IN FRANCE 431 one, helping to suggest the undoubted genius for ruling that, apart from flattery and subservience of courtiers, charac terised the Grand Monarch. The figure is in a white satin suit, over which fall the voluminous folds of a magnificent blue velvet mantle, embellished with silver fleur-de-lys, which trails handsomely on the floor. In another famous portrait, that of the powerful and popular Bossuet, bishop of Meaux, he has depicted, as only second to the royal pomp, the mag nificence of the ecclesiastic. This era of courtly portrait- Engravers painting developed a very remarkable succession of line- engravers, whose names include those of Robert Nanteuil, Gerard Edelinck, Antoine Masson, and the Drevets, who con sisted of Pierre Drevet and his son and nephew. These famous men translated into line-engraving the portraits of the painters, and attained a richness and delicacy of crafts manship and an ability to reproduce the character of the subject that have never been surpassed in engraved por traiture. Their works are treasured by print-collectors. An interesting phenomenon of this age of display in paint ing was the quiet work of the three brothers Le Nain. Paint- Le Nain (1588-1677) ing in subdued tones of grey and brown, with very sparing use of the brighter colours, they were partial to simple genre scenes of country life; such as a farmer in his smithy and haymakers returning from the fields. Their work presents a little oasis of naturalism amid the Italianate parade of arti ficial splendour. Another notable feature of the seventeenth century is pre sented by Nicolas Poussin and Claude Lorrain. Both lived 432 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART in Italy during their active years as painters ; yet each pre served something of the character of the Northern genius and exercised a lasting influence upon the French school. Poussin (1594-1665) Poussin was of Norman parentage, of good family, and had for one of his teachers Philippe de Champaigne. He had also the opportunity, as a young man, of studying some en gravings after Raphael's pictures. In time he went to Rome, where he was particularly interested in the remains of Roman low-relief and high-relief sculpture. Out of these various influences he gradually formed a style of his own, which was characterised by a certain gravity of distinction com bined with Raphaelesque grace. Meanwhile, his Northern temperament asserted itself in a marked love of nature, which led him to unite the figures with the landscape in a new way. The great Italians had used landscape as a background or, at least, as subordinate to the figure. Poussin wedded the two on more equal terms of intimacy, so that they mutu ally interpret each other. For this purpose he selected sub jects from the Bible or mythology, and treated them in com positions which, happily, unite the dignity of architectonic orderliness with the freer lines and masses of nature. In this combination of the classical and the naturalistic motive Poussin proved himself directly representative of the French genius, and set a standard for the newly formed French Academy. Accordingly, he is regarded as the virtual founder of the French classical school of painting, and no less as the father of French landscape painting. Claude Lorrain (1600-1682) Claude Gellee, called Lorrain, after his native province, went to Italy in the company, it is said, of a party of French pastry-makers. He entered the service of an Italian painter, PATER LOUVRE, PARIS FETE CHAMPETRE Following the style of Watteau, but with less beauty of abstraction. CARLE VAN LOO LOUVRE A HUNT PICNIC An attractive work that must have been painted under the influence of Watteau. A composition of charming movement and skilful arrangement. NATIONAL GALLERY, LONDON CHILDREN AT PLAY An elegant and playful example of Rococo style. FRANCJOIS IIUI-ERT DI10UAIS JOSEPH II. OF AUSTRIA Represented as a patron of the arts and sciences. 17th CENTURY PAINTING IN FRANCE 437 from whom he seems to have picked up the rudiments of painting. Then he left his employer and made a tour through Italy on the way to his home in France; returning, after a short visit, to Italy, and settling in Rome. Many years were spent in close study of nature, until, at length, his pictures attracted the attention of the Cardinal Bentivoglio. Aided by this patron he become famous and his pictures continued to be regarded as the finest examples of landscape art, until the naturalistic movement set in at the beginning of the nine teenth century. For his landscapes are of the kind known as the classical style of landscape, of which he is regarded as the inventor. He studied directly from nature and filled his sketch-books with innumerable details of nature and of the classic build ings which abounded in the neighbourhood of Rome. From these he selected the materials for his pictures; building up the compositions with fragments drawn from a variety of sources. The method is architectonic, but, since the details are derived from nature, the composition has an ease and naturalness of appearance, heightened to dignity by the cal culated balance and harmony of all the parts with one another and the whole. It was a blend of the natural and artificial that exactly suited the taste of the eighteenth cen tury. Claude was especially happy in his use of architectural features, which afforded an element of order and stability in contrast to the flow of line and pleasant irregularity of the natural features. He gave his pictures historical titles, such as the " Landing of Cleopatra at Tarsus " ; but adopted the device simply as an excuse for enlivening the scene with groups of small figures. He left behind him a book of draw ings, which he called " Liber Veritatis." They were executed in bistre, a brown pigment, and occasionally touched with 438 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART white. Numerous notes accompany the drawings, and it seems that he intended the book to be a record of the pictures he had painted, with particulars concerning them, including their owners. The book is now in the possession of the Duke of Devonshire. FRENCH PAINTING OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY In the eighteenth century, as in the seventeenth, painting in France was largely a product of the conditions of court life. Poussin and Claude Lorrain had been exceptions, and we shall find one or two in the new century ; otherwise the painters were mainly responsive to the prevailing tone of aristocratic society. A great change passed over the latter after the death of Louis XIV. in 1715. The Grand Monarch had become very serious in his old age and a heavy pall of pompous routine hung over the court at Versailles. With the accession of Louis XV., a child of five, and the regency of the Duke of Orleans, the heavi ness was resolved into a period of light, spontaneous gaiety. Versailles was abandoned for the Palace of the Luxembourg, and by degrees society ceased to be confined to the cere monial of the court and overflowed into private palaces, which grew up in the Faubourg de Saint-Germain. The smaller salons needed a lighter form of furnishing and decoration, and thus was gradually developed the sprightly art of the Rococo. It is supposed that this term was invented out of the word " rocaille," " rock-work," in allusion to the artificial rock-work and grottos which became popular in the time of Louis XIV. It is specifically applied to the art of Louis XV., embracing the middle fifty years of the eighteenth century. At its best, it was distinguished by elegance, but tended to grow increasingly lavish and extravagant, until it was swept away in the taste for simplicity which marked the reign of Louis XVI. The great artist of the Rococo period 439 440 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART Watteau (1684-1721) is Jean Antoine Watteau, a native of Flanders, where Valen ciennes was his birthplace. Coming to Paris he entered the studio of Claude Gillot, a painter and designer of charm ing fancy, and later found a home with Claude Audran, cus todian and one of the decorative artists of the Luxembourg. But his real master was Rubens, whose magnificent decora tions in honour of Marie de Medici were the chief glory of the palace. It is to be noted that from this time onward Rubens and not the great Italians became the principal foreign example, the influence of which has been renewed again and again in French painting. The lesson of Rubens Was, on the one hand, the joy of life, and, on the other, the technical quali ties of colour, and light and shade, and fluently decorative and animated composition. He was a great painter and from him the Frenchmen of the eighteenth century, and particu larly Watteau, learned to regard their art as one of paint ing rather than of draughtsmanship. Watteau set the fashion for pictures of " fetes galantes," in which exquisitely costumed ladies and gentlemen dance, picnic, stroll, or recline in landscapes of ideal loveliness. The artist himself was a consumptive, doomed to an early death, and withal a foreigner. He kept himself aloof from actual contact with the court life, and caught what there was of poetry and beauty in it and idealised what he had derived. Such a picture as the " Embarkation for Cythera," the fabled isle of love, is a veritable poem of the joy of life and love of youth, blossoming in colour. No such richness and subtlety of colour or so abstract a conception of the loveliness of beauty appears in any of the followers of his style. They repeated his kind of sub ject, but in a manner less spirituelle, which, as the morality of society deteriorated, became more and more shallow and LOUVRE, PARIS PASTORAL SUBJECT Very decorative, but representing the declme in taste of the Rococo. VERSAILLES MADAME LOUISE Pretty and pleasing, but conventionally affected. ,RDIN LOUVRE, PARIS THE BLESSING Illustrating the sentimental side of Chardin's charming genre. GREUZE LOUVRE, PARIS THE BROKEN JUG Characteristic of his type of refined innocence. FRENCH PAINTING OF 18th CENTURY 445 meretricious, and, at the same time, exhibited a growing de cline of technical quality. Among these continuers of the "fetes galantes" were Nicolas Lancret (1690-1743), Jean Baptiste Pater (1695-1736), and Jean Baptiste van Loo (1684-1745). Francis Boucher (1703-1770) deserves more consideration, for, although his work is trivial in character, flashy in colour, and unpainterlike in technique, he was a decorator of no mean invention and of untiring industry. He made tapestry designs for the Gobelins, painted pictures and covered walls and ceilings with so prolific a brush, that the quality of his work suffered often from the haste with which it was conceived and executed. Fragonard (1732-1806) The succession of the painters of the "fetes galantes " closes with Jean Honore Fragonard. He derived his art straight from Rubens, instead of acquiring it by imitation of Watteau, and to some extent approximates the latter's excel lence. Scarcely less decorative than Boucher, he far sur passed him in drawing and colour, while his handling of the brush proved him to have the quality of a true painter. But the spirit of his work lacks the poetic seriousness of Watteau's and reflects the soulless emptiness of a society that was exhausted with self-indulgence. For the cynical phrase of La Pompadour to her royal lover, Louis XV., " After us, the deluge ! " was about to be fulfilled. The mut- terings of the revolution were in the air and Fragonard lived to see the fury break. Chardin (1699-1779) Meanwhile, outside the routine of court life there lived a painter who, like the brothers Le Nain in the preceding century, pursued the tenor of his way uninfluenced by fashion. This was Jean Baptiste Chardin — a true painter. His early 446 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART work consisted of still-life subjects; but in time he added figures and developed a beautiful genre style. It is dis tinguished by the charm of its colour, light and shade, and atmosphere. He again was a follower of Rubens, but dis covered for himself a method of painting which anticipated the later one that we shall meet with in the nineteenth cen tury. It involved the laying on of the paint in separate patches, which the eye at the necessary distance from the canvas combines into a unity. The appreciation which Frenchmen have for this artist is shown by the large group of his pictures in the Louvre. Louis XVI. came to the throne in 1774. Well-intentioned, but with no force of character, he was unable to cope with the problems that crowded upon the government. Nor could the graciousness of his queen, Marie Antoinette, add aught but pathos to the inevitableness of their destiny. What they could do, they did. The licentiousness of the court was re placed by an atmosphere of innocence, which itself was arti ficial. Virtue became the vogue, and it was the fashion to associate it with the life of the humbler classes. The queen erected in the park of Versailles " Le Hameau," a toy-village of cottages, mill, and cow-sheds, where she and her ladies played the part of shepherdesses and dairy-maids. This vogue of innocence and sentimental virtue was reflected in the art of Jean Baptiste Greuze. Greuze (1725-1805) As early as 1760 Greuze delighted society with his "A Father Reading the Bible to His Children." The novelty of such a subject produced a sensation, which was repeated in " A Father's Curse," and " The Son Chastened." Greuze be came the fashion and then proceeded to tickle the taste he had created, with pictures of lovely young girls, of inviting inno- FRENCH PAINTING OF 18th CENTURY 447 cence, plunged in grief because they had broken a pitcher, or in some other mild way involved themselves in pathos. As long as society was playing with the idea of innocence and virtue, Greuze was a success. But as the crisis of reality began to thicken, the artificiality of his subjects and their technical treatment ceased to captivate. Greuze and . his prettiness of style, so essentially meretricious, were swallowed up in the terrible realities of the revolution. ARCHITECTURE IN THE SEVENTEENTH AND EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES ITALY The close of the sixteenth century found established in Italy the vogue of colossal orders, of which St. Peter's is the noblest example. Frequently pilasters take the place of columns, running up through several stories. The origina tors of this style had been Palladio and Vignola, and the influence of the former extended into the seventeenth cen tury. It was, however, rivalled by the example of Bernini. Thus, in one direction the style known as Classicismo often tended to a cold and barren dignity, while in another the followers of Bernini swung to the opposite extreme of law less and vulgar extravagance. This latter style is popu larly known as " Baroque," which, in its original Italian form barocco, has the significance of being unrestrained, and in bad taste. It is seen most frequently in the churches of the period built by the powerful Order of the Jesuits ; and is characterised by " broken and contorted pediments, huge scrolls, heavy mouldings, ill-applied sculpture in exaggerated attitudes ; sham marble, heavy and excessive gilding, and a genuine disregard for architectural propriety" (Hamlin). The Gesuati, at Venice, erected 1715-1730, may be taken as a typical example. FRANCE The classic style of architecture was imported into' France from Italy with the advent of Marie de Medicis, wife of Henry IV. (1589-1610). The most important works of this period were the addition of a great court to the Palace of 448 PALACE OF FONTAINEBLEAU Salon of Louis XIII., or "Oval Salon," on northwest side of "Oval Court." The decoration is of the general style of Henry IV., but much altered during different reigns. m ", ''iiri mw.'j- I'jjiiuiir (iivi ,viius i ._«« LE PA VILLON RICHELIEU Sumptuous and dignified Renaissance style. THE PANTHEON, PARIS A great example of the classic revival of the reign of Louis XV, Note the imposing portico and the peristyle arouriu the drum of the dome. iAjmmfkJ***' THE LUXEMBOURG PALACE, FRANCE Graceful and picturesque adaptation of Italian palace architecture; 1616. 17th AND 18th CENTURY ARCHITECTURE 453 Fontainebleau, and the long gallery of the Louvre, facing on the river, which connected the Louvre proper with the Tuileries. The latter work was completed during the regency of Louis XIII. by the Queen Mother, whose most con spicuous achievement was the building of the Palace of the Luxembourg and the laying out of its gardens. Its architect was Salomon de Brosse. With the death of Cardinal Mazarin, in 1661, began the independent government of Louis XIV., under whom flour ished the style which corresponds to the Palladian in Italy. For, although French architecture of the period inclined to the colossal and pretentious, French propriety of taste avoided the extravagances of Bernini. The great work of this period is the Palace of Versailles. " No part of it is of very great importance architecturally, but its enormous size and its skilful interior disposition, together with its stately gardens, made the whole establishment a kind of model for the sovereigns of Europe " (Liibke). The chapel erected at the end of the seventeenth century is considered the most successful feature of the design. To Louis XIV.'s reign also belongs the vast pile of the Invalides, to which was added between 1680 and 1706 the celebrated dome, the mas terpiece of its author, J. H. Mansart. Mention must also be made of the Galerie d'Apollon of the Louvre, a famous example of sumptuous interior treatment. During the eighteenth century the vogue of the colossal disappeared and the French taste expanded most charac teristically in the delicatedecoration of moderate-sized rooms in private palaces. Among the notable examples of the period may be mentioned the beautiful buildings, at once dignified and simple, on the north side of the Place de la Concorde, the architect of which was Jacques Ange Gabriel ; also the Pantheon, designed by Jacques Soufflot, and the Church of St, Sulpice. The latter's celebrated front was 454 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART added by Servandoni, an Italian, the main part of the church having been the work of Gilles Marie Oppenord. The lat ter was the inventor, or at least the earliest influential worker in, the Rococo style. The style is essentially one of interior decoration, exhibited not only in the design of the wood work, painted ornament, silk hangings, tapestries, but also in the furniture and fixtures. A reaction against this style arrived during the reign of Louis XVL, when the pendulum of taste swung to the classical, but the financial embarrassments due to the revolu tion interfered with the erection of important buildings. GERMANY The architecture of public buildings in Germany during the seventeenth century varies between the luxurious " barok " and a decided classical tendency. Partaking of both is the addition (1601-1606) to Heidelberg Castle known as the Friedrichsbau. Two of the noblest examples of the classic style are in Berlin: the Zeughaus or arsenal, and the Royal Schloss, so far as it was rebuilt by Andreas Schliiter (1664- 1714). GREAT BRITAIN The civil war and the interregnum which lasted from 1640 to 1660 interfered with the execution of public build ings. The most important work thus stopped was the Palace of Whitehall, designed by Inigo Jones (1573-1652), which was carried no further than the completion of the banquet- hall. Of the whole design Sir Walter Armstrong says : " It is scarcely too much to say that, given the conditions, Jones's Whitehall is the most astonishing^creation, by a single mind, that the history of architecture has to show. It was the work of a man who went to Italy, learned the grammar of his art there, and returned to this country to project a 17th AND 18th CENTURY ARCHITECTURE 455 scheme for a palace larger than any other in the world ; at once more varied and more homogeneous ; inspired with a national feeling in spite of the fact that no national tra dition existed to help him; and grandly ornamental in its total effect." As to his other works, it is doubtful if Heriot's Hospital, Edinburgh, and the inner quadrangle of St. John's College, Oxford, usually ascribed to him, were actually from his design. But among the buildings unquestionably his are parts of Greenwich Hospital, of Wilton House, Salis bury, and of Cobham Hall, Kent, the Church of St. Paul, Covent Garden, and the Water Gate to York House, in the Strand. The fire of London, 1666, brought opportunity to Jones's great successor, Sir Christopher Wren (1632-1723). Though his magnificent plan for laying out the city on new lines was rejected, he rebuilt St. Paul's Cathedral and no less than fifty-four London churches. The cathedral, in plan, follows the genuine proportions of an English Gothic church, while the style of its architecture is strictly Italian. " The dominant feature of the design is the dome, which consists of an inner shell, reaching a height of 216 feet, above which rises the exterior dome of wood, surmounted by a stone lan tern, the summit of which is 360 feet from the pavement. The stone lantern is supported by a brick cone, the lower part of which forms the drum of the inner dome, its con traction upwards being intended to produce a perspective illusion of increased height." These particulars are quoted from A. D. F. Hamlin, who adds : " St. Paul's ranks among the five or six greatest domical buildings of Europe, and is the most imposing modern edifice in Europe." On the other hand, with greater enthusiasm, Sir Walter Armstrong writes : " St. Paul's has a more than plausible claim to be considered the most successful great church built in Europe during the Renaissance. St. Peter's, at Rome, excels it in 456 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART size, and in the dignity of its internal arrangements, while Michael Angelo's dome would rival Sir Christopher's, if only we could see it. But the external design of St. Paul's, as a whole, is infinitely finer than that of St. Peter's, while the other churches which might be quoted in the same connec tion — the Pantheon, and the Church of the Invalides, in Paris; St. Isaac's, at Petersburg — are comparatively unim portant, and lack the imaginative touch which makes the mass of St. Paul's so imposing." In his city churches, Wren was the inventor of that type of steeple in which a conical or pyramidal spire is har moniously added to a belfry on a square tower with classic details. The best example is considered to be that of Bow Church, Cheapside. His other achievements include the build ing of eight colleges, thirty-five halls for city companies, etc., four palaces, and over forty other important edifices. His greatest work, outside of St. Paul's, is the eastern part of Hampton Court Palace, a dignified treatment of red brick with stone dressings. Wren's example produced a school of followers and the Anglo-Italian style flourished throughout the eighteenth cen tury. Among the names that may be mentioned are Talman, designer of Chatsworth; Vanbrugh, whose chief works were Blenheim Palace, Castle Howard, Seaton Delaval, Grims- thorpe, and the ugly part of Greenwich Hospital ; Gibbs, best known by the two London churches, St. Mary-le-Strand and St. Martin's-in-the-Fields, and the Ratcliffe Library, Oxford ; George Dance, builder of the Mansion House ; and Sir William Chambers, whose most important design was that of Somer set House. He also designed a casino, near Dublin, in which city the Customs House was the work of Gandon, and the Parliament House (subsequently the Bank of Ireland) the work of Castell. The " College," Edinburgh, was the joint achievement of Sir Rowand Anderson and Robert Adam. ST. PAUL'S: WEST FRONT Masterpiece of Sir Christopher Wren. ST. PAUL'S CHURCH, NEW YORK A church in the Wren style, distinguished by the beauty of its steeple. Erected in 1764, one of the fine stone buildings of the Colonial period. FANEUIL HALL, BOSTON Showing the modest design of public buildings in Colonial times. OLD STATE HOUSE, BOSTON Example of a public building of the Colonial period. 17th AND 18th CENTURY ARCHITECTURE 461 The latter and his brother James, besides being architects, were the authors of a movement in the designing of furni ture and other artistic accessories, which lasted from about 1775 to 1815. AMERICA In the early part of the eighteenth century the influence of Wren found its way into the American Colonies. Wood was the material of construction usually employed, though occasionally in the richer colonies the churches and manor houses were built of imported bricks. To Wren are at tributed the Town Hall of Williamsburg, Virginia, and St. Michael's, Charleston. " But the most that can be said for those, as for the brick churches and manors of Virginia pre vious to 1725, is that they are simple in design and pleasing in proportion, without special architectural elegance. The same is true of the wooden houses and churches of New Eng land of the period, except that they are even simpler in de sign " (Hamlin). Between 1725 and 1775, however, a great advance was made in architecture. The churches of the period followed the models set by Wren and Gibbs; the details being modi fied in the case of wood construction. Some good examples are the Old South, at Boston, St. Paul's, New York, and Christ Church, in Philadelphia. In domestic architecture was developed the Colonial style ; an adaptation of the Anglo-Italian style, which was being worked out by Wren, Gibbs, and others in the great Eng lish country houses of the period. In Maryland and Vir ginia the manor houses were very frequently built of bricks, but elsewhere the use of wood involved a still further adap tation of the Anglo-Italian style. But the characteristics of the Colonial were the introduction of the orders, in columned porches, surmounted by pediments; colossal pilas- 462 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART ters running up through two stories, terminating in hand some and well-designed mouldings to doors and windows. The roofs were variously hipped, gambrelled, gabled, or flat. The veranda or piazza was a distinctive feature of the Southern mansion. The interiors displayed the influence of Adam and Sheraton ; cornices, wainscots, stairs and mantel pieces presenting a choice " adaptation of classic forms to the slender proportions of wood construction." " The major ity of New England houses," says Hamlin, " were of wood, more compact in plan, more varied and picturesque in design, than those of the South, but wanting something of their stateliness." The same authority cites as typical examples of the New England style : The Hancock House, Boston ( of stone, demolished) ; the Sherburne House, Portsmouth (1730); Craigie (Longfellow) House, Cambridge (1757); and Runiford House, North Woburn, Massachusetts. Of Southern examples he enumerates Westover (1737) and Carter's Grove (1737) in Virginia, and the Harwood and Hammond houses in Annapolis. The most important public buildings of the Colonial period are Independence Hall, Philadelphia ; the Town Hall of New port, Rhode Island; and the old State House, and Faneuil Hall, in Boston. BRITISH PAINTING OF THE EIGHTEENTH AND EARLY NINETEENTH CENTURIES In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries painting in Eng land was chiefly confined to portraiture, and, while there were native painters whose names are known, the patronage of the court and nobility was also expended upon foreigners. Hans Holbein the Younger, we have already stated, was em ployed as court painter by Henry VIII. Antonis Mor, called in England Sir Antonio More, visited the English court to paint a portrait of Queen Mary for Philip II. of Spain, her future husband. Rubens, during a diplomatic mission to Charles I., executed many commissions for the king, in cluding the decoration of the ceiling of the banquet room in the Palace of Whitehall. The same monarch welcomed Van Dyck, while his son, Charles II. , engaged the services of Sir Peter Lely and Sir Godfrey Kneller. The last two had many pupils, so that by the eighteenth century portrait painting, at least, was firmly established in England. Meanwhile, as the century progressed, there appeared a group of painters, who, besides being regarded as the found ers of the British school, are artists of international repu- Hogarth (1697-1764) tation. The earliest of these is William Hogarth. He was the son of a schoolmaster and scholar who lived near Lud- gate Hill. So the boy had early knowledge of the London and its life of which he became so remarkable a delineator. Apprenticed to a silversmith, he learned to engrave, and, being ambitious, studied drawing in order that he might be able to engrave his own designs on copper. At the same time he was a close and constant observer of the life around 463 464 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART him. In later years he said, "I have ever found studying from nature the shortest and safest way of obtaining knowl edge of my art." To-day this sounds like a truism, but in Hogarth's time it represented a truth neglected. It was upon the study of nature, which he did so much to foster, that the excellency of the whole school came to be based. Having finished his apprenticeship, Hogarth attended life classes in the school of drawing in St. Martin's Lane, and by the time he was twenty-seven years old had established his popularity with the public by a satirical engraving. This was followed by illustrations for books, single engravings, and sets in which he scourged the vices and follies of his age. Famous among these are the sets, respectively, "A Harlot's Progress," " A Rake's Progress," and " Marriage a, la Mode." The originals of these were painted in oils ; those of the " Marriage " set being now in the National Gallery. It is interesting to note that Hogarth's work was contemporary with the rise of the English novel. While he was an excellent portrait painter, no one has surpassed him in the art of telling a story in a picture. It was characteristic of him, and of his age, that the story pointed a moral. But this feature of his work must not ob scure the fact that Hogarth was a master-craftsman, both of painting and of engraving. He was the first of his coun trymen to paint as a painter, and not as a draughtsman who afterwards colours his designs ; and, as a painter, he is a worthy successor of the Holland painters, from whose pic tures, popular in England, he derived much of his painter- sense and skill. Joshua Reynolds (1723-1792) The Royal Academy was founded in 1768 and Reynolds was elected its first president, and, at the same time, received the order of knighthood, a distinction that has been con- HOGARTH MARRIAGE A-LA-MODE The first act of the drama is being enacted in a scene like a stnge setting; but while the story is told in detail, the picture is also an example of fine painting. HOGARTH LAVINIA FENTON, AS POLLY PEACHUM A portrait that brims with life, by the leader of the eighteenth century painters in their return to the study of nature. REYNOLDS NELLY O'BRIEN A charming example of unaffected and refined simplicity. REYNOLDS NATIONAL GALLERY LADY COCKBURN AND CHILDREN Illustrates the artist's scholarly knowledge of composition; and is also pleasantly intimate in sentiment. 18th AND 19th CENTURY BRITISH PAINTING 469 ferred upon all its presidents to the present day. He was born at Plympton, Devonshire, his father being a clergy man and teacher in the local grammar school. The son's taste for art was so pronounced that he was sent to London to study with the portrait painter Hudson. His student days being finished, Reynolds settled in Plymouth Dock, now called Devonport. Here, in time, he attracted the attention of Commodore, afterwards Admiral, Keppel, who took him on a voyage to the Mediterranean. Reynolds spent three years in Italy, and then returned by way of Paris and settled in London, where his leading position as a portrait painter was soon established. Later he visited the Netherlands. He would have preferred to paint historical subjects, and, in deed, did execute a few; but the public demanded portraits, and it is upon his achievement in this direction that his fame rests. He based his style upon a study of Michael Angelo, the Venetians, Correggio, and Van Dyck ; an eclectic, borrow ing hints from a variety of sources, but using them with a freedom of invention. His art was regulated by prece dent, and distinguished by learning and good taste rather than by originality. But his portraits have great dignity and graciousness, and are distinguished by the truth with which the character of the sitter is realised. He was himself a cultivated man, the intimate of the men of light and learning of his day. Thomas Gainsborougn (1727- 1788) In every respect Reynolds differed from his rival, Thomas Gainsborough, who, so far from borrowing various ingre dients of style from other painters, discovered one for him self from the direct study of nature. He was born in Sud bury, in Suffolk, the same county which, we shall see, pro duced the landscape painters Constable and Old Crome ; and 470 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART it was in landscape that Gainsborough first evinced his love of painting. Then he went to London, and studied with a painter of repute, Francis Hayman. After an unsuccessful attempt to establish himself as a painter of portraits and landscapes in London, Gainsborough retired to Ipswich, the county seat of Suffolk, and married Margaret Burr, a young lady of independent means. He was thus in a position to shape his art to the dictates of his own temperament. In 1760 he moved to the fashionable watering place Bath, where he practised successfully as a portrait painter, sending his pictures regularly to the Royal Academy Exhibition. Finally he settled in London, and rivalled Reynolds in por traiture, and Wilson, of whom we have yet to speak, in landscape. Gainsborough was as fond of music as of painting; a lover of home life and a few friends, and a man of dreamy and gentle nature. His temperament is reflected in his pictures, which, for the first time in British art, reveal the expression of mood and feeling. His brush-work has not the breadth and suavity of Reynolds, being distinguished by what is called " hatching," that is to say, by small strokes which, when viewed from a little distance, form a silky web, often of silvery tone, over the surface of the masses. In his portraits he showed a preference for cool colours, as may be seen in the well-known "Mrs. Siddons," "The Blue Boy," and the "Hon. Mrs. Graham." His landscapes, on the contrary, are apt to be warm in tone. Romney (1734-1802) Ranking next to Reynolds and Gainsborough, and sharing with them the patronage of society, was George Romney. Born at Dalton, in Lancashire, the son of a cabinet-maker, he was brought up to follow his father's business. Then he became the pupil of a painter in Kendal, where he married 18th AND 19th CENTURY BRITISH PAINTING 471 and practised portrait painting for five years with so much success that he resolved to try his fortune in London. There he rose rapidly to fame, and with the exception of one visit to Italy, continued to reside there for thirty-seven years. Then, broken in health, mind and body affected, he returned to the wife whom he had left in Kendal, and was cared for by her until his death. His conduct towards his wife, which in the face of things is not to his credit, seems to have been acquiesced in by her, and there is the evidence of his bank pass-book to show that he supplied her with funds and undertook the education of his children, sending one of the sons to Cambridge. Mean while, he made no secret of his devotion to Emma Lyon, who is better known as Lady Hamilton through her marriage with Sir William Hamilton. Romney drew, sketched, and painted his "divine lady," as he called her, both in por traits and fancy subject-pictures. These and Romney's por traits of women generally have an alluring charm of femin inity which distinguishes them from the more spirituelle qual ity of Gainsborough's, and the more formal and authorita tive style of Reynolds. The charm is not confined to the beauty of his types, but is expressed in the pose and gestures, and the draperies, while to grace of line is added a great charm of colour. The prestige of this group of portait painters was car ried on by their successors of the next generation. Sir William Beechey (1753-1839) was highly appreciated by the royal family and society ; but his portraits were characterised rather by facility to give a pleasing and at the same time truthful likeness than by actual aesthetic qualities. In this respect he was excelled by John Opie (1761-1807) and John Hoppner (1758-1810), whose portraits, however, are not in the rank of the earlier men and begin to show traces of conventional prettiness and sentiment. 472 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART Lawrence (1769-1830) These traits are pronounced in the work of Sir Thomas Lawrence, whose early career was marked by precocity and his whole life by sustained popularity. His father kept the Black Bear Inn, in Devizes, Wiltshire, and the boy made crayon portraits of the customers. At ten years old he set up as a portrait painter in crayons at Oxford, whence he moved to Bath, enjoying extraordinary success. In his seventeenth year he began to paint in oils and twelve months later settled in London and became a student of the Royal Academy, of which he lived to be president. After the death of Sir Joshua Reynolds, Lawrence was appointed painter to the king, and from that time onward was the acknowl edged painter of fashionable society. He excelled in feminine portraits. They are not free from a conventionalised sweet ness and elegance, regularly repeated; yet the brush-work is fluent and broad, the flesh tones are limpid and fresh, and the draperies treated with a feeling for beauty of fabrics and elegance of style. But perhaps his strongest point is the decorativeness which he imparted to his compositions; and it may be this quality that in our own day has caused the pictures of Lawrence to become a vogue in France. Raeburn (1756-1823) Contemporary with these English painters was Sir Henry Raeburn, who was born in Stockbridge, near Edinburgh, his father being a successful manufacturer. He studied under a local artist, but was practically self-taught and had mastered his style before he had carried out his ambition to visit Italy, where he stayed two years, enriching his mind, but not swayed from his own standard of method and ideals. His style is analogous to that of Frans Hals in the simple directness with which he viewed his subject, and the broad, characterful way in which he rendered what he saw. His portrait of Judge GAINSBOROUGH THE MARKET-CART Illustrates Gainsborough's love of rural nature. GAINSBOROUGH THE BLUE BOY Portrait of Master Buttall. A study in harmony based upon cool color. ROMNEY NATIONAL PORTRAIT GALLERY, LONDON LADY HAMILTON One of the many pictures painted by Romney of Emma Hart, who married Sir William Hamilton. LAWRENCE MRS. SIDDONS One of the artist's most serious and successful characterizations. 18th AND 19th CENTURY BRITISH PAINTING 477 Lord Newton is one of the masterpieces of portraiture. Its vigorous presentment of a man of force and character could not be bettered, while the actual brush-work has a suavity, distinction, and meaningf ulness that are en j oyable, simply as technique. Nor was Raeburn less successful in portraying the finer, substantial qualities of the women of the day. They are not players in the game of society, but women of breed ing in their real relation to life. He sometimes attempted a more showy style of composition in his portraits; but his best are those in which he simply and directly represents the character of his sitter. For these he takes rank with the few great portrait painters of the world. Blake (1757-1827) While the motive of painting at this period was chiefly por traiture, and in a less degree landscape, there appeared a great exception in the person of William Blake, a visionary and poet, as well as painter. The son of a hosier, he was born in London and lived all his life a Londoner; yet in the complete seclusion of his own spirit, occupied with a world of his own imagination. For a little while he attended a drawing school, but at fourteen years old was apprenticed to an engraver. While at times he painted, chiefly in water colours or tempera, his main works consisted of drawings or engravings, executed either upon wood or copper. One of the most beautiful examples of his genius is the volume of " Songs of Innocence," which he published the year after the death of his favourite brother. The exquisite verses were transcribed with his own hand upon the copper, together with marginal designs. He used some form of varnish for the drawing and transcription, so that the metal beneath the lines was protected from the acid with which he afterwards bit away the remainder of the surface. From these plates he himself printed the pages, while his wife bound them into 478 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART book-form and added the colour. Another volume, similarly made, bears the title " Book of Thel." His finest set of en gravings are the " Illustrations to the Book of Job," which he produced when he was nearing his seventieth year, encour aged to do so by his devoted friend, John Linnell, the land scape painter. In the Tate Gallery is his "The Spiritual Form of Pitt Guiding Behemoth." HENRY RAEEURN MRS. CAMPBELL OF BALLIEMORE Illustrates the artist's simple and direct method and his ability to render the charm and character of a personality. RICHARD WILSON THE STORM. Influenced by the Italian style of Claude Lorrain, but also full of natural beauty. EARLY BRITISH LANDSCAPE PAINTING We have seen that, while the Hollanders of the seventeenth century founded a school of Naturalistic landscape, their French contemporary, Claude Lorrain,, invented the Classical landscape. The vogue of the latter lasted throughout the eighteenth century, and its influence affected the first of the English landscape painters. Wilson (1714-1782) This was Richard Wilson, a Welshman, born at Pinegas, Montgomeryshire, the son of a clergyman. He studied in London with an obscure portrait painter, and himself com menced his career in portraiture. But he paid a visit to Italy, where in Venice he met Zuccarelli and Vernet, who induced him to turn to landscape painting. He soon acquired a reputation among Italian artists for his work in this line, and when, after an absence of six years, he returned to London, created a great impression by exhibiting his " Niobe," which is now in the National Gallery. But the ap preciation of landscape painting at that time in England was very limited, and Wilson was compelled to eke out his slender resources by acting as librarian of the Royal Academy. Yet he found liberal purchasers for some of his pictures, and of these he made several replicas. Many of his subjects were engraved by Woollett. His most characteristic pictures are Italian in subject, decorative and dignified in composition, involving exquisitely rendered natural features, mingled with classic ruins and other suggestions of decaying grandeur. Over all breathes a lovely spirit, penetrated at times by profound emotion. 481 482 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART Old Crome (1768-1821) Contemporary with Wilson was the start in England of the naturalistic landscape, founded upon the example of Hobbema and other Hollanders. It is known as the Norwich school, since that little cathedral town in the east of Eng land was the birth-place of its leader, John Crome, usually called " Old Crome," to distinguish him from other, younger, painters of the same family. His father kept an inn, and the son began life as a coach painter, meanwhile spending his leisure time sketching. His pictures are characterised by the few and simple details which make up the subject; by warm tones and a tendency to brownish hues, and a broad handling of the brush. The best known among his fol lowers are James Stark (1794-1859), George Vincent (1796- about 1831), and John Sell Cotman (1782-1842). Constable (1776-1837) In the adjoining county of Suffolk lived Gainsborough, who, as we have seen, varied portraiture with landscapes. And in this same county lived John Constable, the son of a miller at East Bergholt. He studied at the Royal Academy schools, and, for a little while, tried to practise portrait painting in London. But his heart was in the country. " There is room," he said, " for a natural painter," and, accordingly, returned home to paint the landscape of the country-side. In later years he resided in Hampstead, which was then a village on the north edge of London. Constable's first claim to distinction is that he abandoned the brown tones borrowed from the Hollanders, looked at nature with his own eyes, and dared to paint the actual colours of the fields and trees. It needed courage, for patrons preferred the brown landscape, and derided his greens and yellows, calling them " eggs and spinach." Further, he represented the foliage of trees as stirred by the wind, which JOHN (OLD) CROME HAUTBOIS COMMON One of the fine examples of this early English student of rural nature. JOHN CONSTABLE THE HAY "WAIN In its spacious treatment of the masses this is one of the fine examplss of the artist's maturity. EARLY BRITISH LANDSCAPE PAINTING 485 led him to a broader and more synthetic style of brush-work than that of Hobbema. Again, he adopted the use of " broken tones." If, for example, he were painting a meadow, he would work over the local green colour with strokes of lighter or darker green or yellow; in this way breaking up the uniformity of the local colour and giving it in creased intensity. This last feature of his work was par ticularly observed by Delacroix, when some of Constable's landscapes were shown in Paris, at the Salons of 1824 and three following years, and suggested to the great French colourist the value of broken colours in his own work. More over, the naturalism of Constable's pictures commended itself to other young French painters, who were beginning to take nature for their model, and so exerted an influence on the growth of what is known as the Barbizon-Fontainebleau school. Turner (1775-1851) Among the landscape painters Joseph Mallord William Turner stands out as a solitary genius. He was the son of a London barber and was born in Maiden Lane, Covent Garden. As a boy he displayed no inclination for schooling, but a precocious talent for drawing, in which he was assisted by one of his father's customers, the art patron, Dr. Munro. The latter possessed many fine drawings, which he permitted Turner and his young friend, Thomas Girtin, to copy, at the same time encouraging the boys to draw from nature on the banks of the Thames. Turner also gained employ ment as a cplourer of prints, and worked for a while in the studio of an architect. Then, at the age of fifteen, he entered the schools of the Royal Academy, and a year later exhibited a "View of the Archbishop's Palace at Lambeth." In those pre-photographic days there was a great demand for engraved views and Turner was engaged by J. Walker, the 486 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART engraver, to make drawings for his Copperplate Maga zine, and between the years 1790 and 1797 he explored the whole of England and part of Wales. Drawings and water- colours continued to engage his attention during the greater part of his career; meanwhile, in 1802, after a tour of the Continent, he made his appearance in the exhibitions as an oil-painter. The classical landscape was still in vogue, and Turner deliberately set himself to prove that he could rival the best that had been done in this line. Particularly he pitted himself against the fame of Claude Lorrain and in rivalry of the latter's " Liber Veritatis " began his own " Liber Studi- orum." This consists of seventy-one sepia drawings, repro duced on copper by a mixed process of etching and mezzotint, the former done by his own hand, the latter for the most part by other engravers. The series presents a great monument to Turner's genius, although as a challenge to Claude's series of drawings it is unfair and proves nothing, since it was executed under different conditions and in a different way. However, having demonstrated, as he believed, that he was the equal of Claude, he proceeded, as he expressed it, to be Turner. He abandoned the classical character of com position for one more nearly resembling the artlessness of nature. Yet, he cannot be classed with Constable as a nat uralistic painter, for his oil pictures are expressive of a romantic temperament, which indulged in majestic and dra matic conceptions, evolved from his own imagination. Espe cially did he devote himself to the study of light, atmos phere and movement, and his grandest and most characteristic works are those in which he uses these effects to in terpret his dreams of nature. Unfortunately, many of them have suffered through the haste, or carelessness, with which the pigments were mixed and applied. Turner led a curiously secretive life, which appeared to THE FIGHTING TEMERAIRE A rose and golden sky from which the light is slowly ebbing, as the victorious battleship ig being towed by a small black tug to be dismantled and broken up. DAVID LOUVRE THE SABINES Example of the cold, expressionless artificiality of the effort to imitate the Greek manner. EARLY BRITISH LANDSCAPE PAINTING 489 be marked by excessive miserliness. At his death, however, it was made clear that he had been jealously working for posthumous fame. His will bequeathed his property and vast accumulation of pictures to the nation for the purpose of founding a Turner Gallery. But the document was con fused and led to litigation, the result of which was that the bulk of his funded property went to his next of kin, while the nation received £20,000 and all his pictures and drawings. Turner's three periods, namely, the early topo graphical landscape, the later Claude Lorrain classical type, and the final freely personal work, which terminated in a brief period of chaotic effort, cleft by gleams of brilliant imagination, can all be studied in the National Gallery and Tate Gallery. CLASSICAL REVIVAL TRANCE During the last quarter of the eighteenth century a Classical revival spread over Europe. It had its origin in the writings of the German critic Winckelmann, whose studies of Greek and Roman sculpture laid the foundations of scientific arch eology and the history of Classic art. In his " Thoughts on the Imitation of Greek Works in Painting and Sculpture," he laid it down as an axiom that Greek sculpture represented the standard of perfection to which all art must endeavour to approximate; that not only modern sculpture, but also modern painting, could reach their highest possibilities only through imitation of the antique. This was to establish form as the final test of excellence, and to maintain that ex cellence consisted in copying the severe purity of the " marble manner." It overlooked the distinctive qualities of painting ; its capacity to interpret colour, light and atmosphere, and, in fact, denied to painting its independence as a separate prov ince of art. It was in France that, owing to social and political con ditions, this doctrine took deepest and most abiding root. Rococo art had spent its earlier vitality. It had become the mere toy o'f fashion in a state of society that itself had lost all vigour. Society was but the iridescent gleam on the surface of a welter of political corruption and incompetence. A reaction was inevitable, and naturally took shape in that which presented the greatest contrast to the prettiness, mere- triciousness, and insincerity of the latest phase of the Rococo. This was found in the severity and purity of style of the Classic. 490 CLASSICAL REVIVAL IN FRANCE 491 Nor was the change confined to art. The thinkers of the day discovered in the Classic ideals a panacea for the social and political evils of the present. They reverted especially to the ideal of the Roman Republic ; its stern patriotism and severe morality. If France was to be saved, it must be by a return to the "old Roman manner." Thus, the social and political reformer was at one with the reactionaries in art. The first of the latter was Joseph Marie Vien (1716-1809), who, in his protest against the art of Boucher and Van Loo, led the way in a return to Classical severity. His influence, however, was small as compared with that of his pupil, David (1748-1825) Jacques Louis David. Trained in his master's devotion to the antique, and bristling with the unrest of his times and belief in the Roman ideal, young David visited Rome and immediately applied himself, as Poussin had done before him, to the study of Roman bas-reliefs. But to him was added enthusiasm for the incidents of the old Roman story. He took for subject a famous episode of self-denying patriotism, and painted the " Oath of the Horatii." When exhibited in Paris, it was instantly recognised as the embodiment of a new gospel, not only of art, but of social and political ideals. David sprang at once into fame, and was accepted as a leader. He made his influence felt, not only in paint ing, but in the fashion of furniture and dress, and most of all in stimulating the Republican enthusiasm. During the tumult of the revolution he exercised control as minister of the fine arts, and, later, when chaos was converted into order, devoted himself to the service of Napoleon. At the restora tion of the Bourbon dynasty he found it convenient to retire to Brussels, where he resided until his death. To the modern student, unaffected by the social and politi cal conditions of David's own day, his Classical pictures 492 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART seem like exercises in rhetorical declamation; artificial, cold, and uninspiring. Their appeal has passed and their interest is mainly, if not entirely, historical. Meanwhile there is another side to David, one distinctly French; namely, his faculty of keen observation and clean, concise rendition. This appears, in a magnificent way, in the great ceremonial pic tures which he painted of the Imperial Court, documents of vivid interest still; and, in simpler forms, in the documents of individual personalities which he left in numerous por traits. These have little aesthetic attractiveness, but are re markable for their direct and vivid characterisation. David's various phases as a painter are well represented in the Louvre. His influence survived in pupils too numerous to mention in detail. The result is that the Classical motive has con tinued to be the standard of taste in the French Academy of the Fine Arts, and the basis of training in its official schools. Thus, the Academy and its schools have been, and are, the strongholds of tradition, against which attack after attack has been directed by the more modern and progres sive element. Meanwhile they persist and justify their exist ence by the fact that they perpetuate a definite criterion of judgment and a system of precise instruction; the result of which is apparent even in those French painters who are most opposed to Classical and Academic restrictions: a certain sanity and logic which are characteristically French. On the other hand, it must not be overlooked that the Classical or Academic school has been continually modified by influence from outside. In fact, its strict reliance upon the antique did not survive David, and was even mitigated dur ing his lifetime. Thus a contemporary of David's, Pierre Paul Prud'hon, derived his inspiration from Italy, but not from antique sculpture. His models were Raphael, Correg gio, Leonardo da Vinci, and the sculptor Canova. His sub jects were for the most part mythological, embodying a re- PRUD HON THE ABDUCTION OF PSYCHE A charmingly sentimentalised use of the painting of the Greek line. EYLAU A mingling of the romantic and the naturalistic motive. CLASSICAL REVIVAL IN FRANCE 495 fined elegance of drawing and a sentiment sometimes poign ant, elsewhere dreamily poetic. One may see an example of the former in his " Justice Pursuing Crime," and of the latter in his " Psyche Borne by Zephyrus," both of which are in the Louvre. They are characterised, not by clear definition of form, as in the strictly Classical pictures, but by an elabo rate scheme of light and shade, which renders the figures " misty and phantomlike." Gros (i77I-l835) Another important figure of the period was Baron Antoine Jean Gros. A pupil of David, he was an artist of great originality, but of little self-confidence. Thus his career was divided between works in which he exhibited his own personal ity, and those in which he, unfortunately, allowed himself to be biassed by devotion to his master's ideals. The former are exemplified in the paintings which he executed as the result of his accompanying Napoleon, then General Bonaparte, in the campaigns of the French army in Italy. The Louvre contains his " Bonaparte on the Bridge at Areola," " Bona parte Visiting the Plague Stricken at Jaffa," and " Napoleon at Eylau." In these he abandoned the bas-relief method of composition, the arrangement of the figures in artificially con trived groups, and the expression of merely impersonal senti ment. He grouped the figures in a natural way, and made them expressive of the actual emotions aroused by the dra matic circumstances of the occasion. He was thus the link between the Classical school and the Romantic school, which was to follow, and by his example did much to promote the latter. It is in this connection that his rank in French art is established. We may mention here, for convenience, though they be long to a later period of the nineteenth century, a few painters whose Classicism was variously modified. Jean A SHORT HISTORY OF ART Hippolyte Flandrin (1809-1864), known as "the religious painter of France," was distinguished by a delicate feeling for line and form, and by the religious sentiment of his pictures. On the other hand, it was an idyllic sentiment, lavished on mythological subjects, that characterised the work of Charles Gabriel Gleyre (1806-1874). His influence led to the appearance of a small group of painters called " Neo-Greeks," whose pictures did not rise above the level of graceful and sentimental prettiness. On the other hand, there were painters who felt the growing influence of natural istic ideas, and mingled this motive with the Academic. The most representative of these men was Jean Leon Gerome (1824-1904), who enjoyed during his long life an immense reputation, which the present scarcely endorses. For, while gifted with great learning, a most skilful and accurate draughtsman, and a man of extraordinary versatility, he was lacking in the feeling of an artist ; so that while his pictures often interest one, they leave us for the most part cold. His versatility led him to adopt readily the influences of his time. Thus, when it became the vogue for artists to seek their subjects in the Orient and Northern Africa, Ge rome was to the front with scenes depicting the picturesque ness of the life and surroundings of these regipns. Some of them are marvels of exact representation; but the spirit of the Orient is lacking, and these pictures approximate to the character and quality of coloured photographs. Other examples of proficient technicians, Academic at heart, but adopting something of the Naturalistic manner, are Alexandre Cabanel (1823-1889) and Adolphe Bouguereau (1825-1905). The latter has been very popular for his senti mental renderings of young girls and children, which he pro duced with unflagging industry, but with none of the en thusiasm of the artist, or any of the evidences of sound, much less great, paintings Another popular sentimentalist, CLASSICAL REVIVAL IN FRANCE 497 possessing, however, an original sense of colour and painter's craft, which he allowed to degenerate into a mannerism, was Jean Jacques Henner (1829-1905). Ingres (1780-1867) It remains, in this brief survey, to retrace our steps and mention the greatest of the Classical painters of modern France, Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres. He was David's most distinguished pupil, but modified the rigour of his mas ter's style by study of the Italian masters, particularly Raphael. It has been mentioned that the best French painters of the eighteenth century owed their inspiration to Rubens. Ingres was the consistent opponent of the lat ter's influence. He admitted the greatness of Rubens, but warned his own pupils against what he considered the dan gerous influence of the Flemish colourist. For he would not accept colour as a subject for the student's attention. " Form," he would say, " is everything," and he based his instruction and his art on drawing. But Ingres's understand ing and use of form were very different from the dry pre cision of David. It was the life of form that interested him, and his drawing was not a matter solely of exact proportions and academic formula, but also of living interpretation. Few artists have used a line so instinct with life, so much the product of an act of creation, and the medium of creating expression, as did Ingres. Because of his upholding form as the foundation of painting, he was regarded as the champion of the Academic school, but in consequence of the fluid, liv ing energy of his drawing he became an inspiration to artists who were opposed to the Academic routine ; to such a one, for example, as Degas, the extreme contradiction of what the Academy stands for. In fact, although Ingres led the opposition of the Classicists to the Romanticists, of whom we shall speak in the next chapter, his great contribution 498 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART was that he vitalised the dead Classicism of the schools, and infused into French art generally a respect for fine drawing and harmoniously balanced composition. He was no mere continuer of an old tradition, but the creator of a new one which has affected for good the sculpture as well as the paint ing of modern France. He is well represented in the Louvre by such works as " The Source," " GEdipus and the Sphinx," and " Odalisque Bathing," all of them beautifully expressive renderings of the nude ; cold and sometimes harsh in colour, but enchanting in line and form. Like his master, David, he also excelled in portraits. A particularly distinguished ex ample is that of Madame de Vaucay, with its exquisite arabesque of line and patterning. DHH^^^I PORTRAIT OF MME. DE VAUCAY Exhibits the artist's grasp of character and also his grand and exquisite use of line. PAULINE BUONAPARTE Here, as not always in Canova's work, the grace and elegance stop just short of too insipid a sweetness CLASSICAL SCULPTURE LATE EIGHTEENTH AND EARLY NINETEENTH CENTURIES ITALY At the end of the eighteenth century Rome became the centre of a Classical revival in sculpture, which spread over Europe. It was stimulated by the writings of Winckelmann, and found its leader in the Venetian sculptor Antonio Canova (1757-1822). The latter's first important work, after com ing to Rome, was " Theseus and the Minotaur," which made him famous, and procured him several monumental commis sions, among them being the tomb of Pope Clement XIII., in St. Peter's. But his style was lacking in the force neces sary for designs of such magnitude. Nor was he very suc cessful with masculine subjects, such as "Hercules and Lichas." His forte was the rendering of grace and beauty, especially those of women. In his "Amor Embracing Psyche," the original of which is now in the Louvre, he has been charged with being a " softened Bernini." Much of his work is overdelicate in manner, rather insipidly elegant and smooth. He is seen at his best in the beautiful portrait statue of Napoleon's sister, Pauline Borghese. DENMARK Among the artists who thronged Rome at this period was the Danish sculptor Bertel Thorwaldsen (1770-1844). He was a more thorough Classicist than Canova. From the day of his arrival in Rome he dated a new life. He applied him self to copy the antique statues and to absorb the Classic spirit; and then, with amazing fecundity of imagination, 501 502 A, SHORT HISTORY OF ART proceeded to produce an array of works, distinguished by a chaste and noble feeling for form. Among his monumental subjects may be mentioned the statue of Gutenberg, at Mayence, and of Schiller, at Stuttgart, the equestrian statue of the Elector Maximilian, in Munich, and the Lion of Lucerne, commemorating the Swiss Guards who fell in de fence of the Tuileries in 1790. Thorwaldsen's success in Rome led the King of Denmark to urge his return to Copen hagen, where the commissions awarded him were chiefly for religious subjects, into which he introduced a novel and dig nified treatment. GERMANY Among the sculptors immediately influenced by Canova was the German, Johann Heinrich Dannecker (1758-1841), who is best known for his " Ariadne, Seated on a Panther," though his portraits, for example the colossal bust of Schiller, in the Stuttgart Museum, and the bust of Lavater, in the Zurich Library, are distinguished by a delicate ap preciation of nature and fine characterisation. Another German, Johann Gottfried Schadow (1764-1850), after imbibing in Rome enthusiasm for the Classic, returned to Berlin. His work " represents the transition from the Classic to the patriotic style " (Marquand and Frothing- ham). On the death of Frederick the Great he proposed to make an equestrian statue with the figure in Roman cos tume; but in executing the work, which is in Stettin, sub stituted the costume of the period. In his statue of Leopold of Dessau, he clothed the latter's figure in regimentals, but adopted Roman draperies in the bas-reliefs of the pedestal. " He was afraid," he said, " that ' poets and artists ' would protest against the Prussian uniforms." To this Queen Louise is said to have remarked : " If my husband wanted CLASSICAL SCULPTURE 503 Greek and Roman generals, well and good ; but he wants Prus sians. How, then, are they to be distinguished? " Meanwhile, Christian Daniel Rauch (1777-1857) learned from antique sculpture the principles of form and composi tion, but applied them with a free invention to the portrayal of historical themes. His monumental works expressed the German national spirit in terms of plastic beauty. Men tion must be made of his monument of Queen Louise, in the mausoleum at Charlottenburg, " a living portrait and at the same time an ideal of womanhood"; the statue of Maximil ian, in Munich, and of Frederick the Great, in Berlin. The last, " in dignity, harmony, and beauty of composition, marks the highest point reached by German sculpture " (Marquand and Frothingham). A pupil of the foregoing, Ernst Rietschel (1804-1861), ranks high among the sculptors of the century for his faith ful and characteristic rendering of life as well as for depth of sentiment. These traits are exhibited, for example, in the double monument of Goethe and Schiller, in Weimar, that of Lessing, in Brunswick, and the statue of Luther, at Worms, while a Pieta, in the Friedenskirche, near Potsdam, is a work of striking expression and profound religious feeling. ENGLAND The Classical revival in England commenced with Thomas Banks (1735-1805), Joseph Nollekens (1737-1823), John Bacon (1740-1799), and John Flaxman (1755-1826). The most important is the last named, who went back to the Greek for inspiration. He is best remembered for his out line illustrations to Homer, ^Eschylus, and Dante, and for his classic designs and exquisite reliefs for Wedgwood pot tery. An example of his sculpture is the monument to Lord Mansfield, in Westminster Abbey. " Flaxman, like the rest 504 , A SHORT HISTORY OF ART of the Classicisers," writes Sir Walter Armstrong (and the criticism is equally true of most of the Classical sculptors of this period in other countries), "did not realise that for the sculptor, above all men, the motto should be thorough. The simplicity of the Greek satisfies because it barely veils profound knowledge; that of his imitator leaves us cold because we have a sense of emptiness behind. We see that he has been captured by the outward beauty of Greek sculpture, and has set out to imitate it without first mastering the knowledge from which it sprang." Richard Westmacott (1775-1856) followed Flaxman in statues of Psyche, Cupid, and Euphrosyne. He executed the sculpture in the pediment of the British Museum, and monu ments of Pitt and Fox, in Westminster Abbey. He also represented the Duke of Wellington as Achilles ! Francis Chantry (1781-1842), the friend of Canova and Thorwaldsen, is best represented by his bust portraits, though his " Sleeping Children," in Lichfield Cathedral, and " Resig nation," in Worcester Cathedral, are the works by which he is most popularly known. He left his fortune to establish the Chantry Bequest, the interest of which is devoted to pur chasing contemporary works of British painting and sculp ture for the National Collection. The strongest sculptor of this period, when at his best, was the Irishman John Henry Foley (1818-1874). In his early work he showed the prevailing Classical influence, but in his later portrait busts and statues represents the transi tion to the naturalistic manner. Among the later subjects are the equestrian statue of Outram, in Calcutta; statues of Goldsmith, Burke, and Grattan, in Dublin; the Prince Con sort, of the Albert Memorial, in Hyde Park, London ; and a statue of General " Stonewall " Jackson, in Richmond, Vir ginia. THORWALDSEN LION OF LUCERNE To the memory of the Swiss Guard that fell in the defence of Louis XVI. FLAXMAN SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM MICHAEL AND SATAN Rather formal and frigid. Note the over-strained emphasis of the right arm. CLASSICAL SCULPTURE 507 AMERICA Before summarising the effect of the Classical influence upon American sculptors of the first half of the nineteenth century, we may mention the pioneers of the art in this country. The earliest mention seems to be that of Mrs. Patience Wright (1725-1785), who lived in Bordentown, New Jersey. She executed figures in wax, and one of them, a statue of Lord Chatham, was given a place in Westminster Abbey. In 1789, John Dixey, an Irishman, who had studied in Rome, came over to America and executed figures of Justice for the State House in Albany and the City Hall, New York. Two years later arrived Giuseppe Ceracchi, an Italian Republican, bringing with him a design for a monu ment to Liberty. The description of it, as quoted by Mar quand and Frothingham, is very suggestive of the Bernini tradition, inflamed by the romantic fervour of the Revolu tionary period. " The Goddess of Liberty is represented descending in a car drawn by four horses, darting through a volume of clouds which conceals the summit of a rainbow. Her form is at once expressive of dignity and peace. In her right hand she brandishes a flaming dart, which, by dis pelling the mists of error, illuminates the universe; her left is extended in the attitude of calling upon the people of America to listen to her voice." Though Ceracchi's project failed to secure support, he executed some excellent busts of Washington, Hamilton, Clinton, Paul Jones, and John Jay. In Philadelphia, William Rush (1757-1833) taught him self to carve in wood and model in clay. His bust of Wash ington is in the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts, while his " Water Nymph," originally executed in wood, has been reproduced in bronze and set up in Fairmount Park. According to Dunlop, the first marble portrait made by a native American sculptor was the bust of John Wells, for Grace Church, New York. It was executed in 1820 by John 508 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART Frazee (1790-1852), a resident of Rahway, New Jersey, who had never seen a marble statue. Other portraits by him are busts of John Jay, Daniel Webster, and Chief Justice Marshall. In the early part of the nineteenth century, Rome, as we have seen, became the Mecca of the American student ; and with much the same result in the case of the sculptor as in that of the painter. Both misunderstood the true value of the Classic as a treasury of principles, and attempted a more or less barren imitation of its manner. The first to be thus influenced by the example of Canova and Thorwaldsen was Horatio >Greenough (1805-1852). His " Chanting Cherubs " was the first marble group executed by an American, and it was followed by other nude " ideal " subjects. He even represented Washington in the half -nude, as Olympian Jove, in the seated statue, which is in front of the Capitol at Wash ington, D. C. As usual with these early men, so intent upon ideal and Classical compositions, his best work was done in bust portraits, which compelled observation, study, and nat uralistic rendering. To his credit are busts of Washington, Lafayette, and John Quincy Adams. Excellent busts and portrait statues were accomplished also by Hiram Powers (1805-1873), though his " Greek Slave" is the work with which his memory is particularly associated. When the statue was brought to Cincinnati, a committee of clergymen was appointed to interview it and pronounce upon the propriety of exhibiting it in public. They reported that, notwithstanding its nudity, the statue was distinguished by purity of sentiment. Thomas Crawford (1814-1857), a pupil of Thorwaldsen, made the colossal Liberty for the dome of the National Capitol; a figure which blends with the Classical manner a strain of Romantic feeling. The latter is even more ap parent in his groups in the pediment, which represent the CLASSICAL SCULPTURE 509 Indian mourning over the decay of his race. In the bronze doors of the Capitol, executed towards the end of his life, Crawford followed the example of Ghiberti's doors in the Baptistery of Florence. The Metropolitan Museum possesses a Cleopatra, Medea, Semiramis, and Polyxena, by William Wetmore Story (1819- 1895). They are academically correct, but empty of artistic interest. Thomas Ball (1819-1911), who lived for many years in Florence, is best represented, not by his ideal sub jects, but by his equestrian statue of Washington in the Pub lic Gardens in Boston. Similarly, the fame of William Henry Rinehart (1825-1874), notwithstanding his ideal works, pre served in the museum of the Peabody Institute, Baltimore, rests most securely on his seated statue of Chief Justice Taney. The original is in Annapolis; its replica in Baltimore. Indeed, it is invariably true of these early men that they did their best work when they concerned themselves with the facts and sentiment of American life. And that this should be the constant practice of the American sculptor was the contention of Henry Kirke Brown (1814-1886). He spent some time in Italy, with excellent results to his own sturdy individuality, as may be seen in his equestrian statue of Washington, in Union Square, New York, and of General Scott, in Washington. FRANCE The seventeenth century, in all branches of art, had seen the vogue under Louis XIV. of the colossal and the pompous. Among the most celebrated sculptors of the period who satisfied this taste for display, and for the ex aggerated expression of emotion, was Pierre Puget (1622- 1694). He worked chiefly in Genoa, where a "Martyrdom of St. Sebastian " was ¦ executed by him for the Church of 510 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART Sta. Maria da Carignano. The Louvre possesses his group of " Milo Torn by Lions," and a bas-relief of " Alexander and Diogenes." Francois Girardon (1630-1715) designed the tomb of Cardinal Richelieu in the Chapel of the Sorbonne, in Paris, which is ultra-picturesque in character. He is also noted for the exaggerated grace of his female figures. Antoine Coysevox (1640-1720) supplied monumental sculpture for the decoration of Versailles. He also ex ecuted the tomb of Cardinal Mazarin, which is now in the Louvre. In the same gallery is his portrait statue of the Princess Marie Adelaide of Savoie as Diana, and a por trait bust of the famous Prince de Conde. With the eighteenth century French sculpture paralleled the change that distinguished the painting of the period. On the one hand it became more graceful and refined, and on the other more naturalistic. Jean Baptiste Pigalle (1714-1785) executed the monu ment of Louis XV. in Rheims. The principal statue was destroyed during the revolution, but the statues of Com merce and the Fatherland remain, the former being one of the most important examples of naturalistic sculpture of modern times. Pigalle's masterpiece, however, is the Mercury, of the Louvre. In the latter is also a Mercury, bending his bow, by Edme Bouchardon (1698-1762), which is Greek in feeling. His masterpiece is the fountain in the Rue de Grenelle, in Paris. But the greatest sculptor of this period was Jean Antoine Houdon (1741-1828). His advice to his students was : " Copy, copy always, and above all, copy accurately." While he occasionally produced an ideal statue, such as the Diana, of the Louvre, his genius was best displayed in portraiture. The most famous ex amples are the seated figures of Voltaire and Rousseau, and busts of Rousseau, Louis XVI., Franklin, Mirabeau, Lafayette, and Bonaparte, He paid a visit to America and HIRAM POWERS CORCORAN ART GALLERY THE GREEK SLAVE The first example of a nude statue, by an Ameri can, made in Rome under the influence of Canova and Thorwaldsen. Phoiofrni^ii uy Baldwin Luolldge, Buslonl THOMAS CRAWFORD MUSEUM OF FINE ARTS, BOSTON ORPHEUS Example of Classical Revival. CLASSICAL SCULPTURE 513 executed the fine statue of Washington in the Capitol in Richmond. Classicalism appeared in France, as elsewhere, towards the end of the eighteenth century. Antoine Denis Chaudet (1763-1810) studied in Rome. The Louvre possesses his " Paul and Virginia," " Amor," and " CEdipus Called to Life by Phorbas." He made the colossal statue of Napoleon which, until 1814, crowned the summit of the Colonne Ven- dome. The reliefs on the base of the latter were executed by Francois Bosio (1769-1845), who also modelled the Quad riga on the Triumphal Arch in the Place du Carrousel. In the Louvre are his "Cupid Bending a Bow," "Hya- cinthus," and the " Nymph Salmacis." James Pradier (1792-1862) is best represented by the statues of Victory on Napoleon's tomb and the Arc de Triomphe. Mention also may be made of the statue of Henry IV., of the Pont Neuf in Paris, by Francois Lemot (1773-1827). FRENCH ROMANTIC SCHOOL OF PAINTING We have seen how the conditions which preceded the French revolution brought about the establishment of the Classical, or Academic, school of painting, and that, since the latter satisfied an element in the French character of logical orderliness and exactness, it has continued. Meanwhile, the revolution brought about to a certain extent a disrup tion of traditions, a letting loose of the individual, and a freer opportunity of personal expression. This side of it could not be reflected in Classicism. But the new century was nearly twenty years old before the enthusiasm for lib erty, and the craving of the individual to interpret his own experiences and emotions of life, resulted in the beginning of the Romantic school of painting. The Romantic movement, it is scarcely necessary to say, was not confined to France, nor, indeed, had its origin there. It is rather to be attributed to the writings and example of Goethe, whose influence spread to England, and inspired, among others, Scott and Byron. Through the latter it reached France and touched into flame the genius of Victor Hugo and other poets, as well as that of painters like Gericault and Delacroix. The spirit that ani mated the movement was in some instances one of rebel lion against the past; more generally a glorious sense of the grandeur of the present, as represented in the abound ing possibilities of the emotional life. Whether in literature or in painting, it was a movement characterised by colour, dramatic action, vivid sensations, and the freest possible expression of the artist's own moods of feeling; and as a background to these it utilised the emotional suggestion of nature's infinite varieties. It was 514 FRENCH ROMANTIC SCHOOL OF PAINTING 515 thus in every way a contradiction of the Classical reliance upon form, restraint, and impersonal expression. Its fol lowers turned again to Rubens and extolled colour, light, atmosphere, and movement. For its subjects it abandoned the Classical motive and adopted mediaeval stories, or the dramatic happenings of the present, while the painters drew largely on the themes of the novelists and poets. Gericault (i 791-1824) We have seen how the example of Gros tended to pre pare the way for this movement of stress and storm. It may be recognised in the early work of Theodore Gericault. He had a boy's fondness for the circus, and grew to be an enthusiast of horses, so that his father placed him for in struction with the battle painter Carle Vernet. For a short time he attended the studio of the Classical painter Pierre Narcisse Guerin (1774-1833); but this master's methods were little suited to the adventurous and masterful spirit of Gericault, who set up for himself a studio of his own. In 1812 he painted the "Officer of the Gardes Chas seurs," which was followed two years later by a "Wounded Cuirassier Quitting the Field." Both of these are in the Louvre, and represent the example of Gros, caught and carried to a grander pitch of expression by a younger, more ardent, and more assured man, possessed, moreover, of a far richer gift of colour and painter craftsmanship. In the Louvre also can be seen his " Raft of the Medusa," in which the first note of the Romantic movement is set clearly ringing. The survivors of the wreck are in the last stages of exhaustion ; the picture is one of tragic and in tense horror. This was exhibited at the Salon in 1819, and became at once a challenge to the Academy and a rally ing point of enthusiasm for the young and ardent spirits. Shortly after its appearance Gericault visited England, 516 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART painted pictures of the " Derby," and other race-course scenes, and executed some subjects in lithography. The untimely end of his brilliant career was hastened by a fall from a horse. His position as leader of the Romantic move ment was taken by Delacroix. Delacroix (i 799-1863) Ferdinand Victor Eugene Delacroix had been a fellow stu dent of Gericault under Guerin. Encouraged by his friend's "Raft of the Medusa," he exhibited in 1822 "Virgil and Dante." It represents the poet of Florence, accompanied by him of Mantua, being transported across the Styx in Charon's boat, as it makes its way slowly amid the grief- contorted bodies of those refused a passage. It has been called the first characteristic painting of the nineteenth cen tury ; for, although it still shows a Classical influence and does not exceed Gericault's picture in emotional intensity, it is the first picture of the time in which colour was made to play its share in the emotional expression. Through the influence of Gros it even obtained favour in Academic circles. But this was withdrawn two years later when Delacroix's " Massacre of Scio " appeared, and hence forth for many years the artist was regarded as a pariah of art, and assailed with the bitterest invective. For this picture represented a decisive break with Aca demic principles, since in its composition artificial balance and formal grouping are replaced by an apparently natural balance, and by a disposition of the figures, regulated not by rule, but in accordance with the character of the inci dent depicted, while each personage in the drama is ex pressive of individual emotion. Moreover, it is distin guished by an advance in colour qualities, for Delacroix, like all Frenchmen who have a genius for colour, had re turned to the inspiration of Rubens. The lessons he derived GERICAULT THE RAFT OF THE MEDUSA A contemporary tragedy supplied the motive. Romantic in feeling, but in its use of the nude style showing classical influence. DELACROIX THE CRUSADERS TAKE CONSTANTINOPLE, APRIL 12, 1.20-1 Fervid and magnificent, but shows tendency of Romanticism to look back for subjects. FRENCH ROMANTIC SCHOOL OF PAINTING 519 from the latter, of whom he was a life-long student, were reinforced by two influences. One was the English Con stable; the other the effects of a visit to the South and East. Gericault had written from England : " It is here only that colour and effect are understood and felt." At the Salons of 1824 and three following years, Constable was represented by " The Hay Wain " and other landscapes. Delacroix observed how the English artist heightened the effects of his greens by laying over the ground-colour strokes of a darker or lighter tone, or touches of complementary colours. He was drawn, in fact, to the value of what is called " broken colour." Then he visited Morocco and Algiers, returning home by way of Spain. He had seen colouring under Southern sunshine, and the works of Titian and Velas quez in the Prado Gallery. His colour imagination had been heightened, and henceforth his colour harmonies be came richer, more luminous and subtle. One of the ex amples of this enriched colour-expression is the "Algerian Woman," of the Louvre, which glows like gems. Delacroix now gained the favour of Thiers, and was entrusted with decoration commissions for the Chamber of Deputies, the Library of the Luxembourg, and the Galerie d'Apollon, in the Louvre. Delacroix's productivity was immense, and his painting, both in oils and water-colours, ranges through a great variety of subjects. He was also a critic of rare judg ment and had a fine style of writing, contributing frequently to the Revue des Deux Mondes. In some of his articles he assailed the Academic standard of beauty. If, he urged, it is to be based upon the Classic formula, then it must ex clude the work of such artists as Rembrandt and Rubens, indeed of all the great Northern artists. He urged a wider comprehension of beauty, so that it should embrace the ex- 520 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART pression of character and emotion, as well as the technical qualities of colour, light, and atmosphere. While Delacroix has influenced almost all the modern colourists, he left no direct followers. For the Romantic movement was but a phase in the freeing of French paint ing from subordination to the Classical motive. It died of its own inherent ardour, and left the field to the Nat uralistic school. FRENCH SCHOOL OF POETIC LANDSCAPE While the conflict between the Romantic and the Classical schools was at its height, some artists, opposed to the teaching of the Academy and being Romanticists at heart, withdrew from the turmoil of the studios and devoted them selves to the study of landscape. Since the headquarters of their leader, Rousseau, and of some of his followers, was in the little village of Barbison on the outskirts of the forest of Fontainebleau some twenty miles from Paris, they are known as the Barbison-Fontainebleau school. They have also been called the "men of 1830," since they were a part of the group of younger men, painters, writers, and critics, who formed the revolt against the Academy at the time of the July revolution of 1830, which drove Charles X., the last of the Bourbon kings, from the French throne. Unknown to themselves, they had been preceded in their study of the natural landscape by a solitary genius, Georges Michel (1763-1842). He sought his subjects in the Plain of Montmartre, and his pictures of undulating landscape, catching a fleeting light beneath high skies filled with cloud- forms^ are now treasured by collectors. Yet in his lifetime he remained entirely unnoticed by the public, and for a long time the same fate pursued the artists of Barbison. Popular taste in landscape still favoured the Classical style, inherited from Claude Lorrain, and this Naturalistic style was voted commonplace. Rousseau (1812-1867) The leader of the group, Theodore Rousseau, was the son of a small Parisian tailor. Dissatisfied with the methods of Classical instruction, he turned to nature and exhibited 521 522 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART for the first time at the Salon of 1831. Two years later he made his first visit vto Barbison and the following year exhibited the " Cote de Granville." The picture is now in the Hermitage Gallery in St. Petersburg, and is said to show the unmistakable influence of Constable's " Hay Wain," which Rousseau had seen. The point is interesting because it bears out the statement frequently made in Delacroix's writings of the debt which he himself and the Barbison artists owed to the English landscape painter. Rousseau's picture gained for him a medal of the third class; but after this officialdom would have nothing to do with so " revolutionary " a painter, and it was not until after the revolution of 1848 that Rousseau was admitted to the Salon. Even then he received but a grudging recognition, for he was not the sort of man to push himself. His seclu sion from the world and troubles in his own house — for he had married a girl of the forest who subsequently became insane — had increased a tendency to melancholy, and the pressure of it is felt in many of his landscapes. Meanwhile their most characteristic feature is an intense devotion to nature and an expression of virile strength. Rousseau's love of nature had the depth and earnestness of a religion, and the qualities in nature which most absorbed his worship were those of permanency, force, and stability. His favourite tree was the oak, gripping with its roots the rocky foundations of the earth. He seemed to find in it a symbol of what nature is, as contrasted with the brief and shifting life of man. His " Edge of the Forest," now in the Louvre, is a grand epitome of his art. The foreground is flanked by oaks, which, though some of their limbs are shat tered, stand rooted in immemorial strength. They frame a little pool, in which cows are taking their evening drink. Meadows, studded with trees, stretch peacefully beyond, and over all is the crimson splendour of the setting sun. The ROUSSEAU EDGE OF THE FOREST In its study of nature, rich colour and suggestion of elemental permanence most ehnraclerisiic of the artist. THE BIG OAK Dupre's landscapes are apt to be dramatic. This is a more genial example. DIAZ LOUVRE BATHERS Wedding the tradition of Boucher to the poetic naturalization of the Barbizon School. DAUBIGNY, 1874 METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART, N. Y. RIVER PISE An example of the simple naturalism of the best painter of the Barbizon School. FRENCH SCHOOL OF POETIC LANDSCAPE 527 day's task is drawing to a close, and nature settles down to slumber in preparation for another day. The picture, indeed, is not only a transcript of nature, but also an expression of the artist's feeling towards it, of the moods of emotion aroused in him. This revelation of the artist's self distinguishes the whole school and has earned for their work the title of " Poetic Landscape." It is also a distinction of the school that the portion of nature selected as a subject is usually a scene of simple nature in its every-day aspect, but studied intimately with penetrating sympathy. It is a school of what the French call paysage intime. Further, the method of rendering the scene is syn thetic. This is more than a generalised summary. The great artists of this school trained themselves by analytical study of the forms of nature in their details ; and then used their knowledge to discard every detail except what is essen tial to express the character of the form. Rousseau, at a middle period of his career, was so occupied with the facts of nature, that he introduced a superabundance of detail into his pictures. But his best works exhibit the synthetic method. Dupre (1812-1889) Jules Dupre, the son of a porcelain manufacturer, began life by decorating china. But he was a constant student of nature, and at the age of twenty exhibited three landscapes in the Salon. He became deeply attached to Rousseau, working with him for a time, and helping him by buying one of his pictures, under the pretence that he was acting for an American collector. He also enjoyed the intimate friendship of Delacroix, and visited England, where he studied with enthusiasm the work of Constable. An un fortunate misunderstanding having arisen between him and Rousseau, the result apparently of the latter's groundless 528 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART suspicion of his friend, Dupre settled in the village of l'ile Adam. His landscapes, more directly than any others of the school, reflect the Romantic spirit. He was partial to the dramatic aspects of nature ; the conflicts of storm clouds, or the lurid effects of sunset following storm. On the other hand, he painted many noble landscapes, representing the calm of nature brooding over spaces of rich pasture-land, and many fine marines. His method of painting was in clined to be heavy, while his colouring had a tendency to murkiness ; yet, even so, his pictures possess an undeniable impressiveness. Diaz (1807-1876) Narcisse Virgille Diaz de la Pefia was born in Bordeaux, of Spanish extraction. As a boy he studied nature in the woods, and at this time, through the bite of an insect, lost a leg. He was apprenticed to a porcelain manufacturer at Sevres, but left the position to study for a little while with a painter named Sigalon, a pupil of Guerin. He struggled with poverty, until the sale of a picture, entitled "Descent of the Bohemians," enabled him to settle in Barbison. This subject, representing a party of gaily dressed gipsies com ing, down a rocky dell in a forest, exhibited the gaiety and Romantic spirit and feeling for colour and light which became the distinguishing features of Diaz's work. He was the most versatile and skilful painter of the Barbison group, and, on the whole, perhaps the least of a nature-stu dent ; being animated by the poetry of the palette rather than by that of nature. His characteristic landscapes are scenes within the depths of the forest, representing an arabesque of trunks, boughs, and foliage, through which the sunshine percolates in a thousand surprises of direct and reflected light. Or, again, they comprise a stretch of pasture, broken up with rocks and little pockets of water, on which FRENCH SCHOOL OF POETIC LANDSCAPE 529 the light plays, leading back to the forest's edge. But Diaz is equally well represented by figure subjects — Venus and Cupid, nymphs reclining in the forest or bathing, and scenes of Oriental fancy, in which the bright-hued ladies of the harem are lazily watching the graceful dances of the Almees. In the painting of the flesh he imitated the seduc tive softness of Correggio, and gave brilliance and luminos ity to his colour schemes by the skilful use of " broken " tones. His work has not the high seriousness of Rousseau or the emotional depth of Dupre, but reflects his own happy, simple nature. Daubigny (1817-1878) Charles Francois Daubigny learned to paint by assisting his father, who was a decorator of boxes. Then he visited Italy, and later studied under a Classical painter in Paris, before he devoted himself to landscape and occasional marines. The subjects of the former were mostly drawn from the picturesque rivers of the Seine and Marne; repre senting sweet and tranquil rural scenes of farmstead and meadows, lapped by the willow-skirted water, on which ducks disport themselves. Added to the simple charm of pastoral feeling was a manner of painting, based upon the harmony of broken tones, rendered with a full and broadly handled brush, that gives his landscapes great technical distinction. Corot (1796-1875) While Jean Baptiste Camille Corot is generally reckoned with this group, because his later work was influenced by its fondness for colour and light, he represents, at least in the greater part of his long career, another motive. He was by early training, and by instinct, a Classicist, who quite properly completed his student days by a visit to Italy that was repeated in later life. His popularity 530 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART is mainly founded on his landscapes, but in the opinion of many good judges his figure subjects deserve, at least, equal recognition. In both directions his early work is character ised by attention to form and to the rendering of its plastic qualities ; later he was less intent upon the structure or form and sought to render its spirit and movement, and still later he began to study form in relation to colour and light, becoming absorbed in the problem of tone. Moreover, at every stage of his progression he proved his Classical bias by the balance and rhythm of line and mass which distin guished all his compositions. They are not so impregnated with devotion to natural effects as the pictures of the other artists of the school; representing rather the theme of na ture transposed into Classic harmonies. It is also to be noted that, as Corot spiritualised his forms, so he gradually spirit ualised his use of colour. He felt colour to be less and less a matter of hues and more and more a matter of tone. Thus, in his latest work, the range of pigments is reduced to a very few: sooty browns or blacks, creamy white, faint blue, grey, olive green, pale yellow, and an occasional touch of red. Yet, as the hues decrease, the subtlety of the tones increases, until one does not so much see the colour as feel it. The scene is enveloped in atmosphere, saturated with mild light, in which the forms lose their concreteness and become elusive ; meanwhile appealing .with more poignant reality to the imagination. Rousseau and the others of the school are French successors of the Holland landscapists of the seven teenth century. Corot, however, is akin to Watteau, and traces back through Poussin to the Classic. Even more in spirit than in substance his art is akin to the Greek. Troyon (1810-1865) Associated with the Barbison-Fontainebleau school was a group of distinguished animal painters. At their head is Uniting a truly classic sp MORNING spirit to the charms of natural landscape. TROYON LOUVRE RETURNING HOME A good example of the artist's feeling for the genial and bountiful aspects of rural nature. MILLET THE GLEANERS Note how the one act of gleaning is distributed among the three figures, so that one receives a suggestion of continuous and rhythmic movement. MILLET LOUVRE THE MAN WITH THE HOE Note the narrow angle, made by the figure, in relation to the breadth of the scene, and discover in it one of the sources of poignancy in this picture. FRENCH SCHOOL OF POETIC LANDSCAPE 535 Constant Troyon, who had showed a partiality for intro ducing cattle into his landscapes even before he paid a visit to Holland. This served to confirm his own taste, and to broaden his comprehension of the relationship between the cattle and their surroundings. After this an ampler feeling pervaded his pictures ; they show spacious skies, with buoyant cloud forms, hanging over pastures lusciously verdant, from the bounty of which bulky cows and oxen draw their nutriment. Troyon's big and generous art was carried on by his pupil, Emile van Mar eke (1827- 1890), who transmitted the tradition to his daughter, Madame Marie Dieterle. Meanwhile Charles Jacque (1813- 1894) distinguished himself as a painter of sheep and poul try, setting them in the surroundings of a stable or in a landscape. He began life as an engraver, and excelled in etching as well as painting, the fact explaining a frequent sharpness and hardness in his method of handling the brush. Yet his pictures show a fine sense of colour, while his land scapes are often characterised by grandeur of composition and feeling. Rosa Bonheur (1822-1899) and her brother, Auguste Bonheur (1824-1884), possessed a thorough knowl edge of animal life, but their works are deficient in artistic distinction. Millet (1814-1875) Jean Francois Millet extended the subject of landscape so as to include the life of the peasantry. The son of a small farmer at Gruchy in Normandy, he had the instinct of the peasant in his blood, and, as he used to say, con tinually heard in his soul the " cry of the soil." After a short and unhappy stay in the studio of Delaroche and a period of trying to support himself by painting pretty subjects in the vein of Boucher, he painted "The Winnower," which secured a purchaser. Millet resolved henceforth to 536 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART follow his own choice of subject, and settled in Barbison, where his name has become linked with that of Rousseau. To the latter's passion for nature corresponded Millet's pas sion for humanity. A student of the Bible, Shakespeare, and Virgil, he brought to bear upon his subjects a breadth and depth of mind which embraced the large significance of things. He observed the peasants in their personal connec tion with life, but rendered them as typical of the eternal routine of the universe, in which they played their appointed part. He was not a skilful painter; there is no aesthetic allurement in his oil pictures ; one would say he did not think or feel in colour, but in form. Nor in his drawing were there any of the subtleties and persuasiveness of line. He was not a skilful draughtsman in the ordinary sense of the term. Nevertheless he was a great creator of form; perhaps it would be truer to say of the character and sig nificance of form. Whether in his pencil or pen drawings, etchings, woodcuts, lithographs, or paintings, the figure is treated with a main reliance upon planes and masses, to which the actual lines serve chiefly as contours. There is much that is Michelangelesque in the big feeling of his figures ; and not a little in their harmony and rhythm which is akin to Greek sculpture. One can see in " The Sower," now in the Vanderbilt collec tion in the Metropolitan Museum, how the harmony and rhythm were attained. While the action of the figure seems completely natural, it has been distributed throughout the body with such an absolute adjustment of the relationship of every part to the whole, that the action is really more natural than nature. That is to say, it is nature, not interfered with by individual limitations, but nature as it would be, if every thing conduced harmoniously to its highest perfection. It is the type. Again, if you study " The Gleaners " in the Louvre, it is to discover that here the single action of glean- FRENCH SCHOOL OF POETIC LANDSCAPE 537 ing is distributed between three figures. Each contributes its quota to the whole, and each is harmoniously and rhythmic ally related to the others and to the whole group, so that throughout the latter the action flows with the elasticity of nature; and again represents an enhancement of nature — the type. Millet's most popular picture is " The Angelus," in which the interest depends very largely upon the sentiment of the story. But this is exceptional ; for Millet was disinclined to sentiment, fearing to be sentimental. His was the higher attitude of the impersonal point of view ; again a quality of the type and a link between him and the finest Greek art. Millet, as the interpreter not only of the labourer but also of the dignity of labour, fitted in with the spread of liberal thought and exercised a great influence upon the mind of his age. His influence upon French painting was less sig nificant. His example tended to spread the vogue of the peasant genre; but most of its practitioners were satisfied with the picturesque opportunities which the costumes and environment permitted, and missed the high seriousness of Millet's spirit. It was, indeed, outside of France, particu larly in Belgium and Holland, that the great artist's influ ence was most directly and deeply felt. BRITISH HISTORICAL AND GENRE PAINTING During the first half of the nineteenth century, two influ ences were operating in British figure painting. One was the tradition of the Italian "grand style," which resulted in historical subjects ; the other, the tradition of such Hol landers as Steen, Maes, Metsu, and Gerard Dou, which pro duced genre painting. West (1738-1820) The former was encouraged by Benjamin West. Born at Springfield, a little settlement in Pennsylvania, he enjoyed the doubtful advantage of being regarded as an infant prodigy, and, when he reached London by way of Italy, entered upon a popularity that finally landed him presi dent of the Royal Academy. While he painted some fairly good portraits, his ambition was to be a painter in the "grand style," and his example tended to foster the idea that sound qualities of craftsmanship were of less im portance than eloquent subjects, rendered in grandiloquent compositions. This influence was somewhat counteracted by Copley (i737"l8l5) that of John Singleton Copley, the son of Irish parents who had emigrated to Boston. Here Copley developed into the leading portrait painter of Colonial society ; but, being of Tory proclivities and scenting ahead the crisis of the revolution, he left America and after a stay in Italy set tled in London. His Colonial portraits are full of charac ter, well drawn, and not without a fine colour-sense. Their deficiency is in the use of the brush. Copley had had little 538 WILLIAM ELTY YOUTH ON THE PROW AND PLEASURE AT THE HELM A confused composition on sentimental, classicalistic lines. GEORGE MCRLAXD MIDDAY MEAL An unpretentious subject, full of the feeling of rural life. BRITISH HISTORIC AND GENRE PAINTING 541 or no opportunity of seeing pictures and had been taught by his step-father, the engraver Peter Pelham. His method of painting was, in consequence, hard and " brittle " ; faults, however, which his visit to Italy did much to cure. His portraits done in England are distinguished by their supe rior fluency and suavity of technique. In two large his torical works, " Death of the Earl of Chatham " and " Death of Major Pierson," he followed the example which West had set in his "Death of General Wolfe." For in the latter case West abandoned for the moment his ambitious style and fondness for Classical subjects, and painted his figures in the actual costumes of their day, and with an attempt to represent the incident as it may have hap pened. Copley followed this precedent in his two examples, seeking to give them historical actuality. Both he and West will be included in the later chapter on early painting in America. Maclise (1806-1870) The same regard for the facts of the subject appears in the work of Daniel Maclise, who was born at Cork and died at Chelsea. His chief historical works are " The Meet ing of Wellington and Blucher after Waterloo " and "Death of Nelson," which were painted for the Houses of Parliament. His talent was eminently that of an illus trator, as he proved directly in his illustrations to Moore's " Melodies " and Lytton's " Pilgrims of the Rhine," and indi rectly in his popular pictures of scenes from Shakespeare. Two of these, " The Play-scene in Hamlet " and " Malvolio and the Countess," now in the Tate Gallery, exhibit his skill in characterisation and the telling of a story, and at the same time the absence of the painter's feeling for colour, light, and atmosphere. 542 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART Etty (1787-1849) These qualities were, at least, the aim of William Etty, who visited Italy and became an avowed disciple of Titian. He was a diligent rather than an inspired painter, and, while his treatment of female beauty, especially in the nude, rises at times to a high level, his pictures are too often charac terised by classical affectations and sentimental mannerisms. "Youth on the Prow and Pleasure at the Helm," one of his most popular pictures, is among the four examples by which he is represented in the Tate Gallery. Of these " The Bather " exhibits his most admirable qualities as a painter. Other men who followed the tradition of the " grand style" were William Hilton (1786-1839), Benjamin Robert Haydon (1786-1846), Charles Lock Eastlake (1793-1865), and William Dyce, a native of Aberdeen (1806-1864). Their ambitious and, on the whole, futile pictures serve to prove that the " grand style " is as foreign to the tempera ment of British art as it is to that of Holland. The latter excelled in the small and intimate department of genre, and in so far as British art of the first half of the nineteenth century emulated this example, it appears at its best. It is to be noted, however, that British genre is far more taken up with the telling of a story than was Holland genre and correspondingly falls short of the latter in those quali ties of colour, light and shade, and atmosphere which rep resent the characteristically pictorial or painter-like aspects of this branch of painting. Hogarth, as we have seen, was successful in combining the painter-like and anecdotal qual ities ; but his successors were disposed to cultivate the latter at the expense of the pictorial. Morland (1763-1804) An exception, however, occurs in the case of George Morland. His pictures of outdoor and indoor rural life BRITISH HISTORIC AND GENRE PAINTING 543 involve no story and have little of the character of illustra tions. The scene has been depicted for the purpose of ren dering the pictorial element that it presented to the artist's vision. For in this respect, as well as in his feeling for colour, light and shade, and atmosphere, and in his skill with the brush, Morland is very close to the Holland genre painters. Wilkie (1785-1841) On the other hand, the most characteristically British genre painter was David Wilkie. Born at Cults, in Fife- shire, Scotland, the son of a minister, he was at first intended for the kirk-; but his bias towards painting was so pro nounced that he was entered in the Edinburgh School of Art. Later he moved to London and studied in the Royal Academy schools. At the same time he exhibited " Village Politicians," which attracted immediate attention. It was followed by such works as "The Blind Fiddler," "Rent Day," "The Village Festival." Wilkie now paid a visit to Paris, and studied the Holland painters in the Louvre, the result being shown in " Blind Man's Buff," " Reading the Will," " The Rabbit on the Wall," and other pictures of his best period, namely from 1811 to 1825. In the latter year he left home for a three years' sojourn in Europe, from which he returned with purpose and style changed. From genre he now turned to historical painting, and lost his own indi viduality in the attempt to imitate the " grand style." " He seemed to me," wrote Delacroix, "to have been brought utterly out of his depth by the pictures he had seen." " John Knox Preaching " ' is the best example of Wilkie's latest manner, but it is mechanical in construction and arti ficial in sentiment. He died on board the Oriental off Gibraltar, and was buried at sea. The incident, or rather the profound emotion which it aroused in Wilkie's thousands 544 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART of admirers, was commemorated by Turner in "Peace — Buried at Sea," whiph is now in the Tate Gallery. Mulready (i 786-1863) Next to Wilkie in reputation was the Irishman William Mulready. He early attracted notice by his " Idle Boys " and " The Fight Interrupted," and his popularity was main tained by such works as " Choosing the Wedding Gown," " The Last In," and " The Toy Seller." He taught draw ing in the schools of the Royal Academy, which may help to account for the extreme care with which he finished his pictures. Pictures of school life were also painted by Thomas Webster (1800-1886), whose "Dame's School" and " The Truants " are in the Tate Gallery. William Col lins (1788-1847), a pupil of Morland, enjoyed a great vogue as a delineator of child life. Gilbert Stuart Newton was born in Halifax, Nova Scotia, in 1794, but resided in Eng land from 1820 until his death in 1835. He showed a par tiality for literary subjects,- drawn, for example, from the works of Goldsmith and Sterne, and is said to have em ployed actors and actresses to represent the scene. Leslie (1794-1859) A similar choice of subject was adopted by Charles Robert Leslie, who was born in London* of American parents, but lived until he was sixteen in Philadelphia. In 1811 he went to England, entered the schools of the Royal Academy, and at first under the influence of West and Allston attempted Classical painting. But his true bent was dis covered when he turned to literature for subjects. The most popular of his pictures is " Uncle Toby and Widow Wadman in the Sentry Box," illustrating the well-known scene from "Tristram Shandy." Others which added to his reputation were " Ann Page and Slender," and " Sancho WILLIAM MULREADY, K. A. THE LAST IN An example of Academic naturalism and the picture-story. CHARLES ROBERT LESLIE UNCLE TOBY AND WIDOW WADMAN Clever and humorous characterisation. BRITISH HISTORIC AND GENRE PAINTING 547 Panza in the Apartment of the Duchess." His work is dis tinguished by excellent drawing, charm of characterisation, and a feeling for colour, cultivated by study of Dutch chiaroscuro. In 1833 Leslie accepted the position of teacher of drawing at West Point, but resigned it within a year. He wrote a " Life of Constable " and a " Handbook for Young Painters." Landseer (1802-1873) Edwin Landseer's genre subjects of animal life enjoyed an extraordinary popularity/ They are for the most part dramatic representations, in which the actors are animals, endued by the artist with human qualities of pathos, humour, and so forth. The drawing is hard and the colour often crude, but the very exactitude with which the details of natural appearance are rendered helped to excite the enthusiasm of the public. Frith (18 19-1909) The appetite for detail was further fed by the pictures of William Powell Frith. His first success was the " Scene from the 'Vicar of Wakefield,'" exhibited in 1843. In 1854 appeared his " Ramsgate Sands," which was bought by Queen Victoria. It was followed four years later by the "Derby Day," to which succeeded after another four years the "Railway Station." These three pictures, which have been familiarised by engravings, represent a mosaic of figures and incidents fitted together like a puzzle. The scene, as a whole, makes but a blurred appeal to the eye ; it demands, like a book, to be perused bit by bit. In 1878 Frith endeavoured to rival Hogarth by a series of five scenes representing " The Road to Ruin." NATURALISTIC MOTIVE IN FRENCH PAINTING During the nineteenth century France became more than ever the artistic leader of the modern world, and Paris the clearing-house of the numerous motives which from time to time asserted themselves as ruling principles. We have noted the re-establishment of the Classical-Academic school, and the opposition to it represented in the Romantic move ment and the school of Poetic Landscape. We have now to trace the development, in time, of the Naturalistic and Impressionistic motives, followed in quite recent times by what is clumsily called the Neo-Impressionistic. It is im portant to form a clear comprehension of all the successive movements, because they not only tell the story of French painting, but also provide a clue to the study of painting in other countries. For to-day there is a free-trade in ideas, and the whole field of art is covered by a sort of Marconi system of mental communications. One other point to be observed is that the successive movements in painting are not to be regarded as accidental or solitary phenomena. They have grown in response to political, social, and eco nomic conditions, which have also made their influence felt in literature and other arts. For art, being an expression of human life, quite naturally reflects the successive phases of man's attitude towards life. From this point of view, our study of the Naturalistic motive in France becomes a groundwork for the study of it, not only in the painting of other countries, but also in other arts everywhere. The thought of the world at the end of the eighteenth century, emphasised in the American and French revolu- ' tions, tended to a recognition of the rights of the individual man, as opposed to the rights of certain classes of the 548 COURBET WHERE THE DEER MEET A scene lifted above the ordinary by its suggestion of aloofness. BASTIEN-LEPAGE LUXEMBOURG HAYMAKERS Naturalism enhanced by the suggestion of the type. THE NATURALISTIC MOTIVE IN FRANCE 551 community. While it insisted upon rights and set about securing them — a work which was hy no means decisively achieved, and is still in process of being completed — it did gradually establish a habit of the right and duty of each individual to face the world and the problem of life for himself; to view them through his own eyes, and to shape his action accordingly. It will be said that such an attitude towards life may easily tend to lawlessness, and in a measure it has. In painting, for example, it has continually led to revolt against the traditions and canons of the Academic school, and each revolt has been attacked by a conservative portion of the community as being an outrage. Meanwhile, even the conservative, if he is candid, admits, now that he can view the movement more dispassionately across the dis tance of time, that it had some elements of good in it, and that in consequence modern painting is still a " living " expression of the growth of civilisation. Further, this frank attitude towards life has been accom panied by an immense advance in scientific investigation and accumulation of knowledge. The scientist has ceased to be an empiricist, and has become a profound student of nature; searching deeper and farther continually into the natural causes, as they affect man and his environment, and ever seeking to discover how man can develop himself in fitter relation to his fellows and to the natural world. Moreover, this changed attitude towards life was also accompanied by the discovery of the application of steam as a motive power, in the train of which have followed in ventions so infinite and wonderful that the nineteenth cen tury will be remembered as a great mechanical age. This has introduced new problems into life, many if not most of them still unsolved, which the limits of this book make it impossible to touch upon. Meanwhile, their general ten dency, working alongside the scientific development and the 552 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART spread of individualism, has been to increase man's do minion over nature, and at the same time to make him realise more and more fully his dependence upon it. The study of nature, his own and that of the world about him, is to-day the foundation of his progress. Accordingly, it has been quite in the nature of things that artists, whether of literature or the fine arts, should reflect this tendency by becoming, like their fellow-men in other departments of life, students of nature. Hence the Naturalistic motive. We have watched it beginning to assert itself in the work of the Barbison-Fontainebleau artists. But they were more or less all affected by the Romantic spirit which was declaring itself both in painting and literature, and in con sequence the Naturalistic motive was in their case mingled with an expression of personal feeling that has gained for their work the distinction of Poetic Landscape. Their study of nature was very largely subjective. It remained for others to emulate the impersonal attitude of the scientific student of nature and to approach the study of nature in an objective spirit. Courbet (1819-1877) The leader of this departure was Gustave Courbet. By birth a countryman, possessed of great physical strength and an independent and resolute mind, he went to Paris in 1839. He made no secret of his contempt for Academic training and exercised a complete freedom from traditional standards in his attitude towards the old masters. His criticism was particularly levelled against Raphael, whose star was then in the ascendant of popularity. He objected to the formality and artificiality of his compositions, a criticism which, it is interesting to note, was made a little later by John Ruskin, a propos of the English Pre-Raphael ite Brotherhood. But Courbet's objections went deeper. LEON AUGUST LHERMITTE PAY DAY Virile naturalism with no ulterior suggestion. LUCIEN SIMON BRETON DANCE Clever in its suprises of lighting and suggestion of vigorous movement. THE NATURALISTIC MOTIVE IN FRANCE 555 He asserted that it was ridiculous for a painter to portray a scene that he had not viewed with his own eyes ; that the only true scope of the painter's art was that which he had personally studied; that his peculiar and exclusive province was the world of sight. Consequently, that to paint any subject of the past was an affectation; that, in fact, the only real historical pictures were those which de picted the events and circumstances of the artist's. own day. This again was an argument of which Ruskin also made much. Further, since Raphael represented his religious, mythological, and allegorical subjects according to the prin ciples of idealism prevalent in his day, that is to say, with the notion of expressing the dignity of the subject by making the figures as noble and perfect in proportion as possible, and by arranging them in attitudes and groups perfectly balanced and harmonious, and since the Academy advocated a similar " improvement upon nature," Courbet declared himself in opposition. Regarding this kind of idealism as unsuited to the spirit of his own day, he declared that " the principle of realism is the negation of the ideal." In 1850 Courbet exhibited " The Stonebreakers " : two rudely clad peasants, one kneeling with hammer raised over a pile of stones, while the other carries a basket full of the broken pieces. It was voted vulgar, an outrage both on art and good taste, and the chorus of disapproval became more bitter when a little later appeared his "Funeral at Ornans." At the International Exposition of 1855 Courbet, as it were, appealed to the people, setting up a building of his own for the exhibition of his pictures. Over the door was the inscription : " Courbet — Realist." His independence and outspoken utterances attracted the younger painters, and were the means of establishing the Naturalistic motive. Al ways a radical, he identified himself with the Commune, and was appointed by it Minister of Fine Arts. He led the 556 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART assault on the Vendome Column ; for which after the restora tion of order he was heavily fined and banished from the country ; his enemies paying no heed to his defence, that his act had diverted the mob from its purpose of wrecking the Louvre and its treasures. His finest- works include a few superb nudes and many marines and forest scenes with deer, which are highly impressive. While Courbet chose his models among peasants and artisans, Alfred Stevens (1828-1906), a Belgian by birth, penetrated the drawing-rooms of Paris, and portrayed the life of the woman of fashion. James Tissot (1836-1902), after depicting the Parisienne of the Boulevards and the society woman of England, visited Palestine and endeavoured to give a vraisemblance to his series of water-colours of the Gospel story by imitating the costumes, customs, and envi ronment of the modern occupants of the Holy Land. Caro- lus-Duran, of Belgian origin, painted portraits of fashion able women and some excellent ones of men. He at. first showed promise of being a colourist and painted with great dexterity and much character, but later sank to the per functory delineation of millinery and furniture. His best work was the result of his study of Velasquez, and he taught his numerous pupils to paint with what was called the " di rect " method. That is to say, instead of first executing the subject in monochrome or two colours and then glazing over with transparent pigments, he taught the principle of build ing up the construction of the figure in a series of planes, laid on directly in the required variety of tone. The Spanish influence was further introduced into French painting by Leon Bonnat, a native of southern France, educated in Spain. His portraits of the great men of his day are sterling examples of the conscientious and vigorous appli cation of the Naturalistic point of view. Space permits the mention of only a few out of the great JULES ADLER ON THE BENCH The work of an artist who lives among and feels with the poor. METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART, N. Y. SKIRMISH WITH COSSACKS Brisk action. THE NATURALISTIC MOTIVE IN FRANCE 559 number of painters who reflect this motive. Jules Bastien- Lepage (1848-1884) represented peasant life, sometimes with a touch of sentiment. Characteristic of his whole aim is the " Joan of Arc " of the Metropolitan Museum, in which the Maid, relieved of all heroic treatment, is shown as a simple country girl, with an expression, however, on her face of tense earnestness and wonder as a vision appears to her. Another peasant painter, who sometimes brings the person of the Christ into the humble homes of the poor, is Leon Augustin Lhermitte (1844- ), while Jules Breton (1827- 1906) viewed the country people and their surroundings with the eyes of a Parisian of rather poetic temperament and Academic bias. On the other hand Charles Cottet (1863- ), living among the fisher folk in Brittany, has depicted them with sympathy and insight. So, also, has Lucien Simon (1861- ), who in these subjects, as well as in portraiture and genre, is one of the strongest painters of the day. Jules Adler has lived among and painted the ouvrier class with a depth of sincerity and a purpose that make him more akin to Millet. In still-life Antoine Vollon (1833-1900) must be noted; in genre, Francois Bonvin (1817-1887), Theodule Ribot (1823-1891), and Joseph Bail ; in portraiture, Jacques Emile Blanche (1861- ) ; in costume pictures, Charles Bargue ( -1883), Ferdinand Roybet (1840- ), and Jean Louis Ernest Meissonier (1815-1891). The last named was also famous for his military pictures, illustrating events in the career of the first Napoleon. Other painters of military subjects are Alphonse de Neuville (1836-1885), and Edouard Detaille (1848-1912). THE PRE-RAPHAELITE MOVEMENT What Millet and Courbet accomplished for painting in France, the Pre-Raphaelite movement did for British paint ing. It tore down the veil of Academic and studio con ventions and opened up to the eyes of the artist the first hand, personal study of nature. In the late forties, the teachers in the Royal Academy schools comprised Etty, Mulready, Maclise, and William Dyce (1806-1864). The last named, a native of Aberdeen, reflected in a measure the ideals of the German " Nazarenes." For during his stay in Rome he came under the influence of Overbeck, who led him to admire the tender sentiment of the Umbrian school, as represented in Perugino and in Raphael, before the latter left Florence and moved to Rome. His work is graceful, with a pure and quiet simplicity; meanwhile, it has a fuller quality of colour than distinguished the tinted cartoons of the " Nazarenes." In Dyce, therefore, the Academy schools had for in structor an imitator of Raphael; in Etty, an imitator of Venetian colour ; and in Mulready and Maclise, artists who translated the naturalness of nature into 'the language of stage pictures. It was against this combination of imitative and sophisticated conventions that a little handful of young men registered a protest. At first there were only three of them, Dante Gabriel Rossetti (1828-1882), William Hol man Hunt (1827-1910), and John Everett Millais (1829- 1896). All three worked in the same studio, and one day chance put into their hands an engraving of Benozzo Goz- zoli's frescos in the Campo Santo of Pisa. In this they recognised a truth to nature, which, while it was intense in feeling, was not afraid to record what was ugly as well 560 THE PRE-RAPHAELITE MOVEMENT 561 as what was beautiful. They came to the conclusion that these qualities of naive and simple truthfulness were the foundation of the early Renaissance painting, and must be the starting-point of any new movement towards a revival of art. Raphael himself had begun this way, but had aban doned truth to nature when he left Florence for Rome. Meanwhile it was Raphael's Roman manner that the world ever since had been imitating, so that even the great Floren tine had become a stumbling-block to real life in painting. Hence it was necessary to go back of him for inspiration. Thus in 1848 these three young men enrolled themselves as the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, and to the pictures which they exhibited the following year signed their names with the suffix " P.R.B." They were joined a little later by the genre painter James Collinson (1825P-1881), the critic F. G. Stephen, and Rossetti's brother, William Michael Rossetti. Still later, after the original members had ceased to style themselves Pre-Raphaelites, the principles for which they had stood were variously adopted by Frederick Sandys (1832-1904), Arthur Hughes (1832- ), and Edward Burne-Jones (1833-1898). Meanwhile, even before the en rollment of the " P.R.B.," the principles had been practically applied by Ford Madox Brown (1821-1893), who sympa thised with the movement and helped its members, but re mained outside their ranks. The three pictures exhibited by the " P.R.B." in 1849 have acquired an historic importance. They were Rossetti's " The Girlhood of Mary Virgin," Millais' " Lorenzo and Isabella," and Hunt's " Rienzi." In 1850 the Brotherhood founded a monthly magazine, The Germ, which did not survive the fourth number. Among the contributions was an article by Madox Brown on "Historical Painting," in which he urged strict study of the model, the avoidance of all generalising and beautification, and the exact antiquarian study of cos- 562 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART tumes and accessories. By 1851 the Brotherhood had at tracted sufficient attention to be made the object of an attack in the London Times. John Ruskin now came to the rescue with two letters which were afterwards published with the title " Pre-Raphaelitism, its Principles, and Turner." These young artists had realised, said Ruskin, what he had formulated in the latter part of his " Modern Painters." The painter, he declared, must study nature with the exact ness of a scientist; rendering rocks, for example, so that the geologist would recognise whether they were granite, or slate, or tufa, and flowers in such manner as will satisfy a botanist. Further he must study nature in the spirit of religion, so that he may interpret the sanctity of nature and the true inwardness of the Bible story. Here he made fun of Raphael's conventional conceits. Further, since clothes play so necessary a part in Northern climates, the Northern painter should not waste his time with the nude; in fact, physical beauty should not be the aim of his art, but intellectual and, especially, spiritual expression. He summed up that the art of the new age must be religious, mystic, and thoughtful. In this way Ruskin's influence tended to rob art of its independent privilege of being the expression of beauty, as a " thing to be desired to make one wise," and to reduce it to being the handmaid of the other sources of wisdom and right living, viz., the religious, spiritual, and intellectual. Moreover, he led his contemporaries to confuse natural truth with artistic truth; to overlook the fact that while the aim of the scientist is knowledge, that of the artist in any medium should be the manifestation of beauty — the beauty of holiness and the holiness of beauty ; and that, for the expression of the beauty, the artist must select from nature and then organise his selections, so as to produce a harmony more completely unified and rhythmical than nature's. Ac- HOLMAN HUNT THE SHADOW OF THE CROSS Overcharged with detail, yet impressive by the sheer force of the artist's intensity of purpose. BEATA BEATRIX Suggested by Dante's Vita Nuova. The closed eyes of Beatrice have not yet opened to heaven. THE PRE-RAPHAELITE MOVEMENT 565 cordingly, although Ruskin helped to clear the air of studio cant and convention, he delayed the progress of British painting by setting up new rules, restrictions, and conven tions which in their nature belonged to science rather than to art. Partly as the result of this teaching, and partly due to the different temperaments of the members of the Pre-Ra phaelite movement, the "germ" of the latter developed several varying tendencies. Holman Hunt clung most con sistently to the principles of " truth " laid down by Ruskin, and in most of his works has revealed a deep religious feel ing. Millais, on the other hand, in lieu of the latter, devel oped the expression of sentiment, while at the same time broadening his method of painting as his outlook became more and more objective. Meanwhile the tendency of Ros setti was towards a sensuous mysticism, into which he was followed by Burne-Jones and others. The one man who, as one looks back, most consistently embodied the early spirit of Pre-Raphaelism, although, or perhaps because, he kept outside the Brotherhood, and has had most influence on British painting, is Ford Madox Brown. Ford Madox Brown (1821-1893) He was trained under Wappers in the Antwerp Academy, and then studied in Paris and Rome. He strove for three things: truth of colour, emotional expression, and historical accuracy. These qualities are illustrated in his " Christ Washing Peter's Feet" (Tate Gallery), a composition of virile simplicity and profound significance. The same is also true of " The Last of England." One of his most remarkable pictures is " Work," in which he represents some brawny " navvies " excavating a drain in the roadway, while loungers are looking on, and a gentleman and lady ride by on horse back; the whole scene being illuminated with sunshine. Of 566 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART every detail he has fearlessly reproduced the " local " colour ; but since the painting of actual light in its effects upon colours was a faculty he had not mastered nor indeed con sidered, the result of this mosaic of hues is garish. Yet, even so, the picture is most impressive ; for it displays those qualities of intention and achievement which make Madox Brown the most dramatic artist, save Turner, that the British school can show. Holman Hunt (1827-1910) Holman Hunt also reproduced the local colours without being able to harmonise them in an envelope of light; more over, he had as little regard for textures as for values. His painting is pitilessly hard, the modelling of the figures gnarled, and every detail enforced with microscopic fidelity. His " Flight into Egypt " shows the Holy Family crossing a shallow stream, accompanied by a bevy of infants which dance in a wreath of rhythmical movement. But there is no difference between the texture of their bodies and that of the water. Both are like burnished metal. One of Hunt's earlier pictures, " The Light of the World," in which Christ, his head seen against a full moon, stands with a lantern, knocking at a door overgrown with plants and vines, ex hibits a great beauty of detail, as well as a deep religious feeling. It is the latter, penetrating almost all Hunt's works, that invests them with such profound impressiveness. The latter even serves in a measure to unify the glaring conflicts of the composition, counteracting the artistic discordance by a unity of intellectual and spiritual impression. This is very noticeable in the great example " The Shadow of the Cross," which, as became his habit with Bible subjects, he painted in Palestine, with absolute fidelity to the types of the figures and to the minutest particulars of their environ ment. This, as we have seen, was Tissot's method, but the THE PRE-RAPHAELITE MOVEMENT 567 latter does not bear the impress of Hunt's profound religious feeling. Millais (1829-1896) John Everett Millais at first shared the poetry of Ros setti and Hunt's love of minute detail. His " Ophelia," pro duced in 1852, is a good example of these two influences. Her body, decked with flowers, is borne upon the surface of a pool, the bank of which presents a labyrinth of willows and plants. Green is the prevailing colour, sprinkled with the bright hues of the flowers and contrasted with the purple of the gown. The same year saw " The Huguenot," in which Millais first showed his faculty of portraying a sentiment that would readily catch the popular taste. This facile gift led him to paint many pictures in which quality of craftsmanship is sacrificed to the appeal of subject. On the other hand, in some of these designedly popular subjects, for example, " The Yeoman of the Guard," he displays an extraordinary skill in rendering the natural appearance. His versatility was shown in many landscapes, such as " Chill October," in which the objective facts are cleverly recorded. But the tendency of his work to become commoner in quality was interrupted by many portraits, which, while they lacked technical and aesthetic distinction, were remarkable for vivid and even noble characterisation. Two of the best are those of Gladstone and the marine painter J. C. Hook. Rossetti (1828-1882) Dante Gabriel Rossetti was born in London, where his parents had sought refuge from political troubles. His father, besides being an ardent patriot, translated Dante into English, so that the son grew up in an atmosphere of devotion to the Florentine poet. He was a Catholic and by temperament a mystic, of fervent and sensuous imagination. 568 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART He was, moreover, a poet, in whom had been reincarnated the spirit of the early Italian Renaissance. He translated Dante's " Vita Nuova," from which also he derived inspira tion for many pictures ; among them, his masterpiece, "Dante's Dream," now in the Liverpool Gallery. In I860 Rossetti married Elizabeth Eleanor Siddal, an unusual type of beauty with masses of Titian-red hair, heavy-lidded eyes, short upper lip, and full crimson lower one, long neck, and willowy figure. Under her inspiration he painted many of his finest female subjects, "Venus Verticordia," "Lady Lilith," " The Beloved," and " Beata Beatrix." The last, symbolising the death of Beatrice, as told in the "Vita Nuova," was painted after his wife's death, which occurred within two years of their marriage. After this Rossetti was occupied almost exclusively with what he described as the "painting of the soul." His draughtsmanship is often faulty, nor was his brush-work skilful. His pictures depend for their pictorial quality mainly upon beautiful, lustrous colour and richness of accessories, while their appeal to the imagination is the product of this poet-artist's own fervent, sensuous, and ecstatic spirit. Burne- Jones (1833- 1898) The decadence of Rossetti's art is impregnated with South ern exoticism; that of Edward Burne-Jones reflects the ec stasy of Northern mysticism. He dipped for motives and inspiration into many sources: primitive Italian, Venetian, Byzantine; legendary Teutonic lore, and Gallic chansons de gestes. But in his earlier work especially there is a strong strain of Gothic ; not the virile strain which built cathedrals, but the supersensitive, neurasthenic spirit of tender, delicate natures, shrinking from the horrors of the world and feeding upon their own spiritual ecstasies in sun less cloister cells. Moreover in the fragrance and naivete ^HHMHST BURNE-JONES THE MIRROR OF VENUS Mingling of classic line with medieval mysticism. GEORGE FREDERICK WATTS HOPE A beautiful example of the artist's allegorical conceptions. THE PRE-RAPHAELITE MOVEMENT 571 of his female types there is a strain distinctly English. This tender austerity and pathetic timidity of feeling are notably illustrated in " King Cophetua and the Beggar Maid," which also is a beautiful example of his technical method. For here is the exquisiteness of faded, even monotonous colour ing, and of preciosity in the elaborately wrought surfaces, so that every inch of the canvas has its peculiar appeal to the most rarefied aesthetic sense. In his window decorations in the Birmingham Cathedral Church, and in his mosaics in the American Episcopal Church in Rome, Burne-Jones proved his capacity as a decorator. Before his entrance into this field it had been customary to engage German artists, and several of the " Nazarenes " obtained commissions. Now under the inspiration of Ros setti and Burne-Jones, a new taste developed in the decora tion of public and domestic buildings. The decorative side of art began to engage the attention of painters, among Morris (1834-1896) whom William Morris became a leader. It was the diffi culty of getting his own house decorated and furnished to suit his fastidious taste that finally induced him to become a decorator. He and some friends associated themselves as the firm of Morris, Marshall, Faulkner & Co. It started business in London, but finally moved to Merton Abbey, where its workshops became famous for the beauty and originality of their decorative work in various lines. Mean while, Morris found time to write " The Earthly Paradise," and other poems, and also to enforce his views on socialism. Towards the end of his life he was specially occupied with typography and book-making, for which he established the celebrated Kelmscott Press. Another artist whose influence upon decorative art has been second only to that of Morris is Walter Crane (1845- ). 572 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART This English renaissance of decoration has been a direct product of the Pre-Raphaelite movement; since it was based on the Naturalistic study of the human figure and the forms of plants and flowers. It abandoned the soul less imitation of Italian, Greek, and Roman ornament, and sought inspiration for original invention at the same source in which the Greeks had found it; namely, in the forms and movements and rhythms of nature. A great impetus was given to the movement by the discovery and study of " The Book of Kells," that marvellous example of Celtic illuminated decoration, executed probably between 680 and 700 a.d., which is one of the treasures of the library of Dublin Uni versity. The example of the English was followed by French, German, and Belgian artists, until decorative de sign has become recognised as one of the most important departments of art, and has penetrated with improved taste all the products of artistic craftsmanship. For a while it ran riot in what was popularly called Vart nouveau, which abandoned the true principles of architectonic composition and emulated the irresponsible wildness of nature's growths. But this craze perished from its own extravagance. Watts (18 1 7- 1 904) It is convenient here to mention George Frederick Watts. Although a visionary, he had nothing in common with Ros setti and Burne-Jones. Yet his own creed had something in it of Ruskin's statement of Pre-Raphaelitism. " The end of art," he affirmed, " must be the exposition of some weighty principle of spiritual significance, the illustration of a great truth." His circumstances permitted him to pursue his own ideals ; and most of his canvases remained with him until his death, when he bequeathed them to the nation. His earliest inspiration was found in the Elgin marbles ; later he studied in Florence and Venice; but the real genius of his work is THE PRE-RAPHAELITE MOVEMENT 573 Northern, in that it is occupied with the expression of an idea, and in terms that have the severity and sometimes the uncouthness of the Northern spirit. It is the stimulus to intellectual and spiritual reflection, rather than an appeal to beauty and aesthetic sensations, that characterises his works. They are allegorical in subject and treated with a bigness of style and feeling that corresponds to the large abstraction of the themes. Watts also left some forty por traits of the notable men of the nineteenth century, which are now in the National Portrait Gallery. They are dis tinguished by a grand simplicity of style and an earnest and sincere directness of characterisation. PAINTING IN GERMANY The native vigour which had characterised German art in the sixteenth century disappeared during the seventeenth, when the painters became imitators of the Italian style. Nor was the condition of the art improved during the eighteenth, although Raphael Mengs (1728-1779) and Angelica Kauff mann (1741-1807) were held in high esteem. The former's style was based upon a study of that of his namesake, Raphael; it imitated the form but lacked entirely the spirit of the original ; while the popularity of the lady's prettily sentimentalised affectations of the Classical is sufficient evi dence of the inartistic taste of the times. With the commencement of the nineteenth century, how ever, a new life began to stir throughout Germany, owing to the growth of a national and patriotic spirit, manifested during the War of Liberation (1813-1815). The strong and earnest efforts of the Romantic school which were called forth by this spirit, while giving vigour to the present and hope to the future, opened up also " the long perspective of a noble past." The fervour of this revolution influenced the enthusiasm of a band of German artists who chanced to be collected in Rome. They were Peter Cornelius (1783- 1867) of Dusseldorf, Friedrich Overbeck (1789-1869) of Liibeck, Philipp Veit (1793-1877) of Frankfort, and Wilhelm Schadow (1789-1862) of Berlin. They studied the master pieces of the Renaissance with a view to restoring the art of monumental decorations. They were given an opportu nity in a villa on the Pincian Hill to paint a series of frescos which have since been removed to the Berlin Museum. Over beck and Veit, assisted by some other German artists, also painted for another villa a series of frescos, illustrating 574 PAINTING IN GERMANY 575 Dante's " Divine Comedy," Ariosto's " Orlando Furioso," and Tasso's " Jerusalem Delivered." While. Overbeck re- DEATH OF SIEGFRIED Peter Cornelius In His Illustrations to " Faust " and the " Niebelungen-Lied " this Artist Renewed the Traditions of Diirer mained in Rome, the rest of the group returned to Germany, where they were known as " The Nazarenes," owing to their effort to revive religious painting; unfortunately very few 576 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART of their works exhibit individuality of conception or living sentiment. The most vigorous of the group was Cornelius, who had been appointed director of the Dusseldorf Academy. In FROM THE DANCE OF DEATH Alfred Rethel A Vigorous Wood-cut, Influenced by Diirer and by Cornelius his illustrations for Goethe's " Faust " and the " Niebelungen- Lied " he struck a genuinely national note, and showed him self a follower of Albrecht Diirer. Later he was called to Munich by King Ludwig, and placed at the head of the Academy. His decorations in the Pinakothek set forth the history of Christian art, while those in the Glyptothek extol the ancient world of Teutonic heroes. Munich thus became the centre of this school of monumental painting. Among PAINTING IN GERMANY 577 the pupils of Cornelius, the most able were Alfred Rethel (1816-1859) and Wilhelm von Kaulbach (1805-1874). Meanwhile a school of painting was developed at Diissel- dorf under the leadership of Wilhelm Schadow. Instead of engaging as at Munich in monumental themes, carried out with architectonic arrangement, beauty of outline, and severity of drawing, it was limited to easel pictures " devoted rather to the refinements and sentiment of art, seeking to emphasise these traits in a careful and minute study of nature and in a delicate perfection of colour " (Liibke). The painters of this school lived a sort of brotherhood life, shut off from the world and given up solely to art. Hence, much of their work is pervaded with a visionary spirit. It ap pears, for example, in the pictures by Karl Friedrich Lessing (1808-1880), Eduard Bendemann (1811-1889), Karl Sohn (1805-1867), Theodor Hildebrandt (1804-1874), and Julius Htibner (1806-1882). At the same time their work exhibits a much closer attention to nature than does that of the Munich decorators ; and this trait was carried farther by the group of genre painters which became identified with Dusseldorf. It is interesting to note that Dusseldorf at this period was the centre of a dramatic revival, into which the painters entered with enthusiasm. It is not difficult to trace the influence of this in pictures of sueh genre painters as Jakob Becker (1810-1872) and Karl Hiibner (1814-1879), in the delineations of the life of fisher-folk by Rudolf Jordan (1810-1887) and Henry Ritter (1816-1853), and the pic tures of Norwegian peasant life by Adolf Tidemand (1814-1876). The scene is set as in a stage-picture, and all the characters are acting up to the extreme of characteri sation, as if under the arrangement and drilling of a play- director. Meanwhile, the study of nature was spreading elsewhere, 578 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART and Munich also had its group of genre painters, influenced in some measure by the example of the British genre painter Wilkie. The beautiful villages in the Bavarian Alps in spired the painters with settings for their themes, which BATTLE OF THE HUNS Wilhelm von Kaulbach The Dead Bodies Strew the Ground, While the Released Spirits Fight in Mid-air they found in depicting the simple gaieties and humble senti ment of the picturesque peasantry. Thus the " Morning at Parkenkirche" by Peter Hess (1792-1871) displays a group of peasant girls, busy round a well in the midst of picturesque HANS MAKART METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART, N. Y. THE DREAM AFTER THE BALL A characteristic example of one of the pupils of Piloty who revived in Munich the art of painting as distinguished from that of draughtsmanship. ELEANOR DUSE AND MARIA LENBACH A charming sketch of another of Piloty's pupils. PAINTING IN GERMANY 581 chalets, over the roofs of which appear snowy peaks, rising against the morning sky. It is a characteristically whole some and happy scene, a little idealised by simple sentiment. Heinrich Biirkel (1802-1869) displayed a partiality for snowy landscapes and for scenes of the high road, while Karl Spitzweg (1808-1885) touches the more intimate life with a tender romance. In " At the Garret Window," for ex ample, one sees a middle-aged bachelor, carefully watering his pot-flowers, while a girl at a distant window pauses in her work to watch him. On the other hand, a robuster note is struck in the work of Hermann Kauffmann (1808- 1889), who belonged to the Munich group, but spent the latter part of his career in his native city of Hamburg. In his scenes of peasant labour there is a bigness of feeling which makes him akin to Millet. In Berlin worked Eduard Meyerheim (1808-1879), whose pictures of peasant girls and children and popular festivals represent the prevailing spirit of optimism, which was reflected also in the novels of rustic life, so popular at the time. Finally mention may be made of another Berlin painter, Johann Georg Meyer von Bremen (1813-1886), whose pictures of child life were at one time very popular in America. From the middle of the nineteenth century dates a new generation of German genre and historical painters. The lead was taken by Karl Theodor von Piloty (1826-1886), who, after studying in Munich, visited Paris, England, and Brussels. Returning to Munich, he became in 1856 a pro fessor of the Academy, attracted many pupils, and exer cised a wide influence. The monumental painting of the Nazarenes, as we have noted, had been based on draughts manship. Piloty introduced the practice of painting: the use of the brush and some feeling for colour. The genre painters also were stimulated by his skill in representing 582 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART the appearances of things. He did not render them as a modern painter would, with their proper relations of value as affected by lighted atmosphere; but he could paint a spade to look unequivocally like a real spade, and could thus invest his large historical canvases with what seemed to be an amazing verisimilitude, while at the same time giv ing the whole the virile quality of rich colouring. He was thus the pioneer of the modern revival in Germany of paint ing as painting. Among Piloty's immediate pupils were Franz von Defreg- ger (1835- ), Franz von Lenbach (1836-1904), and Hans Makart (1840-1884). The last named dazzled the public with large canvases profusely decorative and brilliant in colour, while Lenbach's reputation depended chiefly on his portraits, of which those of Bismarck are the finest and most famous. His method was to concentrate the expression of the whole countenance in the eyes. Defregger's genre pictures were devoted to the life of the Tyrolese peasants. On the other hand it was the Swabian peasantry which occu pied the brush of Benjamin Vautier (1829-1898), who had spent a year in Paris before he settled in Dusseldorf. His genre pictures show a great advance on the older stage- settings, since he managed to create a real suggestion of the environment of his peasants and of their relation to it. Among those whom his example influenced was Mikaily de Munkacsy (1844-1900), a Hungarian by birth, but trained in Dusseldorf, whence he migrated to Paris. His historical canvases show him to have been rather an illustrator than a painter. But the most accomplished of this later group of German genre painters was Ludwig Knaus (1829-1910). After studying in Dusseldorf under Schadow he spent eight years in Paris. He was an extraordinarily skilful painter and as clever in inventing subjects which pleased and amused the PAINTING IN GERMANY 583 public. But the characters in his little domestic playlets are overacting, and a corresponding perfection of finish char acterises his technique. In fact his pictures suffer from an almost Mephistophelian cleverness. It is convenient to mention here Adolf Menzel (1815-1905). No sentiment enters into his pictures. They are objective illustrations of German history or of the people of the artist's own day. He could handle a crowd with as much ease as a few figures. His forte was composition in black and white, but his colour is usually sufficient for his purpose. In 1869 an exhibition was held in Munich which intro duced to Germany a knowledge of contemporary French art. An entire room was devoted to Courbet. Among those most impressed by the French Naturalist was Wilhelm Leibl (1844-1900). He moved to Paris and stayed there until the breaking out of the war; then lived in various parts of Germany and finally adopted the manner of life of a peasant. " Leibl became the apostle of Courbet in Germany and in his outward life the German Millet." His technique was broad and large; but, on the other hand, exhibited a joy in detail, such as Holbein's. His aim was to realise the whole truth and the pure truth of his subject. IMPRESSIONISM IN FRENCH PAINTING The term Impressionism, as used in painting, is misleading. It was coined in 1872, to describe the work of certain painters who professed to record the impression which they had received from the object studied. But in this sense no painter who undertakes to paint what he sees can help being an Impressionist. He can only paint the thing as it im presses his individual eyesight. Later, the term was used to denote a certain method of painting; particularly the one practised by Claude Monet and his followers, which will be explained presently. It is sufficient here to say that it did not represent the object with that exact and finished imitation to which people had become accustomed. At close range the picture appeared confused and unintelligible; it was necessary to stand some distance away from it in order to discover " what it was all about." So people came to apply to this class of pictures the term Impressionistic. It so happens that they were, but not because they were painted in this way, for there are other Impressionistic pictures in which the paint is laid on differently. Impressionism, really, is a matter of point of view; of the way in which a painter sets out to see his subject. He will tell you that his motive is a more natural kind of Naturalistic one. There are two ways of using the sight: one analytical, the other synthetic. You may look at an object to study it in detail ; or you may look at it to gain the general effect of its appearance and character. The latter is the more usual way of seeing an object. We unconsciously employ it, for example, every time we take a walk, either 584 THE GOOD BOCK Showing the influence of Velasquez. DEGAS DANSEUSE ETOILE Union of Ingres line, modern search for light and the principles of Japanese composition. IMPRESSIONISM IN FRENCH PAINTING 587 in a town or in the country. The scene is continually shift ing; innumerable pictures pass before the eyes. They come, they go; and the brain registers an impression, more or less complete, of each. That tangle of wild flowers, for instance, clustering at the foot of a hedge — we take in its beauty at a glance. A painter will do the same thing and paint it as the glance records it to him. On the other hand, he may pick a bunch of flowers, and take them home and study them singly and exhaustively, and then paint the result of his detailed and prolonged examination. In either case, the painter is a Naturalist; but if he works with the former purpose in mind, we distinguish him as an Impres sionist. The latter, then, is one who paints an object as he actually sees it and not as he knows it to be, either from previous or present study of it. Further, he becomes more and more interested in the momentary and fleeting appear ances of things. As he walks the street, the figures and buildings present a series of ' kaleidoscopic pictures ; they do not remain long enough to be studied in detail; more over, it is the very change that fascinates because it is a feature of life. These moving pictures are living pictures. So, too, in the country — it is not so much the fixed position of the hills and trees and so on that fascinates one, as the changing expressions on the face of the landscape, due to the effects of light and atmosphere and movement. It is these momentary and fleeting aspects of nature that the Impressionist loves to record. This becomes the motive of his pictures ; just how he will lay the paint depends upon how he feels he can best interpret the impression which he has received. Manet (1833-1883) So the stages of Impressionism in painting are threefold. It began by recording the impression that the eye naturally 588 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART and immediately receives; then it occupied itself more and more with the surprises of sight; and, in doing so, learned quickly the part played in them by light, atmosphere, and movement. The leader in this way of seeing the subject and of recording what the eye sees was Edouard Manet. Through Courbet's example he was biased towards the Nat uralistic motive ; but at first did not look at nature through his own eyes, but those of the old masters. By degrees he came under the spell of Velasquez; recognised the truth of his records of nature, and studied his vital and characterful method of painting and his reserved but beautiful colour schemes. The result was a number of pictures — one of them is the " Boy with the Sword," of the Metropolitan Mu seum — in which he reproduced Velasquez's style. They be long to what may be called his " black and grey period." Then, during a visit to the country house of the painter De Nittis, Manet was one day attracted by the picture which his friend's wife and children presented as they sat on the lawn in the sunlight beside a flower-bed. He painted the picture in the open air. This picture was the beginning of " plein-air " painting ; at least in modern times, for it is clear that some of the early Italians practised it. Hence forth Manet's work was distinguished by a wide range of colour and a greater variety and luminosity of light and atmosphere. Its example was immediately followed by many other painters, and the exhibitions began to be enlivened with these glowing pictures. The public and many artists declared that they were untrue to nature; the fact being that hitherto people had not been accustomed to look at nature directly, but were in the habit of accepting it as it was represented in pictures. For example, painters had rendered shadows black or brown or red, without reference to the local colour; but now, when artists studied nature at first hand, they found that the LE MOULIN DE LA GALETTE Colour, air and movement. LUXEMBOURG _. v.-^..: ia VIEW ON THE SEINE An example of painting with the "Separate touch.' IMPRESSIONISM IN FRENCH PAINTING 591 hue of shadows varied with the local colour, and with the quantity and quality of the light. They found, for in stance, that the shadows upon snow might be blue or violet. Most of us to-day know that this is so; because through the influence of the pictures, painted by the open-air Im pressionists, we have learned to look at nature with our own eyes. One thing more had to be learned by these Impressionists. This they derived from the study of Japanese prints, which began to reach Paris in increasing numbers during the early sixties. These exhibited a new principle of composition, which the Japanese themselves call " notan," or the " spotting of dark and light." Instead of the formal building up of the composition with studied proportions and balance, this arrangement has the appearance of being natural and spon taneous. It had an elasticity and quality of unexpectedness that exactly suited the expression of movement and life, and the momentary and fleeting aspects of nature. It was adopted by Occidental artists, and is still the principle of composition employed by most Naturalistic and Impression istic painters and draughtsmen, as the pictures in maga zines testify. Degas (1834- ) One of the first to employ the principle of " notan " was Hilaire Germain Degas, who is best known by his pictures of the race-course and of the opera, both in front of and behind the curtain. In the foreground may appear the head and shoulders of a bass-player in the orchestra, while beyond spreads the stage, spotted with figures; or we may be shown a room in which the dancers are training. It is as if we had come upon the scene without the knowledge of the people engaged in it. Everything appears to be un premeditated, an instantaneous impression; differing from 592 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART that of a camera, since action is not suspended, but retains the elastic rhythm of moving life. Degas is a great draughts man, and in this respect has been influenced by Ingres, whom he has always greatly admired, despite the difference between his own impressionistic motive and the other's classical one. Degas has carried the cult of " the ugly " farther than most painters. His ballet-dancers have no beauty of face or grace of figure in the ordinary sense. The charm of his pictures is abstract, consisting in their rhythm of colour, light and shade, and movement. Renoir (1841- ) Another famous member of the early group of Impression- • ists is Firmin Auguste Renoir. His early work reflects the influence of Courbet, Manet, and Velasquez. It is character ised by sumptuously grand harmonies of black, grey, pearly white, and subtle rose, and blue. Then he followed Manet's development towards a fuller palette and more luminous colour. In doing so, he carried forward the art of Frago nard, which, as we have seen, was a heritage from Rubens. Renoir may be said, in fact, to have translated the Flemish artist into terms of modern Impressionism. Hence Renoir is the most distinguished colourist of the Impressionistic group. His nudes and pictures of young women and chil dren, as well as his landscapes, are symphonies of the rhythms and harmonies of luminous colour. Of Whistler's relation to Impressionism, of which he was one of the first exponents, we shall speak elsewhere. Monet (1840- ) It remains to mention the group of landscapists of which Claude Monet is popularly regarded as the leader. The other chief names are those of Georges Seurat (1859-1891), Johann Barthold Jongkind (1819-1891) of Holland birth, IMPRESSIONISM IN FRENCH PAINTING 593 Camille Pissarro (1831-1903), Renoir, already mentioned, and Alfred Sisley (1830-1899). Monet and Pissarro, dur ing a visit to London, were impressed by the purity of colour of Turner's pictures. When they returned to France, they found that Jongkind had adopted a style of painting which was very successful in rendering the effects of movement and the play of fugitive light. It consisted in building up the picture by means of a number of little brush strokes. Gradually Pissarro, Monet, and Renoir combined the lessons of Turner and Jongkind. They began to abandon the dark colours and to use yellow, orange, vermilion, lake, red, violet, blue, and intense greens. These they laid upon the canvas in separate touches. Instead of mixing the colours on the pal ette, they set them in their purity side by side on the canvas, and depended upon the eye to effect the mingling of them; by this means increasing their brilliance and luminosity. This is the principle known as that of " divided colour " or " division of colour." In raising the key of their landscapes, so as to approxi mate more nearly to the effects of natural light, Monet and the other exponents of this method have made the ren dering of light and atmosphere their special aim;, to which the forms of the landscape have been, as some are beginning to think, unduly sacrificed. Thus Monet painted a number of pictures in which the same haystacks reappear under different effects of coloured light. He also produced a series of the west front of Rouen Cathedral, in which the solidity, form, and enrichments of the architecture play no part ; the sole purpose being to render the shimmer of light and colour and atmosphere on the surface of the building. These facts are mentioned, not as a criticism of Monet's intentions or achievements, but because they indicate the general tendency of this branch of Impressionism, from which, as we shall see later, there is a growing reaction. 594 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART It is convenient here to allude to a group which has grown out of the one we have been discussing. It has been self-named, very misleadingly, Neo-Impressionist ; because its members wished to put on record the fact that they were only carrying further and more scientifically what the Im pressionists had already done in the use of " divided colours." But they are even more strict than their prede cessors in avoiding the mixing of the pigments on the palette, and they juxtapose the pure tints on the canvas according to the laws, derived from the spectrum, which govern colour and regulate its harmonies. Their method, in fact, sub stitutes for the feeling of what will look well, a precise and scientific knowledge. Some lay the tints side by side in square " touches," like a mosaic ; others adopt other shapes for the " touches," regulating their size to the size and character of the composition. It is the use of the "touch," and not the particular kind of " touch," that distinguishes them as a group. From the fact that their great aim is luminosity of colour and their chief means the scientific application of colour, they would be better styled " Chromo- Luminarists." The group has included Georges Seurat, Henri Edouard Cross, Albert Dubois-Pillet, Maximilien Luce, Hippolyte Petit jean, Theo van Rysselberghe, Henry van de Velde, and Paul Signac, who has set forth in writing the aims of himself and his colleagues. He traces back this modern use of " divided colours " through Delacroix to Constable. HENRI EDOUARD CROSS THE MODEL Example of "divided touch." STAIRCASE OF OPERA HOUSE, PARIS Grandiosely ornate, this for many years became the accepted style for theatres and opera houses. ARCHITECTURE OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY By the end of the eighteenth century the modern world had become acquainted with the Greek Classic, as contrasted with the Roman Classic and the Roman reproduction of the Greek. This was due to the exploration of Greece, and the conscientious account of her monuments accomplished by Stuart and Revett, who had been sent out in 1751 by the London Society of Dilettanti. This Greek revival dis placed the Roman revival in England and Germany, but ob tained little foothold in France. In England the chief examples of its influence are the Bank of England, the British Museum, Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge, London University, and St. George's Hall, Liverpool. The latter's imposing peristyle and porches are sufficiently Greek in spirit and detail to class it among the works of the Greek revival. But its great hall and its interior composition are really Roman and not Greek, em phasising the teaching of experience that Greek architec ture does not lend itself to the exigencies of modern civilisa tion to nearly the same extent as the Roman (Hamlin). The Greek forms are too severe and intractable for present- day requirements. In Germany the revival found a guiding spirit in the genius of Karl Friedrich Schinkel (1781-1841). His in telligence grasped the architectural forms, not as detached portions, but as living members of an organic whole. His masterpieces, the Theatre, new Guard House, and the Old Museum, in Berlin, are buildings modified to fit the require ments of modern life, but conceived in the spirit of Hellenic 597 598 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART art. In the Academy of Architecture, in Berlin, and other buildings, he laid the groundwork for a progressive archi tectural development. For " he fell back upon the healthy tradition of the national brick buildings, abandoning the dignity of the antique treatment of form for a freer style, which he could combine with the results of the later style of construction " (Liibke). Examples of his achievements in this direction are presented by many important buildings in Berlin, Potsdam, Dresden, and Leipzig, and in many country houses throughout Germany. Schinkel left many pupils and followers, among whom may be mentioned Ludwig Persius (1804-1845), August Soller (1805-1853), J. H. Strack (1805-1880), Friedrich Hitzig (1811-1881), the designer of the Berlin Borse, Ed ward Knoblauch (1801-1865), and F. A. Stiller (1800- 1865), who designed the New Museum in Berlin. In Munich the revival was fostered by King Ludwig I., who, until his abdication in 1848, proved himself a most enlightened patron of the arts, restoring architecture to its central position in the alliance of all the arts of decorative design. The chief artist of this revival was Leo von Klenze (1784-1864), who achieved such monumental buildings as the Glyptothek, the Ruhmeshalle, or Hall of Fame, and the Propylaeum. "In the great Walhalla, near Ratisbon, he put an admirable Greek temple-like exterior to a domed Roman interior, and, again, in the Old Pinakothek, in Munich, he was compelled to quit Greek for another style, and used sixteenth century Italian with great effect" (Liibke). In Vienna the Parliament House was designed by Han sen in the pure Greek style. In France the Greek revival had little direct effect; the tendency being towards the Roman form. We have seen HOUSES OF PARLIAMENT, LONDON Revival of Gothic; light and poor in detail, but imposing in mass. ALOIS IIAUSMAN, ARCH. NEW YORK LIFE INSURANCE BUILDING, BUDAPEST Interesting phase in the Budapest development of architecture. p THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE, LONDON Rather fanciful adaptation of the Gothic. THE NEW RATHAUS IN MUNICH, BAVARIA An adaptation of the style of the city halls of Flanders in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. ARCHITECTURE OF THE 19th CENTURY 603 that in the years preceding the revolution the " Roman man ner " was advocated alike by philosophers, patriots, and artists; and that it obtained monumental expression in the Pantheon. With the advent of the Empire and Napoleon's parade of Cassarism, the more gorgeous forms of Roman architecture received official approval. The results are seen in the Arc de Triomphe, a close copy of Roman models; the Arc de l'Etoile, a larger and more independent design; the Bourse; the river front of the Palais Bourbon; and the Madeleine, which combines with the exterior of a Roman Corinthian temple an interior with three pendentive domes. About 1830 a movement known as Neo-Grec was initi ated by Due, Duban, and Labrouste, which sought to emu late the purity and choiceness of Greek art. Examples are the west fa9ade of the Palais de Justice, by Due ; Library of the Ecole des Beaux Arts, by Duban; and the Library of Ste. Genevieve, by Labrouste. The Roman revival in France was superseded by a re vival of the splendidly decorative French Renaissance style of the sixteenth century, and by a revival also of the French tendency to base architectural design upon the Plan. The most typical examples of this are the completion of the Louvre, by Visconti and Lefuel, and the Paris Opera House, by Gamier. In the latter case " the boldness of the de signer, who tried to accommodate Classic methods of design to the wholly novel plan of a great theatre, to show outside the planning of the interior, and then to increase the rich ness of adornment far beyond what Classic tradition would allow, is most notable and praiseworthy. The lack of any true power of detailed design is, however, visible, and the substitution of fully realised sculpture, in statues and large groups, for architectural sculpture in a strict sense is char acteristic of the age " (Liibke). 604 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART Examples elsewhere of theatres which combine Classic and Renaissance styles with modern planning, are the Dresden Theatre, the Victoria Theatre in Berlin, the Opera House and the Hofburg Theatre in Vienna, and the New Theatre, now the Century Theatre, in New York. In France the writings of Viollet-le-Duc, who maintained that French art owed its greatest obligations, not to the Italian and Roman 'tradition, but to the Northern tradition of the Gothic, gave a great impetus to the study of mediaeval archaeology, and to the restoration of mediaeval monuments. But the movement remained chiefly archaeological, and very little affected the practical development of French archi tecture. In England, however, it was different. The Gothic re vival, largely inspired by Augustus Pugin, led not only to the restoration of cathedrals and churches, but to the actual adaptation of the Gothic style to the requirements of modern buildings. The most signal example of the move ment is the Houses of Parliament, designed in the Per pendicular style by Sir Charles Barry. The effect of the whole is grand, and the details throughout are carefully considered and refined. The main fault is the want of har monious relation between the vast proportions of the edifice. By the time that the latter was completed (1861) the Gothic revivalists had rejected as anathema the Perpendicular style, and believed that the true principles were only to be found in the Gothic of the fourteenth century. There followed, in consequence, such experiments in Gothic as the Law Courts, in London, by Street; Keble College, Oxford, and All Saints, Margaret Street, London, by Butterfield; and the Natural History Museum, South Kensington, by Water- house, which, however, is in a modified Romanesque style. The full Gothic revival lasted for about a generation, and ARCHITECTURE OF THE 19th CENTURY 605 was then challenged by the so-called " Queen Anne." This was a style compounded of various features taken from Jones and Wren and their followers, and from the archi tects of Belgium and Holland. It originated with Richard Norman Shaw, who has been the leading English archi tect during the late generation. " The genuine movement of his art," writes Sir Walter Armstrong, " has been from the picturesque eclecticism with which he began to some thing more in harmony with the genius of Inigo Jones. And in this he has carried English architecture, as a whole, with him. For our architects, who are in great part his disciples, appear to have settled down to the conviction that their true course is to return to the path pointed out by Jones and Wren, and to develop that form of Palladian which was shown by the works of those men to be suited to our wants, character, and climate. During the last ten or fifteen years many important buildings have been erected in London and the provinces in a style which may be fairly called the legitimate offspring of our two great architects." Two examples of Norman Shaw's more recent work are the Pic cadilly Hotel and the Gaiety Theatre, in London. AMERICA Being from the nature of the case without traditions, American architecture has had to depend until compara tively recent years upon the importation of ideas and styles from Europe. We have seen how this resulted in the forma tion of the Colonial style. Between the Revolution and the War of 1812 the influence was derived from France. It showed itself in the employment of the Louis XVI. style in the State House, in Boston, designed in 1795 by Bulfinchj and the New York City Hall (1803-1812), which was de signed by the Frenchman Mangin. The effect of the Greek revival in Europe appeared in the central portion of the 606 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART Capitol at Washington, the erection of which, from the designs of Thornton, Hallet, and B. H. Latrobe, occupied the years between 1793 and 1880. It was also represented in Thomas Jefferson's design of the University of Virginia, which was subsequently destroyed by fire ; and in the White House, which was built by Hoban after the style of the English country mansions of the period. Further examples of the Classical revival are the Federal buildings which were erected up to 1840, such as the Treasury and Patent Offices, in Washington; the Sub-Treasury and Custom House, in New York; the Custom House, in Boston; and the Mint, in Philadelphia. The last-named city possesses another example in Girard College. During this period the Capitol, at Washington, was enlarged by the two wings. The dome, designed by Walters, was not added until 1858 to 1873. In 1840 the Gothic revival made its appearance; the first example being Grace Church, New York, built by Renwick. The same architect was entrusted with the erection of St. Patrick's Cathedral, while Richard Upjohn built Trinity Church, and subsequently Trinity Chapel. Other early ex amples of the Gothic were the State Capitol, at Hartford, Connecticut, and the late Fine Arts Museum, in Boston. Since 1875 the Gothic has only been employed in the case of churches. This date marks approximately the beginning of the modern architectural movement in America. Several causes assisted it. Following the Civil War, the vast expansion of the country produced a demand for public and private buildings, and this was further enforced by the disastrous fires in Chicago (1871) and in Boston (1872). Again, the Centennial Exhibition in Philadelphia (1876) awakened the public to a more genuine artistic appreciation. Mean while, a School of Architecture had been established in Bos- THE CAPITOL, WASHINGTON The central portion was built 1793-1830; the wings were added between 1830 and 1840; the dome, which is of iron, was erected 1858-1873. L„ 3BBSnK9HBi ii* THE CITY HALL, NEW YORK Shows the influence of the Louis XVI. style. Erected 1803-1812 from designs by the Frenchman, Mangin. TRINITY CHURCH, NEW YORK The present church was commenced in 1839 and completed in 1846. It was consecrated on Ascension Day, May 21, 1846. Designed by Upjohn. TRINITY CHURCH, BOSTON Richardson's masterpiece in the handling of the Romanesque style. ARCHITECTURE OF THE 19th CENTURY 611 ton in 1866, and art museums had been started or en larged in New York, Boston, Philadelphia, Baltimore, De troit, and Milwaukee. Lastly, there appeared two men capable of giving both inspiration and direction to the new impulse: Richard M. Hunt (1828-1895), with a genius for organising, and H. H. Richardson (1838-1886), whose genius was more specifically artistic. The latter, in many public buildings, notably Trinity Church, Boston, and the County Buildings, in Pittsburgh, used very effectively the French Romanesque style, setting an example that was fol lowed by many other architects. Meanwhile, the more permanent influence of Richardson and Hunt consisted in the fact that they were Paris-trained and directed the travel of students towards the Ecole des Beaux Arts. As these men returned home their influence made itself felt, not only by direct example, but also by the impetus they gave to the establishment of architectural schools and systematic training on scientific as well as artistic lines. For the great value of the Paris training, which has now been introduced into America, is that it is based upon the prime importance of the Plan and upon establishing an organic relation between the component parts of a de sign, so that they shall be regulated and organised by a logic of constructive growth and by a logical conformity to actual needs and conditions. The layman is apt to think that design refers solely or mainly to the externals of a building; whereas, an architect, thoroughly trained in the principles and logic of construction, is, like a correspond ingly trained physician, more concerned with the organic structure of the whole. This logic has affected the architect's attitude towards eclecticism. For the latter prevails in America, as every where else at the present time. But instead of borrowing 612 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART indiscriminately and assembling the details with an eye solely to picturesque effect, the modern architect not only selects, but also combines, judiciously. This logic has been most happily displayed in city and country residences, for in these the architect has adapted foreign forms to the stand ards of comfort, mode of life, and climatic conditions of America. He has scarcely been so fortunately logical in the case of public and commercial buildings. In the case of monumental buildings the architect has been prone to accept as an axiom that Classicalisfn must dominate the design. The stock in trade of his design has consisted of columns, entablatures (used for the most part decoratively rather than constructively), pediments, domes, and cupolas. Accordingly, a barren uniformity of imita tion, lacking the flexibility and freedom of living growth, prevails in the design of federal, state, and municipal build ings. This illogical and slavish imitation reaches its reduc- tio ad absurdum when the model of a Roman temple is multiplied a hundredfold in size to enclose the complex organism of a modern railroad terminus. The very idea of a great terminus is that it shall be a gateway of ingress and egress, connecting the railroad system and the city ; but this idea is absolutely contradicted by the idea involved in a tem ple. The result may be imposing, by reason of its size, but from the point of view of artistic as well as of common sense, it is an imposition, a flagrant and foolish disregard of the logic of design. A similar disregard for a long time characterised the treatment of commercial buildings. The excessive value of ground in the congested areas of the city's business sec tions demanded that the buildings should be enlarged up ward; the invention of steel construction and of elevator service made it possible. Meanwhile, in clothing the ex terior of these high buildings with an appropriate design, ARCHITECTURE OF THE 19th CENTURY 613 the architects found themselves confronted by a new prob lem, and one towards the solution of which there was little or no help to be gained by imitating previous models. They might have gained some clue from an intelligent study of Gothic design ; but, as a matter of fact, their training was limited to Classicalistic or Renaissance design. Meanwhile, the genius of the Classical was horizontal, not perpendicu lar ; and the Classicalistic and Renaissance invention had to provide only for the repetition of a few stories. So, for a considerable time, the majority of the architects floundered in the fruitless effort to adapt their borrowings to a problem for which, by the nature of the case, they were disqualified. If they were not satisfied to pile story upon story, as children build their bricks, they tried to re lieve the monotony by placing one order upon another up to a certain point, and for the rest trusted to the relief of balconies and other extraneous ornamental devices. They employed ingenuity instead of logic, and bungled with more or less ridiculous expedients, instead of considering the or ganic growth upward of the building. But at last a Chicago architect recognised the logic of the new problem. Since the distinguishing feature of the tall building is its height, the appropriate design must be one which declares and establishes the artistic possibilities of upward growth. It must emphasise the predominance of the perpendicular, not the horizontal line. This principle, when stated, appears self-evident; yet it is a fact that even to-day only a few of the leading architects are applying it. The architect, for example, of the Metropolitan Tower, in New York, ignored it, notwithstanding that he is sup posed to have taken the Venice Campanile as more or less his model. For the beauty of the latter is largely secured by the shafts of projecting masonry, prolonged without inter ruption throughout the entire height of the actual tower. 614 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART Experience has shown that to secure this beauty and dig nity to a sky-scraper, it is not necessary to add ornamental detail. It is sufficient to so adjust the windows that the spaces between them may counteract their horizontal mo notony by emphasising the feeling of perpendicular growth. It is a question, in fact, of organic construction. In the attainment of this, it is interesting to note that some archi tects have obeyed an intuition which leads them back to the principles of Gothic design. In conclusion, it may be suggested that the most vital and interesting problems of modern architecture are those which grow out of social, industrial, and commercial prob lems of life. The palaces and temples of a true democracy include those of government and law, but are most char acteristically represented in the school-house, the library, the museum, the hospital, the factory, store, and office buildings. • oo u < a D METROPOLITAN LIFE BUILDING, NEW YORK An attempt to imitate with variations the Campanile at Venice. The tiers of windows, since the upright space between them is not accentuated, present a dry reiteration. "'""'iinniin. fife lilt ill!! f '''¦' COURTESY OF THOjUPSON-STARRETT COMPANY WOOLWORTH BUILDING, NEW YORK A Gothicized treatment of the sky-scraper. The tower from a distance is especially fine. DAVID DANGERS BUST OF FRANCOIS ARAGO Showing transition from the classical to the naturalistic. FRENCH SCULPTURE OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY It is in France that sculpture to-day flourishes most freely. The public improvements inaugurated in Paris in 1860, and continued to the present time, have produced a demand for monumental works to decorate the squares and streets ; and this example has been followed in provincial cities. Both the national government and the municipal authorities have encouraged the art. Moreover, sculpture requires of its practitioners exact and thorough knowledge, and a feel ing for logical and organic construction. The Official School of France has fostered the one and the temperament of the French contributed to the other. France, therefore, breeds a very great number of well-qualified sculptors, out of whom a few have attained to a superior degree of art istry. The note of all modern sculpture has ¦ been Naturalistic ; tempered, however, in the case of France, by Academic poise and restraint. For the standard of the Official School is no longer Classical in the sense of being based upon the study of the antique. Its foundation is study of life, but the results are more or less harmonised with the principles of the Classic. David d'Angers (1789-1856) The transition from the Classical to the Naturalistic, which had been begun by Houdon, was continued by P. J. David, of Angers, commonly called David d'Angers. As the pupil of the painter David, and familiar in Rome with Canova and Thorwaldsen, he showed at first a Classical tendency, as when he represented General Foy in Roman 619 620 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART costume. His relief, however, in the pediment of the Pan theon, while it betrays some Classical conventions, exhibits a determined Naturalism that even possibly interferes with the monumental character of the composition. He was at his best in his spirited rendering of portrait busts and medallions.Rude (1784-1855) The new spirit is conspicuously revealed in the great monumental group by Francois Rude which occupies one of the piers of the Arc de Triomphe. This piece, popularly known as "La Marseillaise," commemorating the departure of the volunteers of 1792, represents the fervour of patriotism with just that strain of exaggeration which was character istic of the revolution. It still, however, perpetuates the Classical conventions of Roman armour and the nude ; and is Naturalistic rather in its expression of living emotions than in its representation of actual living circumstances. Barye (1795-1875) Inspired by scientific study of such naturalists as Buf fon and Cuvier, Antoine Louis Barye devoted himself to the rendition in bronze of subjects involving animals. The originals decorate the gardens of the Tuileries and the Luxembourg, and other public spots in Paris, and some, reproduced in smaller size, embellish Mount Vernon Square, in Baltimore, while there is also a collection in the Corcoran Art Gallery, in Washington. Whether in groups of violent force, such as "A Lion Fighting with a Tiger," or in the more restrained power of single animals, it is the nobility of strength that represents the motive of the theme ; and it is expressed in the most forceful way: namely, by structural bulk and action, and by large surfaces, broadly and simply characterised. - * TUILERIES, PARIS LION AND SERPENT General power, produced by broad and vigorous treatment of the masses. 1ARYE METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART, IT. Y. WALKING LION This is modeled with a reliance on the plane masses, like the Lions of Nineveh. Here, however, there is closer following of nature, possibly with some loss of the monumental quality of the Assyrian work PAUL DUBOIS JOHN TLIE BAPTIST By the acknowledged leader of the Academic School. SAINT MARCEAUX LUXEMBOURG GENIUS GUARDING THE SOUL OF THE TOMB Rather sentimental rendering of a Michelangelesque suggestion. FRENCH SCULPTURE OF 19th CENTURY 625 In approaching the last quarter of the century, it is convenient to distinguish between the conspicuously Natu ralistic sculptors and those whose bias, notwithstanding a Naturalistic strain, is distinctively Academic. Among the latter was Henri Chapu (1833-1891), the designer of the memorial to the brilliant painter Henri Regnault, who was killed in one of the battles during the siege of Paris in 1871. It shows a youth placing an olive branch on the tomb. Francois Jouffroy (1806-1882) was professor of sculpture in the Official School from 1865 until his death. The acknowledged leader of the Academic school has been Paul Dubois (1829-1905), whose style as well as charm of handling is exhibited, for example, in the statue of the boy with the lute, known as " The Florentine Singer," His most important work is the monument to General Lamoriciere, in the Cathedral of Nantes. Rene de Saint-Marceaux (1845- ), in his "Genius Guarding the Secret of the Tomb," shows a Michael Angelesque influence, felt senti mentally rather than intellectually. On the other hand, Antonin Mercie (1845- ), in his "Gloria Victis," and other pieces, has proved himself a master of singular refine ment and rhythmic grace of movement. Though a pupil of Jouffroy, Jean Alexandre Falguiere (1831-1900) exhibited in his " Victor in the Cock-Fight," a feeling for living action that brought him very near to the Naturalists. The same tendency appears in his noble portrait-statue of Lamartine, and the somewhat more idealised one of Corneille. In the Naturalistic school was Jean Baptiste Carpeaux (1827-1875), a pupil of Rude, with the latter's emotional and dramatic fervour. It is illustrated in his " Triumph of Flora," upon the Pavilion de Flore, of the Louvre, and in the group of the Dance on the front of the Paris Opera House, and most monumentally in the fountain of the "Four Quar ters of the Earth Supporting the Heavens," in the Luxem- 626 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART bourg Gardens. Emmanuel Fremiet (1824- ), the nephew of Rude, is distinguished for historical statues, such as the equestrian statue of Joan of Arc. The vigorous naturalism of Jules Dalou (1838-1902) is to be seen in his " Silenus and Nymphs," in the South Kensington Mu seum, while his faculty to portray an historical theme dra matically is exhibited in his masterpiece in the Chamber of Deputies, which represents Mirabeau speaking before the States-General in 1789. A. Bartholomews finest work is rep resented by his " Monument to the Dead," in the Cemetery of Pere Lachaise. The design shows a portal to which fig ures are drawing near, with various expressions of unwill ingness and relief. Rodin (1840- ) We have enumerated only a few of the men of talent who throng the ranks of French sculptors. It remains to mention the one original genius, Auguste Rodin. Like the civilisation of his age, he is a residuum of past influences. In some of his plaster figures and his drawings he is mo mentarily Greek ; at other times he compels comparison with Michael Angelo, and, as Meier-Graefe says, is the weaker of the two, because he is the product of a more complicated and therefore less vigorous age. In his monument to Presi dent Lynch he vies with the North Italian equestrian sculp tors of the Renaissance. He has phases in which he reflects the poignancy of the Gothic, or again, the spirit of the Baroque; or again, the charm of a Frenchman of the eighteenth century. Further, he is of the present, a strenuous, uncompromising Naturalist. Finally, he has reached a point in which he can bring "the charms of all periods together into a single work." Rodin declares that his art is the result of " nature, mathematics, and taste." He has explained that he means the gift of seeing GROUP OF THE DANCE Full of joyous spirit. EMMANUEL FREMIET JOAN OF ARC Highly refined and dignified. A. RODIN LE PENSEUR Suggestion of elemental power and rudimentary intelligence. JOHN THE BAPTIST The naturalistic composition of a visionary. FRENCH SCULPTURE OF 19th CENTURY 631 nature, of comprehending what can be done with what he sees, and so of conceiving a design that is not to be seen in nature. It is here that the abstract principles of mathe matics help him, and then there comes a point when the laws of mathematics and all the assistance of reflection fail, and it is upon taste alone that reliance can be placed. In his youth he commenced " La Porte de l'Enfer," to which ever since he has been adding. It is the plastic record of his emotional, intellectual, and artistic development, and will be finished, but not completed, by his death. Of his great conceptions, fully wrought out, the masterpiece of his middle life is the memorial to Victor Hugo, which was intended for the Pantheon, but finally placed in the Luxem bourg Gardens. Another masterpiece, " one of his richest, most profound creations," is the group of the Burghers of Calais, emaci ated with hunger. This, Rodin had intended, should be placed only slightly above the level of the street, that the figures might seem to share humanity with the citizens of to-day. His later and boldest work is the much criticised Balzac, in which he has concentrated all the force of his creative conception in the head, as having been the crater out of which poured the torrent of the " Comedie Humaine." Amongst some fine examples of Rodin in the Metropolitan Museum are, unfortunately, several less happy ones, which do not worthily represent his genius. BRITISH SCULPTURE In British sculpture the most brilliant artist of the nine teenth century was Alfred Stevens, who is not to be con fused with the Belgian painter of the same name. He Stevens (1818-1875) was painter and decorative designer as well as sculptor, having spent eleven years in Italy, during which he studied and practised art in a variety of directions. In sculpture he was a pupil of Thorwaldsen, but his real master was Michael Angelo. On his return to England he put his hand to any artistic work that offered, being for a while a designer to a Sheffield firm of stove, fender, and fire-irons manufacturers. His great opportunity came with a com petition for the monument in St. Paul's to the Duke of Wellington. Stevens's design was accepted, and the execu tion of it occupied the chief part of the remaining seven teen years of his life. It was originally placed in an un suitable position, from which it was removed to its present site through the influence of Lord Leighton. It is to be shortly completed by the Equestrian Statue, which formed the crowning feature of the original design. The monu ment represents a superb combination of architecture and sculpture. The latter includes statues of Valour and Truth, which, as examples of imaginative sculpture, have been con sidered second only to what Michael Angelo achieved. A revolt from the Academic routine distinguished the last quarter of the century. It originated in the teaching of Jules Dalou, who was driven from Paris by the events of 1870, and lived for some years in London. Among the first of the younger men to reflect the influence of this 633 THORNYCROFT THE ARCHER Mingling of classical and naturalistic feeling. ONSLCW FORD THE SINGER A notably decorative statue. BRITISH SCULPTURE 635 vigorous Naturalist was Hamo Thornycroft (1850- ), whose "Teucer," in the Tate Gallery, when it was exhibited in 1881, " inaugurated the new movement, with its thorough modelling and tense vitality." Among his finest works are the General Gordon (Trafalgar Square), Cromwell (West minster), Gladstone (Strand), and Bishop Creighton (St. Paul's). Edward Onslow Ford (1852-1901) came into general recognition by his seated statue of Henry Irving, now in the Guildhall. One of his best efforts is the Shelley Memorial, in University College, Oxford, a work of very choice feel ing. On the other hand, his equestrian statue of Lord Strathnairn, at Knightsbridge, was spoilt by the changes imposed on the original design by the committee in charge of the work. The strongest animal sculptor that England has pro duced is John Macallan Swan, who is also a painter, decora tion designer, and accomplished draughtsman. His latest work consists of the colossal lions for the tomb of Cecil Rhodes, in South Africa. " Hounds in Leash " is the piece by which Harry Bates (1850-1899) is represented in the Tate Gallery. He is, however, most widely known by his bas-relief of Homer. During his last years he executed a statue of Queen Victoria for Dundee, and an equestrian statue of Lord Roberts, which is now in Calcutta. George Framptbn, a sculptor of intellect and imagina tion, has particularly distinguished himself by the original ity of his designs and their decorative treatment, while Alfred Drury has also played an important part in the modern decorative movement. The best example of the lat ter in Great Britain is in the laying out of the City Square in Leeds. Among the statues which embellish this is Drury's Joseph Priestley, while he has also decorated with nude figures the electric-light standards which surround the 636 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART central feature, Thomas Brock's equestrian statue of the Black Prince. Other sculptors with a marked bias towards decorative composition are H. C. Fehr and Albert Toft. Special mention, in the same connection, must be made of the Irish sculptor John Hughes, whose most important work is the very handsome monument to Queen Victoria, in Dublin. In Scotland, A. McGillivray and Birnie Rhind are doing excellent work; while other Englishmen who de serve attention are W. Goscombe John, Henry A. Pegram, and the young sculptor Derwent Wood. But the most original living sculptor of the British school is Albert Gilbert, the son of a musician, whose train ing at South Kensington was followed by a course in the Ecole des Beaux Arts, after which he studied in Rome. His earliest important work was the winged figure of Icarus. One of his most characteristic, as well as highly elaborate works, is the ornate and impressive monument to Queen Victoria, in Winchester. His memorial to Faw- cett is in Westminster Abbey; his fine bust of the painter Watts, in the Tate Gallery. AUGUSTUS SAINT-GAUDEN S THE SHAW MEMORIAL, BOSTON A noble example of genuine realism, marred a little, however, by the introduction of con ventional idealism in the floating figure. FREDERICK J1AC310SXIE8 METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART, N. Y. BACCHANTE A work of happy improvisation, since no model could retain in a pose this elasticity of action. MODERN SCULPTURE IN AMERICA We recall Henry Kirke Brown's contention that American art should treat of American subjects. This ideal was consistently followed by his pupil, John Quincy Adams Ward (1830- 1 910) Ward. His training was derived wholly in America, and American life supplied him with themes throughout his long career. Among his earliest works was the " Indian Hunter." Then the abolition of slavery inspired the "Freedman" and the "Private of the Seventh Regiment." His masterpiece is the monument to Henry Ward Beecher, in Brooklyn. The principal figure is most impressive in its simple treatment and direct and forceful characterisation, while the accompanying figures around the base are treated with a fine poise of sentiment. Two circumstances have contributed to the development of sculpture in America: namely, the heroism of the Civil War, commemorated in a great number of statues of soldiers and statesmen, and the spread of public buildings whose monumental designs called for sculptural embellishment. The demand for memorial sculpture was at first supplied by statuary workshops, which turned out pieces entirely de void of artistic merit, by which many a square in towns and cities is still disfigured. Later, however, a new gen eration of young sculptors, mostly trained in Paris, began to arrive, whose work gradually supplanted the commercial product. Further, their opportunities were immensely in creased through the impetus given to monumental sculp ture and architecture by the object lesson of the World's Columbian Exposition of 1892 in Chicago. 640 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART Warner (1844-1896) The earliest of the Paris-trained students was Olin Levi Warner, whose brilliant career was cut short by his untimely death. His genius was versatile, distinguished alike by force, character, and purity of refinement. He executed portrait-busts, the most significant of which are those of the painter J. Alden Weir and the fine-art dealer and con noisseur Daniel Cottier. His portrait-statues include Gov ernor Buckingham, of Connecticut, and the William Lloyd Garrison in Commonwealth Avenue, Boston. He executed the fountain group in Union Square, New York, and an other for Portland, Oregon. His " Diana " is an exquisite example of the nude, while his refined treatment of the nude in low- relief was illustrated in his " Venus and Cupid." In low-relief also he made some distinguished portraits, such as that of Arnold Guyot, in the chapel of Princeton Uni versity. Saint-Gaudens (1848-1907) Augustus Saint-Gaudens received his training in the Paris school, and then studied the early sculpture of North Italy. Meanwhile, he often exhibited, as did Warner, a kinship of feeling with the Greek, "Warner possessing the more Doric, Saint-Gaudens the more Ionic temperament" (Mar quand and Frothingham). Saint-Gaudens's first important commission was the statue of Admiral Farragut, in Madi son Square, New York. The work, when finished, pro claimed the advent of a new and a great artist. It exhibited no heroics, nor any tricks to gain effectiveness ; it was straightforward in its honest and frank naturalism, yet lifted above the commonplace both by a high sentiment and by technical distinction. It established once and for all the character of Saint-Gaudens's art. Subsequent work only differed from it in reaching a higher dignity of senti- DANIEL C FRENCH CONCORD, MASS. MOURNING VICTORY Detail of the Melvin Memorial in Sleepy Hollow Ceme tery. Fine simplicity in the decorative dis position of the drapery. One of this artist's most imposing works. HERbEKl' ..UAIuS CLEVELAND COURT HOUSE STATUE OF CHIEF JUSTICE JOHN MARSHALL A dignified characterisation, combined with decorative feeling. SOLON H. BORGLUM PRESCOTT, ARIZONA MONUMENT TO CAPTAIN BUCKLY O'NEILL A striking example of naturalistic treatment. KARL BITTER ST. LOUia, MO. THE SIGNING OF THE LOUISIANA PURCHASE TREATY FOR THE JEFFERSON MEMORIAL. This is an example of illustration in sculpture. MODERN SCULPTURE IN AMERICA 645 ment and a more accomplished technique; but the basis of his art did not change. It continued to be founded on frank and honest naturalism. Great examples of his ma tured powers are the Lincoln Memorial, in Chicago ; the statue of Deacon Chapin, usually called " The Puritan," in Springfield, Massachusetts ; the Shaw Memorial, in Bos ton; the memorial statue commonly known as "Grief," in the Rock Creek Cemetery, near Washington, D. C. ; and the Sherman Statue and Victory in New York. His noble use of high-relief is shown in the Dr. Bellows, in AU Souls' Church, New York, and the President McCosh, in the Chapel of Princeton University, as well as in the above-mentioned Shaw Memorial. In the last, the introduc tion of the figure in low-relief is less fortunate; but, on the other hand, Saint-Gaudens's skill and feeling in the use of low-relief for portraiture is exhibited in many examples, the finest of which are probably the Stevenson and the two sons of Prescott Hall Butler. As an instance of his work in more purely decorative compositions may be mentioned the angels for the tomb of Governor E. D. Morgan. His one example of the nude is the Diana of the Madison Square Garden. MacMonnies (1863- ) Saint-Gaudens's pupil, Frederick MacMonnies, early dis tinguished himself by facility, and after studying in Paris gained a quite extraordinary skill in the rendering of living movement. His "Bacchante," of the Metropolitan Museum, is the most notable example of his ability to seize in plastic form the expression of a momentary pose and gesture. His "Nathan Hale," in City Hall Park, New York, is an interesting piece of historical portraiture. With his prolonged stay in Paris, MacMonnies showed a tendency to rely more upon the model, and upon a 646 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART grosser type of model; moreover, to attempt composi tions beyond his power of simplification and organisation. Such are the confused and extravagant groups on the Brooklyn Arch, and the empty design of the " Quadriga," which surmounts it. French (1850- ) Daniel Chester French first gained notice by "The Minute Man," in Concord, Massachusetts, a piece of excellent naturalism. The same quality, carried to a finer pitch of sentiment and characterisation, is exhibited in the group of " Gallaudet Teaching a Deaf Mute," and in at least the figure of the youth in "Death and the Sculptor." The draped and winged figure of Death was the foretaste of the decorative and allegorical work which, in connec tion with architectural embellishment, has occupied most of French's later activity. One of the finest examples of monumental allegory ever created in America was his statue of Liberty, which occupied the Court of Honour at the World's Exposition of Chicago ; a piece so grandly simple and expressive, that it ought to have been preserved in permanent form, since it possessed just that monu mental impressiveness which Bartholdi's Liberty lacks. French was selected to execute the equestrian statue of Washington presented by subscription to the French nation. A special aptitude for decorative sculpture has been ex hibited by Philip Martiny, who modelled the grand stair case in the Library of Congress, and by Carl Bitter and Lorado Taft. Another sculptor with a notably decora- Adams (1858- ) tive bias is Herbert Adams, who has been much inspired by the Florentine sculpture of the fifteenth century. His bronze doors for the Library of Congress revealed not only H. A. MACNEIL THE SUN VOW A striking and moving composition. Photograph by Bililwln Coolidye, Boston. CYRUS i.. DALLIN APPEAL TO THE GREAT SPIRIT An interesting effort to recall the past spirit of the Indian race. Copyright, 1907 by Gulzon borglum. ABRAHAM LINCOLN This head is of colossal size, which lends a certain abstraction to what is otherwise a naturalistic study. GEORGE GREY BARNARD METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART, N. Y. TWO NATURES OF MAN One of the best of this artist's allegorical subjects. MODERN SCULPTURE IN AMERICA 651 his refined treatment of the figure in low-relief, but, also, charm of invention, and grace of modelling in the borders of flowers which surround the panels. Another beautiful example is to be found in the bronze doors which he exe cuted later for the Vanderbilt Memorial Front of the Church of St. Bartholomew, in New York. He has also executed several busts of women, delicately coloured, and embellished with jewel-ornament, which revive in a modern spirit the charms of Florentine portrait-sculpture. Amongst the many successful designs of J. Massy Rhind may be mentioned the " Learning Enthroned amid the Arts and Sciences," which adorns the floor of Alexander Hall, at Princeton University, and his fountain at Gould Court. The pediment of the New York Stock Exchange contains an elaborate high-relief decoration, in the execution of which J. Q. A. Ward was assisted by Paul Bartlett. Of the latter's independent work a notable example is the equestrian statue of Lafayette which stands in the Court of the Carrousel, in Paris, a gift to France from the Ameri can nation. In the Metropolitan Museum is his "Bohe mian," representing a man in the act of training the move ments of a bear. The rhythm maintained by the two figures, and the character and action of the animal, are excellently rendered. Others who have distinguished themselves in subjects of animal life, and also in portraying the character and senti ment of the North American Indian, are: Gutson Borg lum, Edward Kemys, Ernest D. Roth, Cyrus E. Dallin, A. P. Proctor, A. H. MacNeil, and Solon H. Borglum. The last named is particularly notable for the skill with which he has portrayed the cowboy and his horse, and succeeded in embodying the sentiment of the life of the plains. Some who have varied portraiture with ideal subjects are William Couper, J. Scott Hartly, J. E. Frazer, F. Welling- 652 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART ton Ruckstuhl, Adolph Weinman, C. B. MacNeil, Attilio and Furio Piccirilli, Isidore Konti, Charles H. Niehaus, A. Stirling Calder, John J. Boyle. Mention must also be made of the figurines by Bessie Potter Vonnoh, and Abastenia St. Leger Eberle. Barnard (1863- ) A sculptor who has confined himself to ideal subjects is George Grey Barnard. From the time that, as a youth' in Chicago, he made acquaintance with some casts after Michael Angelo, the latter inspired his imagination. He spent sev eral years in Paris, under circumstances of great priva tion, but accomplished several important pieces, which, upon being shown in the Salon, attracted considerable attention. One of these was the recumbent figure of Pan, larger than life, a work of rare merit in view of its author's youth. The Metropolitan Museum possesses his "Two Natures of Man," which illustrates at once the moral quality of his imagination and his daringly vigorous style. His latest work, which occupied him several years, is the pair of groups designed for the entrance to the Pennsylvania Capitol. Within the compass of this book it has been impossible to do more than refer to some of the many sculptors whose artistic intelligence and capability have lifted sculpture to a high position in America within the space of a generation. BEGINNINGS OF PAINTING IN AMERICA It is not until the eighteenth century that the names of painters appear in the Colonial annals. The earliest comer is supposed to have been Gustavus Hesselius, a Swede, who landed in 1713. He afterwards settled in Annapolis, where in time he became the teacher of Charles Wilson Peale. In 1717, a Scot, John Watson, established himself in Perth Amboy, while two years later there arrived in Boston Peter Pelham, a portrait painter and mezzotint engraver, who married the mother of John S. Copley, and instructed the latter in art. Smibert (1684-1751) But the real beginning of a continuous study is the arrival, in 1720, of John Smibert, or Smybert, who, after studying painting in his native city of Edinburgh, visited Italy in the train of Bishop Berkeley, and later accom panied the philanthropist in his mission to Rhode Island. His portrait-group of the bishop and his family is now in the gallery of Yale University. When his patron re turned to England, Smibert settled in Boston, and en joyed such opportunity as there was of portrait painting. His sitters were chiefly divines, and, as they appear in their portraits, of complacent and rather dour character, whose unattractiveness is not lessened by the dry, thin method of the artist's brush-work. John Singleton Copley (1737-1815) has been already mentioned in a previous chapter. Trained by Pelham, and possibly by Jonathan B. Blackburn, who resided in Boston from 1750 to 1765, and helped also by the study of a few copies after Kneller and Van Dyck that existed 653 654 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART in Boston, Copley proved a precocious pupil, and at seven teen years old was recognised as a portrait painter. In 1769 he married the daughter of Richard Clark, a wealthy tea-merchant, and lived in dignified circumstances. His portraits represent the aristocracy of the city, and exhibit the elegance of living that had succeeded to the sterner conditions suggested in Smibert's canvases. Before the out break of the revolution, Copley moved to England, where his art, like that of Benjamin West, became identified with the British school (see p. ). Peale (1741-1826) Two painters are associated with the revolution, Charles Willson Peale and John Trumbull. The former, who was born in Chestertown, Maryland, was remarkably versatile ; a clever worker in leather, wood, and metal, a taxidermist, dentist, and lecturer. After some lessons from Hesselius, Peale studied with Copley in Boston, and later under West, in London. Returning to Annapolis, he painted, in 1772, the first life-sized portrait of Washington. Peale com manded a company in the battles of Trenton and German- town, and during the winter of 1777-8, at Valley Forge, worked upon a second portrait of Washington. In all he painted fourteen portraits of the latter. In 1805 he was one of the founders of the Pennsylvania Academy. of Fine Arts, the oldest existing art institution in the country. Trumbull (1756-1843) John Trumbull also served for a time in the army, but re^ signed his commission and visited England to study painting with West. He valued painting only as a means of commem orating the great events and men of his day. While still in West's studio he painted the "Battle of Bunker Hill" and GIL1.ERT STUART ..OSTON MUSEUM GEORGE WASHINGTON It is said that the artist left this picture unfinished because it reached most nearly to his vision of Washington, and he did not wish to part with it. ASHER BROWN DURAND METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART, H. T. IN THE WOODS An effect of accumulated detail. BEGINNINGS OF PAINTING IN AMERICA 657 " Death of General Montgomery," which were engraved. Other works are the " Surrender of Cornwallis," " Battle of Princeton," and eight canvases in the Capitol at Washing ton, ordered by Congress. Trumbull appears at his best in many excellent portraits, for example, those of Alexander Hamilton (Metropolitan Museum) and Governor Clinton, in the City Hall, New York. Stuart (i 755-1828) The most accomplished painter of the post-revolutionary period, whose work still holds its own with the best Ameri can portraits, was Gilbert Stuart. He was born in Narra- gansett, whither his father had emigrated from Scotland to avoid the consequences of the share he had taken in the troubles of the Pretender. The boy showed an early talent for drawing, in which he was encouraged by a physician, Dr. Hunter. A Scottish painter, Cosmo Alex ander, visiting Newport, gave him some lessons in painting, and invited the lad to accompany him to Scotland. His friend dying, Stuart returned home and practised portrait painting in Boston, but at the outset of the war moved to London and entered West's studio. The latter seems to have had no influence on his style, which he found for himself. After enjoying a remarkable success in London, he came to America, impelled by his admiration of Washing ton. Of the latter he painted only three portraits from life. The first was destroyed by himself, the second is in England, in the collection of the Marquis of Lansdowne, and the third is the famous Athenaeum portrait, now in the Boston Museum. Only the head was finished, since the artist was so well pleased with the likeness that he did not wish to part with it. Stuart's portraits are mostly confined to rendering the head and bust. " I copy the works of God," he used to say, " and leave clothes to the tailor 658 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART and mantua-maker." He settled in Boston in 1794, and resided there until his death. Vanderlyn (1776-1852) One of Stuart's pupils was John Vanderlyn. Assisted by Aaron Burr, he visited Paris, and thence proceeded to Rome, where he lived for two years with Washington Allston (1779-1843). For Rome, instead of England, now became the Mecca of American painters and sculp tors. The influence was no better in their case than in that of so many other artists. It fostered imitation, en couraged the pursuit of the " grand style," and ,led them to attempt problems beyond their strength and alien to the spirit of their own day. Vanderlyn's best work, outside of portraits; is the " Ariadne " of the Pennsylvania Museum, a good rendering of the nude. In the same collection is All- ston's " The Dead Man Restored to Life." Allston was a man of brilliant intellect and high artistic aspirations, whose ideas outran his capacity 'to achieve in painting. Other portrait painters of the earlier half of the nine teenth century were Rembrandt Peale (1778-1860), John Wesley Jarvis (1780-1840), Thomas Sully (1783-1872), S. F. B. Morse (1791-1872), Henry Inman (1801-1846), Daniel Huntington (1816-1906), George P. A. Healy (1808- 1894), Chester Harding (1792-1866), and Charles Loring Elliott (1812-1868). Both Healy and Huntington varied portraiture with fig ure subjects. An example of the former's work is the large canvas " Webster Replying to Hayne," in Faneuil Hall, Bos ton, while the allegorical canvas " Mercy's Dream," in the Metropolitan Museum, illustrates Huntington's. The lat ter's pupil, Henry Peters Gray (1819-1877), is also repre sented in the Metropolitan Museum by an allegorical pic ture, " Wages of War," and two Classical subjects, " Greek BEGINNINGS OF PAINTING IN AMERICA 659 Lovers " and " Cleopatra Dissolving the Pearl." In the same gallery are " Raffling the Goose," by the genre painter William S. Mount (1807-1868), and "Washington Crossing the Delaware," by Emanuel Leutze (1816-1868). The lat ter, a painter of historical subjects, was of German origin, and received his training at the Dusseldorf Academy. PAINTING IN AMERICA— HUDSON RIVER SCHOOL While some of those who would be artists sought for in spiration abroad, especially in Rome, a group of landscape painters found it at home. Since they showed a preference for the beautiful scenery adjoining the Hudson River, they have been called the " Hudson River School." They had no means of knowing what had been accomplished in Europe in this branch of painting; they probably had never considered the distinction between Classical and Naturalistic landscape, and certainly had had no opportunity of studying technique. But they loved nature, and set themselves to copy it as accurately as they could. Their work has, therefore, a photographic character, overloaded with detail; the prin ciples of synthesis, that is to say, of selection, elimination, and simplification, being unknown to them. They favoured panoramic views and put as much of everything into their pictures as they could. Consequently, to modern eyes, ac customed to the broader treatment of the salient and char acteristic features of the landscape, and to brush-work more fully and richly charged with colour, these pictures seem thin and dry, and over-burdened with insignificant and nig gling detail. On the other hand, they have a genuine historical in terest, as representing a phase of the new national con sciousness which was beginning to weld the various States of the Union into a united whole, firm in the determination to rely upon the country's own resources, and to work out its own destiny from within. And the authors of those pictures were pioneers in the field of landscape painting, which to-day is the most significant branch of painting in America. It is so because our modern landscape paint- 660 HUDSON RIVER SCHOOL 661 ers, like those of the Hudson River school, are independent and enthusiastic students of nature. Further, it is inter esting to note that this group of Americans, without know ing it, were inspired by the same motive and at the same time as the Fontainebleau-Barbison group. What the for mer lacked was traditions of painting, and in most cases opportunity of profiting by the study of the great land- scapists of Holland and the contemporary work of Con stable. Doughty (1793- 1 856) The earliest of the Hudson River school was Thomas Doughty, who late in life abandoned the business of a leather manufacturer to devote himself to art. He practised it under great stress of pecuniary embarrassments. Yet his landscapes are suggestive of happy moods, and " their luminous, milky skies and violet distances have," as Samuel Isham writes, " a peculiar personal charm." Durand (1796-1886) Asher Brown Durand practised the profession of an en graver before he .finally abandoned the burin for the brush. Then he undertook portraits and figure subjects as well as some landscapes, until he was in a position to travel abroad for a year. He visited London and several Continental cities, and spent a winter in Italy. Returning home in 1841, he gradually gave up the other branches of painting to devote himself to landscape. The Metropolitan Museum contains examples of his figure-work, as well as of his final choice of subjects. Kensett (1818-1872) John Frederick Kensett, after working as an engraver with Durand, was encouraged by the latter's example to 662 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART become a painter. He spent seven years in Europe, paint ing in England, Rome, Naples, Switzerland, on the Rhine, and among the Italian lakes. Returning home, he identified himself with the scenery in the neighbourhood of Lake George and Long Island Sound. Other painters to be mentioned are John W. Casilear (1811-1893), who also began as an engraver; John W. Bristol, T. Addison Richards, Jasper Francis Cropsey, and the brothers William and James McDougal Hart. Both were born in Scotland, the former in 1823, the latter in 1828, and were brought to America while children. William was self-taught, though he afterwards studied and painted in Scotland for three years, while James began as the pupil of his brother, and then completed his studies, during 1851, under Schirmer, in Dusseldorf. Cole (1801-1848) Senior to all these men, and influencing them somewhat, was Thomas Cole, but the notice of him has been postponed, since his later life involved a departure from what had been the ideals of the Hudson River school. He was by birth an Englishman, reaching America in his nineteenth year. He had learned wood-engraving, and practised it for a little while in Philadelphia. Then he tramped on foot to Steubenville, Ohio, whither his family had pre ceded him, and worked in a wall-paper factory which his father had established. After two years thus spent he was encouraged by an itinerant portrait painter to devote him self to art. Supplying himself with materials, he started out to trudge the country as a wandering artist, meeting with poor success and many hardships. Finally, in 1825, he reached New York, and showed five small canvases, which immediately found purchasers at ten dollars apiece. An other was bought by Trumbull, and two pictures by Durand, Thomas cole METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART, X. Y. OXBOW An example of panoramic landscape. JOHN LA FARGE THE ASCENSION The fine spacing of the figures produces a sense of uplift and exaltation. HUDSON RIVER SCHOOL 665 who relates that after this Cole's " fame spread like wild fire." For four years he spent his summers in the Catskills sketching, and painted during the winters in New York. Then he went abroad, spending two years in England, and one in Italy. He now abandoned landscape proper for large allegorical subjects, such as the series of the " Course of Empire " and that of the " Voyage of Life." They are pretentious compositions, in which the chief aim was to por tray the conceptions of the painter's emotional imagination. Thinly painted, and now blackened and cracked by time, they have no charm as pictures, and are only interesting historically as marking the decline of the simple love of nature which had animated hitherto the Hudson River school. For some American landscape painters, abandon ing the more intimate kind of subject, became engrossed with the heroic and the unusual in nature. This tendency, however, reflected a new spirit in the coun try; the enthusiasm and adventure incident to the marvel lous expansion of the country in the opening up of the West. Frederick E. Church (1826-1900) was the pupil of Thomas Cole, whose later taste for heroic subjects he fol lowed, though with much more skill of composition and brush-work than his master. He painted Niagara, and then sought the marvels of nature among the icebergs of Labra dor and the tropical grandeur of the Andes. On the other hand, it was the Rocky Mountains that attracted Albert Bierstadt (1830-1902), who was born in Dusseldorf and trained at its Academy, and Thomas Mor an (1837- ). The former's hard and glittering canvases give a good idea of the appearance of the scene, but suggest little or noth ing of its spirit. In this respect Moran is far more satis factory, though his brush-work is not equal to handling the big surfaces of canvas which he often affects. DEVELOPMENT OF FOREIGN INFLUENCE IN AMERICA Emekson, on one occasion, urged that Americans should free themselves from intellectual bondage to Europe. But during the first half of the nineteenth century the country possessed neither adequate means of training artists, nor collections of art to stir the imagination and broaden the knowledge of the student. It was necessary that for either purpose he should go abroad. We have seen that, in turn, London, Rome, and Dusseldorf had been the students' Mecca. By the middle of the century, however, they began to turn their steps to Paris, the most alive art centre of the time, and thus came into touch with the newest thought and practice of their contemporaries. From this point dates not only the modernisation of the American painters' aims and methods, but also the beginning of a national con sciousness of painting as an art. The pioneers in this new departure were William Morris Hunt (1824-1879), Thomas Hicks (1823-1890), George Inness (1825-1894), and John La Farge (1835-1911). Hicks and Hunt were pupils in Paris of the emotional Academician, Couture. But Hunt also spent some time with Millet, and after his return to America, in 1885, made known to America the work of the Barbison-Fontainebleau artists. He settled in Boston, where his influence as a painter was considerable, although the part he played as a teacher of artistic ideals was much greater. Inness (1825- 1894) Inness, after serving as an engraver, and also painting in the manner of the Hudson River men, paid three visits 666 FOREIGN INFLUENCE IN AMERICA 667 to Europe, spending the second one in Paris and the third between Paris and Rome. His personal development was slow, but in the end his art, though very markedly his own, showed the lessons of Barbison. From panoramic land scapes he turned to the intimate study of fragments of nature; his method of painting became increasingly syn thetic, and the expression of moods of nature more and more complete, until, at last, he succeeded in making the landscape interpret his own spiritualised conceptions of life. His later, most characteristic work is extraordinarily economic in the means employed, and, at the same time, most full of suggestion. La Farge (1835-1910) John La Farge, who was of French refugee stock, went abroad for the first time in 1856, for the purpose rather of general culture than of becoming an artist. He brought back the impression that the most significant phases of art at that time were represented in Rousseau, Corot, and Millet, in Delacroix, and in pre-Raphaelitism. When he had entered on the career of art, he showed a marked bias for decorative problems, and was entrusted by Henry H. Richardson with a commission to decorate the interior of Trinity Church, Boston. From that time he played a lead ing part in the American development of mural painting. One of his most remarkable works is the " Ascension," in the Church of the Ascension, New York, which also contains some of his decorated windows. In this branch of art La Farge created a revolution, for he was the first to use opalescent glass in place of the so- called " pot-metal " glass, and to discontinue painting on the glass except in the faces and hands of the figures. No one of his contemporaries used this " American glass " with such a comprehension of colour, gift of imagination, and 668 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART a taste at once so splendid and so subtle. To his rare quali ties as an artist La Farge joined a faculty, trained by life long study and reflection, of searching, sympathetic, and constructive criticism, so that his writings in this field rank alongside the corresponding work of Delacroix and Fromentin. While the truer intuition of the above artists had drawn them to Paris, the more usual Mecca for students, dur ing the third quarter of the century, was Munich, where they studied under Piloty and Wagner. The leaders in this migration were Frank Duveneck, William M. Chase, and Walter Shirlaw. They were followed — to quote only a few — by Frederick P. Vinton, Joseph R. De Camp, and John W. Alexander. The last named subsequently lived for many years in Paris. For, with the opening of the fourth quarter of the century, Paris had begun to attract a continuous stream of American students. Among the earliest were Kenyon Cox, J. Alden Weir, John F. Weir, Will H. Low, and Abbott H. Thayer. . The gradual return of these students from Paris and Munich combined with the Philadelphia International Exposition of 1876 to create a great artistic stir. The pictures and other art-products from foreign countries opened up to the American imagina tion a new consciousness of the beauty and value of art. In the year following, under the leadership of John La Farge, was formed the Society of American Artists. Its membership included the names above mentioned, and was year after year reinforced by the arrival of fresh batches of students, most of whom were Paris-trained. From this point to the end of the century the development of paint ing in America travels parallel with that of France. The ranks of the painters include representatives of the Aca demic motive, of the Naturalistic, the Impressionistic, and the plein-air movements. It is impossible within the limits of WHISTLER PORTRAIT OF HIS MOTHER Originally called: "A Study in Black and Gray. CARMENCITA Illustrating the brilliant vivaciousness of the artist. FOREIGN INFLUENCE IN AMERICA 671 this work to mention even a tithe of the able painters who have contributed to raising the standard of painting in America, so that to-day it holds its own with that of any other country. Meanwhile there are two men whose example has had a special influence on the development. These are James Ab bott McNeill Whistler and John S. Sargent. Whistler (1834-1903) After a brief stay at West Point and in the Coast Sur vey Department, Whistler moved to Paris and entered the studio of the Academic painter Gleyre, where Degas was a fellow-pupil. At the age of twenty-five he began the Thames set of etchings, which are unsurpassed as a rec ord both of the facts and the spirit of the scene. In 1860 he spent a summer on the French coast with Courbet, and experimented in one or two pictures with what the latter's example had of value to himself. In the same way he experimented later with suggestions derived successively from Velasquez, the Impressionists, and the Japanese ; never, how ever, relinquishing his own individuality. Among the ex amples of Velasquez's influence is the " Portrait of the Artist's Mother," in the composition of which can also be traced a Japanese suggestion. The latter is more directly shown, to quote only two pictures, in "La Princesse du Pays de la Porcelaine " and the " Little White Girl." The second is also a notable illustration of Whistler's study of the impres sionist treatment of " values." His own peculiar use of im pressionistic suggestion is exhibited in the " Nocturnes," exe cuted in the seventies, to which he gave the titles of " Notes," " Harmonies," " Arrangements," or " Symphonies," in this or that colour. It was his protest against the " literary " tendency of contemporary pictures. In 1879 he began, in Venice, the series of etchings known as the " Venice Set." In 672 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART these he was less intent on form than on tone, and light, and atmosphere. At the same time he began to practise lithography. In 1885 he embodied his artistic creed in a brochure entitled " Ten O'Clock," that having been the hour of the morning at which the original lecture was de livered. In this, as in all his various works, the keynote is beauty, that the proper aim of the artist is to create beauty. It was in this way that he exerted so marked an influence on American painters. They learned to think of a picture, not as primarily a record of some person, place or incident, but as an expression of beauty. Further, they were drawn to value exquisite craftsmanship, and refinement and subtlety of taste and expression. Sargent (1856- ) The tendency to hold technique in high regard has also been fostered by the example of John S. Sargent. His early life was spent in Florence in companionship with the ( art treasures of its galleries, and he was already an ac complished student when he joined Carolus-Duran's class in Paris. There he learned to paint in the " direct manner," after which he studied Velasquez, in Madrid, and Frans Hals, in Haarlem. Later he paid his tribute of admiration to the Scottish portrait painter Raeburn. With hints from these sources, he developed a style of his own, distinguished by magical dexterity, astonishing daring, and extraordinary suggestiveness. His attitude towards the subjects of his portraits is one of complete objectivity, directed to the sum total of the individual characterisation. It is, how ever, confined to the externals of the subject, for he does not penetrate the surface and has no interest in the psychol ogy of character. The dexterity of his technique is shown with special charm and feeling in water-colours, dashed off in the enthusiasm of the impression. SUMMARY OF MODERN PAINTING A peocess of denationalisation is taking place in all the arts. They are becoming internationalised. The theatre is growing cosmopolitan, so also literature. Each country welcomes to the boards of its stage, as to its bookshelves, the works of other nations. And this free trade is based upon the recognition that the ideas and motives which form the basis of drama and literature to-day are the common property of the age. Meanwhile, the artists of each nation make some peculiar racial contribution to the common thought, which is thereby broadened and deepened. The same is true of painting. We have traced in pre vious chapters the various ideas and motives which have stimulated the art in modern times, and, as we proceeded, have found the essential distinctions between the different countries disappearing, until to-day the fundamentals of painting are in a greater or less measure shared by all. Let us summarise them. Everywhere there still persists, with more or less vigour, the Academic or Classical conception of the " Ideal " motive, but it is more or less modified by the prevailing Naturalism. Everywhere the older conception of the Historical motive, as centred on the history of the past, is yielding to pic tures of actual life, which represent the history of the future in the making. A similar motive to render life as the artist sees it and feels it has banished the older form of genre, in which the painter invented humorous or " char acteristic " situations, cast his play, trained his actors, and staged the whole according to theatrical traditions. Simi larly, it is no longer the fashion to invent landscapes, or to transform nature so as to make it conform to set principles 673 674 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART of composition. The artist studies nature intimately, ren ders her natural appearances, and interprets her moods. Equally, formal composition and set display have been elimi nated from portraiture. The artist's motive is to seize and portray with straightforward directness the actuality of his subject. In a word, Naturalism has become the basis of all modern art. On the other hand, as we have noted, artists build variously on this foundation. Some are satisfied to limit their portrayal to the externals of the facts, and do so in one of two ways : either they will make much of the details of the facts, or they will seek to comprehend the totality of the facts and render the impression as the eye receives it at a single glance. But, again, there are others, whose vision extends beyond the facts, who correlate the facts, as Millet did, to some larger issue or some principle of life, who, in the new use of the word, are Realists. And these, again, may render their interpretation of life with a reliance either upon details or upon Impressionism. These Realists are the practical Idealists of the age. Meanwhile, there are other Idealists, distinguished alike from the lat ter and from the Academic Idealists, who, as Puvis de Chavannes did, create a world of their own imagination, and people it with creatures of their own spirit. It is a world transfigured, but not transformed; and its inhabitants are not far removed from us in the flesh, and may be wholly one with us in spirit. Puvis's work in the main was decorative, and it is to the decorative treatment of mural spaces that this more abstract rendering of the realities of life is specially adapted. For it thereby fits the peculiar character of archi tecture, which is abstract, in the sense that it is not based, as are painting and sculpture, upon the more or less faith- SUMMARY OF MODERN PAINTING 675 ful representation of nature. The primitive builder may have derived certain hints from nature, and later the archi tect may have gained from the same source the suggestion of certain principles, such as the beauty of repetition, rhythm, and so forth. But the art which he gradually evolved has no counterpart in nature; it is the creation of the artist's own imagination, adapting itself to the needs and conditions of life. Architecture being in this sense abstract, it is fit that the embellishments, whether of sculpture or painting, should be also characterised by a certain abstraction, other wise there is danger of a conflict of feeling. In a word, decoration should not be independent of, but subordinated to, the whole of which it is a part. In the foregoing paragraphs we have summarised the main motives common to the whole of painting to-day. The barriers are down between the various nations, art has been internationalised. And what is true of motive is nO less true of technique. The various processes of painting have become the stock-in-trade of all artists, independently of nationality, for each anywhere to adopt whichever suits his temperament; and with the knowledge that, should his personality be strong enough to originate a method of his own, it' is liable to be adopted by others. In consequence of this free trade in ideas and methods, the number of painters in recent years has enormously in creased. It is, therefore, impossible in a book of this kind to do more than briefly summarise some of the more notable features. HOLLAND Holland in the past fifty years has returned to her great traditions of the seventeenth century, after an interven ing century spent in trying to derive inspiration from the Italian genius instead of her own. The revival began when 676 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART Israels (1824-1911) Josef Israels made acquaintance with the Barbison artists, and particularly with Millet. The general effect was to send him back to a study of the artists of his own coun try's past, especially to Rembrandt. Meanwhile, the ex ample of Millet led him to find subjects and inspiration in the life of the Holland peasants and fisher-folk instead of in so-called historical and classical inventions. The earliest pictures of his changed outlook were "By the Mother's Grave," "The Cradle," and "The Shipwrecked Man" (1862). Their very titles suggest the radical difference be tween himself and Millet. Sentiment and a certain story telling element have always distinguished Israels. Further, as he developed, the distinction became also one of technique. Following Rembrandt, Israels became a painter of light and shade, merging his interiors in a silvery mistiness which helps the expression of their sentiment, and in his out-door subjects veiling the scene in subtle atmosphere. In this way he ex erted a profound influence over his Holland contemporaries. The rendering of the quantity and quality of lighted at mosphere has become the distinctive characteristic of the whole modern school in Holland. In figure subjects Israels' most conspicuous follower has been Albert Neuhuys (1844- ). His pictures of peasant women and children are sunnier in key and in spirit than his master's, and in recent years have shown a tendency to excessive prettiness and sentimentality. A sterling painter, with a joy in colour, is Christoffel Bisschop (1828- ), who bases his views of interiors on the work of Pieter de Hooch and Jan Vermeer. The earliest of the modern landscapists of Holland was Johann Barthold Jongkind (1819-1891). Even before Monet and Seurat adopted the " division of colour," Jong kind used it, and discovered for himself a style of vigorous METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART, X. Y. THE BASHFUL LOVER A tenderlv sentimental idyl of rustic life. LANDSCAPE AND SHEEP By a master of tone relations. SUMMARY OF MODERN PAINTING 679 brush-work, distinguished by a bold weave of separate brush strokes. His canal and harbour scenes exerted a great in fluence upon his contemporaries, resulting in the virile im pressionism of technique which more or less distinguishes the whole modern school of landscape and cattle painters in Holland. This summary, characterful method is no less apparent in their water-colours than their oils. Jacob Maris (1837-1899) and his brother William Maris (1839-1910), both excellent painters, vary in qual ity. Jacob's landscapes are broad and vigorous in treat ment, while William's have a delicacy of colour and atmos phere and a dreamy poetic sentiment. Their brother Matthew Maris (1835-1899) moved to London, where he led a solitary life, painting figure subjects impregnated with a tender mysticism. Mauve (i 838-1 888) The most refined colourist of the school was Anton Mauve. The hue of colour is almost entirely replaced by tonality; his schemes, at first sight cold and empty, revealing harmonies of extraordinary subtlety. Similarly beneath the sad dreariness of his subjects plays a mood of ten derness. Against the prevailing greyness of the landscape and sky, he will, for example, place a white horse ridden by a man in a cold-toned blue blouse. The influence of this arrangement and of other correspondingly meagre and melancholy colour-schemes has been widely felt by his contemporaries ; while the exquisiteness of his tonal ity has encouraged them to search for the refinements rather than the bravura of plein-air painting. The men mentioned above have been the leaders, whose followers are so numerous and proficient that any attempt to single out a few names would be both inadequate and unfair. They constitute what is veritably a " school," since 680 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART one and all are united in the study of their own familiar surroundings, and manifest a techniqiie which, while it allows for individual characteristics, is clearly dominated by a unanimity as to principles. The only thing which can be alleged against the school is that this very unanimity may, and in some cases does, tend to a certain sameness of output, suggestive of the factory rather than the studio. BELGIUM In the early part of the nineteenth century the influ ence of David produced a Classical revival in Belgian paint ing. The best known of its representatives are Francois Navez (1787-1869) and Laurens Alma-Tadema (1836- 1912), who became a naturalised British subject. Not withstanding his Classicalism, he had been a pupil of Baron Leys (1815-1869), who affected a style in which the auster ity of early German drawings was combined with the rich ness of old Flemish colouring. In 1830 the Romantic movement spread to Belgium, ap pearing in the historical pictures of Baron Gustave Wap pers (1803-1874), and in the morbid and eccentric work of Antoine Joseph Wiertz (1806-1865). In 1852 Courbet's " Stonebreakers " was shown in Brussels and the Naturalistic movement followed. The earliest ex ponent of it was Charles de Groux (1825-1870), who lived among the poor and represented in his pictures the bitter ness of poverty and the gruesome realities of disease and death. Meunier (1831- ) Constantin Meunier, sculptor and painter, took his sub jects from the colliery and foundry life that centres round Louvain. A fatalism, as of the inevitableness of the power of mechanical force to muster to its service the lives of cre THE HAMMER MAN An artist of labor who took his subjects from the Belgian collieries and iron foundries. SUMMARY OF MODERN PAINTING 683 men and women, informs all his work. The latter is char acterised by a large and crude simplicity, plastic modelling, and a suggestion of mighty, but restrained, energy, and an overbrooding heaviness of sentiment. Henri de Braekeleer (1840-1888) rendered the busy street life of Antwerp; Jan Stobbaerts (1838- ) painted scenes of common life with brutal fidelity to the ugliness and coarseness of the facts; Alfred Stevens (1828-1906) was the delineator of the woman of fashion; while Ferdinand Knopff, in etchings and paintings strangely subtle in colour and in their decorative arrangement, has interpreted what he had experienced of the inscrutability of the sex. Gradually, as plein-air painting was adopted in Belgium, there developed a fine school of landscapists. The most distinguished are those who, with Emile Claus at their head, have drawn their subjects from the rich lands along the windings of the beautiful river Lys. DENMARK The artistic traditions of Denmark do not go back be yond Thorwaldsen. Its painting, nursed, like that of Hol land, upon love of country, is given to portraits, interior genre, and landscapes. During the first half of the nine teenth century the technical methods were naive and rather clumsy, and the genre pictures, as those of other countries, were occupied with anecdotal and story-telling themes. But characteristic of all the paintings were a sturdy wholesome- ness and the evidence of an intimate and sympathetic un derstanding of nature. In 1865 Karl Bloch (1834-1890) returned from a six years' stay in Rome, bringing with him a skill of technique that stirred the emulation of the younger painters. It also set a fashion for " humorous " genre of the Knaus kind, which found its chief representative in Axel Helsted 684 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART Zahrtmann (1874- ) (1847- ). In contrast to the ordinariness of this petty genre is the art of Christian Zahrtmann. Like Bloch, he studied in Italy ; but there the resemblance ends, for he is an artist of reflective spirit, whose aim has been to render spiritual expression, especially as the result of painful experience. He has found the chief motive of his art in a series of pictures depicting phases in the tragic life of Eleonora Christina, daughter of Christian IV., who, through the queen's jealousy, was thrown into prison, where she preserved to the end the pride of a princess and the resignation of a Christian. She became to him, as Muther says, a kind of incarnation of humanity in the person of a woman. In the tender intimacy of these pictures, no less than in the attention paid to the subtle effects of artificial light, Zahrtmann marks the transition to the late" phase of Danish painting. Kroyer (1851-1911) This came as the result of the gradual appearance of French influence, leading the younger generation to the study of tone and atmosphere. The leader in this new move ment was Peter S. Kroyer, who lived for many years at Skagen, on the north coast of Denmark. Here he painted with equal facility sea and sunshine, fishing boats under sails or resting, fishermen at their toil, or the dimly lighted interior of packing-house and inn. He had a notable skill in rendering the physiognomy of a personality or a scene, which he exhibited not only in the subjects already de scribed, but also in portraits, such as the group picture of "The Committee for the French Section of the Copenhagen Exhibition of 1888," a remarkable example of easy and nat ural characterisation, as well as in numerous subjects of Danish social life. SUMMARY OF MODERN PAINTING 685 Another painter of fisher-folk, distinguished by the vigour, breadth, and impressive simplicity of his work, ,is Michael Ancher (1849- ), whose wife, Anna Ancher, paints scenes of peasant life, in which virility and energetic grasp of fact are allied to sympathetic insight. Among the painters of the sea are Carl Locher (1851- ) and Tho- rolf Pedersen. Johansen (1851- ) No painter is more characteristic of the modern search for tone, and light, and atmosphere, applied to tenderly familiar scenes of daily life, in a spirit of intimate sym pathy, than Viggo Johansen. He is also one of the finest landscape painters in Denmark; with a special fondness for rendering effects of sunshine, softly filtering through silvery, vaporous atmosphere. Amongst the older land scape painters may also be mentioned Julius Paulsen and Peterson Mois. The younger generation includes Harold Slott-Moller and his wife, Agnes, J. F. Willumsen, V. Hammershoy, and Johan Rohde. SWEDEN While the genius of Denmark is disposed towards the pro vincial, familiar, and homely, Swedish painting represents the more cosmopolitan feeling — elegant, brilliant, subtle, sensuous, capricious, and experimental. The painters, espe cially from the beginning of the eighties, have been drawn to Paris and Rome. Some, like August Hagborg (1852- ), have continued to live in Paris, while others have returned home to look at their own country through French eyes. Liljefors (i860- ) At least one exception to this is Bruno Liljefors, the painter of wild animals and birds. Self-taught, he practised 686 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART painting in the open air and studied the principles of Japa nese colour and composition. He has lived in a remote village in Uppland, the barren scenery of which, especially under conditions of snow, forms the background to his animal studies. In these he displays a perfect familiarity with the characteristics and life of wild creatures, and an ex traordinary skill in rendering their most instantaneous move ments.Zorn (i860- ) Most completely cosmopolitan, and yet a personality most markedly individual, is Anders Zorn. A peasant boy at Dalarne, he had carved animals out of wood before he went to Stockholm with the intention of being a sculptor. While still an Academy student he painted little scenes from the life of the people and also portraits. With the money earned, he made a tour which led him through Italy and Spain, and landed him in 1885 in London. He took a studio and prospered, meanwhile making frequent trips to foreign countries. For many years he has transferred his headquarters to Sweden. One of the earliest of his home pictures was " The Ripple of the Waves," a view on the lake at Dalaro. In this water-colour, after attacking the prob lem over and over again, he finally solved for himself the difficulty of catching and rendering the most fugitive ef fects of moving water. Later, in his oil pictures, he essayed and achieved the equally fugitive effects of sunlight upon nude forms. Meanwhile he practised etching, in which the results of his trained quickness and accuracy of observa tion and extraordinary ingenuity and deftness in realising his impressions are most wonderfully shown. For in this medium he has invented a style of his own, which is at once daring, vigorous, original, and yet most subtle in expres sion. Notwithstanding the bravura of his method, exhibited SUMMARY OF MODERN PAINTING 687 with equal facility, and at times audacity, in portraits, it is capable of the most winning expression. Nothing more charmingly " pagan " in their happy, wholesome, spon taneous naturalness than his pictures of peasant girls in their environment of nature exists in modern art. NORWAY The traditions of Norwegian painting date back to the days of Dusseldorf influence. Then, in the seventies, Munich became the school for painters, and finally, from 1880 on ward, Paris. The boldness of Norway's scenery has entered into the spirit of her painters, especially into that of the landscapists. The modern ones to a man are plein-airists, and seem to render in their pictures the robust and positive characteristics of the scenery, as well as the vigorous, trenchant character of the people and their deep, serious vein of poetry. Fritz Thaulow (1847-1906) had in ap pearance the rude, genial force of a Norwegian, and in his home landscapes revealed the local spirit. But to the refinements of French technique, which he was prominent in introducing to his countrymen, he himself fell a victim. For some years before his death he became a facile, and often careless, repeater of his remarkable skill in rendering the swirling movement of water, breaking the light into end less reflections and refractions. RUSSIA Vereshchagin (1842-1904) The genius of Russia's painting, like that of her litera ture, is characterised by a Naturalism uncompromising in "its fidelity to facts, and not afraid of ugliness. Typical of the old school was Vassili Vereshchagin, who, after leaving the school of Gerome, accompanied the expedition of Gen eral Kaufmann against Samarkand, and later was present 688 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART with the Russian army in the war with Turkey. In his " Pyramid of Skulls," dedicated to all conquerors, past, pres ent, and to come, as well as in many other pictures of bloodshed and torture, he revealed a crude capacity for horrors, often rather theatrical than dramatic in feeling. Moreover, the hard style of painting he had learned from Gerome divested his pictures of any technical attractiveness. Repin (1844- ) The fruits of Parisian training grafted upon the Rus sian temperament are better shown in the portraits and fig ure subjects of Ilia Repin. He has painted portraits which are almost cynical in their objective naturalism, and the same pitiless, impersonal attitude towards facts ¦ charac terises such pictures as "Men Towing a Ship Along the Volga," where the labour and the visages of the men are those of animals ; " Ivan the Terrible," who has slain his son in a paroxysm of fury ; and " The Cossacks' Jeering Reply to the Sultan," barbaric in its brutality. More sensuously barbaric is the work of the Moscow artist, Serov. On the other hand, the vigorous objectivity of the school finds wholesomest expression in the Russian landscapes. There is little tendency towards the painting of moods of nature; and the scene, notwithstanding the breadth of the brush-work, is photographic in its literalness. But the strong truth of the portrayal, the brilliance of colouring in the crystalline clearness of the atmosphere, and the uncon- ventionality of the composition, often crude, but always unaffected, give these landscapes, especially the snow-scenes, a rare capacity of stirring exhilaration. « SPAIN Goya exerted no immediate influence on Spanish paint ing, which after his death maintained a routine of reflecting SUMMARY OF MODERN PAINTING 689 the Classical and Romantic motives. In the sixties, however, appeared a painter who once more directed his countrymen to the study of painting as painting. This was Mariano Fortuny (1838-1874) Fortuny. During his sojourn in Rome, as the holder of the prix de Rome, war broke out between Spain and Morocco and he joined the army to paint a battle-picture. But instead he painted a series of Moroccan scenes. Thus he imbibed the spirit of light and colour and of animated and picturesque Naturalism; and his extraordinary technical facility, both in oils and water-colours, and with pen and pencil, now had a new field for its display. In 1869 ap peared in Paris his " La Vicaria," or " Spanish Marriage." It represents the signing of the marriage contract; the scene being the vestry of a church, decorated and fur nished in Rococo style, while the personages are attired in the costumes of Goya's time. Its piquant Naturalism and the brilliant skill with which the light was represented, play ing on satins and velvets, and dancing from point to point of the profusion of ornamental detail, caused a sensation. It was followed by many other Rococo pictures, of which the best known is "The Choosing of the Model." Fortuny be came the rage. Among those immediately influenced by him were his countrymen, Eduardo Zamacois (1842-1871), Antonius Casanova (1847- ), Raimundo de Madrazo (1841- ), and Jose Villegas (1848- ) — all painters of Rococo costume-pieces — and Martin Rico (1850-1908), who adapted Fortuny's crystalline and glittering style to the rendering of Venetian scenes. The impetus thus given to Spanish painting produced also a vogue of large historical compositions, such as " Joanna the Mad " and " Surrender of Granada," by Francisco Pra- 690 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART dilla (1847- ); "The Bells of Huesca," by Casado del Alisal (1832-1886); "A Barbarian Onset," by Ulpiano Checa (1860- ), and "A Vision in the Colosseum," by Jose Benliure y Gil (1855- ). So far the modern movement of Naturalism had not been extended to the study and representation of present-day Spanish life. But at the Paris International Exposition of 1900 the Spanish section was dominated by two large can vases, in one of which life-size oxen were cooling themselves in water, while the other showed a group of women engaged in making a sail, on which the sun streamed in patches through a vine-clad trellis overhead. These were by Sorolla Sorolla (1863- ) y Bastida, who has since made the sunny shores of Valencia his painting ground. Here he finds subjects among the bathers, as they disport themselves amid the ripples and swirls of blue water or on the sun-warmed sand; bright and happy scenes of light, colour, atmosphere, and move ment.Zuloaga (1870- ) Contrasted with Sorolla's narrow range of subject and purely objective motive is the work of his contemporary, Ignacio Zuloaga. The latter, an artist of more versatility as well as depth of purpose, has tuned his Naturalism to the great traditions of Velasquez and Goya, and thus ac quired a technique altogether superior to Sorolla's. He paints with a fuller impasto; in more varied schemes of colour, distinguished alike by greater richness and subtlety. Moreover, his work reveals a great gift of characterisation, and often of trenchant psychological analysis. He excels in rendering phases of femininity, piquantly expressive ; nor shrinks at times from maintaining the Spanish tradition of ^1 w/^r * * ' H,^ C; £': Bfj, '^y J ML - J it '''it I'M: ..-<; i* BSf; K?l 1 m. l ,^m ^fva . $jH i B& *pMB j fe, _. - -¦¦ '~~: stsi +\ ImErtfifl'* '" *3g 1b^ '^flV IfHsQiiS .'.*•' ' ^ . IGNACIO ZULOAGA MLLE. LUCIENNE BREVAL AS CARMEN A brilliant example of colour, light and characterisation. SEGANTINI PLOUGHING IN THE ENGADINE One of the few artists who has interpreted the solemn grandeur of mountain districts. SUMMARY OF MODERN PAINTING 693 the macabre and horrible. A characteristic example is the picture of the opera singer Lucienne Breval, in the second act of " Carmen," as she bows to the applause of the audi ence, while the glow of the footlights plays in bewitching fantasy over the deep blue, embroidered shawl in which her lithe form is swathed. ITALY The modern revival in Italy has followed rather closely that of Spain, and Fortuny has been its prophet. The his torical canvas is represented in the art of Francesco Michetti (1851- ), while Giacomo Favretto (1847- 1887) and Tito Conti (1847- ) are the most con spicuous exponents of the Rococo. On the other hand, Naturalism, in its treatment of present-day life, is the motive of Ettore Tito (1860- ), whose work, however, is rather that of an illustrator than a painter. More painter-like are the figure subjects of Luigi Nono, Telem- acho Signorini, and Alberto Pasini, while among portrait painters may be mentioned Cesare Tallone, Vincenzo de Ste- fani, Giuseppe Giusti, and, most brilliant of all his con temporaries, Giuseppe Boldini, whose portrait of Whistler is in the Brooklyn Museum. A great deal of modern Naturalistic painting in Italy is characterised by a petty regard for the accurate representa tion of fabrics, lace, and other millinery details, and also by sentimentality and rather vapid prettiness in the choice and treatment of subject. This obvious bid for popularity tends to a tricky and meretricious technique. Representa tive of this tendency is Camillo Innocenti. A serious aim is apparent in the work of Lionello Balestrieri, whose pic ture " Beethoven " is well known through photographic re productions, and in the figure subjects of Marius de Maria. The latter is also a very distinguished painter of landscape, 694 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART and, in fact, it is in the latter branch that much of the best painting appears. Among those who may be given special attention are Guglielmo Ciardi, Giuseppe Pelliza, Girolamo Cairati, Francesco Gioli, Luigi Gioli, Pietro Fra- giacomo, and Luigi Nono. Segantini (1866-1899) But the most profound artist that modern Italy has produced is Giovanni Segantini. With a nature akin to Millet's he settled in the Alpine village of Val d'Albola, where, surrounded by great mountains, he studied the go ings out and comings in of the seasons and the lives of the peasants and their herds and flocks. He planned a series of four large canvases, representing, respectively, Spring, Summer, Autumn, Winter, of which three were completed, the fourth being only partly painted at his death. No painter has so well realised as Segantini the impressive mag nitude and solitude of mountain landscape. And the toilers and the incidents of toil partake of the vast seclusion. They seem to be but a somewhat more articulate expression of the nature which environs them. Occasionally, as in "The Punishment of Luxury," Segantini cast his thought into the mould of allegory ; meanwhile, he varied his oil-painting with frequent crayon drawings, in which he exhibited his prefer ence for largeness and simplicity of form. GREAT BRITAIN With the sixties a new impetus was given to Scottish painting by Robert Scott Lauder (1803-1869), who gath ered about him a band of students. They included G. P. Chalmers, William McTaggart, John Pettie, Tom and Peter Graham, Hugh Cameron, John McWhirter, and William Quiller Orchardson. T. C. GOTCH A PORTRAIT The artist is popular as the interpreter of phases of young girl life. GEORGE CLAUSEN THE MOWERS A strong, earnest and truthful delineator of rural life. SUMMARY OF MODERN PAINTING 697 Orchardson (1835-1910) The last named, the most famous of the group, adopted a style of his own, in which the " design was pencilled on the canvas and lightly hatched out with strokes of the brush in fluid pigment, in a restrained scheme of golden tone, relieved by a few vivid notes of blue, green, and rose." His portraits, of which " Sir Walter Gilbey " is the masterpiece, are examples of trenchant characterisation, while his sub ject pictures represent a superior kind of illustration. The best known is " Napoleon on Board the Bellerophon," of the Tate Gallery. Tom Graham caught something of the Pre-Raphaelite influence, his figure subjects being delicate and refined in conception, and rendered with a delightfully quaint natu ralism. A deep and intimate sentiment distinguishes the pictures of Hugh Cameron, of which "A Lonely Life," rep resenting an old woman in the dying light inserting the key into the door of a humble cottage, is the most famous. In the early eighties Glasgow became the headquarters of a group of painters, which is known as the " Glasgow school." It owed much to the independent taste of some of the local collectors, and to the enterprise of two dealers, who imported examples of Delacroix, Corot, Rousseau, and Millet, and also of the Hollanders, who had been inspired by these French Romanticists. It was, in fact, the French influence that was now being introduced into British paint ing. The younger artists were inspired by the sight of these examples, and some set out to study in Paris. The return in 1884 of Alexander Roche and John Lavery stimu lated the movement in Glasgow, which was further rein forced by the Edinburgh International Exhibition of 1886, in which the French and Holland Romanticists were hung in a separate room, and the young Scottish painters became acquainted with the work of Whistler. Henceforth the lat- 698 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART ter's influence was potent on the movement, and led to the knowledge later of Velasquez and Frans Hals. From these the Glasgow artists learned the lesson that selection and concentration are the chief elements in dis tinction and style, and to some extent they acquired a prefer ence for subdued harmonies of colour. Their search for truth to nature differed from that of the Pre-Raphaelites, in that they did not render details in relation to one another, but in relation to the whole, and unified their composi tions by harmonious treatment of the colour values. A further distinction of their canvases was the notably deco rative character of their compositions, and a general in dependence and originality in the choice and arrangement of the subject. Among the best known of the group, besides Roche and Lavery, are W. T. Macgregor, J. J. Guthrie, George Henry, R. Macaulay Stevenson, E. A. Walton, E. A. Hor- nel, Harrington Mann, D. T. Cameron, James Paterson, T. Austin Brown, and Joseph Crawhall. Simultaneously with this Glasgow movement, the influence of French Impressionism and of the plein-air painting was felt by certain men in England, who made their headquar ters in the village of Newlyn, in Cornwall, and are known as the " Newlyn school." The leader of the group was Stanhope Forbes, whose wife, Elizabeth Forbes, is also a sterling painter. Other members were Frank Bramley, Nor man Garstin, John de Costa, and, for a time, T. C. Gotch. The last named renders phases of girlhood and young wom anhood in a tender vein of allegory; otherwise the char acteristic of the school is its choice of subjects of familiar life. Out of the Glasgow and Newlyn groups, reinforced by independent painters who were similarly influenced by Parisian technique, was formed "The New English Art SUMMARY OF MODERN PAINTING 699 Club," the exhibitions of which have been what the Grosvenor Gallery Exhibition was to a previous generation — at once a protest against Academic routine and a rallying-ground for the younger and more ardent spirits. Among the names that have figured in these exhibitions are Charles Sims, H. H. La Thangue, P. Wilson Steer, William Orpen, Augustus John, D. Muirhead, Muirhead Bone, Albert Rothenstein, George Lambert, William Nicholson, Mark Fisher, C. J. Holmes. Independent of groups, but one of the most significant of modern painters, is George Clausen. This brief summary of present-day British painting may be concluded by a mention of three men, whose early deaths cut short careers of distinguished achievement and greater promise. One of these was Cecil Lawson (1851-1882), a Scot, whose landscapes, at once romantic and realistic, ex hibit vigour of handling, largeness of feeling, and a sense of style. The Tate Gallery possesses " The August Moon." In the same collection is a " Fantaisie en Folie," by another Scotsman, Robert Brough (1872-1905), whose " Saint Anne of Brittany " and " 'Twixt Sun and Moon " are in the Gal lery of Modern Painters at Venice. The third of the trio is Charles Wellington Furse (1868-1904). He painted many portraits of exceptional style and power, but showed a spe cial mastery in the decorative handling of large canvases. His "Diana of the Uplands" and "Return from the Ride" are two of the finest canvases of modern times, while his un finished portrait of Lord Roberts, surrounded by Indian troops, which, like the others, is in the Tate Gallery, shows a superb handling of a very large and complicated prob lem. It is notable that he commenced his education under the Anglicised French artist, Alphonse Legros, at the Slade School. 700 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART GERMANY The final step in bringing German painting into touch with life may be dated from the Munich Exhibition of 1879. On this occasion the Germans became acquainted with the work of the Barbison artists and with other phases of the modern Naturalistic movement, as represented in the works of Manet, Bastien-Lepage, and other French artists. Henceforward the movement took firm hold of the younger generation, and Munich became, as it has remained, the headquarters, Liebermann (1849- ) Meanwhile the change had been anticipated by a Berlin artist, Max Liebermann. After having felt the influence of Courbet, he visited Paris in 1872, and came to know the works of Millet, Troyon, Daubigny, and Corot. Later he visited Holland and worked for a time with Israels. Re turning to Germany in 1898, he lived for six years in Munich, and then settled in Berlin. The character of his work is suggested by some of the titles of his pictures: "The Shoemaker's Workshop," "Bear Contest in Munich," " Woman with Goats," " The Flax-Spinners," " Courtyard of the Orphanage." Liebermann's most characteristic work is distinguished by " a monumental amplitude, a trace of some thing epical." As he himself says, " I do not seek for what is called pictorial, but I would grasp nature in her simplicity and grandeur — the simplest thing and the hardest." In the Naturalistic development stand out such names as Franz Skarbina (1849- ), Hugo Vogel (1855- ), and Walter Leistikow (1865- ). All of these are Ber- liners. Among the Munich painters are Bruno Piglhein (1848-1894), Albert Keller (1845- ), by birth a Swiss, Baron von Habermann (1849- ), Ludwig Herterich, Heinrich Ziigel (1850- ), Ludwig Dill LIEBERMANN- THE NET MENDERS Brings a new vigorous note of life into German painting. ERANZ STUCK THE CONQUEROR An example of the artist's allegorical style, crude in sensation, rudely powerful. SUMMARY OF MODERN PAINTING 703 (1848- ), Adolph Hengeler (1863- ), and Fritz Wahle (1861- ). Of the latest generation may be mentioned the names of Fritz Erbe and Leo Putz. The last two are members of a group of artists who style themselves the " Scholle." It was in its way an as sertion of independence, and, in a measure, a protest against the older organisation, the " Secession," as the lat ter in its inception had been a protest against old-fashioned methods. To-day the pictures of the Secession wear an old-fashioned appearance, and it is only a question of time when a like fate will overtake most, if not all, the work of the " Scholle." In fact, these organisations, like others of the kind, may begin by being useful as rallying centres of progressiveness, but the inevitable march of events finds the progressive of yesterday in the rear of some younger and newer impulse. Uhde (1848-1911) Meanwhile, included in the " Secession " were artists whose Naturalism was used to some kind of ideal end. Such a one was Fritz von Uhde, distinguished for his religious pictures. In these he portrays the incidents of the life of Christ as taking place on the mountains and in the villages and homes of Bavaria. The Saviour is clothed in a tunic reaching to his feet; but the people who surround him are in the habitual garb of the Bavarian peasants. A tender, reverential feeling pervades such subjects as " Suffer Little Children to Come Unto Me," " The Sermon on the Mount," and " Lord Jesus, Be Our Guest," while they are painted in the modern technique, that realises the actual values and interprets the expressional capacity of light. Another painter whose work depends for its expression upon luminarist qualities as well as form is Julius Exter (1863- ), painter of "The Wave," a siren standing in 704 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART the water amid the blue haze of evening, and of " Paradise Lost," wherein two nude figures are cowering to the earth, while the yellow sunlight falls upon them. Stuck (1863- ) A prolific and powerful painter is Franz Stuck, who has also distinguished himself as a sculptor and as a designer, of furniture and other objects of industrial art. His range of subjects includes religious, classic, alle gorical, and modern pictures. At times his forms are grim and immobile, at other times abounding with joyous health; always plastic, large and simple, with a suggestion as of primitive, even brutal, nature. Meanwhile, to his powerful and fluent rendering of form he adds a skill in colour and the rendering of light. Klinger (1857- ) Akin to Stuck's, but of a more profound and subtle psychology, is the work of Max Klinger. He is a thinker, poet, and musician, as well as painter; varying in subject from what is lovely to what is terrible, from scenes of Hellenic beauty or of the witchery of German forests to naturalism of the Zola type or to a fancy as demoniacal as Goya's. Bocklin (1827-1901) Very Teutonic in the quality of his imagination is Arnold Bocklin, who was by birth a Swiss. He drew from Classic sources, as in " Pan Startling a Goat " ; reproduced the me diaeval German's invention of weird forms, as in the long- necked creature that inhabits the sunless hollow of the " Rocky Chasm " ; created mermaids and other creatures of the sea in all the wholesome joyousness of light and move ment ; pictured the mystery of worship in " A Sacred Grove," or the solemnity of the tomb in " The Isle of the Dead." CHAMPS-ELYSEES An example of the mingling of classical and romantic in the artist's imagination. HANS THOMA PORTRAIT OF HIMSELF The painter of many lovely idyls of country life. SUMMARY OF MODERN PAINTING 707 Marees (1837-1887) Another artist of imagination was Hans von Marees, who was not known beyond the limits of a small circle of ad mirers until after his death. He was opposed to painting from the model. "If I paint a pug true to nature," he would say, " I have two pugs, but not a work of art." Consequently the drawing of his figures offends a student of the schools ; it is considered " childish." But his aim was pictorial decorative effect, and in such work as " The Hes- perides " and " Three Youths " — the one showing three fe male nudes, the other three male nudes, placed against a land scape of slender tree stems and water with winding banks — he proved a capacity for grand design in decoration that in his day perhaps only Puvis de Chavannes surpassed. Thoma (1839- ) One other artist may be mentioned, Hans Thoma, who has lived a life of quiet work in Frankfort. He painted a bust portrait of himself, the eyes gazing at us, while one hand holds near his tawny beard an old choice volume. The head is seen against a delicately painted orchard scene, with rosy and yellow apples peeping from the leaves, and the whole is enclosed in a frame decorated with flowers and fruit and children's faces. The naivete, earnestness, and love of simple beauty that characterise the picture, the delicate regard for detail, and the genuine decorativeness are eloquent of the spirit and quality of all his work. The sentiment of the figures is sweet and fresh as the flower- starred German meadows, or as tenderly pensive as the hushed forest scenes in which he places them. Everything is idyllic in the simplest, rustic, fragrant, child-like way. PAINTING IN AMERICA SUPPLEMENTARY SUMMARY While the spread of painting in America renders it im possible in a book of this character to do justice to the subject, the student may reasonably expect that at least a few of the important painters should be mentioned. Hence this chapter, which is necessarily scrappy and incomplete. The modern landscape movement, initiated by George Inness, has grown in extent and achievement until to-day landscape forms perhaps the most significant branch of painting in America. In response to influences gained by students in France, it has followed in a general way two tendencies : on the one hand, tonal, on the other, plein-air, or open air. Barbison's example is responsible for the earlier; the later Impressionistic movement, for the other. A picture is said to be tonal or based on tonality when the artist has adopted some one hue of colour or a con trast of two as his main motive, and then repeats the hue or hues in a variety of tones, introducing also other hues of colour sparingly and modulating their tones in subordina tion to the main theme. This result is a harmony of tonal relations, which may or may not reproduce the actual hues of the landscape. As a rule it does not, and represents, a transposition of nature's hues into a more or less arbi trary scheme of colour. While it may seem unsatisfactory to those who base their standard of practice or apprecia tion on a strictly Naturalistic basis, it represents a per fectly legitimate pictorial convention, which was used by the great landscape painters of Holland, as well as by the artists of the Barbison-Fontainebleau school. The pictorial 708 GEORGE INNESS METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART, N. Y. THE DELAWARE VALLEY Panoramic and rather distracting in detail, but already suggestive of the poetic charm of his later work. HOMER D. MARTIN- VIEW ON THE SEINE Beautiful in colour and in its sense of spaciousness and repose. m ALEXANDER H. WYAXT METR01 OI.1TAN MUSLIM OI' AUT. X. Y. FOKEXOOX IX THE ADIRONDACKS Illustrates the truth and poetry of the artist's transcript from nature. WINSLOW HOMER METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OP ART, N. Y. NORTHEASTER A fine example of the artist's ability to render the power and movement of mightv waters, PAINTING IN AMERICA 713 motive being uppermost, the tonalist is usually very care ful to make his composition decorative. Moreover, the principle lends itself readily to poetic expression. Among American tonal landscapists the following may be mentioned: Alexander H. Wyant, Homer D. Martin, Robert C. Minor, Ralph A. Blakelock, Albert Ryder, Henry W. Ranger, and George H. Bogert. The principle of plein- or open-air painting is the realisa tion of the actual hues of nature, in their actual environ ment of lighted atmosphere. The painter emulates the ac tion of light in its tendency to effect a harmonious rela tion of the various hues. He observes and renders light values instead of inventing tonal values. The principle in troduces luminosity and vibration into the picture, so that such canvases are apt to be higher in key than the tonal ones. Moreover, it admits of a superior subtlety in value relations. A leader, even among the French, in this new movement was Alexander Harrison, whose earliest example was "Ar cadia," in which the sunlight filters through the foliage of apple-trees and dapples the nude forms of some girls with glowing patches of luminosity. It was followed by " The Wave," now in the Pennsylvania Academy, in which for the first time the actual hues of water as affected by nature's light were analysed and reproduced, with the result that the picture suggested also the movement of the water with a truth never before achieved. This principle of light values has captured not only almost all the landscape painters in America, but most of the later figure and portrait painters. In the direction of subtlety it has been carried farthest by John H. Twachtman. The student must note that the principle is applied with a good deal of elasticity. Originally the painting was done in the open air. Some artists still practise this method, 714 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART while others make studies in the open air, but actually paint, or at least complete, the picture in the studio. Hence there is a wide range of difference in the degree in which land scapes emulate t}ie facts of nature. Another difference is uppermost in the artist's motive, according as he lets the facts speak for themselves, and is satisfied with a purely ob jective rendering of his subject, or makes the latter inter pret his own mood of feeling. In the latter case, again, the differences are multiplied by the various personalities of artists and the varying quality of their sentiment. It will generally be found that the painters of moods of feeling are more careful to make their compositions decorative than are the objective painters. A phase of the original open-air movement, represented in some of the Impressionists, was the use of the " divided colour," which has been already explained. While the prin ciple involved in this is put into practice in a greater or less degree by many American painters, it has been most consistently and successfully pursued by Childe Hassam, whose work illustrates the qualities of subtlety, luminosity, and suggestion of atmospheric vibration that the process is capable of realising. Some of the men whose work is well known are : J. Francis Murphy, J. Alden Weir, who is also a figure painter of re fined distinction, Dwight W. Tryon, Louis P. Dessar, Birge Harrison, Horatio Walker, whose landscapes involve figures, horses, cattle, and fowls, Charles H. Davis, Emil Carlsen, Leonard Ochtman, W. L. Lathrop, Frederick W. Kost, Charles Warren Eaton, Bruce Crane, Carleton Wiggins, F. Ballard Williams, W. E. Schofield, Gardner Symons, Albert L. Groll, George Bellows, Cullen Yates, Daniel Garber, Ed ward W. Redfield, Ernest Lawson, Willard L. Metcalf, Edu ard Steichen, John C. Johansen, and Walter Nettleton. GEORGE DE FOREST BRUSH METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART, N. Y. IN THE GARDEN Characteristic of the grave feeling of the artist. ABBOTT H. THAYER METROPOLITAN MUSEU.M OF ART, N. Y. YOUNG WOMAN A good example of this artist's type of pure, fine womanhood. JOHN W. ALEXANDER METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART, X. Y. STUDY IN BLACK AND GREEN This costume is yellow with black stripes, the whole treated with charming suggestion of improvisition. ARTHUR B. BROWN DREAM METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART, N. Y. An illustration of this artist's mingling of the figure and landscape to express an emotional or spiritual mood. PAINTING IN AMERICA 719 Among the painters of marines, which in certain cases involve figures and shipping, the chief name of the older generation is that of Winslow Homer (1836-1910). His work is of varied merit, but the finest examples are pro foundly impressive records of the weight and movement of ocean water. Living representatives of this branch of paint ing are: Henry B. Snell, Charles H. Woodbury, Frederick Waugh, Paul Dougherty, and C. H. Fromuth. A list of portrait painters will include William M. Chase, Cecilia Beaux, Irving R. Wiles, Joseph de Camp, Edmund Tarbell, John W. Alexander, Kenyon Cox, Louise Cox, Rob ert Henri, August Franzen, Lydia Field Emmet, Wilton Lockwood, Thomas Eakins, William Glackens, and Frank W. Benson. Until comparatively recent years the encouragement given to figure painting, except in the direction of mural deco ration, has been comparatively small, especially in the de partment of the nude. Among painters of the latter are three deceased artists, Benj amin Fitz, Wyatt Eaton, and Walter Shirlaw; Edward E. Simmons, George R. Barse, Robert Reid, Kenyon Cox, Joseph de Camp, Elihu Vedder, R. V. V. Sewell, Henry B. Fuller, Sergeant Kendall, Albert Herter, F. K. Frieseke, Lillian Genth, E. Irving Couse in Indian subjects, and Arthur B. Davies in subjects of sym bolic abstraction. George de Forest Brush, who began by painting Indian subjects, has since devoted himself to portrait groups of his wife and children. Abbott H. Thayer's subjects of young women and children usually involve an allegorical motive. Thomas W. Dewing paints femininity in subtilised schemes of colour. Edmund Tarbell in his interiors emulates, with a modern hand and eye, the charm of Jan Vermeer. Gari Melchers, who worked for many years in Holland, exhibits 720 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART a style full of character and uncompromisingly Naturalistic in its tendency towards elaboration of detail. William M. Chase, in addition to landscapes, portraits, and still-life, is a skilful painter of interiors. Frank W. Benson, Mrs. Johansen, and the late Louis Loeb are known for their groups in the freedom of air and sunlight. The late Frank D. Millet was at his best in humorous genre; the late Ed win A. Abbey in subjects drawn from poetry and history; while Hugo Ballin paints mythological or allegorical themes. Howard Pyle and, in his easel pictures, Charles Y. Turner identified themselves with subjects of Colonial times. Charles W, Hawthorne, who began with broadly painted scenes of fishermen and fish, now interprets a sentiment of quiet ab straction with a rare refinement of colour. F. Luis Mora is known for his lively scenes of Spanish and society life ; while among those who have drawn their subjects from the street life of New York are William G. Glackens, John Sloan, George Luks, and Jerome Myers. The life of the plains has furnished subjects to Gilbert Gaul and the late Fred eric Remington. The late Eastman Johnson, the late C. F. Ulrich, the late Edgar M. Ward, and the late John G. Brown have been the best known exponents of Ameri can genre. Incidents from the Bible have occupied H. 0. Tanner. Boston had commissioned mural decorations for its Public Library even before the Chicago Exposition of 1893. But the latter gave a great impetus to this branch of painting, which was carried forward by the opportunities afforded in the embellishment of the Library of Congress, until now it has become quite customary to include mural paintings in the design of federal, state, and municipal buildings. The artists who have figured most prominently in the movement are John La Farge, Edwin H. Blashfield, Kenyon Cox, Ed ward Simmons, H. Siddons Mowbray, Robert Reid, Will T. W. DEWING METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART, X. Y. THE LETTER Extremely subtle in colour values and in the quality of its expression. JULIAN ALDEN WEIll .METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART, N. Y. IDLE HOURS Most interesting composition and a beautiful study in light, the latter having a large share in the expression of the sentiment. KENYON COX MINNESOTA STATE CAPITOL LUNETTE A characteristic example. PUVIS DE CHAVANNES SAINTE GENEVIEVE MARKED WITH THE DIVINE SEAL Showing how the artist could render the beauty of distance and yet secure an effect of flatness in his composition. PAINTING IN AMERICA 725 H. Low, Albert Herter, John S. Sargent, Edwin A. Ab bey, H. D. Walker, Elihu Vedder, C. Y. Turner, R. V. V. Sewell, Walter Shirlaw, G. W. Maynard, Frank W. Ben son, John W. Alexander, William B. Van Ingen, the late Robert Blum, and Miss Violet Oakley. FRENCH PAINTING SUPPLEMENTARY SUMMARY In previous chapters we have traced the main currents of the modern development of painting. The object of this one is to allude to a few out of the mass of modern artists, not yet mentioned, with whom the student should be familiar. Besnard (1849- ) One of the most brilliant is Paul Albert Besnard, who has combined the love of light and colour which he derived from the Orient with a great skill in the rendering of values. He was one of the first to essay the problem of uniting in one picture the effects of natural and artificial light, an example of it being his " Femme Qui se Chauffe," in the Luxembourg. His pictures are marvels of subtle and sensuous luminosity, and he has attempted to work out the same problems of light in mural decorations, witness those in the Sorbonne. Other decorators are Paul Baudry (1828-1886), whose work in the Paris Opera House shows him to have been a skilful adapter of the principles of composition adopted by the Italians of the sixteenth century. The greatest and most original decorator of the century was Pierre Puvis Puvis de Chavannes (1824-1898) de Chavannes. A visit to the Pantheon in Paris, where his work can be studied alongside that of other paint ers, gives the readiest chance of realising the difference between paintings that are really decorative and those which are merely pictorial on a large scale. Those of Puvis 726 MAURICE DENIS DECORATION A section of blue sky, bright green grass, white blossoms and cos tumes, and some tender rose and lavender violet. Very fresh and virginal. HAGAR AND ISHMAEL One of the early. Bible subjects, before the artist became identified with pure landscape. FRENCH PAINTING 729 will be found to have a fitness to their purpose which sug gests that they have grown into their place upon the wall. The secret is the simplicity and largeness in the disposi tion of " full " and " empty " spaces in the design of the composition, the reduction in the number of planes and the flat modelling of the forms, the last being secured by con trasts of values instead of by light and shade. The example of Giotto led him to work for these qualities, and the mod ern study of values assisted him to achieve them. His " Peace " and " War," in Amiens Museum, are early exam ples before he had set himself to eliminate and simplify. His masterpiece is the " Hemicycle " of the Sorbonne. Fine ex amples are to be found in the Hotel de Ville in Paris, and in the Public Library of Boston. Among those who have been influenced by Puvis none has shown himself more original than Maurice Denis. An important figure in the development of French land scape was Jean Charles Cazin (1840-1901). He carried forward the poetry of the Barbison school, and at the same time expressed it in a manner more Naturalistic and by means of the. lessons in values taught by the Impression ists. While the sentiment of his work is feminine in char acter, that of Andre Dauchez has an austere virility. The landscapes of Emile Rene Menard,, with or without the pres ence of beautiful nude forms, have a quality of deeply ex pressive lyricism; while Charles Cottet, in Brittany scenes with figures, strikes a more dramatic and poignant note. Henri le Sidaner renders by a method of separate spots of colour the tremulous vibration of evening and moonlight scenes. An artist whose importance is too generally overlooked is Honore Daumier (1808-1879). His oil paintings were few, one of the best being " Le Wagon de Troisieme Classe," owned in America by Mr. Borden. His work consisted 730 A SHORT HISTORY OF ART chiefly of drawings done for Charivari and other Parisian journals. These are distinguished by an intense virility of characterisation, rendered in a manner of plastic simplicity with very expressional use of line. He was, in fact, a mas ter of the " grand style," notwithstanding that it was ex pounded on caricature and ephemeral subjects. His influ ence was felt by Millet among others, and has done much to maintain a high standard in French draughtsmanship. He is also a link in _ the chain of development of expres sional, as contrasted with representative art. »For, while the main tendency from Courbet's time, through that of the original Impressionists, was in the direc tion of objective Naturalism, another current of motion has been interwoven with it. It is one involving an appeal to the imagination. It appears in one form in Gustave Moreau (1826-1898), who worked most readily in water- colour. He is represented by many examples in the Luxem bourg, among them being such as " The Apparition," a varia tion on the theme of Salome. The costume of the dancer scintillates with gems, while the surroundings are lustrous with ornament. Here, as in all his work, Moreau relies upon sense-stimulation to affect the imagination. Carri&re (1849- 1906) The very opposite appears in the visions of life created by Eugene Carriere. He gives to form a plastic reality such as is wanting in Moreau, but immerses the forms in an em browned, misty atmosphere, out of which only parts of the forms emerge into view — those parts on which depends the expression, for example, the head and hands of the mother as she nurses her child. The result is that the imagination, detached from sense suggestion, is spiri tualised. CARRIERE LUXEMBOURG FA.MILY SCENE A vision evoked from a penumbra of brownish grey atmosphere. CEZANNE PORTRAIT One of the artist's intensely concentrated and impressive interpreta tions of every-day humanity. FRENCH PAINTING 733 Cezanne (1839-1905) A somewhat similar heightening of the imagination is aroused by the art of Paul Cezanne, the difference being that in his case there is no appeal to emotions, and the im agination is not spiritualised but intellectualised. Whether it was a figure or a landscape which he chose for sub ject, it was not the visual impression that he tried to record. He subjected the impressions of the eye to a close logical analysis, in order to discover how the shapes, positions, and relations of the objects before him affected the mind; hav ing thus clarified the impression by this intellectual proc ess, he set down the results of his reasoning in the most succinct form, eliminating everything that might lessen the acuteness of the intellectualised sensations. His process of simplification and coordination was not a product of feel ing, but of reasoned certainty. It was his objection to Impressionism that it depended too much on feeling; fur ther, that it flattened the forms, as the result of depending on the eye, whereas we know that the forms and the space they occupy have depth, and it is depth in nature and in art which so stimulates the imagination. Accordingly, he asserted that it was not because Impressionists treated every day subjects that so many of their pictures are banal as compared with the works of the old masters, but because they had merely recorded the impression of the eye, and had not subjected it to intellectual analysis. It was only by the latter means that, to quote his own words, modern painting " can build a bridge across conventional routine, by which Impressionism may return to the Louvre and to the life profound." His own figure-pictures represent quite commonplace people, his landscapes ordinary scenes, and yet, as you come to know them in the originals, they exert a profound impression. Meanwhile, Cezanne did not profess to have built the " bridge " which was needed to elevate 73* A SHORT HISTORY OF ART modern art. " I am too old," he said, " I have not realised, I shall not realise now. I remain the primitive of the way which I have discovered." It is so that artists of the latest cast of thought regard him. Matisse (1862- ) Among those who have tried to realise the path which he discovered, the most conspicuous is Henri Matisse. He and his pupils, and others for whom he is not responsible, have been dubbed the " wild men," and the greater part of their work justifies the name. For one and all are grop ing. Cezanne used to say that the basis of all art is in stinct; he might also have added that the same is the basis of all life. It is true to the verge of truism. But the value of the truth depends on its application. Cezanne submitted the results of his instinct to processes of reasoning with the avowed object of reconciling his intellectualised sensations with the great art of the past. The majority of his follow ers, on the contrary, reject the traditions. Most of them attempt to leap back to a condition of primitive instinct; a few leap forward to abstractions of purely and exclusively intellectualised sensations. It is the distinction of Matisse that, while he began by making the backward leap to primi tive instincts, he has since been engaged in trying to intel- lectualise the results. One of his latest works has been the painting of two very large decorative panels, embodying the idea of Music and the Dance. His problem, as he saw it, was primarily to produce a decoration, something handsome by reason of its colour and the pattern of the forms against the open spaces; sec ondarily, to make a composition which should not represent nude persons dancing and singing, but should suggest to the imagination the abstract sensations of Dance and Music. He set his forms, therefore, on the knoll of a green hill, FRENCH PAINTING 735 against a blue sky, and painted their nude flesh an almost uniform vermilion. Most people are shocked, because they have the habit of making naturalistic representation the standard of their approval or disapproval of a picture. Others, accepting the artist's premise that the painting shall be a decoration, calculated to stimulate abstract sen sations, get over the shock and discover both the hand someness of the design and its expressional power. They go even further: they believe that, apart from the merits or demerits of these particular canvases, the prin ciple involved in them is destined to be the salvation of mod ern painting. Too long it has indulged on the one hand in pseudo-idealism (Classicalism), and on the other in the ef fort to make a spade look like a spade (Naturalism) ; its hope for the future lies, firstly, in the picture being deco- ratively beautiful; secondly, in its reliance upon the ex pressional rather than the representative qualities, not upon the concrete facts of eyesight, but the abstract sugges tion to the imagination. Whether this belief is justified and how it is to be realised time alone will show. INDEX INDEX Abbey, Edwin A., 720, 725 Acropolis at Mycense, 72; of Athens, details of, 72 Adams, Herbert, refinement of treatment of low-relief by, 646 Adler, Jules, 559 "Adoration of the Lamb, The," altar-piece by the van Eycks, 330 "Adoration of the Three Kings," relief from Cathedral of Pisa, 200 " Adoration of the Trinity," by Albrecht Diirer, 386 Agra, India, Taj Mahal at, 164 Ahura Mazda, the supreme god of the Medes and Persians, 33 Albertinelli, Mariotto, 303 Aldegrever, Heinrich, 388 " Aldobrandini Marriage, The," 127 Alexander, John W., 662, 719, 725 Algardi, Alessandro, 264 Alhambra, the details of, 160-164 del Alisal, Casado, 690 Alma-Tadema, Laurens, 680 Altar-piece, " The Adoration of the Lamb," by the van Eycks, 330-335 Altdorfer, Albrecht, 391 Alunno, Niccolo, 278 America, application of the per pendicular in business buildings in, 613; architecture in, in nine teenth century, 605-614; begin nings of modern movement in architecture in, 606; beginning of national consciousness of painting as an art, 666; begin nings of painting in, 653-659; causes of development of sculp ture in, 639; classical sculpture in, 507-509; development of Colonial style of architecture in, 461; development of foreign in fluence in, 666-672; growth of art appreciation and its causes, 668; growth of modern land scape movement in, 708; Hud son River School of painting, 660-665; illogicality of pub lic buildings in, 612; French in fluence in architecture of, 611; influence of style of Christopher Wren on architecture of, 461; modern sculpture in, 639-652; painting in, supplementary sum mary of, 708-725 Amiens, Cathedral of, 192; ground- plan of, 185 Amrith, Western Asia, tomb at, 53 Amru, Mosque of, at Old Cairo, Egypt, 159 Ancher, Michael, 685; Anna, 685 Angelo, Michael (Michael Angelo Buonarroti), architect of St. Peter's at Rome, 233; frescos of, in Sistine Chapel, 293 ; ideals and sculpture of, 248-254 "Angelus, The," by Jean Fran cois Millet, 537 d'Angers, David (P. J. David), 619 Antinous, statues of, 123 Apelles, favourite painter of Alex ander the Great, 94 " Apotheosis of St. Thomas Aqui nas," by Zurburan, 399 Aquatint engraving, 329 Arabian architecture, earliest mon uments of, 159 ; second period of, in Spain, 160; genius finds vent in architecture, 156 Arch, definition of, 109; pointed, source of, 182; round, 182 Arches, Roman, important events commemorated by, 118 Architecture, in America in nine teenth century, 605-614; Ara bian, earliest forms of, 159; be ginnings of modern movement in America, 606 ; birth of, 2 ; Byzan tine, 143-150; later developments of, 149, 150; Chinese, the " Tha" 739 740 INDEX in, 47; Christian, 133-150; divi sion of, into periods, 135; details of Persian, 35; development of Colonial style in, 461; of the Etruscans, 100; in France in seventeenth and eighteenth cen turies, 448; German Gothic style of, 203; in Germany in seven teenth century, 454; Gothic, 181- 197; decline of, 231; division of vaulting in, 186; Early Pointed Period in, 194; Florid Gothic Period in, 197; ground-plans of, 185 ; Middle Pointed Period in, 194; origin and development of, 192, 193; spires, in, 191; of Greece, orders of, 58; Greek, Corinthian, order of, 65, 66; Doric order of, 62; general char acteristics of, 77, 78; Ionic order of, 63-65; varieties of columns and entablature, 61; Italian pe riods of Renaissance, 232; Mo hammedan, in Egypt, 159; in In dia, 164; in Persia, 164; in Spain, 160-164; of the nineteenth century, 597-614; of palace of Rameses III, 11; Phoenician, similar to that of Assyria and Persia, 52; proportions of Greek, 70, 71; Renaissance, 231- 238; in France, 237; and Gothic contrasted, 231; in Northern Eu rope, 237; revival of Greek Classic style in France, 603; Ro man, 107-121; Romanesque, Eng lish styles of, 175-177; vaulted roof in, 170; in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, 448- 462; transition from Roman to Gothic, 181 Armachis, Egyptian god, 12 Armstrong, Sir Walter, quoted, 454, 455, 504, 605 Art, of Asia Minor, Greek influ ence on, 55, 56; Assyrian and Chaldaean, chronology of, 32; beginnings of, 1; of Central Asia, 23; of Central Asia, influ ence of natural conditions on, 23, 24; Chinese, inspired by Bud dhism, 47; Early Christian, 130- 134; of Eastern Asia, 39; in Egypt, chronology of, 22; Jap anese, influence of on Occident, 51; origin of, 48; Mohammedan, 156-167; Persian, 33; primitive, 1; Roman, 104; chronology of, 129; Romanesque, 168-177; of Western Asia, 52 Artaxerxes III, palace of, at Persepolis, Persia, 34 Arts, becoming internationalised, 673 " A secco " painting on Egyptian tombs, 18 Asia, art of Central, 23; of East ern, 39; priests of, learned in sciences and astronomical lore, 23; type of figures in early sculpture, 23; Central, begin nings of culture in, 24; Central, early history of, 24; temples of, construction and ornamentation of, 24; Western, art of, 52 Asia Minor, Greek influence on art of, 55, 56; tombs of, 54 Asoka, King of Hindu empire, buildings erected by, 40; pro moted Buddhism, 39 "Assumption of the Virgin," by Titian, 311 Assyrian art, hunting as repre sented by, 30; and Chaldaean art, chronology of, 32; civilisation, influence of on Median and Per sian arts, 33; excavations, dis coveries resulting from confirm truth of Bible records, 27; re ligious customs, 27; sculpture, its resemblance to that of Egypt, 29; treatment of wall surfaces, 30; wall painting, 28 Assyrians, government of, 27 Athene Parthenos, Temple of, at Athens, 70 Athene Polias, Greek god, 71, 72; statue of, in the Parthenon, 82 Athens, Acropolis of, details of, 72 Athletes, beginnings of making statues of, 81 Atreus, Treasury of, at Mycenae, 73 Atrium in the so-called House of Sallust at Pompeii, 117 Augsburg, Germany, as an art centre, 379 Baalbek, 118 Bacon, John, 503 Bactria, beginning of Median and Persian civilisation in, 33 INDEX 741 Baldung, Hans, 391 Balestrieri, Lionello, 693 Ball, Thomas, 509 Ballin, Hugo, 720 Bank of England, 597 Banks, Thomas, 503 Baptistery at Florence, 240 Barbarelli, Giorgio, 305 Barbison-Fontainebleau school of painters, 521 Bargne, Charles, 559 Barnard, George Grey, 652 Barry, Sir Charles, designer of Houses of Parliament, 604 Barse, George R., 719 Bartholomew A., 626 Bartlett, Paul, 651 Bartolommeo, Fra (Baccio della Porta), 303 Barye, Antoine Louis, bronze ani mal groups by, 620 Basilica, old, plan of the, of St. Peter at Rome, 139; Roman, 137; adaption of plan of, to Christian requirements, 137; de tails of construction of, 137-140; of San Clemente at Rome, plan of, 140 Basilicas, Roman, form of, 115 Bastien-Lepage, Jules, 559 Baths, of Diocletian, 112; in hon our of Jupiter Ultor, 115 " Battle of Alexander," Pompeiian painting, 128 "Battle of the Huns," by Wil helm von Kaulbach, 578 Battle scenes, depicted in wall painting in East India, 42 Baudry, Paul, 726 Beaux, Cecilia, 719 Becker, Jakob, 577 Beechey, William, 471 Begarelli, Antonio, 257 Beginnings of Painting in Amer ica, 653-659 Beham, Bethel, 391 Belgium, Classical revival in nine teenth century painting, 680 Bellews, George, 714 Bellini, Gentile, 285; Giacomo, 284; Giovanni, the Giotto of Venetian painting, 285 Bendemann, Eduard, 577 Beni-Hassan, description of tombs of, 12, 15 Benliure y Gil, Jos£, 690 Benson, Frank W., 719, 720, 725 Berlin, Academy of Architecture. 598 Berlin Museum, 574 Bernini, Lorenzo, 234, 264 Berruguete, Alfonso, 263 Besnard, Paul Albert, 726 Bhuvaneswar, Temple of, descrip tion of, 45 Bible records confirmed by discov eries of Assyrian excavations, 27 Bierstadt, Albert, 665 Binck, James, 391 "Birth of Christ," by Martin Schaffner, 381 Bisschop, Christoffel, 676 Blake, William, genius of, in poetry and painting, 479 Blakelock, Ralph A., 713 Blanche, Jacques Emile, 559 Blashfield, Edwin H., 720 Bloch, Karl, 683 Blum, Robert, 725 Bocklin, Arnold, 704 Bogert, George H., 713 Boldini, Giuseppe, 693 Bologna, Giovanni, 264 Bone, Muirhead, 699 Bonheur, Auguste, 535; Rosa, 535 Bonnat, Leon, 556 Bonvin, Francois, 559 " Book of Kells," 213, 572 Bordone, Paris, 311 Borglum, Gutson, 651; Solon H., 651 Bosio, Francois, 513 Boston, Fine Arts Museum, 606, 657 Botticelli, Sandro, 271 Bouchardon, Edm6, 510 Boucher, Francois, painter and de signer of tapestry, 445 Bouguereau, Adolphe, 496 Bouts, Dierick, 339 Boyle, John J., 652 de Braekeleer, Henri, 683 Brahmanism in conflict with Bud dhism in Hindu Empire, 39 Brahmanistic and Buddhistic sculpture compared, 42 Bramante, designer of St. Peter's, Rome, 233 Bramley, Frank, 698 von Bremen, Johann Georg Meyer, 581 Breton, Jules, 559 742 INDEX British historical and genre paint ing, 538-547; Museum, 597; painting of the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, 463- 478; sculpture, 632-636 Brock, Thomas, 636 Bronze period, vessels of, 5 Bronze-work, Etruscan, 102 Bronzino, Agnolo, 314 Brooklyn Museum, 693 de Brosse, Salomon, architect of the Palace of Luxembourg, 453 Brough, Robert, 699 Brown, Ford Madox, 565; T. Aus tin, 698; Henry Kirke, 509; John G., 720 Brunelleschi, Early Renaissance architect, 232, 240 Brush, George de Forest, 719 Bryan and Stanley, quoted, 320 Buddha and his preaching, 39 Buddhism, beginning and growth of, in Hindu empire, 39; in Burmah, 47 Buddhistic architecture, character istic form of, 40; Vihahas, evo lution of, 40 Bulfinch, designer of Massachu setts State House, 605 Burckhardt, quoted, 123, 128, 222, 266, 295, 304, 306 Burgkmair, Hans, 382 Burial-clubs of early Christians, 131 Btirkel, Heinrich, 581 Burne-Jones, Edward, capacity of, as a decorator, 571; Northern mysticism of, 568 Buttresses, simple and flying, 191 Byzantine architecture, 143-150; later developments of, 149, 150; art in Russia, 149, 150; the dome the chief feature of, 143; influ ence on Italian art, 149; mosaics, two-fold purpose of, 155; paint ing and mosaics, 151-155; sculp ture, 178-180; Northern adapta tions of, 179 Cabanel, Alexandre, 496 Cairati, Girolamo, 693 Cairo, Mosque of Amru at Old, 159 Calder, A. Stirling, 652 Callicrates and Ictinus, architects of the Temple of Athene Par-> thenos, 70 Cameron, D. T., 698; Hugh, 697 Campo Santo, Pisa, examples of early Italian painting at, 221 Canova, Antonio, leader of the .Classical revival in sculpture, 501 Caracalla, statue of, 123 Caracci, Agostino, 319; quoted, 34; Annibale, 319; Lodovico, founder of the Eclectic school of paint ing, 314 da Caravaggio, Michael Angelo, 321 Carlsen, Emil, 714 Carpaccio, 286 Carpeaux, Jean Baptiste, 625 Carriere, Eugene, 730 Casanova, Antonius, 689 Cashmere, temples of, similarity of columns of, to Greek Doric forms, 46 Casilear, John W., 662 Catacombs of Rome, 131, 132; frescos of, identical with pagan decorations, 133; manner of con struction of, 132; three classes of pictures in, 133 Cave of Elephanta, the Brahmin rock-temple, 41 " Cave of Karli," resemblance of, to the Christian Basilica, 41 Cazin, Jean Charles, 729 Cellini, Benvenuto, 248 Celtic monks, influence of, on min iature painting, 213 Ceracchi, Giuseppe, 507 Cesnola marbles in Metropolitan Museum, 81 C6zanne, Paul, 733, 734 Chalmers, G. P., 694 Chalukyan, or second Hindu style of architecture, 45 de Champaigne, Philippe, 349, 430 Chantry, Francis, 504 Chapu, Henri, 625 Chardin, Jean Baptiste, genre painter, 446 Chase, William M., 668, 719, 720 Chaudet, Antoine Denis, 513 de Chavannes, Puvis, 674, 726 Cheops, Pyramid of, construction of, 12 Chinese and Japanese colour in stinct compared, 51 INDEX 743 Chinese art, the dragon in, 47; in spired by Buddhism, 47; paint ing, evolution of, 47, 48; school of, in twelfth century, 47; Pal- Lu, 48 Christ, in the mosaics of early Christian art, 152 Christian architecture, 133-150; di vision of, into periods, 135; art, early, 130-134; churches, Roman, reasons for resemblance of, to contemporary structures, 136 ; painting, 133-134; sculpture, early, 178-180 Chronology of art in Egypt, 22; of Assyrian and Chaldaean art, 32; of Greek painting, 99; of Roman art, 129 Church, Frederick E., 665 Ciardi, Guglielmo, 694 Cicerone, by Burckhardt, quota tion from, 128, 295 Cimabue, first known Florentine painter, 214, 215 Civitali, Matteo, 246 Classical revival, 490-498; sculp ture, 501-513; in America, 507- 509; in England, 503, 504 Classicisms and " Baroque " types of architecture contrasted, 448 Claus, Emile, 683 Clausen, George, 699 Cleanthes, maker of first silhou ettes, 94 Clouet, Jean, portraiture of, 423 Cole, Thomas, portraits and al legories of, 662 Collins, William, 544 Colonial architecture in America, origin of, 605; types of, 606 Colosseum, the, at Rome, 115, 116 Colour in Egyptian architecture, 16; in Greek sculpture, 89 "Columbaria," Roman tombs, 117 Colvin, Sidney, quoted, 387 da Conegliano, Cima, 286 Constable, John, naturalism of landscapes of, 482 Constantine, builds Church of Santa Sophia, 143; influences of, on Byzantine art, 143 Conti, Tito, 693 Copley, John Singleton, portrait painter of Colonial society, 538, 653 Corcoran Art Gallery, Washington, 620 Cordova, Mosque of, 160 Corinthian ' order of architecture contrasted with Doric and Ionic, 65, 66 Cornelius, Peter, illustrations and decorations by, 576 Corot, Jean Baptiste Camille, Classical bias of, 530 da Correggio, Antonio Allegri, 304 de Costa, John, 698 Costa, Lorenzo, 277 Cottet, Charles, 659, 729 Counter-Reformation, period of, 314 Couper, William, 651 Courbet, Gustave, contempt of, for Academic training, 552; realism of, 555 Couse, F. Irving, 719 Cox, Kenyon, 668, 719, 720 Coysevox, Antoine, 510 Crane, Bruce, 714; Walter, 571 Crawford, Thomas, 508 Crawhall, Joseph, 698 di Credi, Lorenzo, 272 Cristus, Petrus, 335 Crivelli, Carlo, 284 Crome, John ("Old Crome"), leader of Norwich school of painters, 482 Cronaca, Early Renaissance archi tect, 233 Cronach, Lucas, 391 Cropsey, Jasper Francis, 662 Cross, Henri Edouard, 594 Crowe and Cavalcaselle, quoted, 271, 275, 336, 339 Crucifixion, the, in Spanish art, 393 Cuneiform system of writing in Central Asia, 24 Cut stone monoliths of Central America, Mexico and Peru, 5 Cuyp, Albert, 364 Cyrus the Great, 33; relief por trait of, 37 " Dagobas," earliest forms of, 40 Dallin, Cyrus E., 651 Dalou, Jules, 626 Dannecker, Johann Heinrich, 502 Darius, palace of at Persepolis, Persia, 34; restored by Mr. Fer gusson, 36 Daubigny, Charles Francois, 529 744 INDEX Dauchez, Andr£, 729 Daumier, Honor6, 729 David, Gheeradt, 339; Jacques Louis, a leader of the Classical revival, 491; various phases of paintings of, 492 Davies, Arthur B., 719 Davis, Charles H., 714 Death, existence after, an early Egyptian belief, 11 "Death of Siegfried," by Peter Cornelius, 575 De Camp, Joseph R., 662, 719 von Defregger, Franz, 582 Degas, Hilaire Germain, abstract charm of pictures by, 591 Delacroix, Ferdinand Victor Eu gene, breaks away from Aca demic principles, 516; genius of, in colouring, and productivity of, 519 Denderah, Temple of, 17 Denis, Maurice, 729 Denmark, Classical revival of sculpture in, 501 " Descent from the Cross," by Fra Bartolommeo, 303 Dessar, Louis P., 714 Detaille, Edouard, 559 Dewing, Thomas W., 719 Diaz de la Pena, Narcisse Virgille, characteristics of landscapes of, 528 Dictionary of Painters and En gravers, by Bryan and Stanley, 320 Dieterle, Madame Marie, 535 Dill, Ludwig, 700 Diocletian, baths of, 112 Discourses on Architecture, by Viollet-le-Duc, quotation from, 121 Dixey, John, 507 Dolci, Carlo, 321 "Dombild," painting by Lochner, in Cologne Cathedral, 377 Dominican order, influence of, on revival of painting, 214 Donatello, work of, 245 Donner, George Raphael, 265 Dorian and Ionian rivalry, and its results on Greek civilisation, 57 Dorians conquer the Peloponnesus, 57 Doric and Ionic architecture com pared, 63-65 Doric order of Greek architecture, 62 Dou, Gerard, 361 Dougherty, Paul, 719 Doughty, Thomas, first of Hud son River School of painters, 661 Dragon, the, in Chinese art, 47 Dravidian style of Hindu archi tecture, 42 Drevet, Pierre, 431 Drury, Alfred, 635 Dubois, Paul, leader of the Aca demic school in France, 625 Dubois-Pillet, Albert, 594 Duccio, 218 Dupr£, Jules, Romantic landscapes of, 528 Duquesnay, Francois, 265 Duran, Carolus, 556 Durand, Asher Brown, 661 Diirer, Albrecht, 260, 327; paint ing, copper-plate, and woodcut work of, 385-387 Duveneck, Frank, 668 Dyce, William, 542; influenced by the Umbrian school, 560 Dying Gladiator, statue of, now in Rome, 93 Eakins, Thomas, 719 Early British landscape painting, 481-489; Greek civilisation Ori ental, 57; monolithic burial structures, 4, 5; Pointed Period in Gothic architecture, 194; Renaissance painting in Ger many, 376-382; in Italy, 270- 275; in the Netherlands, 330-340; in Venice, 284-286; sculpture in the North, 258-263 " Eastern Edifice," Persepolis, Per sia, 34 East India, mural painting in, 42 East Indian art, 39 Eastlake, Charles Lock, 542 Eaton, Charles Warren, 714; Wy- att, 719 Eberle, Abastenia St. Leger, 652 Edelinck, Gerard, 431 Edfu, temples at, 15 " Edge of the Forest," by Theodore Rousseau, 522 Egypt, chronology of art in, 22; Mohammedan architecture in, 159 INDEX 745 Egyptian architecture, colours in, 16; engineering skill, 7; gods, form of, 8; heads in relief, 21; history, sources of, 8; obelisks, 17; painting, why perspective was ignored, 18; religious belief, 8; sculpture and painting, 18; sculpture, treatment of the forms of the body, 18, 21; tem ples, 15; tombs, 11, 12, 15 Egyptians, origin of, 7 Eighteenth century painting in France, 439-440 El Greco (Domenico Theotoco- puli), religious zeal of, exempli fied in his paintings, 410-414 Elliott, Charles Loring, 658 Emmet, Lydia Field, 719 "En creux" painting on Egyp tian tombs and temples, 18 England, Classical sculpture in, 503, 504; Gothic revivalists in, 604; Greek Classic revival in ar chitecture, 597; "Queen Anne" architecture in, 605; English styles of Romanesque architec ture, 175-177 Engravers, seventeenth century, in France, 431 Engraving, aquatint, 329; etching, 328; line, 328; methods of, 328; mezzotint, 328; origin of, 328; stipple, 329 Erbe, Fritz, 703 Erechtheum, the, at Athens, 71; details of, 71, 72 Etching, 328 Etruscan, architecture, few re mains of, 100; art, 100-103; bronze-work, 102; metal work 103; sculpture, similarity of, to Egyptian, 100 ; wall-painting, importance of, in history of classic painting, 103 Etruscans, establish themselves in Italy, 100; first use the arch ex tensively, 100 Etty, William, 542 Euphrates, effect of inundations of, on the people, 23 Europe, Late Renaissance school of sculpture in, 264, 265 van Everdingen, Albert, 364 Exter, Julius, 703 van Eyck, Hubert, 330; Jan, 330, 392 Falguiere, Jean Alexandre, 625 Farnese Bull, now in Naples Mu seum, 93 Favretto, Giacomo, 693 Fehr, H. C, 636 Fergusson, quoted, 36, 46, 167 Ferrari, Guadenzio, 292 da Fiesole, Mino, 246 Fish, the, as symbolic of Christ in antique Christian painting, 133 Fisher, Mark, 699 Fitz, Benjamin, 719 Flandrin, Jean Hippolyte, " the re ligious painter of France," 496 Flavian amphitheatre, the, at Rome, 115, 116 Flaxman, John, 503 Flemish painting, four periods of, 330 Florence, Italy, 215; Baptistery at, 240; relief from, 208 Florid Gothic Period in Gothic ar chitecture, 197 Foley, John Henry, 504 Forbes, Elizabeth, 698; Stanhope, 698 Ford, Edward Onslow, 635 " Formschneiders," 328 Fortuny, Mariano, influence of, on his contemporaries, 689 Fouquet, Jean, 416 Fra Angelico, best works of, 222 Fragiacomo, Pietro, 694 Fragonard, Jean Honored last of " fStes galantes " painters, 445 Frampton, George, 635 France, architecture of seventeenth and eighteenth centuries in, 448 Classical revival in, 490-498 Classical sculpture in, 509-513 Impressionism in the painting of, 584-594; influence of Northern art on that of, 415; the leader in the modern world of art, 548; Naturalistic motive in painting of, 548-559 ; Neo-Impressionism in, 594; painting in, supple mental summary, 726-735; Pre- Renaissance painting in, 415- 424; Renaissance architecture in, 237; Renaissance sculpture in, 263; revival of Roman archi tecture, superseded by French Renaissance style, 603; seven teenth century painting in, 429- 438 746 INDEX Francesca, Piero della, 275 Francia, Francesco, 277 Franciscan order, influence of, on revival of painting, 214 Franzen, August, 719 Frazee, John, makes first marble statue in America, 508 Frazer, J. E., 651 Fremiet, Emmanuel, 626 French, Daniel Chester, 646 French Painting of the eighteenth century, 439-447 ; Romantic school of painting, 514-520; school of poetic landscape, 521- 537; sculpture in the nineteenth century, 619-631 Frieseke, F. K., 719 Frith, William Powell, 547 "From the Dance of Death," by Alfred Rethel, 576 Fromeno, Nicolas, 416 Fromuth, C. H., 719 Fuller, Henry B., 719 Furse, Charles Wellington, 699 Fyt, Jan, 349 Gabriel, Jacques Ange, French ar chitect of eighteenth century, 453 Gainsborough, Thomas, and his portraits, 469 Ganges river, 39 Garber, Daniel, 714 Garstin, Norman, 698 Gaul, Gilbert, 720 Gem carving of early Asians, 24 Genth, Lillian, 719 Geometric tracery, 188 Gericault, Theodore, 515 Germ, The, Pre-Raphaelite maga zine, 561 Germany, architecture of, in sev enteenth century, 454; Classical revival of sculpture in, 502; Early-Renaissance painting in, 376-382; Gothic style of archi tecture in, 202; Greek Classic revival of architecture in, 597; the High Renaissance in, 385- 391; modern painting in, 700; painting in, 574-583; Renais sance sculpture in, 259; wood- carving school of Nuremberg, 259 Ge>6me, Jean Leon, versatility of, 496 Ghiberta, Florentine Renaissance sculptor, work of, 233, 239 Ghirlandajo, Domenico, 272 Gibbons, Grinling, 265 Gigantomachia, recently excavated reliefs now in Berlin, 90 Gilbert, Albert, 636 Gioli, Francesco, 694; Luigi, 694 Giottesque period in Italian art, 215-218 Giotto, 214; genius of, 215 Girardon, Francois, 264, 510 Giuliano, statue of, in Florence, 254 Giusti, Giuseppe, 693 Gizeh, Pyramids of, 11 Glackens, William G., 719, 720 Glasgow school of painters, 697 Glass, painted, 187 "Gleaners, The," by Jean Fran cois Millet, now in the Louvre, 536 Gleyre, Charles Gabriel, and the " Neo-Greeks," 496 Gods, primitive Egyptian, 8; of Rome, 104 van der Goes, Hugo, 335 Goethe, influence of, on Romantic movement, 514 Gotch, T. C, 698 Gothic architecture, 181-197; com pared with that of Renaissance, 231; decline of, 231; division of vaulting in, 186; ground-plans of, 185; origin and development of, 192, 193; spires in, 191; ex teriors, 190-194; periods, 195- 196; sculpture, comparison with Greek, 198; in the North, 198- 204; typical examples on Rheims Cathedral, 199 Goujon, Jean, 263 Government of the Assyrians, 27 Goya, Francisco y Lucientes, pic torial satires of, 409 van Goyen, Jan, 364 Gozzoli, Benozzo, 272 Graeco-Roman school of sculpture founded, 122 Graff, M. Th., 94 Graham, Peter, 694; Tom, 697 Great Britain, architecture of in seventeenth and eighteenth cen turies, 455; modern painting in. 694 INDEX 747 Great Hall of Audience, at Persepolis, Persia, ruins of, 36 Greek architecture, Corinthian or der of, 65, 66; Doric order of, 62; general characteristics of, 77, 78; Ionic order of, 63-65; orders of, 58; proportions of, 70, 71; varieties of columns and entablature, 61; art, 57; Classic architectural revival in England, 597; gods and goddesses, 58; influence on art of Asia Minor, 55, 56; painting, 94-99; chronol ogy of, 99 ; paintings from sepul chres at Paestum, now in Naples Museum, 94; polychrome decora tion in art and sculpture, 94; sculpture, 81; colour in, 89; school of Pergamos, 90; school of Rhodes, 90; revival of, under Hadrian, 123; revival at end of Peloponnesian war, 90; wooden images, in the beginnings of, 81; temples, earliest form of, 66; theatres, evolution of early, 73, 74, 77; tombs, 73 Greeks, influence of geographical nature of country on, 57; kin ship of, with Persians and In dians, 57 Gregorius, quoted, 253 Gregory II, quoted, 152 Grenough, Horatio, 508 Greuze, artificiality of, 446 Groll, Albert L., 714 Gros, Baron Antoine Jean, the link between the Classical and Romantic schools, 495 Grotto della Querciola, 103 de Groux, Charles, 680 Guatusco, teocalli of, 4 Guido, founder of Sienese school of painting, 218 Gutenberg, John, 328 Guthrie, J. J., 698 Givalior, palace of, India, 46 von Habermann, Baron, 700 Hagborg, August, 685 " Hall of Audience," Persepolis, Persia, 34 Hals, Frans, 355; "Corporation Pictures " of, 356; influence of, on other painters of Holland, 356 Hamlin, A. D. T., quoted, 143, 168, 197, 448, 455, 461, 462 Hammershoy, V., 685 " Handbook of Mount Athos," 151 Harding, Chester, 658 Harrison, Alexander, 713; Birge, 714 Hart, James McDougal, 662; Wil liam, 662 Hartford, State Capitol at, 606 Hartly, J. Scott, 651 Hassam, Childe, 714 Hathor, the goddess, in Egyptian temples, 15 Hawthorne, Charles W., 720 Haydon, Benjamin Robert, 542 Healy, George P. A., 658 van der Heist, Bartholomeus, 364 Hengeler, Adolph, 703 Henner, Jean Jacques, 497 Henri, Robert, 719 Henry VIII., portraits of, by Hol bein the Younger, 388 Henry, George, 698 van Herle, Master Wilhelm, 376 Herodotus, by Rawlinson, quota tion from, 29, 30 Herter, Albert, 719, 725 Herterich, Ludwig, 700 Hess, Peter, 578 Hesselius, Gustavus, the first of Colonial painters, 653 Hetzig, Friedrich, 598 Hicks, Thomas, 666 High Renaissance architecture in Italy, 233; in Germany, The, 385-391; painting in Italy, 291- 304; in Venice, 305-313; sculp ture in Italy, 247-257 Hildebrandt, Theodor, 577 Hildesheim, Church of St. Gode- hard at, plan of, 170 Hilton, William, 542 Hindu empire, conflict between Buddhism and Brahminism in, 39 Hindu temples, description of, 42 Hobbema, Meindert, 364 Hogarth, William, master-crafts man in painting and engraving, 463 Hokusai, Japanese painter, work of, 51 Holbein, Hans the Elder, 379; Hans the Younger, portraits and engravings by, 379, 387 748 INDEX Holland, influence of Reformed faith in, on art, 355; returns to painting traditions of seven teenth century, 675; seventeenth century painting in, 355-375 Holmes, C. J., 699 Homer, Winslow, 719 de Hooch, Peter, 362 Hoppner, John, 471 Hornel, E. A., 698 Houdon, Jean Antoine, 264, 510 Hiibner, Julius, 577 Hudson River school of painting, defects and qualities of, 660 Hughes, John, 636 Hunt, Holman, beauty of detail and religious feeling of pictures of, 566; Richard M., 611; Wil liam Morris, 666 Hunt, the, depicted in mural paint ing in East India, 42 Hunting as shown in Assyrian art, 30 Huntington, Daniel, 658 Iconoclastic movement in Byzan tium, 151 Ictinus and Callicrates, architects of the Temple of Athene Par- thenos, 70 Idealism and naturalism, 227 Impressionism in daily life, 587; defined, 584; in French painting, 584-594 India, Mohammedan architecture in, 164 Indian and Eastern Architecture, by Fergusson, quotation from, 167 Indo-Aryan, third style of Hindu architecture, 45 Ingres, Jean Auguste Dominique, greatest of Classical painters of modern France, 497 Inman, Henry, 658 Innes, George, landscapes of, 667 Innocenti, Camillo, 693 " In tempera " painting in me diaeval painting, 214 Ionian and Dorian rivalry, and its results on Greek civilisation, 57 Ionic and Doric architecture com pared, 63-65 Ionic order of Greek architecture, 63-65 Ireland, painting of illuminated manuscripts in, 213 Isham, Samuel, quoted, 661 Israels, Josef, sentiment and tech nique of, 676 Italian periods of Renaissance architecture, 232 Italy, architecture of, in seven teenth and eighteenth centuries, 448; Classical sculpture in, in late eighteenth and early nine teenth centuries, 501; High- Renaissance painting in, 291- 304; High-Renaissance sculpture in, 247-257; mediaeval sculpture, in, 207-210; modern revival in painting of, 693; North, paint ing in, 276-283; Post-Renais sance painting in, 314-322; Re naissance sculpture of, con trasted with that of the North, 258; Upper, sculpture in, 254 Jacque, Charles, 535 Jamison, Mrs., quoted, 201 Japanese, art, influence of, on Oc cident, 51; origin of, 48; and Chinese colour instinct com pared, 51; "notan," or the "spatting of dark and light," 591; painting, beginnings and development of, 48, 51; temples, decoration of, 48, 51 Jarvis, John Wesley, 658 Jefferson, Thomas, designs Uni versity of Virginia, 606 Jerusalem, neighbourhood explora tions fail to enlighten as to He brew art, 52 Johansen, John C, 714; Mrs., 720; Viggo, 685 John, Augustus, 699; W. Gos- combe, 636 Johnson, Eastman, 720 Jones, Inigo, 238; buildings con structed by, 455 Jongkind, Johann Barthold, 592; canal and harbour scenes of. 679 Jordaens, Jacob, 348 Jordan, Rudolf, 577 Jouffroy, Francois, 625 Jumna river, 39 Junius Bassus, sarcophagus of, now in St. Peter's, Rome, 178 INDEX 749 Jupiter Olympus, statue of, by Phidias, 86 Jupiter Ultor, baths in honour of, 115 " Ka," the, and its influence on Egyptian belief, 11 Karnak, Great Temple at, 17 Kauffmann, Angelica, 574; Her mann, 581 Keller, Albert, 700 Kemys, Edward, 651 Kendall, Sergeant, 719 Kensett, John Frederick, 661 Kerki, mummy case, portraits found near, 94 •de Keyser, Thomas, 364 Khorsabad, palace of, dimensions, 28; decorations of palace of, 29 von Klenze, Leo, architect of the Glyptothek, Ruhmeshalle, and Propylaeum, 598 Klinger, Max, 704 Knaus, Ludwig, overcleverness of, 582 Knoblauch, Edward, 598 Knopff, Ferdinand, 683 Knowledge, sources of, 3 Konti, Isidore, 652 Kost, Frederick W., 714 Krafft, Adam, 260 Kroyer, Peter T., 684 Kuyunjik, 27 "La Belle Jardiniere," by Ra phael, now in Louvre, 301 La Farge, John, leader in Amer ican mural painting, 667, 720 "La Gioconda," 291 Lamb, the, as symbolic of Christ in early Christian painting, 133 Lambert, George, 699 Landscape, French school of po etic, 521-537 Landseer, Edwin, animal painter, 547 Laocoon group, 90 Largilliere, Nicolas, 430 " Last Communion and Martyrdom of St. Denis," patron saint of Ps.ris 415 " Last Judgment, The," of Michael Angelo, 295 "Last Supper" of da Vinci, 292 Lateran Museum, Rome, 128 Late-Renaissance period of Ital ian architecture, 237; school of sculpture in Europe, 264, 265 La Thangue, H. H., 699 Lathrop, W. L., 714 Lauder, Robert Scott, 694 Lavery, John, 697 Lawrence, Sir Thomas, 472 Lawson, Cecil, 699; Ernest, 714 Lebrun, Charles, 429 Leibl, Wilhelm, 583 Lely, Sir Peter, 349 Lemburg Cathedral, 176 Lemot, Francois, 513 Le Nain, the brothers, 431 von Lenbach, Franz, portraits by, 582 Leo III, iconoclast, 151 Lescot, Pierre, architect of the Louvre, 237 Leslie, Charles Robert, 544 Lessing, Karl Friedrich, 577 "Lesson in Anatomy," by Rem brandt, 370 Lesueur, Eustache, 429 Leutze, Emanuel, 659 van Leyden, Lucas, 340 Leys, Baron, 680 Lhermitte, Leon Augustin, 559 Liebermann, Max, characterisation of his ideals by himself, 700 " Life of Christ," in Arena Chapel at Padua, 217 " Life of the Virgin," in Arena Chapel at Padua, 217 Liljefors, Bruno, influenced by Japanese colour and composi tion, 685 Limburg, cathedral at, 176 Line engraving, 328 Lion, the, as a type of Christ, 207 Lippi, Filippino, 270, 272; Fra Filippo, 271 Liverpool, St. George's Hall, 597 Locher, Carl, 685 Lochner, Master Stephan, 377 Lochnow, Wilton, 719 Loeb, Louis, 720 Lombardi, Alfonso, 257 London Society of Dilettanti, 597 Lorrain, Claude (Gellee), life and work of, 436-438 Lo Spagna, Giovanni, 283 Lotus-flowers in Assyrian decora tion, 30; in Egyptian sculpture, 15, 16 750 INDEX Lotus-leaves in Persian architec ture, 36 Louis XVI., 446 Low, Will H., 668, 725 Liibke, quoted, 7, 124, 180, 203, 247, 248, 377, 379, 453, 577, 598, 603 Lucca, Church of San Michele at, 173, 174 Luce, Maximilien, 594 Ludwig I., King, fosters Greek ar chitectural revival, 598 Luini, Bernardino, 292 Luks, George, 720 Lysippus, Greek sculptor, 90 McGillivray, A., 636 Macgregor, W. T., 698 Maclise, Daniel, talent of, as an illustrator, 541 MacMonnies, Frederick, 645 MacNeil, 651 McTaggart, William, 694 McWhirter, John, 694 Maderna, designer of portico of St. Peter's, at Rome, 234 " Madonna of the Rose Hedge," 378 de Madrazo, Raimundo, 689 Maes, Nicolaas, 362 " Maison Carree " at Nimes, France, 110 da Majano, Benedetto, 246 Makart, Hans, 582 van Mander, quoted, 333, 339 Manet, Edouard, reproduces the style of Velasquez, 588 Manetho, Egyptian priest, 8 Mangin, designer of New York City Hall, 606 Mann, Harrington, 698 Mannerists, 392 Mansart, J. H., constructs dome of the Invalides, 453 Mantegna, Andrea, painter and engraver, 276 van Marcke, Emile, 535 von Marees, Hans, 707 de Maria, Marius, 693 Maris, Jacob, 679; Matthew, 679; William, 679 Marquand and Frothingham, quoted, 502, 503, 507, 640 Martin, Homer D., 713 Martini, Simone, 221 Martland, Temple of, 46 Masaccio, t Florentine painter of Early Renaissance period, 270 Masolino, 270 Masson, Antoine, 431 Matisse, Henri, 734 Matsys, Quentin, 339 Mauve, Anton, colour-schemes of, 679 Maximinus, intolerance of, toward Christians, 131 Maynard, G. W.? 725 Medes and Persians, beginning of civilisation of, 33; religion of, based on doctrines of Zoroaster, 33 Mediaeval painting, 213-223; sculp ture in Italy, 207-210 Mediaevalism, reaction from, ef fects on art, literature, politics, and religion, 224 , Median and Persian arts, influence of Assyrian civilisation on, 33 Medinet-Abu, palace of Rameses III. at, 11 Meissonier, Louis Ernest, 559 Melchers, Gari, 719 Memling, Hans, 336 Memnon, statues of, on plain of Thebes, 18 Memphis, 11 Menard, Emile Ren<5, 729 Menes, Egyptian king, 8 Mengs, Raphael, 574 Menzel, Adolf, 583 van der Meire, Gerard, 335 Mercie, Antonin, 625 Mesopotamia, plain of, 23; seized by the Assyrians, 24; taken pos session of by the Persians, 24 da Messina, Antonelli, 284 Metal work, Etruscan, 103 Metcalf, Willard L., 714 Metropolitan Museum, .Cesnola marbles in, 81, 509, 536, 559, 588, 645, 651, 652, 654, 658, 661 Metropolitan Tower, New York, 613 Metsu, Gabriel, 362 Meyerheim, Eduard, 581 Mezzotint engraving, 329 Michel, Georges, 521 Michetti, Francesco, 693 Midas, so-called tomb of, 55 Middle Pointed Period in Gothic architecture, 194 INDEX 751 Mignard, Pierre, 430 Millais, John Everett, versatilitv of, 567 , Millet, Frank D., 720; Jean Fran cois, painter of peasants, 535 " Mill near Wyck," by Ruisdael, 369 Milman, quoted, 193 Miniature painting in India, 42; in Ireland, 213 Minor, Robert C, 713 Mnesicles, architect of the Acrop olis of Athens, 72 Modern painting, beginnings of, 214; sculpture in America, 639- 652 Mohammed, 156 Mohammedan architecture, decora tions of, 159; in Egypt, 159; in India, 164; in Persia, 164; in Spain, divisions of, 160, 164; art, 156-167; mosque, the four es sential parts of, 156; typical forms of, 159 Mois, Peterson, 685 "Mona Lisa," 291 Monet, Claude, use of " divided colour " by, 592 Mora, F. Luis, 720 Moran, Thomas, 665 Moreau, Gustave, 730 Moretto, II (Bonvicino, Alessan- dro), 306 Morland, George, 542 Morris, William, leader of English decorative artists, 571 Morse, S. F. B., 658 Mosaic art in Byzantium, deca dence of, 151 Mosaics, Byzantine, two-fold pur pose of, 155; the keynote to Early Christian art, 152; at Ra venna, 155 Moscow, Church of Vasili Blagen- noi at, 150 Mosque of Amru at Old Cairo, Egypt, 159; of Cordova, Spain, 160 Mound, or tumulus, 3 Mount, William T., 659 Mowbray, H. Siddons, 720 Muirhead, D., 698 Mulready, William, 544 Munier, Constantin, fatalism of paintings of, 680 de Munkacsy, Mikaily, 582 Mural painting in Eastern India, 42 Murillo, Bartolome Esteban, " Painter of the Conceptions," 400; sketch of his life and work, 400-402 Murphy, J. Francis, 714 Murray, quoted, 163 Mycenas, Acropolis at, 72; Treas ury of Atreus at, 73 Myers, Jerome, 720 Naksh-i-Rustam, tomb of Darius at, 36 Nanking, the porcelain tower of, 47 Nanteuil, Robert, 431 " Nativity," by Zeitblom, 380 Naturalism and idealism, 227 Naturalistic and Impressionistic motives traced, 548 Naturalistic motive, causes of, 551; of painting in France, 548- 559; note in modern sculpture, 619; painting in Italy, 693 Navez, Frangois, 680 " Nazarenes, The," 575 Neo-Grec movement in France, 603 Neo-impressionism in France, 594 Nepalese temples, 47 Netherlands, Early-Renaissance painting in, 330-340 Nettleton, Walter, 714 Neuhuys, Albert, 676 de Neuville, Alphonse, 559 " New English Art Club, The," 698 " Newlyn School " of painting in England, 698 Newton, Gilbert Stuart, 544 Nicholson, William, 699 Niehaus, Charles H., 652 " Night Watch," by Rembrandt, 370 Nile, the, influence on Egyptian development, 7 Nimrud, 27 Nollekens, Joseph, 503 Nono, Luigi, 693, 694 Northern, or Indo-Aryan, the third style of Hindu architecture, 45 North's Plutarch, quotation from, 89 Norway, painting of the nine teenth century in, 687 752 INDEX Nuremberg, Beautiful Fountain at, 203; sarcophagus of St. Sebald, 263; wood-carving school of, 259 Oakley, Violet, 725 Obelisks, Egyptian, 17 Ochtman, Leonard, 714 Opie, John, 471 Oppenord, Gilles Marie, con structor of St. Sulpice, 454 Orcagna, Andrea, 210 Orchardson, William Quiller, 697 Oriental influence in Greek sculp ture, 81; on Venetian painting, 284 Orpen, William, 699 Osiris, Egyptian god of world of departed spirits, 11 Overbeck, Friedrich, 574 Painting in America — Hudson River School, 660-665; begin nings of, in America, 653-659; British, in eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, 463-478 ; British historical and genre, 538-547; Chinese, evolution of, 47, 48; Chinese school of, in twelfth century, 47; Christian, 133-134; early British landscape, 481-489; Early Renaissance, in Germany, 376; in Italy, 270-275; in the Netherlands, 330-340; in France, Supplemental Summary of, 726-735 ; French, of the eigh teenth century, 439-447; of the French Renaissance, 422-424; in Germany, 574-583; Greek, chro nology of, 99; High-Renaissance, in Italy, 291-304; in Venice, 305- 313; Japanese, beginnings and development of, 48, 51; mediae val, 213-223; miniature, in East India, 42; modern, beginnings of, 214; in Germany, 700; mod ern revival of, in Italy, 693; modern, in Spain, 689; and mo saics, Byzantine, 151-155; mo tives of, summarised, 673-675; Naturalism the basis of modern art in, 674; Naturalistic motive in French, 548-559 ; in the North, 327-329; influence of Reforma tion on, 327; in North Italy, 276- 283; Oriental influence on, 284; persistence in, of Academic con ception of the "Ideal," 673; Post-Renaissance, in Italy, 314- 322; Renaissance, 266-269; three periods of, 269; Roman, 127- 129; Romantic school of, in France, 514-520; seventeenth century, in Spain, 392-414; suc cessive movements not accidental or solitary phenomena, 548; a summary of modern, 673-707; supplementary summary of, 708- 725; wall, in East India, 42 Palace of Gwalior, India, 46; of Khorsabad, 28 Palladio and Vignola originate pilasters in architecture, 448 Pal-Lu, Chinese, 48 Palm leaves in Assyrian decora tion, 30 Pandroseum, the, at Athens, 72 Pantheon, the, dimensions and or namentation of, 110, 111 Parrhasius, Greek painter, 94 Parthenon frieze, details of, 82, 85 Parthenon, pediments of, 85, 86 Pasini, Alberto, 693 Paterson, James, 698 Paulsen, Julius, 685 Peale, Charles Willson, founder of Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts, versatility of, 654; Rem brandt, 658 Pedersen, Thorolf, 685 Pediments of the Parthenon, 85, 86 Pegram, Henry A., 636 Pelasgi, progenitors of the Greeks, 57 Pelham, Peter, 653 Pelliza, Giuseppe, 694 Pennsylvania Museum, 658 Pentz, George, 391 Pergamos, school of sculpture at, 90 Persepolis, examples of the Bib lical " gates " at, 35; relief from, 38; ruins of palace of, dimen sions, 33, 34 Persia, Mohammedan architecture in, 164 Persian architecture, details of, 35; sculpture, resemblance to Assyrian, 38 Persians, and Medes, beginnings of civilisation, 33; religion of, based on doctrines of Zoroaster, 33 INDEX 753 Persius, Ludwig, 598 Perspective, why ignored in Egyp tian painting, 18 Perugino, Pietro, work of, 278 Petit jean, Hippolyte, 594 Pettie, John, 694 Phidias, gold-and-ivory statues of, 82; new types created by, 86 Phoenician architecture similar to that of Assyria and Persia, 52 Phoenicians, a commercial nation, 52; brought art and civilisation of Eastern Asia into Europe, 52 Phtah, Egyptian father of gods and men, 8 Piccirilli, Attilio, 652; Furio, 652 Pigalle, Jean Baptiste, 264, 510 Piglheim, Bruno, 700 von Piloty, Karl Theodor, veri similitude of the paintings of, 581 Pinturicchio, Bernardino, 283 del Piombo, Sebastiano, 305 Pisano, Andrea, 210; Giovanni, 210; Niccola, sculpture of, 207, 209, 239; Nina, 210 Pissarro, Camille, 593 " Plein-air " painting, revived by Edouard Maret, 588; principle of, 713 Pollajuolo, Antonio, 246 Polycletus, sculptor of Argos, 89 Polygnotus, ancient Greek mural painter, 73, 94, 97 Pompeii, atrium in the so-called house of Sallust at, 117; section of house of Pansa at, 118 da Ponte, Jacopo Bassano, genre painter of Venice, 312 Pordenore, II (Licinio, Giovanni Antonio), 306 Porter, Arthur Kingsley, 181 Portraiture in England in eigh teenth century, 463; Roman, a favourite branch of Roman art, 122 Poseidon Erechtheus, Greek god, 71, 72; temple of, at Paestum, 69 Post-Renaissance painting in Italy, 314-322 Potter, Paul, 369 Pottery, ancient glazed, of Central Asia, 27; early examples of Peru, Arizona and New Mex ico, 6 Poussin, Nicolas, founder of French classical school of paint ing, 432 Powers, Hiram, 508 Pradier, James, 513 Pradilla, Francisco, 689 Praxiteles, Greek sculptor, 90 Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, 561; Movement, the, 560-573; begin nings of, 561 Pre-Renaissance Painting in France, 415-424 Primitive art, 1 Proctor, A. P., 651 Prud'hon, Pierre Paul, 492 Ptolemaic temples in Egypt, 17 Puget, Pierre, 264, 509 Putz, Leo, 703 Pyle, Howard, 720 Pyramids, the, and their surround ings, 11 della Quercia, Jacopo, Early Re naissance sculptor, work of, 239 Raeburn, Sir Henry, portraiture of, 476 "Raft of the Medusa," by Geri cault, 515 Rameses III., architecture of pal ace of, 11 Ramisseram, the, Hindu temple in Dravidian style, dimensions of, 45 Ranger, Henry W., 713 Rauch, Christian Daniel, 503 Ravenna, mosaics at, 155 Rawlinson, G., quoted, 29, 30 Redfield, Edward W., 714 Reid, Robert, 719, 720 Relief from Baptistery at Flor ence, 208 Religion of the Assyrians, 27; of early Egyptians, 8 Rembrandt, Harmens Z. van Rijn, 369; experiments with light and shade, 370; influence of, on other painters, 361 Remington, Frederic, 720 Renaissance, the, 224-228; archi tecture, 231-238; compared with Gothic, 231; in France, 237; Ital ian periods of, 232; in Northern Europe, 237; of Italy and of France contrasted, 422; painting, 266-269; three periods of, 269; 754 INDEX of the French, 422-424; sculp ture, 239-265; in France, 263; in Germany, 259; of Italy and the North contrasted, 258 Reni, Guido, 320 Renoir, Firmin Auguste, Impres sionistic colourist, 592 Renwick, designer of Grace Church and St. Patrick's Cathedral, New York, 606 Repin, Ilia, 688 Reynolds, Joshua, first president of Royal Academy, 468; quoted, 319 Rheims Cathedral, 199 Rhind, Birnie, 636; J. Massy, 651 Rhodes, school of sculpture at, 90 de Ribera, Jos6, sketch of life and work of, 393, 399 Ribot, Theodule, 559 Riccio, Andrea, 257 Richards, T. Addison, 662 Richardson, H. H., public build ings in America by, 611 Rico, Martin, 689 Riemenschneider, Tilman, 260 Rietschel, Ernst, 503 Rigaud, Hyacinthe, 430 Rincon, Spanish painter, 392 Rinehart, William Henry, 509 Ritter, Henry, 577 della Robbia, Andrea, 245; Luca, 245 Roche, Alexander, 697 Rococo, origin of the art of the, 439 Rodin, Auguste, the original gen ius of French sculpture, 626 Rohde, Johan, 685 Roman art, 104; chronology of, 129; arches, important events commemorated by, 118; architec ture, 107-121; basilica, 137; adaptation of plan of, to Chris tian requirements, 137; details of construction of, 137-140; buildings, similarity of, in all parts of the world accounted for, 120; Christian churches, reasons for resemblance of, to contem porary structures, 136; compos ite order of columns and en tablature, 109; Corinthian col umns and entablature, 109; Ionic columns and entablature, 107; orders of columns and entabla ture, 107; painting, 127-129; three divisions of antique, 127; sculpture, 122-124; decadence of, 123; temples, 110-115; orienta tion and various forms of, 110; theatres, 115, 116; tombs, "col umbaria," 117 Romanesque architecture a Gallic and German development, 169; English styles of, 175-177; vaulted roof in, 170; art, 168- 177; churches in Europe, 170; sculpture, 178-180 Romano, Giulio, 303 Romans and Greeks contrasted, 104 Romantic school in France, be ginnings of, 514 Romney, George, charm of por traits by, 470 Rosa, Salvator, 322 Rosengarten, quoted, 63 Rosetta stone, the, 8 Rosselli, Cosimo, 272 Rossellino, the brothers, 246 Rossetti, Dante Gabriel, poetry of painting of, 567 Roth, Ernest D., 651 Rothenstein, Albert, 699 Rousseau, Theodore, Constable's influence on, 522; love of nature of, 522 Roybet, Ferdinand, 559 Rubens, Peter Paul, 347; influence of, on French painting of eigh teenth century, 440 Ruckstuhl, F. Wellington, 652 Rude, Francois, " La Marseil laise " of, 620 Ruisdael, Jacob, 364 Rush, William, 507 Ruskin, John, defends the Pre- Raphaelite Brotherhood, 562; quoted, 149, 562; theories of art of, 562 Russia, Byzantine art in, 149, 150; nineteenth century painting in, '681 Russian painting, objective nat uralism of, 688 Rustici, Giovanni Francesco, 247 Ryder, Albert, 713 van Rysselberghe, 594 " Sacred and Profane Love," by Titian, 311 INDEX 755 St. Calixtus, ceiling painting from the catacomb of, 130, 134 " St. Cecilia," by Raphael, 302 St. Francis of Assisi, as a type of Christ, 214 Saint-Gaudens, Augustus, honest naturalism of, 644 St. Godehard, Church of, at Hil- desheim, plan of, 170 de Saint-Marceaux, Rene, 625 St. Mark, Cathedral of, at Venice, 149 St. Paul Outside-the-Walls, plan of basilica of, 140 St. Peter's at Rome, 233, 234 St. Sebald, sarcophagus of, 263 Sts. Cosmas and Damian, mosaic from, 153, 154 Sakkarah, Pyramid of, 11 Salvi, Giovanni Battista (II Sas soferrato), 320 San Appolinare Nuovo, Ravenna, 146 San Clemente, plan of basilica of, at Rome, 140 San Michele, Lucca, Church of, 173 Sansovino, Andrea, work of, 248, 257 Santa Sophia, Church of, dimen sions and description of, 144, 145; mosaics of, 151 Sanzio, Raphael, surpasses his master, 296; frescos of, in the Vatican, 301 ; influenced by style of Fra Bartolommeo, 301 Sargeant, John S., 672, 725 del Sarto, Andrea, 303 Schadow, Johann Gottfried, 502; Wilhelm, develops the Dussel dorf school of painting, 577 Schaffner, Martin, 379 Schinkel, Karl Friedrich, architec tural masterpieces of, 597 Schliiter, Andreas, 265 Schofield, W. E., 714 "Scholle," the, in Germany, 703 Schongauer, Martin, painter and engraver, 379 Schiihlein, Hans, 259, 379 Scopas, Greek sculptor, 90 Sculpture, Assyrian, resemblance to that of Egypt, 29; British, 632-636 ; Byzantine decorative, 179; Northern adaptations of, 179; Classical, 501-513; compari son of Buddhistic and Brahman- istic, 42; early Christian, Byzan tine, and Romanesque, 178-180; Etruscan, similarity of, to Egyp tian, 100; French, of the nine teenth century, 619-631; Greek, 81; colour in, 89; revival of, un der Hadrian, 123; school of Per gamos, 90; school of Rhodes, 90; Gothic, comparison with Greek, 198; in the North, 198- 204; influence of Buddhistic faith on, 42; mediaeval, in Italy, 207-210; modern, in America, 639-652; Persian, resemblance to Assyrian, 38; Renaissance, 239- 265; in France, 263; in Ger many, 259; of Italy and the North contrasted, 258; Roman, 122-124; decadence of, 123; in Upper Italy, 254 Second Netherlandish, Flemish pe riod, 341, 342 Segantini, Giovanni, most pro found artist of modern Italy, 694 Serlio, plans rebuilding of Louvre, 237 da Settignana, Desiderio, 246 Seurat, Georges, 592, 594 " Seven Stages of the Cross," by Adam Krafft, 260 Seventeenth century painting in France, 429-438; in Holland, 355-375; in Spain, 392-414 Sewell, R. V. V., 719, 725 Shaw, Richard Norman, originator of " Queen Anne " type of ar chitecture, 605 Shirlaw, Walter, 668, 719, 725 " Shrine of St. Ursula," by Hans Memling, 336 le Sidaner, Henri, 729 Siena, Italy, 215 Signac, Paul, 594 Signorelli, 275 Signorini, Telemacho, 693 Silhouettes first made by Clean- thes, 94 Simmons, Edward E., 719, 724 Simon, Lucien, 559 Sims, Charles, 698 Sisley, Alfred, 593 Skarbina, Franz, 700 " Skene," the, of early Greek the atres, 74 756 INDEX Skiagraphy, 97 Sloan, John, 720 Slott-Mohler, Agnes, 685; Harold, 685 Smibert, John, 653 Snell, Henry B., 719 Snyders, Frans, 349 Society of American Artists, 668 Sodoma, II, 304 Sohn, Karl, 577 Soller, August, 598 Sorolla y Bastida, 690 Soufflot, Jacques, designer of the Pantheon, 453 Sources of knowledge, 3 " Sower, The," by Jean Francois Millet, now in Metropolitan Mu seum, 536 Spain, development of three schools of painting, 393; Italian influence on painting of, 392; modern painting in, 689; Mo hammedan architecture in, 160- 164; Mosque of Cordova, 160; Naturalism in painting of, 690; second period of Arabic archi tecture, 160; seventeenth century painting in, 392-414 Speyer, cathedral at, 174, 175 Sphinx, the, dimensions of, 11, 12 Spires in Gothic architecture, 191 Spitzweg, Karl, 581 " Sposalizio," or " Marriage of the Virgin," by Raphael, 296 Squarcione, Francesco, 276 Steen, Jan, 363 Steer, P. Wilson, 699 de Stefani, Vincenzo, 693 Steichen, Eduard, 714 Stelai, the, most common form of Greek monument, 73 Stevens, Alfred, leading British sculptor of nineteenth century, 556, 632, 683 Stevenson, R. Macaulay, 698 Stipple engraving, 329 Stobbaerts, Jan, 683 Stonehenge, plan of, 3 Story, William Wetmore, 509 Stoss, Veit, 259 Strack, J. H., 598 Stuart, Gilbert, greatest Ameri can Post-Revolutionary painter, 657 Stuck, Franz, 704 Staler, F. A., 598 Sully, Thomas, 658 Summary of modern painting, a, 673-707 Sweden, cosmopolitanism of paint ing in, 685 Symons, Gardner, 714 "Syndics of the Clothworkers' Guild," by Rembrandt, 375 Syrlin, Jorg, 259 Tadmor, 118 Taine, quoted, 330, 341 Taj Mahal, at Agra, India, 164 Tallone, Cesare, 693 Tanner, H. O., 720 Tarbell, Edmund, 719 Tatti, Jacopo, 257 Temple of ^Egina, sculptures from, now in Munich, 81; of Athene Parthenos at Athens, 70; of Bhuvaneswar, description of, 45; of Marttand, India, 46; re semblance of its plan to that of the Temple of the Jews, 46; of Poseidon, at Paestum, 69; of Theseus, 70; of Vesta, at Tivoli, 110 Temples of Cashmere, India, 46; of Central Asia, 24; earliest form of Greek, 66; Egyptian, 15; Hindu, description of, 42; Japanese, decoration of, 48, 51; Roman, various forms of, 110- 115 Teniers, David, the Elder, 349; the Younger, 350 Teocalli of Guatusco, 4, 5 Terborch, Gerard, 363 "Tha," the, in China, 47 Thaulow, Fritz, 687 Thayer, Abbott H., 668, 719 Theatres, Greek, evolution of early, 73, 74, 77; Roman, 115, 116 Thebes, statues of Memnon on plain of, 18 Theseus, Temple of, 70 Third Netherlandish, Flemish pe riod, 347 Thoma, Hans, 707 Thornycroft, Hamo, 635 Thorwaldsen, Bertel, Danish sculp tor, 502 Thupardmaya-dagoba, 40 Tidemand, Adolf, 577 INDEX 757 Tigris, river, 23 Tintoretto, Jacopo, 312 Tissot, James, 556 Titian, the crowning glory of the Venetian school, 306-311 Tito, Ettore, 693 Toft, Albert, 636 Tomb at Amrith, Western Asia, 53; of Mausolus, 73; so-called, of Midas, 55 Tombs of Asia Minor, 54; Egyp tian, 11, 12, 15; Greek, 73; of Lydia, Phrygia, and Lycia, 55; Roman, " columbaria," 117 " Topes or dagobas," earliest forms of, 40 Trajan, column of, at Rome, 123 Transmigration of souls, an early Egyptian belief, 11 "Transfiguration, The," by Ra phael, 302 Treasury of Atreus at Mycenae, 73 "Triumph of Death," at the Campo Santo, Pisa, 221 Troyon, Constant, animal painter, 530 Tryon, Dwight W., 714 Tumulus, the simplest primitive monument, 3 Tura, Cosimo, 277 Turner, Charles Y., 720, 725; Jo seph Mallord William, genius of, 485; Joseph Mallord William, " Liber Studiorum " of, 486 Tuscan columns and entablature, 107 Twachtman, John H., 713 Uccello, Paolo, 270 von Uhde, Fritz, religious paint ings of, 703 Ulm, Germany, school of artists, 379; wood-carving school of, 259 Ulpiano, Checa, 690 Ulrich, C. F., 720 " Upper rooms " of early Chris tians, 136 Vanderlyn, John, 658 van de Velde, Henry, 594 Van Dyck, Sir Anthony, 348 Van Ingen, William B., 725 Vasari, quoted, 222, 272, 313 Vase painting, growth of Greek, 97, 98 Vases, a record of early Greek painting, 94 Vasili Blagennoi, Church of, at Moscow, 150 Vaulted roof in Romanesque ar chitecture, 170 Vautier, Benjamin, 582 Vecchio, Palma, 306 Vedder, Elihu, 719, 725 Veit, Philipp, 574 Velasquez, Diego Rodriguez de Silva y, career of, 406-409; pro totype of modern " Impression ists," 407 Venice, Cathedral of St. Mark at, 149; Early-Renaissance painting in, 284-286 ; High-Renaissance painting in, 305-313 Venus de Milo, statue of, 86 Vereshchagin, Vassili, painter of bloodshed and torture, 687 Vermeer, Jan, of Delft, 363 Veronese, Paolo, 312 Verrocchio, Andrea, and his work, 246, 272 Vesta, Temple of, at Tivoli, 110 Viborg, crypt of the Cathedral of, 171 Vien, Joseph Marie, 491 Viharas, Buddhistic, evolution of, in Eastern India, 40 Villegas, Jose, 689 da Vinci, Leonardo, architect, sculptor, painter, musician, en gineer, scientist, and improvisa- tore, 291, 292 Vinton, Frederick P., 668 Viollet-le-Duc, quoted, 112, 121 " Virgil and Dante," by Delacroix, 516 Vischer, Peter, 263 Vivarini, Bartolommeo, 284; Luigi, 284 Vogel, Hugo, 700 Vollon, Antoine, 559 Vonnoh, Bessie Potter, 652 Wahle, Fritz, 703 Walker, Horatio, 714, 725 Wall-painting, Etruscan, 101, 102; importance of Etruscan, in his tory of classic painting, 103 Wall surfaces, decoration of, by Assyrians, 30 Walton, E. A., 698 Wappers, Baron Gustave, 680 758 INDEX Ward, Edgar M., 720.; John Quincy Adams, 639 Warner, Olin Levi, portrait-busts by, 640 Washington, Capitol at, 606; White House, designed by Ho- ban, 606 Watson, John, 653 Watteau, Jean Antoine, sets fash ion of " f6tes galantes," 440 Watts, George Frederick, 572 Waugh, Frederick, 719 Webster, Thomas, 544 West, Benjamin, 538 Westmacott, Richard, 504 van der Weyden, Rogier, influence of, on German painting, 335, 377 Whistler, James McNeill, etchings of, 671 Wier, J. Alden, 668; John F., 668 Wiertz, Antoine Joseph, 680 Wiggins, Carleton, 714 Wiles, Irving R., 719 Wilkie, David, most characteristic British genre painter, 543; influ ence of, on Munich genre paint ers, 578 Williams, F. Ballard, 714 Willumsen, J. F., 685 Wilson, Richard, first of British landscape painters, 481 Winckelmann, classical revival due to writings of, 490 Wohlgemuth, Michael, 260 Woltmann, quoted, 98 Wood, Derwent, 636 Woodbury, Charles H., 719 Wood-carving school of Ulm, Ger many, 259; of Nuremberg, 259 Wooden images in early Greek sculpture, 81 Worcester Cathedral, interior sys tem of, 182 Wouverman, Philip, 369 Wren, Sir Christopher, architect of St. Paul's Cathedral, London, 238, 455; the many examples of his designs in architecture, 456 Wright, Mrs. Patience, earliest American sculptor, 507 Wyant, Alexander H., 713 Xerxes, Hall of, dimensions of, 36; palace of, at Persepolis, Persia, 34 Yates, Cullen, 714 " Young Woman at a Window," by Vermeer, 363 Zahrtmann, Christian, 684 Zamacois, Eduardo, 689 Zampieri, Domenico, 319 Zeitblom, Bartholomaus, 379 Zeuxis, Greek painter, 94 Zorn, Anders, spontaneous natural ness of, 687 Zoroaster, religion of Medes and Persians based on doctrines of, 33 Ziigel, Heinrich, 700 Zulooga, Ignacio, versatility of, 690 de Zurbaran, Francisco, paintings of monastery life by, 399 Wn Wm lurzti-.li.