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CRITICAL AND HISTORICAL
INTRODUCTION TO THE
CANONICAL SCRIPTURES
OF THE
OLD TESTAMENT Jvam tlj£ ©erman

WILHELM MARTIN LEBERECHT DE WETTE.
I, ,
TRANSLATED AND ENLARGED
BY
THEODORE PARKER,
MINISTER OF THE SECOND CHURCH IN ROXBURY.

n&Ta^ov fihv, &>tovnov

IN TWO VOLUMES.
Vol. II.
SECOND EDITION.
BOSTON:
CHARLES C. LITTLE AND JAMES BROWN.
1850.

Entered according to Act of Congress, in tfie year 1843, by
THEODORE PARKER,
111 the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the District of Massachusetts.
SI

PART III.
PARTICULAR INTRODUCTION TO THE CANONI
CAL BOOKS OF THE OLD TESTAMENT.

^ 125.
A SURVEY AND CLASSIFICATION OF THE BOOKS OF THE
OLD TESTAMENT.
The classification of the literary productions of a
nation must be made in the spirit of that nation's his
tory, and in accordance with an accurate conception of
that history. Just, though not perfectly clear and pure
ideas of classification may be fpund in the Jewish
division into the Law, Prophets, and Other Writings.
According to the most accurate principles, it seems
the two first divisions — the Law and the Prophets —
must be put together, for they contain a cyclus of
theocratic writings. In this cyclus it is easy to separate
the theocratic-historical from the theocratic-inspired writ
ings. To the former belong the Law, the first Prophets,
as they are called, that is, the historical books; and
from the third miscellaneous division, the books of
Ezra, Nehemiah, Ruth, Esther, and Chronicles, are
added as appendices and a supplement. To the latter
belong the later Prophets, as they are called, and, from
the third division, the later prophetical production, the
book of Daniel.

4 PRELIMINARY REMARKS. [§ 126.
There then remain, as a third class, the poetic books,
that is, the lyric and gnomologic (or sententious) writings,
namely, the Psalms, Job, the Salomonic writings, and
the Lamentations. All of these — with the exception of
Solomon's Song, which was probably explained in an
allegorical manner, to judge from its reception into the
canon — have a religious, but not a theocratical character.

^126.
VARIOUS STYLES, POETIC AND PROSAIC.
Since every peculiar subject brings with it a peculiar
form, the above classification must be confirmed by a
difference in the style of the several divisions. The
Hebrews, like other nations, have their poetic and
prosaic style, which differ from one another in the sub
stance of the discourse ; that is, in the use of more
choice and flowing language, (§ 34,) and in the form of
the movement. The former has a quiet and irregular
motion ; the latter a dancing and measured movement,
— a rhythm.
The quiet form of prose is suited to the quiet, simple
narration of historical events ; therefore the historical
books, with the exception of single passages, are written
in prose. But since, in the quiet movement of the style,
the law of euphony and harmony is not at all inadmissi
ble, in many historical passages, — for example, Gen. i.
xxiii., Ex. vii. — x.. Num. xxii. — xxiv., — there is not
only a certain numerus, [or measure,] but likewise an
attempt at a rhythmical movement, and a division into
strophes. This kind of prose may be called the epic,
and the other the common.

^ 127, 128.] PRELIMINARY REMARKS. 6
^ 127.
RHYTHMICAL BOOKS.
Soon as the Hebrew began to write with a higher
inspiration, and rose above a simple narrative of events,
and drew out of his own soul, rhythm came to him spon
taneously. For this reason, the theocratical-inspired
amdi poetic books are written in a rhythmical style. But
they are written in various degrees of rhythm, according
as the writer was more or less inspired. Some passages
in the Prophets and Ecclesiastes rise little, or not at all,
above prose, or soon sink back into it. This transition
from prose to rhythm, and the reverse, constitutes a
peculiar beauty of Hebrew poetry ; but it is only ob
tained by the remarkable irregularity of its rhythm.
^ 128.
SYMMETRY OF THE MEMBERS.
The Hebrews neglect the rhythm of syllables, and, in
this respect, recognize only an irregular measure, (nume
rus,) which sometimes has a uniform movement." But
the proportion of the members in the sentence is deter-
" Since, in Hebrew, all the syllables have the same duration, or, according
to the systema morarum, three moments of time, — for example, IP , pK ,
— therefore the change of the tone (Wechsel der Rede) is produced by the
accent, which gives the tone-syllable greater emphasis; for example, iBp_
This law once admitted, there would generally be found a free mixture
of iambuses, CaS, nsbft,) trochees, (Tj^K) , n|ti! ,) amphibrachs, (P^Di? ,)
anapests, (bsinm^,) &c.
Sometimes there would be a predominance of iambic, trochaic, or ana-
pestic movement ; for example.

6 PRELIMINARY REMARKS. [§ 128-
mined by the law of symmetry, — parallelismus membro-
rum, — the fundamental law of all rhythmical movement,
which always consists in a certain uniform return.
The Samaritan and ^Ethiopian languages have merely
a measure of lines, without any measure of syllables.
In Hebrew poetry, this return is given in its simplest
form, in the succession of two corresponding members,
as it were the pulse-beat of the discourse, by which the
swelling heart expresses its emotions.
" The Hebrew soul," says a writer, "is the silent, yet
still unfathomed deep of the divine in man. It is not
the ocean over which the winds are sweeping, and in
which all the floods rush together ; but it is the lowest,
the living deep and fountain, which only discloses itself
in a soft and gentle stream, scarcely perceptible to mor
tal ear. Hence there is the simple parallelism, which
continually recurs, and the unconfined and unadorned
heart of poetry, with its uniform beat.""
sriirn sm-rls ^bbn niro ^f^ ^biii
!-ol fiyi "i)as Hb'i'lrn 'is "Ti^^^ tiii Ta^H
iw"^ fis^ ai?stl ^'^^ ^.'yp?? ^^P^. ^^'^¦^
TinibirJJaa b^V"^ imnipb nn^rn nri'iFi
For this discovery we are indebted to Bellermann, Versuch. Ub. d. Metrik
d. Hebriier; Berl. 1813. But he goes too far when he attempts to prove
there is actual versification in the Hebrew poetry. To this it may be added
that, perhaps, the shmas when a consonant is closely connected with them,
and the composite shevas, form half a short syllable, so that in tJie last exam-
pie we must scan thus: D'^:9"C5^*. Leutwein, also, has referred to the
numerus, Biblische Verskunst ; Tiib. 1795.
" "Rhythm — which isa fundamental law of the voice — can never be
entirely wanting in any human discourse. But it appears the more distinctly

^ 129.] PRELIMINARY REMARKS. 7
At the same time, this form helps to overcome the
peculiarity of the language, and the constant use of, and
even fondness for, tautology and synonymes, which is
characteristic of the Hebrew, when not overruled by in
spiration, and filled with the subject. This instinct,
which makes divisions or caesuras between the larger
members of the discourse, brings with it a symmetry,
and demands also caesuras and symmetry within the
members or half-verses thus divided and arranged
one after the other; and these subordinate passages
or subdivisions of the rhythm become the more fre
quent as the discourse is more rich in thought and
takes a wider compass. Thus there are verses of a
single member, at the beginning of a psalm, (Ps. xviii.
% xxiii. 1,) like the preliminary beating time, but rarely
in the middle of the ode. (Ps. xlii. 9.)
^ 129.
DIFFERENT KINDS OF SYMMETRY OF MEMBERS.
I. Symmetry of Woeds.
Since the Hebrews have no measure of syllables,
they cannot mark the symmetry by using an equal
number of syllables. Their poetry consists chiefly in
the thought, and, therefore, it has a rhythm of thoughts.
But since the thought is expressed in words, the original
as the waves of voice swell higher with the increasing elevation of feeling,
and the mass and power of the rhythmical movement increases in proportion ;
consequently the effort to preserve an equilibrium is more decided, and the
successive risings and fallings extend farther. This takes place the most
perfectly in poetry — when the soul, tuned in harmony with the gently-
swelling wave of life, pours out her thought in symmetrical ranks, which are
sometimes merely internal, expressed only in the thovghts, — as m the He
brew parallelism, and the poetry of the people m general, — and sometimes

8 PRELIMINARY REMARKS. [§ 130.
and simplest form of symmetry is that shown by an
equal number of words in the corresponding members
of the sentence."
But here a word must often be repeated in thought.
A similar sound, or rhyme, is sometimes found at the
end of the fines.'
For the sake of this rhyme, suitable grammatical forms
are sometimes designedly selected, and even sought for."

§ 130.
2. Symmetry or Thoughts.
A. With similar Members.
The Hebrews seldom seek for similarity between th&
words in the different members of a sentence, or they
follow this rule with great looseness. The symmetry
is rather expressed in the thoughts —
they are also external, expressed in the particular sounds, — as in the poetry
of the Greeks and other nations, which is measured by syllables."
Hupfeld, in Studien und Kritiken, for 1837, p. 869, sq. See Ewald, Poet
Buch. der A. T. vol. i. p. 57, sq., 92, sq. Giigkr, Die heilige Kunst : Lands.
1815. " Job vi. 5. txm lis 5*i& pn^n
Ps. XX. 9. Prov. X. 15. Ps. xix. 8. Ewald, 1. c. vol. i. p. 65. See § 132.
' Gen. iv. 23. "^Vl'l? ISSB nS)2) JTiS
isiaai '^1^3'in is'i!* 13

• Job xvi 12. '^?!)|3'^?>'?1 "'fl''':'] li^
Job xxxvn. 16. Amos v. 26.

ip2bS6'ii iB'isa triKi

^ 130.] PRELIMINARY REMARKS. 9
1. Sometimes by synonymes.
Psalm viii. 4.
" When I consider thy heavens, the work of thy fingers,
The moon and stars which thou hast made,
What is man, that thou art mindful of him ?
And the son of man, that thou visitest him 1 "
Psalm viii. 7.
" Thou hast given him dominion over the works of thy hands.
All thou hast put under his feet."
Ps. Ix. 2, 9, 10, and many other places.
2. Sometimes by antithesis.
Proverbs x. 3, 4.
" Jehovah will not suffer the soul of the righteous to famish,
But will scatter the substance of the wicked.
A slack hand makes poor.
A diligent hand makes rich.''
Also, 6, 8, 9, 11, and many others.
3. Sometimes by synthesis. Psalm i. 6.
" For the Lord knoweth the way of the righteous,
But the way of the wicked shall perish."
Psalm iii. 3.
" Many say of my soul,
' No help for it in Elohim.' "
See, also, 5, 7, 9, iv. 4, 5, et al.
4. By an identical expression ; that is, by repeating
in fuller and stronger form.
Job xviii. 13.
" It shall devour the strength of his body.
The first-born of death shall devour his strength."
Hos. ix. 14. Ps. xxi. 6, Ivii. 4."

Compare LoiM, De sac. Poesi Heb. Prelect xix. p. 365, ed. AEdutdis.
VOL. II. 2

10 PRELIMINARY REMARKS. [^ 131.
In these simple couplets or distichs, besides the chief
caesura in the middle of the verse, we find always
smaller caesm-as, the most distinctly marked in the second
half-verse, towards the end, in order to preserve the
cadence. Psalm viii. 4.
"I look at thy heavens, | the work of thy fingers;
The moon and the stars, 1 which thou hast created."

^ 131.
B. Symmetry with dissimilar Members.
By the internal force of the thought cilso, members
that are disproportionate, and dissimilar in expression,
are brought under a rhythmical symmetry, and often
with fine effect. Hosea iv. 17.
" Ephraim is joined unto idols :
Let him alone." "
Two or more passages, parallel among themselves,
may individually be so opposed to one another, that
larger rhythmical periods will be produced, and with
fine effect. Psalm xxxvi. 7.
" Thy righteousness is like the great mountains;
Thy judgments are a great deep ;
Man and beast thou preservest, Jehovah." '
! i!| nsri Pb. xxxvii. is, xlviii. 5, Ixviii. 3a Job xiv. 14.
' Ps. cxii. 10. Job iii. 5, vii. 11, x. 1, 15, 17, xx. 26. Ps. xv. 4, xlix. 11,
xxii. 95, xl. 10, SKSi. 7, i. 8, Ixv. 10. Am. iv. 13.

§132.] ' PRELIMINARY REMARKS. H
Sometimes one member has merely an echo of itself
in the next. Psalm v. 3.
" Hearken to the voice of my supplication, my King and my God,
For unto thee will I pray."
Ps. xxiii. 3, xxvii. 11, 12.
In all these forms the above logical distinction is
repeated.
§132.
C. With double Members.
When there is a richer fulness of thoughts and images,
both members are doubled. Then, either each member
has its own sub-parallelism, or it overleaps and disre
gards the parallelism. Here, likewise, the same logical
distinctions are repeated. Psalm xxxi. 11.
" For my life is consumed in affliction,
And my years in sighing ;
My strength fails because of my sin,
And my bones decay." "
A passage may be contrasted with such a double
member three or more times. By this arrangement, the
greatest compass is given to rhythmical periods. The
prophets, in particular, are fond of this more extended
form. Habakkuk iii. 17.
" Though the fig-tree bear not fruit,
And there is no increase of the vines ;
Though the fruit of the olive fail.
And the fields do not furnish food,
" Ps. xl. 17, xxxv. 26, xxxvii. 14, Ixxix. 2. Cant. v. 3. Mich. i. 4. Ps,
xxx. 6, Iv. 22, xliv. 3. Cant, ii. 3.

12 PRELIMINARY REMARKS. [§ 133.
The flock fail from the fold,
And there is no herd in the stalls," &c.
Amos ii. 9, v. 5, vii. 17. Mich. ii. 13, vii. 3.
Ewald distinguishes what he calls an extended rhythm,
which is the extension of a couplet into a period of ten
or eleven syllables, in Psalm ii. 12, xxxii. 4, 6, xxxix. 2,
Ixii. 4, 5, 10, 11. But here I find only connected
members, where there is no symmetry of thought, like
that described in the next section.

§ 133.
3. Rhythmical Symmetry.
As, among us, a short syllable may be made long, by
the tone, (tact,) so the Hebrews have sometimes a sym
metry of the members of a sentence, which is not
founded in the sense of the passage, but is only con
tinued by the rhythmical movement, when once it is
begun. This contrivance introduces variety into the
style, which would otherwise be stiff and uniform.
This rhythmical symmetry consists in having the same
number of words in each member, (as, for example, in
Ps. xix. 12,) or in having a great difference in the
number of words in the two members, (for example, Ps.
xiv. 7, xxx. 3.) The parallelism also may be double.
Psalm xxxi. 23.
" And I said in my haste,
' I am cut off" from before thine eyes ; '
But yet thou didst hear the voice of my prayer.
In my crying unto thee.''
In the use of this form there is sometimes a transition
to an unmeasured style.

v^ 134, a.] PRELIMINARY REMARKS. 13
Malachi i. 6.
" A son honoreth his father,
And a servant his master :
If I, then, be a father, where is my honor ?
And if I be a master, where is the fear of me?
Saith Jehovah of hosts to you, priests that despise my name.'
Zech. xiii. 3. It often occurs in Jeremiah.
Sometimes the course of the rhythmical periods differs
from the logical order of thought.
Psalm cii. 8.
" I watch, and am
Like a solitary sparrow on the house-top."
Job xxxvii, 12. Zeph. iii. 18.

§ 134, a.
RHYTHM INDICATED BY THE ACCENT.
The symmetry, and the other rhythmical relations, of
the members, are denoted by the accents." But the
distinction between the prosaic and the poetic accentua
tion of the books of Job, Proverbs, and the Psalms, is of
no great importance.' In the former, silluk with soph-
pasuk marks the end; in the former, athnah, (—?;—,) and
in the latter merka-mahpak, (-, — -,) designate the main
' Among the Jews, recitation degenerated into cantillation ; and so the
accents acquired a musical signification, and are called neginoth, (tlijiaj.)
A scheme of this cantillation according to the accents is called Sarka, and
may be found in JablonskPs Preface to his Hebrew Bible. This use of the
accents has erroneously been looked upon as their original use. Christian
scholars first discovered the logical, rhythmical nature of the accents. Bohle,
Santin. sac. s. ex Accentibus ; 1636. Wasmuth, Instit. Accentuat Heb. ; 1664.
Jo. Frank, Diacrit. Sac. ; 1710. J. F. Hirt. Syst. Accent Heb. ; 1752. C.
B. Spitzner, Instit ad Analyt s. Text Heb. V. T. ex Accentibus ; 1786.
Hupfeld (1. c. p. 826) arrives at some new conclusions.
' Ewald, Gram. 2d ed. p. 89. The poetical has shorter and easier propo
sitions, and more manifold and subtile distinctions.

14 PRELIMINARY REMARKS. [§ 134, b.
division of the verses. But, in the smaller verses, this is
effected by means of the lesser distinctive accents, which
are commonly used to mark the subdivisions. But,
although the observance of the accents is useful in de
termining the rhythmical proportion, yet we are not to
follow them in a servile spirit ; for, in general, it is doubt
ful that the authors of the accentuation were clearly
conscious of the nature of rhythm. In two psalms (cxi.
cxii.) the half-verses are indicated by the initial letters,
which follow the order of the alphabet."
^ 134, b.
STROPHES, OR SYMMETRY OF VERSES.
It would be a very natural occurrence if this same
symmetry extended to the larger divisions, to the peri
ods and sections, and formed strophes. Even in prose
there is a similar proportion, either more or less distinct.'
It has long been known that rhythmical strophes (or such
as have definite outward forms) could be found, namely
1. In the alphabetic poems, where single verses ar«
sometimes connected so as to correspond with onf,
another. Psalm XXV.''
1 "To thee, O Lord, do I lift up my soul !
2 O my God, I trust in thee ! Let me not be put to shame !
Let not my enemies triumph over me !
3 Yea, none that hope in thee shall be put to shame ;
They shall be put to shame who wickedly forsake thee.
" On this whole subject, see De Wette, in Bib. Repository, vol. iii. p. 47t>,
sqq., [J^ordheimer, Heb. Gram. § 1120—1158,] and Carpzov, Int ii. p. 3, sqij,
' See Koster, on the Strophes, or Parallelism of the Heb. Poetry, in TheoL
St and Kr., (1831,) p. 40, and his work das B. Hiob u. d. Pred. Salom., &c. ;
Schlesw. 1831. The author goes too far.
' Noycs's Translation.

^ 134, b.] PRELIMINARY REMARKS. 15
4 Show me thy ways, O Lord,
Teach me thy paths !
5 Lead rae in thy truth, and teach me;
For thou art the God, from whom cometh my help ;
In thee do I trust at all times !
6 Remember thy kindness, O Lord, and thy mercy.
Which thou hast exercised of old!
7 Remember not the faults and transgressions of my youth ;
According to thy mercy remember thou me.
For thy goodness' sake, O Lord !
8 " Good and righteous is Jehovah;
Therefore showeth he to sinners the way ;
9 The humble he guideth in his statutes.
And the humble he teacheth his way.
10 All the doings of Jehovah are mercy and truth.
To those who keep his covenant and his precepts.
11 For thy name's sake, O Jehovah,
Pardon my iniquity, for it is great ! "
Ps. xxxiv. cxlv. Prov. xxxi. 10, sqq. Lam. i. ii. iv.
Sometimes two or more verses are connected in greater
strophes ; for example, Ps. xxxvii, cxix.
2. Strophes occur distinguished by the refrain, (or
" burden,'^) or something similar.
Isaiah ix. 8 — x. 4."
1.
8 " The Lord sendeth a word against Jacob;
It cometh down to Israel.
9 His whole people shall feel it ;
Ephraim, and the inhabitants of Samaria,
Who say, in pride and arrogance of heart,
10 ' The bricks are fallen down, but we will build with hewn stones ;
The sycamores are cut down, but we will replace them with
cedars.'
11 Jehovah raiseth up the enemies of Rezin against you.
And armeth your adversaries;
12 The Syrians before, the Philistines behind,
" Noyes's Translation.

16 PRELIMI.XARY REMARKS. [§ 134, b.

Who shall devour Israel with full jaws.
For all this his anger is not turned away.
But his hand is stretched out still.

13 " The people turneth not to him that smiteth them ;
Neither do they seek Jehovah of hosts.
14 Therefore shall Jehovah cut off" from Israel the head ana the tail,
The palm-branch, and the rush, in one day;
15 [The aged and the honorable are the head,
And the prophet, that speaketh falsehood, is the tail.]
16 For the leaders ofthis people lead them astray.
And they that are led by them go to destruction.
17 Therefore shall Jehovah have no joy in their young men,
And on their orphans and widows he shall have no compassion ;
For they are all profane, and evil-doers ;
Every mouth speaketh folly.
For all this his anger is not turned away,
But his hand is stretched out still.
3.
18 " For wickedness burneth like a fire ;
It consumeth the briers and thorns.
And it kindleth the thicket of the forest.
So that it goeth up in columns of smoke.
19 Through the wrath of Jehovah of hosts is the land burned,
And the people are food for the fire ;
No one spareth another.
20 They consume on the right hand, and yet are hungry ;
They devour on the left, and are not satisfied;
Every one devoureth the flesh of his arm.
21 Manasseh is against Ephraim, and Ephraim against Manasseh,
And both together against Judah.
For all this his anger is not turned away.
But his hand is stretched out still.
4.
1 " Woe to them that make unrighteous decrees,
That write oppressive decisions !
2 To turn away the needy fl'om judgment.
And rob the poor of my people of their right.

^ 134, 6.] PRELIMINARY REMARKS. 17
3 What will ye do in the day of visitation.
And in the desolation which cometh from afar ?
To whom will ye flee for help,
And where will ye deposit your glory ?
4 Forsaken by me, they shall sink down ajnong the bound,
And fall among the slain.
For all this his anger is not turned away.
But his hand is stretched out still."
Ps. xlii. xliii. xlvi. Isa. ix. 7, x. 4. Am. i. 2 — ii. 16.
Ps, cvii. xlix. lix.
But there are so few logical strophes," that we cannot
consider them any thing more than the work of uncon
scious instinct. " Ps. i. ii. iii. iv. vi. vii. xi. and Job viii.
VOL. II. 3

18

BOOK I.
THEOCRATICAL-HISTORICAL BOOKS."

§135.
A VIEW OF THESE BOOKS, AND A CLASSIFICATION OF THEM.
They contain the history of the theocracy ; and,
I. The books of Moses and Joshua contain the his
tory of its establishment, together wdth the theocratic
laws. " LIST OF THE BEST AND MOST VALUABLE EXEGETICAL WORKS
ON THE BOOKS OF THE OLD TESTAMENT.
I. Rabbinical Cobimentaries.
R. Salomo Jarchi, (or R. Salomo Isaac, commonly abbreviated ^Bl , Raschi,)
Commentary on the whole Bible, in Buxtorfs Rabb. Bible ; Lat, with notes,
ed. by Breithaupt ; Gotha, 1710—1714, 3 vols. 4to.
Aben Esra, (or Abraham Ben Meir A. R,) Commentary upon most of the
Books of the O. T., in Buxtorfs Rabb. Bible, wherein, also, is David KimckTs
Comment on the early and later Prophets and the Chronicles, and R. Leiri
Ben Gerson's Explanation of the first Prophets, the Proverbs of Solomon
and Job.
Isaak Abarbanel, Comment on the Pentateuch ; Lat, by Henr. van Bashui-
sen ; Hannov. 1710, fol. On the historical books, by Aug. Pfeiffer ; Leipz.
1686, fol. On the later Prophets ; Amst. 1641, fol. On Isaiah ; Lat by /. H.
Majus; Frcf. a. M. 1711, 4to. On Hosea; Lat by J^V. von Hasen; Leid.
1686. On Nahum, Hebr. and Lat by J. D. Sprecher ; Helmst 1703. On
Malachi, with Commentaries of Aben Esra, Jarchi, and Kimchi ; Lat by Sam.
Bohl; Rost 1637, 4to.
R. Salomo Ben Mdech, iBi'i 'b'b^'a ; best editions. Const 1685, fol., with
Abendana!s addition. Ex Michlal Jophi, sive Commentario R. Salom. Ben

§ 135.] HISTORICAL BOOKS. 19
II. The (so called) historic books, with their appen
dages. Chronicles and the book of Ruth, contain the

Melech in V. T. Libros  particula complectens Prophetiam Jons.
Vers. Lat et Indice illustravit, Paraphrasin Chald. Textui Hebr. adposuit
atque Prtef. prcemisit Em. Chr. Fabricius ; Gott 1792, 8vo.
II. Church Fathers.
Origen, Exegetical Remains on the O. T., in Origenis Commentaria, ed.
Huetius ; Rothomagi, 1668. Opera, ed. De la Rue, vol. ii. iii.
Jo. Chrysostomus, Homilies, Opp. ed. Montfaucon; Paris, 1718 — 1738, 13
vols. fol.
Ephraem the Syrian's Commentary on the O. T., after the Peshito, in his
Opp. Syr. et Lat ed. Petr. Benedictus ; Rom. 1740, fol.
Theodoreti Quaest in Pentat., Jos., Jud., Ruth, Sam., Regg., Paralip.
Comment, in Psalm., Cant Cant, Proph., Opp. ed. Jac. Sirmond ; Par. 1642,
4 tom. fol. ; ed. J. L. Schulz et /. A. J^osselt ; Hal. 1769—1774, 5 tom. 8vo.
Procopii Gazaei Comment, in Octateuchum Lat. ; Tigur. 1555 ; in Libros
Regg. et Paralipp. Grsece et Latine a Jo. Meursio ; Lug. Bat. 1620, 4to.
Variorum in Esaiam Prophetam Commentariorum Epitome Greece et Lat a
Jo. Curterio ; Paris, 1580.
2Eto& ki/bg TtEVTi^KOfTtt vnofivrjiiuTKJWP elg t^v ' Onr&revxov xal tmv
Baaileiav t/iStj ngmop rinoig ixdo&elaa imfielelq Nb x i]cp6Qov ; Leipz.
1772, 2 vols. fol. Catena Graecorum P. P. in beatum Job. CoUectore J^/iceta
ed. et Lat Vers. Op. et St Patricii Junii ; Lond. 1637, fol. Expositio Patrum
Graecorum in Psalmos a Balth Corderio ex Codd. concinnata, Latinitate do-
nata; Antwerp, 1643 — 1646, fol. 3 vols. Eusehii, Polychronii, Psellii in
Cant Cant Expositt Graece Jo. Meursius publicavit ; Lug. Bat 1617, 4to.
Hieronymi Comment in Prophetas, Eccles. Quaast Hebr. in Genes.
Epist critt xviii. Opp. ed. Martianay ; Par. 1693-1706, 5 vols, fol.; — ed.
Vallarsi; Veron. 1734—1742, 11 vols. fol. ; ed. 2, 1766—1772, 11 vols. 4to.
Augustini Liber de Genesi ad Litteram imperf. ; de Genesi adLitteram LL.
xii.; Qusest. in Heptateuchum LL. vii.; Enarrat in Psalm.; Annotatt in
Job. L. I. Opp. ed. Bened. ; Par. 1679—1701, 11 vols. fol. ; — ed. 2, Cur. Clen-
ci; Antwerp, 1700—1703, 12 vols. fol.
IIL Modern Interpreters.
Conr. PeUiami Comm. in Libros V. et N. T. ; Tigur. 1532—1539, 9
vols. fol.
Jo. Pistxdoris Comm. in omnes Libros V. T. ; Herbom. 1646, fol.
Cornel, a Lapide, Comm. in omnes S. S. Libros ; Venet 1688, 16 vols. fol.
Cdvini Comm. in his Opp. ; Amst 1671, 9 vols. fol.

20 HISTORICAL BOOKS. [§ 1

OO.

subsequent history of the theocracy, its struggle and
downfall.

Franc. Vatabli (VatbM) Annotatt in V. T. ex ejus Prteleott coUectae a
Bertino le Comte ; Par. 1545 ; also at the end of the Vulgate of Rob. Ste-
phanus ; 1557, 2 vols. fol.
Seb. Miinster, Annotatt in omnes Libros V. T. in his Bibl. Hebr. Lat. ;
1535—1546. Jo. le Mercier, Comm. in Gen.; 1598; in Job., Proverbb., etc.; 1573, fol.;
in Prophetas quinque priores inter eos, qui minores vocantur ; 1698, 4to.
Jo. Drusii Annotatt in Loca diffic. Pentateuchi ; Franlif. 1617, 4to. ; in
Loca diffic. Jos., Judd., et Sam. ; 1618, 4to. Lectiones in Proph. Nahum,
Hab., Sophon., Joel., Jon., Abdiam. In Graecam Editionem Conjectanea, et
Interpretum vett qum exstant Fragmenta ; Leid. 1595. Lect in Hos., etc. ;
Leid. 1699. In Amos ; Leid. 1600. In Mich., Agg., Zachar., et Malach. ;
Amst 1627, 4to. Comm. in Prophetas min., ed. Sixt Amama ; Amst 1627,
4to. Comm. in Libr. Ruth ; 1586, 4to. Annotatt in L. Estlier ; Leid. 1586.
Scholia in Job. ; Amst 1636. In Cohel. ; ib. 1635, 4to.
Grotii Annotatt in V. T. ; Par. 1644, 3 vols. fol. ;— ed. G. J. L. Vogel et
Doderlein; Hal. 1775, 1776, 3 vols. 4to. ; — with an Auctarium by Doder
lein ; 1779, 4to.
See these and other interpreters in Critt sacris ; Lond. 1660, 9 vols, fol.,
(by J. and R. Pearson Scattergood, and Govldman,) reprinted and enlarged ;
Amst 1698, 9 vols, fol., ed. by GiiHler ; Frankf. 1696, 7 vols. fol. ; and 2
suppl. vols. ; 1700, 1701. Matth. Poli, Synopsis Criticorum aliorumque S. S.
Interpretum ; Lond. 1669, 5 vols. fol. ; Frankf. 1712, 5 vols. fol. ; ib. 1694,
5 vols. 4to.
Jo. Maldotudi Comm. in Praecip. Libr. V. T. ; Par. 1643, fol.
Lmd. de Dieu, Animadverss. in V. T. Libros omnes ; Leid. 1648. Critica
sac. sive Animadverss. in Loca quaed. diffic. V. et N. T. ; Amst 1693, fol.
Lud. Cappelli Comm. et Notse criticae in V. T., cum Jac. Cappelli Obser
vatt in V. T. ; Amst. 1689, fol.
Abrah. Calovii Biblia V. et N. T. Ulustrata, sive Comm. Locupl. in V. et
N. T., prsemissis Chronico s., Traotatu de Nummis, Ponderibus, et Mensuris,
insertis et refutatis Annotatt Grotianis universis ; Frcf. a. M. 1672 
1676, 4 vols. fol.
Seb. Schmidt, Annotatt. super Mosis L. I. ; Arg. 1697, 4to. Prtelect in viii.
priora c. Jos. in his Comm. in Jes. ; Hamb. 1723, 4to. Comm. in Libr. Judd. ;
Arg. 1706, 4to. Annotatt in L. Ruth ; ib. 1696, 4to. Comm. in Librr. Sam. ;
ib. 1697, 4to. Annotatt in Librr. Regg. ; ib. 1697. Comm. in Job. ; ib.
1705, 2 vols. 4to. In Cohel. ; ib. 1704, 4to. Super Prophet Jes. ; Hamb.
1702, 4to. In Jerem. ; Frcf. a. M. 1706, 2 vols. 4to. In Proph. min. ; Lips.
1698, 4to.
Jo. Clerici Comm. in Pentat ; Amst 1710. In Libros hist V. T. ; 1708.
In Hagiogr. ; 1731. In Proph. ; 1731, fol.

^ 135.] HISTORICAL BOOKS. 21
III. The books of Ezra, Nehemiah, and Esther, treat
of the history of the people of Israel after the exile, that
is, of the second temple.
Commentaire litt6ral sur tons les Livres del'Ancien et N. T. pa.r Augustin
Calmet ; Paris, 1724—1726, 8 vols. fol.
J. H. Michaelis, Annotatt in V. T., in his Bib. Heb. ; Hal. 1720. Engl.
Bibelwerk, deutsch herausgeg. von Romanus Teller, Baumgarten, Dietel
maier, and Brucker ; Leipz. 1749—1770, 19 vols. 4to.
/. D. Michaelis, Uebers des A. T. mit Anmerk. fiir Ungelehrte, 13 vols. ;
Gott 1769—1783, 4to.
Uebers. u. Erkl. der heil. Biicher des A. T. von Moldenhauer ; Q,uedlinb.
1774—1787, 10 vols. 4to.
W. F. Hezel, Die Bibel A. und N. T. mit vollst erklar. Anmerkk. ; Lemgo,
1780—1791, 10 vols.
Die heil. Schrift d. A. T. v. Dm. v. Brentano, 1 pt, fortges. v. Dereser, 2
pt. — 4 pt 3 vols., geend. v. Scholz, 4 pt 4 vol. ; 1797 — 1832.
J. D. Dathe, Pentateuchus Lat Vers. Notisque philol. et crit illustr. ; Hal.
1781; ed. 2, 1791, 8vo. Libri hist; 1784. Proph. maj.; 1779; ed. 2, 1785.
Proph. min. ; 1773 ; ed. 2, 1779 ; ed. 3, 1790. Psalmi ; 1787 ; ed. 2, 1794.
Job, Prov., Sal., Eccles., Cant Cant ; 1789.
J. Chr. F. Schulz, Schol. in V. T. inde a iv. tom. contin. a G. Lor. Bauer ;
Norimb. 1783—1798, 10 vols. 8vo.
E. F. C. Rosenmiiller, Schol. in V. T. P. I. cont Gen. et Exod. ; Lips.
1788 ; ed. 2, 1795; ed. 3, 2 vols. 1821, 1822. P. II. Lev., Num., et Deute
ron. ; 1790 ; ed. 2, 1798 ; ed. 3, 1824. Schol. in Pentat in Compend. redacta ;
1828. P. III. sect 1—2, cont Jes. ; 1790—1793 ; ed. 2, 3 vols., 1810, 1818,
1820 ; ed. 3, 1829, vol. i. P. IV. vol. i.— iii. cont Pss. ; 1800—1804 ; ed. 2,
1821-1823 ; in comp. red. ; 1831. P. V. vol. i. ii., cont Job. ; 1806 ; ed. 2,
1824. P. VI. vol. i. ii. cont. Ezech. ; 1808 ; ed. 2, 1826. P. VII. vol. i.— iv.
cont Proph. min.; 1812—1816; ed. 2, 1827, 1828. P. VIIL vol. i. ii. cont
Jer., Vatic, et Thren. ; 1826, 1827. P. IX. vol. i. iL cont Salom. soripta ;
1829, 1830. P. X. cont Dan. ; 1832.
Exegetisches Handbuch des A. T. ; Leipz. 1797—1800, 9 vols., cont Jos.,
Richter, Ruth, Sam., B. der Kon., Jes.
Kurzgefasstes exegetisches Handbuch zum Altes Test pt. i. die 12 klei-
nen Proph.; Leipz. 1838, by Hitzig; pt ii. Job; ib. 1839, by Hirzd; pt
iii. ; ib. 1841, Jeremiah, by Hitzig ; pt iv. ; 1842, Samuel, &c.
[The Reformer's Bible, (reprinted ;) Lond. 1810, 4to. Annotations on all
the Books of the Old and New Testament, (the » Assemblies' Annotations ; ")
Lond. 1657, 2 vols. fol.
Poole, Annot upon the Holy Bible ; 1683, 2 vols. fol. The Old and New
Testament, with Annotations, &c., by Samvd Clarke ; Lond. 1690, fol. (A
false book was published in the name of S. Clarke ; 1811, fol.)
PtOridc, Lowth, Whitby's and Arnold's Commentary on the Bible ; Lond.

22 HISTORICAL BOOKS. [§ 136, a.
^ 136, a
GENERAL PECULIARITIES OF THESE BOOKS
1. With Reference to their Contents and Style.
The reference to the theocracy (that is, to the inward
connection between God and the people of Israel, and
to the particular government of God over them and in
the midst of them) gives these books two peculiarities ;
and, to present these in the most forcible manner, the
whole history is actively pervaded by a theocratic
idea. 1. The whole history is penetrated by a clear and
constant plan of the divine government of the world; to
which individual circumstances are subordinated, with a
greater or less degree of consistency: this is theocratical
pragmatism, [that is, the reference of all events to God,
as the immediate cause.]
2. The divine influence is likewise immediately dis
played in the history, in revelations and miracles : this
is theocratical mythology.
These peculiarities are most evident in those books
and chapters which contain the most ancient history
of the theocracy, of its establishment, and which treat
of the most important points in its development ; that
is, in the books of Moses, Joshua, Judges, Samuel,
1 Kings xiii. — 2 Kings viii. They are the least con
spicuous, and, indeed, are scarcely perceptible, in those
1727—1760, 7 vols. fol. (reprinted 1809, 1821.) Henry's Exposition, 5 vols.
fol. GiWs Exposition of the Old and New Testament ; 1748—1763, 9 vols.
fol. Other works, more or less valuable, have been prepared by Punier,
Wesley, Benson, Cruden, Dodd, Goadby, Scott, Wilson, Yonge, BuUdey,
Priestley, Trimmer, Burder, Hewlett, D'Oyly and Mant, and .Udam Clarke.]

^ 136, a.] HISTORICAL BOOKS. 23
which belong to an age destitute of the theocratic spirit ;
that is, in the historical books of the Hagiographa.
[The application of the term mythology to certain
narratives and opinions in the Bible need excite no
surprise. The Jews had their mythology, as well as
the Hindoos, the Goths, and the Greeks. Symbols and
myths are necessarily used, by a rude people, to clothe
abstract truths. It is evident the ancient Hebrews
made use of them as the drapery of religious truth.
This appears from the temple ceremonies, the visions
and symbolic actions of the prophets ; from the figurative
expressions relating to the Deity, and the perpetual re
currence of anthropo-morphitic views of him. It is
often difficult to determine where the myth begins, and
the plain statement ends. But the Hebrew Scriptures
have this difficulty in common with all very ancient, and
especially Oriental writings. Symbolical language is
sometimes used consciously, as properly symbolical, and
sometimes unconsciously, when the writer himself had
no clear conception of the subject, but confounded figure
and fact.
" A dogma is a creation of the Understanding ; a sym
bol, of the Feelings ; and a myth, of Fancy. The first
expresses itself in ideas ; the second, in aesthetic images ;
the third, in history. The first is an object of faith ;
the second, of devout reverence ; but the third is, origi
nally, neither the one nor the other ; it is a free play
of fiction."]"
" We apply the term mythology to historical narratives, some of which
relate to the supersensuous, and others date back to an ideal antiquity, and
both rise above the ordinary laws of historical causality. Such narratives
usually originate in legends, whence the name. See De Wette, Bib. Dog
matik. § 55. [Bauer, Heb. Mythologie, 1802, § 1—7.] Georgl, Mythus
and Saga ; Berlin, 1837. Tuch, Genesis, p. 1, sqq. A myth is an idea
clothed in facts : a saga contains facts penetrated and transformed by ideas.

24 HISTORICAL BOOKS. [§ 136, 6.
§ 136, 6.
[Continuation of the Above.
" The Jews never reached a high degree of culture,
and always preserved a national character so peculiar,
that they were in the most striking manner distin
guished from the neighboring and contemporary nations.
The belief that they were the only favorites of Jehovah,
the Creator and Lord of the whole world, is as old as
the nation itself; it first received a steady direction from
Moses, the founder of the theocratic constitution of the
state. They considered that Jehovah was the supreme,
invisible Governor of the nation, and that all which befell
them, in great and little affairs, was brought about by his
immediate command, and by his special contrivance and
cooperation. This belief exerted so powerful an influ
ence, that cill which had the remotest connection with
the body of the people and the state, was referred im
mediately to God. This opinion was supported by the
limited knowledge possessed in those times, which
referred all events in the lives of individuals to a higher
cause, and both together produced the theocratical-re-
ligious pragmatism of the old Hebrew historians.
" If pure historical pragmatism consists in developing
every fact from its original cause, then theocratic-religious
pragmatism consists in referring all historical events to
the God Jehovah. Therefore, in the old historical books
of the Hebrews, all active persons appear only as instru
ments of God. Every thing proceeds from the will and
express command of God. Whatever thoughts, conclu
sions, and maxims, arise in the mind, God speaks them.
The formula, ' Thus saith the Lord,'' is so common in

§ 136, 6.] HISTORICAL BOOKS. 25
the old Hebrew historians, that the whole history be
comes, as it were, a history of God.
" On account of this, almost every thing has a miracu
lous coloring. But, in respect to this, a distinction must
be made between the general and the particular. The
law of theocratic-religious pragmatism, in general, refers
every thing to one higher cause. But, notwithstanding
this, it may be considered as outvjardly or actually fol
lowing the order and common course of nature. The
miracle consists only in this, — that God has done an
action perfectly natural in itself, or that it has been done
at his bidding. But single events and occurrences form
an exception ; for they are related as if the order of nature
was violated in respect to them. These narratives are
called the miraculous history of the Old Testament ; and
they have their foundation partly in the deficiency and
narrowness of human knowledge at that time, connected
with the religious spirit generally prevalent, and partly
in the distance of time between the event itself and the
written account of it. Many events were, for a long
time, related orally. Now, every legend is enlarged in
the mouth of posterity, and as nations were then in a
lower stage of civilization than now, such legends must
necessarily be wrought up to the miraculous. When
this transformation has taken place, they are called his
torical myths. For the Hebrews, as well as others, had
their myths, which abound in their histories. And
therefore, if any one would penetrate into the spirit of
the Hebrew historians, he must not forget that it some
times assumes a mythical character.
" The dissolution of the Hebrew nation, by the As
syrians and Chaldees, and their dispersions among many
other nations, laid the foundation for a change in their
VOL. II. 4

26 HISTORICAL BOOKS. [§ 136, b,
historical views. The bond of the theocracy became
looser, and when a part of the people assembled again
in their old and native land, it could never acquire its
former strictness, for the theocracy, in the proper sense,
was never restored. The influence of these circum
stances, in the historical writings, is very striking, for in
the modern historical books of the Old Testament, in
Nehemiah and Ezra, the theocratic-religious pragmatism
no longer prevails, but the narrative is constructed ac
cording to the natural laws of things, and approaches
pure historical writing.
" The same fact will be observed in the historical books
of the Apocrypha; but with this difference, — there the
historical and the rehgious views are intermingled. But
this was the result of the spirit of the age and nation,
at that time. For, after the exile, the Jews, on account
of their outward condition, must mainly have given up
their old theocratic ideas. Their religious ideas gradu
ally became more fixed, and this result was not a little
hastened by the expansion and increase of their moral
ideas, consequent upon their acquaintance with the Baby
lonians, Persians, and other nations. In consequence
of this, religious pragmatism appears in the historical
books of the Apocrypha. It is not said in them, ' God
spake and it was done,' as in the old historical works,
which were either written before the exile, or, after it,
were compiled from more ancient, written documents,
or popular legends. But still, for the most part, events
are represented as under the influence and direction
of God.
" From these condensed remarks, it must become clear
that the historical writings of the Bible are of such a
character, that very few of its narratives admit of a lit-

§137.] HISTORICAL BOOKS. 27
eral interpretation, or are to be regarded as purely
historical. But they must be considered in part as the
results of theocratic-religious, or simply religious prag
matism, and partly as mythical histories. Under these
circumstances, they will not yield the historian any
certain results, until historical criticism is applied to
them."] " § 137.
2. In Reference to their Literary Origin.
The greatest part of these books are not the work '
of one hand, nor do they preserve their primitive form,
but have principally arisen from compilation, either by
weaving together and connecting different narratives,
or by making extracts from larger historical works.
In the historical Hterature of the Hebrews, we must
separate the composition of independent history from
mere historical compilation. The first is earlier, and
belongs to the period when literature flourished in full
bloom ; while the latter indicates its decaying vigor.
Theocratical historiography probably owes its origin
and formation to theocratical men, the prophets and the
priests,* since many prophets are actually referred to as
" [Berger, Practische Einl. in A. B. vol. ii. p. xiii., sqq. On this subject,
see the following works : On the phrase, " God spake," in O. T., Henke's Mag.
vol. ii. p. 333, sqq., vol. iii. p. 1.] Hezel's Geist und PhD. der Sprache d. Alten
Welt vol. L Gabler, Journal Theol. Lit vol. ii. p. 43. Bertholdt, Einleit
vol. iii. p. 748, sqq. Augusti, § 84.
* Augusti, 1. c. § 87. The Hebrew kings, however, had their annalists,
(Q^i'liiira.) It is doubtful whether they were prophets. The transcription
of the Law was, perhaps, the duty of the priest
[Some think the school of the prophets performed the office of modern
" historical societies," and " academies of science," and that their produc
tions were published anonymously, because they derived their authority

28 BOOKS OF MOSES. [^ 1^^-
the authors of historical documents. This fact explains
the great uniformity of all the historical books, both as
to their plan and manner of execution. But their
origin fiom compilation, connected with the one-sided
theocratical pragmatism, plainly shows why so many
chasms are left in the history, and why so many things
are related very imperfectly and briefly.

CHAPTER I.
THE BOOKS OF MOSES."
^ 138.
THEIR NAMES.
The Jews named the entire work from its chief
part, the Law, (^"t^, 6 v6fiog,) and, from its original
from the whole school, and not from the name of the writer. See JVhcMi-
gaFs essay on this subject, in Eichhorn's Allg. Bib. vol. ix. p. 379, sqq.]
° Clerici Comment Rosenmvller, Schol.
Henr. Ainsworth, Annotations upon the Five Books of Moses ; Lond.
1627, fol.
Jac. Bonfrerii Pentat Mos. comm. iUustratus ; Antw. 1625, fol.
Jo. Ad. Osiandri Comm. in Pentat ; TUb. 1675, sqq. 5 vols. fol.
Jo. Markii Comm. in prtecipuas quasd. Partes Pentateuchi ; Lug. Bat
1721, 4to.
J. S. Vater, Comm. iiber den Pentateuch, mit Einleitt z. d. einz. Abschnit-
ten, der eingeschalt Uebers. von Dr. Alex. Geddes merkwiirdigeren krit u.
exeg. Anmerkk. u. einer Abhandl. liber Moses und die Verfasser des Pen
tateuchs ; Halle, 1802—1805, 3 vols.
Jul. Sterringa, Observatt. phil. sac. in Pentateuchum ; Lug. Bat. 1721, 4to.
/. F. Gaab, Beitrage zur Erkliir. des 1, 2, u. 4 B. Mose ; Tiib. 1796.
Jo. Gerhardi Comm. in Genes. ; Jen. 1693, 4to.
Seb. Schmidt, Jo. Mercer. Comm. in Gen.
Haitsma, Curae philol. exeget in Genes. ; Franequ. 1753, 4to. Comm. in
Exod. ; 1771, 4to.

§139.] BOOKS OF MOSES. 29
division" into five books, the five fifths of the Law,
(n^itin ^iDJa^n niattn.) The Greeks' named it t) ITevzu-
¦vevxoq, that is, Bi(^jXog irEVTdtevxoq, and the Latins
called it Pentateuchus, that is, liber Pentateuchus.'
The Jews call single books by their initial words, and
the Christians name them according to their contents.''
§139.
CONTENTS OF THESE BOOKS.
1. Genesis, (n^m^a .)
The history of the establishment of the theocracy is
contained in these books, in the following order: Ac-
Hensler, Bemerkk. iib. Stellen in d. Psalm, u. d. Gen. ; Hamb. 1791, 8vo.
Pentateuchus Hebr. et Gr. c. Annotatione perp. ed. G. A. Schumann, vol. i.
Gen. compl. ; Lips. 1829.
[Hartmann, Forschungen iib. die 5 BB. Moses ; Rost 1831.
Diodati, Annotations on the Bible, translated from the Italian ; Lond.
1664, fol. Geddes, Holy Bible ; 1792, sqq. 3 vols. 4to. Kidder, Commentary
on the Five Books, &c. ; 1694, 2 vols. 8vo. Jamieson, Critical and Practical
Expos, of the Pentateuch; 1748, fol. Hughes, Analytical Exposition of
the First Book of Moses, «Sz.c. ; 1672, fol. Graves, Lectures, &c. ; 1815, 2
vols. 8vo. Other works on the whole or a part of the Pentateuch have
been written or compiled by the following authors : Durell, Lightfoot, (A
Handful of Gleanings, &c.,) Dawson, Harwood, Franks, Dimock, Fuller,
Rvdge, Hopkins, &c.]
° .Tosephus recognizes this division, (C. Ap. i. 8 ;) but it does not appear to
be alluded to in 1 Cor. xiv. 19, as Jerome supposes, (Ep. 103 ad Paulinum,
tom. iv. pt 2, p. 572 :) Hue usque Pentateuchus, quibus quinque verbis loqui
se velle apostolus in ecclesia gloriatur.
' Origen, xiv. in Job. p. 218.
" See Terlullian, Cont Marc. vol. i. p. 10. Compare, on the other side,
Stange, Cujus Generis est Pentateuchus .' in Keiffs and Tzschimer's Anal.
vol. i. 1 pt
^ The following names also occur among the Jews : t'P^P. '^1^^'? '^P? ,
(Comp. Buxtorf, Lex. Talm. p. 1325,) D^Jnls n;iitl , or ni5a'1j?n 'tl ; ISO
C3i'lBDarL,or tjinilj^E) n&O; n'lin raioa , or ninaitl I&D. Bee Hottinger,
Thes. Phil. p. 456, sqq. above, vol. i. p. 89, sqq.

30 BOOKS OF MOSES. [§ 139.
cording to the opinion of the Hebrews, the theocracy is
the centre and object of the whole history of the world;
it is therefore related in Genesis, that the ground of it
^vas laid immediately after the creation of the world ;
that the people of God was gradually separated from the
other people, and the promise of the holy land, and of the
holy constitution, was made to the patriarchs; and that
oven the fundamental laws of the state were then given.
Beside these principal matters, there are genealogi
cal and ethnographical accounts and fragments of the first
history of the human race inserted, as well as family
histories of the descendants of Abraham. Among these,
those which relate to Abraham, Jacob, and Joseph, are
the most conspicuous."
[It has often been asserted that the book of Gen
esis was designed to serve as an introduction to the
Law. Thus, it is supposed, the fact that Adam and
Eve were forbidden to eat of a certain tree, is related to
sanction the prohibition of certain kinds of food forbid
den to the Jews. The sad consequences which followed
Adam's transgression were to warn the Jews against a
similar offence. The misfortune which befell Lamech
after marrying two wives, was " to show the Jews why
the Law was not favorable to polygamy." When the
sons of God dwelt with the daughters of men, the race
became corrupt, and the deluge was sent to punish
" The following passages are the most important to show the theocratic
plan of the book, which has a certain unity in its present form : Gen. ii. 3,
ix. 1—17, 20—27, xii. 1—3, xiii. 14—17, xv. xvii. xix. 30—38, xxi. 1—20,
xxiii. xxiv. 2 — 8, xxv. 1 — 6, 19 — 34, xxvii. xxviii. xxxv. 9 — 15, xxxvi. 6,
xlvi. 1 — 7, xlviii. xlix. 1. 7 — 13. See De Wette, Kritik der Israelit Gesch., or
Beitrage ins A. T. vol. ii. Ewald, Gen. § 17, 18. Tudi, 1. c. p. xxi.
Long passages, like xiii. 14 — 17, and xxiii., may be apologetic, in the
proper sense of the word ; i. e. designed to show the Hebrew nation was
the favorite of Heaven, and that their customs and laws were very ancient
See Augusti, § 108.

§ 139.] BOOKS OF MOSES. 31
them. This was related to warn the Hebrews of the
consequences that would ensue if they should marry the
women of Canaan." Such assertions are entirely arbi
trary. It might with equal truth be said Genesis was
designed as an introduction to the Psalms, or to the
book of Ecclesiastes. The book simply records the
uncertain and mythical history of the Hebrew race, from
Adam till the descent to .^gypt. Abraham, therefore, is
the most conspicuous character in the book. From him
the history goes back in two genealogical lines, — from
Seth, before the flood, from Shem, after it. After
Abraham, his descendants were the only heroes of the
story. Various statements and accounts came in as sub
sidiary to this general plan. This book was, doubtless,
of great value to the Hebrews, as it is to us a priceless
relic of olden times.
" Read it as two historical works' of the old world," says
Eichhorn, " breathe therein the air of its age and country.
Forget the age you live in, aud the knowledge it affords
you ; and if you cannot do this, dream not that you can
enjoy the book in the spirit of its origin. The youth of
the world which it describes demands a spirit that has
descended to its deeps. The first rays of the glimmering
light of reason do not harmonize with the clear light of
broad noon. The shepherd only speaks in the soul of
the shepherd ; and the primitive Oriental only speaks in
the soul of another Oriental. Without an intimate ac
quaintance with the customs of pastoral life ; without
an accurate knowledge of the East and its man'ners ;
without a close intimacy with the manner of thinking

" See numerous instances of this character in John, vol. ii. § 9.
' [Referring to the two documents from which the book is composed. See
below, § 150, sqq.]

32 BOOKS OF MOSES. [§ 139.
and speakmg in the uncivilized world, (obtained by a
knowledge of Greece in its earliest ages, and of the
uncultivated nations of modern times,) — you easily be
come a traitor to the book, when you would be its deliv
erer and interpreter.
" In particulai-, its language must not be treated like
that of a cultivated and philosophic age. Above all, in
this book, it is like the world in its childhood ; it is
often destitute of comprehensive general expressions,
and therefore it must mention the parts of things, to
furnish an idea of the whole. It is like a painting, or
the language of poetry; like them it represents every
thing part by part. And, since the language of our
age is so far removed from the original simplicity of
language in the ancient world, we must separate the
thought from its dress.
"Finally, according to the language of this book, God
produces every thing directly, without availing himself
of the course of nature and certain intermediate causes.
But in this there is nothing peculiar to it. Its concep
tions are only like those of the ancient world in general,
when it had not been ascertained, by long-continued
inquiry, that all events are connected into a series of
intermediate causes. Therefore it stops with God, the
ultimate cause, as if he were supposed to be the im
mediate cause. And even for us, who have inquired
into the causes of things, the name of God, in these
cases, is often indispensable to fill up the blank, when
cases, is often a superfluous expletive, and no sign that
God has ever interrupted the course of things."]"
" [Eichhorn.]

^ 140, 141.] BOOKS OF MOSES. 33
§ 140.
2. Exodus, (rrbm nls'i .)
The bonds of this people, which was called to a
higher destiny, were knit, in the previous book, by the
migration into Ji^gypt, and were then drawn closer by
their servitude ; but they were soon loosed by the om
nipotence of Jehovah, which was manifested through
Moses. The people were brought out of ^Egypt amid
miracles and punishments ; and the long-promised cov
enant of God was solemnly established with them at
Mount Sinai. The civil and religious institutions of the
theocracy were established, and God took up his abode
among his people." ^141.
3. Leviticus. (»'i)?!iT.)
This book must be considered as an addition to the
legislation at Sinai, — the main features of which were
contained in the previous book, — and it contains the
chief laws which relate to the offerings, the feasts, and
the priests, as well as the ordinances of sacred discipline.
It contains only a little historical information, and that
relates to the priests, (viii. — x.) The theocratical his
tory advances no farther; it is only filled out, and
completed. * The following passages belong to this part of the theocratic plan:
Ex. iii. iv. vi. 2 — 8, xii. 1—28, xiii. 1 — 16, xix. xx. xxiv. xl.
VOL. II. 5

34 BOOKS OF MOSES. [^ 142, 143.
^142.
4. Numbers, (nansa.)
The commencement of this book is likewise supple
mentary, (i. 1 — X. 10.) It contains the important part
of the holy constitution, the selection of the Levites to
the priesthood. Then begins the history of the march
through the wilderness, and the conflict between the
new constitution and the evil dispositions of the people.
We soon come to the end of this march, when the
contest for the possession of the country commences :
Moses opens the campaign successfully, and then pre
pares for his departure from the scene of action.
The passages which are not narrative, but are in
serted between the narrations, are of the greatest im
portance from the political and statistic information
which they afford. Chap. xxii. — xxiv. form an episode."
^ 143.
5. Deuteronomy, (b'^ia'^ri n)i!«.)
Shortly before his death, Moses appears before the
people, and, by reference to their early history, admon
ishes them to obey God and his laws ; he in part
repeats the laws previously given, and in part gives
new ones. Finally, he gives a solemn sanction to his
legislation, appoints Joshua as his successor, and, after
giving reminiscences, warnings, and prophecies, in a
spirited discourse, and casting a glance into the beloved
" See Carpzov, Int in V. T. vol. i. p. 46 ; he also finds an account of the
political administration in this book.

^ 144.] BOOKS OF MOSES. 35
land which was shut to him, he mysteriously departs
from the scene!"

^144.
PECULIARITIES OF THIS NARRATIVE.
' 1. In Reference to Completeness.
While the narrative expresses itself fully in many
accounts and descriptions, and is even tedious at
times,' on the other hand we notice important chasms,"
which cannot be ascribed to the narrator's want of
order, but must rather be attributed to his want of
documents. The most important chasms are between Genesis and
Exodus, where a period of four hundred years is passed
over; and between Numbers xiii., in the second year of
the Exode, when the camp was at Kadesh-Barnea, and
Numbers xx., in the fortieth year of the Exode, when
the Jews arrive at the wilderness of Zin. Of all this
period of thirty-eight years, we know as good as
nothing.''

° Notice tiie parallel between Deut xxvii, arid Ex. xxiv. ; Deut xxviii.
and Levit xxvi. ; Deut xxxi. 14 — ^23, xxxii. 48 — 52, and Num. xxvii. 12 — 23 ;
Deut xxxiii. and Gen, xlix, ; besides the repetitions and alterations of the
Laws. ' Gen. xxiv. xxvii.-^xxxiv. xxxvii. — xlv. Ex. v. — xi. xxv. — xxx. xxxvi.
— xl. Num. i. — iV; xxii. — xxiv. xxxi, et al.
" See De Wetted Kritik. der Israelit Gesch. 169—351. Goellie, West-
bstliche Divan, p. 444, sqq.
'' Conipare Num. tcx. 28, sq. with xxxiii. 38, and with Deut ii. 14.

S6 BOOKS OF MOSES. [§ 145.
^145.
2. With Reference to Pragmatism" and Mythology.
The causes which lay in the divine mind are clearly
indicated ; but the natural causes, the human motives,
and the natural connection of circumstances, are but im
perfectly pointed out.' This is the reason that so many
events contradict the laws of nature, and suppose, not
merely higher powers of nature, which are conceivable,
but a direct interposition on the part of God. Now,
since it is at least doubtful, to a cultivated mind, that
such 7niracles actually took place, the question naturally
rises. Did they appear so to the eye-witnesses, and to
such as were actively engaged in the events recorded
in this history ? or did the writer understand them as
natural events, but yet portray them in a poetico-miracu-
lous light ?' But this must be denied as soon as we ex
amine the narratives somewhat more carefully; for they
are entirely destitute of that credulous, poetic turn of
mind which is the key to the marvellous. This is plain
from the difference between the natural and the mirac
ulous accounts of the same or similar things. Compare
the natural account in Ex. xviii. with the miraculous
in Ch. xix., and with Num. xi., where both seem to be
united; Levit. ix, 10, 13, 14, 17, 20, where the offer
ing is burnt in the common manner, with verse 24,
where a fire came out from Jehovah and consumed the
burnt-offering ; Num. x. 29—32, with ix. 15—23, xvii. 6,
Avhere Moses gives a natural command, and xvi. 20,
" [A reference to the idtimate as the immediate cause.]
' Pragmatic passages, like Ex. xxiii. 13, sqq., Num. x. 29, sqq., are rare.
" Against Eichhorfi's erroneous explanation of miracles, see De Wette, 1. c.

§ 145,] BOOKS OF MOSES. 37
sqq., and xvii. 10, sqq., where Jehovah speaks to Moses
and Aaron. Ex. xv. 25, (where it is said Jehovah
informed Moses of a method to heal the waters at Ma-
rah,) is the only passage which can be explained as
subjective. But the historical occasion of a miraculous
legend may be ascertained with greater or less proba
bility ; for example, in Ex. xiv. xvi. '
If these considerations favor the natural prejudice that
the accounts of these miracles are not contemporary
with the alleged events, or derived from contemporary
sources ; if such sources are not possible in the case of
some of the narratives of the most ancient time, and
there is a striking affinity between many of them (Gen.
vi. 1 — 4, vi. 5 — viii. xi. 1 — 9, xix.) and the myths of
other nations, — then the analogy of all the historical
literature of the Hebrews leads us to a clear and just view
of the matter ; for we find, in fact, that the miracu
lous in the historical books diminishes just in proportion
as they approach historical times, and that it entirely
ceases in that period from which we have contemporary
accounts. In the earliest times, men have intercourse
with God ; later, angels appear [as messengers between
man and God ;] still later, the prophets perform the
miraculous ; but in the times after the exile, from which
we have contemporary history, the miraculous ceases
altogether. Miracles appear again only in the book of
Daniel and 2 Maccabees, and in the latter, they are
confuted by the historical accounts of 1 Maccabees.
The Protestants are not consistent in rejecting the
miracles of the Apocrypha, because objections might be
drawn from them against the credibility of the other
books. The Catholics are consistent in placing them in
the same line with the miracles of the canonical books.

38 BOOKS OF MOSES. [§ 146.
^ 146.
ORIGIN AND PROGRESS OF THE MOSAIC MYTHOLOGY.
The conclusion that these accounts of miraculous
events are entirely forged would be too rash. This may
be the case in the later books, as in Daniel and 2 Mac
cabees, for example ; but it can scarcely be so in the
books of Moses. Here a genuine historical legend lies
at the foundation, which was connected with certain
monuments, supported by popular songs, and preserved
in the mouth of the people. Thus, for example, the
following are connected with certain monuments : —
In Gen. xix. 26, it is said, Lot's wife looked back
as she was fleeing, reluctantly, from Sodom, and became
a pillar of salt ; but, from the Wisdom of Solomon, (x. 7,)
it seems a pillar of salt was erected on the spot where
she turned back. Josephus says such a pillar was
standing in his time." Of this character are the narra
tives in Gen. xxxiii. 17, where a place is called Succoth,
(tents,) from the temporary huts Jacob made for his
cattle; and in xxxv. 8, where a place is named Allon
Bachuth, (the oak of weeping,) because Rebekah's nurse
was buried there ; and in verse 20. The following pas
sages belong to the same class : Num. xxi. 4 — 9, which
contains the account of the brazen serpent, said to be
contrived to cure such as were bitten by real living ser
pents, — but which appears as an object of idolatrous wor
ship in 2 Kings xviii. 4; xxi. 17, sq., containing the
poetic legend of the well ; and Josh. x. 12 — 14, where
it is said the sun stood still at the command of Joshua.
To this class belong the etymological myths, especial-
" Josephus, Antiq. i. 11, 4.

^ 146.] BOOKS OF MOSES. 39
ly such as relate to places; for example. Gen. xvi. 14,
where a place is named Beer-la-hai-roi, (well of living
vision;) xxi. 31, where the name Beer-sheba (well of
the oath) is given to a place ; xxviii. 10, sqq., in which
the old name Luz (almond-tree) is changed to Beth-el,
(house of God,) because Jacob dreamed he saw God in
that place; xxxv. 1 — 8, 9 — 15, 1. 11, and others. But
these may, in part, have an artificial origin." In the
same manner, the legends of the Arabs are connected
with names and proverbs.'
But in the popular legend, there came an idealo-
poetic element, and mingled itself with the real historical
elements. By this means the tradition was transformed,
gradually, into the miraculous and the ideal. The
popular songs conduced chiefly to bring about this end ;
for they, in the bold, lyric flight of imagination, repre
sented what was surprising and wonderful in a super
natural light, and a people credulous of miracles easily
misunderstood the account. Thus the miracle in Josh.
X. 14, arose from the lyric hyperbola of the two pre
ceding verses. So, in Ex. xiv. 22, we have the his
torical statement, " And the children of Israel went into
the midst of the sea upon the dry ground, and the
waters were a wall unto them, on their right hand and
on their left;" and in xv. 8, the lyric exaggeration,
"And with the blast of thy nostrils the waters were
gathered together, the floods stood upright as a heap,
and the depths were congealed in the heart of the sea."

<¦ See § 147, a.
' Pococke, Spec. Hist Arab. p. 41, 43, 45, 58, 79, and elsewhere. Num.
xxi. 17, 18, 27, sqq.
ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF THE SAMARITAN CODEX,

40 BOOKS OF MOSES. [^ I'i''', «•
^ 147, a.
LATER LITERARY TREATMENT OF THESE LEGENDS.
The analogy of other nations plainly shows us that
popular traditions are not reduced to writing until a late
period. And, besides, the authors of the Mosaic books
actually betray themselves as living at a later date.
1. By using the formula unto this day, which they
have in common with the other Hebrew historians."
(Gen. xix. 58, xxvi. 33, xxxii. 32, xxxv. 20, xlvii. 26.
Deut. ii. 22, iii. 14, x. 8, xxix. 4, xxxiv. 6.)
2. By archaeological explanations ; for example, Ex.
xvi. 36, "Now an omer [an ancient measure] is the tenth
part of an ephah,'''' [a modern measure.] Deut. iii. 5,
where it is said all these cities [taken a few years pre
vious] had high walls, gates, and bars — a circumstance
the men who had taken the cities would not need to
have spoken of. Verse 9, where the Sidonian and Am-
orite names of a town are given, is in the spirit of an an
tiquary. Verse 1 1 , in which men supposed to live at the
time of these events are told Og was the last of the
giants, that his bedstead was iron, of unusual size, and
was preserved in Rabbath. (xi. 30. Gen. xiv. 2, 7, 8,
17, xxiii. 2, xxxv. 19.)'
3. By reference to old authorities. Num. xxi. 14, 16, 27.

« Compare the same formula in the other historical books, § 170, 175, 180,
185. In the books of Ezra and Nehemiah, it is only used in reference to the
old history, Ezra ix. 7.
' The opinion of Eichhorn and others, that these expressions are glosses,
can only be justified after the earlier composition of these books has been
made out from other evidence. [One great fault of previous attempts to
prove the Pentateuch written by Moses has been in this : The writer as
sumes, without any external evidence, that all those explanatory passages are
the additions of commentators, and then uses them to show the text is still
more ancient]

^ 147, a.] BOOKS OF MOSES. 41
4. By their local position in Palestine, (Gen. 1. 10,
sq.,) in which the term " beyond Jordan" means, on the
east side of that river. Num. xxii. 1, xxxv, 14, (?)
Deut. i. 1, 5, iii. 8, iv. 41, 46, 47. Compare iii. 20, 25, xi,
30, where " this side the Jordan " means to the west of
that river. Compare iii. 20, 25, xi. 30, where " beyond "
means to the east of the Jordan."
5. By their .treatment of the Mosaic history, even its
most recent events, as if they had taken place in times
long past, as in the whole of Deut. i. — iii,, but in par
ticular Deuteronomy iii, 4 — 9, 14 — 20, 29,
"And we took all his cities at that time; there was not a city
which we took not from them; threescore cities, all the region
of Argob, the kingdom of Og in Bashan. All these cities were
fenced with high walls, gates, and bars ; besides unwalled towns a
great many. And we utterly destroyed them, as we did unto Sihon
king of Heshbon, utterly destroying the men, women, and children,
of every city. But all the cattle, and the spoil of the cities, we took
for a prey to ourselves. And we took at that time out of the hand
of the two kings of the Amorites the land that was on this side Jor
dan, from the River of Arnon unto Mount Hermon; (which Hermon
the Sidonians call Sirion ; and the Amorites call it Shenir.) 
" Jair the son of Manasseh took all the country of Argob, unto
the coasts of Geshuri, and Maachathi ; and called them after his own
name, Bashan-havoth-jair, unto this day. And I commanded you at
that time, saying, ' The Lord your God hath given you this land to
possess it ; ye shall pass over armed before your brethren the chil
dren of Israel, all that are meet for the war. But your wives, and
your little ones, and your cattle, ( for I know that ye have much
cattle,) shall abide in your cities which I have given you.'
" So we abode in the valley over against Beth-Peor." '

* But the use of ^asa and "las^o varies, at least in Num. xxxii. 19,
xxxv. 14, Jos. i. 14, sq., v. 1, xii. 1, 7, xxii. 7, 1 Kings v. 4, 1 Ch. xxvi
30. See Maurer, Com. zur Joshua, ix. 1. DoubtM in Deut L 1, 5, et al.
» See Fidda in Paulus, N. Rep. vol. iii. p. 230, sqq. Even Eidihom
(§ 434) admits Deut ii. 10—12, 20—23, iii. 9—11, are later interpolations.
VOL. II. 6

42 BOOKS OF MOSES. [§ 147, a.
[Such facts as these could not readily escape from the
minds of men contemporary with these events ; and so
the relation of them in a public harangue, as this book
pretends to be, supposes that a long time had elapsed
since the events took place.]
In reducing these legends lo writing, the authors of
these books scarcely design to write a history. They
were the less inclined to it as this design bad exerted so
small an influence in preserving the legend. They ex
ercised the rights of the religious imagination natural
to their countrymen, and the more freely, as this had
formerly been so active in developing and embellishing
these same legends, and as the substance of them was
so indefinite and fluctuating.
The author of Deuteronomy had read the earlier Mo
saic books. Their very language was present in his
memory, and yet he departed from those narratives.
Even in times still later, when the greatest veneration
prevailed for the sacred letter, Josephus allowed himself
to take surprising liberties in his treatment of the Mosaic
legends ; or, if he followed the tradition of his country
men, others had taken these liberties before him; for
example, there is a remarkable difference between
the account of Abraham's dissimulation, in respect to
his wife, in Josephus," and the account of the same
transactions in Gen. xx. The story of Joseph,' the
account of the oppressions of the Hebrews in ^Egypt,"
the history of Moses,"* contain statements unknown to
the Bible. Josephus explains the passage of the Red
Sea as a natural, the Bible as a miraculous, event."
There is a difference, also, between iii. 1 — 6, and the
corresponding parts of Scripture. The same may be
said of the additions in the Targums.
" Antiq. i. 12,1. ' ii. 4, 3. ' ii.9,2— 7. " ii. 11, 1. '11.16,3.

§ 147, b.} BOOKS OF MOSES.

43

§ ^7, b.
THE EPIC AND PROPHETIC TREATMENT OF THESE LEGENDS.
The history of the primitive time, of the patriarchal
and Mosaic age, has been treated according to a reli
gious, poetical, and didactic plan, which discloses itself
most clearly in the document Elohim, which lies at the
basis of it." In conformity with this plan, the Jews are
constantly told of their high destination, — that they are
the chosen people of God, — and of the divine origin of
their institutions and laws. By this means, an inspira
tion was kindled in them for their religion and their
country, — in a word, for the theocracy.
I. If an historical narrative, written without critical
investigation of facts,' but treated so as to suit religious
and poetical ideas, is an epic composition, then the Pen
tateuch may be called the theocratical epic poem of the
Israelites, without denying that there is an historical
basis at the bottom." This epic treatment shows itself,
1. In the poetic form of the narrative, which satisfies
the poetic sense, not only by its intuitiveness and spirit-
edness,'' but even by the rhythmic elevation of the style."
2. In the subject matter, and, indeed, in the miracu
lous events, and the supernatural intercourse of man
with God; for the epic loves the miraculous. The
popular legend had prepared the way for this treatment,
and the epic poets — who needed miracles to answer the
end they proposed — sometimes developed the miracu
lous legend still farther, and sometimes invented new
" §150. ' larogla.
° JWei/er(Apol. Gesch. A.T. ; 1811) misunderstands my view in Beitr. vol. i.
^ Anschaulichkeit und Gemlithlichkeit ' § 126

44 BOOKS OF MOSES. [§ 147, b.
miracles ; for they also availed themselves of the right,
so frequently used by the jjoets and prophets, of con
structing symbolical poems. The book of Chronicles'*
shows how the miracles were enlarged upon and farther
developed. It is probable the author of the Jehovis-
tic fragments has transformed much into the miraculous
which was natural and simple in the Elohistic fragment.
Passages like Ps. 1., Isa, vi,, Ezek. i., and Ex, xix., be
long to this kind of symbolic poetry. The story of the
manna in Ex. xvi, is obviously designed to impress men
with the holiness of the Sabbath.
[We can never determine to what extent historical
narratives have been altered to suit the theocratical
ideas ; but the fact of such alteration, or else of the in
vention of circumstances, is very plain ; for example, the
following passages seem designed to suit the notion of a
covenant between Jehovah and the Israelites; that he
had miraculous communication with them ; had selected
them, and rejected all other nations ; and had founded the
theocracy at an early date : Gen. xv., where it is said
Jehovah appears to Abraham, and makes a covenant to
give him, or his posterity, all the region from the River
of iEgypt to the Euphrates ; (the covenant was ratified
by a sacrifice, and a miraculous furnace and blazing
torch pass between the divided portions of the slaugh
tered animals ;) Gen. xvii,, where the same covenant is
renewed, the rite of circumcision established, and the
birth of Isaac promised ; Gen, xxxv. 9 — 15, where the
blessing is confirmed to Jacob; Gen. xlvi. 1 — 7.
Exodus xiii. 21, 22.
" And the Lord went before them by day in a pillar of a cloud, to
lead them the way ; and by night in a pillar of fire, to give them
" § 190, c.

^5 147, 6.] BOOKS OF MOSES, 45
light to go by day and night. He took not away the pillar of the
cloud by day, nor the pillar of fire by night, from before the people."
Exodus xl, 34—38.
"Then a cloud covered the tent of the congregation, and the
glory of the Lord filled the tabernacle. And Moses was not able
to enter into the tent of the congregation, because the cloud abode
thereon, and the glory of the Lord filled the tabernacle. And when
the cloud was taken up from over the tabernacle, the children of
Israel went onward in all their journeys. But if the cloud were
not taken up, then they journeyed not till the day that it was taken
up. For the cloud of the Lord was upon the tabernacle by day, and
fire was on it by night, in the sight of all the house of Israel,
throughout all their journeys.'' Leviticus ix. 23, 24.
" And Moses and Aaron went into the tabernacle of the congre
gation, and came out, and blessed the people : and the glory of the
Lord appeared unto all the people. And there came a fire out from
before the Lord, and consumed upon the altar the burnt-offering and
the fat : which when all the people saw, they shouted and fell on
their faces." Numbers ix. 15—23.
" And on the day that the tabernacle was reared up, the cloud
covered the tabernacle, namely, the tent of the testimony ; and at
even there was upon the tabernacle as it were the appearance of
fire, until the morning. So it was always : the cloud covered it by
day, and the appearance of fire by night. And when the cloud was
taken up from the tabernacle, then after that the children of Israel
journeyed : and in the place where the cloud abode, there the chil
dren of Israel pitched their tents. At the commandment of the Lord
the children of Israel journeyed, and at the commandment of the
Lord they pitched : as long as the cloud abode upon the tabernacle
they rested in their tents. And when the cloud tarried long upon
the tabernacle many days, then the children of Israel kept the charge
of the Lord, and journeyed not. And so it was, when the cloud was
a few days upon the tabernacle ; according to the commandment of the
Lord they abode in their tents, and according to the commandment
of the Lord they journeyed. And so it was, when the cloud abode
from even unto the morning, and that the cloud was taken up in the

46 BOOKS OF MOSES. [§ 147, b.
morning, then they journeyed : whether it was by day or by night
that the cloud was taken up, they journeyed. Or whether it were
two days, or a month, or a year, that the cloud tarried upon the
tabernacle, remaining thereon, the children of Israel abode in their
tents, and journeyed not : but when it was taken up, they journeyed.
At the commandment of the Lord they rested in their tents, and
at the commandment of the Lord they journeyed : they kept the
charge of the Lord, at the commandment of the Lord by the hand
of Moses." The history of Isaac, contained in Gen. ix. 20 — 29,
xii. 1, xix. 30—38, xxi. 9—21, xxiv. xxv. 19—34,
xxvii. ; Gen. ii. 3, which mentions the Sabbath; Gen.
ix. 4 — 6, where blood is forbidden ; Gen. xvii. 10 — 14,
where the rite of circumcision is enjoined; Gen. xii.,
containing the alleged trial of Abraham's faith ; Gen.
xlviii. 13 — 22, Jacob's blessing on the sons of Joseph;
Gen. xlix., his final blessing of all his sons ; Ex. xii.
1 — 28, xiii. 1 — 16, the institution of the Passover.]
II. Since the chief design of the theocratical epic
poem was to inspire the people with reverence for their
sacred laws and institutions, therefore the author of the
document Elohim not ouly, in conformity with the
actual tradition, showed how they proceeded from
Moses, the lawgiver, who received divine influence,
but he also ascribed to him, and in a manner not his
torical, many later developments of his laws, and
additions which seemed necessary to the writer. Thus
he sanctioned many laws and customs by assigning
them an origin still more ancient than the time of Moses.
Where laws are thus referred back to a more remote
antiquity, I have called them juridical or legal myths.
Such a one is found in Gen. ii. 3 — " And God blessed the
seventh day, and sanctified it, because that in it God had

5) 147, 6.]

BOOKS OF MOSES.

47

rested from all his work which God created and made ; "
and Ex. xvi. is certainly of this same character. The
mythical origin of the Passover, (Ex. xii.,) and some oth
ers, may be contested. But two things are certain —
1. That the author of Deuteronomy ascribes to Moses
a body of laws which were obviously modified after his
time." 2. That the author of the document Jehovah has
referred certain customs and laws to an origin more
ancient than their real date. Perhaps the progressive
formation of the Mosaic law is acknowledged in

Numbers xv. 23.
"And if ye have erred, and not observed all these commandments
which the Lord hath spoken unto Moses, even all that the Lord
hath commanded you by the hand of Moses, from the day that the
Lord commanded Moses, and henceforward among your generations."
III. In connection with this, a sort of spirit of inves
tigation and combination was also at work. We are
indebted to this for the genealogical and ethnographical
accounts contained in the Pentateuch. They are de
signed in sober earnest, and are not without some his
torical foundation, but are rather the result of fancy and
conjecture than of genuine historical investigation. To
test the accuracy of the table Gen. x., compare the fol
lowing passages : —

Genesis.
Chap. X.23. " And the children
of Aram : Uz, and Hul, and
Gether, and Mash."

Genesis.
Chap. xxii. 21. " Huz, his first
born, and Buz, his brother, and
Kemuel, the father of Aram."
Chap, xxxvi. 28. "The chil
dren of Dishan  Uz and
Aran."

§ 156.

48

BOOKS OF MOSES.

[^ 147, 6,

7 "The sons of Cush, Seba,
and Havilah, and Sabtah, and Raa-
mah, and Sabtecha, and the sons
of Raamah : Sheba and Dedan.
25 And unto Eber were born
two sons  Peleg  and
his brother's name was Joktan.
28 )S7je6a is the son of Joktan."

Chap. xxv. 2. " Abraham took
a wife  Keturah ; and she
bare him Zimran and Jokshan,
Medan, and Midian, and Ishbak,
and Shu ah; and Jokshan begat
Sheba and Dedan." 

The derivation from Cush, Canaan, Elam, and Ashur,
is opposed by the history of the language."
To test the accuracy of the other table, compare the

following passages : —
Genesis.
Chap, xxxvi. 2, 3. " Esau took
his wives of the daughters of Ca
naan ; Adah the daughter of EJon
the Hittite, and Aholibamah the
daughter of Anah the daughter
of Zibeon the Hivite ; and Bashe-
math, Ishmael's daughter, sister
ofNebajoth." Chap, xxxvi. 15—30. " These
were dukes of the sons of Esau :
the sons of Eliphaz, the first-born
son of Esau ; duke Teman, duke
Omar, dukeZepho, duke Kenaz,
duke Korah, duke Gatam, and
duke Amalek : these are the dukes
that came of Eliphaz, in the land
of Edom : these were the sons
of Adah. And these are the sons
of Reuel, Esau's son ; duke Na-
hath, duke Zerah, duke Sham-
mah, duke Mizzah : these are
the dukes that came of Reuel, in

Genesis,
Chap. xxvi. 34, 35. "And
Esau was forty years old when
he took to wife Judith the daugh
ter of Beeri the Hittite, and Ba-
shemath the daughter of Elon
the Hittite, which were a grief
of mind unto Isaac and to Re-
bekah." Chap, xxxvi. 40—43. " And
these are the names of the dukes
that came of Esau, according to
their families, after their places,
by their names; duke Timnah,
duke Alvah, duke Jetheth, duke
Aholibamah, duke Elah, duke
Pinon, duke Kenaz, duke Teman,
duke Mibzar, duke Magdiel, duke
Iram : these be the dukes of
Edom, according to their habita
tions, in the land of their posses
sion ; he is Esau the father of the
Edomites.''

But see Rosenmidler, Alt vol. iii. p. 33, 160, 174.

^ 147, b.]

BOOKS OF MOSES.

49

the land of Eaom : these are the
sons of Bashemath, Esau's wife.
"And these are the sons of
Aholibamah, Esau's wife; duke
Jeush, duke Jaalam, duke Korah :
these were the dukes that came
of Aholibamah the daughter of
Anah, Esau's wife. These are
the sons of Esau, (who is Edom,)
and these are their dukes.
" These are the sons of Seir,
the Horite, who inhabited the
land; Lotan, and Shobal, and
Zibeon, and Anah, and Dishon,
and Ezer, and Dishan; these are
the dukes of the Horites, the chil
dren of Seir in the land of Edom.
And the children of Lotan were
Hori, and Heman ; and Lotan's
sister was Timna. And the chil
dren of Shobal were these; Al-
van, and Manahath, and Ebal,
Shepho, and Onam. And these
are the children of Zibeon ; both
Ajah, and Anah; this was that
Anah that found the mules in the
wilderness, as he fed the asses
of Zibeon his father. And the
children of Anah were these;
Dishon, and Aholibamah the
daughter of Anah. And these
are the children of Dishon ; Hem-
dan, and Eshban, and Ithran, and
Cheran. The children of Ezer
are these; Bilhan, and Zaavan,
and Akan. The children of Di
shan are these; Uz and Aran.
These are the dukes that came
of the Horites ; duke Lotan, duke
Shobal, duke Zibeon, duke Anah.
VOL. II. 7

Chap. xiv. 6. " And the Horites
in their Mount Seir."
Deuteronomy.
Chap. ii. 12—22. "The Ho-
rims also dwelt in Seir before-
time, but the children of Esau
succeeded them, when they had
destroyed them from before them,
and dwelt in their stead ; as Is
rael did unto the land of his
possession, which the Lord gave
unto them. The children of
Esau, which dwelt in Seir, when
he destroyed the Horims from
before them ; and they succeeded
them, and dwelt in their stead
even unto this day."

50 BOOKS OF MOSES. [^ 147, b.
duke Dishon, duke Ezer, duke Dishan , these are the dukes that
came of Hori, among their dukes in the land of Seir."
We find less seriousness, and more of a religious and
poetical spirit of fancy in the etymological myths, where
an account is given of the origin of the names of persons
and places. Some of these are conformable to tradition ;
but others, by their artificial character, betray themselves
as the productions of later reflection ; for example. Gen,
xi, 9, " Therefore is the name of it called Babel, because
the Lord did there confound the language of all the
earth." Gen. xix. 22, " Therefore the name of the city
Avas called Zoar.'''"'
IV. The religious and didactic design of the writer
appears in the didactic myths in their general fqrm, or in
the setting forth of religious truths which belong out of
the circle of the national and theocratical history ; for
example, in Gen. i. — iii., and Ex. xxxiii. 12 — 23.
V. Since the authors of the Pentateuch — who, per
haps, were prophets — found the laws and institutions of
the Israelitish nation in the most ancient history, and
likewise their rules and forms in the divine plan of the
world, they were therefore led, by custom and the neces
sity of prophetic vision, to throw back into ancient history
the prophecy of later events and circumstances, by means
oi fictitious predictions, and thus to establish a closer
connection between the present and the past, and at
the same time lay a foundation for actual prophecies
of the future. Examples of this are as follows : —
" See Vater and Tuch, in loc. Comp. Gen. xxxvi. 15, 18, 22, with xxvi.
18, 40, 41.
' [Smdllness, because Lot said, " It is a little one."]

§ 148.J BOOKS OF MOSES. 51
Genesis xxv. 23.
" Two nations are in thy womb, and two manner of people shall
be separated from thy bowels, and the one people shall be stronger
than the other people, and the elder shall serve the younger."
Genesis xxvii. 28, 29, 39, 40.
" Therefore God give thee of the dew of heaven, and tlie fatness
of the earth, and plenty of corn and wine ; let people serve thee, and
nations bow down to thee ; be lord over thy brethren, and let thy
mother's sons bow down to thee ; cursed be every one that curseth
thee, and blessed be he that blesseth thee 
" And Isaac his father answered, and said unto him, ' Behold, thy
dwelling shall be the fatness of the earth, and of the dew of heaven
from above ; and by thy sword shalt thou live, and shalt serve thy
brother ; and it shall come to pass when thou shalt have the domin
ion, that thou shalt break his yoke from off thy neck.' "
Genesis xlix. Numbers xxiii. 7 — 10, and
Numbers xxiii. 23, 24.
" Surely there is no enchantment against Jacob, neither is there any
divination against Israel : according to this time it shall be said of Ja
cob and of Israel, ' What hath God wrought ! ' Behold, the people shall
rise up as a great lion, and lift up himself as a young lion ; he shall
not lie down until he eat of the prey, and drink the blood of the slain."
Num. xxiv, 3 — 9, 15 — 24. Levit, xxvi, Deut, xxviii.
xxxii. 5; 159, 257," ^ 148.
ERRORS IN RESPECT TO HISTORICAL TRUTH^
In the course of such a treatment, various errors in
regard to historical truth would naturally be made.
These betray the later writer.
I. The order in which events follow one another, in
the Mosaic history, is not accurately observed.'
° See Asiatic Researches, vol. viii. p. 486.
!> For an enumeration of all that may be called anachronisms, see Vater.

52 BOOKS OF MOSES, [^ 148,
Exodus xvi, 23—30.
" And he said unto them, ' This is that which the Lord hath said,
" To-morrow is rest of holy Sabbath unto the Lord : bake that which
ye will bake to-day, and seethe that ye will seethe ; and that which
remaineth over lay up for you to be kept until the morning." ' And
they laid it up till the morning, as Moses bade: and it did not stink,
neither was there any worm therein. And Moses said, ' Eat that to
day ; for to-day is Sabbath unto the Lord; to-day ye shall not find it
in the field. Six days ye shall gather it ; but on the seventh day,
which is the Sabbath, in it there shall be none.'
" And it came to pass, that there went out some of the people on the
seventh day for to gather, and they found none. And the Lord said
unto Moses, ' How long refuse ye to keep my commandments and my
laws? See, for that the Lord hath given you the Sabbath, therefore
he giveth you on the sixth day the bread of two days : abide ye
every man in his place; let no man go out of his place on the
seventh day.' So the people rested on the seventh day."
Here the law of the Sabbath is supposed to be well
known. Butitisnotgiven till after this time. Ex. xx.9,
" Six days shalt thou labor, and do all thy work ; but the
seventh is Sabbath ; in it thou shalt not do any work."
Ex. xix. 22. At the time Moses ascends the moun
tain, Jehovah commands the priests to be sanctified,
"lest Jehovah should break out upon them." Verse
24, he permits Aaron, as one peculiarly sanctified, to
accompany Moses on the mount. But it is plain there
was no body of priests at that time ; for (xxiv. 5)
Moses sent young men (not priests, whose office it was)
to sacrifice to Jehovah. Aaron was not consecrated as
high priest at that time, for he and the priests are first
appointed by Jehovah, in chap, xxviii. xxix. Again :
1. u. p. 631, sqq. Bertholdt, vol. iii. p. 771, sqq. Hartmann, Hist Krit. Fors
chungen, &c. p. 689, sq. But see Jahn's defence of them in Bengel's
Archiv. vol. iii. p. 574, sqq., and Ch. Fr. Fritzsche, Prijfung der Griinde, mit
welchen neuerlich die Aechtheit, d. B. Mos., bestritten worden ; 1814,
p. 124, sqq.

^5 148.] BOOKS OF MOSES, 5i

o

Exodus xvi, 32 — 34,
" And Moses said, ' This is the thing which the Lord commandeth :
"Fill an omer of it, to be kept for your generations; that they may
see the bread wherewith I have fed you in the wilderness, when I
brought you forth from the land of ^gypt." ' And Moses said unto
Aaron, ' Take a pot, and put an omer full of manna therein, and lay
it up before the Lord, to be kept for your generations.' As the Lord
commanded Moses, so Aaron laid it up before the testimony, to
be kept.''
Here the manna is to be laid up before the ark of the
covenant in the holy place of the tabernacle. But the
tabernacle itself does not appear until after this, name
ly, in Exodus xxxiii. 7 — 11.
" And Moses took the tabernacle, and pitched it without the camp,
afar off" from the camp, and called it the Tabernacle of the Congre
gation. And it came to pass, that every one which sought the Lord
went out unto the Tabernacle of the Congregation, which was with
out the camp. And it came to pass, when Moses went out unto the
tabernacle, that all the people rose up, and stood every man at his
tent-door, and looked after Moses, until he was gone into the taber
nacle. And it came to pass, as Moses entered into the tabernacle,
the cloudy pillar descended, and stood at the door of the tabernacle,
and the Lord talked with Moses. And all the people saw the cloudy
pillar stand at the tabernacle-door : and all the people rose up and
worshipped, every man in his tent-door. And the Lord spake unto
Moses face to face, as a man speaketh unto his friend. And he
turned again into the camp ; but his servant Joshua, the son of
Nun, a young man, departed not out of the tabernacle.''
In xxxiv. 34, 35, Moses unveils himself on entering
this tabernacle ; and yet a subsequent passage (xxxvi.
— xl.) contains an account of the building of this taber
nacle, according to the instructions given xxv. — xxvii.
But this tabernacle is not said to be made to supply the
place of an old one.

54 BOOKS OF MOSES. [5} 148,
Leviticus xxv, 32 — 34,
"Notwithstanding, the cities of the Levites, and the houses of the
cities of their possession, may the Levites redeem at any time. And
if a man purchase of the Levites, then the house that was sold, and
the city of his possession, shall go out in the year of jubilee : for
the houses of the cities of the Levites are their possession among
the children of Israel. But the field of the suburbs of their cities
may not be sold ; for it is their perpetual possession."
Here the Levites are supposed to possess landed
estates. But the law assigning them cities to dwell in
was not enacted till long afterward, namely, in
Numbers xxxv. 1 — 5,
" And the Lord spake unto Moses in the plains of Moab by
Jordan near Jericho, saying, ' Command the children of Israel that
they give unto the Levites of the inheritance of their possession cities
to dwell in ; and ye shall give also unto the Levites suburbs for the
cities round about them. And the cities shall they have to dwell in,
and the suburbs of them shall be for their cattle, and for their goods,
and for all their beasts. And the suburbs of the cities which ye shall
give unto the Levites shall reach from the wall of the city and out
ward, a thousand cubits round about. And ye shall measure from
without the city on the east side two thousand cubits, and on the
south side two thousand cubits, and on the west side two thousand
cubits, and on the north side two thousand cubits; and the city
shall be in the midst : this shall be to them the suburbs of the
cities.' "
Compare, also. Num. i, 1, sqq,, with Ex, xxxviii. 25,
and xxx. 11 — 16. This latter passage is evidently out
of place, for it occurs in the midst of instructions respect
ing the tabernacle. Num. ix. 1, contains the account of
a transaction which took place in the first month of the
second year ; while the earlier passage (i. 1, sq.) details
a census of the people made in the second month of the
same year.

^ 148.]

BOOKS OF MOSES.

55

II. Later manners, customs, institutions, and opin
ions, are referred back to ancient times.

Genesis.
Chap. iv. 3, 4. "And in
process of time it came to pass,
that Cain brought of the fruit of
the ground an offering unto the
Lord. And Abel, he also brought
of the firstlings of his flock, and
of the fat thereof"

Leviticus.
Chap. ii. 14. "And if thou offer
a meat-offering of thy first-fruits
unto the Lord, thou shalt offer for
the meat-offering of thy first-fruits,
green ears of corn dried by the fire,
even corn beaten out of full ears."
Chap. iii. 3. "And he shall
offer of the sacrifice of the peace-
offering, an offering made by fire
unto the Lord, the fat that cov-
ereth the inwards, and all the
fat that is upon the inwards.''
Numbers.
Chap. XV. 20. " Ye shall of
fer up a cake of the first of your
dough for a heave-offering: as ye do
the heave-offering of the threshing-
floor, so shall ye heave it."
Gen. iv. 14, 17, 26, " Then began men to call on the
name of Jehovah." Gen. vii. 8, and viii. 20, the division
of clean and unclean beasts is made use of as if it were
common and well known. Gen. xxxvii. 3, and 23, Joseph
has a coat of many colors ; compare it with 2 Sam. xiii.
18, where David's daughters are said to wear garments
of various colors. See, also, xxv. 22, and xxiv, 22, 30.
This passage, (Gen. xlix. 10,) " The sceptre shall not de
part from Judah, nor a lawgiver from between his feet,
until Shiloh come," belongs to this class, if it relates to
the Messiah. The same must be said of xii, 3, and xviii.
18, — "I will bless him that blesseth thee, and curse him
that curseth thee, and in thee shall all the tribes of the
earth be blessed;" "Abraham shall become a great
and mighty nation." Besides, the historical coloring is

56 BOOKS OF MOSES. [§ 148,
changed to suit the purpose of the writer, as in Num,
xxii, — xxiv,, where Balaam is made a prophet of Jehovah.
III. .Later circumstances and events are alluded to,
as it appears from the following examples : Gen. xii. 6,
"The Canaanitewas then inthe land." Gen. xiii. 7, "The
Canaanite and the Perizzite were then in the land " —
a remark no one would naturally make until after these
nations were driven out, that is, after the time of Joshua.
Levit. xviii. 28, "That the land do not vomit you
out, as it did the nations before you,'''' who were still
present in the time the book is alleged to have been
written, Deuteronomy ii. 12.
" The Horims also dwelt in Seir beforetime, but the children of
Esau succeeded them when they had destroyed them from before
them, and dwelt in their stead, as Israel did unto the land of his
possession, which the Lord gave unto them."
Ex. xxii. 20, xxiii. 9, "Thou shalt neither vex a
stranger nor oppress him, for ye were strangers in the
land of jEgypt ; " " For ye know the heart of a stranger,
since ye were strangers in the land of iEgypt." (Per
haps xii, 45, belongs, Jjere,)
Deuteronomy xix, 14.
" Thou shalt not remove thy neighbor's landmark, which they of
old time have set in thine inheritance, which thou shalt inherit in the
land that the Lord thy God giveth thee to possess it."
Exodus XV. 17,
" Thou shalt bring them in, and plant them in the mountain of
thine inheritance, in the place, O Lord, which thou hast made for
thee to dwell in, in the sanctuary, O Lord, which thy hands have
established." '
* According to Bkdt, in Stud, und Krit for 1831, p. 520, sqq., there is
no reference to the temple mountain, Moriah, in Gen. xxii. 2, 14.

^ 148.] BOOKS OF MOSES. 57
Here the temple mountain, — Mount Moriah, in Jerusa
lem, where Solomon's temple was erected, — and the
sanctuary, are referred to. See, also, xxiii. 19.
[Deuteronomy xxxiii. 12.
" Of Benjamin he said,
' The beloved of Jehovah shall dwell in safety with Him.
He shall protect him every day,
And shall rest in his borders.' "
Is not here an allusion to the fact that Jerusalem
and the temple were within the borders of the tribe of
Benjamin .^] Genesis xlviii. 5, 18 — ^20.
" And now thy two sons, Ephraim and Manasseh, which were
born unto thee in the land of .^gypt, before I came unto thee into
.^gypt, are mine : as Reuben and Simeon, they shall be mine.
" And Joseph said unto his father, ' Not so, my father ; for this is
the first-born : put thy right hand upon his head.' And his father re
fused, and said, ' I know it, my son, I know it; he also shall become
a people, and he also shall be great ; but truly his younger brother
shall be greater than he, and his seed shall become a multitude of
nations.' And he blessed them that day, saying, 'In thee shall Israel
bless, saying, " God make thee as Ephraim and as Manasseh." ' And
he set Ephraim before Manasseh."
Here the superiority of Ephraim, the chief tribe, is
referred to, as a well-known fact.
Genesis xlix, 8 — 12,
"Judah, thou art he whom thy brethren shall praise; thy hand
shall be in the neck of thine enemies : thy father's children shall bow
down before thee. Judah is a lion's whelp ; from the prey, my son,
thou art gone up : he stooped down, he couched as a lion, and as an
old lion ; who shall rouse him up 1 The sceptre shall not depart
from Judah, nor a lawgiver from between his feet, until Shiloh come ;
and unto him shall the gathering of the people be ; binding his foal
unto the vine, and his ass's colt unto the choice vine ; he washed his
garments in wine, and his clothes in the blood of grapes. His eyes
shall be red with wine, and his teeth white with milk."
VOL. II. 8

bo BOOKS OF MOSES. [^ 148.
Here Judah is the royal tribe, and continual prosperity
is assigned him. Contrast it with the fate appointed
for the descendants of Joseph, that is, the tribe of
Ephraim, or the kingdom of the ten tribes.
Genesis xlix. 22—26.
" Joseph is a fruitful bough, even a fruitful bough by a well, whose
branches run over the wall. The archers have sorely grieved him,
and shot at hira, and hated him ; but his bow abode in strength, and
the arras of his hands were made strong by the hands of the mighty
God of Jacob ; even by the God of thy father who shall help thee ;
aud by the Almighty, who shall bless thee with blessings of heaven
above, blessings of the deep that lieth under, blessings of the breasts
and of the wombs; the blessings of thy father have prevailed above
the blessings of my progenitors, unto the utmost bound of the ever
lasting hills ; they shall be on the head of Joseph, and on the crown
of the head of him that was separate from his brethren."
The song of Moses, (Deut. xxxii., especially 5 — 33,)
and the remark, xxix. 28, presuppose a state of things
not possible in the time of Moses. [The curses for dis
obedience in Levit. xxvi. belong to the same class.
Leviticus xxvi. 33 — 43.
" And I will scatter you among the heathen, and will draw out a
sword after you; and your land shall be desolate, and your cities
waste. Then shall the land enjoy her Sabbaths as long as it lieth
desolate, and ye be in your enemies' land; even then shall the land
rest, and enjoy her Sabbaths. As long as it lieth desolate it shall
rest ; because it did not rest in your Sabbaths, when ye dwelt upon it.
And upon them that are left alive of you, I will send a faintness into
their hearts in the lands of their enemies ; and the sound of a shaken
leaf shall chase them ; and they shall flee as fleeing from a sword ;
and they shall fall when none pursueth. And they shall fall one
upon another, as it were before a sword, when none pursueth : and
ye shall have no power to stand before your enemies. And ye shall
perish among the heathen, and the land of your enemies shall eat you
up. And they that are left of you shall pine away in their iniquity
in your enemies' lands ; and also in the iniquities of their fathers shall

^ 148,] BOOKS OF MOSES. 59
they pine away with them. If they shall confess their iniquity, and
the iniquity of their fathers, with their trespass which they trespassed
against me, and that also they have walked contrary unto ine; and
that I also have walked contrary unto them, and have brought them
into the land of their enemies; if then their uncircuincised hearts be
humbled, and they then accept of the punishment of their iniquity ;
then will I remember my covenant with Jacob, and also my cove
nant with Isaac, and also my covenant with Abraham will I remem
ber ; and I will remember the land. The land also shall be left of
them, and shall enjoy her Sabbaths, while she lieth desolate without
them : and they shall accept of the punishment of their iniquity ; be
cause, even because they despised my judgments, and because their
soul abhorred my statutes."
The following passage will perhaps help us to the
date of these curses: —
2 Chronicles xxxvi. 20, 21.
" And them that had escaped from the sword carried he away to Baby
lon, where they were servants to him and his sons, until the reign
of the kingdom of Persia ; to fulfil the word of the Lord by the mouth
of Jeremiah, until the land had enjoyed her Sabbaths; for as long as
she lay desolate she kept Sabbath, to fulfil threescore and ten years."
To the same class of curses belong the following : —
Deuteronomy iv. 27.
" And the Lord shall scatter you among the nations, and ye shall
be left few in number among the heathen, whither the Lord shall
lead you." Deuteronomy xxviii. 25, 36, 37, 64.
" The Lord shall cause thee to be smitten before thine enemies :
thou shalt go out one way against them, and flee seven ways before
them ; and shalt be removed into all the kingdoms of the earth 
" The Lord shall bring thee, and thy king which thou shalt set over
thee, unto a nation which neither thou nor thy fathers have known ;
and there shalt thou serve other gods, wood and stone. And thou
shalt become an astonishment, a proverb, and a by-word, among all
nations whither the Lord shall lead thee 

60 BOOKS OF MOSES. [§ 148.
"And the Lord shall scatter thee among all people, from the one
end of the earth even unto the other ; and there thou shalt serve
other gods, which neither thou nor thy fathers have known, even
wood and stone." Deuteronomy xxix. 25, sqq.
" Then men shall say, ' Because they have forsaken the covenant of
the Lord God of their fathers, which he made with them, when he
brought them forth out of the land of ^gypt : for they went and
served other gods, and worshipped them, gods whom they knew not,
and whom he had not given unto them. And the anger of the Lord
was kindled against this land, to bring upon it all the curses that are
written in this book : and the Lord rooted them out of their land in
anger, and in wrath, and in great indignation, and cast them into
another land, as it is this day.' "]
Sometimes later events are only faintly alluded to:
Gen. xvii. 6, " And I will make thee exceeding fruit
ful, and I will make nations of thee ; and kings shall
come out of thee." Verse 16, " And I will bless her,
[Sarah,] and give thee a son also of her : yea, I will
bless her, and she shall be a mother of nations ; kings
of people shall be of her." And the similar passage,
xxxv. 1 1 .
In Gen. xxxvi. 31, there is mention of kings of Israel:
" And these are the kings that reigned in the land of
Edom, before there reigned any king over the children
of Israel." A similar allusion is made Deut. xxviii. 36.
Gen. xxvii. 40, Jacob, blessing Esau, says, " By thy
sword shalt thou live, and shalt serve thy brother. But
it shall come to pass when thou shalt have the domin
ion, that thou shalt break his yoke from off thy neck,"
Compare the following passages : —
2 Samuel viii, 14,
" And he [David] put garrisons in Edom ; throughout all Edom
put he garrisons : and all they of Edom became David's servants,"

^ 148,] BOOKS OF MOSES, 61
2 Kings viii. 20.
"In his days Edom revolted from under the hand of Judah,
and made a king over themselves."
Numbers xxiv, 7.
" He [Jacob] shall pour the water out of his buckets, and his
seed shall be in many waters, and his king shall be higher than
Agag, and his kingdom shall be exalted.''
Numbers xxiv, 17 — 20,
" I shall see him, but not now; I shall behold him, but not nigh :
there shall come a Star out of Jacob, and a Sceptre shall rise out
of Israel, and shall smite the corners of Moab, and destroy all the
children of Sheth. And Edom shall be a possession ; Seir also shall
be a possession for his enemies ; and Israel shall do valiantly. Out
of Jacob shall come he that shall have dominion, and shall destroy
him that remaineth of the city. And when he looked on Amalek,
he took up his parable, and said, ' Amalek was the first of the na
tions, but his latter end shall be that he perish forever.' "
Compare 1 Sam. xv., where Saul routs the Amalek-
ites, and Samuel hews Agag, their king, in pieces ;
xiv. 47, where Saul's conquest of this nation is related;
1 Ch. iv. 43, where their destruction is completed ; and
2 Sam. viii. 2, 14.
Num. xxiv. 22. " The Kenite shall be wasted until
Ashur shall carry thee away captive," But this is
doubtful. Compare the follow^ing : —
Deuteronomy xxviii. 68.
" And the Lord shall bring thee into .(Egypt again with ships,
by the way whereof I spake unto thee, ' Thou shalt see it no more
again : ' and there ye shall be sold unto your enemies for bond-men
and bond-women, and no man shall buy you.''
Isaiah xi. 11.
" And it shall come to pass in that day, that the Lord shall set
his hand again the second time to recover the remnant of his people,

62 BOOKS OF MOSCS. [§ 148.
n'hich shall be left, from Assyria, and from iEgypt, and from Pathros,
and from Cush, and from Elam, and from Shinar, and from Hamath,
and from the islands of the sea."
Zephaniah iii. 10.
" From beyond the rivers of .^Cthiopia my suppliants, even the
daughter of my dispersed, shall bring mine offering."
IV. Names of places and regions, which were first
known at a later date, also occur : — Hebron. Gen. xiii.
18, "Mamre, which is Hebron," &lc. But from Josh.
xiv. 16, XV. 13, it appears Hebron was a modern name,
probably given in honor of the grandson of Caleb, (1
Ch. ii. 41.) [Formerly it had been called Kirjath-arba.
It is even called by its ancient name in Neh. xi. 25.]
Dan is mentioned Gen. xiv. 14, and Deut. xxxiv. 1,
In the last passage, it is the extreme limit of the land of
Gilead, But the place did not come into the possession of
Dan until long after Moses, as it appears from Judg. xviii.
29 — " And they called the name of the city Dan, after
the name of Dan their father, who was born unto Israel :
howbeit, the name of the city was Laish at the first."
Beth-el is mentioned Gen. xii. 8 — " And he [Abram]
removed from thence unto a mountain on the east
of Beth-el ; there he builded an altar." Again, (xxviii.
19,) Jacob comes to the place, where he passes the
night, and has a remarkable dream ; " And he called the
name of that place Beth-el ; but the name of the city
was Luz at first." Gen. xxxv. 15, as Jacob returns from
Padan-aram, Elohim appears to him, " And Jacob called
the name of the place where Elohim spake with him
Beth-el." But in Josh, xviii, 13, it is stiU called " Luz,
(which is Beth-el.)"
Havoth-jair (the villages of Jair) is mentioned Num,
xxxii, 41 — "And Jair the son of Manasseh went

§ 148.]

BOOKS OF MOSES.

63

and took the small towns thereof, and called them Ha
voth-jair;" and Deut. iii. 14, "Jair the son of Manasseh
took all the country of Argob, unto the coasts of Geshuri,
and Maachathi, and called them after his own name,
Bashan-havoth-jair, unto this day." But, according to
Judges, (x. 3, 4,) the place was named from Jair, who
judged Israel long after Moses. " And after him arose
Jair, a Gileadite, and judged Israel twenty-and-two
years. And he had thirty sons that rode on thirty ass-
colts, and they had thirty cities, which are called Havoth-
jair unto this day, which are in the land of Gilead."
Ophir, also, is mentioned Gen. x. 29. Compare 1
Kings ix. 28.
In the course of such an unhistorical and arbitrary
treatment, it was natural that the same thing should
be difierently represented, and the various writers should
contradict themselves.
Compare Gen. ii. 4 — 25, with the very difierent ac
count of the same things in i. 1 — ii. 3. Compare, also,
the following : — Genesis. Chap. vii. 2, 3. "Of every
clean beast thou shalt take to
thee by sevens, the male and his
female ; and of beasts that are not
clean by two, the male and his
female. Of fowls also of the air
by sevens, the male and the fe
male ; to keep seed alive upon the
face of all the earth.''

Chap. vi. 19—21. "And of
every living thing of all flesh, two
of every sort shalt thou bring into
the ark, to keep them alive with
thee : they shall be male and fe
male. Of fowls after their kind,
and of cattle after their kind, of
every creeping thing of the earth
after his kind ; two of every sort
shall come unto thee, to keep them
alive. And take thou unto thee
of all food that is eaten, and thou
shalt gather it to thee ; and it shall
be for food for thee, and for them."
Chap. ix. 8—17. "And God
spake unto Noah, and to his

Chap. viii. 20—22. "And
Noah builded an altar unto the

64

BOOKS OF .MOSES.

[§ 148.

sons with him, saying, • And I,
behold, I establish my covenant
with you, and with your seed
after you; and with every liv
ing creature that is with you,
of the fowl, of the cattle, and of
every beast of the earth with you,
from all that go out of the ark, to
every beast of the earth. And I
will establish my covenant with
you ; neither shall all flesh be cut
off" any more by the waters of a
flood ; neither shall there any
more be a flood to destroy the
earth.' And God said, ' This is
the token of the covenant which
I make between me and you, and
every living creature that is with
you, for perpetual generations. I
do set my bow in the cloud, and
it shall be for a token of a cove
nant between me and the earth.
And it shall come to pass, when
I bring a cloud over the earth,
that the bow shall be seen in
the cloud : and I will remember
my covenant, which is between
me and you, and every living
creature of all flesh; and the
waters shall no more become a
flood to destroy all flesh. And
the bow shall be in the cloud;
and I will look upon it, that I
may remember the everlasting
covenant between God and every
living creature of all flesh that is
upon the earth.' And God said
unto Noah, ' This is the token of
the covenant which I have estab
lished between me and all flesh
that is upon the earth.' "

Lord, and took of every clean
beast, and of every clean fowl,
and offered burnt-offerings on the
altar. And the Lord smelled
a sweet savor ; and the Lord
said in his heart, ' I will not
again curse the ground any more
for man's sake; for the imagina
tion of man's heart is evil from
his youth : neither will I again
smite any more every thing liv
ing, as I have done. While the
earth remaineth, seed-time and
harvest, and cold and heat, and
summer and winter, and day and
night, shall not cease.' "

§ 148.]

BOOKS OF MOSES.

65

Genesis.

[Chap. xi. 26, 32. " And Te-
rah lived seventy years, and begat
Abram, Nahor, and Haran.
" And the days of Terah were
two hundred and five years : and
Terah died in Haran."

Chap. xii. 4. " So Abram de
parted, as the Lord had spoken
unto him ; and Lot went with
him : and Abram was seventy
and five years old when he de
parted out of Haran."]

Compare the whole of chapter xv. with the repe
tition of the same thing in xvii. Compare also the
following passages : —

Chapter xvii. 17.
" Then Abraham fell
upon his face, and
laughed, and said in
his heart, ' Shall a
child be born unto
him that is a hundred
years old ? and shall
Sarah, that is ninety
years old, bear 1 ' "

Chapter xxi. 5, 6.
" And Abraham was
a hundred years old
when his son Isaac
was born unto him.
" And Sarah said,
' God hath made me to
laugh, so that all that
hear will laugh with
me.' "

Chap, xviii. 12 — 15.
" Therefore Sarah
laughed within her
self, saying, ' After I
am waxed old, shall I
have pleasure, my lord
being old also ? ' And
the Lord said unto
Abraham, 'Wherefore
did Sarah laugh, say
ing, " Shall I of a sure
ty bear a child, which
am old?" Is anything
too hard for the Lord ?
At the time appointed
I will return unto thee,
according to the time
of life, and Sarah shall
have a son.' Then
Sarah denied, saying,
'I laughed not;' for
she was afraid. And
he said, ' Nay ; but
thou didst laugh.'"

Here the same fact is related three times, with only
VOL. II. 9

66

BOOKS OF MOSES.

[§ 148.

this difference, that in one passage Abraham, but in both
the others Sarah, laughs.

Genesis.
And

Chap. xxi. 22—32.
it came to pass at that time,
that Abiraelech, and Phichol the
chief captain of his host, spake
unto Abraham, saying, ' God is
with thee in all that thou doest.
Now, therefore, swear unto rae
here by God, that thou wilt not
deal falsely with me, nor with my
son, nor with my son's son : but
according to the kindness that I
have done unto thee thou shalt do
unto me, and to the land wherein
thou hast sojourned.' And Abra
ham said, ' I will swear.' And
Abraham reproved Abimelech be
cause of a well of water, which
Abimelech's servants had violent
ly taken away. And Abimelech
said, 'I wot not who hath done
this thing : neither didst thou tell
me, neither yet heard I of it but
to-day.' And Abraham took sheep
and oxen, and gave them unto
Abimelech : and both of them
made a covenant. And Abra
ham set seven ewe-lambs of the
flock by themselves. And Abim
elech said unto Abraham, ' What
mean these seven ewe-lambs which
thou hast set by themselves ? ' And
he said, ' For these seven ewe-
lambs shalt thou take of my hand,
that they may be a witness unto
me that I have digged this well.'
Wherefore he called that pkcis

Chap. xxvi. 26—33. "Then
Abimelech went to him from
Gerar, and Ahuzzath one of his
friends, and Phichol the chief
captain of his army. And Isaac
said unto them, ' Wherefore come
ye to me, seeing ye hate me,
and have sent me away from
you ? ' And they said, ' We saw
certainly that the Lord was with
thee : and we said, " Let there be
now an oath betwixt us, even be
twixt us and thee, and let us make
a covenant with thee ; that thou
wilt do us no hurt, as we have not
touched thee, and as we have done
unto thee nothing but good, and
have sent thee away in peace:
thou art now the blessed of the
Lord.'" And he made them a feast,
and they did eat and drink. And
they rose up betimes in the morn
ing, and sware one to another:
and Isaac sent them away, and
they departed from him in peace.
And it came to pass the same
day, that Isaac's servants came
and told him concerning the well
which they had digged, and said
unto him, ' We have found water.'
And he called it Shebah ; there
fore the name of the city is Beer-
sheba unto this day."

^ 148.]

BOOKS OF MOSES.

67

Beer-sheba, because there they sware both of them. Thus they
made a covenant at Beer-sheba : then Abimelech rose up, and Phi
chol the chief captain of his host, and they returned into the land
of the Philistines."

Chap, xxviii. 10 —
19. " And Jacob went
out from Beer-sheba,
and went toward Ha
ran. And he light
ed upon a certain
place, and tarried
there all night, be
cause the sun was
set : and he took of
the stones of that
place, and put them
for his pillows, and
lay down in that place
to sleep. And he
dreamed, and behold,
a ladder set upon the
earth, and the top of
it reached to heaven :
and behold, the an
gels of God ascend
ing and descending
on it. And behold,
the Lord stood above
it, and said, ' I am the
Lord God of Abra
ham thy father, and
the God of Isaac : the
land whereon thou
liest, to thee will I
give it, and to thy
seed. And thy seed
shall be as the dust
of the earth ; and thou
shalt spread abroad

Genesis.
Chap. xxxv. 1 — 8.
" And God said un
to Jacob, ' Arise, go
up to Beth-el, and
dwell there; and make
there an altar unto
God, that appeared
unto thee when thou
fleddest from the face
of Esau thy brother.'
Then Jacob said unto
his household, and to
all that were with
him, 'Put away the
strange gods that are
among you, and be
clean, and change
your garments • and
let us arise, and go
up to Beth-el : and I
will make there an
altar unto God, who
answered rae in the
day of my distress, and
was with me in the
way which I went.'
And they gave unto
Jacob all the strange
gods which were in
their hand, and all
their ear-rings which
were in their ears :
and Jacob hid them
under the oak which
was by Shechem.

Chap. xxxv. 9 — 15.
" And God appeared
unto Jacob again,
when he came out
of Padan-aram, and
blessed hira. And
God said unto him,
' Thy name is Jacob :
thy name shall not be
called any more Ja
cob, but Israel shall
be thy name. And he
calledhis name Israel.
And God said unto
him, ' I am God Al
mighty ; be fruitful,
and multiply : a na
tion, and a company
of nations, shall be of
thee ; and kings shall
come out of thy loins :
and the land which
I gave Abraham and
Isaac, to thee I will
give it, and to thy seed
after thee will I give
the land.' And God
went up from him in
the place where he
talked with him. And
Jacob set up a pillar
in the place where
he talked with him,
even a pillar of stone;
and he poured a drink-

68

BOOKS OF MOSES.

[§ 148.

to the west, and to
the east, and to the
north, and to the
south : and in thee
and in thy seed shall
all the families of the
earth be blessed. And
behold, I am with
thee, and will keep
thee in all places
whither thou goest,
and will bring thee
again into this land:
for I will not leave
thee, until I have done
that which I have
spoken to thee of
" And Jacob awaked
out of his sleep, and he
said, ' Surely the Lord
is in this place ; and
I knew it not.' And
he was afraid, and
said, ' How dreadful is
this place ! this is
none other but the
house of God, and
this is the gate of
heaven.' And Jacob
rose up early in the
morning, and took
the stone that he had
put for his pillows,
and set it up for a
pillar, and poured oil
upon the top of it.
And he called the
name of that place
Beth-el : but the name
of that city was called
Luz at the first."

And they journeyed :
and the terror of God
was upon the cities
that were round about
them, and they did
not pursue after the
sons of Jacob.
So Jacob came to
Luz, which is in the
land of Canaan, (that
is, Beth-el,) he, and all
the people that were
with him. And he
built there an altar,
and called the place
El-beth-el ; because
there God appeared
unto him, when he
fled from the face
of his brother. But
Deborah, Rebekah's
nurse, died, and she
was buried beneath
Beth-el under an oak :
and the name of it
was called Allon-ba-
chuth."

ofiering thereon, and
he poured oil there
on. And Jacob called
the name of the place
where God spake with
him, Beth-el."

^ 148,]

BOOKS OF MOSES,

69

Exodus ii, 18, Exodus iii, 1,
[" And when they came to Re- " Now Moses kept the flock
uel their father, he said, ' How is of Jethro his father-in-law, the
it that ye are come so soon to- priest of Midian : and he led the
day ? ' " flock to the back side of the
desert, and came to the moun
tain of God, even to Horeb."
Ex, iv, 18, and xviii, 1, sqq,]
Compare, also. Ex, vi, 2 — 8 with all the correspond
ing Jehovistic passages in Genesis ; but especially com
pare the following : —

Exodus vi, 2 — 8.
" And Elohim spake unto
Moses, and said unto him, ' I am
Jehovah. And I appeared unto
Abraham, unto Isaac, and unto
Jacob, as Elshaddai ; but by
my name Jehovah was I not
known to them. And I have also
established my covenant with
them, to give them the land of
Canaan, the land of their pil
grimage, wherein they were stran
gers. And I have also heard
the groaning of the children of
Israel, whom the Egyptians keep
in bondage; and I have remem
bered my covenant. Wherefore
say unto the children of Isra
el, " I am Jehovah, and I will
bring you out from under the
burdens of the .^Egyptians, and I
will rid you out of their bondage ;
and I will redeem you with a
stretched-out arm, and with great
judgments. And I will take you
to me for a people, and I will be

Genesis iv. 26.
" Then men began to call upon
the name of Jehovah."

70 BOOKS OF MOSES. [§ 149.
to you Elohim, and ye shall know that I am Jehovah, your God,
which bringeth you out from under the burdens of the .^Egyptians.
And I will bring you in unto the land, concerning the which I
did swear to give it to Abraham, to Isaac, and to Jacob, and I will
give it you for a heritage ; I am Jehovah." ' "
Compare, also, Ex. iv. 21 — 23, with Gen. v. — xi. ;
Num, xxii, — xxiv,, where Elohim and Jehovah are both
used, with Gen. xxxi. 9, 16, and others, where the latter
is used exclusively."

§149.
THE ACCOUNTS PRETENDED TO BE CONTEMPORARY WITH
THE EVENTS, OR VERY ANCIENT.
Some historical marks, which betray a certain ac
quaintance with .iEgypt, have been looked upon as
proofs that Moses was the author of the Pentateuch ; '
as if the Hebrews could not, at a later time, have ac-
» See beIo%v, § 154, 156. See Ewald, Genesis, p. 176, sqq., 191, sqq.
' The following are some of the passages : In Gen. xiii. 10, iEgypt is
said to be well watered. Deut xi. 10, it is implied that jEgypt is a level
country, its fields are watered artificially, and that it never is refreshed by
rain. Num. xiii. 22, Hebron was built seven years before Zoar in ./Egypt.
Jn Gen. xl. 11, 16, an acquaintance with the customs of the J3gyptian court
is apparent Gen. xhi. 9, the unprotected state of jEgypt is alluded to. Gen.
xliii. 32, mention is made that the ^Egyptians would not sit at table with the
Hebrews. Gen. xlvii. 20 — 26, " And Joseph bought all the land of .^gypt
for Pharaoh ; for the jEgyptians sold every man his field, because the famine
prevailed over tliem : so the land became Pharaoh's. And as for the people,
he removed them to cities from one end of the borders of iEgypt even to the
other end tliereof. Only the land of the priests bought he not ; for the priests
had a portion assigned them of Pharaoh, and did eat their portion which Pha
raoh gave them ; wherefore they sold not their lands. Then Joseph said unto
the people, ' Behold, 1 have bought you this day and your land for Pharaoh :
lo, here is seed for you, and ye shall sow the land. And it shall come to
pass in the increase, that ye shall give the fifth part unto Pharaoh, and four
parts shall be your own, for seed of tlie field, and for your food, and for them
of your households, and for food for your little ones.' And they said, ' Thou

§ 149.] BOOKS OF MOSES, 71
quired such an acquaintance by their political and com
mercial connection with the Egyptians,"
With still less probability can the accounts of the
original inhabitants of Canaan and the neighboring
countries be looked upon as proofs of a Mosaic origin ;
tor these accounts are very defective and contradictory,''
[Some critics have contended that the antiquity of these
books was established by the peculiarities of some nar
ratives they contain.
Thus, in Gen, xxxvi. 31, sqq., there is a list of eight
kings of Edom, all of whom are said to have died, ex
cepting the last, M'hose death is not mentioned. An
easy inference is, that he was not dead at the time of
writing the account. But since the title of this list is,
" Kings that reigned in the land of Edom before any
king reigned over the children of Israel," it is more
natural to suppose the last one mentioned was not dead
when the first king of Israel came to the throne.]
Such catalogues as those in Num. i. iii. vii. xxvi.
and elsewhere, are by no means incontestable con-

hast saved our lives ; let us find grace in the sight of my lord, and we will
be Pharaoh's servants.' And Joseph made it a law over tlie land of jEgypt
unto this day, that Pharaoh should have the fifth part ; except the land of
the priests only, which became not Pharaoh's." [This probably contains an
erroneous explanation of a real fact See Von Bohlen, Alt Ind. vol. ii. p.
45.] In xlvi. 34, shepherds are said to be an abomination to the .(Egyptians.
Ex. vii. 19, ix. 27. See Michaelis, Einleit in d. A. T. p. 189. Eichhorn, § 439,
435, a. De ./Egypti Anno mirabili Comment. Reg. Soe. Gott. recent vol. iv.
p. 35. Class. Hist and Philol.
" Vater, vol. iii. p. 605. On the intercourse between Palestine and jEgjrpt,
see Hartmann, Die Hebraerin am Putztische, vol. i. pp. 212, 460, vol. iii. p. 159,
and his Hist Krit Forschungen, p. 726. Compare, likewise, Isa. xix. Ezek.
xxix. 30. Ex. x. 13, is an untrue account Comp. Hasselquist, Reise, p. 254.
' See Michaelis, 1. c. p. 183. Vater, on the other hand, 1. c. 600. For
the verification of such accounts, compare Gen. xiv. 7, with xxxvi. 12 — 16,
(concerning the Amalekites ;) Gen. xxiii. 3, with Num. xiii. 22 ; Jos. xv. 13,
Judges i. 20, and Gen. xiv. 13, (on the inhabitants of Hebron ;) Gen. xv.
19, with Num. xxxii. 12, (on the Kenezites.) Vater, vol. i. p. 136.

72

BOOKS OF MOSES.

[§ 149,

temporary records, as Bertholdt maintains ; " for much
may be advanced against their credibility, and it may
be proved — at least by such examples as Gen. v. xi.
10 — 26, 1 Ch. ix. xxiii. xxvii. and Neh. x. — that such
passages owe their origin to an uncertain and often
arbitrary tradition,* as it may also be seen in the com-
jjarison of the following parallels : —

Numbers xxi. 10—20.
" And the children of Israel
set forward, and pitched in Oboth.
And they journeyed from Oboth,
and pitched at Ije-abarim, in the
wilderness which is before Mo
ab, toward the sunrising. From
thence they removed, and pitched
in the valley of Zared. From
thence they removed, and pitched
on the other side of Arnon, which
is in the wilderness that cometh
out of the coasts of the Amorites ;
for Arnon is the border of Moab,
between Moab and the Amorites.
And from the wilderness they
went to Mattanah ; and from Mat-
tanahtoNahaliel; and from Naha-
liel to Bamoth ; and from Bamoth
in the valley, that is in the coun
try of Moab, to the top of Pisgah,
which looketh toward Jeshimon."

Though it may be admitted that, among the Mosaic
laws, some may be old and genuine,' yet at least the
" Bertholdt, p. 787. On tlie other hand, Voter, vol. iii. p. 550, sqq. De
Wette, Beitrage, vol. ii. p. 323, sqq., 377, sqq.
» See below, § 162, d.
' Bertholdt, p. 789. Staudlin, Defence of the Laws of Moses, in Ammon
and Bertholdt's Theol. Journal, vol. iii. and iv. Bleek, in Roaenmidler's Re
pert vol. i. p. 7, sqq. Stud, und Krit for 1831, p. 488, sqq.

Numbers xxxiii. 44 — 49,
" And they departed from Pu-
non, and pitched in Oboth. And
they departed from Oboth, and
pitched in Ije-abarira, in the bor
der of Moab. And they departed
from lira, and pitched in Dibon-
gad. And they removed from
Dibon-gad, and encamped in
Almon-diblathaim. And they re
moved from Almon-diblathaim,
and pitched in the mountains of
Abarim, before Nebo. And they
departed from the mountains of
Abarim, and pitched in the plains
of Moab, by Jordan near Jericho.
And they pitched by Jordan, from
Beth-jesimoth even unto Abel-
shittim, in the plains of Moab."

§ 149.]

BOOKS OF MOSES.

to

proof of their originality, which has been sought for in
their relation to the state of the nation while in the wil
derness, is uncertain;" and the fact is as good as certain
that the main part of the laws of Moses has come down
to us only in a twofold paraphrase. The two editions
— so to say — of the decalogue present this in a striking
light,"

Exodus XX. 1 — 17,
" I am the Lord thy God, which
brought thee out of the land of
.(Egypt, out of the house of bond
age. Thou shalt have no other
gods before me.
" Thou shalt not make unto
thee any graven image, or any
likeness of any thing that is in
heaven above, or that is in the
earth beneath, or that is in the
water under the earth : thou shalt
not bow down thyselrf to them.

Deuteronomy v. 6 — 21.
" I am the Lord thy God, which
brought thee out of the land of
.(Egypt, out of the house of bond
age. Thou shalt have no other
gods before me.
" Thou shalt not make thee
any graven ira age, any likeness
of any thing that is in heaven
above, or that is in the earth be
neath, or that is in the waters
under the earth : thou shalt not
bow down thyself unto them, nor

" It is not so improbable as Bleek supposes, that a writer should transfer
himself so perfectly into the historical circumstances of the people. The
law relative to sacrifices, in Levit xvii. at least, if we may judge from its
style, belongs to the Elohistic document Of the law in Levit xvi., the part
verse 21 — 34 was probably not written in the desert The difficult word
j*STS*3 was obscure to the writer himself. This fact, and the want of dis
tinctness in respect to the trespass and sin-offerings, (Levit iv. — vii.,) and
respecting Urim and Thummim, (Ex. xxviii. 30,) must be laid to the charge
of a writer who was only acquainted with the law of sacrifices through prac
tice, and understood the pontifical mysteries only by hearsay. In Levit. xviii.
28, it is presupposed that the Canaanites were already driven out of the land.
Levit xiv. 33, sqq., and xxv. 29, sqq., relate to dwelling in houses and cities.
The law in vi. 5, 6, (12, 13, Eng. trans.) could not be carried out in the
desert. ' Ftdda, in Paulus, Mem. vol. iii. p. 205. De Wette, Beit vol. ii. p. 253,
sq. See Bleek's objection to this view, 1. c.
VOL, II. 10

7-1,

BOOKS OF MOSES.

Ih 1-^9-

nor serve them : for I the Lord
thy God am a jealous God, visit
ing the iniquity of the fathers
upon the children even unto the
third and fourth generation of
them that hate me, and showing
mercy unto thousands of them
that love me, and keep my cora-
inandments. " Thou shalt not take the name
of the Lord thy God in vain : for
the Lord will not hold him guilt
less that taketh his name in vain.
" Remember the Sabbath day,
to keep it holy. Six days thou
shalt labor, and do all thy work :
but the seventh day is the Sabbath
of the Lord thy God : in it thou
shalt not do any work, thou, nor
thy son, nor thy daughter, thy
man-servant, nor thy maid-servant,
nor thy cattle, nor thy stranger
that is within thy gates: for in
six days the Lord made heaven
and earth, the sea, and all that in
them is, and rested the seventh
day : wherefore the Lord blessed
the Sabbath day, and hallowed it.

" Honor thy father and thy
mother : that thy days may be

serve them: for I the Lord thy
God am a jealous God, visiting
the iniquity of the fathers upon
the children unto the third and
fourth generation of them that
hate me, and showing mercy unto
thousands of them that love me,
and keep my commandments.

" Thou shalt not take the name
of the Lord thy God in vain : for
the Lord v.'ill not hold hira guilt
less that taketh his name in vain.
" Keep the Sabbath day, to keep
it holy, as the Lord thy God hath
commanded thee. Six days thou
shalt labor, and do all thy work :
but the seventh day is the Sabbath
of the Lord thy God : in it thou
shalt not do any work, thou, nor
thy son, nor thy daughter, nor
thy man-servant, nor thy maid
servant, nor thine ox, nor thine
ass, nor any of thy cattle, nor thy
stranger that is within thy gates ;
that thy man-servant and thy
maid-servant may rest as well as
thou. And remember that thou
wast a servant in the land of
JSgypt, and that the Lord thy God
brought thee out thence, through
a mighty hand, and by a stretched-
out arm : therefore the Lord thy
God commanded thee to keep the
Sabbath day.
" Honor thy father and thy
mother, as the Lord thy God

§ 149.]

BOOKS OF MOSES,

75

long upon the land which the Lord
thy God giveth thee.

¦ Thou shalt not kill.

• Thou shalt not commit adul

tery. " Thou shalt not steal.
" Thou shalt not bear false
witness against thy neighbor.
"Thou shalt not covet thy
neighbor's house, thou shalt not
covet thy neighbor's wife, nor his
man-servant, nor his maid-servant,
nor his ox, nor his ass, nor any
thing that is thy neighbor's."

hath commanded thee : that thy
days may be long, and that it
may go well with thee, in the
land which the Lord thy God
giveth thee.
" Thou shalt not kill.
" And thou shalt not commit
adultery. " And thou shalt not steal.
" And thou shalt not bear false
witness against thy neighbor.
" And thou shalt not covet
thy neighbor's wife, neither shalt
thou desire thy neighbor's house,
his field, or his man-servant, or
his maid-servant, his ox, or his
ass, or any thing that is thy
neighbor's."

The following odes may be referred with certainty to
the age of Moses : —
Numbers xxi. 17, 18, and 27—30.
" Spring up, O well !
A well ! princes dug it.
Chiefs of the people hollowed it out, with the sceptre
and their staves ! "
" Come unto Heshbon !
Let the city of Sihon be built, and made strong ;
For fire went out from Heshbon,
A flame from the city of Sihon.
It eat up Ar of Moab,

76 BOOKS OF MOSES. [§ 150.
The dwellers on Arnon's heights.
Alas for thee, Moab !
Thou art lost, O people of Chemosh :
He (Chemosh) gave his sons as fugitives.
His daughters for captives to Sihon, king of the Amorites.
But we shot at them 1
Heshbon is lost as far as Dibon ;
We have laid waste to Nophah,
With fire to Medeba." "
It is probable, however, that these poetical pieces
were preserved by oral tradition, and subsequently found
a place in some collection, from which the author of
this chapter received them.
§ 150.
3. The various Fragments which compose these Books.
A. Genesis.
It has been proved by the observations and inquiries
of numerous critics, and confirmed and defended against
the opposition of such as maintain the original unity of
the book,' that there are several different fragments
united together in the book of Genesis.' At the first
¦* [In the last line I have followed the reading of the LXX., Copt, and
Vulg., ufs , instead of "I'r si; , which is in the printed text, though marked as
suspicious by the Masorites.]
' Hasse, Entdeckungen, &c. ; 1805, vol. ii. p. 196. Sack, De Usu Noni.
Dei in Genes, in his Commentatt ; I82I. Rink, Einleit d. Mos. Schopfungs-
Berichte ; 1822. Ewald, Compos, der Genes. Ranke, Ub. Pentateuch ;
1834, p. 157, sqq. Hengstenberg, Authentie der Pent. ; 1836, vol. i. p. 180,
sqq. Drechsler, Emleit und .(Echtheit d. Gen. ; 1838. Hdvemik, 1. c. vol. ii.
pt i. p. 205, sqq. [See Turner, Companion to Genesis ; New York, 1841.]
' Astruc, Conjectures sur les Memoires origtaaux, dont il paroit que

^ 150.] BOOKS OF MOSES. 77
glance, they betray themselves by the different names
applied to the Supreme Being — Elohim and Jehovah.
But in this, however, the use of Elohim as an appellative,
or otherwise peculiar word, must not be enumerated."
On a closer examination, these are found to be distin
guished by other peculiar characteristic marks.
There are several different hypotheses which have
been based on this phenomenon. The theory of Astruc,
Eichhorn, Illgen, and Gramberg, which supposes there
were two or more documents that extend throughout
the whole book, falls to pieces of itself. But the other
theory, which assumes that there were only several frag
ments of various authors, will appear to be limited to a
small extent by the fact that the Elohistic fragments
form a whole, which can be restored in a form almost
perfect, while the Jehovistic passages cannot be thus
united together.'
In the following pages I have put together those
portions of the document Elohim, w^hich, by the charac
teristics of language and contents, were easily arranged
in a certain order ; and, likewise, I have placed opposite
them parallel or opposing passages.

Moyse s'est s6rvi pour composer le Livre de Genese ; Bruxelles, 1753.
[See the substance of the book translated in the Scriptural Interpreter, vol.
vi. and vii. ; Boston, 1836.] Eichhorn, Repert vol. iv. p. 173, sqq. Moller,
Uber d. Verschiedenheit der Sty Is  Gen. ; 1792. Illgen, Urkunden de
J enisalem. Tempelarchivs in ihrer Urgestalt ; 1 798. Vater, 1. c. vol. iii. p. 412,
sqq., 696, sqq. Gramberg, Libri Gen. secundum Pontes rite dignoscendos
Adumbratio nova ; 1828. Stahelin, Krit Untersch. iib. Gen. ; 1830. Hart
mann, Hist. Krit Forschungen ub. d. 5 Biich. Mosis ; 1831. Ewald, in Stud.
und Krit for 1831, pt iii. Von Bohlen, Genesis. Tuch, Genesis.
" As in vi. 2, xxviii. 21, iii. 1, 3, 5, ix. 27.
* [This fact will be shown below. The Elohistic passages are such as
belong to the document where Elohim is used for God, the Jehovistic to that
where God is called Jehovah.]

78

BOOKS OF MOSES.

[^ 150.

Document " Elohim."
I. Gen. i. — ii. 3. Creation of
the World.
"In the beginning, Elohim
created the heaven and the earth.
And the earth was without form,
and void ; and darkness was upon
the face of the deep ; aud the
Spirit of Elohim moved upon the
face of the waters. And Elohim
said, 'Let there be light:' and
there was light. And Elohim
saw the light, that it was good :
and Elohim divided the light from
the darkness. And Elohim called
the light Day, and the darkness
he called Night : and the evening
and the morning were the first day.
" And Elohim said, ' Let there
be a firraaraent in the midst of
the waters, and let it divide the
waters from the waters.' And
Elohim made the firraaraent, and
divided the waters which were
under the firraaraent frora the
waters which were above the fir
mament: and it was so. And
Elohim called the firmament
Heaven : and the evening and
the morning were the second day.
"And Elohim said, ' Let the wa
ters under the heaven be gathered
together unto one place, and let
thedry land appear:' and it was so.
And Elohim called the dry land
Earth : and the gathering together
of the waters called he Seas: and
Elohim saw that it was good.
And Elohim said, ' Let the earth

Parallels, Additions, and
Interpolations, with the
Name " Jehovah."
Gen. ii. 4 — iii. 24. Creation of
the Wo7-7d, Original History
of Man, and the Origin of
Evil. (Jehovah Elohim.)
" These are the generations of
the heavens and of the earth when
they were created, in the day that
Jehovah Elohim made the earth
and the heavens, and every plant
of the field before it was in the
earth, and every herb of the field
before it grew : for Jehovah Elo
him had not caused it to rain
upon the earth, and there was not
a man to till the ground. But
there went up a mist from the
earth, and watered the whole face
of the ground. And Jehovah
Elohim formed man of the dust
of the ground, and breathed into
his nostrils the breath of life ; and
man became a living soul.
"And Jehovah Elohim planted
a garden eastward in Eden ; and
there he put the man whom he had
formed. And out of the ground
made Jehovah Elohim to grow
every tree that is pleasant to the
sight, and good for food ; the tree
of life also in the midst of the gar
den, and the tree of knowledge of
good and evil. And a river went
out of Eden to water the garden :
and from thence it was parted,
and became into four heads. The
name of the first is Pison : that is it

^ 160.]

BOOKS OF MOSES.

79

DOCUMENT "ELOHIM."
bring forth grass, the herb yield
ing seed, and the fruit-tree yield
ing fruit after his kind, whose seed
is in itself, upon the earth : ' and
it was so. And the earth brought
forth grass, and herb yielding seed
after his kind, and the tree yielding
fruit, whose seed was in itself, after
his kind : and Elohim saw that
it was good. And the evening aud
the raorning were the third day.
" And Elohira said, ' Let there
be lights in the firmament of the
heaven, to divide the day from the
night ; and let them be for signs
and for seasons, and for days
and years. And let them be for
lights in the firmament of the
heaven to give light upon the
earth :' and it was so. And Elo
him made two great lights, the
greater light to rule the day, and
the lesser light to rule the night :
he made the stars also. And Elo
him set thera in the firmament of
the heaven to give light upon the
earth, and to rule over the day, and
over the night, and to divide the
light from the darkness : and Elo
him saw that it was good. And
the evening and the morning were
the fourth day. And Elohim said,
' Let the waters bring forth abun
dantly the moving creature that
hath life, and fowl that may fly
above the earth in the open firma
ment of heaven.' And Elohim
created great whales, and every
living creature that moveth, which

DOCUMENT " JEH0V.\H."
which compasseth the whole land
of Havilah, where there is gold ;
and the gold of that land is good :
there is bdelliura, and the ony.x-
stone. And the name of the
second river is Gihon : the same
is it that corapasseth the whole
land of ^Ethiopia. And the narae
of the third river is Hiddekel :
that is it which goeth toward the
east of Assyria. And the fourth
river is Euphrates. And Jeho
vah Elohim took the man, and
put him into the garden of Eden,
to dress it, and to keep it. And
Jehovah Elohim commanded the
man, saying, ' Of every tree of the
garden thou raayest freely eat .
but of the tree of the knowledge
of good and evil, thou shalt not
eat of it : for in the day that thou
eatest thereof thou shalt surely die.'
" And Jehovah Elohira said, ' It
is not good that the man should
be alone : I will make hira a help
meet for him.' And out of the
ground Jehovah Elohim formed
every beast of the field, and every
fowl of the air, and brought them
unto Adam to see what he would
call them ; and whatsoever Adam
called every living creature, that
was the narae thereof And Adam
gave names to all cattle, and to
the fowl of the air, and to every
beast of the field : but for Adam
there was not found a help meet
for him. And Jehovah Elohim
caused a deep sleep to fall upon

80

BOOKS OF MOSES.

[^ 150.

DOCUME.VT "ELOHIM."
the waters brought forth abun
dantly after their kind, and every
winged fowl after his Rind : and
Elohim saw that it was good.
And Elohim blessed them, saying,
' Be fruitful, and multiply, and fill
the waters in the seas, and let fowl
multiply in the earth.' And the
evening and the raorning were
the fifth day. And Elohim said,
' Let the earth bring forth the liv
ing creature after his kind, cattle
and creeping thing, and beast of
the earth after his kind:' and it
was so. And Elohim made the
beast of the earth after his kind,
and cattle after their kind, and
every thing that creepeth upon
the earth after his kind : and
Elohira saw that it was good.
" And Elohim said, ' Let us
make man in our image, after our
likeness; and let them have do
minion over the fish of the sea, and
over the fowl of the air, and over
the cattle, and over all the earth,
and over every creeping thing
that creepeth upon the earth.'
So Elohim created man in his own
image, in the image of Elohim
created he him ; male and female
created he them. And Elohim
blessed them, and Elohim said un
to thera, ' Be fi^uitful, and multiply,
and replenish the earth, and sub
due it : and have dominion over the
fish of the sea, and over the fowl
of the air, and x)ver every living
thing that moveth upon the earth.'

DOCUMENT "JEHOV.\H."
Adam, and he slept; and he
took one of his ribs, and closed
up the flesh instead thereof: and
the rib, which Jehovah Elohim
had taken from man, made he
a woman, and brought her un
to the man. And Adam said,
' This is now bone of my bones,
and flesh of my flesh : she shall
be called Woman, because she
was taken out of man. Therefore
shall a man leave his father and
his mother, and shall cleave unto
his wife : and they shall be one
flesh.' And they were both naked,
the man and his wife, and were
not ashamed.
" Now the serpent was more
subtle than any beast of the field
which Jehovah Elohim had raade :
and he said unto the woman, ' Yea,
hath Elohim said, " Ye shall not
eat of every tree of the garden 1 " '
And the woman said unto the
serpent, ' We may eat of the fruit
of the trees of the garden : but of
the fruit of the tree which is in the
midst of the garden, Elohim hath
said, " Ye shall not eat of it, nei
ther shall ye touch it, lest ye die." '
And the serpent said unto the wo
man, 'Ye shall not surely die: for
Elohim doth know, that in the day
ye eat thereof, then your eyes shall
be opened; and ye shall be as
gods, knowing good and evil.'
And when the woman saw that the
tree was good for food, and that
it was pleasant to the eyes, and a

^ 150.]

BOOKS OF MOSES.

il

DOCUMENT "ELOHIM."
" And Elohira said, ' Behold, I
have given you every herb bearing
seed, which is upon the face of
all the earth, and every tree, in
the which is the fruit of a tree
yielding seed ; to you it shall be
for meat. And to every beast of
the earth, and to every fowl of
the air, and to every thing that
creepeth upon the earth, wherein
there is life, I have given every
green herb for meat : ' and it was
so. And Elohim saw every thing
that he had made, and behold, it
was very good. And the evening
and the morning were the sixth
day. " Thus the heavens and the
earth were finished, and all the
host of them. And on the sev
enth day Elohim ended his work
which he had made, and he rested
on the seventh day from all his
work which he had made. And
Elohim blessed the seventh day,
and sanctified it ; because that in
it he had rested from all his work
which Elohim created and made."

DOCUMENT "JEHOVAH."
tree to be desired to make one
wise, she took of the fruit there
of, and did eat : and gave also
unto her husband with her, and
he did eat. And the eyes of them
both were opened, and they knew
that they were naked : and they
sewed fig-leaves together, and
made themselves aprons. And
they heard the voice of Jehovah
Elohim walking in the garden in
the cool of the day : and Adam
and his wife hid themselves from
the presence of Jehovah Elohim
amongst the trees of the garden.
And Jehovah Elohim called unto
Adam, and said unto him, ' Where
art thou 1 ' And he said, ' I heard
thy voice in the garden : and I
was afraid because I was naked ;
and I hid myself And he said,
'Who told thee that thou wast
naked? Hast thou eaten of the
tree whereof I commanded thee,
that thou shouldest not eat 1 ' And
the man said, ' The woman whom
thou gavest to be with me, she
gave me of the tree, and I did eat.'
And Jehovah Elohim said unto
the woman, 'What is this that
thou hast done 1 ' And the woman
said, ' The serpent beguiled me,
and I did eat.' And Jehovah
Elohim said unto the serpent, ' Be
cause thou hast done this, thou art
cursed above all cattle, and above
every beast of the field : upon thy
belly shalt thou go, and dust shalt
thou eat all the days of thy life:

VOL. II.

11

BOOKS OF MOSE^

[§ 150.

llOCritKNT "JEHOV.VH."
and I will put enmity between thee and the woman, and between thy
seed and her seed : it shall bruise thy head, and thou shalt bruise his
heel.' Unto the woman he said, 'I will greatly multiply thy sorrow
and thy conception ; in sorrow thou shalt bring forth children : and
thy desire shall be to thy husband, and he shall rule over thee.' And
unto Adam he said, ' Because thou hast hearkened unto the voice of
thy wife, and hast eaten of the tree of which I commanded thee,
saying, " Thou shalt not eat of it ; " cursed is the ground for thy sake ;
in sorrow shalt thou eat of it all the days of thy life; thorns also
and thistles shall it bring forth to thee ; and thou shalt eat the herb
of the field. In the sweat of thy face shalt thou eat bread, till thou
return unto the ground ; for out of it wast thou taken : for dust thou
art, and unto dust shalt thou return.' And Adam called his wife's
name Eve, because she was the mother of all living. Unto Adam
also and to his wife did Jehovah Elohim make coats of skins, and
clothed them.
"And Jehovah Elohim said, ' Behold, the man is becorae as oue
of us, to know good and evil. And now, lest he put forth his hand,
and take also of the tree of life, and eat, and live forever:' therefore
Jehovah Elohim sent him forth from the garden of Eden, to till the
ground from whence he was taken. So he drove out the man : and
he placed at the east of the garden of Eden cherubims, and a flaming
sword, which turned every way, to keep the way of the tree of life.""

DOCUMENT " ELOHIM."
11. Gen. V. 1 — 32. Genealogical
Table till tlie Time of Noah.
(Verse 1 — 3 connects with i.
26 ; verse 29 is interpolated.)
" This is the book of the genera
tions of Adam : In the day that
Elohim created man, in the like
ness of Elohim made he him. Male

DOCUMENT "JEHOVAH."
Gen. iv. 1 — ^26. Family Histo
ry of Adam, with a parallel
Genealogy. Increase of Evil.
"And Adam knew Eve his
wife ; and she conceived, and
bare Cain, and said, ' I have
gotten a man from Jehovah.'
And she again bare his broth-

" [These two documents, L — ii. 3, and ii. 14 — 24, contain an account of the
same event The inscription, " These are the generations of the heavens
and the earth when they were created," plainly marks the point when the
two separate. But the difference between them is remarkable in many pas
sages, but most striking between i. 26, 27, and ii. 7, and 21, 22. Eichhorn
thinks the above Jehovistic passage, ii. 4 — iii. 24, is a whole by itself, and does
not belong to the document " Jehovah," because God is called Jehovah Elohim.]

^ 150.J

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83

DOCUMENT "ELOHIM."
and female created he them ; and
blessed them, and called their
name Adam, in the day when they
were created.
" And Adam lived a hundred
and thirty years, and begat a son
in his own likeness, after his im
age ; and called his name Seth :
and the days of Adam after he had
begotten Seth were eight hundred
years : and he begat sons and
daughters: and all the days that
Adam lived were nine hundred
and thirty years ; and he died.
" And Seth lived a hundred
and five years, and begat Enos :
and Seth lived after he begat
Enos eight hundred and seven
years, and begat sons and daugh
ters : and all the days of Seth
were nine hundred and twelve
years ; and he died.
" And Enos lived ninety years,
and begat Cainan :" and Enos
lived after he begat Cainan eight
hundred and fifteen years, and

DOCUMENT " JEHOVAH."
er Abel. And Abel was a keep
er of sheep, but Cain was a
tiller of the ground. And in
process of time it came to pass,
that Cain brought of the fruit of
the ground an ofiering unto Je
hovah. AndAbel, he also brought
of the firstlings of his flock, and
of the fat thereof And Jehovah
had respect unto Abel, and to his
offering : but unto Cain, and to
his offering, he had not respect.
And Cain was very wroth, and
his countenance fell. And Je
hovah said unto Cain, ' Why art
thou wroth ? and why is thy coun
tenance fallen ? If thou doest well,
shalt thou not be accepted? and
if thou doest not well, sin lieth
at the door. And unto thee shall
be his desire, and thou shalt rule
over hira.' And Cain talked with
Abel his brother : and it came to
pass when they were in the field,
that Cain rose up against Abel
his brother, and slew him.

" [There is a striking similarity in the names of the alleged descendants
of ./Idam and Enos. They are essentially the same. Here follows a list of
the descendants of each. It is to be remembered that both names signify num.

AdaMj .

. . . t3^!s.

CdXTi*

. . . ¦'"'ft.

. . "^lan .

Irad, . .

. . Tl'iS .

Mehujael, . .

. ¦is'iina.

Methusael, . .

. is"i;in?3.

Lamech, . .

. . l^i.

II.

Enos, . . .

. . mi3N .

Cainan, . .

• • TP-

Enoch, . .

. . yiin.

Jared, . . .

. . .Tl''.

Mahalaleel, .

. bsbbna.

Methuselah, .

. njBina .

Lamech, . .

. . ^^b.

The reader will draw his own inferences from this, or may see those of
Buttmann, in his Mythologus, vol. i. ch. vii. p. 171.]

84

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[^ 160.

DOCUMENT "ELOHIM."
begat sons and daughters . and all
the days of Enos were nine hun
dred and five years ; and he died.
" And Cainan lived seventy
years, and begat Mahalaleel : and
Cainan lived after he begat Ma
halaleel eight hundred and forty
years, and begat sons and daugh
ters : and all the days of Cainan
were nine hundred and ten years;
and he died.
" And Mahalaleel lived sixty
and five years, and begat Jared :
and Mahalaleel lived after he be
gat Jared eight hundred and thirty
years, and begat sons and daugh
ters : and all the days of Mahala
leel were eight hundred ninety
nnd five years ; and he died.
" And Jared lived a hundred
sixty and two years, and he begat
Enoch: and Jared lived after he
begat Enoch eight hundred years,
and begat sons and daughters :
and all the days of Jared were
nine hundred sixty and two years ;
and he died.
" And Enoch lived sixty and
five years, and begat Methuselah :
and Enoch walked with Elohim
after he begat Methuselah three
hundred years, and begat sons
and daughters: and all the days
of Enoch were three hundred six
ty and five years : and Enoch
walked with Elohim, and he was
not : for Elohim took him.
" And Methuselah lived a hun
dred eighty and seven years, and
becrat Lamech : and Methuselah

DOCUMENT "JEHOVAH."
" And Jehovah said unto Cain,
' Where is Abel thy brother 1 '
And he said, ' I know not : am I
my brother's keeper?' And he
said, ' What hast thou done ? the
voice of thy brother's blood crieth
unto me from the ground. And
now art thou cursed from the earth,
which hath opened her mouth
to receive thy brother's blood
frora thy hand. When thou tillest
the ground, it shall not henceforth
yield unto thee her strength. A
fugitive and a vagabond shalt thou
be in the earth.' And Cain said
unto Jehovah, ' My punishment is
greater than I can bear. Behold,
thou hast driven me out this day
from the face of the earth ; and
from thy face shall I be hid ; and
I shall be a fugitive and a vaga
bond in the earth ; and it shall
come to pass, that every one that
findeth me shall slay me.' And
Jehovah said unto him, ' There
fore whosoever slayeth Cain, ven
geance shall be taken on hira
seven-fold.' And Jehovah set a
mark upon Cain, lest any finding
him should kill him.
" And Cain went out from the
presence of Jehovah, and dwelt in
the land of Nod, on the east of
Eden. And Cain knew his wife,
and she conceived, and bare
Enoch : and he builded a city,
and called the narae of the city
after the name of his son Enoch.
And unto Enoch was born Irad :
and Irad begat Mehujael ; and

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DOCUMENT "ELOHIM."
lived after he begat Lamech seven
hundred eighty and two years, and
begat sons and daughters: and
all the days of Methuselah were
nine hundred sixty and nine years;
and he died.
" And Lamech lived a hundred
eighty and two years, and begat
a son : and he called his name
Noah." And Lamech lived after
he begat Noah five hundred ninety
and five years, and begat sons and
daughters : and all the days of
Lamech were seven hundred sev
enty and seven years : and he
died. And Noah was five hun
dred years old; and Noah begat
Shem, Ham, and Japheth."

DOCUMENT "JEHOV.VH."
Mehujael begat Methusael; and
Methusael begat Lamech.
" And Lamech took unto him
two wives : the name of the one
was Adah, and the narae of the
other Zillah. And Adah bare
Jabal : he was the father of such
as dwell in tents, and of such as
have cattle. And his brother's
name was Jubal : he was the
father of all such as handle the
harp and organ. And Zillah, she
also bare Tubal-cain, an instruct
or of every artificer in brass and
iron : and the sister of Tubal-
cain was Naaraah. And Lamech
said unto his wives, Adah and
Zillah, ' Hear my voice, ye wives
of Lamech, hearken unto my
speech : for I have slain a man to
my wounding, and a young man
to my hurt.' If Cain shall be
avenged seven-fold, truly Lamech
seventy and seven-fold.'
" And Adam knew his wife
again, and she bare a son, and
called his name Seth : ' For Je
hovah,'" said she, ' hath appoint-

" [Verse 29 contains an etymology of the word J\toah — " He shall comfort
us for our work and the toil of our hands, because of the ground which Je
hovah has cursed." It is evidently an interpolation.]
' [Chap. iv. 23. This is, perhaps, a better translation of this song : —
" Ye wives of Lamech, liear my voice,
Listen to my words :
I have killed a man for wounding nie,
A young man for striking me.
If Cain shall be avenged seven-fold,
So Lamech seventy and seven-fold."
Here he alludes to his power of defending himself with the sword recently
invented by his son, Tubal-cain. See Herder, Geist Eb. Poes, vol. i. p. 319.]
" [Chap. iv. 25, Elohim occurs instead of Jeliovah. Some have conjectured
the true reading was Jehovah, which I have followed.]

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DOCUMENT "JEHOVAH."
ed me another seed instead of Abel, whom Cain slew.' And to Seth,
to him also there was born a son ; and he called his name Enos :
then began men to call upon the name of Jehovah."

DOCUMENT "ELOHIM."
III. Gen. vi. 9—22. History of
the Deluge and of Noah. (Verse
9 refers to v. 22, 24 ; verse 29
to i. 24.)
(1.) "These are the genera
tions of Noah : Noah was a just
man, and perfect in his genera
tions, and Noah walked with
Elohim. And Noah begat three
sons, Shem, Hara, and Japheth.
The earth also was corrupt before
Elohira ; and the earth was filled
with violence. And Elohira look
ed upon the earth, and behold, it
was corrupt : for all flesh had cor
rupted his way upon the earth.
And Elohim said unto Noah,
' The end of all flesh is come be
fore me ; for the earth is filled
with violence through them : and
behold, I will destroy them with
the earth.
" ' Make thee an ark of gopher-
wood : rooms shalt thou make in
the ark, and shalt pitch it within
and without with pitch. And this
is the fashion which thou shalt
make it of: The length of the ark
shall be three hundred cubits, the
breadth of it fifty cubits, and the
height of it thirty cubits. A win
dow shalt thou make to the ark.

DOCUMENT "JEHOVAH."
Chap. vi. 1 — 8, vii. 1 — 5. History
of the Deluge, and of Noah.
" And it came to pass, when
men began to multiply on the
face of the earth, and daugh
ters were born unto them, that
the sons of Elohim saw the
daughters of men that they were
fair ; and they took them wives
of all which they chose. And Je
hovah said, ' My Spirit shall not
always strive with man, for that
he also is flesh : yet his days shall
be a hundred and twenty years.'
There were giants in the earth
in those days ; and also after that,
when the sons of Elohim came in
unto the daughters of men, and
they bare children to them, the
same became mighty men, which
were, of old, men of renown.
" And Jehovah" saw that the
wickedness of man was great in
the earth, and that every imagina
tion of the thoughts of his heart
was only evil continually. And
it repented Jehovah that he had
made man on the earth, and it
grieved him at his heart. And
Jehovah said, ' I will destroy man
whom I have created fi-om the
face of the earth, both man and

" [Chap. VI. 5. The common English version has God, as if it were
Elohim, in the text, but the Hebrew reads Jthovnh.]

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DOCUMENT "ELOHIM."
and in a cubit shalt thou finish it
above; and the door of the ark
shalt thou set in the side there
of: with lower, second, and third
stories shalt thou make it. And
behold, I, even I, do bring a flood
of waters upon the, earth, to de
stroy all flesh, wherein is the
breath of life, from under heaven :
and every thing that is in the earth
shall die. But with thee will I
establish my covenant : and thou
shalt come into the ark, thou, and
thy sons, and thy wife, and thy
sons' wives with thee. And of
every living thing of all flesh, two
of every sort shalt thou bring into
the ark, to keep them alive with
thee : they shall be male and fe
male. Of fowls after their kind,
and of cattle after their kind, of
every creeping thing of the earth
after his kind ; two of every sort
shall come unto thee, to keep
thera alive. And take thou unto
thee of all food that is eaten, and
thou shalt gather it to thee ; and
it shall be for food for thee, and
for thera.' Thus did Noah ; ac
cording to all that Elohim com
manded him, so did he."
(2.) Chap.vii. 11— 16. "Inthe
six hundredth year of Noah's life, in
the second month, the seventeenth
day of the month, the same day
were all the fountains of the great
deep broken up, and the windows
of heaven were opened. And the
rain was upon the earth forty days
and forty nights. In the self-same

DOCUMENT "JEHOVAH."
beast, and the creeping thing,
and the fowls of the air : for it re-
penteth me that I have made them.'
But Noah found grace in the eyes
of Jehovah.
" And Jehovah said unto Noah,
' Come thou and all thy house
into the ark : for thee have I seen
righteous before rae in this gen
eration. Of every clean beast
thou shalt take to thee by sevens,
the male and his female ; and of
beasts that are not clean by two,
the male and his female ; of
fowls also of the air by sevens,
the raale and the feraale ; to keep
seed alive upon the face of all the
earth. For yet seven days, and I
will cause it to rain upon the
earth forty days and forty nights :
and every living substance that I
have made will I destroy from off"
the face of the earth.' And Noah
did according unto all that Je
hovah commanded him. And
Noah was six hundred years old
when the flood of waters was upon
the earth."

Chap. vii. 7—10. " And Noah
went in, and his sons, and his wife,
and his sons' wives with him, into
the ark, because of the waters of
the flood. Of clean beasts, and of
beasts that are not clean, and of
fowls, and of every thing that
creepeth upon the earth, there
went in two and two unto Noah

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DOCUMENT "ELOIIIJI."
day entered Noah, and Shem, and
Ham, and Japheth, the sons of
Noah, and Noah's wife, and the
three wives of his sons with them,
into the ark : they, and every
beast after his kind, and all the
cattle after their kind, and every
creeping thing that creepeth upon
the earth after his kind, and every
fowl after his kind, every bird of
every sort." And they went in
unto Noah into the ark, two and
two of all flesh, wherein is the
breath of life."
(3.) Gen. vii. 18—22. " And
the waters prevailed, and were in
creased greatly upon the earth :
and the ark went upon the face
of the waters. And the waters
prevailed exceedingly upon the
earth ; and all the high hills that
were under the whole heaven were
covered. Fifteen cubits upward
did the waters prevail : and the
mountains were covered.' And
all flesh died that moved upon the
earth, both of fowl, and of cattle,
and of beast, and of every creep
ing thing that creepeth upon the
earth, and every man : all in

DOCUMENT "JEHOVAH."
into the ark, the male and the fe
male, as Jehovah" had commanded
Noah. And it came to pass, after
seven days, that the waters of the
flood were upon the earth."

Chap. vii. 17,23. "And the flood
was forty days upon the earth ; and
the waters increased, and bare up
the ark, and it was lifted up above
the earth. And every living sub
stance was destroyed which was
upon the face of the ground, both
man, and cattle, and the creeping
things, and the fowl of heaven ;
and they were destroyed from the
earth; and Noah only remained
alive, and they that were with
him in the ark."

" Chap. vii. 14, sqq. ; compare with vi. 19, sqq. Noah is commanded to take
two of each sort, in one passage ; in the other they enter the ark of their own ac
cord. Ver. 16 — " And they that went in, went in male and female of all flesh, as
Elohim had commanded him, and Jehovah shut him in " — is an interpolation.
' Chap. vii. 21. A comparison with vi. 17, shows that both verses belong
to the same document
' [Chap. vii. 9. Elohim occurs again in the Jehovistic document But the
Samaritan and one Heb. MS. have Jehovah ; so the Chaldee Paraphrase, and
the Vulgate, and even Luther, who had no critical hypothesis to support
thereby. I have followed their authority.]

^ 150.] BOOKS OF MOSES. 89
DOCUMENT "ELOHIM."
whose nostrils was the breath of life, of all that was in the dry land, died.
And the waters prevailed upon the earth a hundred and fifty days."
(4.) Gen. viii. 1 — 19. " And Elohira reraembered Noah, and every
living thing, and all the cattle that was with hira in the ark : and Elo
him made a wind to pass over the earth, and the waters assuaged ;
the fountains also of the deep, and the windows of heaven were
stopped, and the rain from heaven was restrained ; and the waters
returned from off the earth continually : and after the end of the
hundred and fifty days, the waters were abated.
" And the ark rested in the seventh month, on the seventeenth
day of the month, upon the mountains of Ararat. And the waters
decreased continually, until the tenth month: in the tenth month,
on the first day of the month, were the tops of the mountains seen.
" And it came to pass at the end of forty days, that Noah opened
the window of the ark which he had raade : and he sent forth a
raven, which went forth to and fro, until the waters were dried up
from off the earth. Also he sent forth a dove from him, to see if the
waters were abated from off the face of the ground ; but the dove
found no rest for the sole of her foot, and she returned unto him into
the ark ; for the waters were on the face of the whole earth. Then
he put forth his hand, and took her, and pulled her in unto him into
the ark. And he staid yet other seven days, and again he sent forth
the dove out of the ark ; and the dove came in to him in the evening,
and lo, in her mouth was an olive leaf plucked oflT. So Noah knew
that the waters were abated from off the earth. And he staid yet
other seven days, and sent forth the dove ; which returned not again
unto him any more.
" And it came to pass in the six hundredth and first year, in the first
month, the first day of the month, the waters were dried up from off the
earth: and Noah removed the covering of the ark, and looked, and
behold, the face of the ground was dry. And in the second month,
on the seven and twentieth day of the month, was the earth dried.
" And Elohim spake unto Noah, saying, ' Go forth of the ark,
thou, and thy wife, and thy sons, and thy sons' wives with thee.' Bring
forth with thee every living thing that is with thee, of all flesh, both
of fowl, and of cattle, and of every creeping thing that creepeth upon
the earth ; that they may breed abundantly in the earth, and be fruit
ful, and multiply upon the earth.' And Noah went forth, and his
sons, and his wife, and his sons' wives with him : every beast, every
° Comp. vii. 13.
VOL. II. 12

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DOCUMENT "ELOHIM."

creeping thing, and every fowl, and whatsoever creepeth upon the
earth, after their kinds, went forth out of the ark.""

DOCUMENT "ELOHIM."
(5.) Chap. ix. 1 — 17. Covenant
of Elohim with Noah.
'¦ And Elohim blessed Xoah
and his sons, and said unto them,
' Be fruitful and multiply, and
replenish the earth. ' And the
fear of you, and the dread of you,
shall be upon every beast of the
earth, and upon every fowl of the
air, upon all that moveth upon the
earth, and upon aU the fishes of the
sea ; into your hand are they de
livered. Every moving thing that
liveth shall be meat for you ; even
as the green herb have I given you
all things : ' but flesh, with the life
thereof, which is the blood thereof,
shall ye not eat. And surely your
blood of your lives will I require :
at the hand of every beast will I
require it, and at the hand of man ;
at the hand of every man's brother
will I require the life of man.
Whoso sheddeth man's blood, by
man shall his blood be shed ; for
in the image of Elohim made he
man.'' And you, be ye fruitful, and
multiply : bring forth abundantly
in the earth, and multiply therein.'
" And Elohim spake unto Noah,
and to his sons with him, sayinof,
'And I, behold, I establish my
covenant with you, and with your
seed after you ; ' and with ev-

D0CU3IENT "JEHOV.iH."
Chap. viii. 20 — 22. Reconcilia
tion of Jehovah by an Offering.
His Promise that a Deluge
shall not again return.
" And Noah builded an altar
unto Jehovah, and took of every
clean beast, and of every clean
fowl, and oflfered burnt-offerings
on the altar. And Jehovah
smelled a sweet savor ; and Je
hovah said in his heart, ' I will
not again curse the ground any
more for man's sake ; for the
imagination of man's heart is evil
from his youth : neither will I
again smite any more every thing
living, as I have done. While
the earth remaineth, seed-time
and harvest, and cold and heat,
and summer and winter, and day
and night, shall not cease.' "

¦ Comp. verse 17 with i. 28. » Comp. 1 and 7 with L 2a
Comp. i. 29. 'i Comp. i. 26. • Comp. vi. 18.

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DOCUMENT "ELOHIM."
ery living creature that is with you, of the fowl, of the cattle, and
of every beast of the earth with you, from all that go out of the
ark to every beast of the earth. And I will establish my covenant
with you ; neither shall all flesh be cut off any more by the waters
of a flood ; neither shall there any more be a flood to destroy
the earth.' And Elohim said, ' This is the token of the cove
nant which I make between me and you, and every living crea
ture that is with you, for perpetual generations. I do set my bow
iu the cloud, and it shall be for a token of a covenant between
me and the earth. And it shall come to pass, when I bring a
cloud over the earth, that the bow shall be seen in the cloud :
and I will remember my covenant, which is between me and you,
and every living creature of all flesh ; and the waters shall no
more become a flood to destroy all flesh. And the bow shall be
m the cloud ; and I will look upon it, that I may remember
the everlasting covenant between Elohim and every living creature
of all flesh that is upon the earth.' And Elohim said unto Noah,
' This is the token of the covenant which I have established between
me and all flesh that is upon the earth.' "

DOCUMENT "ELOHIM."
(6.) Chap. ix. 28. "And Noah
lived after the flood three hun
dred and fifty years, and all the
years of Noah were nine hundred
and fifty years, and he died."

DOCUMENT "JEHOVAH."
Chap. ix. 20— 27. " And Noah
began to be a husbandman, and
he planted a vineyard : and he
drank of the wine, and was drunk
en ; and he was uncovered within
his tent. And Ham, the father of
Canaan, saw the nakedness of his
father, and told his two brethren
without. And Shem and Japheth
took a garment, and laid it upon
both their shoulders, and went
backward, and covered the naked
ness of their father : and their
faces were backward, and they
saw not their father's nakedness.
And Noah awoke from his wine,
and knew what his younger son
had done unto him. And he said,
' Cursed be Canaan ; a servant of

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DOCUMENT "JEHOVAH."
servants shall he be unto his brethren." And he said, ' Blessed
be Jehovah Elohim of Shem ; and Canaan shall be his servant.
Elohim shall enlarge Japheth, and he shall dwell in the tents of
Shem ; and Canaan shall be his servant.' " "

D0CU3IENT " ELOHIM."
IV. Chap, xi.l 0—26.' Genea
logical register till Abraham.

DOCUMENT "JEHOVAH."
Chap. x. Register of the na
tions, with parallel genealogies.

V. Chap. xi. 27 — 32 is decidedly Elohistic. The passage xii. —
xiv. — containing Abraham's migration to Canaan and JEgypt, his
separation from Lot, his military expedition — is chiefly Jehovistic,
but, perhaps, contains some Elohistic verses, as in xii. 5, 6, and else
where."

VI. Chap. xvii. God's covenant
with Abraham."^

Chap. XV. A covenant also, but
without the institution of circum
cision, and the promise of Isaac,
which is related in chap, xviii.

^TI. Chap. xLx. 29. Destruction Chap. xix. 1 — 25. The same.
of Sodom, and delivery of Lot Verses 30 — 38. Lot's incest.

VIH. Chap. xx. Abraham's Chap. xii. 10 — 19. A similar
residence at Gerar. and seizure adventure in -Eoyp/. Chap. xxvi.
of Su.-i;.'< ' 1 — 11. A similar adventure be
falls Rcbtlah.

IVVrMENT 'ELOHIM.'
&!;,-./r ij' .:?;7.-i!.« M
Grrar.
•¦ Aud Abraham
journeyed from thence
toward the south
countrv, and dwelled

rC>Cr}!Z\T "JEHOT.AH."
.S;i":wrf of S^zra.^ in | .Stiri/rt of Ribckah.

-Es^ypt-
•• And there was a
famine in the land :
and Abram went I

"And there was a
famine in the land,
besides the first fam
ine that was in the

down into .Eirvpt to i days of Abraham.

" [Perhaps verses 1?, 19, likewise belong here.]
» Comp. chap. v. " See Tuch, 1. c. p. 4.
* Comp. the passage is. 1 — 17, which is closely allied to this.
' Verse 18 is interpolated.

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DOCUMENT "ELOHIM."
between Kadesh and
Shur, and sojourned
in Gerar. And Abra
ham said of Sarah his
wife, ' She is my sis
ter : ' and Abimelech
king of Gerar sent
and took Sarah.
But Elohim came to
Abimelech in a dream
by night, and said to
him, ' Behold, thou
art but a dead man,
for the woman which
thou hast taken : for
she is a man's wife.'
But Abiraelech had
not come near her ;
and he said, ' Lord,
wilt thou slay also
a righteous nation ?
Said he not unto me,
" She is my sister ? "
and she, even she her
self, said, " He is my
brother : " in the in
tegrity of my heart,
and innocency of my
hands, have I done
this.' And Elohim
said unto him in a
dream, ' Yea, I know
that thou didst this in
the integrity of thy
heart; for I also with
held thee from sin
ning against me :
therefore suffered I
thee not to touch her.

DOCUMENT '
sojourn there ; for the
famine was grievous
in the land. And it
came to pass, when
he was come near to
enter into^gypt, that
he said unto Sarai his
wife, 'Behold now,
I know that thou art
a fair woman to look
upon : therefore it
shall come to pass,
when the ^Egyptians
shall see thee, that
they shall say, " This
is his wife ; " and they
will kill me, but they
will save thee alive.
Say, I pray thee, thou
art my sister ; that it
may be well with rae
for thy sake ; and my
soul shall live because
of thee.'
" And it came to
pass, that when A-
bram was come into
.^gypt, the iEgyp-
tians beheld the wo
man that she was very
fair. The princes also
of Pharaoh saw her,
and commended her
before Pharaoh : and
the woman was taken
into Pharaoh's house.
And he entreated
Abram well for her
sake : and he had

JEHOVAH." And Isaac went unto
Abimelech king of
the Philistines unto
Gerar. And Jehovah
appeared unto him,
and said, ' Go not
down into ^Egypt :
dwell in the land
which I shall tell
thee of Sojourn in
this land, and I will
be with thee, and
will bless thee : for
unto thee and unto
thy seed I will give
all these countries,
and I will perform
the oath which I
sware unto Abraham
thy father : and I
will make thy seed to
multiply as the stars
of heaven, and will
give unto thy seed all
these countries : and
in thy seed shall all
the nations of the
earth be blessed : be
cause that Abraham
obeyed my voice, and
kept ray charge, ray
commandments, my
statutes, and my laws.'
"And Isaac dwelt
in Gerar : and the
men of the place asked
him of his wife ; and
he said, ' She is ray
sister : ' for he feared

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DOCUMENT "ELOHIM."
Now, therefore, re
store the man his
wife: for he is a
prophet, and he shall
pray for thee, and
thou shalt live : and
if thou restore her
not, know thou that
thou shalt surely die,
thou, and all that are
thine.' "Therefore Abim
elech rose early in
the morning, and
called all his servants,
and told all these
things in their ears :
and the men were
sore afraid. Then
Abimelech called
Abraham, and said
unto him, ' What hast
thou done unto us?
and what have I of
fended thee, that thou
hast brought on me,
and on my kingdom,
a great sin ? Thou
hast done deeds unto
me that ought 'not to
be done.' And Abim
elech said unto Abra
ham, ' What sawest
thou, that thou hast
done this thing 7 '
And Abraham said,
' Because I thought,
" Surely the fear of
Elohim is not in this

DOCUMENT
sheep, and oxen, and
he-asses, and men-
servants, and maid
servants, and she-
asses, and camels.
" And Jehovah
plagued Pharaoh and
his house with great
plagues because of
Sarai, Abram's wife.
And Pharaoh called
Abram, and said,
'What is this that
thou hast done unto
me? Why didst thou
not tell me that she
was thy wife ? Why
saidst thou, " She is
my sister " ? so I
might have taken her
to me to wife : now,
therefore, behold thy
wife ; take her and go
thy way.' And Pha
raoh commanded his
men concerning him :
and they sent him
away, and his wife,
and all that he had."

JEHOVAH." to say, 'She is my
wife ; ' ' lest,' said he,
' the men of the place
should kill me for
Rebekah ; ' because
she was fair to look
upon. And it came
to pass when he had
been there a long
time, that Abimelech
king of the Philistines
looked out at a win
dow, and saw, and
behold, Isaac vas
sporting with Rebek
ah his wife. And
Abimelech called
Isaac, and said, ' Be
hold, of a surety, she
is thy wife ; and how
saidst thou, " She is
my sister " ? ' And
Isaac said unto him,
' Because I said,
" Lest I die for her." '
And Abimelech said,
'What is this thou
hast done unto us 1
One of the people
might lightly have
lien with thy wife,
and thou shouldest
have brought guilti
ness upon us.' And
Abimelech charged
all his people, saying,
'He that toucheth this
man or his wife, shall
surely be put to
death."

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DOCUMENT " ELOHIM."
place ; and they will slay me for ray wife's sake." And yet indeed she
is my sister ; she is the daughter of my father, but not the daughter
of my mother : and she became my wife. And it came to pass, when
Elohim caused me to wander from my father's house, that I said unto
her, " This is thy kindness which thou shalt show unto me ; at every
place whither we shall come, say of me, ' He is my brother. ' " '
" And Abimelech took sheep, and oxen, and men-servants, and
women-servants, and gave them unto Abraham, and restored him
Sarah his wife. And Abiraelech said, ' Behold, ray land is before
thee: dwell where it pleaseth thee.' And unto Sarah he said, 'Be
hold, I have given thy brother a thousand pieces of silver; behold,
he is to thee a covering of the eyes unto all that are with thee, and
with all other : ' thus she was reproved.
" So Abrahara prayed unto Elohim; and Elohim healed Abime
lech, and his wife, and his maid-servants; and they bare children."

DOCUMENT " ELOHIM."
IX. Chap. xxi. 1—21." Birth of
Isaac, and Expulsion of Ish-
mael. " Sarah conceived, and bare
Abrahara a son in his old age, at
the set time of which Elohira had
spoken to hira. And Abraham
called the name of his son that
was born unto him, whom Sarah
bare to him, Isaac. And Abra
ham circumcised his son Isaac, be
ing eight days old, as Elohim had
commanded him. And Abraham
was a hundred years old when
his son Isaac was born unto him.
" And Sarah said, ' Elohim hath
made me to laugh, so that all that
hear will laugh with me.' And
she said, ' Who would have said

DOCUMENT "JEHOVAH."
Chap. xvi. Similar Events.
" Now Sarai, Abram's wife,
bare him no children : and she
had a handmaid, an .Egyptian,
whose name was Hagar. And
Sarai said unto Abram, ' Behold,
now, Jehovah hath restrained me
from bearing : I pray thee, go in
unto my maid; it may be that I
may obtain children by her.' And
Abram hearkened to the voice
of Sarai. And Sarai, Abram's
wife, took Hagar her maid the
.^Egyptian, after Abram had dwelt
ten years in the land of Canaan,
and gave her to her husband
Abram to be his wife.
" And he went in unto Hagar,
and she conceived : and when she

• Comp. verses 2 — 4 with xvii. 21, 10—14 ; verse 13 with xvii. 30. Verse
1 is interpolated.

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DOCUMENT " ELOHIM."
unto Abraham that Sarah should
have given children suck? for I
have borne him a son in his old
age.' And the child grew, and
was weaned : and Abraham made
a great feast the same day that
Isaac was weaned.
" And Sarah saw the son of
Hagar the ^Egyptian, which she
had borne unto Abraham, mock
ing. Wherefore she said unto
Abraham, ' Cast out this bond
woman and her son : for the son
of this bond-woman shall not be
heir with my son, even with Isaac'
And the thing was very grievous
in Abraham's sight, because of
his son.
"And Elohim said unto Abra
ham, ' Let it not be grievous in
thy sight, because of the lad, and
because of thy bond-woman ; in
all that Sarah hath said unto thee,
hearken unto her voice : for in
Isaac shall thy seed be called.
And also of the son of the bond
woman will I make a nation,
because he is thy seed.' And
Abraham rose up early in the
morning, and took bread and a
bottle of water, and gave it unto
Hagar (putting it on her shoulder)
and the child, and sent her away :
and she departed, and wandered
in the wilderness of Beer-sheba.
And the water was spent in the
bottle, and she cast the child
under one of the shrubs. And
she went, and sat her down over

DOCUJlENT "JEHOVAH."
saw that she had conceived, her
mistress was despised in her eyes.
And Sarai said unto Abrara, ' My
wrong be upon thee : I have given
ray maid into thy bosom ; and
when she saw that she had con
ceived, I was despised in her eyes :
Jehovah judge between me and
thee.' But Abram said unto Sa
rai, ' Behold, thy maid is in thy
hand; do to her as it pleaseth
thee.' And when Sarai dealt
hardly with her, she fled frora
her face.
" And the angel of Jehovah
found her by a fountain of water
in the wilderness, by the fountain
in the way to Shur. And he said,
' Hagar, Sarai's raaid, whence
earnest thou? and whither wilt
thou go?' And she said, 'I flee
from the face of ray mistress Sa
rai.' And the angel of Jehovah
said unto her, ' Return to thy
mistress, and submit thyself under
her hands.' And the angel of Je
hovah said unto her, ' I will multi
ply thy seed exceedingly, that it
shall not be numbered for multi
tude.' And the angel of Jehovah
said unto her, ' Behold, thou art
with child, and shalt bear a son,
and shalt call his name Ishmael ;
because Jehovah hath heard thy
affliction. And he will be a wild
man : his hand will be against
every man, and every man's hand
against him; and he shall dwell
in the presence of all his brethren.'

§ 150.]

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97

DOCUMENT " ELOHIM."
against him, a good way off, as it
were a bow-shot: for she said,
' Let me not see the death of the
child.' And she sat over against
him, and lifted up her voice, and
wept. And Elohim heard the
voice of the lad : and the angel
of Elohim called to Hagar out of
heaven, and said unto her, ' What
aileth thee, Hagar? Fear not;
for Elohim hath heard the voice
of the lad where he is. Arise,
lift up the lad, and hold him in
thine hand : for I will make him
a great nation.'
" And Elohim opened her eyes,
and she saw a well of water : and
she went, and filled the bottle
with water, and gave the lad
drink. And Elohim was with
the lad ; and he grew, and dwelt
in the wilderness, and became an
archer. And he dwelt in the
wilderness of Paran: and his
mother took him a wife out of
the land of .(Egypt"
X. Chap. xxi. 22—34. Abra-
ham's Covenant with Abime
lech.''
" And it came to pass at that
time, that Abimelech and Phichol
the chief captain of his host spake
unto Abraham, saying, 'Elohim
is with thee in all that thou doest :

DOCUMENT "JEHOVAH."
And she called the name of Jeho
vah that spake unto her, ' Thou
God of Vision : '" for she said,
' Have I also here looked after
him that seeth me 1 ' Wherefore
the well was called Beer-lahai-roi,
[well of living vision ;] behold, it
is between Kadesh and Bered.
"And Hagar bare Abram a
son : and Abram called his son's
name, which Hagar bare, Ishmael.
" And Abram was fourscore
and six years old, when Hagar
bare Ishmael to Abram "

Chap. xxvi. 26 — 33. A similar
Event in the History of Isaac.
" Then Abimelech went to hira
from Gerar, and Ahuzzath one
of his friends, and Phichol the
chief captain of his army. And
Isaac said unto them, ' Wherefore
come ye to me, seeing ye hate

' [I have departed in this firom the common veision.]
' 'Verses 33 and 34 are interpolated.
13

VOL. II

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BOOKS OF MOSES.

[§ 160.

DOCU.MENT " ELOHIM."
now, therefore, swear unto me
here by Elohim that thou wilt not
deal falsely with me, nor with my
son, nor with my son's son ; but,
according to the kindness that I
have done unto thee, thou shalt
do unto me, and to the land
wherein thou hast sojourned.'
And Abraham said, ' I will swear.'
And Abraham reproved Abime
lech because of a well of water,
which Abimelech's servants had
violently taken away. And Abim
elech said, ' I wot not who hath
done this thing : neither didst
thou tell me, neither yet heard I
of it, but to-day.' And Abraham
took sheep and oxen, and gave
them unto Abimelech : and both
of them made a covenant. And
Abraham set seven ewe-lambs of
the flock by themselves. And
Abimelech said unto Abraham,
' What mean these seven ewe-
lambs, which thou hast set by
themselves ? ' And he said, ' For
these seven ewe-lambs shalt thou
take of my hand, that they may
be a witness unto me that I have
digged this well. Wherefore he
called that place Beer-sheba :
because there they sware both
of them. Thus they made a
covenant at Beer-sheba : then
Abimelech rose up, and Phichol
the chief captain of his host, and
they returned into the land of the
Philistines "

DOCU.MENT "JEHOVAH."
me, and have sent me away from
you ? ' And they said, ' We saw
certainly that Jehovah was with
thee : and we said, " Let there
be now an oath betwixt us, even
betwixt us and thee, and let us
make a covenant with thee; that
thou wilt do us no hurt, as we
have not touched thee, and as we
have done unto thee nothing but
good, and have sent thee away in
peace ; thou art now the blessed of
Jehovah." ' And he made them
a feast, and they did eat and
drink. And they rose up betimes
in the morning, and sware one to
another : and Isaac sent them
away, and they departed from him
in peace. And it came to pass
the same day, that Isaac's ser
vants came and told him con
cerning the well which they had
digged, and said unto him, 'We
have found water.' And he called
it Shebah : therefore the name
of the city is Beer-sheba unto
this day."

^ 150.]

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99

DOCUMENT "ELOHIM."
XI. Chap. xxii. 1 — 13, and verse
19. God tempts Abraham.'
" And it came to pass after
these things, that Elohim did
tempt Abraham, and said unto
him, ' Abraham : ' and he said,
' Behold, here I am.' And he said,
' Take now thy son, thine only
son Isaac, whom thou lovest, and
get thee into the land of Moriah ;
and ofier him there for a burnt-
offering upon one of the moun
tains which I will tell thee of
" And Abrahara rose up early
in the morning, and saddled his
ass, and took two of his young
men with him, and Isaac his son,
and clave the wood for the burnt-
offering, and rose up, and went
unto the place of which Elohim
had told him. Then on the third
day Abraham lifted up his eyes,
and saw the place afar off. And
Abraham said unto his young
men, ' Abide ye here with the ass,
and I and the lad will go yonder
and worship, and come again
to you.' And Abraham took the
wood of the burnt-offering, and
laid it upon Isaac his son ; and
he took the fire in his hand and
a knife : and they went both of
them together. And Isaac spake
unto Abraham his father, and
said, 'My father:' and he said,
' Here am I, my son.' And he
said, 'Behold the fire and the

DOCUMENT " JEHOVAH."
Chap. xxii. 14 — 18. God tempts
Abraham.
" And Abraham called the
name of that place Jehovah-jireh :
as it is said to this day, 'In the
mount of Jehovah it shall be seen.'
" And the angel of Jehovah
called unto Abraham out of heav
en the second time, and said,
' By myself have I sworn, saith
Jehovah, — for because thou hast
done this thing, and hast not
withheld thy son, thine only son, —
that in blessing I will bless thee,
and in multiplying I will multiply
thy seed as the stars of the heaven,
and as the sand which is upon
the sea-shore ; and thy seed shall
possess the gate of his enemies;
and in thy seed shall all the na
tions of the earth be blessed ; be
cause thou hast obeyed my voice."

* Verse 11 is interpolated.

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BOOKS OF MOSES.

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DOCUMENT "ELOHIM."
i: but where is the lamb for a burnt-ofTering? ' And Abra-
. said, ' My son, Elohim will provide himself a lamb for a burnt-
.'ing : ' so they went both of them together. And they came to
v.«i place which Elohim had told him of: and Abraham built an
altar there, and laid the wood in order ; and bound Isaac his son,
and laid him on the altar upon the wood. And Abraham stretched
forth his hand, and took the knife to slay his son. And the angel
of Jehovah called unto him out of heaven, and said, ' Abraham,
Abraham.' And he said, ' Here am I.' And he said, ' Lay not thine
hand upon the lad, neither do thou any thing unto him : for now I
know that thou fearest Elohim, seeing thou hast not withheld thy son,
thine only son, from me.' And Abraham lifted up his eyes, and
looked, and behold, behind him a ram caught in a thicket by his
horns : and Abraham went and took the ram, and offered him up for
a burnt-offering in the stead of his son.
" So Abraham returned unto his young men, and they rose up, and
went together to Beer-sheba; and Abraham dwelt at Beer-sheba."

DOCUMENT "ELOHIM."
XII. Chap, xxiii. Purchase of
the cave at Macpelah.
XIII. (1.) Chap. xxv. 1—11.
Abraham's second marriage, and
death." (2.) Chap. xxv. 12—18. Ish
mael's genealogy.
(3.) Chap. xxv. 19—21," 24—
26. Isaac's marriage and sons.

(4.) Chap. xxv. 27—35. Esau
sells his birthright.''
(5.) Chap. xxvi. 34, 35. Esau's
wives.

DOCUMENT "JEHOVAH.'

Chap. xxiv. A detailed account
of Isaac's marriage. Chap. xxv.
22, 23. Prophecy respecting his
sons. Chap, xxvii. 1 — 40, Jacob de
ceives Esau to obtain his father's
blessing. Chap. xxvi. 1 — 33. Isaac's
residence at Gerar.

• Comp. verses 9, 10, with xxiiu ' Verse 21 is an mterpolation.
• Astruc, Stahelin, and othere, place it differently.

^ 150.]

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101

DOCUMENT "ELOHIM."
XIV. Chap, xxvii. 46 — xxviii. 9.
Jacob sent to Mesopotamia to
procure a Wife."
" And Rebekah said to Isaac,
' I am weary of my life, because
of the daughters of Heth: if Ja
cob take a wife of the daughters
of Heth, such as these which are
of the daughters of the land, what
good shall my life do me ? '
" And Isaac called Jacob, and
blessed him, and charged him,
and said unto him, 'Thou shalt
not take a wife of the daughters
of Canaan. Arise, go to Padan-
aram, to the house of Bethuel
thy mother's father; and take
thee a wife from thence of the
daughters of Laban thy mother's
brother. And Elohim Almighty
bless thee, and make thee fruit
ful, and multiply thee, that thou
mayest be a multitude of people ;
and give thee the blessing of
Abraham, to thee, and to thy seed
with thee ; that thou raayest in
herit the land wherein thou art a
stranger, which Elohim gave unto
Abraham.' And Isaac sent away
Jacob : and he went to Padan-
aram unto Laban, son of Bethuel
the Syrian, the brother of Re
bekah, Jacob's and Esau's mother.
"When Esau saw that Isaac
had blessed Jacob, and sent him
away to Padan-aram, to take him
a wife from thence; and that as
he blessed him, he gave him a

DOCUMENT "JEHOVAH."
Chap, xxvii. 41 — 45. Jacob flees
to Mesopotamia.
" And Esau hated Jacob be
cause of the blessing wherewith
his father blessed hira : and Esau
said in his heart, ' The days of
mourning for my father are at
hand ; then will I slay my brother
Jacob.' And these words of Esau
her elder son were told to Re
bekah: and she sent and called
Jacob her younger son, and said
unto him, ' Behold, thy brother
Esau, as touching thee, doth com
fort himself, purposing to kill thee.
Now, therefore, my son, obey my
voice ; and arise, flee thou to
Laban my brother to Haran ; and
tarry with him a few days, until
thy brother's fury turn away ; un
til thy brother's anger turn away
from thee, and he forget that
which thou hast done to him :
then I will send and fetch thee
from thence. Why should I be
deprived also of you both in
one day ? ' "

« Comp. xxviii. 3, 4, with xvii. 1, 8, 30.

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BOOKS OF MOSES.

[5, 150.

DOCUMENT "ELOHIM."
charge, saying, 'Thou shalt not take a wife of the daughters of
Canaan ; ' and that Jacob obeyed his father, and his mother, and
was gone to Padan-aram ; and Esau seeing that the daughters of
Canaan pleased not Isaac his father ; then went Esau unto Ishmael,
and took unto the wives which he had, Mahalath the daughter of
Ishmael, Abraham's son, the sister of Nebajoth, to be his wife."

DOCUMENT "ELOHIM."
XV. Chap, xxviii. 10—12, 17,
20 — 22." Jacob's dream and vow
at Beth-el.
XVI. Chap, xxix.' xxx. 1 —
13, 17—23," part of 24. Jacob's
arrival in Mesopotamia, marriage,
and children.
XVII. (1.) Chap. xxxi. 4—16.
Jacob resolves to flee.
(2.) Chap. xxxi. 17 — xxxii. 4.
Flight, and covenant with Laban.''

DOCUMENT "JEHOVAH."
Chap, xxviii. 13 — 16. Jeho
vah's promise to Jacob at Beth-ei.
Verses 18, 19. Anticipation of
the consecration of Beth-el. Com
pare xxxv. 14,' Chap. xxx. 14 —
16. Reuben's mandrakes.
Chap. xxx. 24. Another ety
mology of Joseph.
Chap. xxx. 25 — 42. Different
account to show how Jacob ac
quired wealth by deceit

XVIII. Jacob meets Esau. Chap, xxxii. 4 — xxxiii. 16, is referred
to the document "Jehovah" by Gramberg, to "Elohim" by Tuch,
with the exception of xxxii. 10 — 12: xxxiii. 1 — 16, unquestionably
belongs here. But Esau's residence in Edom (xxxii. 4) contradicts
the Elohistic account, (xxxvi. 6, sqq.,) that he went there after Jacob's
arrival. The supposition of enmity between Jacob and Esau (xxxii.
21) belongs to the Jehovistic document. The change of Jacob's
narae (xxxii. 23, sq.) cannot be Elohistic,-'^ since this first occurs
xxxv. 10, and is observed by the narrator himself in verse 21.

DOCUMENT "ELOHIM."
XIX. Chap, xxxiii. 17—20. Ja
cob's arrival in Canaan,

DOCUMENT " JEHOVAH.'

Verse 21 is interpolated.
Verses 31 — 35 are interpolated.
Stahelin differently.
' Chap. xxxi. 49, interpolated.

' Tuch arranges differently.
f The name Elohim (verses 29,
31) proves nothing.

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103

DOCUMENT "ELOHIM."
XX. Chap, xxxiv. Violation
of Dinah."
XXI. Chap. xxxv. Jacob's
journey to Beth-el. God's promises
to him. Change of Jacob's name.
Consecration of Beth-el. Death
of Isaac' Verse 10, " Thy name
is Jacob," (Heel-catcher ;) "thy
name shall not be called Jacob
any more, but thy name shall be
Israel," {Soldier-of-God.)

XXII. Chap, xxxvi.'
family register.

Esau's

XXIII. Chap, xxxvii. Joseph
is sold into jEgypt. But the nar
rative (23 — 30) does not agree to
gether.''

DOCUMENT "JEHOVAH.'

Chap, xxviii. 18, 19. Earlier
consecration of Beth-el.
Chap, xxxii. 22 — 32. Another
account of the change of Jacob's
narae ; 24 — 29. " And Jacob was
left alone : and there wrestled a
man with him until the breaking
of the day. And when he saw
that he prevailed not against him,
he touched the hollow of his thigh ;
and the hollow of Jacob's thigh
was out of joint as he wrestled
with him. And he said, ' Let me
go, for the day breaketh.' And
he said, ' I will not let thee go,
except thou bless me.' And he
said unto him, 'What is thy
name?' And he said, -Jacob.'
And he said, ' Thy name shall be
called no more Jacob, but Israel :
for as a prince hast thou power
with Elohim and with men, and
hast prevailed.' And Jacob asked
him, and said, ' Tell me, I pray
thee, thy name.' And he said,
' Wherefore is it that thou dost
ask after my name ? ' And he
blessed him there."
Chap, xxxviii. Judah's incest
with Tamar.

" The mention of circumcision shows this belongs to the Elohistic docu
ment Comp. xvii. Comp., also, verse 1 with xvii. 12 ; verse 2 with xvii.
20, xxiii. 6, xxv. 16. '
' The Jehovist differs from verses 1, 7, and perhaps other passages ; for
Deborah (verse 8) could scarcely be, at that time, in the camp of Jacob.
" Comp. verses 6 — 8 with xvii. 8, xxviii. 4.
¦^ See the remarks of Ranke, Drechsler, and Tuch. Comp. verse 28 with
25. See GranAerg and Stdhdin,

104 BOOKS OF MOSES. [^ 150.

DOCUMENT "ELOHIM."
XXIV. Chap, xxxix. 6—20.
Joseph favored by his master, but
at length cast into prison.

DOCUMENT " JEHOVAH."
Chap, xxxix. 1 — 5. Jehovah's
blessing is with Joseph, (21 — 23,)
who gains the jailer's favor.

XXV. Joseph comes to high honors by interpreting dreams ; xl. —
xii. Gramberg and Stahelin find the document "Jehovah" in this.
XXVI. The two journeys of Joseph's brothers (xlii. — xlv.) are like
wise Elohistic. There is a disagreement between xlii. 27, 28, xliii.
21, and xlii. 35; between xliii. 3—13, xliv. 19—23, and xlii. 9—20,
30 — 34. Gramberg and others refer this disagreement to the two
sources of the document ; but perhaps it is, as Tuch supposes, to be
referred to the inaccuracy of the narrator.
XXVII. Jacob's journey to .(Egypt, and settlement in Goshen.
Chap. xlvi. xlvii. 1 — 7, is characteristic. (Compare xxxv. 9 — 15,
xvii.) The passages xlvi. 31 — xlvii. 6, do not seem to agree with
xlvi. 17 — -20 ; but this disagreement is, perhaps, to be referred to the
carelessness of the author."
XXVIII. Jacob's blessing and last will, xlix. 29, 32, refer to xxiii. ;
verses 3 — 5, to xxxiv. xxxv. 22. The blessing, verses 1 — 27, is either
interpolated by the Elohist,' or written by him, and verse 18 inter
polated by the Jehovist.''
XXIX. Jacob's burial. Joseph's death.'*
° De Wette, Beit vol. ii. p. 152, sqq. Stahelin, p. 83.
' See Tuch, p. 554, sqq. " See Bleek.
'' Comp. verse 5 with xlvii. 30, 31 ; verses 12, 13, with xlix. 29, sqq. ; verse
20 ivith xlv. 5, 7.
The chief characteristics of the document "Elohim" are as follows: —
]. In the style, beside the use oi Elohim, El-shaddai ('^"".^"is) is used for
God ; xvii. 1, xxviii. 3, xxxv. 11, xliii. 14, xlviii. 3, 28. Mesopotamia is called
Padan-aram, D^s "pt ; xxv. 20, xxviii. 2, xxxi. 19, xxxiii. 18, xxxv. 9, 26,
xlviii. 7. Male and female, rap31 lit ; i. 27, v. 2, vL 19, vii. 16. Be fruit
ful and multiply, nail nic , (used also in Hiphil ;) i. 22, 28, viii. 17, ix. 1, 7,
xvii. 20, xxviii. 3, xxxv. 11, xlvii. 27, xlviiL 4. After his kind or their kind,
ire'iftii, or Dmiab ; i. n, 12, 21, vi. 20, vii. 14. ITiat self-same day, fiSSa
mn ST^n; vU. 23, xvIL 23, 2& In their generations, dnmi; xvii. 7, 19;
comp. ix. 12, xxv. 16, xxxvi. 40, 43. Land of strangers, ftiiaSl SIS ; xvii. 8,

^51.] BOOKS OF MOSES. 106
^151.
B. Exodus.
It has been remarked by Eichhorn, and in former
editions of this work, that the document "Elohim" ex-
xxviii. 4, xxxvi. 7, xxxvii. 1 ; comp. xlvii. 9. For a possession, ntns ; xvii. 8,
xxiii. 4, 9, 20, xxxvi. 43, xlvii. 11, xlix. 30, 1. 13. Establish a covenant,
fl'1'12 b'iDn, or ni^n ps ; vi 18, ix. 8, 11, 12, xvii. 2, 7, 19, &c. It is dis
tinguished by diffuseness, circumstantiality, and repetitions. Comp. i, 11, 12,
20, 21, 24, 25, 29, vi. 20, vii, 14, 21—23, viii, 17, ix, 2, xvii, 10—14, 23—
27, xxiii. 17, xxv. 9, 10, xlix. 29, sqq., 1. 13.
2. Jn the ideas, views, and plan. God is not recognized as Jehovah, (Ex.
vi. 2 ;) therefore the name does not occur. There is no Jehovah worship,
(none after the Mosaic form,) but there is a more firee worsiiip. There is no
distinction of clean and unclean beasts. There seems to be a worship of
sacred siorees, (xxviii. 18, 19, (?)xxxv. 14,15.) Yet the ground of the theocracy
was laid by the selection and separation of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, which
is confirmed by genealogies carried out with reference to a plan. There is
also a ground for some theocratical institutions, (ii. 2, ix. 6, xvii. 10, sqq.)
In general, the Elohist knows well how to transfer himself to the primitive
times, and to describe them in respect to morals, (i. 31, v. 22, 24, vi. 9 ;
comp.vi. 11,) and physical circumstances, (v. 5, sqq., xi. 10, sqq.; comp. xlvii.
9.) He does this more perfectly and simply than the other ; (comp. i. 31, with
ix. 3.) He describes also the customs of the patriarchs.
On the other hand, the Jehovist makes the worship of Jehovah begin and
continue even under the patriarchs, (iv. 96, xii. 8, xiii. 4, xxi. 33, xxvi. 25.)
Hence he puts the name Jehovah even in the mouth of the heathen, (xxvi.
28, 29.) He refers to the ancient time the Levitical sacrifices, (iv. 3, 4, viii.
20;) the oracle of Jehovah, (xxv. 22;) a positive legislation, (xxvi. 5;) the le-
virate marriage, (chap, xxxviii. ;) vengeance of blood, (iv. 14;) as well as later
civilization and luxury, (iv. 17, 20, 29, ix. 90, xi. 3, 4, xiii. 9, xxiv. 99, 30, 47,
53.) The mythology, which in the Elohist is simple, here becomes more
fantastic, (iii. 1, sqq., 24, xix. 17, ^, iii. 8, 9, xi. 7, xviii. 1 — 8, xix. 1, sqq.,
XV. 17, vi. 1, sqq.)
In respect of style. He calls Mesopotamia " Syria of the two rivers,"
fi^ini D1» ; xxiv. 10. He says, "man and his woman," instead of male and
female, iniBi»1 HJii* , for 'lalpai 1ST ; viL 2. IDS , for biDtin ; xxv. 21.
ibaa ; xii. 13, xxx. 27, xxxix. 5. n^ia n'i3 , XV. 18, xxvi. 28. D^aBn laaias ;
xxii. 17, xxvi. 4 (Comp. xv. 5, and other places. See TucA, L c. p. lix., sqq.
Stahelin, p. 87, sqq.) He inserts odes and proverbs, (iv. 23, x. 9, xxii. 14,
xxv. 23,) and poetical discourses, (ix. 26, 27, xiv. 19, 20, xxvii 23, sqq^ 37,
vol.. ir. 14

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[^151.

tends also to this book, as it was requhed by the author's
plan to go farther than Genesis. Yet this subject has
not been investigated on all sides, and the present
views are not so perfectly established as it is desirable.
However, the following distinction of the Elohistic and
Jehovistic fragments, made according to StaheHn's plan,
is, as a whole, certainly correct."

DOCUMENT " ELOHIM."
I. Chap. i. 1 — 7, perhaps, also,
verse 8 — 22. Increase of the
Israelites in ^Egypt. Elohim oc
curs xvii. 20, 21.'
II. Chap. ii. 23—25." God
remembers the Israelites.

DOCUMENT " JEHOVAH.'

Chap. ii. Birth of Moses, &.c.
This is considered Jehovistic,
from the motive given for the
name of Moses, "^ and the scene
at the Well.'' The narae iZog'Me?
favors the Elohistic, for the Je
hovistic has Jethro; iii. 1.
Chap. iii. 1 — iv. 17. Mission of
Moses. Chap. iii. 14, containing
the explanation of the name Jeho
vah, is decidedly Jehovistic. But
elsewhere the name Elohim occurs
seven times ; ii. 4, 6, 1 1 — 15.

sqq.,) and displays greater skill, and better arrangement, with less diffiise-
ness. See TuA, p. lix., sqq. Stahelin, p. 87, sq.
* Stalidin's contributions to the critical investigation of the Pentateuch,
and the books of Joshua and Judges, in the Stud, und Krit for 1835, p. 461,
sqq., and a MS., communicated to the autlior, from which, however, he
sometimes ventures to differ.
[It will be seen, from what follows, that the two documents are not to be
separated in Exodus with the same certainty as in Genesis, because one of
tlie chief characteristics of distinction ceases to be such afler chap, iii]
» The word "jID, verse 13, 14. Comp. Levit xxv. 43, 46, 53.
" Comp. verse 24 with Gen. xvii. &c., and Ex. vi. 5.
" But comp. Gen. xxx. 1 — 13, 17 — 24. ' But comp. Gen. xxix.

§151.]

BOOKS OF MOSES.

107

DOCUMENT "ELOHIM."
III. Chap, vi. 2— vii. 7. God,
as Jehovah, declares to the peo
ple, through Moses, his intention
to deliver them. Genealogy of
Moses, Aaron appointed as Mo
ses' spokesman.
Chap. vi. 9. " But they heark
ened not unto Moses, for anguish
of spirit, and for cruel bondage."

Chap. vi. 30, vii. 1, 2. " And
Moses said before Jehovah, ' Be
hold, I am of uncircuincised lips,
and how shall Pharaoh hearken
unto me ? '
" And Jehovah said unto Moses,
See, I have made thee a god to
Pharaoh : and Aaron thy broth
er shall be thy prophet. Thou
shalt speak all that I command
thee : and Aaron thy brother
shall speak unto Pharaoh, that
he send the children of Israel out
of his land.' "
The genealogy (vi. 14 — 27)
corresponds to the genealogies of
document " Elohim ; " but vii. 3,
is probably Jehovistic. Compare
ix. 12, and xiv. 4 — 17.

DOCUMENT " JEHOVAH."
Chap. iv. 18 — 31. Moses' jour
ney. Arrival in .(Egypt. Con
firmed before the people. Com
pare verse 20 with iv. 2 ; verse
21, 28, 30, with iv. 1—9.
In chap. iv. 31, there is a strik
ing antithesis to vi. 9. " And the
people believed; and when they
heard that Jehovah had visited
the children of Israel, then they
bowed their heads and worship
ped." Chap. iv. 10—16. " And Moses
said unto Jehovah, ' O my Lord,
I ara not eloquent, neither here
tofore, nor since thou hast spoken
unto thy servant : but I am slow
of speech, and of a slow tongue,'
And Jehovah said unto him,
'Who hath made man's mouth?
or who maketh the dumb, or
deaf, or the seeing, or the blind ?
Have not I Jehovah? Now,
therefore, go, and I will be with
thy mouth, and teach thee what
thou shalt say.' And he said,
' O my Lord, send, I pray thee,
by the hand of him whom thou
wilt send.' And the anger of
Jehovah was kindled against
Moses, and he said, ' Is not Aaron
the Levite thy brother ? I know
that he can speak well. And
also, behold, he cometh forth to
meet thee; and when he seeth
thee, he will be glad in his heart.
And thou shalt speak unto him,
and put words in his mouth ; and

108

BOOKS OF MOSES.

[§151.

DOCUMENT " JEHOVAH."
I will be with thy mouth, and with his mouth, and will teach
you what ye shall do. And he shall be thy spokesman unto ihe
people: and he shall be, even he shall be to thee instead of a
mouth, and thou shalt be to him instead of God.' "

DOCUMENT " ELOHIM."

IV. Chap. xii. 1—28, 37—51.
Institution of the passover. Ex
ode of the Israelites. The conse
cration of the first-born is perhaps
Elohistic; xiii. 1. Chap. xii. 16
is opposed to xiii. 6.
V. Chap, xiii, 17—20. March
to Etham.

VI. Chap. xvi. Gift of Manna,
and the Quails. Tlie Sabbath."
" And the whole congregation
of the children of Israel mur
mured against Moses and Aaron

DOCUMENT "JEHOVAH."
Chap. V. 1 — vi. 1. Moses and
Aaron's first unlucky visit to Pha
raoh. Compare ver. 3 with iii. 18.
Chap. vii. 8 — xi. 10. Moses'
miracles in ^gypt.
Chap. vii. 8, sq., refers to iv. 1,
sqq. All agree together ; the
inconsistent passage, xi. 1 — 3,
refers back to iii. 21, 22.
Chap. xii. 29—36. Plague of
the first-born. Expulsion of the
Israelites. Chap. xiii. 2 — 16. Another law
of the passover and the first-born.

Chap. xiii. 21, 22. Pillar of fire
and cloud. Comp. Num, x, 11-28.
Chap, xiv, 1 — XV, 21, Passage
of the Red Sea, and song of
triumph. Compare xiv. 19, sqq.,
with xiii. 21.
Chap. XV. 22—27. March to Ma
ra. Verse 26 refers to ix. 1 — 12.
Num. xi. A similar Account of
the Gift of Quails.
" And the mixed multitude that
was among them fell a lusting ;
and the children of Israel also

" This is known to be Elohistic, from the accurate date (verse 1) and the
consecration of the Sabbath.

§151.]

BOOKS OF MOSES.

109

DOCUMENT " ELOHIM."
in the wilderness. And the chil
dren of Israel said unto libera,
' Would to God we had died by
the hand of Jehovah in the land
of iEgypt, when we sat by the
flesh-pots, and when we did eat
bread to the full; for ye have
brought us forth into this wilder
ness, to kill this whole assembly
with hunger.'
" Then said Jehovah unto Mo
ses, ' Behold, I will rain bread from
heaven for you ; and the people
shall go out and gather a certain
rate every day, that I may prove
them, whether they will walk in
my law, or no.'
" And Jehovah spake unto Mo
ses, saying, ' I have heard the raur-
murings of the children of Israel ;
speak unto them, saying, " At
even ye shall eat flesh, and in the
morning ye shall be filled with
bread ; and ye shall know that I
am Jehovah your God." ' And
it came to pass, that at even the
quails came up, and covered the
camp ; and in the morning the
dew lay round about the host.
And when the dew that lay was
gone up, behold, upon the face of
the wilderness there lay a small
round thing, as small as the hoar
frost on the ground. And when
the children of Israel saw it, they
said one to another, ' It is man
na ; ' for they wist not what it
was. And Moses said unto
them, ' This is the bread which
Jehovah hath given you to eat,' "

DOCUMENT " JEHOVAH."
wept again, and said, ' Who
shall give us flesh tb eat? We
remember the fish which we did
eat in iEgypt freely ; the cucum
bers, and the melons, and the
leeks, and the onions, and the
garlic. But now our soul is
dried away ; there is nothing at
all, besides this manna, before our
eyes.' " And the manna was as cori
ander-seed, and the color thereof
as the color of bdellium. And
the people went about, and gath
ered it, and ground it in mills, or
beat it in a raortar, and baked it
in pans, and made cakes of it ;
and the taste of it was as the taste
of fresh oil. And when the dew
fell upon the camp in the night,
the manna fell upon it.
" Then Moses heard the people
weep throughout their families,
every raan in the door of his tent ;
and the anger of Jehovah was
kindled greatly ; Moses also was
displeased. And Moses said unto
Jehovah, ' Wherefore hast thou
afflicted thy servant ? and where
fore have I not found favor in thy
sight, that thou layest the burden
of all this people upon rae? Have
I conceived all this people 1 have
I begotten them, that thou should
est say unto me, " Carry thera in
thy bosom (as a nursing-father
beareth the suckling child) unto
the land which thou swarest unto
their fathers." Whence should I
have flesh to give unto all this

110 BOOKS OF MOSES. [§ 151.
DOCUMENT "JEHOVAH."
people ? For they weep unto me, saying, " Give us flesh, that we
may eat," I am not able to bear all this people alone, because it is
too heavy for me. And if thou deal thus with me, kill rae, I pray
thee, out of hand, if I have found favor in thy sight ; and let me not
see ray wretchedness.'
" And Jehovah said unto Moses, ' Gather unto me seventy men
of the elders of Israel, whom thou knowest to be the elders of the
people, and officers over ihem ; and bring thera unto the tabernacle
of the congregation, that they may stand there with thee. And I
will come down, and talk with thee there ; and I will take off the
spirit which is upon thee, and will put it upon them ; and they
shall bear the burden of the people with thee, that thou bear it
not thyself alone. And say thou unto the people, " Sanctify yourselves
against to-morrow, and ye shall eat flesh; (for ye have wept in the
ears of Jehovah, saying, ' Who shall give us flesh to eat ? for it was
well with us in JEgypt; ') therefore Jehovah will give you flesh, and
ye shall eat. Ye shall not eat one day, nor two days, nor five
days, neither ten days, nor twenty days ; but even a whole month,
until it come out at your nostrils, and it be loathsome unto you ;
because that ye have despised Jehovah, which is among you,
and have wept before hira, saying, 'Why came we forth out of
^Egypt?"" And Moses said, 'The people among whom I am
are six hundred thousand footmen ; and thou hast said, " I will
give thera flesh, that they raay eat a whole month.'' Shall the
flocks and the herds be slain for thera, to suffice them? or shall
all the fish of the sea be gathered together for them, to suffice
them ? ' And Jehovah said unto Moses, ' Is Jehovah's hand waxed
short ? Thou shalt see now whether my word shall come to pass
unto thee, or not' And Moses gat him into the carap, he and the
elders of Israel.
" And there went forth a wind from Jehovah, and brought quails
from the sea, and let them fall by the camp as it were a day's journey
on this side, and as it were a day's journey on the other side,
round about the camp, and as it were two cubits high upon the
face of the earth."
Chap. xvii. 1 — 15. Water from the rock. Victory over Amalek.
Compare verse 5 with vii 20.
Chap, xviii. 1 — 12. Jethro's visit to Moses, as Stahelin thinks, is
Jehovistic, from a comparison of verses 2 — 4 with ii. 22, iv. 20, 21, —
though there is rather a contradiction between them, — and on

^15].]

BOOKS OF MOSES.

Ill

DOCUMENT "JEHOVAH."

account of the phrase Mount of Elohim, (verse 5, compared with iii.
3,) the phrase delivered out of the hand of, (compare iii, 8,) and, in
general, on account of the reference to the plagues of ./Egypt.
(Compare verse 9 with Num, xx. 15.) On the other hand, 13 — 17 is
Elohistic. Chap. xix. Legislation on Mount Sinai. This is Jehovistic,
according to Stahelin, because verse 2 does not connect with verse 1,
but with xvii.; (but compare Num. xxxiii. 11 — 15;) on account
of Jehovah's descent and appearance, as in other Jehovistic passages,
(xvii. 6, iii. 1, sqq., and Gen. xi. 7;) because the existence of the
priests is presupposed, (verse 22, and elsewhere.) But, on the other
hand, Elohira occurs verses 17, 19; and the necessity for the
appearance of God on this occasion, leads us to suppose the two
accounts are united.

VII. Chap. XX. 1—13. The
ten commandments. This is
Elohistic. (Compare verse 1 1
with Gen. ii. 2, 3.) Stahelin
thinks differently.

Chap. XX. 14—23. This is in
part Jehovistic. Verses 14 — 18
refer to chap, xix., (but verses 16
— 18 are Elohistic.) Part is
uncertain, but Stahelin calls the
whole Jehovistic.

Chap. xxi. — xxiii. Ewald" considers this an older writing, that has
been inserted; and the repetition (xxiv. 11, sqq) favors the supposi
tion.' Stahelin considers it Jehovistic, because Ahib occurs, xxiii.
15, as in xiii. 4; an angel, verse 20, as in xxxii. 34, and xiv. 19; the
Canaanites are mentioned, verses 23, 28, as in iii. 18, xiii. 5, Gen.
XV. 19; and the Euphrates, verse 31, as the limit of the land, as in
Gen. XV. 18. Compare, also, verse 20 with xv. 17."

" Studien und Kritiken for 1831, p. 603.
' See Studien und Kritiken for 1837, p. 955.
° [The difficulty is easily solved by the hypothesis that xxi 1— xxiii. 17, is
an independent document, neither Elohistic nor Jehovistic. The latter part
of verse 15, telling how and why the feast is kept, looks like an interpolation
by the Jehovistic writer. The rest (18—33) has all the marks of the Jehovistic
fragment The former fragment is unique in its character, and contains
laws not elsewhere alluded to. Chap. xxi. 1, seems prefixed merely to con
nect it in some manner with the preceding account ; but still the connection
is very loose.]

112

BOOKS OF MOSES.

[§151.

DOCUMENT " JEHOVAH."

Chap. xxiv. is Jehovistic, according to Stahelin. It corresponds
to chap. xix. There is a covenant and sacrifice, as in Gen. xv. 18.
The sacrificial feast (?) occurs verse 9, sqq. [Here, also, it seems to
me a different arrangement may be made. Chap. xxiv. 1 — 8, xii.
15 — 18, seems entirely Jehovistic. The passage 9 — II, and 13, 14,
are Elohistic, and parallel with xxxiii. 12, sqq.

DOCUMENT " ELOHIM."
Chap. xxiv. 9-11,13,14. "Then
went up Moses and Aaron, Na-
dab, and Abihu, and seventy of
the elders of Israel ; and they saw
the Elohira of Israel ; and there
was under his feet as it were a
paved work of a sapphire-stone,
and as it were the body of heaven
in his clearness. And upon the
nobles of the children of Israel
he laid not his hand ; also, they
saw Elohira, and did eat and
drink. And Moses rose up, and
his rainister Joshua; and Moses
went up into the Mount of Elo
him. And he said unto the
elders, ' Tarry ye here for us,
until we come again unto you ;
and behold, Aaron and Hur are
with you ; if any man have any
matters to do, let him come unto
them.' "

DOCUMENT " JEHOVAH."
Chap, xxxiii. 12—22. "And
Moses said unto Jehovah, ' See,
thou sayest unto me, " Bring up
this people;" and thou hast not
let rae know whom thou wilt send
with me. Yet thou hast said, " I
know thee by name, and thou
hast also found grace in my sight."
Now, therefore, I pray thee, if I
have found grace in thy sight,
show me now thy way, that I may
know thee, that I may find grace
in thy sight ; and consider that
this nation is thy people.' And
he said, ' My presence shall go
with thee, and I will give thee
rest' And he said unto hira, ' If
thy presence go not with me,
carry us not up hence. For
wherein shall it be known here
that I and thy people have found
grace in thy sight ? Is it not in
that thou goest with us ? So
shall we be separated, 1 and thy
people, from all the people that
are upon the face of the earth.'
And Jehovah said unto Moses, ' I
will do this thing, also, that thou
hast spoken ; for thou hast found
grace in my sight, and I know
thee by name.' And he said, ' I

§161.]

BOOKS OF MOSES.

113

DOCUMENT "JEHOVAH."
beseech thee, show me thy glory.' And he said, ' I will make all my
goodness pass before thee, and I will proclaim the narae of Jeho
vah before thee ; and will be gracious to whom I will be gra
cious, and will show mercy on whom I will show mercy.' And
he said, ' Thou canst not see my face, for there shall no man see
me and live.' And Jehovah said, ' Behold, there is a place by
me, and thou shalt stand upon a rock : and it shall come to pass,
while my glory passeth by, that I will put thee in a cleft of the rock,
and will cover thee with my hand while I pass by : and I will take
away my hand, and thou shalt see my back parts : but my face
shall not be seen.' "]

DOCUMENT "ELOHIM."
VIII. Chap, xxv, 1 — xxxi, 17,
Command to erect the tabernacle ;
all from the same hand. This is
Elohistic, if we are to judge from
the repetitions, and the resem
blance to Gen, vi, 13—22, There
are several Elohistic formulas,
such as, I will be their God; xxix,
45, 46, as in vi, 7, xxxi, 12 — 17,
and XX. 11."

DOCUMENT "JEHOVAH.'

Chap. xxxi. 18, connects with
chap. xxiv.
Chap. xxxii. — xxxiv. The
story of the golden calf This is
Jehovistic, as it appears from
xxxiv. 11, as compared with xxiii.
20, sqq., — for the Hivites, &c.,
are mentioned in both, — and from
the erection of the tabernacle, ch.
xxxiii, 7, sqq.; seexl. 17, sqq.'

" [I woidd rather consider the whole passage as Jehovistic, except xxix.
45, 46, and xxxi 18, (which are decidedly Elohistic,) both of which seem
tom from their connection, and much misplaced in their present position.
The sanguinary command, xxxi 15, savors of the Jehovistic.]
' The characteristics reappear : ItlS ; viii. 4, 24, 25, 26, ix. 28, x. 17, 18.
Stars of heaven ; xxxii 13. Canaanites ; iii. 8, 17, xiii 5, xxiii. 23, 28,
xxxiii 2, xxxiv. 11, Gen. xv. 19, sqq. Euphrates as a limit; xxxiii 31;
comp. Gen, xv. 18. Flowing with milk and honey is new ; iii 8, 17, xiii
VOL. II. 15

114 BOOKS OF MOSES. [§151.
D0CUJ1E.\T " ELOHI.W." DOCUMENT " JEHOVAH."
IX. Chap, xxxv. — xl." Execu
tion of the comraand respecting
the erection of the tabernacle.
5, xxxiii. 3. n^i^S , in the sense of <o meet with ; iii. 18, iv. 5, v. 3. A strong
hand, (upm Ti ;) iii, 19, vi, 1, xiii, 9, xxii II, Hardenedthe heart, (3b rs pm,)
and the like ; ix, 12, xiv, 4, vii, 3 ; comp, vii 13, 22, viii, 15, viii, 11, ix, 34,
ix, 7, Staff of God, or Moses ; iv. 9, 20, vii. 19, viii. 1, xiv. 6, xvii. 5.
Signs ; iv. 8, 17, 30, vii. 9, viii 23, xi. 10 ; comp. iv. 15. Angel of Jehovah,
confounded with Jehovah himself. Pillar of doud ; iii. 2, 4, xiv, 4, x.xiii, 20,
.\xxii. 34 ; see Gen, xviii 19, xxii 11, Sensual appearances of God :
Descend of God; Moses' conversation wUh Jehovah face to face; iii, 9, (see
Gen, XV. 17,) xvii. 6, chap, xix, xxiv, xxxiii. 11, xxxiv, II, The tent out of tlie
camp ; xxxiii, 7, sqq, Joshua the servant of Moses ; xxiv, 13, xxxiii, 11.
" The characteristic marks recur. El-shaddai ; vi, 3, Increase and multiply ;
i 7, In that self-same day ; xii 17, 41, Your generations, and the like ; xii. 14,
17, xvi, 32, 33, xxvii. 21, xxix. 42, xxx, 8, 21, xxxi, 13, 16, xl, 15, Land
of strangers ; vi, 4, Establish a covenant, "3 d"iprt ; vi. 4. The threat,
(Gen. xvii. 14,) soul shall be cut off, recurs, xii 15, 19, xxx, 33, 38, xxxi 14,
— The diffuse style and repetitions : b. statute forever (Db'^S t"pn) is a new
phrase ; xii, 14, 17, xxvii 21, xxviii, 43, xxix, 9, 28, x.xx, 21 ; see xxx, 16,
Sabaoth, applied to Israel; vi. 26, vii 4, xii 17, 41, 51. Appearance of the
splendor of JehovaJi in a cloud ; xvi. 10, xl. 34. Jehovah's irUerview with Moses
in the tabernacle ; xxv. 22, xxix. 42, 43, xxx, 6, 36,
[I can see no sufficient reason for separating this passage from the
preceding. To me it seems Jehovistic thi-oughout, like xxxii, — xxxiv.,
above ; xxxv. I — 3, seems misplaced, and so does xl. 3G — 38, which does not
profess to be contemporary with the erection of tiie tabernacle. These
accounts of the tabernacle present some important peculiarities. In
E.x. xxv. Moses is commanded to make the tabernacle and its furniture
after a certain pattern. A minute description is given of the furniture to be
made for it, of the dresses of tlie priests, and the form of consecration, and
two men are said to be inspired to perform the work. Next, (xxxiii. 7, sq.,)
it seems, the tabernacle is finished. It is named the " tabernacle of assem
bly.'' The people flock to it to seek Jehovah. Moses entered, and a cloud
stood at the door of it But after this, (chap. xxxv. sq.,) Moses requests contri
butions for building the tabernacle. They were brought ; the tabernacle is
made ; it is called the " tabernacle of the assembly," and the cloud descends
upon it But Moses was not able to enter it]

§ 162, a. J BOOKS OF MOSES. 115
§ 152, a.
C. Leviticus.
Here the style is marked by the Elohistic peculiarities,"
with only a few exceptions which may .surprise us.'

" The following are some of the Elohistic peculiarities : —
1. Increase and multiply, nsim tlBin ; xxvi. 9.
2. Male and female, 13p31 IDt ; iii. 6, xii. 7 : (xxvii. 3, sqq., does not seem
to be in point)
3. In your generations, fiS'itTnb; iii. 17, vi II, 36, x. 9, xvii. 7, xxii. 3,
xxiii 14, 21, 31, 41, xxiv. 3.
4. A statute forever, dbiS fipn ; iii. 17, vi II, vii 36, x. 9, 15, xvi. 29, 31,
34, xvii, 7, xxiii. 14, 21, 31, 41, xxiv. 3, 9.
5, That self-same day ; xxiii 14.
6. A possession, nTns ; xiv. 34, xxv. 10, 13, 94, 25, 27, 28, 39, sq, 41, 45,
46, xxvii 16, 21, 22, 24, 28.
7. The threat. That soul sliall be cut off; vii. 20, 21, 97, xvii. 4—10, xviii 29,
xix. 8, XX. 18, xxiii. 29. See xxii. 3.
8. To oppress, 'jie ; xxv. 43, 46, 53, as in Ex. i 13,
9, To make a difference between  and between  , V^l" V^ i"'13n'b ;
X. 10, xi. 47, XX. 25, as in Gen. i 18.
10. A citizen, or a stranger, lam nit!*n ; xvi. 29, xvii 15, xviii. 26, xix.
34, xxiv. 16, and 22. See Ex. xii. 49.
11. He shall bring  unto the door of the tabernacle of assembly, expressed
m the form nS1>3 bnM! ntna (^3Sb or) bx" (is^in or) i'llpH; iv. 4,14.
ix. 5, xii. 6, xvii. 4, 5, as in Ex. xxix. 4, 10, xl. 12. The same form, to bring a
gift, pip (S'lin or) 3i1pn; i. 2, ii 1, 12, iii 7, 14; — pip, ag^T?; ii 4,
13, vi 13, vii. 14, 38, ix. 7, xvii 4, xxiii. 14, xxvii. 9, 11.
Otlier marks are the appearance of the glory of Jehovah, (ix. 23 ; ) tho
appearance of Jehovah in the cloud over the mercy-seat, (xvi. 2, as in Ex. xxv.
22, and elsewhere ;) two festal days at the chief feasts, (xxiii 7, 8, 35, .36, 39,
as in Ex. xii. 16.) There is an opposition between xxv. 39, sq,, and Ex, xxi
1, sqq. In Exodus it is permitted to buy a Hebrew slave ; in Leviticus
it is forbidden.
' Chap, xviii. 3, 24—28, xx, 22, 23. The reference to the Canaanites
seems surprising, xx. 9—11, 13, 16. The formula, dying thou shall die,
nail ni?a, verse 9—13, 16, 27. His blood upon him, (13 TiJ21,) &c.
The punishment of stoning, m verse 9. Floudng with milk and honey, (xx.

116

BOOKS OF MOSES.

[§ 152, a.

The single pieces, which seem insulated and removed
from their connection, refer back to one another, and to
the earlier Elohistic passages." For example, xxiv. 1 —
23, xxvi., and xix., are a compilation of different
laws, some of which are repeated elsewhere in the
Elohistic pieces ; thus blood is prohibited, xix. 26, and
also in xvii. 10, sqq., iii. 17, vii. 26; gleaning fields is
prohibited, and something is commanded to be left for
the poor, xxiii. 22, and xix. 9. The regulations respect
ing the lamps, in xxiv. 1 — 4, agree with Ex. xxvii.
20, 21.

DOCUiVIENT "ELOHIM."
Chap. xi. 39, 40. " If any beast
die,  he that eateth the car
cass of it shall wash his clothes,
and be unclean until the even."
Chap. xxiv. 1,2. " Command
the children of Israel that they
bring unto thee pure olive-oil,
beaten for the light, to supply the
lamps continually."

DOCUMENT " JEH0V.4H."
Chap, xvii. 15. " And every
soul that eateth that which died
of itself,  shall both wash his
clothes and bathe in water, and
be unclean until the even."
Ex. xxvii. 20, sq. The very
same words occur.

24,) is Jehovistic ; but the Elohistic phrase that occurs in verse 8, and verses
3, 6, are like xvii 10, xxvi 17. The formulsi, / am Jehovah which sanctify you,
recurs verse 8, and afterwards in xxi. 8, 15, 23, xxii. 9, 16, 32, and has its
parallel in xi. 44, 45, [both of which verses have the air of an interpolation,
as they disturb the unity of the passage, and introduce a phrase apparently
foreign to tlie context] The formulas, / am Jehovah your God, I am
Jehovah, first appear, xviii. 2, 4 — 6, 21, 30 ; but frequently after that, xix. 3,
4, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 25, 28, 31, 33, 36, 37, xxu. 9, 3, 8, 30—33, xxiii. 22, 43,
xxvi. 1, 2, and appear to belong to the same author. [See § 152, b.]
' Chap, vii, 34 — 36, with Ex, xxix, 27, 28 ; viii. ix, with Ex, xxviii xxix ; xii,
3, witli Gen, xvii. 11, 19 ; xiv, 21, with v, 7, 11 ; xiv. 23—29, with viii, 23, 24,
and Ex. xxix. 90 ; xv, 13, 19, 29, 30, with xiv. 21, 31 ; xv. 5—10, 19—24, 27,
28, with xi. 32, 39, 40 ; xvi with Ex, xxx. 10 ; xvi. 1, with x. 1, sqq, ; xvi, 14,
with iv. 6, 17 ; xvi 27, 28, with iv. 12, 21 ; xvii 15, with xi. 40 ; xbt. 6—8,
with vii 16—18 ; xix, 21, 22, with iv, 26, 31, 35 ; xx, 27, with xix, 31 ; xxii.
99, with vii. 15 ; xxiii, 5—8, with Ex. xii. 1—20 ; xxiii 26—32, with xvi, ;

§152,6.] BOOKS OF MOSES. 117
In xxiv. 5—9, is a minute account of the show-bread,
which was commanded to be made, (Ex. xxv. 30.)
The formula of concluding a statute is characteristic —
This is the law, &c. (Chap. vii. 37, 38, xi. 46, 47, xiv.
57, XV. 32, S2.)
From these considerations it appears that almost the
whole book is a part of the Elohistic document, which
seems to be chiefly devoted to the laws.

§ 152, b.
Same Subject continued.
[I cannot entirely agree with the author, that Leviti
cus is derived, as a whole, from the single document
" Elohim." It seems more probable that it was compiled
by some Levitical writer, from several legal documents
before him ; he may have added the introductory and
concluding formulas, and perhaps have changed the
phraseology. in some few instances. On this hypothesis
we can explain the difficult phenomena of the book,
such as the technical phraseology of the Elohist, — which
certainly pervades the greater part of it, — the different
phrases which occur in its different sections, the frequent
repetitions and occasional contradictions in the book. Le
viticus is divided into three main portions, namely, chap.
i. — xvii., xviii. — xxvi., with an appendix, chap, xxvii.
I. Levit. i. — iii. has, perhaps, no peculiarities to
distinguish it from the other Elohistic pieces. But the
next passage (iv. — vi. 7) is characterized by three
xxiv. 1 — 4, with Ex. xxvii. 90, 21 ; xxiv. 5—9, with Ex. xxv. 30 ; xxv. 9,
with xvi. Chap. xxv. 39, sqq., contradicts Ex. xxi 1 — 11. Chap. xxvi. 2, and
xix. 30, are the same. Comp. xxvi. 42, 45, with Ex. ii. 24 ; xxvii. 94, with xxv.

118 BOOKS OF MOSES. [§162,6.
distinct expressions, namely, 1. It shall be forgiven
them,"" (iv. 20, 26, 31, 35, v. 10, 13, 16, 18, vi. 7.) The
same occurs in Num. xv. 25, 26, 28, and but once more
in the whole Bible, (Levit. xix. 22,) where it may be
naturally accounted for. 2. He is guilty, or they are
guilty,'' (iv. 13, 22, 27, v. 2 — 4, 5, 17.) 3. It is a sin-
offering, or trespass-offering,' (iv. 24, v. 9, 11, 12,
19.) The next section is vi. 8 — x., distinguished by the
phrase it is most holy, (vi. 25, 29, (18, 22,) vii. 1, 6, x. 12,
17,)'' and as Jehovah commanded," (viii. 4, 9, 13, 17, 21,
29, ix. 7, 10, 15; compare Gen. vii. 5, Ex. vii. 6.)
The next is xi. — xiv., the law of uncleanness and lep
rosy. It has the usual Elohistic marks. The formula
This is the laiv ^ often occurs, (xi. 46, xiii. 59, xiv. 2, 32,
57, XV. 32.) The next, xvi. — xvii., has only this
characteristic, — a perpetual statute, (xvi. 31, 34, xvii.
7,) — a common Elohistic phrase, which does not occur
in the last section.
II. Chap, xviii. — xxvi. This part is distinguished by
the frequent recurrence of the phrase / am Jehovah your
God,^ I am Jehovah, and / Jehovah, your God, am
holy,'' which occur very frequently. This use of the
phrase / am Jehovah, &c., is peculiar to this section ;
for xi. 44, 45, the only passage where it has occurred
before, has the appearance of an interpolation. Several
Elohistic marks, however, occur throughout this passage,
such as, that soul shall be cut off, (xviii. 29, xix. 8, xx. 18,
xxii. 3, xxiii. 29,) floweth with milk and honey, (xx. 24,)
' tinb nioa . ' mini nis imss .
» tiffiN , or laics . f nnn nst .
' sin nsan. * Dsinbs mn^ i;s.
^ sin D'^iDip iBip . ^ mrr^ 13s mnp .

§ 152, 6.j

BOOKS OF MOSES.

119

everlasting covenant, or statute," (xxiv. 8, 9,) and others.
Chap. xix. has some resemblance to that striking passage,
Ex. xxi. — xxiii.; there is the same apothegmatic character,
the same reference to J^gypt, which is elsewhere in Levit
icus so unusual.' The same apothegmatic and simple
character distinguishes both. Separate laws are put to
gether, like the maxims in Proverbs. The short section,
XX. 9 — 17, and verse 27, have the peculiar phrase his
blood shall be uponhim,' (verses 9, 11, 12, 13, 16.) Per
haps this whole passage was originally composed out of
several distinct legal documents, of different periods,
which were brought into their present form by some one
who gave them their enacting clause, And Jehovah said
to Moses,'' and modified the language in some respects,
while he retained some of their peculiar phrases, though
without always taking care to avoid repetitions and
contradictions. Chap. xvii. 10, sqq., blood is forbidden,
and the prohibition is repeated, xix. 26. The same
had been given before, in iii. 17, and vii. 26. Compare
xix. 31, with XX. 27, and the following: —

Chap, xix, 9, " When ye
reap the harvest of your land,
thou shalt not wholly reap the
corners of thy field, neither shalt
thou gather the gleanings of thy
harvest,"

Chap, xxiii. 22. " When ye
reap the harvest of your land,
thou shalt not wholly reap the
corners of thy field, neither shalt
thou gather the gleanings of thy
harvest."

Compare xxiv. 17, sqq., with Ex. xxi. 23 — 27. Any
attempt, however, to separate the original documents

" Diis n^ia, or pn,
» Comp. Ex. xxii 21, and xxiii 9, with Levit. xix. 34, 36, and xxii 33,
xxiii 43, xxv. 38, 42, 55, xxvi 13, 45.
" ia TiKii. * mn"! laiii, &c.

120 BOOKS OF MOSES. [§ 152, 6.
from the additions of the compiler, must be arbitrary
and uncertain, though the different age of some of the
laws is quite obvious. The historical paragraph,
xxiv. 10 — 16, and 23, has a foreign aspect in this book ;
and, besides, has no connection with the rest.
III. The appendix, chap, xxvii. It is evident the
addition of this chapter is an afterthought; for the book
is brought to a regular epic conclusion, by the promises
and denunciations in chap, xxvi., and still more by the
formula, " These are the statutes, and judgments, and
laws, which Jehovah made between him and the children
of Israel in Mount Sinai, by the hand of Moses." Or,
what is, perhaps, as probable, the book originally
ended with this formula appended to chap. xxv. ; for
chap. xxvi. 3 — 45, bears marks ofa very recent origin, —
even later than the captivity. The threat, verse 34,
sqq., " Then shall the land enjoy her Sabbaths as long
as it lieth desolate, and ye be in your enemies' land, 
because it did not rest in your Sabbaths when ye dwelt
in it," and verse 43, must have been written after Jer.
xxv. 11, — where the captivity of seventy years is
threatened, — and 2 Ch. xxxvi. 21, which says the
captivity lasted " until the land had enjoyed her Sab
baths ; for as long as she lay desolate, she kept Sabbath,
to fulfil threescore and ten years." Perhaps the book
ended originally with chap, xxv., to which the formula,
xxvi. 46, was appended. Subsequently, the other
laws in chap, xxvii. were added, with their con
cluding formula; and still later, after the return from
exile, chap. xxvi. was inserted in its present place, as
the most convenient and appropriate. Verse 45 evi
dently connects with xxv. 55, and the same reference

§ 152, a.] BOOKS OF MOSES. 121
appears in both. There seems an attempt to imitate
the language of the preceding passage.
It would seem that originally the history of the
transactions at Sinai ended with Ex. xl. 31, 36 — 38;
but there were still laws and narratives which required a
distinct historical occasion, and so they were referred to
the period when the nation was at that mountain, though
the law of historical probability was violated in so doing.
Some of the inconsistencies resulting from this treatment
are obvious. Chap. xxv. 32 — 35, seems to demand, at
least, the latter part of the Mosaic age as the period of
its composition ; for in Num. xxxv. it is said Moses first
received the law allotting cities to the Levites when he
had come to the banks of Jordan. This law, in Leviti
cus, which pretends to have been made at Sinai, pre
supposes the other and later enactment already made.
A part of this book, at least, may be more modern than
the Elohistic fragment in Exodus. This appears from
the different character of the exhortations in Ex. xxiii.
20 — 33, and Levit. xxvi. 3 — 45. In the first, the
people are told to obey the national leader," to refrain
from idols, and to do all that God commands. Here
only natural duties are prescribed; there is nothing
merely ritual, conventional, or arbitrary, in the admonition.
But, in the latter, something ritual is demanded ; the
people are bid to keep the Sabbath, and reverence the
sanctuary, as well as to refrain from idols, and obey the
voice of God. The religious law, Ex. xx. 21, sqq., is
free and liberal, while that of Levit. xvii. is more rigor
ous. In Ex. xxiii. 16, it is said, " Thou shalt keep the
feast of ingathering at the end of the year, when thou
hast gathered in thy labors from the field." But in Levit.

" mni "isba .
VOL. II. 16

122 BOOKS OF MOSES. [§ 153.
xxiii. 33, the month and day are pointed out, the length of
the festival determined, the offerings for each day are
fixed, and severe labor is forbidden. This may be
explained as consistent with the course of events in the
history of the national observance of rehgion.J

§ 1.53.
D. Numbers.
In this book, the earlier Elohistic and Jehovistic frag
ments again alternate with one another.
The document " Elohim " extends over i. 1 — x. 10,
and includes the laws and ordinances that were made
up to the time when the nation departed from Sinai.
These passages are shown to be Elohistic : —
I. Sometimes by the style, and the recurrence of
Elohistic forms of speech ; " by its diffuseness and cir
cumstantiality, as in chap. i. v. 11, sqq., and x. 1 —
10; and by the formulas of conclusion, "This is the
laiv.'"- II. Sometimes by an agreement with earlier Elohistic
passages, or a reference to them."
" For example, Sabaoth [tWSS) is applied to the multitude of the people ;
i, 3, ii. 3, 9, 10, 16, 18, 23, 25, 39, Bring to the door of the tabernacle of
assembly, ">a" snriB bs (s'^^n) n^lpn; V. 15, vi, 10, vii 3, II, To bring
a gift, 'P'lp Siilpn ; vi, 14, vii, 12, ix. 7, A gift, pip ; vii. 17, 23, 29, &c.,
ix. 13. Tbe form of threatening, that soul shall be cut off; ix. 13, To their
generations, OS'^tinb ; ix, 10, x, 8. A perpetual statute ;x.Q. The stranger,
and a native, 21sn nitSI lan ; ix. 14.
» mm nst ; v. 29, sqq,, vi 21,
" For example, chap, i I, refers to Ex. xvi. 1, and xix. 1, and has a
chronological connection. Chap. i. connects with Ex. xxx. 11 — 16, though

§ 153.]

BOOKS OF MOSES.

123

DOCUMENT "ELOHIM."
Chap, x, 11—28, The de
parture from Sinai, This pre
supposes the statement of chap,
ii," Here the cloud seems, for
the first time, to guide the host,
which is contrary to Ex. xiii.
21, 22,''

DOCUMENT "JEHOVAH."
Chap. X, 29—36, It is plain
this passage is Jehovistic from
verse 33, for the fact of the ark
preceding the main body three
days' journey does not agree with
11—28.

there is a chronological contradiction between i. I, where Moses is directed
to take a census of the people, and Ex. xxxviii. 95, where it is already done ;
so the action precedes the command. Chap, ii, connects with chap. i. ; iii.
14, relates to Levit, x, ; [?] iii. 25, 26, 31, 39, 36, 37, and iv, 5, sqq,, distribu
ting the several offices of the priests, refer back to Ex, xxv. and following.
There is, however, a slight contradiction between iv. 6 — which supposes
the staves taken out of the rings of the ark — and Ex. xxv. 15, which forbids
their removal. Chap, v, 1 — 4, relating to the lepers, refers to Levit, xiii, — xv, ;
V. 5 — 10, relating to trespasses, connects with Levit, v. 16, 25, (vi 6 ;) vi
15, with Ex, xxix, 2, and LeviL viii, 2, (vi 20, with Ex. xxix, 27, 28,) Chap,
vii, 1, refers, in its chronology, to Ex, xl, ; vii. 2, to chap, i ; verses 4—9, to
chap. iv. ; viii. 1—4, to Ex, xxv, 31, 37, 40 ; viii, 5 — 19, to Ex, viii. ix. How
ever, there is a contradiction between Num, viii 23 — 26, and Num, iv, 3,
23, 30, 47 : the former passage makes the Levites serve from the twenty-fifth
to the fiftieth year of their age, the latter from the thirtieth to the fiftieth.
Chap, ix, 15, 23, is like Ex. xl, 34—38, Chap, x. 1—10, presupposes the
contents of chap. ii.
" [Though verse 17 makes Gershom and Merari go before and carry the
tabernacle, while Num, ii. 17, commands that it shall be in the midst of all
the Levites.]
' [This section also has some peculiarities of its own ; e, g. an unusual
form of conclusion, in which it is said that the command was executed ; e. g,
i. 54, ii, 34, iii. 42, 51, iv. 34, 49, vii, 6, viii. 20, It occurs, however, else
where; e.g. xvii. 11, Some passages seem foisted into this section from
some other source, such as iii, 11—13, iv, 17—20. In vii. 89, there is a
singular use of the pronoun, to speak with Him, (ItlS 13lb ,) where there is
nothing in tlie context to show the word refers to Jehovah. Indeed, the verse
has no connection with what precedes or follows. But see Glass, ed.
Dathe, vol. i. p. 158.
It is not always easy, or, perhaps, possible, to refer all the following pas
sages to their true source. The distinctive marks either fail, or else are
mingled with one another, and not easily separated. If here were a place
for conjecture, I should suppose the compiler who gave the book its present
form had the two documents before him, — and it may be others, — and took
from each, and sometimes blended the two, without taking care to preserve

124

BOOKS OF MOSES.

[§ 153.

DOCUMENT "ELOHIM."
Ex, xvi, and xviii, 13 — ^27, are
similar to this."

Chap, xii, 16 — xiv. 45. Spies
sent to the land of Canaan, Chap.
xiii. 4 — 16. Here Joshua appears
for the first time [in the Elohis
tic document, though mentioned
xi. 28.] "

DOCUMENT "JEHOVAH."
Chap, xi. The quails and the
pestilence. Appointment of the
seventy elders. Verse 10 (" Mo
ses heard the people weep, every
man in the door of his tent")
agrees with Ex, xxxiii. 8. [Verses
24 — 29 disturb the connection,
and seem out of place.]
Chap. xii. Punishment of Miri
am. Signs of the Jehovistic
document are, the descent of God,
(verse 11,) "I will come down
and talk with thee ; " verse 25,
"And Jehovah came down in a
cloud and spake unto him;" and
xii. 5. The tabernacle is out of
the camp, xi. 26, xii. 4. Joshua
is the servant of Moses, xi. 28.'
Chap. xii. 16, makes the camp
continue some time at Hazeroth
before going to Paran, and in this
diifers from x. 12.
Chap. xiii. 22. Hebron occurs
as in Gen. xiii, 18, though it does
not agree with xxiii, 2. Chap. xiii.
27, flowing with milk and honey
occurs. The Canaanites are
mentioned, verse 29.

the distinctive phraseology of each. Many passages, in all parts of the book,
have evidently been tom from their connection. In xxi 14, 17, 21, the
compiler seems to have invented occasions to account for the origin of cer
tain snatches of popular songs. In xv, I — 31, most dissimilar- matters are
grouped together, which have not the faintest connection ; e, g. a law about
sacrifices, story of a man who gathered sticks on tlie Sabbath, a law rela
ting to the fringes on garments,]
» [See above, p, 108, sqq,]
' [Still more the character assigned to God — namely, that of a passionate
and irritable man — is Jehovistic, See xi, 1, 10, 16 — 20, 23, 33, xii, 4, 8, 9,]
" [The safer arrangement seems to be xiii I — xiv, 10, as far as stone them

§ 153.]

BOOKS OF MOSES.

125

DOCUMENT "ELOHIM." DOCUMENT "JEHOVAH."
Chap, xiv. 8 is like xiii. 28,
Verse 11, sqq., is like Ex, xxxii,
10, sqq. [The character assigned
to God is Jehovistic] The cloud
and the pillar are mentioned in
verse 14. Verse 18 is like Ex.
xxxiv. 6, sq. Perhaps xiv. 11 —
25, belongs to the Jehovistic, and
verse 26 — 38 to the Elohistic
document. On this supposition
the repetition is explained.
Chap. xiv. 10. The appearance
of the glory of Jehovah [is ac
counted for as above.]
Chap, xiv, 29, relates to chap, i.
Chap. XV. Laws respecting of
ferings and other things. Elohis
tic formulas occur in verses 15,
21, 23 — 31, 41, and other marks.
[Here the unusual phrase, " And
it shall be forgiven them," " occurs
several times, (verses 25, 26, 28,)
as in Levit. ; and " I ara Jehovah
your God," in verse 41, as in Le
vit. xviii,, sqq. Verses 32 — 36,
from their rigorous character,
seem to belong to the Jehovistic
document,] Chap, xvi, 1 — xvii. 15, The rebellion of Korah, Dathan, and
Abiram, Verse 2, Princes" and chosen Verse 2, " 3Ien of renown," '^
men,' as in i, 16, as in Gen. vi. 4.

ivith stones, with occasional alterations from the Elohistic ; e, g, Hebron, the
CancCanites, fhunng imth milk and honey. Then verse 10, and the glory
of Jehovah, &c,, to verse 25, will be Jehovistic, and 26—45 Elohistic;
though still the character of God in 26 — 38 savors of the Jehovistic. The
immediate destruction of the ten messengers who reported unfavorably ap
pears, verse 36, 37.]
» tjnb niiD3. "¦ fiisiias. " did ^ms. " oiKiip.

126

BOOKS OF MOSES.

[§ 153.

DOCUMENT "ELOHIM."
Verses 5 — 11,° as in Ex. xvi 7,
Verses 16 — 19 connect with 5
— 11. The glory of Jehovah ap
pears, verse 19, (compare Levit.
x. 1, sqq. ;) in verse 19, the reb
els are before the tabernacle ; in
verse 24, before their own tent.
Verse 22. Compare xxvii. 16.
Verse 35 connects with 16 — 19.
Chap. xvii. 1—5, (xvi. 36—40,)
connects with the preceding verse.
That no stranger approach is
like i. 51, iii 10, 38. Verse 6—
15 is doubtful ; for, verse 7, the
glory of Jehovah appears ; but
only Korah is mentioned, verse
14. Moses falls down, verse 10,
as in xiv. 5, and xvi. 4.
Chap. xvii. 16—28, (xvii. 1—
13.) The story of Aaron's rod that
grows green, connects with the
account of Korah's insurrection.
Verse 4 is like Ex. xxv. 22.'
Chap, xviii. Rights of the
priesthood."

DOCUMENT "JEHOVAH."
Verses 12—15, 13, 14. Flmo-
ing with milk and honey.
Verses 24 — 30. Verse 25, the
elders are mentioned, as in chap.
xi. Verse 27. Compare xi. 10.
Verses 29, 30, a miracle to con
firm the authority of Moses.
Compare Ex. iv. 1, 31, xiv. 13,
31,'* as in Ex. xxxiv. 10.
Verses 31 — 34 connect with
the preceding. The document
Elohim relates only the rebellion
of Korah and his destruction,
while the Jehovist connects with
it the rebellion of Dathan and
Abiram. This confusion ex
plains the abruptness of verse 1,
and the contradiction between
xvi. 35," and xxvi. 11.
[In the former, it is said the
children of Korah, and all their
possessions, were swallowed up :
in the latter, it is expressly stated
they did not die.]

«¦ 2^1pu . ' Prince (S'^lCi) occurs often, as in xvi. 9, i 16, &e.
" Verse 6, a gift (Q'^Sro ) occurs in iii. 9. Verse 8, pip , u, gift.
Verse 19, a perpetual statute. Verse 23, your generations. [Verse 1
answers the question in verse 13 of the previous chapter. There is no his
torical occasion assigned for this question of the people, in verses 12, 13,
in the English Bible ; but a better connection is given them if they are
placed at the end of xvi 50. This, xvii, 1 — 1], may be regarded as
another fragment removed from its true connection,] Chap, xix,, water
of purification. Verses 13, 90, that soul shall be cut off. Verses 10, 21,
perpetual statute. Compare verse 5 with xvi. 27; verse 10 with xvi, 28;
verse 6 with xiv, 4, 6,
<« Sin.
" Chap. xvi. 36 — 38, is evidently out of its time and place, and interrupts
tlic connection.

§ 153.]

BOOKS OF MOSES.

127

DOCUMENT "ELOHIM."
Chap. XX. 1 — 13. Water out of
the Rock.
"Then came the children of
Israel, even the whole congre
gation, into the desert of Zin, in
the first month : and the people
abode in Kadesh ; and Miriam
died there, and was buried there.
And there was no water for the
congregation : and they gathered
themselves together against Mo
ses and against Aaron. And the
people chode with Moses, and
spake, saying, ' Would to God
that we had died when our breth
ren died before Jehovah ! And
\fhj have ye brought up the con
gregation of Jehovah into this
' wilderness, that we and our cattle
should die there? And where
fore have ye made us to come up
out of iEgypt, to bring us in unto
this evil place? it is no place of
seed, or of figs, or oT vines, or
of pomegranates ; neither is there
any water to drink.' And Moses
and Aaron went from the pres
ence of the assembly unto the
door of the tabernacle of the con
gregation, and they fell upon
their faces : and the glory of
Jehovah appeared unto them.
" And Jehovah spake unto
Moses, saying, ' Take the rod,
and gather thou the assembly
together, thou and Aaron thy
brother, and speak ye unto the
rock before their eyes ; and it

DOCUMENT "JEHOVAH."
Ex. xvii, 1 — 7, Water out of
the Rock.
" And all the congregation of
the children of Israel journeyed
from the wilderness of Sin, after
their journeys, according to the
commandment of Jehovah, and
pitched in Rephidim : and there
was no water for the people to
drink. Wherefore the people did
chide with Moses, and said, ' Give
us water, that we may drink.'
And Moses said unto them, ' Why
chide ye with me ? wherefore do
ye tempt Jehovah ? ' And the peo
ple thirsted there for water : and
the people murmured against Mo
ses, and said, ' Wherefore is this
that thou hast brought us up out
of iEgypt to kill us and our chil
dren and our cattle with thirst ? '
And Moses cried unto Jehovah,
saying, ' What shall I do unto
this people ? they be almost ready
to stone me.' And Jehovah said
unto Moses, 'Go on before the
people, and take with thee of the
elders of Israel : and thy rod,
wherewith thou smotest the river,
take in thine hand, and go. Be
hold, I will stand before thee
there upon the rock in Horeb;
and thou shalt smite the rock, and
there shall come water out of it,
that the people may drink.' And
Moses did so in the sight of the
elders of Israel. And he called
the name of the place Massah,

128

BOdKS OF MOSES.

[§ 153.

DOCU.MENT " ELOHIM."
shall give forth his water, and
thou shalt bring forth to them
water out of the rock : so thou
shalt give the congregation and
their beasts drink.' And Moses
took the rod from before Jehovah,
as he commanded him. And
Moses and Aaron gathered the
congregation together before the
rock, and he said unto them,
' Hear, now, ye rebels ; must we
fetch you water out ofthis rock?'
And Moses lifted up his hand,
and with his rod he smote the
rock twice : and the water came
out abundantly, and the congre
gation drank, and their beasts
also. "And Jehovah spake unto Mo
ses and Aaron, ' Because ye be
lieved me not, to sanctify me in
the eyes of the children of Israel,
therefore ye shall not bring this
congregation into the land which
I have given them.' This is the
water of Meribah; because the
children of Israel strove with Je
hovah, and he was sanctified in
them." Compare verse 6 with xvi. 5, 19.
Verse 8, 9. The rod of Moses
seems to be the same which ap
pears xvii. 25, (xvii. 9.)
Chap. XX. 22—29, Aaron's
death. Compare verse 24 with
verse 10, Was gathered to his

DOCUMENT "JEHOVAH,"
and Meribah, because of the
chiding of the children of Israel,
and because they tempted Jeho
vah, saying, 'Is Jehovah among
us, or not?' "

Chap. XX. 14 — 21. Message
to Edom.
Verse 16, the angel occurs,
and verse 20, the strong hand. "

ni?m Ti.

§ 163.]

BOOKS OF MOSES.

129

DOCUMENT "ELOHIM."
people occurs, as in Gen, xxv. 8,
xxxv, 29, xlix. 29,

In xxxi. 8 and 16, we have a
very different account of Balaam.
" Balaam  also  they
slew with the sword  These
caused the children of Israel,
through the counsel of Balaam,
to commit trespass," &c.
Chap. xxv. 1 — 18. Pestilence
on account of the sin at Baal-
peor. We have the phrases to
give a covenant, verse 12, and
the plague was stayed, verse 8,
as in xvii. 12. Verse 13 is like
Gen. xvii. 7.
Chap, xxv. 19 — xxvi. 65. Sec
ond census, like chap. i. [The
number is the same in both,]

DOCUMENT "JEHOVAH,"
Chap, xxi. Conquest over the
king of Arad , the fiery serpents ;
encampments ; message to Sihon,
&c.
Compare verse 7 with Ex. viii.
4,x. 17. Odes are inserted, 14 —
18, 27 — 30, Compare verse 21,
sqq., with xx. 14, though verse 3
conflicts with xiv. 45.
Chap. xxii. — xxiv. Story of
Balaam, The angel of Jehovah
appears, xxii. 22, sqq." On the
other hand, Elohim occurs, xxii.
9, 1 2, and elsewhere. Chap. xxiv.
9, is like Gen. xlix. 9, and is an
imitation ; and Shaddai, not El-
shaddai, is found, verse 16.

Chap. xxvi. 9, 10. Compare
xvi, 31, sqq.

Chap, xxvii. — xxxi, belong to the document "Elohim," Chap,
xxvii. 1 — 11. Story of the daughters of Zelophehad, Verse 3
refers to xvi. 35 ; ' xxvii. 12 — ^23, where Joshua becomes the suc
cessor of Moses, (verse 13,) agrees with xx, 24; 14 with xx, 12.
Urim, in verse 21, as in Ex. xxviii. 30, At his command," verse
21, as in ix, 20, 23. Chap, xxviii. 1 — xxxi. Laws relating to sacri-

" Compare verse 26 with Gen. iii 1. nip5 , to come to meet, xxiii. 3, 4,
like Ex. iii. 18 ; fo put the word in the mouth, xxii 38, xxiii 5, 6, as in Ex.
•v. 15 ; the power of the blessing and curse, as in Gen. ix. 25, chap, xxvii, &c.
' nun!* occurs in 4 and 7, sqq. " nB iS.
VOL. II. 17

130

BOOKS OF MOSES.

[§ 153.

fice, as in Levit.; xxx. 2 — 17, to vows; xxx. 16; there is a formula
of conclusion. These are the statutes, fcc."
Chap. xxxi. (the victory over Midian) connects with xxv. 17,
Compare, also, verse 6 with x. 9; verses 19, 20, with xix. 11, 16, 18,
19 ; verse 23 with xix. 13. However, there is a contradiction, as
noticed above, between xxxi. 8, 16, and xxii. — xxiv.

DOCUMENT " ELOHIM."
Chap, xxxii. The division of
the land beyond the Jordan (verse
1 — 32) is, perhaps, Elohistic,
though with the exception, it may
be, of verse 8 — 15.'
Chap, xxxiii. 1 — 49. List of the
journeys of the Israelites,"

DOCUMENT "JEHOVAH."
Chap, xxxii. 33—42. The
half tribe of Manasseh appears,
and mention is made of Sihon
and Og, as in xxi. 21, sqq., and
33, sqq.
The writing by Moses occurs
also in Ex. xvii. 14, xxiv. 4,
7, xxxiv. 27, where the passages
are Jehovistic. Verses 10 — 15,
and 17, refer to Jehovistic ac
counts, though verses 45, sqq., do
not agree with xxi. 13, sqq.
Chap, xxxiii. 50—56. The
command to extirpate the Canaan
ites. But it is doubtful that this
belongs here ; for verse 54 seems
to be Elohistic.

The following belong to the document " Elohim : " chap, xxxiv.,
which relates the division and bounds of the land; xxxv., the cities
of the Levites, and the free cities; " and xxxvi, statute of heiresses.
This is connected with xxvii. 1 — 11.

" The same formula mentioned above also occurs xxvii, 99, sq,, xxix, 40,
xxxi 41,
' ntn» recurs, 5, 22, 29, 32,
" Sabaoth (niJtSS) is used verse 1 ; according to the command, (nC iS ,)
verse 2, compare ix. 20, 23 ; judgments, (Q'^ttQiaia ,) verse 4, as in Ex. vii. 4.
''¦ ntns occurs, verses 2, 8, 28; BSifinb, verse 29; rwtive and stranger,
•^ani 1t«n , verse 15 ; nsaic , hy mistake, verse 11, 15, as in Levit. iv. 2, 13,
92, 27,

§ 164.] BOOKS OF MOSES. 131
§ 154.
E. Deuteronomy.
This book consists of the following parts : —
I. Chap. i. — iv. 40. An admonitory harangue of
Moses, with an historical notice appended ; iv. 41 — 43.
II. Some new laws of Moses, beginning with a simi
lar admonition ; iv. 44 — xxvi. 19.
III. Pledge to observe the Law ; the blessing and
the cmse ; xxvii. — xxx.
IV. Moses' departure and death ; xxxi. — xxxiv.
By far the greater part belongs to one author, and, as
It appears, to the Jehovistic, of which it has numerous
characteristic marks."
* The following characteristics of that document occur: uptfl "i"', tlie
strong hand ; iii, 25, iv. 34, vi. 21 , vii, 19, ix, 96, xi, 9, xxxiv. 12. As the stars ;
i 10, X, 22, xxviii 62, Flowing with milk and honey ; vi 3, xi 9, xxvi, 9, 15,
xxvii 3, xxxi 20; comp, xxxii 13, 14, Judges, ft^IBB; i 15, xvi, 18, xx, 5,
8, 9, xxix, 9, xxxi. 28, Ex, v, 6 — 1 0, 14, 15, Num. xi, 16. House of Jeho
vah, mn'' i1^3 ; xxiii, 19, as in Ex. xxiii. 19, and xxxiv. 26. To put in the
mouth ; xviii 8, as Ex. iv. 15, Num. xxii 38, xxiii. 5. For a sign on the
hand and the frontlet ; vi, 8, xi. 18 — 20, as in Ex. xiii 9, 16. The hornet ; vii.
20, as in Ex, xxiii, 28, Enumeration of the Canaanites ; xx. 17, Abib ; xvi, 1,
as in Ex, xiii, 4, xxiii. 15, xxxiv, 18 : xxxii. II, is like Ex. xix. 4 ; vi 25, and
xxiv, 13, are like Gen. xv. 6,
There are some historical marks, viz.: pillar of cloud, xxxi. 15. Joshua
IS the servant of Moses, i 38. The historical references and reminiscences
relate chiefly to the Jehovistic documents. Thus i. 22 — 95, refers to Num.
xiii. 21 — 26 ; verse 35, and Num, xiv, 23, are almost literally the same.

Deut 1, 22—25, 35. " Surely there
shall not one of these men of this evil
generation see that good land, which
I sware to give unto your fathers, save
Caleb," &e. — Ver. 39. " Moreover
your little ones which ve said would
be a prey," &c,
1.-.:;i" is used in verse 44, as in xiv. 45 : i. 33, refers to Num. a, 33 ; ii. I

Num. xiii 21— 26, xiv. 23. "Surely
they shall not see the land which I
sware unto their fathers," &c. " But
my servant Caleb," &c. Ver. 31,
" But your little ones," &c.

132 BOOKS OF MOSES. [§ 154.
There are some peculiarities of the Law, similar to
those in the Jehovistic documents."
However, the following passages, iv. 41, sqq., and x.
6 — 9, are perhaps interpolations. The document " Elo
him" reappears in a passage in the latter part of the
book ; xxxii. 48 — 52.'
22, to Num. xxi. xxxii. 33, sqq. Sihon and Og appear, xxix. 6, xxxi 4;
iv. 9 — 36, and v, 2 — 5 ; 23 — 31 refers to Ex, xix, xxiv ; (compare also xviii,
16, 17, with Ex. XX. 16 ;) vi 22, xi 3, xxix. 1, 2, refer to Ex. vii. 8— xi, 10 ,
ix, 8, sqq., x, 1, sqq., refer to Ex, xxxii,— xxxiv, ; ix, 19, is like Ex, xxxii 7, 8 ;
ix, 22, refers to Ex, xvii 7, and Num, xi, 8, sqq, ; xi, 6, to Num, xvi. 25, sqq, ;
xi. 4, to Ex. xiv, ; xiii, 5, agrees with Num, xxii — xxiv, ; xxix. 9, with Num.
xii ; xxix. 29, and xxxii. 32, refer to Gen, xix. and xiv. 2, 3.
" Num. xvi. 1 — 8, law of the passover, is like Ex. xiii 3 — 10. Here the
seventh day of the passover is a feast ; the cooking of the passover is contrary
to Ex. xii. 9: xvi, 16, the three annual feasts, when they appear before Jeho
vah, are mentioned as in Ex, xxiii, 17, and xxxiv. 20, 93 ; though the phrase
also appears, xxxi 11 : xiv, 21, " Thou shalt not seethe a kid in his mother's
milk," is like Ex. xxiii. 19, xxxiv, 96: xv, 19 — 18, the lawof voluntary slaves,
IS like Ex. xxi. 1 — 11, and different from Levit. xxv, 39, 40, The command
to take care of your neighbor's cattle, xxii. 1 — 4, is like Ex, xxiii 4, 5, The
law against kidnappers, xxiv, 7, is like Ex, xxi, 16 ; that about pledges,
xxiv, 12, 13, like Ex. xxii. 15. The conduct of Amalek, xxv. 17 — 19,
agrees with Ex. xvii. 14, The contents of Gen, xxxviii, are presupposed
in xxv, 5, 6. The altar of unhewn stones, xxvii, 5, is like Ex, xx. 22 : the
Canaanites and their idolatry are spoken of in vii, 5, 19 — 26, xii. 2, 3,
XX, 17, as in Ex, xxiii 24, sqq., xxxiv, 11, sqq. The Euphrates is men
tioned as the border of the land, i. 7, xi 24, Some civil laws, — that of lease
and release, xv, 1, sqq, ; of civil action, xvi 18, sqq. Laws of war, xx, ; of
female captives, xxi, 11, sqq,; of stray cattle, xxii I, sqq.; of illegitimate
children, xxiii, 1, sqq,, agree with Ex. xxi 1, sqq,
» This is like Num, xxvii 12—23 ; though it has the phrase Cl^n t:n:>:rn
ntn , verse 48, However, part of this appears as a repetition. Ewald,
TucJi, and others, consider xxxiii. as Elohistic, of which fact Urim and
Thummim are signs. But Massah, in the same verse, is Jehovistic. Verse 9
refei-s to Ex, xxiii, 25, sqq, ; the bush, verse 16, to Ex, iii, 2. The whole passage
is an imitation of Gen, xlix. Chap, xxxiv. 1 — 9, is Elohistic. In verse 8,
they mourned for Moses thirty days, as they had done for Aaron .- this refers
to Num. XX, 99. Verse 9, " And Joshua was full of the spirit of wisdom, for
Moses had laid his hands upon him," is like Num. xxvii. 18, 93, " And Je
hovah said unto Moses, ' Take thee Joshua,  a man in whom is the
Spirit, and lay thy hand upon him,'  and he laid his hands upon him," &c.

§ 155.] BOOKS OF MOSES. 133
§ 155.
Same Subject continued.
If Deuteronomy was written by the author of the
Jehovistic fragments in the earlier books, then the Pen
tateuch, in its present form, has not been produced by
compiling and revising, or recasting, various docu
ments, at different times, as some have supposed,"" but it
is the result of a recension or compilation,' made all at
once. But, in this case, we must admit the use of Je
hovistic documents which were written at another time.''
The author of the Elohistic fragments also seems to
have made use of some foreign documents, and some,
likewise, of his own, but written at a previous time.
He seems to use the writings of another in Gen. xlix..
Num. xxxiii. 1 — 49, as it might be inferred from verse
2. He seems to use his own earlier compositions in
Ex. xxxv. 1 — 3, Levit. xix. xxvi. 1, sqq. From this
cause proceed some of the contradictions and repetitions
mentioned above.''

But verses 10 — 19 are Jehovistic. Verse 10 says, Jehovah knew Moses face
to face, as in Num, xii, 8, " with him will I speak mouth to mouth, even ap
parently, and not in dark speeches ; and the similitude of Jehovah shall he
behold," Verse 11, all the signs and wonders, refers to Ex, vii. 8 — xi. 10;
and the strong hand (npm 1i) appears, verse 12.
" Ewald in Stud, und Krit, for 1831, p. 602, Bleek, in Rosenmidler, Rep,
vol, i. p. 48, sqq, Stahelin, Genes, p, 105,
' Staheliii, Stud, und Krit, 1835, p. 474, Tuch, Gen, Ixxvii, sqq. Von
Bohlen, Gen, p, exc. Bleek, Program, for 1836, p. 6.
' Tuch admits this, in Gen. xiv. ; Bleek, in ii. 3— iv. 24, which differs too
much from chap, i to be the work of one who wished merely to finish the
work. Probably this was the case with Gen. xv. (Compare also xvii) We
see marks of a compilation in Num. xvi 1, sqq.
¦i § 152, 153.

134 BOOKS OF MOSES. f§ 156.
§156.
Same Subject continued.
But if this view of the origin of Deuteronomy is not
destroyed, it is at least modified by the following con
siderations : —
1. In addition to the Jehovistic style, this book has
some peculiarities of its own, not only in forms of speech
and words. There is a diffuse fulness of words, which
can scarcely be explained from the rhetorical design of
the author."
° The following are some of the peculiar phrases of the book : To put
away tlie eml. Sin 1S3 , (xiii. 6, xvii. 7, &c.,) occurs seven times ; compare
Judg. XX. 13. Take heed to thyself, '^b Ittmn and Dii lltocn; iv, 9, 23,
viii. 11, xi, 16, xii 19, 30. However, Ex, xxiii, 13,-21, is similar. Keep to
do, miDSb -\)2V ; V. 1, 29, vi, 3, 12, 25, viii 1, xi, 32, xii, 1, xiii, 1, xv, 5,
xvi. 19, xix. 9, xxiv. 8, xxviii, 1, 15, 18, The good land, nnil:n "J:isn ; i, 35,
iii. 25, iv, 22, vi. 18, viii, 7, 10, ix, 6, xi, 17, Cleave to Jehovah, mn'^a 1?S1 ;
iv, 4, X. 20, xi 22, xiii, 5, xxx. 20. To give before them, D^aSb f^ ; i 8, 21,
ii, 31, 33, 36, vii, 2, 23, xxiii 15, xxxi 5 ; compare xxviii, 7, 25, Bin in the
sense of expel ; vi 19, ix, 4, Commandments, statutes, and judgments, tllSJan ,
ti^tsemani D"i|?nn ; v. 31, vi, l, 17, 20, vii, II, viii. II, xi, 1, xxvii. 17, xxx. 16,
To put the hand upon business, D'lTi ni'.l'fa; xii, 7, xv, 10, xxiii 21, xxviii.
8, 20, Work of the hands, Q^ll UTDSIZ ; ii 7, xiv, 29, xxiv, 19, xxviii, 12,
xxx. 9. As it is this day, ntn tH^S; ii. 30, iv. 20, viii 18, x. 15, xxix, 97
il3 for 1135 ; iii, 24, v. 21, ix, 16, xi 2, xxxii, 3. Sa'^n , as irifinitive absolute ;
ix. 21, xiii. 15, xvii. 4, xix, 8, xxvii, 8, Loves of tlie flock, TS2 tilinmS : vii.
13, xxviii. 4, 18, 51. nDin", with the accusative ; iv. 31, xxxi 6, 8. mj',
in Hiphil ,- xiii, 6, 1 1 , 14 ; in JVipluil ; iv. 1 9, xix, 5, xxx, 17, niStin* ; ii 5,
9, 19, 24. Feminine forms of the infinitive, not merely nsl^. nnns, but
also npil ; xi. 29, xxx. 90, ntcaic ; i 27, ix, 28. Heaven of heavens, God
of gods, &c. See I Kings viii, 97, 2 Ch, ii, 5, — The words marked * seem
conformable to the later usage, as well as the forms Sfl'^l, for nrijS';'!, and
for this «in^1 ; xxxiii, 24, nbtS ; xxxii, 36, fSi''" , for r-KSlin ; xxviii, 57.
pSI'' 1l"-i"' ; xxviii. 21, 36. iICPi C^ffiti), future Hiphil of nr; ; xxxii. 18,
Others agree with tho style of Jeremiah, n-yT; xxviii, 25, Jer, xv. 4, xxiv.

§ 156.] BOOKS OF MOSES. 135
2. The author allows himself to make striking altera
tions, and sometimes contradicts himself, not only in
those passages where he has regard to the Elohistic
accounts of the earlier history, — and which were more
foreign to his manner, — but likewise where he might
keep in his own course.
The following are examples of the first kind : —
Chap. i. 6 — 19, relates the appointment of officers,
and so is parallel with Ex. xviii. : —
" So I took the chief of your tribes, wise men and known, and
made them heads over you, captains over thousands, and captains
over hundreds, and captains over fifties, and captains over tens, and
officers among your tribes."
This is in part taken verbally from Ex. xviii. 21 : —
" Moreover thou shalt provide out of all the people able men, such
as fear God, men of truth, hating covetousness ; and place such over
them, to be rulers of thousands, and rulers of hundreds, rulers of
fifties, and rulers of tens.''
The following passage (verses 6 — 8) is not in the for
mer document, and is put too early in Deuteronomy : —
" Jehovah our God spake unto us in Horeb, saying, ' Ye have
dwelt long enough in this mount; turn you, and take your journey
and go to the mount of the Amorites, and unto all the places nigh
thereunto in the plain, in the hills, and in the vale, and in the south,
and by the sea-side, to the land of the Canaanites, and unto Lebanon,
unto the great river, the River Euphrates. Behold, I have set the
land before you ; go in and possess the land which Jehovah sware
unto your fathers, Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, to give unto them,
and to their seed after them.' "

9, xxix. 18, xxxiv. 17. iS ni6 151 ; xiii 6, as Jer. xxvii 16, xxix. 32. iSlp ;
xxxii. 25, Jer. xv. 7, Lam. i. 20. ab fill'^lia ; xxix. 18, Jer. iii 17, vii 24,
ix. 1 3, xi. 8. Von Bohlen (p. clxvii.) makes too much of this agreement. See,
on the other hand, Kiinig, Alt Test Stud. vol. ii. p. 12, sqq. De Wette, Diss,
de Deut ; 1805. Opusc. p, 155. Gesenius, I. c. p, 32. HaHmann, Hist,
Krit Forsch. p. 660, sqq. But it may be observed that EngePs theory fails
in the passages related to Ex. xxiii. 30, sqq., namely, i 30, vii 20, sqq., xi
13, sqq.

136 BOOKS OF MOSES. [§ 156,
The following (verses 9 — 14) does not occur in Ex
odus : —
" And I spake unto you at that time, saying, ' I am not able to
bear you myself alone, Jehovah your God hath multiplied you, and,
behold, ye are this day as the stars of heaven for multitude. (Jeho
vah God of your fathers make you a thousand times so many more
as ye are, and bless you as he hath promised you !) How can I my
self alone bear your cumbrance, and your burden, and your strife?
Take ye wise men and understanding, and known among your
tribes, and I will make them rulers over you.' And ye answered me,
and said, ' The thing which thou hast spoken is good for us to-do,' "
Verse 15 differs somewhat from Ex. xviii. 21, 26.
Chap. iii. 23 — 28 relates to the desire of Moses to
enter the land, and the command for him to ascend
Pisgah and look at it. But it differs essentially from
Num. xxvii. 12. There is an anachronism in the pas
sage which relates the making of the ark, (x. 1, 3;) and
in verse 8, which treats of the choice of the Levites ; in
verse 6 we have Moserah, instead of Mount Hur, (Num.
XX. 23, sqq.) Therefore this whole chapter has been
rejected by Cappellus and others."
The following are examples of the second kind : —
Jehovah is angry with Moses on account of the peo
ple, (i. 37, iii. 26, iv. 21,) which does not agree with
the Elohistic account in Num. xx. 12, — where Jehovah
is angry with Moses because the latter did not believe
him, — nor does it agree very clearly with the Jehovistic
passage (Num. xiv.) — where Jehovah prefers Moses to
all the people, whom he designs to destroy entirely and
at once. Besides, the mention of Kadesh-barnea does
not agree with the Jehovistic account, (Num. xiii. 26,)
" [Crit sac. lib. vii § 11, p, 987.] Hengstenberg has a forced defence of
this passage. Pent vol. ii. p. 427, sqq. See, for verse 6, Von Rmmer, Zug
d. Israel, p. 40, sqq. ; and, on the other hand, Winer, Real. Wort Buch, vol.
ii. p. 815.

§ 156.J

BOOKS OF MOSES.

137

but with the Elohistic, (xxxiv. 4.) In Deut. i. 22, the
people send the messengers; in Num. xiii. 2, Moses
sends them." Deut. i. 44, we find the " Amorites " in
stead of the ^^ Amalekites,'''' (Num. xiv. 45.) Deut. ii.
3 — 8, is obscure, and differs from Num. xx. 14 — 21.

Deut ii. 3—8. "And Jeho
vah spake unto me, saying, 'Ye
have compassed this mountain
long enough : turn you north
ward. And command thou the
people, saying, " Ye are to pass
through the coast of your breth
ren the children of Esau, which
dvcell in Seir, and they shall be
afraid of you : take ye good heed
unto yourselves, therefore. Med
dle not with them; for I will not
give you of their land, no, not so
much as a foot-breadth ; because I
have given Mount Seir unto Esau
for a possession. Ye shall buy
meat of them for money, that ye
may eat; and ye shall also buy
water of them for money, that ye
may drink." For Jehovah thy
God hath blessed thee in all the
works of thy hand : he knoweth
thy walking through this great
wilderness : these forty years Je
hovah thy God hath been with
thee; thou hast lacked nothing.'
And when we passed by from our
brethren the children of Esau,
which dwelt in Seir, through
the way of the plain from Elath,
and from Ezion-gaber, we turned.

Num. XX. 14—24. "And Mo
ses sent messengers from Kadesh
unto the king of Edom, ' Thus
saith thy brother Israel : Thou
knowest all the travel that hath
befallen us : how our fathers went
down into JEgypt, and we have
dwelt in ^gypt a long time; and
the .Egyptians vexed us and our
fathers. And when we cried un
to Jehovah, he heard our voice,
and sent an angel, and hath
brought us forth out of ^Egypt ;
and behold, we are in Kadesh,
a city in the uttermost of thy
border. Let us pass, I pray thee,
through thy country : we will not
pass through the fields, or through
the vineyards, neither will we
drink of the water of the wells ;
we will go by the king's high
way, we will not turn to the right
hand nor to the left, until we
have passed thy borders.' And
Edom said unto him, 'Thou
shalt not pass by me, lest I come
out against thee with the sword.'
And the children of Israel said
unto him, ' We will go by the
highway ; and if I and my cattle
drink of thy water, then I will

VOL.

" [Here the difference ia merely formal.]
II. 18

I3S

BOOKS OF MOSES.

[§156

and passed by the way of the wil- pay for it : I will only (without
derness of Moab. ' " doing any thing else) go through
on my feet.' And he said, ' Thou
shalt not go through.' And Edom
came out against him with much
people, and with a strong hand.
"Thus Edom refused to give
Israel passage through his bor
der : wherefore Israel turned away
from him."
Chap. ii. 29, contradicts the other statement, in Num.
XX., especially 18 — 21. Kedemoth occurs in ii. 26, but
not in the Jehovistic parallel, (Num. xxi. 21.) Chap. ii.
19, 27, differs in the locahty from Num. xxi. 24. Chap.
V. 23 — 27, is a very free paraphrase of Ex. xx. 18, 19.

Deut. V. 23 — 27. " And it came
to pass, when ye heard the voice
out of the midst of the darkness,
(for the mountain did burn with
fire,) that ye came near unto me,
even all the heads of your tribes,
and your elders, and ye said,
' Behold, Jehovah our God hath
showed us his glory, and his great
ness, and we have heard his
voice out of the midst of the fire :
we have seen this day that God
doth talk with man, and he liveth.
Now, therefore, why should we
die ? For this great fire will
consume us. If we hear the voice
of Jehovah our God any more,
then we shall die. For who is
there of all flesh, that hath heard
the voice of the living God speak
ing out of the midst of the fire,
as we have, and lived ? Go thou
near, and hear all that Jehovah

Ex. X.X. 18, 19. "And all the
people saw the thunderings, and
the lightnings, and the noise of
the trumpet, and the mountain
smoking : and when the people
saw it, they removed, and stood
afar off. And they said unto
Moses, ' Speak thou with us, and
we will hear : but let not Elohim
speak with us, lest we die,' "

§ 156.]

BOOKS OF MOSES.

139

our God shall say; and speak thou unto us all that Jehovah our
God shall speak unto thee, and we will hear it, and do it,' "

Chap. ix. 18, is obscure,
Ex. xxxii. 31, sqq.
Deut. ix. 18. " And I fell
down before Jehovah, as at the
first, forty days and forty nights :
I did neither eat bread nor drink
water, because of all your sins
which ye sinned, in doing wick
edly in the sight of Jehovah, to
provoke him to anger, (For I
was afraid of the anger and hot
displeasure wherewith Jehovah
was wroth against you to destroy
you.) But Jehovah hearkened
unto me at that time also."

and differs from the parallel,
Ex. xxxii. 31—35. " And Mo
ses returned unto Jehovah, and
said, ' O, this people have sinned
a great sin, and have made thein
gods of gold. Yet, now, if thou
wilt, forgive their sin ; and if not,
blot me, I pray thee, out of thy
book which thou hast written.'
And Jehovah said unto Moses,
' Whosoever hath sinned against
me, him will I blot out of my
book. Therefore now go, lead
the people unto the place of which
I have spoken unto thee. Behold,
mine angel shall go before thee;
nevertheless, in the day when I
visit I will visit their sin upon
them.' And Jehovah plagued the
people, because they made the
calf, which Aaron made."

The following differ considerably: —

Deut. xxv. 17 — 19. " Remem
ber what Amalek did unto thee
by the way, when ye were come
forth out of ^gypt ; how he met
thee by the way, and smote the
hindmost of thee, even all that
were feeble behind thee, when
thou wast faint and weary ; and
he feared not Elohim. There
fore it shall be, when Jehovah
thy God hath given thee rest from
all thine enemies round about in
the land which Jehovah thy God

Ex. xvii. 8 — 10. " Then came
Amalek, and fought with Israel
in Rephidim. And Moses said
unto Joshua, ' Choose us out men,
and go out, fight with Amalek :
to-morrow I will stand on the top
of the hill with the rod of Elohim
in mine hand,' So Joshua did as
Moses had said to him, and fought
with Amalek : and Moses, Aaron,
and Hur, went up to the top of
the hill."

140

BOOKS" OF MOSES.

[§ 156.

giveth thee for an inheritance to possess it, that thou shalt blot out the
remembrance of Amalek from under heaven ; thou shalt not forget it."
Besides, in Deuteronomy, Horeb is the central point
throughout, i. 6, 19, iv. 10, 15, v. 12, ix. 8, xviii. 16,
xxviii. 69, (xxix. 1,) while the Jehovist has not only
Horeb, in Ex. xiii. 1, and xxxiii. 6, but Sinai likewise,
in xxxiv. 24.
In general, the Mosaic history seems to be more
remote from the author of tliis book than it would be
from one who wrote down an historical narrative, even if,
at the same time, he wished to make use of it as an al
legory, and for the purpose of admonishing the people.
Examples of his method of treatment may be seen in
iv. 12, 15, 32, sqq., and 3G, where God appears with
out form in the fire. The account does not agree with
Ex. xix. 18, 19. Besides, " the fire " is farther removed
in verse 11, v. 4, 22, ix. 15. We observe the same
method in viii. 3, 4, when compared with Ex. xvi. 35,
and also in the following passages : —

Deut. vii. 6—8. "For thou
art a holy people unto Jehovah
thy God ; Jehovah thy God hath
chosen thee to be a special people
unto himself, above all people that
are upon the face of the earth.
Jehovah did not set his love upon
you, nor choose you, because ye
were more in number than any
people; for ye were the fewest
of all people. But because Je
hovah loved you, and because he
would keep the oath which he
had sworn unto your fathers, hath
Jehovah brought you out with a
mighty hand, and redeemed you

Deut xviii. 16—18. "Ac
cording to all that thou desiredst
of Jehovah thy God in Horeb, in
the day of the assembly, saying,
' Let me not hear again the voice
of Jehovah my God ; neither let
me see this great fire any more,
that I die not' And Jehovah said
unto me, ' They have well spoken
that which they have spoken, I
will raise them up a Prophet from
among their brethren, like unto
thee, and will put my words in his
mouth ; and he shall speak unto
them all that I shall command
him.' "

§ 156. J BOOKS OF MOSES. 14]
out of the house of bondmen, from the hand of Pharaoh king
of iEgypt." Compare Num. xx. 15, 16. The author here makes
the same use of the history as is made in the book of
Wisdom, (xii. 19, sq., and xvi. — xix.)
The book of Numbers (xxxvi. 13) expressly includes
all of the later enactments of Moses, from the time of
the residence on the plains of Moab. It also brings the
history down to the last point, (xxvii. 12 — 23 ;) so that
the Elohistic author, at least, knew of nothing beyond
the death of Moses, (Deut. xxxiv.) The book of Deu
teronomy leaves us at the same point, (i. 1 — 5, though it
is stated indistinctly, iv. 46;) consequently the speeches
of Moses — which it has contributed — have since been
appended to the Mosaic history.
The laws in this book are new, not only in respect to
the time in which they are alleged to have been given,
but in respect to their more modern character. Some
of them refer to more modern affairs.
1. Some refer to the temple at Jerusalem, as in chap.
xii. xvi. 1 — 7."
2. Some relate to the condition of the Levites, while
they dwelt in the cities of the rest of the nation, without
possessing the cities allotted them in Num. xxxv., and
while they had not the tithes allowed them in Num.
xviii. 20, sqq. ; but had a place at the tithe-feasts, (xii.
12, 18, 19, xiv. 22—29, xvi. 11, 14, xxvi. 12.)' The
priests, however, exercised some judicial authority, (xvii.
8—13, 18, xix. 17, xxi. 5, xxxi. 9.)
3. A reference is made to the office of kings and
prophets, in the following passage : —
» De Wette, Beitrage, voi i p. 226, sqq. Archiioi § 268.
* Chap, xviii. 1 — 8, corresponds to Num. xviii 8 — 13.

142 BOOKS OF MOSES. [§ 156.
Deut. xvii, 14 — ^20. " When thou art come unto the land which
Jehovah thy God giveth thee, and shalt possess it, and shalt dwell
therein, and shalt say, ' I will set a king over me, like as jJl the
nations that are about me ; ' thou shalt in any wise set him king over
thee whom Jehovah thy God shall choose ; one from among thy
brethren shalt thou set king over thee : thou mayest not set a stranger
over thee, which is not thy brother. But he shall not multiply horses
to himself, nor cause the people to return to .iEgypt, to the end that
he should multiply horses: forasmuch as Jehovah hath said unto you,
" Ye shall henceforth return no more that way," Neither shall he
multiply wives to himself, that his heart turn not away ; neither shall
he greatly multiply to himself silver and gold. And it shall be, when
he sitteth upon the throne of his kingdom, that he shall write him a
copy ofthis law in a book, out of that which is before the priests the
Levites : and it shall be with him, and he shall read therein all the
days of his life ; that he may learn to fear Jehovah his God, to keep all
the words of this law, and these statutes, to do them : that his heart
be not lifted up above his brethren, and that he turn not aside from the
commandment, to the right hand or to the left ; to the end that he
may prolong his days in his kingdom, he, and his children, in the
midst of Israel."
Reference is made to the same thing in chap. xiii. 1
— 5, xviii. 9 — 22. The expression the priests the Le
vites," or priests the children of Levites, deserves notice,
(xxi. 10.)
4. Some refer to a later constitution, and later laws
of war.
Deut. xvi. 18 — 20. " Judges and officers shalt thou make thee in
all thy gates, which Jehovah thy God giveth thee, throughout thy
tribes : and they shall judge the people with just judgment. Thou
shalt not wrest judgment ; thou shalt not respect persons, neither take
a gift : for a gift doth blind the eyes of the wise, and pervert the
words of the righteous. That which is altogether just shalt thou fol
low, that thou mayest live, and inherit the land which Jehovah thy
God giveth thee."
Chap. xvii. 8 — 13. " If there arise a matter too hard for thee in
judgment, between blood and blood, between plea and plea, and
" Chap. xvii. 9, 18, xviii. 1, xxiv. 8, xxvii. 9. Compare Ezek. xliii. 19,
xliv. 15.

§ 156. J BOOKS OF MOSES. 143
between stroke and stroke, being matters of controversy within thy
gates ; then shalt thou arise, and get thee up into the place which Je
hovah thy God shall choose; and thou shalt come unto the priests the
Levites, and unto the judge that shall be in those days, and inquire ;
and they shall show thee the sentence of judgment; and thou shalt
do according to the sentence, which they of that place, which Je
hovah shall choose, shall show thee ; and thou shalt observe to do ac
cording to all that they inform thee : according to the sentence of
the law which they shall teach thee, and according to the judgment
which they shall tell thee, thou shalt do : thou shalt not decline
from the sentence which they shall show thee, to the right hand, nor
to the left.
" And the man that will do presumptuously, and will not hearken
unto the priest that standeth to minister there before Jehovah thy
God, or unto the judge, even that man shall die : and thou shalt put
away the evil from Israel. And all the people shall hear, and fear,
and do no more presumptuously."
In xix. 17, and xxi. 2—6, 19, xxv. 8—20, the judges
and aldermen are spoken of. Besides, other later
peculiarities may be observed, such as the prohibition of
worshipping the sun and moon, (iv. 19, xvii. 3,) the punish
ment of stoning, (xiii. 11, xvii. 5, xxii. 21, 24, xxi. 21,°)
which, in the Jehovistic passages, Ex. xxi. — xxiii., is only
inflicted on beasts, (xxi. 28, 32,) and in the Elohistic,
Levit. XX. 2, 27, is only inflicted on men. However, it
occurs in the doubtful passages, Levit. xxiv. 16, 23,
Num. XV. 35.* The name feast of tabernacles (xvi. 16)
belongs to the same class.
Now, since these things are so, it remains the most
probable that these laws — contained in Deut. i. — xxxu.
47 — were brought into their present form after the
' Vatice's view, (Bib. Theol. vol i,) and George's, (Die Altern Jiid. Feste,)
and Von Bohlen's, (1. c.,) — that Deuteronomy contains the most ancient laws,
— has been sufficiently answered by the results of the previous criticisms of
the language. See Theol. Stud, und Krit for 1837, p. 933, sqq.

144 BOOKS OF MOSES. [§ 167.
other books of the Pentateuch were finished, and were
then inserted between Numbers and Deuteronomy,
xxxii. 48. § 157.
4. Date of these Fragments, and or the whole
Pentateuch.
Attempts have been made to prove, from the archaisms
and other peculiarities of the language, that Moses com
posed the Pentateuch." Ah that can be proved from
that argument is, that some of the fragments of which it
" See Jahn, in Bengel, Archiv. vol. ii p. 578, sqq,, vol, iii, p, 168, sqq,
Fritzsche, Priifung, &c., p. 104, sq. Jahn, without examining and sifting,
has huddled all together, even ccttwI leydpeya, which could prove little or
nothing, (comp. Pustkuchen, Hist Krit Untersuch, p. 21, sq,,) especially
things which do not elsewhere occur, (e. g. S^"lBS;) technical terms; words
which occur in other places, but not often, as f"11U, the favorite word of
the document " Elohim : " he likewise assumes arbitrarily that, if a Mosaic
word occurs in a later book, it was used li-om a preference for archaisms, (e. g,
"llllm""' , Deut. xxxu, 15, xxxiii. 4, 26, Isa. xliv. 2 ;) finally, he considers the
book of Job Mosaic. Comp. Hartmann, 1. c. p. 651.
The following examples have by far the most weight as proof-texts:
Sin is used in the feminine, and S^n, the proper feminine, only occurs
eleven times in the whole Pentateuch ; [but 5«ln occurs as a. feminine in
1 Kings xvii. 15, Job xxxi. 11, and Isa. xxx. 33.] 1S3 [a boy] is also used in
thfrfeminine, and nnsp only occurs once, Deut xxii, 19 ; but perhaps the same
form is used also in Ruth ii, 21, [and Job i 19,] nt^il occurs. Gen, xxiv, 65,
xxxvii, 19, The suffix nl occurs. Gen, xlix. II, Ex, xxii. 4, 26, et al,, (and
later in poetry, and in Kings and Ezekiel.) is and bsn, instead of nis<
and nisn ; (but comp. 1 Ch. x. 8, Ezra v. IS.) "list, instead of lit, pn::
instead of pniD ; (but comp. Judg. xvi 25, Ezek. xxiii. 32.) ^ys , which ap
pears in no other place. lisS is f|DM,(only found in 2 Ch. xxxiv. 28.
and somewhat altered, 2 Kings xxii. 20,) instead of the usual form, 35©
liniaj* bS, also in Deut xxxi 16, t3''i3n. Dip?? tiss, p>3, ato, nia
ni'iS. Unusual forms : Tfisi; Num. xxxii 30, (Josh. xxii. 9.) 1^3 ; Gen.
xxxviii. 9, Num. xx. 21. IIT^^ ; Gen. vi. 3. 1191"' ; Deut iii. 7, 16.

§ 158. J BOOKS OF MOSES. 14.3
is composed, are earlier than others. And, since the book
of Joshua, notwithstanding its affinity with Deuteronomy,
does not possess, in common with it, certain archaisms,
we must admit that a certain uniformity of language was
observed and established by the author or compiler.
The real or pretended ^Egyptian words,"" and others,
the use of which can be explained at a more recent date,
appear as marks of a period later than that of Moses.
The Chaldaisms serve the same purpose, for we can
scarcely conceive the Hebrews acquainted with them
while in ^gypt, or the Arabian desert.*
Besides, the subject matter, the whole character of the
narrative," and the numerous passages which mark a
later age,"* that have been already adduced, are evidence
against so early a date of the composition.

§ 158.
A. The Document Elohim.
This document was written after the death of Moses,
which is related, Deut. xxxiv. 5, 6 ; after the expulsion
of the Canaanites from the land, for this also is men-
" Such as naij , '^'ISS , and others.
' See the list of these Chaldaisms in Hirzel, De Chaldaismi Bib. Origine
et Auctor. crit; Lips, 1830, 4to, p. 5, sqq. The following are examples:
Stinnip; Gen. xxxi 47, (but designedly selected.) nirt; xxvii. 29. 'ipsa; xii
51, (which is chosen on purpose.) Sfl; xlvii 23. in, when; Ex. viii 22, (26,)
Lev. xxv. 20. Itol&llii • Ex. xviii 26. nius ; Lev. xxv. 21. nsin ; xxvi. 34.
>13>3P1; Num. xvii 28. ifl^, for bn'^; xxx. 3. The canon laid down by Mo
vers, in Bonner's Zeitschrift f. PhiL und Kath. TheoL voL xvi p. 157, that
" Aramaisms in a book are proof either of a very early or very late origin,"
is derived solely from Judg. v., to which it has a peculiar application. § 175.
' § 146. " § 147, 148.
VOL. II. 19

146 BOOKS OF MOSES. [§ 158.
tioned, Levit. xviii. 28 — "That the land do not vomit
you out, as it vomited out the nations ivhich were before
you ;" — after the land was inhabited by the Hebrews, for
the country is called the land of the Hebreivs, (Gen. xl.
16;) and after its cities were built, for Hebron, Beth-el,
and Dan, are mentioned, (Gen. xxiii. 2, xxxv. 15, Deut.
xxxiv. 1 ;) at a time when the tribe of Levi was despised,
as it appears from the following : —
Gen. xlix. 5 — 7. " Simeon and Levi are brethren ; instruments
of cruelty are in their habitations. O my soul, come not thou into
their secret ; unto their assembly, mine honor, be not thou united :
for in their anger they slew a man, and in their self-will they digged
down a wall. Cursed be their anger, for it was fierce ; and their
wrath, for it was cruel : I will divide them in Jacob, and scatter them
in Israel." It was written during the time of ttie kings, for they
are mentioned. Gen. xvii. 6, 16 — "Kings shah come
out of thee:" xxxv. 11, and xxxvi. 31, it is said, " These
are the kings of Edom, before there reigned any king
over the children of Israel."
It was written before Jeroboam's time, for Beth-el is still
a holy place, (Gen. xxxv. 15 ;) while it was considered
"¦the sin of Isiriel,^^ after Jeroboam had polluted it with
idolatrous worship, (Hos. iv. 15, v. 8, x. 5, 8.) It was
written before the time of David, for Edom is still inde
pendent, (Gen. xxxvi. ;) Ephraim has the supremacy,
(chap, xlviii.,) and Shilo is still the place where the nation
holds its sacred meeting, (xlix. lO.'') Consequently, it
is probable the document Elohim was written in the time
of Samuel or Saul, [that is, about 1120, or 1055, B. C,
or about four hundred years after Moses.] This is the
conclusion of Stahelin, Bleek, and Tuch.

§ 159.] BOOKS OF MOSES. 147
§159.
B. The Jehovistic Documents.
If these documents are the work of a restorer, then it
is superfluous to bring forward the proof — so easily ad
duced — that they were composed after the death of
Moses, — which is mentioned, Deut. xxxiv. 10 — 12;
after the expulsion of the Canaanites, Gen. xii. 6, xui.
7 ; after the time of the judges. Num. xxxii. 41, where
Jair is mentioned, who, according to Judg. x. 4," was
one of the judges.
These fragments are written considerable time after the
Elohistic documents ; after Saul's victory over the Ama
lekites, — for, in Num. xxiv. 7, it is said, "Israel's king
shall be higher than Agag, and his kingdom shaU be ex
alted," &c., which first took place when Sctul conquered
Agag, (1 Sam. xv. 2 — 8 ;) — after David's victory over the
Edomites and Moabites, — for, in Gen. xxv. 23, it is said
" the elder (Edom) shall serve the younger," (Israel ;) in
xxvii. 29. Israel's portion is to " be lord over thy breth-
I'en, and let thy mother's sons (the Edomites) bow down
unto thee ; " in verse 40, Edom, when he desires it, shall
shake off the' yoke of his brother ; Israel is to rule both
Edom and Moab : —
Num. xxiv. 17 — 19. " I shall see him, but not now : I shall be
hold him, but not nigh : there shall come a Star out of Jacob, and a
Sceptre shall rise out of Israel, and shall smite the corners of Moab,
and destroy all the children of Sheth. And Edom shall be a posses
sion ; Seir also shall be a possession for his enemies ; and Israel shall
do valiantly. Out of Jacob shall come he that shall have dominion,
and shall destroy him that remaineth of the city."
" Studer (in loc.) thinks the author of the book of Judges has made a
chronological mistake.

148 BOOKS OF MOSES. [§ 159.
This could not be till after the event mentioned in
2 Sam. viii. 2 — "And he [David] smote the Moabites,
and measured them with the line,  and so the Mo
abites became the servants of David;" verse 14, "and
he put garrisons in Edom,  and all Edom became
subject unto David." They must have been written
after the commencement of the trade to Ophir, (for it is
mentioned in Gen. x. 29;") after David had extended
the limits of the kingdom to the Euphrates, which is
mentioned as the border of the empire in Gen. xv. 18,
and Ex. xxih. 31 ; after the tribe of Simeon was mingled
with the tribe of Judah, for Simeon does not appear in
the blessing pronounced on each of the tribes, in Deut.
xxxiii., and he seems to be included with Judah and
Benjamin, in 1 Kings xii. 21, 23;' after the erection of
the temple, for the house of Jehovah is mentioned, Ex.
xxui. 19, and xv. 13 — the habitation of thy holiness.
It was written after the people were so well wonted
to the formal worship of Jehovah, that they could not
conceive of the ancient time without the same forms,
nor without certain central places for this worship, such
as Sichem and Beth-el, (Gen. xii. 7, 8,) Hebron, (xih. 18,)
Beer-sheba, (xxi. 33.)° The reference to Edom's attempt
to get free (xxvh. 40) would lead to the time of Joram,
in whose reign " Edom revolted from under the hand of
" Because Asher, JVineveh, and Babel, are mentioned, some writers place
this chapter, and i. — xi, in the Assyrian period ; e. g. Pustkudien, Hist,
Krit Untersuch, p. 88, Urgeschichte d, Menscheit voL i 1821; Hartmann,
1, u, p, 782, sqq, Comp. Winer, 1. u, vol. i p, 398 ; Von Bohlen, 1, c. On the
other side, Tuch, 1. c, p, xcvi., sqq.
' See De Wette's Archaol. § 139. Winer, 1. l. art Simeon. [It appears
from Josh. xix. that Simeon had a district containing seventeen cities, in the
south-west pai-t of tlie land. Josephus, Ant, v, 1, 26, But two of tliese cities
soon appear in the hands of Judah — Beer-sheba, (1 Kings xix, 3,) Ziklag,
(1 Sam. xxx. 30 ;) and the Simeonites seem to be wanderers, 1 Ch. iv. 42, 43.]
' Tuch, 1. c. p, xciv., sqq.

^ 159.] BOOKS OF MOSES. 149
Judah, and made a king over themselves." And though
he defeated them in a battle, they still preserved their
independence, (2 Kings vui. 20—23,) " and broke the
yoke from off his neck," (Gen. xxvh. 40.) The refer
ence to the annihilation of Amalek, (Num. xxiv. 20,) —
" The head of the nations is Amalek, but his end 
is for destruction," — would point to Hezekiah's time, for
(1 Ch. iv. 43) it is said the Jews smote the remnant
of the Amalekites, and possessed the territory, at the
date of that passage. But, on the other hand, Num.
xxi. 4 — 9, which commemorates the wonders of the
brazen serpent, must have been written before the ref
ormation of Hezekiah took place, in which he destroyed
this serpent because the people still burned incense to
it, (2 Kings xvhi. 4 ;) and, besides, there are certain his
torical proofs of the existence of the first four books of
the Pentateuch in their present form before that date."
Therefore we must refer the Edomites' revolt (Gen.
xxvii. 40) to the affair in Solomon's time, 1015 — 975
B. C, (1 Kings xi. 14, sqq.,)* and the destruction of
the Amalekites (Num. xxiv. 20) to Saul's conquest of
Agag, (1 Sam. xv.) However, Hitzig and Von Bohlen
refer Num. xxiv. 24, to the history of Senacherib, while
Bertholdt and Bleek regard it as an interpolation.

o- § 162, 6.
' [But this revolt did not give them a lasting independence, for we still
find them subject to Judah, 1 Kings xxii. 48, 49, 2 Kings viii. 20 : yet the
verse. Gen, xxvii 40, may have been written in the time of Solomon, for to
me it does not imply that they had broken the yoke. I would render it — " By
thy sword shalt thou live, and serve thy brother, and it shall be that, when
thou desirest, thou shalt break his yoke from off thy neck," Our English
translation has no meaning — " when thou shalt have the dominion  thou
shalt break his yoke.'' — It may well enough have been written in the time
of Solomon, just after the revolt, when the connection seemed so slight that
the subject could escape the restraint when he would.]

150 BOOKS OF MOSES. [§ 160.
§ 160.
C. Deuteronomy.
Moses cannot have been the author of xxxi. —
xxxiv., as it appears in special from xxxi. 24 — 26, xxxiu.
1, and xxxiv. The anachronisms in u. 12, hi. 14, xix. 14,
and xxxiv. 1 , and the general manner in which the Mosaic
history is treated, as in i. — in., carry us to a period after
Moses. The references to Jerusalem and its temple
transfer us to the time when the Jehovistic documents of
the other books were written. The references to the
earlier books bring us to a time considerably later than
that in which those books originated." The laws respect
ing the kings, prophets, and Levites, and that respect
ing the unity of worship, bring us to the period after
Solomon, and to the times of Josiah, when the unity of
worship was first carried out.' In xxxi. 26, is a com
mand to place the law book in the ark ; but as it was
not there when the temple was consecrated, (1 Kings
viii. 9,) this must have been written long after that
event. The lamentation, xxxii. 5 — 33, must have been
written in the most unfortunate period of the state. The
following predictions may refer to the exile of the ten
tribes : —
Chap. iv. 27. " And Jehovah shall scatter you among the nations,
and ye shall be left few in number among the heathen, whither Je
hovah shall lead you."
" See Be Wette, Beitr. vol. ii. p. 393. Bleek, in Theol. Stud, und ICrit
for 1831, p. 514, sqq. Eichhorn's doubts upon these chapters, § 434, and in
the old edition, vol. ii, p, 406. Rosenmidler, Schol, in Deut p, 451, sqq.
' See Hoffmann, Com. in Mosis Benedict in the Analekten f. d. Stud.
d, ex. and Syst, TheoL vol. iv, p, 5, sqq, De Wette, Beitr, vol. i p. 285.
ArchaoL §223—227. Comp. Bleek, Rep. vol. i p. 21. flb/niarm — fol
lowing Gesenius, Sam. Pent p. 7 — refers xxxiii 7, to the exile of Judah.
On the other hand, see Bleek, p. 25.

§ 161.] nOOKS OF MOSES. 151
Chap, xxviii. 25. " Jehovah shall cause thee to be smitten
before thine enemies : thou shalt go out one way against them, and
flee seven ways before them ; and shalt be removed into all the king
doms of the earth."
Chap, xxviii. 36. " And Jehovah shall bring thee, and thy king
which thou shalt set over thee, unto a nation which neither thou nor
thy fathers have known ; and there shalt thou serve other gods, wood
and stone."
Chap, xxviii, 64 — 68. " And Jehovah shall scatter thee among all
people from the one end of the earth even unto the other; and there
thou shalt serve other gods, which neither thou nor thy fathers have
known, even wood and stone. And among these nations shalt thou
find no ease, neither shall the sole of thy foot have rest : but Jehovah
shall give thee there a trembling heart, and failing of eyes, and sorrow
of mind : and thy life shall hang in doubt before thee; and thou shalt
fear day and night, and shalt have none assurance of thy life: in
the morning thou shalt say, 'Would God it were even I ' and at even
thou shalt say, 'Would God it were morning!' for the fear of thy
heart wherewith thou shalt fear, and for the sight of thine eyes which
thou shalt see. And Jehovah shall bring thee into .^gypt again
with ships, by the way whereof I spake unto thee, ' Thou shalt see it
no more again : ' and there ye shall be sold unto your enemies for
bond-men and bond-women, and no man shall buy you."
Chap, xxix, 28. " And Jehovah rooted them out of their land in
anger, and in wrath, and in great indignation, and cast them into
another land, as it is this day."

§161.
HISTORICAL TRACES OF THE EXISTENCE OF THE
PENTATEUCH.
In looking for historical evidence in this matter, if we
would not be deceived through want of a critical method,
as Jahn, Hartmann, Hengstenberg, and Havernik, have
been, we must separate the allusions to the Pentateuch,
or the citations of it, on the part of the author, and even
on the part of the persons he introduces as speaking, —

152 BOOKS OF MOSES. [§ 162, a.
for the words of the latter will not be free from mixture
with the former," — from the evidence drawn fom matters
of fact which exist in the history.
Attention, therefore, must be directed to this question :
Whether the allusions or references, which occur in the
historical books and other written memorials, refer to
the original documents, or to the first four books and Deu
teronomy in their present form. Finally, those books
and written memorials, whose credibihty or date is
contested, must not be referred to for proofs. This is
the case with the accounts in Chronicles, and the allu
sions or citations in the Psalms.'
§ 162, a.
A. Traces in Matters or Fact.
A law book is mentioned in Josh. xxiv. 26. But it
cannot be the Pentateuch in its present form, for the
latter does not contain what Joshua wrote in this book.
" And Joshua wrote these words [that is, the covenant
of the people to serve Jehovah] in the book of the Law
of God." -=
Some have looked for such marks in 1 Sam. xv. 2, 3 : —
" Thus saith the Lord of hosts, ' I remember that which Ama
lek did to Israel, how he laid wait for him in the way when he
came up from ^gypt. Now go, and smite Amalek, and utterly
destroy all that they have, and spare them not; but slay both man
and woman, infant and suckling, ox and sheep, camel and ass.' "
" This has taken place in 1 Kings ii 3, Judg. xi 17, sqq. Comp. Num.
XX. 14, sqq., xxi. 21, sqq.
' Ps. Ixxviii 13, sqq. (Compare, on the contrary, verses 3, 5, 19, 20, 49.)
Comp. Ps. Ixxxvi 15, with Ex. xxxiv. 6 ; Ps. cv. 8, sqq., and cvi. 7, sqq., 28,
sqq., with Num. xxv. 3 ; Ps. cviii. 14, with Ex. xv. 2 ; Ps. ex. 4, with Gen.
xiv. 18, and Ps. xl. 8.
" See Maurer on Josh, i 8, and comp. Hdvemik, 1. c. p. 556.

§ 162, a.] BOOKS OF MOSES. 153
This is supposed to refer to Ex. xvh. 14 — " Write this
for a memorial in a book, and rehearse it in the ears of
Joshua, for I will utterly put out the remembrance of
Amalek from under heaven." In 1 .Sam. x. 25, it is
written, " Then Samuel told the people the manner of
the kingdom, and wrote it in a book, and laid it down
before Jehovah." Some have supposed there was a
reference in this to Deut. xvii. 14, sqq. : —
" When thou art come unto the land which Jehovah thy God
giveth thee, and shalt possess it, and shalt dwell therein, and shalt
say, 'I will set a king over me, like as all the nations that are
about me ; ' thou shalt in any wise set him king over thee whom
Jehovah thy God shall choose : one from among thy brethren shalt
thou set king over thee."
So' it has been thought there was such a reference in
1 Kings vhi. 9, — "There was nothing in the ark save
the two tables of stone, which Moses put there at Ho
reb, when Jehovah made a covenant with the children
of Israel, when they came out of the land of iEgypt,"
— to Deut. xxxi. 26 : " Take this book of the law, and
put it in the side of the ark of the covenant of
Jehovah,  that it may be a witness against you."
But it is vain to expect such a reference in these
passages. It is probable there is such a trace or it, at the coro
nation of Jehoash, about 880 B. C, (2 Kings xi.
12 :) " And he brought forth the king's son, and put the
crown on him, and [gave him] the law,"" However,
this does not necessarily suppose the existence of the
whole Pentateuch in its present form.
The discovery of the book of the Law, in the temple,
under Josiah'' s reign, about 624 B. C, related in

' n^ns . [But it is difficult to find the Mosaic Law in this.]
VOL. II. 20

1-54 BOOKS OF MOSES. [§ 162, b.
2 Kings xxii., is the first certain trace of the exist
ence of the Pentateuch in its present form. Here the
following passages, (xxh. 16, 17, and 2 Ch. xxxiv. 24,)
as well as the reformation occasioned by the discovery,
all point to Deuteronomy.
" Thus saith the Lord, ' Behold, I will bring evil upon this
place, and upon the inhabitants thereof, even all the words of the
book which the king of Judah hath read : because they have
forsaken me, and have burned incense unto other gods, that they
might provoke me to anger with all the works of their hands; there
fore my wrath shall be kindled against this place, and shall not be
quenched.' "
This, however, presupposes the existence of the other
books. After the exile, we find frequent traces of it.
The Law of Moses, or Law of God, occurs, Ezra iii. 2,
vi. 18, vii. 6, 12. Ezra is called learned in the Law
of Moses, vii. 6, 10, ix. 1, sqq. The Law of Moses
occurs, Neh. i. 7, sqq., (verse 9 ahudes plainly to Deut.
xxx. 4, xu. 11,) Neh. viii. 1, sqq., ix. 2, sqq., xih. 1.
These, however, are later accounts.
§ 162, b.
B. Traces of its Existence in Writers.
About 790 B. C, we find that Amos (iv. 11)
unites the Elohistic and Jehovistic fragments in Gen.
xix. 29. Therefore he must have had the book of
Genesis in its present form. In ii. 9, he says, " Yet I
destroyed the Amorites before them  whose height
was hke the height of the cedars." This refers to Num.
xiii. 32, which says, " All the people that we saw " in
the land " are men of great stature, and there we saw
the giants." Accordingly, he seems to have been
acquainted with the book of Numbers.

§ 162, 6.] BOOKS OF MOSES. 155
About 785 B. C, Hosea affords us a trace of its
existence ; xu. 3 — 5 : —
" He took his brother by the heel in the womb, and by his
strength he had power with Elohim. Yea, he had power over
the angel, and prevailed : he wept, and made supplication unto
him: he found him in Beth-el, and there he spake with us ; even
Jehovah God of hosts."
Hei'e the allusions are obvious to the story of the
bhth of Esau and Jacob, in Gen. xxv. 26; to the
struggle with the angel, xxxh. 24, sqq.; to the ap
pearance of Jehovah in xxxv. 9, sqq. In the following,
(xii. 12, 13,) there is a reference to Gen. xxvh. 43 —
45, xxix. 18, sqq., which relate Jacob's visit to Laban,
and service for his wife : —
" And Jacob fled into the country of Syria, and Israel served
for a wife, and for a wife he kept sheep. And by a prophet the
Lord brought Israel out of .iEgypt, and by a prophet was he
preserved," The mention of Admah and Zeboim (xi. 8) refers
to Gen. xix. and xiv. 2, 3. Again, ix. 10 : —
" I found Israel like grapes in the wilderness ; I saw your
fathers as the first ripe inthe fig-tree at her first time: but they
went to Baal-peor, and separated themselves unto that shame; and
their abominations were according as they loved,"
This refers to Num. xxv. 3 — " Israel joined himself
unto Baal-peor." Therefore he must have known the
book of Numbers, as well as the original documents and
later fragments of Genesis.
About 759 B. C, Isaiah (i. 9, 10) mentions Sodom
and Gomorrah, evidently referring to Gen. xix. 5.
About 725 B. C, Micah (in vi. 5) speaks of Balak,
king of Moab, and Balaam, the son of Beor, referring,
apparently, to Num. xxii. 2, sqq. The mention of
Nimrod (v. 6) refers to Gen. x. 9, sqq."
"^ See Tuch, 1, c, p. Ixxxix., sq.

156 BOOKS OF MOSES. [§ 162, 6.
In Jeremiah (630 B. C.) the acquaintance with our
present Pentateuch is pretty clear, (Jer. xi. 1 — 8.)
Chap, xi 3 — 7. "Thus saith Jehovah God of Israel: ' Cursed be
the man that obeyeth not the words of this covenant, which I com
manded your fathers in the day that I brought them forth out of the
land of jEgypt, from the iron furnace, saying, " Obey my voice, and
do them, according to all which I command you : so shall ye be my
people, and I will be your God : that I may perform the oath which
I have sworn unto your fathers, to give them a land flowing with
milk and honey, as it is this day." ' Then answered I, and said, ' So
be it, O Jehovah.' Then Jehovah said unto me, ' Proclaim all
these words in the cities of Judah, and in the streets of Jerusalem,
saying, " Hear ye the words of this covenant, and do them. For I
earnestly protested unto your fathers in the day that I brought
them up out of the land of .(Egypt, even unto this day, rising early
and protesting, saying, ' Obey my voice.' " ' "
Here the reference in verse 4 is pretty direct to Deut.
iv. 20 — " Jehovah  hath brought you forth out of
the iron furnace out of .^Egypt." The following refers
to Deut. xxvih.: —
Chap. xi. 8. " Yet they obeyed not, nor inclined their ear,
but walked every one in the imagination of their evil heart: there
fore I will bring upon them all the words of this covenant, which I
commanded them to do ; but they did them not."
Chap. xxih. 17, refers to Deut. xxix. 17, 18 ; xxxiv.
14, the command to release every Hebrew slave at
the end of the seventh year, refers to Ex. xxi. 2, and
Deut. XV. 12. The following (xlvhi. 45, 46) refer to
Num. xxi. 27, sqq.: — "
" They that fled stood under the shadow of Heshbon because of
the force ; but a fire shall come forth out of Heshbon, and a flame
from the midst of Sihon, and shall devour the corner of Moab, and

° See more examples in Kuerper, Jerome, Librr, Sac, Interpret, atque
Vindex ; 1837, p. 1—51. [But see below, p. 420.]

§ 162, b.] BOOKS OF MOSES. 157
the crown of the head of the tumultuous ones. Woe be unto thee,
O Moab ! the people of Chemosh perisheth : for thy sons are taken
captives, and thy daughters captives,"
About 600 — 570, Ezekiel refers to these books, (xx.
11.) "I gave them my statutes and showed them my
judgments, which if a man do he shall even live by
them," refers to Levit. xviii. 5 ; xxh. 26, to Levit. x.
10; xliv. 20, sqq., to xxi. 2, sqq.; verse 28, to Num.
xviii. 20.
This acquaintance is sthl more obvious in the writers
who lived during the exile, and collected the books of
the Kings. Here are references to the Law. Thus the
two following passages refer to Deut. xxiv. 16 : —
2 Kings xvii. 36, 37. " But Jehovah, who brought you up out of
the land of jEgypt with great power and a stretched-out arm, him
shall ye fear, and him shall ye worship, and to him shall ye do sacri
fice. And the statutes, and the ordinances, and the law, and the
commandment, which he wrote for you, ye shall observe to do forever-
more ; and ye shall not fear other gods."
Chap. xiv. 6. " But the children of the murderers he slew not :
according unto that which is written in the book of the Law of Mo
ses, wherein Jehovah commanded, saying, ' The fathers shall not
be put to death for the children, nor the children be put to death
for the fathers; but every man shall be put to death for his own
sin.' "
So (1 Kings u. 3) allusions to the Law, and passages
somewhat similar to it, also occur. The cloud over the
temple (1 Kings vih. 10) aUudes to the cloud in Ex. xl.
34, 35 ; verse 51, speaking of iEgypt as the furnace of
iron, alludes to Deut. iv. 20. So ix. 3, xi. 36, xiv. 21, 2
Kings xxi. 4, 7, refer to Deut. xh. 5. The threat, in
case of disobedience, (1 Kings ix. 7, 8,) alludes to
Deut. xxvih. 37, xxix. 24. The words put into the
mouth of Jeroboam when he set up the two calves.

158 BOOKS OF MOSES. [§ 162, c.
" These are thy gods, O Israel, which brought thee up
out of the land of Ji^gypt," (1 Kings xh. 28,) allude
to Ex. xxxii. 4, 8, where the same words occur. So
1 Kings xxii. 17, where Israel is compared to sheep
without a shepherd, alludes to Num. xxvh. 17."

§ 162,

c.

HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF THE OBSERVANCE OF THE
MOSAIC LAW.
The observance or non-observance of particular laws,
the appearance or non-appearance of particular legal
institutions, in a certain period, can prove nothing, either
for or against the existence of a written law book.'
But the internal reasons which tend to show the date of
the different legal fragments of the Pentateuch, may be
confirmed by the circumstance, that we can find in the
history a gradual progress in the observance of the
Law. Thus, in the state and development of the
formal worship of Jehovah at the time of David and
Solomon, we see the result of the influence of the Elo
histic document. In the reformation effected by Josiah,
(624 B. C.,) we find men are forbidden to worship Je
hovah freely, in various sacred places, as had previously
been the practice. This is the result of the book of
Deuteronomy, which was written about that time."
" See Herz, Sind in die B. B. d. Konige Spuren des Pentateuchs und d.
Mos. Geschichtes zu finden, &c.; Alt 1822,
' See Otmar, Fragmente, in Henke, Magazin, vol. ii, p, 447, sqq. On the
other side, Eckermann, Theol, Beit. vol. v, p. 5, sqq,
' De Wette, Beitrage, vol, i p. 226, sqq, Archaol. § 222. Bleek, in
Stud, und Krit 1831, p. 501, sqq, Tuch, L c, p, xci, sqq.

§ 162, d.] BOOKS OF MOSES. 159
§ 162, d.
SOURCES WHICH THE AUTHOR OF THE PENTATEUCH
MADE USE OF.
It is incontestable that the Elohistic author had access
to the most ancient sources. But the uniformity of his
style does not allow us to suppose that he inserted the
original documents touching the Mosaic history directly,
and without alteration. If such documents were in his
hands, he worked them over anew. Besides, he may
have drawn from tradition, — for he lived about four hun
dred years after Moses, and one thousand after Abraham,
— and from such of the Mosaic institutions as were in
existence at his time.
The Jehovistic author refers to Mosaic documents :
Ex. xvii. 14, " Jehovah said unto Moses, ' Write this for
a memorial in a book ; repeat it in the ears of Joshua ; ' "
xxiv. 4, "Moses wrote all the words of Jehovah;"
verse 7, " He took the book of the covenant, and read ; "
xxxiv. 27, " Jehovah said to Moses, ' Write thou these
words ;^" and perhaps Num. xxxih. 2, "Moses wrote
their journeys." Butthe legal passage, Ex. xxi. — xxih.,
which he probably would give us as Mosaic, may rather
be ascribed to this author himself. There is no trace of
ancient sources in his writings, except in Num. xxi.
, The author of Deuteronomy, as it appears, would
have us regard his whole book as the work of Moses ;
so he makes Moses speak of "the Book," (xvii. 18,
19, xxvih. 58, 61, xxix. 20, 21, 27, xxxi. 9, 19, 22, 24,
30.) But the obscurity and unfitness of these claims
deprive them of all value as proofs." He derived his
¦• Bleek, L c. p. 509, sqq. The opinion that these latter passages refer to
a short treatise which has been worked over in Deuteronomy, is entirely
arbitrary.

160 BOOKS OF MOSES. [§ 163.
historical statements entirely from the first four books,
and his legal statements from the institutions prevalent
at his time. Besides, he treated both with great
freedom. § 163.
OPINION THAT MOSES WAS THE AUTHOR OF THE
PENTATEUCH.
After coming to these results, we find no ground and
no evidence to show that the books of the Pentateuch
were composed by Moses. But some consider him their
author, merely from traditionary custom, because the
Jews were of this opinion ; though it is not certain the
most ancient Jews shared it ; for the expressions the
" book of the Law of Moses," and the " book of the Law
of Jehovah by the hand of Moses," only designate him
as the author or mediator of the Law, but not as
author of the book. The Law is ascribed to the Proph
ets in 2 Kings xvii. 13, and Ezra ix. 11. Others believe
Moses was the author of these books, because this
opinion is supposed to prevail generally in the New
Testament. But such a prejudice should have no
weight at all in criticism ; for, as Vater has said, " Faith
in Christ can set no limits to critical inquiries ; otherwise
he would hinder the knowledge of the truth."
The opinion that Moses composed these books, is not
only opposed by all the signs of a later date, which occur
in the book itself," but also by the entire analogy of the
history of Hebrew literature and language. But even
admitting it was probable, on account of the influence the
Pentateuch had on the language of the Hebrews, and
• § 147, sqq.

§ 164.] BOOKS OF MOSES. 161
on account of the analogy of the Syriac and Arabic lan
guages, that, during a period of nearly a thousand years,
the Hebrew language had changed as little as it would
appear on this hypothesis, from the slight difference
between the style of the Pentateuch and the other books
of the Old Testament, even the latest of them," — still,
even then, it would be absurd to suppose that one man
could have created beforehand the epico-historical, the
rhetorical and poetic style, in all their extent and com
pass, and have perfected these three departments of
Hebrew literature, both in form and substance, so far
that all subsequent writers found nothing left for them
but to follow in his steps. § 164.
HISTORY OF THE HISTORICAL CRITICISM OF THE
PENTATEUCH.
During the long supremacy of an uncritical belief in
tradition from time to time, and even in antiquity, there
arose doubts as to the genuineness of the books of Moses.'

" See Michaelis, Einleit in A. T. p. 166, sqq. Eichhorn, § 437. Jahn, vol.
i p. 266. Eckermann, L c. voL v. pt 1, p. 92. On the otlier hand, Vater, voL
iii. p. 611, sqq. Gesenius, Gesch. de heb. Spr. p. 19, sqq.
' Celsus doubted on account of the myths in Genesis. See Origen, Cont
Cels. iv. 42: El pi\ &Qa oidi Mo>vaio)g ohrav eivav ti)>' yqa(f>\v, dikhk
TiPbiv nlsidymv. [He thinks, also, the story of Noah and the flood is bor
rowed from the Greek myth of Deucalion.]
1. Dogmatic Doubts. — Ptolemy, [a Valentinian Gnostic of the third cen
tury,] in his Epist ad Moram, preserved in Epiphanius, Hseres. xxxiii. 3,
says, " The entire law embraced in the Pentateuch of Moses, was not given by
any one man, I say — it was not given by the only God.  It is, indeed,
attributed to Moses, not as if the very God enacted the law through him, but
because Moses, incited by his own mind, enacted certain laws. R is also
attributed to the elders of the people, for the principal men devised certain
ordinances, and promulgated their own laws." ' 0 aifinag itteipog v6/Mg 6
VOL. II. 21

162 BOOKS OF MOSES. [§ 164.
But these doubts were first confirmed, by the science of
historical criticism, hi modern times. But this, how-

TTS^ie/ufierog ttj Moiaeug HsyraTei/a ov ngbg kvdg xivog POfxo-&irriTai , Mybt
dh Ol'/ \>nb f.i6iJ0v 'd'sov* — SiaiQeXjai 5h y.ai elg t:6v Moioia, oi y.a&& avibg dt'
ttviov vo/JO&STel 6 S'sdg, iXli xaitdi &nb tij; Idlag ivvolag bq^ibfisvog, xui
6 il/w(j7jj ei'o/io&iTTjoi nva • xal elg zoiig tTQEO^vTiQOvg tov Xaov diaiQel-
rni, ot TTQ&TOi eiglaxovTai ^VToXug Ttpag iy&^i'TSg Idlag.
The JVazarenes, also, had dogmatic doubts, as it appears from Jo. Damas
cus, De Haeres. xix. vol. i. p. 80, ed. Le Qiiien, (see JVeander, Gnostiche
Systeme, p. 386,) and from the Pseudo-Clementine Homilies, [Horn. ii. ch.
41 — 44, 52, in Cotelerius, Pat Apost ed. Clericus ; Amst 1724, vol. i p. 632,
sqq.] (See JVeander, 1. c. p. 386. Baur, Christ Gnosis, p, 319.) Jerome, Cont
Helvid. Opp. vol, iv, pt. 2, p, 134, says, " I will not complain, whether you
call Moses the author of the Pentateuch, or Ezra ihe restorer of the same work."
2. Critical Doubts are expressed by the following writers : Aben Ezra, —
who died A. C. II67, — in his Comment on Deut i, 1. [But since the Phari
sees condemn men as heretics who doubt the genuineness of the Pentateuch,
he did not dare express himself openly, but only to hint his opinion in ob
scure words. See Spinoza, Tract Theol. polit ch. vii p, 104,] But his
doubts related only to some particular passages, Isaac Ben Jasos, in the
beginning of the eleventh century, did more, as Maier has shown, iu the
Stud, und Kritiken for 1832, p. 634, sqq. Carlstadt, De Script canon.,
1521, G. 4, it. b., went farther stUl, and said, " Defendi potest : Mosen non
fuisse scriptorem quinque librorum : ista de morte Mosis nemo nisi plane de-
mentissimus Mosi velut autori tribuet" (See Unschuldige Nachrichten for
1707, p. 550.) And. Masius, Com. in Jos. 1574, Pnef. p, 2, ad cap. x, 13,
and xix. 47, [says, " The books of Moses, in their present form, were not
composed by him, but by Ezra, or some other divine man, who, instead of
tlie ancient and obsolete names of places, inserted the modern names,"]
Tims. Hobbes, Leviathan, ch. xxxiii. [Works, ed. Molesworth, vol, iii, Lond,
1839, p. 369, says, " It is suflSciently evident that the five books of Moses
were written after his time." Yet he thinks Moses " wrote all tliat he is
there said to have written."] Is. Peyrerius, Syst Theol, ex Prseadamitai-uni
Hypothesi, 1655, lib, iv, c, I, [supposes that only fragments and extracts
from the genuine Mosaic books now remain,] Benedict Spinoza, L c. 1670, ch.
viii. LX, [He brings forward most of the modern arguments against the
genuineness of the Pentateuch, and adds, that none but Ezra can be sus
pected of writing these books. For his influence on biblical criticism, see,
who will, Amand Saintes, Hist de la Vie, &c,, de B, de Spinoza ; Paris,
1842; and his Hist du Rationalisme en AUemagne ; Paris, 1841,] Rich.
Simon, Hist crit du V, T,, 1678, i 5, [thinks the Pentateuch was not
written by Moses, but by different men at various times,] Lederc, Sentimens
de quelques Theologiens de Hollande, &c,, 1685, letter vi^ [refers it to

§ 164.] BOOKS OF MOSES. 163
ever, was not done satisfactorily, or without mistakes."
The investigation was, for the first time, thoroughly
made by Vater.' Others have pushed the inquiry still
further.'' Those who defend the later origin of the Penta-

the priest sent by the Assyrian king to teach the new Gentile settler.s in
Palestine " the way of the God of the land." (2 Kings xvii, 24—28.) But
he expresses a different opinion in the Dissertation (diss, iii, De Script.
Pent, Moses, &c,) prefixed to his Commentary on the Pentateuch,] Ant.
Van Dale, De Origine et Progressu Idololatrite, 1696 ; in his Dissertationes,
p, 71, sqq, ; and his Epist a Steph. Morinum, p, 686, Hasse, Aussiohten zur
kiinft Aufklarungen lib. d. A. T., 1785 ; though he thinks otherwise in his
Entdeckungen im Felde der alt Erd- und Menschengesch. vol. ii. ; 1805,
" Fidda, in Paulus, N, Rep. vol, iii ; 1791, His Memor. vol. vii, Cor
rodi, Beleucht. d, jiid, u, christi, Bibelkanons ; 1792, vol, i, p, 58, sqq,
Otmar, (JVacldigall,) Fragmente lib, d, allmahl. Bildung der den Israeliten
heil. Schr., in Henke's Mag, vol, ii, ; 1794, p, 433, sqq, ; iv, p. 1—36, .329
—370; V, p, 291, Comp. Eckermann, Theol, Beitr, vol, v, p. 1 ; 1796,
Bauer, Einl, 2 Aufl. ; 1801, p. 242, sqq., 309, sqq. E. Chr. Schuster, Aelt
Sagen d. Bibel nach ihrem hist u, prakt Gehalte ; 1804. H. E. G. Paulus,
Comment iib, d, N, T, vol, iv, ; 1804, p. 230, sq.
'' Abhandlung iiber Moses und der Verfasser d. Pent., in his Commentary,
vol, iii, ; 1805, p, 393, sqq,
' De Wette, Beitr, z, Einl, ins A, T, vol, i,, or Ki-it Vers, iib. de Glaub-
wlirdigk. d. BB. d. Chron. mit Hins. auf d. Gesch. d. mos. B.B. u, Gesetzgeb,
Ein Nachtr. z, d, Vaterschen Unters. iib. d. Pent ; 1806, vol. ii. Kritik d.
Israel, Gesch. ; 1807. Augusti, Einl. ; 1806 ; 2 Aufl. 1827. Gesenius, De
Pent Sam. ; 1815. Gesch. d. hebr. Spr, ; 1815. Bleek, Aphorist Beitr, z,
d, Unters, ii, d. Pent in Rosenmiiller, Rep, voL i, ; 1822, p, 1, sqq, Beitr,
z, d, Forsch. ii. d. Pent, in Theol. Stud. u. Kr. ; 1831, vol. iii. p, 488, sqq,
Hartmann, Hist. kr. Forschungen lib, d, Bildung, d. Zeitalter u. d. Plan d, 5
BB, M, nebst e. beurtheilenden Einl, u. e, genauen Charakteristik d, hebr,
Sagen u. Mythen ; 1831. Comp. his Aufklarungen lib. Asien ; 1806, p.
19, sqq. Die Hebraerin am Putztische, &c, ; vol, ii 1809, p. 5, sqq,; iii.
p, 163, sqq, Linguistische EinL in d. Stud, d, BB, d. A. T, ; 1818, p. 311,
sqq, Schumann, Prolegg, in Pent p. xxxvi. Von Bohlen and Tuch, in their
Introductions to Genesis. Bertholdt (L c. p. 759, sqq, ; 1813) was not
so intimately connected with tliese inquiries. Without reference to these
authorities, a similar view was taken by Volney, Recherches nouv. sur I'Hist
anc. pt i ; Paris, 1814. See the Review in Bertholdt, Krit Journal, vol.
viii p. 55, sqq.
The following are some of the modern defenders of the genuineness of
the Pentateuch: Michaelis, Einleit Eichhorn, Einleit, — who has con-

164 BOOKS OF MOSES. [§ 164.
tench, however, are divided among themselves as to the
positive date of its composition and compUation. This
difference, in part, results from their different views of
the history and literature of the Hebrews.

ceded a. good deal in his last edition. John, Einl. u. Beitrage zur Ver-
theid. der Aechtheit des Pentat in Bengel, Archiv. voL ii iii. iMderwald,
Untersuch. einiger Zweifel lib. die Aufrichtigkeit u. Gdttlichkeit Mosis u.
seiner Begebenheiten ; 1782, Jerusalem, Briefe lib. d. mos, Schriften u.
Philosophie, 3 Aufl. ; 1783. Hasse, in his Entdeckungen, &c. ; 1805. Grie-
singer, Ub, d, Pentateuch; 1806, Kelle, Vorurtheilsfreie Wlirdigung der
mos, Schriften, als Priifting d, myth, u, offenbarungsglaubigen Bibelerkla-
rung, vol, i, — iii, ; 1811, 1812, Ch. A. Fritzsche, Priifung der Griinde, mit
welchen neuerlich d. Aechtheit d. BB. Mosis bestritten worden ist. ; 1814.
J. G. Scheibels, Unters. liber Bibel- u. Kirchengesch. vol. i ; 1816. /. G.
Herbst, Observ. de Pentateuchi IV, Librorum posteriorum Auctore et Editore ;
1817, 4to, ; imp. in Commentt theoL ed. Rosenmidler, Fuldner, et Maurer, vol.
i pt 1 ; 1825. In a modified form, Kanne, BibL Untersuch. u. Ausleg. mit.
u. ohne Polemik, vol, i ii, ; 1820. Rosenmidler, Schol. in Pentateuchum,
voL Led. 3; 1821, Prolegg. Pustkuchen, Hist krit Untersuchung d. bibL
Urgesch. nebst Untereuchungen iiber Alter, Verfasser u, Einheit der libri-
gen Theile des Pentateuchs ; 1823. Ranke, Untersuch ub. d. Pent. vol. i
1834; voL ii, 1840, Hengstenberg, Beitrage zur Einleit, in A, T, oder
die Authentie d. Pent erwiesen ; 1836 — 1839, [See, too, his Christology ofthe
O. T,, translated by Read Keith ; Alexand, D, C. 1836—1839, 3 vols. 8vo.]
Hdvemik, 1. c. Drechsler, Einheit und Aechtheit d. Gen. ; 1838. Konig, Al-
test Stud. voL ii. ; 1839. The following occupy the old position : Richard
Gi'aves, Lectures on the Four Last Books of the Pentateuch, designed to
show the divine Origin of the Jewish Religion ; Lond. 1808. Thomas
Hartwell Home, L c. [Turner, Companion to the Book of Genesis ; New
York, 1841. See, too, the peculiar theory of Dr. Palfrey, Acad. Lectures,
vol. i and ii. ; Boston, 1838, 1840. (See a review of vol. i in Boston
Quarterly Review for July, 1838.) Laborde, Commentaire sur I'Exode et
les Nombres, &c. ; Paris, 1841, folio.]

§ 165.] BOOK OF JOSHUA. 165
CHAPTER II.
THE BOOK OF JOSHUA."
§ 165.
CONTENTS OF THE BOOK.
It was forbidden to Moses to conquer the theocratic
land, and Joshua, following in his footsteps, and with
.simhar divine assistance, advanced to this work. He
contended triumphantly with the Canaanites, and con
quered the greatest part of them, though many were
still left to possess large parts of the land. Joshua
divided it among the ten tribes and a half, but the con
quest still remained incomplete ; he set apart the cities
which Moses had appointed for the Levites, and likewise
the cities of refuge. He departed after he had admon
ished the people, and pledged them to observe the
covenant. Thus this attaches itself to the Mosaic
books, as a supplementary portion, as weh to the history
of the establishment of the theocracy, as to the laws
relating to it. Now, since the book treats of the di-
«¦ Josuae Imperat Hist, illustr. ab Andr. Masio ; Antverp. 1574, fol.
Seb. Schmidt, Praelect. in viii prior. Capp. Lib. Jos.
Jo. Clerici Comment Jo. Drusii Annotat in loca diff. Jos., &c.
A. J. Osiandri Comm. in Josuam ; Tub, 1681,
Jac. Bonfrerii Comm. in Jos., Jud., et Ruth ; Par. 1631, fol.
Mc. Serrarii Comm. in Libr. Jos,, Jud., Ruth, Regg., et Paralipp. ; Mog.
1609, 1610, 2 vols, fol,
Exegetisches Handb, des A. T. 1 and 3 pt
Paulus, Blicke in d, B, Jos,, in his Theol, exeg. Conservator, vol, ii p.
149, sqq,
F. J. V. D. Maurer, Coram, ub. d. B. Jos. ; Stuttg. 1831. Geddes, 1. c.
Palfrey, 1. c. voL ii.

166 BOOK OF JOSHUA. [§ 165.
vision of the land, which Moses had already conquered
and divided; of the portion which Joshua conquered;
that which was conquered after him, and that which
remained unconquered, — it has the value of a primitive
theocratical model. It has a close connection with
the Pentateuch, and particularly with Deuteronomy."
It is very obviously divided into two parts. The first
includes chapters i. — xii., and contains the history of
the conquest. The second includes xiii. — xxiv., and
contains the history of the division of the land, and the
assembhes of the people which Joshua convoked to
sanction the theocracy. — [It is further related that, after
the death of Moses, Joshua sent secretly two messengers
lo Jericho. They were discovered, but escaped through
the intervention of Rahab.' They brought back an
account of the fear of the inhabitants. Then the whole
nation marched over, through the Jordan, for its waters
were stopped miraculously at Zaretan. After this, those
were circumcised who, during the last forty years, had
not previously received that rite, on account of the in
convenience it would have occasioned on the march.
The passover was then celebrated, and the manna
ceased. An irrevocable curse was then pronounced upon
Jericho, and after the Jews had marched round it seven
times, its walls miraculously fell to the ground. These
events increased the fear of the Canaanites, and gave
the Hebrews new courage, so that, after messengers

" See chap, i, iii, 7, iv, 23, viii, 30 — 35, xi. 15, xvi, 5, 6, xx, xxi, 43 — 45,
xxii, xxiii. 6,
'' [There is a Jewish tradition tliat Joshua married Rahab, who was
twenty years old at the time of the departure from .^gypt But Jerome
(Cont Jovinian. lib. i c. 12) says, indignantly, " Ostende mihi Jesum Nave
vel uxorem habuisse vel filios, et si potueris monstrare, victum me esse
fatebor."!

§ 165.] BOOK OF JOSHUA.

167

returned from Ai, they thought they could conquer it
with two or three thousand men. But when they were
repulsed with the loss of thirty-six men, the whole people
fell into the opposite extreme, and lost aU courage. On
this occasion, it was discovered, by casting lots, that
Achan had appropriated to himself a part of the spoh
of Jericho, which had been cursed. He was stoned to
death, and then Ai was conquered. Upon this, Joshua,
in obedience to Deut. xxvii., erected an altar on Mount
Ebal, engraved the law on stones,' and uttered the
blessings and curses.
The Gibeonites fraudulently made a covenant, and
when they were threatened with war by the king of
Jehus, or Jerusalem, and his confederate kings, — whose
ahies they were, — Jo.shua hastened to relieve them.
He fell upon the enemy, and, in a single campaign,
conquered almost the whole of southern Canaan. He
next determined to attack the north Canaanites, who,
with their kings, united under King Hazor, were en
camped on the sea-coast. In this expedition he con
quered nearly all of northern Canaan. Thirty-one kings
were now conquered, without including Sihon and Og.
Joshua put them all to the sword, as it was commanded
in the Law. Then, in the seventh or eighth year after
entering the land, it was divided among the people by lot.
In the account of this transaction, the division of the land
on the other side of the Jordan is related again, more
circumstantially than before. The free cities were then
appointed. The Levites received forty-eight cities from
all the tribes. Joshua allowed the forty thousand men
from the ten tribes and a half to return home. He then
held two assemblies, and died.] "
" [See Jodm, vol. ii. § 24.]

168 BOOK OF JOSHUA. [§ 166.
§ 166.
PECULIARITY OF THE NARRATIVE.
In this book, as in the Pentateuch, the narrative is,
in many parts, very fuh, complete, and even diffuse;"
but in others it is merely summary,' or abrupt." In its
prevailing character, the narrative here, as in the Penta
teuch, is mythical. Jehovah immediately directs and
influences affairs ; sometimes by his word (i. 1) : —
" Now after the death of Moses the servant of Jehovah, it came to
pass that Jehovah spake unto Joshua."
The same form occurs in iii. 7, iv. 1, and very frequently.
Sometimes he directs by the sacred lot, (vii. 10 — 21 ;)
sometimes by an apparition, as in the following (verses
13—15): —
"Now it came to pass when Joshua was near Jericho, that he lifted
up his eyes and looked, and behold a man was standing beside him,
with his sword drawn in his hand. And Joshua went to him, and
said unto him, 'Art thou for us, or for our foes?' And he said,
' Neither ; for I am come the Prince of Jehovah's host' And
Joshua fell on his face to the earth, and did homage to him, and said
unto hira, ' What would my Lord say to his servant ? ' And the
Prince of Jehovah's host said to Joshua, ' Loose thy shoe from thy
foot, for the place thou standest upon is holy.' And Joshua did so."
Sometimes this is effected by miracles, as at the pas-
,sage of the Jordan, (iii. iv.,) the destruction of Jericho,
(vi.,) and the following (x. 11 — 14) : —
" And it came to pass as they fled from before Israel, and were in
the going down to Beth-horon, that the Lord cast down great stones
from heaven upon them unto Azekah, and they died : they were
more which died with hail-stones than they whom the children of
Israel slew with the sword,
» Chap, ii — iii iv. — ^vi. vii. — viii 1 — ^29, ix. x. 1 — ^27.
* Chap. X. 28—39, 40—43, xi. 10—21. ' Chap, xviii. 1, xxiii. 1.

§ 166.]

BOOK OF JOSHUA.

169

" Then spake Joshua to the Lord in the day when the Lord de
livered up the Amorites before the children of Israel, and he said, in
the sight of Israel, ' Sun, stand thou still upon Gibeon, and thou
Moon, in the valley of Ajalon.' And the sun stood still, and the
moon stayed, until the people had avenged themselves upon their
enemies. Is not this written in the book of Jasher 1 So the sun
stood still in the midst of heaven, and hasted not to go down about a
whole day. And there was no day like that before it or after it, that
the Lord hearkened unto the voice of a man : for the Lord fought
for Israel."
We discover a striking analogy between the mytholo
gy of this book and that of the Pentateuch."
A later Levitical spirit, also, is displayed in this book,
similar to that in Chronicles. Compare the important
office of the priests and Levites, in iii. — vi., with the
statement in 2 Ch. xiii., where the greatest offence of
the nation seems to be that they have cast out the sons
of Aaron and the Levites. But see, also. Num. x. 9,
where the Legates are commanded to blow with the
trumpets, when the people go to war.

" Compare tlie passage of the Red Sea (Ex. xiv.) with the passage of the
Jordan, (Josh, iii iv. ;) the appearance ofthe Prince of Jehovah's host (Josh.
V. 13, sqq.) with the appearance of Jehovah, (Ex, iii. 1, sqq,) Compare the
foUowincf : —

Josh, V, 12, " And the manna ceased
on the morrow after they had eaten of
the old corn of the land ; neither had
the children of Israel manna any
more ; but they did eat of the fruit of
the land of Canaan that year."

Ex. xvi 35. "And the children
of Israel did eat manna forty years,
until they came to a land inhabited :
they did eat manna until they came
unto the borders of the land of Ca
naan."

Compare, also, the accounts ofthe murder ofthe kings, in Josh, x, 17 — 43,
with the similar narratives in Num. xxxi. 8, sqq.
[The mythology of the book of Joshua, however, is peculiar in this re
spect ; namely, the ark of the covenant is tlte mirade-xoorker, and has the
same power as the rod of Moses in the previous books — a power which it
has, in some measure, in Judges also. See, e. g.. Josh. iii. 6, 11, 13, 17, iv. 9,
11, 18, vi. 7—13, &c.]
VOL. II. 22

170 BOOK OF .TOSHUA. [§ 166.
Etvmologies occur, as in the following cases : v. 9,
" This day have I rolled away' the reproach of ^Egypt
frora you. Therefore the name of the place is called
G'llgal'' (a rolling away) unto this day;" and vh. 26,
" And Joshua said, ' Why hast thou troubled usf 
Wherefore the name of that place is called the valley of
Achor" (troubling') unto this day."
[Besides, the book contains pompous accounts of
miracles wrought in favor of the sacred nation, and
relations of their victories ; sometimes it is rhetorical,
sometimes admonitory, like Deuteronomy. The author
frequently adds short explanatory passages ; for example,
(i. 2,) " 3Ioses my servant is dead; go over this Jordan,
thou and all this people, unto the land which I do give
them, to the children of Israel;" (iii. 13,) " Ark of Jeho
vah,  the Lord of all the earth," (verses 14 — 16, &c.)
These explanations sometimes seem to be the remarks
of a later commentator. He frequently makes repe
titions, either because he is confused, and relates events
both out of their proper connection and in it, or because
he wishes to add something to a previous account. Some
of the narratives are simple and fuh of beauty ; for
example, the journey of the spies to Jericho, their recep
tion and escape, (chap. h.,)''and the story of the Gibeon-

•^ [Dr. Palfrey (1. u. vol. ii. p. 145, 146) thinks the author's aim was rather
to collect local legends, than to write a history, and very truly says, many of
his narratives are connected with some local monument, like the heap of
stones at Gilgal, or in the Jordan, " The naming of Achor and Dan, (vii
'26, xix, 47,) the monuments at Ai, (viii 29,) Makkeda, (x, 27,) and Shechem,
(xxiv, 26,) the inheritance in the female line of Caleb, (xv, 19,) the altar on
the west of the Jordan, (chap, xxii,,) and the tombs at Gaash, Shechem,
and Gabaath, (xxiv, 30, 32, 33,) were facts and objects which tradition had
undertaken to explain;" and the writer simply collected the traditionary
legends.]

§ 167.] BOOK OF JOSHUA. 171
ites, (chap, ix.) There is jeonsiderable difference in the
style of the various sections, showhig they did not all
proceed from the same hand."]

§ 167.
HISTORICAL INACCURACY AND CONTRADICTIONS.
Joshua is the hero of all the theocratic conquests and
acquisitions, as Moses is the hero of the legislation.
Therefore, contrary to historical truth, the triumph over
the Canaanites, and the conquest of the entire land, are
ascribed to him, as in the following passages: —
Chap. xi. 16 — 23. " So Joshua took all that land, the hills, and
all the south country, and all the land of Goshen, and the valley, and
the plain, and the mountain of Israel, and the valley of the same ;
even from the Mount Halak, that goeth up to Seir, even unto Baal-
gad, in the valley of Lebanon, under Mount Hermon : and all their
kings he took, and smote them, and slew them. Joshua made war a
long time with all those kings. There was not a city that made
peace with the children of Israel, save the Hivites, the inhabitants of
Gibeon : all other they took in battle. For it was of the Lord to
harden their hearts, that they should come against Israel in battle,
that he might destroy them utterly, and that they might have no
favor, but that he might destroy them, as the Lord commanded
Moses. " And at that time came Joshua, and cut off the Anakims from the
mountains, from Hebron, from Debir, from Anab, and from all the
mountains of Judah, and from all the mountains of Israel: Joshua
destroyed them utterly loith their cities. There was none of the
Anakims left in the land of the children of Israel : only in Gaza, in
Gath, and in Ashdod, there remained. So Joshua took the whole
land, according to all that the Lord said unto Moses, and Joshua
gave it for an inheritance unto Israel according to their division by
their tribes. And the land rested from war."
" [See, e. g., chap, vi, and vii. Maurer, Einleit. § 3.]

172

BOOK OF JOSHUA.

[§ 161

Chap. xii. 7, 8. " And these are the kings of the country which
Joshua and the children of Israel smote on this side Jordan on the
west, from Baal-gad in the valley of Lebanon, even unto the Mount
Halak that goeth up to Seir ; which Joshua gave unto the tribes of
Israel for a possession according to their divisions ; in the mountains,
and in the valleys, and in the plains, and in the springs, and in the
wilderness, and in the south country ; the Hittites, the Amorites, and
the Canaanites, the Perizzites, the Hivites, and the Jebusites," &c.
But in this the book contradicts itself; for in xiii. 1,
sqq., it is said, " Now Joshua was old and stricken in
years, and Jehovah said unto him, ' Thou art old and
stricken in years, and there remaineth yet vei'y much land
to be possessed.^" Then fohows a list of the countries
still in the hands of the Canaanites.
Again, in xxih. 4, Joshua says, " I have divided unto
you by lot these nations that remain,  and Jeho
vah, your God, shah expel them for you." The contra
diction is,striking between the following passages : —

Chap. X. 40. " So Joshua
smote all the country of the hills,
and of the south, and of the
vale, and of the springs, and all
their kings : he left none re
maining, but utterly destroyed all
that breathed, as the Lord God
of Israel commanded."
Chap. xi. 16, 17. " So Joshua
took all that land, the hilfs, and all
the south country, and all the land
of Goshen, and the valley, and the
plain, and the mountain of Israel,
and the valley of the same ; from
the Mount Halak, that goeth up
to Seir, even unto Baal-gad, in the
valley of Lebanon, under Mount

Chap. xiii. 2—6.° " This is the
land that yet remaineth : all the
borders of the Philistines, and all
Geshuri, from Sihor, which is be
fore jEgypt, even unto the borders
of Ekron northward, which is
counted to the Canaanite : five
lords of the Philistines ; the Ga-
zathites, and the Ashdothithes,
the Eshkalonites, the Gittites, and
the Ekronites; also the Avites :
from the south, all the land of the
Canaanites, and Mearah that is
beside the Sidonians, unto Aphek,
to the borders of the Amorites :
and the land of the Giblites, and
all Lebanon toward the sunrisino-,

Especially verse 4.

§ 167.]

BOOK OF JOSHUA.

173

Hermon: and all their kings he
took, and smote them, and slew
them."

from Baal-gad, under Mount Her
mon, unto the entering into Ha
math, all the inhabitants of the
hill-country, from Lebanon unto
Misrephoth-maim, and all the Si
donians : them will I drive out
from before the children of Israel :
only divide thou it by lot unto the
Israelites for an inheritance, as I
have commanded thee."

In reference to single conquests, it contains the most
striking contradictions and inaccuracies.
1. Conquest of Hebron.
Chap. X. 36, 37. " And Joshua went up from Eglon, and all Israel
with him, unto Hebron ; and they fought against it : and they took
it, and smote it with the edge ofthe sword, and the king thereof, and
all the cities thereof, and all the souls that were therein ; he left none
remaining, (according to all that he had done to Eglon,) but destroyed
it utterly, and all the souls that were therein."
Here the destruction of the city, the king, and the in
habitants, is declared to be total. But in the next chap
ter, Joshua conquers Hebron at another date."
Chap. xi. 21. " And at that time came Joshua, and cut oflF the
Anakims from the mountains; from Hebron, from Debir, from Anab,
and from all the mountains of Judah, and from all the mountains of
Israel : Joshua destroyed them utterly, with their cities."
Nor is this all ; for, sthl later, it remains unconquered,
and Caleb, an old man, boasts that he is still strong for
war, and says to Joshua, —

"¦ [This statement may refer to a previous conquest But it does not affect
the general assertion in the tex^]

174 BOOK OF JOSHUA. [§ 167.
Chap. xiv. 12, 13. " Now therefore give me this mountain, [He
bron,] whereofthe Lord spake in that day; for thou heardest, in that
day, how the Anakims were there, and that the cities were great and
fenced : if so be the Lord will be with me, then I shall be able to
drive them out, as the Lord said. And Joshua blessed him, and gave
unto Caleb, the son of Jephunneh, Hebron for an inheritance."
Still further, at a subsequent date, Caleb drives out
the three Anakim, Sheshai, Ahiman, and Talmai, from
Hebron. But, again, it is said in Judg. i. 9 — 11, that,
after the death of Joshua, the children of Judah went up
to Hebron, fought the Canaanites who dwelt there, and
slew the same three Anakim — Sheshai, Ahiman, and
Talmai — whom Caleb had killed before."

2, Conquest or Debir.
Chap. X. 38, 39. " And Joshua returned, and all Israel with him,
to Debir ; and fought against it : and he took it, and the king there
of, and all the cities thereof, and they smote them with the edge ofthe
sword, and utterly destroyed all the souls that were therein ; he left
none remaining : as he had done to Hebron, so he did to Debir, and
to the king thereof; as he had done also to Libnah, and to her
king." The same event is related above, in xi. 21 ; and after
the conquest of Hebron, Caleb does what is above related.
Chap. XV. 15 — 17, " And he went up thence to the inhabitants
of Debir, and the name of Debir before was Kirjath-sepher 
" And Caleb said, 'He that smiteth Kirjath-sepher, and taketh it,
to him will I give Achsah my daughter to wife.' And Othniel the son
of Kenaz, the brother of Caleb, took it : and he gave him Achsah his
daughter to wife."
" Konig (Alt. Test Studien, vol. i p. 22) thinks two conquests of Hebron
are spoken of. Stahelin, who reviews Konig in Stud, und Krit for 1837,
p, 261, thinks the author generalized one, and referred the other to a special
occasion, ( ? )

§ 167.] BOOK OF JOSHUA. 17

o

After the death of Joshua, the same event is said to
take place ; and it is described in almost the same words,
in Judg. i. 11—13.
3. Conquest of the North, South, and West Part of
Canaan.
Chap. X. 40—42. " So Joshua smote all the country of the hills,
and of the south, and of the vale, and of the springs, and all their
kings: he left none remaining, but utterly destroyed all that
hi-eathed, as the Lord God of Israel commanded. And Joshua
smote them from Kadesh-barnea even unto Gaza, and all the coun
try of Goshen even unto Gibeon. And all these kings, and their
land, did Joshua take at one time ; because the Lord God of Israel
fought for Israel."
In xi. 8, he conquers the north part of the land, and
"left none remaining; " and in verse 16, sqq., it is related
again that he conquered (or had conquered) the south
country and the whole land, " the valley, the plain, the
mountain of Israel, and the valley of the same," and the
entire country, from its northern to its most southern
hmit. But, in xiii. 2 — 6, this very tract of country is
mainly in the hands of the old possessors.
Chap. xiii. 2 — 6. " This is the land that yet remaineth : all the
borders ofthe Philistines, and all Geshuri, from Sihor, which is before
^^gypt, even unto the borders of Ekron northward, which is counted
to the Canaanite : five lords of the Philistines ; the Gazathites, and
the Ashdothites, the Eshkalonites, the Gittites, and the Ekronites ;
also the Avites : from the south all the land of the Canaanites, and
Mearah that is beside the Sidonians, unto Aphek to the borders of
the Amorites: and the land of the Giblites, and all Lebanon toward
the sunrising, from Baal-gad under Mount Hermon unto the entering
into Hamath. All the inhabitants of the hill-country from Lebanon
unto Misrephoth-maim, and all the Sidonians, them will I drive out
from before the children of Israel : only divide thou it by lot unto the
Israelites for an inheritance, as I have commanded thee." °
* Compare, also, xi. 10, sq., and Judg. iv. 2, sqq.

176 BOOK OF JOSHUA. [§ 167.
4. The Conquest of several Kings.
Chap. xii. 12, sq. In the catalogue of the kings con
quered by Joshua, we find it related that the king of
Gezer was overcome. But, in Judg. i. 29, it appears
Gezer had never been conquered — " Neither did Ephra
im drive out the Canaanites that dwelt in Gezer," &c.
Verse 16, he conquers the king of Beth-el. But,
Judg. i. 22, sqq., after the death of Joshua, the chhdren
of Joseph attacked Beth-el, gained entrance through
the treachery of one of its citizens, and " smote the city
with the edge of the sword."
In verses 21 and 23, it is said the king of Taanach,
and the king of Dor, were among the conquered mon-
archs, whose territories were taken possession of by the
Hebrews. But in Judg. i. 27, after the death of Joshua,
it appears the Israelites had not conquered " Taanach
and her towns, nor the inhabitants of Dor and her
towns ; " for the " Canaanites would dwell in that
land."" In XV. 63, it is said, —
" As for the Jebusites, the inhabitants of Jerusalem, the children
of Judah could not drive them out ; but the Jebusites dwell with the
children of Judah at Jerusalem unto this day."
In Judg. i. 8, we read, —
" Now the children of Judah had fought against Jerusalem, and
had taken it, and smitten it with the edge of the sword, and set the
city on fire."
Here is a contradiction between the two, but they con
tradict both one another and themselves, in mentioning
this same place ; for in Josh, xviii. 28, it is said, Jebusi,
— — " ' ' ' ' - ...I- — . ¦ I I, , — _.,
" [See, however, Roaen-mulhr^ in loc., and Gesenius^ sub voce i^"^ .]

§ 167. J BOOK OF JOSHUA. 177
that is, Jerusalem, is one of the twenty-six cities of
Benjamin ; and, in Judg. i. 21, it is said the chhdren of
Benjamin did not drive out the Jebusites, but dwelt
with them."
The uncertainty of the book becomes very striking
when we compare xii. 14 — where the king of Hormah is
reckoned among the kings Joshua had conquered — with
Num. xxi, 3 — where Moses conquers the same place, and
calls it Hormah, (Destruction,) — and with Judg. i. 17,
in which a third account of its conquest is given: " And
Judah went up with Simeon his brother, and they slew
the Canaanites that inhabited Zephath, and utterly de
stroyed it; and the name of the city was caWeA Hormah." ''
The account of the destruction of Jericho is exagger
ated, vi. 24; for it appears again, Judg. i. 16 — "And
the chhdren of the Kenite  went up from the city
of palm-trees," that is, Jericho, In ih. 13, Eglon con
quers it from the Israelites, and in 2 Sam. x. 6, it is an
inhabited city.
The same may be said of the destruction of Ai, (vhi.
28 ; compare Gen. xh. 8.) It is stih inhabited in Isa.
X. 28, Ezra h. 28, and Neh. vii. 32.'
In a similar manner the division of the whole land is
ascribed to Joshua : —
Chap. xi. 23. " So Joshua took the whole land,  and gave
it for an inheritance unto Israel." ^ Chap, xiv. 1, " These are the
countries which the children of Israel inherited in the land of Ca
naan, which Eleazar  distributed unto them.''
» [Here, however, it is possible there is no contradiction between them ;
for the Jebusites and children of Benjamin may have inhabited the city in
common, while it was called one of the cities of the latter.]
' [It has been said there were three places by this narae ; but it may be
asked, How is this fact known ?]
' [But it may have been rebuilt in the interval.]
^ See xii 7, and xiii 7, sqq^ xix. 51.
VOL. II. 23

178 BOOK OF JOSHUA. [§ 167.
Chap. xxi. 43, 44. " And the Lord gave unto Israel all the land
which he sware to give unto their fathers : and they possessed it, and
dwelt therein. And the Lord gave them rest round about, according
to all that he sware unto their fathers : and there stood not a man of
all their enemies before them ; the Lord delivered all their enemies
into their hand."
In these accounts some anachronisms naturally occur.
Thus, in xvi. 2, Luz is mentioned as one of the bounda
ries of the tribe of Joseph ; but in Judg. i. 26, it appears
Luz was not buht tih after the death of Joshua."
During the life of Joshua, the chhdren of Dan were
straitened in their territory : —
Chap. xix. 47. " The children of Dan went up to fight against
Leshem, and took it, and smote it with the edge of the sword, and
possessed it, and dwelt therein, and called Leshem Dan, after the
name of Dan their father. This is the inheritance of the tribe of
the children of Dan according to their families, these cities with
their villages.
In Judg. xvih. 27 — 29, it seems this did not take
place till after the time of Samson : -
"In those days the tribe of the Danites sought them an inherit
ance to dwell in, for unto that day inheritance had not fallen unto
them among the tribes of Israel,  and they came unto Laish,*
unto a people that were at quiet and secure: and they smote them
with the edge of the sword, and burnt the city with fire. And there
was no deliverer, because it was far from Zidon, and they had no
business with any man ; and it was in the valley that lieth by Beth-
rehob. And they built a city, and dwelt therein. And they called
the name of the city Dan, after the name of Dan their father, who
was born unto Israel : howbeit the name of the city was Laish
at the first."
In xviii. 25, Beeroth is enumerated among the cities
of Benjamin ; but in 2 Sam. iv. this fact does not seem
» It is entirely arbitrary in Eichhorn (§ 447, p. 374) and Bertholdt (856)
to say this is not the same Luz mentioned in Judges, See Maurer, in loc.
' [Laiih is the same as Leshem 1

§ 167.]

BOOK OF JOSHUA.

179

to be well known, and the writer mentions it as some
thing new. " For Beeroth also was reckoned to Benja
min." [Chap. xxi. 13 — 19, Hebron and Debir are num
bered among the cities of the Levites, the sons of Aaron.
But in xiv. 11, sqq., xv. 14, sqq., they belong to Caleb.
Besides, if Hebron were a Levitical city, it is difficult
to conceive how it could be made the capital of the
kingdom, as it seems it was in the time of David.
2 Sam. h. 1—5.]
In order to have all the theocratical statistics put
together, not only is the division of the land to the east
of the Jordan — which was made in Num. xxxii. — re
peated in detah, (xiii.,) but the designation of the cities
of refuge in that region, which had been made by
Moses, is ascribed to Joshua : —

Deut iv. 41—43. " Then Mo
ses severed three cities on this
side Jordan, toward the sun
rising ; Bezer in the wilderness,
in the plain country, of the Reu-
benites ; and Ramoth in Gilead,
ofthe Gadites; and Golan in Ba
shan, ofthe Manassites."

Josh. XX. 8. " And on the
other side Jordan, by Jericho
eastward, they assigned Bezer in
the wilderness upon the plain out
ofthe tribe of Reuben, and Ra
moth in Gilead out ofthe tribe of
Gad, and Golan in Bashan out of
the tribe of Manasseh."

[To the other historical inaccuracies, the fohowing
may be added : It seems improbable that so large a
body of human beings as the Israelites could find sub
sistence in this land, while so many of the former
inhabitants remained, and whhe the whole country was
disturbed by war. Taking the calculation of Rosen-
miiher," the Jewish territory could not exceed 11,625
square miles. Admitting the Hebrews were 2,600,000
in number, there would be a Hebrew population of a

' [Altei-thumskunde, vol. ii. p. 85, sqq.]

180 BOOK OF JOSHUA. [§ 168.
little more than 215 to each square mhe, or a little
more than one Hebrew to every three acres of land.
The country was, no doubt, very ferthe ; but it is
scarcely probable, even in this ferthe spot, and in a
climate where little is required to support nature, that
so dense a population could be sustained whhe the
original population — perhaps equal in numbers — was
sthl there, and the land devastated, in some measure,
by a war of extermination ; and yet, from Judg. xvih.,
it would appear the Danites continued to live a nomadic
life in the midst of this dense population.]"
§ 168.
DIFFERENT FRAGMENTS OF THIS BOOK.
The above contradictions may be, in part, explained
by the fact that here, as in the first four books of the
Pentateuch, we find fragments of the document " Elo
him," and also Jehovistic or Deuteronomical fragments.'
The Elohistic document included the division of the
land in its history of the theocracy. The following
examination will show the existence of these two
documents : —

document "ELOHIM."

DEUTERONOMICAL OR JEHOVISTIC
DOOaMENTS.
The first part of the book (i —
xii.) is, for the most part, Deu
teronomical. This appears, in
part, from the connection of the
narrative ; from its affinity with

" [See Rosenmiiller, Alterthumskunde, vol. ii. p. 85, sqq. Michaelis, Laws
of Moses, vol. i ch. ii. art. 26, 27, p. 98, sqq.]
' See Stahelin, Stud, und Krit. 1835, p. 472, 1838, p. 270, and in the
manuscript used by De Wette.

§ 168.]

BOOK OF JOSHUA.

181

DOCUMENT "ELOHIM."

Chap, iv. 9, The twelve stones
set up in Jordan for a memorial.
This is, perhaps, Elohistic. The
supposition accounts for its not
agreeing with verse 8, which puts
the monument on the bank of the
river. Maurer thinks it an inter
polation from a marginal gloss."
Chap, V, 2 — 12, is, in part,
Elohistic, as might be inferred
from the mention of circumcis-

DEUTERONOMlCAL DOCUMENTS.
the Jehovistic and Deuteronomi
cal passages; and on account
of the Jehovistico-Deuteronoin ical
character of the style and man
ner.' Chap. viii. 30 — 35, relates that
Joshua erected an altar on Mount
Ebal ; wrote the Law of Moses
on the stones of it ; arranged the
nation, half on Ebal, half on
Gerizim ; and then read all the
words of the Law, the blessings
and the cursings. This obvious
ly refers to the command, Deut.
xxvii. 2, sqq. But the passage
interrupts the course of the nar-

" [I cannot entirely agree with the author in this division of the documents.
I should put iv, 1 — 8, 20 — 22, and 23, 24, in the Elohistic document, though
they are now out of their place. With this arrangement the Elohist speaks of
the monument of twelve stones at Gilgal ; the Jehovist, of that in the bed of
Jordan. Then the repetition, in iv, 2, of the command in iii, 12 — "Take
you twelve men out ofthe tribes of Israel" — is readily explained.
1 would thus connect the Jehovistic fragments: iii 1 — 17, unites with iv.
9 — 19, which connects with vi 1, sqq. Chap. v. seems to disturb the connec
tion between iv. and vi. The fragments of which it is composed may be
thus disposed of: Chap. v. I — 7, is evidently Jehovistic, and agrees with
ii, 11, &c., in the description of cowardice; and has, besides, the common
marks, mentioned above in the note. Chap, v, 8 — 12, is Elohistic, I incline
to the opinion that v, 13 — 15, is from a source neither Elohistic nor Jehovistic,
but different from both. The mythology of these verses is peculiar, and
does not recur in the O, T, It seems a very poor imitation of the appear
ance of Jehovah in the bush, (Ex, iii, 1, sqq.) Verse 15 is a verbal imitation
of iii. 5. But in Joshua this celestial appearance produces no result, except
that Joshua took off his shoes. It seems scarce possible this story could have
been from the same source as Ex. iii, 1, sqq,]
' For example. Josh, i, 1—9, is similar to Deut. xxxi, 1 — 8 ; verse 3, like
xi 24 ; verse 5 — 7, 9, hke Deut, xxxi 6—8, 23 ; verse 15, like Deut iii 20 ;
ii 11, like Deut, iv, 39; iii, 5, like Ex, xix, 10, and Num, xvi, 30; verses 13,
16, like Ex. xv. 8; iv. 6, 21, like Ex. xiii. 14; v. 13, like Num. xxii 23;
verse 15, like Levit. iii 5, [?]

182

BOOK OF JOSHUA.

[§ 168.

DOCUMENT "ELOHIM."
ion ; but verse 6, which mentions
milk and honey, is Jehovistic.
Verse 10 — 12 are decidedly Elo
histic. Verse 11, in that self
same day, is like Ex. xvi. 35.
Chap. viii. 12, 13, the ambus
cade at Ai, is, perhaps, Elohistic,
to judge from its contradiction
with 3 — 11. Maurer thinks it an
interpolation, like iv. 9.
Chap. xi. 21, 22, does not re
peat the narrative, as x. 36, sqq.,
and has probably come from
some other source.
Chap. xii. 9 — 24. Maurer and
others consider this passage as
the work of some other hand."

DEUTERONOMICAL DOCUMENTS.
rative, according to which Joshua
had not yet reached Gerizim.''
Chap. ix. 23, 27. Servants for
the altar of Jehovah are men
tioned, as in Deut. xii. 11, xxix.
11. Compare, also, xii. 5, dtc.
Chap. x. 8. The phrase, Fear
them not, for I have delivered
them into thy hand, is like Num.
xxi. 34. Verses 14, 42, the
phrase, Jehovah fought for Isror
el, is like Deut. iii. 22. Verse 21,
to sharpen his tongue,'' is like
Ex. xi. 7.
Chap. xi. 20. To harden the
heart,^ like Ex. ix. 12, and other
places. There are other Jehovistic
peculiarities of language, which,
for the most part, are often re
peated. Judges ; i. 10, iii. 2.
Strong hand ; iv. 24. To give be
fore the face ; x. 12. A posses
sion ;' i. 15, xii. 6, 7, as in Deut. ii.
5, 9, 12, 19, 20. The brave men ;f
i. 14, iv. 12, as Ex. xiii. 18. Not
let remain ;^ viii. 22, x. 28, 30, 33,
37, 39, 40, xi. 8, 11, as in Num.
xxxi. 35, Deut. iii. 20, and else
where. To keep to do ; i. 7, 8.
House of Jehovah ; vi. 2, ix. 23.
The priests the Levites ; iii. 3,

° [This also is, perhaps, more safely to be referred to a source different
from the Elohistic or Jehovistic]
' See Meyer, on the book of Joshua, in Bertholdt's Journal, p. 353, sqq. ;
Maurer, in loc. ; and Konig, 1. c. vol. i p. 29, sq.
' ITOb 2in, '' 2b i?m. "niB'11, ¦'' ti'ioftn .
¦i.'i^-rn - sb , &c.

§ 168.]

BOOK OF JOSHUA.

183

DOCUMENT "ELOHIM."

Chap. xiii. 15—32.'*

Chap. xiv. 1 — 5. Verse 1 , heads
of the fathers occurs, as Ex. vi.
14 ; verse 2 refers to Num. xxvi.

DEUTERONOMICAL DOCUMENTS.
viii. 33. But the sons of Aaron
the priests occurs, xxi. 19.
Other Jehovistic peculiarities
are, Joshua is the servant of Mo
ses; i. 1. Euphrates is the limit
of the land; i. 4. Joshua is the
angel of Jehovah; v. 13, 14,
vi. 2. The Canaanites and their
expulsion; iii 10, ix. 1,24, xi 3,
xii 8. An old sang ; x. 13, 14.
Giants ; xii. 4, as in Deut. iii. 11.
Jehovistic allusions to the Amo
rites, Sihon, and Og ; ii. 10, ix.
10. In some things it differs from
the [former] Jehovistic document,
and has peculiarities of its own ;
for example, Lord of all the
ear^A;' iii 11, 13. Treasure of
the house of Jehovah ; vi. 19, 24.
The descriptions of cowardice,
our hearts melted; ii. 11, v. 1, and
vii. 5.
Chap. xiii. 1 — 14. This ap
pears to be Jehovistic, for verse
12 connects with xii. 4, and verse
14, (sacrifices  and the Le
vites' inheritance) is like Deut.
xviii. 1. Verse 33 is like verse 14.
Chap, xiv, 6 — 15. Verses 7, 8,
14, returned word;' entirely fol
lowed after, '^ as in Num. xiii, 26,

•* Here is ntsO , trihe, instead ofUSlB , tlwugh not in verse 29 ; according
to their families, BmnS1D)3b , verses 15, 23, 24, 28, 31. Verses 21, 22, the
princes of Midian, and Balaam, are mentioned as slain by the Israelites, as in
Num. xxxi. 8 ; but yet verSe 16 is like xii 9, and xiii. 9.
» 2isn is 111*, ' 121 2"'BrT. -^ 'iim »i>3.

184

BOOK OF JOSHUA.

[§ 168.

DOCUMENT "ELOHIM."
55 ; verse 4, to Gen, xlviii, and
Num, xxxv. 1—10.°

Chap. XV. 1—12, 20—62. The
same manner and style.

Chap, xvi, 1— xvii, 13. The
same style and manner. Chap,
xvi, 10, is the same as Judg, i,
29, and therefore Maurer thinks
it was derived from it. So xvii,
12, sq., is the same as Judg. i. 27,

Chap, xviii, 11 — xix, 51, Here
occur formulas of conclusion —
This is the inheritance; xviii,
20, 28, xix. 16, 23, as in Levit.
But xix. 47, contains an extract
from Judg. xviii.
Chap. XX. xxi. 1 — 43, like
Num, xxxv. 9, sq., and 18, sqq.;
the families of the Levites, as in

DEUTERONOMICAL DOCUMENTS.
xiv. 24, Deut. i. 36. On account
of the contradiction between it
and xi. 21, 22, and x. 36, 37,'
Maurer derives it from another
source. Herwerden thinks here
is a different usage in the lan
guage. But this is doubtful.
Chap. XV. 13 — 19, contradicts
the other part, but it agrees with
Judg. i. 10, sqq., 20, from which
cause Maurer thinks it was
derived from the document in
Judges. Chap, xvii, 14 — 18, is doubtful.
Compare it with xv. 13 — 19.

Chap, xviii. 1 — 10. Here,
again, (verses 2, 4,) we have Je
hovistic phrases :' a book, verse 9,
as in Ex. xvii. 14, Deut. xxix.
19 ; classes, or divisions,'' verse
10, as in xi, 23,

* '(''Sp , a possession, as in Gen. xxxiv. 23, and Levit xxii 11.
' [See above, § 167, 1, Conquest of Hebron.]

§ 168.]

BOOK OF JOSHUA.

185

DEUTERONOMICAL DOCUMENT.S.

Verses 44 and 45 are Jeho
vistic.

DOCUMENT " ELOHIM."
Num. iii. 4. Chap, xxi. 19, we
have thepriests the sons of Aaron ;
verse 25, the half-shekel,'^ as in
Ex. xxx, 13, 15, Num. xxxi. 30,
42, 47, Maurer and others find
an ancient document in xv, and
following.

Chap, xxii, — xxiv. are both Elohistic and Jehovistic ; ' xxiv. 1 — 26,
is Jehovistic ; verse 1 is like xxiii. 1 ; verses 5^17 refer to the Jeho
vistic account of the plagues in JEgypt ; verses 6,7, to the account
of the passage of the Red Sea, in Ex. xiv. xv. ; verses 9, 10, to the
story of Balaam, (Num. xxii. sqq.;) verse 11, to the Canaanites ;
verse 12, to the hornets, (Ex. xxxiii. 28;) verse 13, cities which they
did not build, as in Deut. vi. 10, 11 ; verse 19, a, jealous God, as iu
Ex. xxiii. 21 ; verse 25, a statute and ordinance, as in Ex. xxiv. 18,
and XV. 25 ; verses 29 — 33 are Elohistic ; perhaps, also, verse 28,
(see § 174;) verse 29, a statement of Joshua's age; verse 30, men
tioning Timnath-serah, as in xix. 50; verse 32, Jacob's burial-place,
refers to Gen, xxiii. 19, and I. 24, 25, According to Maurer, verses
29 — 31 are derived from Judg, ii, 6 — 9, But verse 28 might as well
come from the same source, and 31 is probably Jehovistic.
In opposition to the above view. Van Herwerden, following, for
the most part, peculiarities of the language, divides the book of
Joshua into ten separate documents. But Konig maintains the
unity of the book.

' TN , with the future, occurs here, as in viii 30, x. 12 : verse 5, the com
mand to love Jehovah, &c., is like Deut xi 22, xxx, 20 ; but verse 14, the
Elohistic Prince, m^tOi, and ri1l:?3 , tribes, occur; verses, 9, 19, tnxa, to take
possession, as in Gen. xxxiv. 10, xlvii 27 : verse 27, the untness, is like Gen-
xxxi. 48. The style is often pretty diffuse. Chap, xxiii is Jehovistic : verse
1, like xiii. I, represents Joshua as old. Judges and elders occurs verse 2;
3 and 10, Jehovah fights for them, as in x. 14, 42 ; a book of the Law, verse
6, as in i 8 ; 11, take good heed, U3D3b ItilS'n , as in Deut iv. 15 ; verses
12, 13, like Ex, xxxiv, 16, xxiii 34 [.'], Num. xxxiii. 55, forbid marriage
with the Canaanites ; verses 13, 1.5, mention the good land, as Deut often
does ; verse 14, like xxi. 45, says all the blessings came to pass. The de
nunciation, verse 16, is like Deut xi. 17.
VOL. II. 24

186 BOOK OF JOSHUA. [§169
§ 169.
DATE OF THE COMPOSITION OF THE BOOK.
We can by no means suppose the whole book is the
work of a contemporary author, as Konig has recently
maintained. The communicative style of speaking, in
V. 1, where the author uses the first person, — " Unth
we had passed over," — proves nothing. The same form
occurs, Ps. Ixvi. 6, and the Psalmist speaks as if he
and his contemporaries had passed through the Red Sea
— " There did we rejoice in him." The book nowhere
contains separate contemporary documents."
According to what has been said above,' the passages
" [It is sometimes said (e. g. by Rosenmidler) that these accounts of the
boundaries ofthe separate tribes must be old, and must have been written
at the time of the division, for they could not be retained in the memory
ofthe people. But after the lines of each tribe were determinately settled,
by actual possession, it would not be difficult for a writer, after the times of
David or Josiah, to write down the boundaries of each tribe ; and it seems
most probable that the narrative originated in this manner. The real and
the imaginary are not often separated with great care in Oriental histories,
and it would not be unnatural for a Hebrew writer, in a later time, to refer
the exact division of the land to the mjrthological hero Joshua, ivho con
ducted the nation into the territory, and conquered it for them.
The catalogues in the second part (xiii,, sqq.) cannot be contemporary, as
it appears from the later names of places, Beeroth, Luz, Dan, &c,, and from
the phrase until this day. Perhaps the author of the Jehovistic fragments
had before hira not only popular legends and oral or written traditions, but
also fragments of popular songs and ballads, the substance of which he
vvTotc down in historical prose, thus sometimes taking a figure for a fact
In one instance he refers to a written volume of songs or ballads — "Be
hold, it is written in the book of Jasher," In this way it is possible the
accounts of tiie passage of the Jordan, the destruction of Jericho, the
appearance of a divine being, and many others, originated. Sometimes,
however, it is evident the original author uses the documents at present
contained in the book of Judges ; e. g. compare Josh, xvi 10, with Judg, i.
20 ; xviii. 12, with i 27 ; xix. 47, with xvii ; xxiv, 28—31, with ii, 6—9.]
» U.58.

§ 169.]

BOOK OF JOSHUA. 187

of the document "Elohim" belong to Saul's time.
Some passages refer to that period.
Thus, xvi. 10, — "And they drave out the Canaanites
that dwelt in Gezer, but the Canaanites dweU among
the Ephraimkes unth this day," (Judg. i. 29,)— refers to
1 Kings ix. 16, where Pharaoh conquers the Canaanites
who dwelt in Gezer up to that time, and gives the place
to Solomon as a portion for his daughter. In Josh.
xvih. 25, Beeroth is mentioned among the cities of Ben
jamin; and, 2 Sam. iv. 2, it is said that "Beeroth was
reckoned to Benjamin."
If the other parts of the book proceeded from the Je
hovistic author in the first four books of the Pentateuch,
then their age is already determined, (§ 169.) The book
of Jasher (mentioned x. 13) points to the time of David ;
for his lamentation over Saul and Jonathan is contained
in it, (2 Sam. i. 18.)" The sixty cities of Jair, in Ba
shan, (xih. 30,) point to Solomon's time, (1 Kings iv.
13,) though Judg. X. 4, seems to conflict with this.
It is still a matter of doubt whether the names Jeru
salem (x. 1) and mountain of Israel (xi. 16, 21) first
originated in David's time.* It is doubtful, also, whether
the statement respecting the inhabitants of Jerusalem,
(XV. 63,) — " As for the Jebusites, the inhabitants of Jeru
salem, the children of Judah could not drive them out,
but the Jebusites dweh with the children of Judah unto
this day," — extends after the time of David's conquest.'
If the book of Deuteronomy was written later than
° [Dr. Palfrey (1. c, vol, ii p, 159, note) thinks the book of Jasher had an
earlier date, but, as it was a collection of poems, " was likely to receive ac
cessions from time to time, while it would be quoted at its different stages
by the same name;" which, however, appears quite improbable,]
'' The gloss, xviii 28, is, perhaps, from a later hand. Comp. verse 16,
" Comp. 2 Sam. v. 6, xxiv. 16. Maurer, 1. c. On the opposite side,
Bertholdt, Stahelin, and others.

188 BOOK OF JOSHUA. [§ 169.
the first four books of the Pentateuch, then the book of
Joshua, in its present form, belongs to a time far more
recent. The curse, (vi. 26,) — " Cursed be the man
 that riseth up and buhdeth Jericho. He shall
lay the foundation thereof in his first-born, and in his
youngest son shall he set up the gates thereof," — refers
to Ahab's time, 923, 922, B. C. ; for, in 1 Kings xvi. 34,
it is said, in Ahab's time " did Hiel  buhd Jeri
cho ; he laid the foundation thereof in Abiram his first
born, and set up the gates thereof in his youngest son
Segub, according to the word of Jehovah  b\
Joshua the son of Nun."
But Hosea, about 785 B. C, — in h. 15, (14,) in the
mention of Achor, — seems to ahude to Josh. vh. 26.
[I can by no means find the allusion the author refers
to. In Josh. vii. 26, a certain spot is called Achor, on
account of an event alleged to have taken place there.
Hosea speaks of Achor. Now, if the place received
that name in the time of Joshua, or at any time subse
quent, and previous to the age of Hosea, the reference
is explained without the unnecessary hypothesis of sup
posing that Hosea was acquainted with this book. Be
sides, in Hos. ii. 15, I find an allusion to something not
contained in the book of Joshua — " She shall sing there
(at Achor) as in the days of her youth, and as in tlie day
when she came up out ofthe land of jEgypt." Now, we
do not read in Joshua that the nation sang for joy at
Achor ; it was rather a place of weeping. It seems
Hosea ahudes to some legend which has not come down
to us; but even if he refers to the story in Joshua, it
would not follow the book itself was in his hands, for
the story might be preserved either orally or in a written
form, as an explanation of the name of the place. To
me there is one mark which, more than all others, per-

§ 170.] BOOK OF JOSHUA. 189
haps, shows the late origin of the book ; that is, the
frequent mention of the "¦ Laiv of Moses," and the
'^ Book ofthe Law.'''' If what has been said above re
specting the origin and date of the Pentateuch in its
present form, may be relied ou as correct, then such
appeals to the Law Book of Moses could not have taken
place before the reformation under Josiah, about 624
B. C. How long after this date they were made, we
cannot teh. The Law is appealed to in Joshua, as in
the very late books, Ezra and Nehemiah. The refer
ence (vih. 31) to the " Law of Moses," which is con
tained in Deut. xxvh. 5, 6, could not have been written
unth after the time of Josiah, at the earliest." The
Levitical spirit of the book, and its entire character,
taken in connection with the historical circumstances,
might lead one to place it after the commencement of
the exhe.'] §170.
AUTHOR OF THE BOOK.
There are but few and feeble arguments to show the
book of Joshua was composed by an author who was
different from the Jehovist or the Deuteronomist, and
who imitated him."
Andrew Masius, Spinoza and Leclerc, Hasse and

" [The Babylonian mantle (1S3123 tlllN) seems to indicate a late date.
But we know too little of the early history of Babylon, and its traffic with
other states in remote antiquity, to infer at what time the inhabitants of Pales
tine became acquainted with the Babylonians. See Heeren, Researches,
&c. ; Oxford, 1833, vol. i p. 59, sqq.]
' [See the combinations of De Wette, in the fourth edition of this work.]
' These arguments are as follows, to prove the later character of the
language: DSms, for tDSriH; xxiii 15. iriis, for ^BS; xiv. 12, xxiii. 19.
(But see Lev. xv. 15, 24.) The numeral placed after a word ; xii. 94, sqq,, xv.

190 BOOK OF JOSHUA. [§ 170.
Maurer, date the book after the exile. Baba Bathra"
mentions Joshua as the author. This is also the opinion
of Konig. [The following are the opinions of some of
the Christian writers.
Athanasius ' says the book of Joshua, and those which
follow, thl the book of Ezra, were not written by the
men whose names they bear, and of whom they treat,
but bv prophets, who lived at various times. Theodoret'
thinks the whole book an extract from the book of
Jasher, and that the author, suspecting men would not
credit him when he spoke of the sun and moon standing
stih, referred to his authority ; " whence," he says, " it is
plain that some other person, [not Joshua,] of a later
date, wrote this, taking the occasion from another book."
Dr. Palfrey refers it to the time of Saul.
The opinion of De Wette, that the book was brought
into its present form by the Jehovist or Deuteronomist,
seems at variance with the fact that he appeals to the
Law of Moses, and even to passages in Deuteronomy,''
as to a weh-known and recognized authority. But this
difficulty may, perhaps, be avoided on the supposition
36, 59, xviii. 28, xix, 30, xxi, 32, (See Gesenius, Lehrgebaude, p, 695, sqq.)
But it occurs also in document " Elohim," Cp) , riches ; xxii 8, as in 2 Ch.
i II, sqq,, Eccl, v, 18, i'^affill, to be happy; i 7, 8, liDtill; xiv. 8, (Chal-
daism for IDtin.) (See, however, £tpaW, Gram. Krit p, 422,) The article as
a relative ; x, 24, rnsi &)) ; ix, 23, (But comp, 1 Kings ii 4, et al,, Jer, xxxii,
17, et al.) Hdvemik (1. c, p. 198) cites tiie abbreviation of the proverb, (x,
21,) as a sign of a later usage.
The following differ from the peculiarities of the Jehovist and Deuteron
omist: Lord of all tlte earth, flssn i"! inS; iii 11, 13. Treasure of tlie
house of Jehovah; vi, 24, Description of cowardice; ii. 11, v, 1. (Comp.
vii. 5.) The sacred lot ; vii 16, sqq. (See 1 Sam. x. 20, 21, xiv, 41, 42,)
« [Fol. xiv, c, 2.] ' [Synop. tom. ii, Opp, p, 73.]
' [Qusest xiv, in Jos. Opp. i. pt. i p, 202, See these and others in Carp
zov, p. 150.]
"^ [Comp. viii 31, with Deut. xxvii 5, 6.]

§ 171.] BOOK OF JOSHUA. 191
that the Jehovistic and Elohistic fragments originated
with the Jehovistic and Elohistic authors in the Penta
teuch, but were united together, and reduced to their
present form, by a corapher somewhat later, who made
archaeological explanations, omitted, altered, added, and
combined passages according to his own judgment. If
such a writer compiled the book of Joshua after Josiah's
reformation, and at a time when the Pentateuch was
acknowledged and well known, we can account for the
manner in which the Law of Moses is appealed to and
quoted, as well as for the abruptness of many passages,
and the repetitions, glosses, and omissions, which have
been noticed above.]"

§171.
THE SAMARITAN BOOK OF JOSHUA.
In the library at Leyden, there is an Arabic version,
written in Samaritan characters, of a Samaritan chron
icle, bearing the name of the book of Joshua, which
contains the history of Joshua, with the addition of the
last transactions during the life of Moses accidentally in
troduced in this connection. Sometimes it employs the
same expressions with the Hebrew book, though some
times with great departures from it, and with large ad
ditions, and continues the history down to the time of
Alexander Severus, though probably this is a more mod
ern continuation of it.
This book seems to have been composed by uniting
the contents of our book of Joshua with Samaritan
fables.

See vol. i. Appendix, I.

192 COOK OF JOSHUA. [§171.
The beginning of it (i. — xh.) is parallel with Num.
xxii. — xxxii., and xiii. — xxiv. with the book of Josh
ua ; then follows an account of an embassy, and the
magic of the Persian king, Shaubeck, and of Joshua's
war with him. After a short abstract of the Mosaic
Law, the book concludes with Joshua's last admonition
to the people, (Josh, xxiv.)
Hottinger" thus speaks of it : — " In the division of the
land, the district containing the loftiest mountain fell to
Joshua the son of Nun the king, and his associate
Caleb, the leader of all the tribes. He held it in com
mon with him, [Caleb.] And when each one went to
his own place, he distributed the Levites, each one into
that place which was assigned to him exclusively in the
distribution of the Avhole land,  so that they might
oversee the affairs of men, which relate to prayers, judg
ments, the rendering and giving of tithes, and the offering
of sacrifices. To each of the tribes he appointed chief
judges, who should relate all events to the pontiff, and
should inform him of ah that happened in their districts.
Then Joshua erected a fortress on the mountain, on the
left side of the blessed mount  Moreover he erect
ed a temple on the top of the blessed mount ; and in it a
sanctuary to the Lord, which, except himself, none but
the priests and the Levites ever saw  On that
day (Josh, x.) God showed them miracles against their
enemies ; so that, if any one wished to withdraw and
save himself by flight, fire fell upon and consumed him.
Also a certain phantom descended among them, so that
the very horses charged them, and chased them to death,
as long as they heard the voices of the sons of Israel.
The hours of the day were prolonged for them, as God

Smegma Orient p. 476, 512.

§ 1*72.] BOOK OF .JUDGES. 193
promised, so that, in this day alone, they gained as much
as would suffice for the space of an entire year."
Another recension of this history is found in the Sa
maritan chronicle of Abul Phetach."

CHAPTER III.
THE BOOK OF JUDGES.'
§172.
CONTENTS OF THE BOOK.
After some introductory notices, (chap, i.,) and a
denunciatory oracle, (ii. 1 — 5,) the book of Judges,
properly so called, begins, (h. 6 — xvi. 31,) and con
tains the history of the anarchy and apostasy which
ensued after the death of Joshua, and of the subjuga
tion of the people which was occasioned thereby, and
was connected with the divine displeasure.

" See Schnurrer, in Eichhorn's Rep. vol, ix, p, 54. See a summary of its
contents in Actis, Eruditt ; Lips, an. 1691, p, 167 ; and an essay by Schnur
rer, in Paulus, N, Rep, vol. i, p, 1 17, sqq. Reland, Diss, ii p. 314 ; 1706,
Hottinger, Exercit Antimorin, p, 105, sqq, Smeg, Or, p. 437, Hist Or, p.
40, 120, Disp. Lib. V. T. supposititiis. No. 1. Exeg. Handbuch A. T. vol
iii. p. 18, sqq.
' Bonfrerii, Serrarii, Jo. Clerici, Maurer, Comment. Jo. Drusii Annotatt in
Loca diff. Josh., Judg., et Sam. Rosenmiiller, Schol. above cited,
Vietorin. Strigelii Scholia in L. Judg, ; Lips. 1586.
Seb. Schmidt, Comment in Libr. Judg. above cited.
Exeget Handb. des A. T. 2 and 3 pt
Ziegler, Bemerkk. iiber d. B. d. Richt. im Geiste des Heldenalters, in
his Theoi Abhandl. vol. i p. 275, sqq. Studer, B. Richter; 1835.
Coleridge, Miscellaneous Dissertations arising from Judg. xvii. and xviii. ;
Lond. 1768, 8vo.
Paulus, Blicke in d. B. der Richt, theol. ex. Conservat vol. ii. p. 180, sqq.
Geddes, Holy Bible, &c. voi ii. Palfrey, 1. c. vol. ii.
VOL. II. 25

194 BOOK OF JUDGES. [§ 173
As often as the Israehtes turned from this anarchy
aud apostasy, they were delivered by heroes" divinely
inspired, who, so long as they hved and governed, pre
served the people from apostasy and subjection ; but,
after their death, the old game began anew. The author
has very clearly set forth this alternation of crime and
punishment, of repentance and restoration to favor,
according to a plan laid down in ii. 6 — 23, which
he has only interrupted by episodes, and by the history
of Samson, but which has, probably, been kept at the
expense of historical completeness.'
Chap. i. contains notices of the conquest of the land
after Joshua's death. A supplement (chap. xvii. — xxi.)
contains two narratives, introduced as proofs of the
anarchy and licentiousness which prevailed before the
regal government was established in Israel. To judge
from XX. 27, 28, the history in xix. xxi. belongs in the
time shortly after Joshua.' But the statement it con
tains is designed to explain the existence of idolatry at
Beth-el, where there was a private and ihegal sanctuary
without the ark of the covenant. Now, the existence
of such a sanctuary supposes that a long time had passed
since Joshua. §173.
CHARACTER OF THE NARRATIVE.
Although distinguished by miraculous and mythologi
cal features, the narrative not only bears the marks of a
° Q'i£)Ci!I5 , i. e. rulers, in war or peace, and in a peculiar sense judges, (iv.
5, 1 Sam. vii 15, sq.) De Wette, Archaol. § 28, See Gesenius, in verb,
* Archaol, § 27, sqq, Jahn, 1. c. § 33. Eichhorn, § 456. Since the judges
are from several tribes, and follow one another almost in geographical order,
Studer conjectures that the present is not the original plan. See § 174, below.
' See Josephus, Ant v. 2, 3, and Carpzov, 1. c. p. 189.

§ 173.] BOOK OF JUDGES. 196
genuine, inartificial, popular legend, but, in part, of a
true, historical tradition, and gives a lively picture of the
condition and morals of the people at that time. The
difference between the spirit of this book and that of
the book of Joshua is very evident.
There is but one passage which contains, obviously,
an etymological and symbolical myth, (ii. 1 — 5,)
where a place is named Bochim, [weeping,] because the
people wept. Chapters vi. and vii. are highly mytho
logical. The passage xvii. — xxi. is entirely free from
mythology. No narratives in the Old Testament are
more beautiful and true to nature than the story of
Gideon's achievements, in chap. vhi. ; of the adventures
of Abimelech, chap. ix. ; of Jephthah, chap, xi, ; and the
narratives in xvii. — xxi."
[It seems not to have been the design of the compiler
of this book to furnish a regular and continuous history
of the times from Joshua to Jephthah. He only selects
those periods and instances which are suitable to his
purpose, and serve to show that suffering follows sin,
and obedience to the law of Jehovah always secures
tranquillity and national happiness. He passes over
"• On a correct view of the legends relating to Samson, see Dietericli,
Zur Gesch. Simsons, pt 3, 1778, 1789. Justi, on Samson's strength, in Eich
horn. Rep. vol. vii. p, 78, sqq. Verm. Abhandlungen, vol. i p, 164, sqq.
Herder, Spirit of Hebrew Poetry, vol, ii, Paulus, 1. c. 199, sqq. [Dr.
Palfrey (1. c, vol. ii p. 194, sq.) says, the " character of Samson is but a wild
compound of the buffoon, the profligate, and the bravo. With a sort of childish
cunning, and such physical faculties as a fantastic invention has ascribed to
the ogre, he is without a common measure of capacity to provide for his
own protection," &c. It is amusing to read in Home, 1. c, (iv. 37,) " The
Vulpinaria, or feast of the foxes, celebrated by the Romans in the month of
April, (the time of the Jewish harvest, in which they let loose foxes with
torches fastened to their tails,) was derived from the story of Samson, which
was conveyed into Italy by the Phoenicians ; and to mention no more, in the
history of Samson and Delilali, we find the original of Nisus and his daugh
ters, who cut off their fatal hairs upon which the victory depended."]

196

BOOK OF JUDGES. [§ 173.

long periods in the briefest manner. Thus, in x. 1,
he says, "After Abimelech there arose  Tola ;
 he judged Israel twenty-and-three years, and
died ; " ih. 30, " And the land had rest fourscore
years ; " vhi. 28, " and the country was in quiet
ness forty years in the days of Gideon."" For this
reason, it is difficult to determine the chronology of the
book.' Portions of the book are prragmatic ; for example,
" The anger of Jehovah was hot against Israel," (h. 14,
15, 16, 18, 20 — 23.) The deliverers of the nation are
" [See, also, x. 3, xii 7—15, xv. 20, xvi, 31,]
' [The following table is taken from De Wette's Archaeology, §27: —
From Joshua till the time when the new race fell into idolatry, (Judg, i, ii,
Josephus, Ant vi, 5, 4,)  18 years.
Servitude under Cushan-rishathaim, (iii, 8,)  8 "
Deliverance by Othniel, and 40 years' rest, (iii 11,)  40 "
Servitude under the Moabites, (iii 14,)  18 "
Deliverance by Ehud, and 80 years' rest (iii 30,)  80 "
 Shamgar, (no date,) (iii 31,)  X, "
Twenty years' servitude under Jabin, (iv, 1, sq.,)  X.-(-20 "
Deliverance by Barak, and 40 years' rest, (v. 31,)  40 "
Oppression by Midianites, (vi 1,)  7 "
Rest under Gideon, (viii. 28,)  40 "
Decline ofthe Jews after Gideon's death, (viii 33 — 35,) . . X, "
Abimelech's reign, (ix, 22,)  3 '-
Tola, judge, (x, 2,)  23 «
Jair,  (x. 3,)  22 "
New decline and oppression ofthe Jews, (x. 6 — 9,)  X,-[-I8 "
Jephthah, (xii, 7,)  6 "
Ebzan, (xii. 9,)  7 "
Elon, (xii, 10,)  10 "
Abdon, (xii. 14,)  8
Oppression by the Philistines, (xiii, 1,)  40 "
Samson, judge, (xv, 20,)  ,20 "
In all, (without the 40 doubtful years, marked in numerals,) . . 428 "
But if the temple of Solomon was buUt 480 years after the departure fi-om
jEgypt as it is said, 1 Kings vi. 1, the above chronology must be wrong.
Rosenmiiller makes 410 years,]

§ 173.] BOOK OF JUDGES. 197
raised up by a special act of omnipotence, (hi. 9, 15,
iv. 6, 23, vi. 8—10, 11, sqq. et al.,) Jehovah is said
to deliver the people to their conquerors, (iv. 2, vi. 1.)
Less important actions, in the spirit of antiquity, are
referred directly to the Supreme Being, as in xih. 25 ;
ix. 23, " God sent an evil spirit between Abimelech
and the men of Shechem;" verse 56, "Thus God
repaid the wickedness of Abimelech." The story of
Gideon is mythical and pragmatic in a high degree.
But there are no marks of a theocratic, sthl less of a
Levitical, spirit in the first part of the book.
The mythology of this book is peculiar. In chap. ii.
1, sqq., an angel of Jehovah comes up from Ghgal to
Bochim to admonish the nation. But he speaks as if he
were Jehovah himself, and not simply his angel. " 1
made you go out of iEgypt," &c. ; " Ye have not obeyed
my voice," fee." Again, in vi. 11, sqq., an angel of
Jehovah appears to Gideon, sits under the terebinth in
Ophrah, and assures the doubtful son of Joash that
Jehovah is with him. But as he hesitates to believe the
assertion, the angel speaks as if he were Jehovah, —
"Have not /sent thee,'"' — and the narrative seems to
confound Jehovah and the angel, (verses 14, 16.)
Gideon prepares food for the angel, who causes it to
be spread on a rock, and touches it with his staff". Fire
comes out of the rock, consumes the food, and the angel
vanishes. Then Gideon suspects his visitor was celes
tial, and is frightened. But Jehovah himself bids him
fear not. The same night, Jehovah appears to him

" [Perhaps the original legend taught that Jehovah himself appeared, and
some redactor, thinking this too gross, ascribed the action to an angel of
Jehovah.]

198 BOOK OF JUDGES. [§ 173.
again, and afterwards Gideon consults him by a sort of
divination, (verse 36, sqq.) On another occasion, (xiii.
3,) an angel of Jehovah appears to the wife of Manoah,
and predicts the birth of Samson. Manoah, who sup
poses he was but a man, prayed that he might return.
The prayer was granted ; the visitant repeated his
instructions, refused to eat, or to tell his name, and
ascended in the smoke of a burnt-offering. Manoah
exclaimed, " We shall surely die, because we have seen
God." These appearances of divine beings differ
remarkably from those in Genesis. The ark appears
but once in the book, then in a gloss on the appendix,
(xx. 27.)
The story of Samson is very remarkable, and suggests
numerous historical parahels. Paulus thinks his feats of
strength are not incredible. He compares him with the
Rephaim, Anakim, and Goliath ; with David and his
heroes, who slew lions and bears single-handed ; with
Ajax, Diomed, Achihes, Hector, and Turnus — not to
mention the strong men of the Teutonic nations. But
their strength was only extraordinary, whhe that of
Samson is represented as miraculous. We are to com
pare him, not so much with Hercules and the demigods
of other nations, as with their mythological heroes, —
with the Argonauts and Theseus, who lived before
Homer's time ; while David and his heroes are to be
compared with the Ajax, and Hector, and Achihes, of
Homer."]

" See Paulus, 1. c, and De Lavaur, Conference de la Fable avec I'Histoire
Sainte, (cited by Clarke, Com. in loc) Justi, Bauer, De Wette, 4th ed., and
Palfrey, 1. c.

^ 1*74.] BOOK OF JUDGES. 199
§ 174.
COMPILATION OF THE BOOK.
The appendix (xvii.— xxi) is clearly distinguished
from the proper book of Judges by taking a different
point of view, and referring the sins of the land to the
want of a king, (xvh. 6, xvih. 1, xix. 1, xxi. 25,) by
Its want of mythology, but not by its style." It is a
later addition, but k does not contradict itself.
There is a contradiction between i. 18 and ih. 1 — 3.
In the former, it is said Judah took Gaza, Askelon, and
Ekron, with their coasts; but, in the latter, it is said the
people of these places were left — "Five lords of the
Philistines, all the Canaanites, and the Zidonians."
On this account, and because i. 27 — 36, seems, at
the least, superfluous, if ih. 3, was to be written, it
appears the first chapter could hardly have come from
the author of the book of Judges. It may have been
derived from some other source. Such is the opinion
of Eichhorn. Yet verse 16 agrees with iv. 11. Ber
tholdt and Studer think it is from a later hand. It is a
comphation which contradicts itself. Thus, (verse 8,)
it is said, the chhdren of Judah fought against Jerusa
lem, and took it, and smote it with the edge of the
sword, and set the city on fire; (verse 21,) "But the
children of Benjamin did not drive out the Jebusites that
inhabited Jerusalem, but the Jebusites dweh with the
children of Benjamin in Jerusalem unto this day."
Again, (verse 10,) " Judah conquered the Canaanites
who dwelt at Heshbon, and slew Sheshai, and Ahiman,

But see Eichhorn, § 457, and Bertholdt, p. 876, 886,

200 liOOK OF JUDGES. [§ 174.
and Talmai;" but, in verse 20, Caleb expels from He
bron these three Anakim.
The passage, h. 1 — 5, seems removed from its true
connection ; for the book of Joshua proper begins with
verse 6 ; however, it agrees with the idea of the book,
and probably originated with the same author.
The book of Judges proper (ii. 6 — xvi. 31) has a
strong resemblance to the Jehovistic documents and the
book of Joshua, and has an internal agreement with it.
For this reason it has been ascribed to the same author."
But, as in the Pentateuch and the book of Joshua,
more ancient fragments he at the bottom. Monuments
of these appear here and there. The plan of the book,
laid down in chap, ii., occurs beforehand in Josh, xxiii.
xxiv., and even in Ex. xxih. 20, sqq. The style is like
that in the Jehovistic parts of Deuteronomy,' though
there are Elohistic passages.
» Stahelin, in Stud, und Krit for 1835, p. 474, sqq.
' For example, to do evil, Slfl niCS ; i 11, and frequentiy, as in Deut
iv. 25, ix, 18, xvii, 2, 5, and elsewhere. The land rested, f IHH ntJpffi ;
iii II, 30, V. 31, viii 28, as Josh, xi. 23, xiv, 15, Miracles, m!«iS5;
vi. 13, as Ex. xxxiv. 10, Armed men, 0T?3ri ; vii, 11, as Josh, i 14,
and frequentiy. jFoi- a snare, ISipTob ; ii 3, viii, 27, as in Ex, xxiii, 33, and
elsewhere. To put before the face ; xi, 9, There is a resemblance be
tween ii. 2, 3, and Ex. xxiii 24, 28, 29, 32 ; between iii. 6, [they took their
daughters to be unves, &c.,) and Deut vii, 3, 4 ; vi 39, (/ will speak but this
once,) and Gen, xviii. 32 ; xiii 17, 18, (where the angel is unwilling to tell his
name,) and Gen, xxxii, 28, 29, Chap, ii 15, — as Jehovali said, — refers to
Deuteronomy. There is a similarity in the mythology ; for example : Angel of Jehovah ;
ii 1, sqq., vi. II, 14. Miraculous signs ; vi. 17, 36, as in Ex. iv., and elsewhere.
It is considered fatal to see God', vi. 22, SS, xiii. 22, as in Gen, xvi 13, 14,
Verses are quoted ; xiv. xv. Chap. vi. 11, sqq., is hke xiii; vii. 1, sqq., like
xii I, sqq. ; viii 27, prepares for chap. ix. ; xvi. 17, refers to xiii. 5, But m
chap, V. I cannot find the work of the Jehovist, nor in several narratives
which give a faithful description of ancient manners. Chap. xi. 15, — "Is
rael took not away the land of Moab,  of the children of Ammon," —

§ 174.] BOOK OF .JUDGES. 201
[At this time, we cannot ascertain the author's sources
of information. Perhaps they were oral, perhaps writ-
agrees pretty well with Num. xxi ; but verse 25 differs from it Chap. x. 4,
contradicts Num, xxxii. 41, and Deut iii. 14, Chap, x. 11, 12, has not a Je
hovistic reference.
The following usages are peculiar: pSt3, |?S23, called together ; vi 34,
35, vii, 2.3, 24, x, 17, xii 1, To sdl into the hand, l^n lift ; ii 14, iii, 8,
iv. 2, X. 7 ; but compare Deut xxxii 30. Do what thy hand finds to do ; ix,
33, as in 1 Sam, x, 7. Shin prefixed ; v. 7, vi 17, vii, 12, xviii, 26, How
ever, this occurs in the passages which are mostly Jehovistic,
The Elohistic passage, ii. 6, sqq., corresponds to JosL xxiv, 28, sqq,, and
seems to be derived from the document " Elohim : '' verses 22, 23, and perhaps,
also, iii, 1, sqq,, seem to belong to it Verse 22, i133 , to try, is like Ex, xvi,
4. Verse 23 says Jehovah left the Canaanites, and did not deliver them
into the hand of Joshua, and so contradicts the book of Joshua,
According to Jahn (voi ii, p, 191) and Bertholdt, (p. 878,) the history of
Samson is derived from two different documents. But one cannot end -with
XV. 20, but with xvi 31, and chap. xiii. resembles chap. vi. : xvi. 5, is like xiv.
15, The only difference in the style is merely in the use of nbs , to fall sud
denly upon ; xiv. 6, 19, xv, 14, Chap, v, is certainly drawn from a peculiar
written source, since it contains matter which differs from what was related
before, and which could hardly be preserved in the mouth of the people ;
for example, verses 6, 14, 15, (compare iv. 5, 10,) 23. Likewise chap, vi.—
viii. is distinguished by the shin prefixed. According to Studer, (p. 438,)
the author of tiie present book of Judges made use of an old book of the
o-enealogy of Heroes, which he worked over, following a plan different from
the originai
[This view of the author, that the documents " Elohim " and " Jehovah " can
be distinguished in Judges, seems very feebly supported by facts. The argu
ments adduced are, 1. similarity of manner ; and, 2. of matter.
1. In the first argument, the examples brought forward do not appear satis
factory. (1.) To do eml, Sin nmS , occurs very frequently in Samuel, Kings,
Chronicles, and sometimes in tiie later Prophets. I find notiiing peculiar to
the Jehovistic books in this usage, (2.) The land rested, f IKn HteplD, may,
perhaps, have something which is peculiar, (3.) The term mirades, m'im,
is of very frequent occurrence in this same sense in the Psalms, Job, Daniel,
Chronicles, and Nehemiah. (4.) The term armed, ta^EJKin, occurs even in
tiie Elohistic fragment, Ex. xiii 18. (5.) A snare, iSplKib , is, perhaps, Jeho
vistic ; but it occurs, also, 1 Sam. xviii. 21, Ps. Ixix. 23, and elsewhere.
2. The alleged similarity of style, mythology, and miracles, seems to me
exceedingly faint Sometunes there is, indeed, a law or usage referred to
in Judges which actually occurs in the Pentateuch, (ii 1—5, 12, 17, 20, in.
VOL. II. 26

202 i::ooK of .judges. [§ 174.
ten. The occurrence of round and exaggerated numbers
would lead us to suspect that he relied on oral tradition.
Four of the judges ruled just forty years each ; three
either ten, twenty, or eighty years. There were
seventy-seven elders at Succoth, (vhi. 14.) Ibzan had
thirty sons and thirty daughters, and the same number
of sons and daughters-in-law, (xii. 9.) Jair, also, had
thirty sons who rode on thirty ass-colts, and ruled thirty
cities, (x. 4.) Abdon had forty sons and thirty nephews.
Numbers are often much exaggerated. The Gheadites
lulled 42,000 men of Ephraim, (xh. 6;) Samson, 1,000
with an ox-goad ; 400,000 of the people of God met at
Mizpeh, (xx. 2 ;) they kihed 22,000 Benjamites on the
first day, 18,000 on the second, and 25,100 on the
third day, (xx. 15, 17, 21, 25, 35, 44, 46.) There were
700 left-handed Benjamites, (xx. 16,) famous slingers.
There is some probability that the song of triumph
(chap. V.) came from a written document, for verses 6,
14, 15, 23, 28, differ from the former chapter, (iv. 6, 10,)
which also, it may be, rests on a written statement.
But, on the other hand, Jotham's parable (ix. 8, sqq.)

6 ;) but there is never a reference to its language. " Commandments by the
hand of Moses " appears once only, (iii 4.) These may have been oral com
mands, preserved in the mouth of the people. The Book ofthe Law, or the
Law of Moses, never once occurs, nor is any passage even cited from it.
None of its favorite Jehovistic phases occur. Allusion is made to the deliv
erance from iEgypt, (ii, 12, vi. 8, x. 11,) but never to any written account of
that deliverance. On the contrary, tiiere are passages at variance with the
Pentateuch, already cited, and others which seem to belong to a tradition
that has not come down to us. Such are, vi, 10, x, 11, 12, xi. 25. The
difference in the mythology has been mentioned above, (§ 173.) Now, it
seems contrary to the principles of criticism to assume the existence of the
two documents on such slender evidence, and in the face of such facts.
Chap, i, has a marked resemblance with passages in Joshua, before adduced ;
but this phenomenon is easily explained on the supposition that it was drawn
from a document common to the authors of the two books,]

§ 174.] BOOK OF JUDGES. 203
may have been taken from the mouth of the people.
The following proverbs have a popular air : xiv. 14,
" Out of the eater came forth meat, and out of the
strong came forth sweetness ;" verse 18, " If ye had not
ploughed with my heifer, ye had not found out my rid
dle ; " and xv. 15, " Wkh the jaw-bone of an ass, heaps
upon heaps, with the jaw of an ass have I slain a thou
sand men."" Other passages may be found which are
connected with popular traditions, or serve to support
them. Thus, in vi. 24, we read, "Gideon bulk an
altar there, and cahed it Jehovah Shalom." In xi. 39,
40, it is said, after Jephthah's offering, " It was a
custom in Israel ; the daughters of Israel went yearly
to lament the daughter of Jephthah;" and in xv. 19,
the occasion of the popular name of a place is given —
En Hakkora, the place of calling, because Samson
cahed on Jehovah there.
It is evident that the history of Gideon and that of
Abimelech are derived from at least two separate docu
ments. In the one, (vi. 11 — vih. 28,) the son of Joash
is cahed Gideon, throughout, with but a single excep
tion, (vii. 1 ,) though his name is repeated more than thirty
times ; in viii. 29 — 35, he is called indifferently Gideon
and Jerubbaal ; but in chap. ix. he is always called
Jerubbaal. The passage, viii. 34, 35, is apparently an
interpolation, either by the compher or some later hand.
The gloss, "who is Gideon," (vh. 1, viii. 35,) evidently
came from the compiler.'' The appendix (xvii. — xxi.)
evidently contains two separate documents — xvii. xviii.
and xix. — xxi. But both have the same author, who is
" [See Dr. Palfrey, 1. c. vol. ii. p. 230.]
' [The jealousy of the Ephraimites, because they were not asked to fight
the Midianites and Ammonites, is remarkable, (viii, 1 — 3, xii, 1 — 6.)]

204

BOOK OF JUDGES.

[§ 175, a.

distinguished by his love of a kingly government, (xvii. 6,
xix. 1.) The passage, xx. 36 — 46, appears to be a sup
plement to the previous account of the battle. Perhaps
this was derived from an independent popular legend."
There is a slight numerical difference between the two
accounts ; in one 25,100 perish, in the other 25,000.]
§ 175, a.
THE AGE OF THE BOOK OF JUDGES.
It is plain that the author or compiler of the proper
book of Judges belongs to a late period. • This appears
from the affinity between this book and that of Joshua
and Deuteronomy, as weh as from the use of the phrases
"unto this day,'" and "it becamq a custom in Israel.""
Chap. V. contains marks of a high antiquity, in verses

" [Compare verses 45, 46, with 35.]
' Chap, vi. 24, x, 4, xv. 19, (compare xi. 39,) where he speaks of contem
porary matters,
' [This resemblance, however, as it has been shown before, is confined to
chap, i, which is no part of tiie proper book of Judges, To me, the most
decided mark of the late origin of chap, v, consists in tiie parallelism be
tween verses 4, 5, Ps. Ixviii. 8, 9, and Dent, xxxiii. 2 : —

Judg. V, 4, 5. " Lord,
when thou wentest out
of Seir, when thou
marchedst out of the
field of Edom, the earth
trembled, and the heav
ens dropped, the clouds
also dropped water. The
mountains melted from
before the Lord, even
that Sinai from before
the Lord God of Israel."

Ps. Ixviii 7, 8. " O
God, when tiiou wentest
forth before thy people,
when thou didst march
through the wilderness,
 the earth shook,
the heavens also drop
ped at the presence of
God: even Sinai itself
was moved at the pres
ence of God, the God
of Israel,"

Deut xxxiii 2, "And
he said, ' The Lord came
from Sinai, and rose up
from Seir unto them : he
shined fortii from Mount
Paran, and he came
with ten thousands of
saints: from his right
hand went a fiery law
for them. ' "

But who shall tell us which is the original ?]

§ 175, b.] BOOK OF JUDGES. 205
6, 8, 14, 15, (compare iv. 6, 10,) 23, 28." The use of
the shin prefixed serves less to determine the age than
the district in which the primitive documents of the
book originated. Ewald and Studer'' refer this usage to
north Palestine, and it might be so if chap. vi. vh. had
not such strong Jehovistic marks. Aramaisms also have
been found in it.' The deterioration of Judah is re
markable in the history of the judges.

§ 17.5, b.
THE SAME SUBJECT CONTINUED.
The formula, (xvh. 6,) "/n these days there was no
king in Israel, but every man did what was right in his
own eyes," places the appendix, (xvii. — xxi.,) beyond
doubt, in a period when Israel had enjoyed the pros
perity of a regal government, and perhaps for a long
time. The reference to a date in xviii. 30, " Unth
the day of the captivity of the land," does not agree
with the reference in verse 31, " All the time the house
of God ivas in Shiloh." It is therefore suspicious.
Were it not for this, however, it would point to the
exile of the ten tribes. This is the opinion of Leclerc,
Eichhorn, Rosenmiiller, and Studer. It could not mean
the capture of the ark by the Philistines, as Kimchi and
" G. H Hollmann, Comment, in Carmen Deborae ; Lips, 1818, p. 6, sq,
[See, also, American Bib. Rep. vol. i Palfrey, 1, c. vol. ii, p, 226, sqq,]
' Ewald, Zur Hohelied, p, 20. Studer, 1. o. p, 439.
" Among the Aramaisms, the following have been reckoned: ^^tt^J);
V. 14. Comp. Neh. ix. 22,24, Dan. iii, 4, sqq, [May not this be a more^o-
etical form?] The plural termination in p; v. 10, rari ; v. 11, xi, 40
sa"] ; V, 28. im , for 111 ; v. 22. Oin , for Sto© ; xiv. 18. nJa , for IfflN
ix. 48, which occurs, also. Num. xxiii 3.

206 BOOK OF JUDGES, [§ 175, 6.
Havernik suppose, nor their conquest of the Israelites,
as Eckermann understands it."
If the description, xix. 22, is imitated from Gen. xix.
4, sqq., as Tuch supposes, then this book must have
been written in the times after the origin of the first
four books of the Pentateuch.' The Deuteronomical
formula, (xx. 13,) to put away evil from Israel, refers
us to the time after the date of Deuteronomy.'' But the
lively and natural description seems to claim a higher an-
liquity, at least for the original documents. Chap. i. 21,
seems to belong to the time after David : " The chil
dren of Benjamin did not drive out the Jebusites that
inhabited Jerusalem, but the Jebusites dwell with the
children of Benjamin unto this day." The statement,
(verse 29,) " Neither did Ephraim drive out the Canaan
ites that dwelt in Gezer, but the Canaanites dwelt in
Gezer among them," seems to belong to the time after
Solomon. Studer finds marks in the geographical loca
tion of Shiloh (xxi. 12, 19) to show the author did not
live in Palestine.
We cannot conjecture, with any certainty, at what
time the appendix was added to the book. Augusti and
Bertholdt think it was not added much before the time
of Nehemiah and the assembly of scribes. Jahn and
Paulus think Samuel was the author. [The book itself,
however, (h. 6 — xvi. 31,) to judge from its general spirit
and character, may be much older; and since it contains
° Eckermann, Theol. Beit vol, v. pt 1, p, 259, Exeget Handbuch, vol,
iii, p. 64.
' Tucft, i u. p. 365, 366, Butthe story in Judges is very plain and natural.
" Surfer (p. 4.55) takes notice of the later phrase, CTD »TL"3 , for S'^'r; rip",
whicii occurs nowhere else except in tiie books of Chronicles, Ezra, and
Nehemiah. See the opinions of the ancient writers on the author of Judges,
in Carpzov, 1. c. p. 172, sqq., and the passage from Baba Bathra, in § 14,
.'ibove, vol. i

•^ 176.] BOOKS OF 3.\MUKL. 207
no direct reference, or even allusion, to the Pentateuch
and book of Joshua, (except the doubtful case of v. 4, 5 ;)
none to the Law Book or Law of Moses ; none to the
peculiar Mosaic institutions of the Jehovah cultus, such
as worship in a single place, a Levitical priesthood, and
formal rites; since, on the contrary, it ahudes to tra
ditions not preserved in the Pentateuch, — there seems
reason for supposing this part of the book is older
than the Pentateuch itself.]

CHAPTER IV.
THE BOOKS OF SAMUEL."
§176.
NAME AND DIVISION.
These books — which, among the Jews, were reck
oned as but one,' and were originally but one — bear the
name of Samuel, not because he was their author, but
the main subject and principal hero of the history con
tained in them.

" Serrarii, Seb. Schmidii, Jo. Clerici, Maur. Commentt
Jo. Drusii Annotatt in Locos diffic. Jos,, Jud,, et Sam.
Vietorin. Strigdii Comm. in Librr, Sam,, Reg,, et Paralipp, ; Lips, 1591, fol.
Casp. Sanctii Comm, in iv. Libr. Reg, et Paralipp, ; 1624, foi
Hensler, Erlauterungen des 1 B. Sam. u. d. Salom. Denkspriiche ; Hamb.
1795. Exeget Handbuch des A. T. 4 and 5 pt
[ Geddes, L c. vol. ii
Dr. Palfrey, 1. c. vol. ii]
' See Origen, cited above, vol. i. p. 87, note 6 ,• Cyril of Jerusalem, in
vol, i. p. 97, sqq. ; and Jerome, in vol, i. p. Ill, sqq. The division into two

208 BOOKS OF SAMUEL. [§ 177.
Abarbanel" says these books are called by Samuel's
name, " because ah things that occur in each book may,
in a certain sense, be referred to Samuel — even the acts
of Saul and David, for each of them was anointed by
him, and, as it were, the work of his hands."
The title " Books of Samuel " is not very suitable ;
neither, indeed, is that which it has in the Vulgate and
the Septuagint; namely, "The First and Second Books
of the Kings, " for that does not indicate the peculiar
contents of the book. Bertholdt maintains that both
titles are of more modern origin.'
§ 177.
CONTENTS OF THE BOOK.
This book contains the history of Samuel's adminis
tration as judge, and of the regal government introduced
by his mediation, and established in the house of David.
The history is divided into three parts : —
1. The history of Samuel's administration as prophet
and judge ; 1 Sam. i. — xii.
2. The history of Saul's government, and of the
early destination of David, prospectively anointed king ;
1 Sam. xii. — xxxi.
3. The history of David's government; 2 Sam. i.
— xxiv.There are chasms in the history between this and the
previous book.
books, which has been general since the time of Bomberg, is made after
the LXX. and Vulgate.
" Prtef. in Lib. Sam. fol. 74, cited in Carpzov, i c. p. 211. Compare the
extract from Baba Bathra, fol. 14, col. 2, quoted above, vol. i. p. 31, sq. .
' L. c. p. 890, sq.

§ 178.] BOOKS OF SAMUEL. 209
[Jahn considers chap. xxi. — xxiv. of 2 Sam. an appen
dix, which he arranges in six divisions : —
1. Account of the famine sent in consequence of the
unexpiated murder of the Gibeonites by Saul ; xxi. 1
—14. 2. A supplement to the account of David's wars ; xxi.
16—22. 3. A triumphal hymn of David ; xxii.
4. The last words of David ; xxih. 1 — 7.
5. List of his most remarkable heroes ; xxih. 8 — 39.
6. Census of the people, and its consequences ; xxiv.]

§ 178.
CHARACTER OF THE NARRATIVE,
It is Striking how little influence mythology has upon
the history. There is but a single appearance of angels
in the book, namely, 2 Sam. xxiv., where an angel brings
the pestilence. The miraculous agency consists solely
in the divine direction of affairs, brought about by means
of the prophets and the oracle. In one passage, (1 Sam.
xxviii .,) — the story of the witch of Endor, — a false prophet
makes use of this ideal pragmatism, and the true histori
cal connection remains doubtful. The predictions of
later events are evidently inserted after the event has
taken place. An example may be seen in the following
curses denounced on the sons of Eli and on David : —
1 Sam. ii. 34 — 36. " And this shall be a sign unto thee, that shall
come upon thy two sons, on Hophni and Phinehas : in one day they
shall die, both of them. And I will raise me up a faithful priest, that
shall do according to that which is in my heart and in my mind : and
I will build him a sure house ; and he shall walk before mine Anoint
ed forever. And it shall come to pass, that every one that is left in
VOL. II. 27

210 BOOKS OF SAMUEL. [§ 178.
thy house, shall come and crouch to him for a piece of silver and a
morsel of bread, and shall say, ' Put me, I pray thee, into one of the
priests' offices, that I may eat a piece of bread.'"
1 Kings ii. 26, 27, " And unto Abiathar the priest said the king,
' Get thee to Anathoth, unto thine own fields ; for thou art worthy of
death : but I will not at this time put thee to death, because thou
barest the ark of the Lord God before David my father, and because
thou hast been afflicted in all wherein my father was afflicted.' So
Solomon thrust out Abiathar from being priest unto the Lord ; that
he might fulfil the word of the Lord, which he spake concerning the
house of Eli in Shiloh,"
2 Sam, xii, 10, sq. " Because thou hast despised me, and hast
taken the wife of Uriah the Hittite to be thy wife. Thus saith the
Lord, ' Behold, I will raise up evil against thee out of thine own house,
and I will take thy wives before thine eyes, and give them unto thy
neighbor,  in the sight of this sun. For thou didst it secretly :
but I will do this thing before all Israel, and before the sun.' "
1 Kings xvi. 22. " So they spread Absalom a tent upon the top
ofthe house; and Absalom went in unto his father's concubines in
the sight of all Israel."
Elsewhere the narrative bears the marks of a genuine
history, and where it is not partly derived from contem
poraneous documents," — as it is in some places, — it is
yet drawn from an oral tradition, very lively and true,
and is only disturbed and confused here and there.
This tradition is in part supported by monuments, prov
erbs, and significant names. 1 Sam. vi. 18, the stone
of Joshua, the Bethshemite, is mentioned as a monument
of an important affair. Chap. vii. 12, Saul erects a stone,
in honor of a victory, and calls it Ebenezer — Stone
of Help. In X. 12, and xix. 24, we have the proverb,
" Saul also among the prophets.'"' In 2 Sam. v. 6 — 9,
the occasion of the following proverb is mentioned, " The
blind and lame shall not come into the house.'" A reason
" Hensler, \. c. p. 9.
' [The explanation of the matter is, perhaps, as follows : The Jebusites

§ 178.] BOOKS OF SAMUEL. 211
is given for the name of Samuel — Heard by God, (1 Sam.
i. 20.) The wife of Phinehas, hearing of the disasters
befallen her country and family, calls her child Ichabod
— Inglorious, (iv. 21.) Chap. xxih. 28, Saul was pursuing
David when a messenger informs him that the Phhistines
have invaded the land. His mind is divided between
the two dangers ; so the place is called Sela-hammah-
lekoth — Rock of Escapes, (xxiii. 28.)"
The book is so rich in lively pictures of character, and
descriptions, that, in this respect, it deviates from true
history, and sometimes becomes biographical. The con
nection of affairs is sufficiently natural, though it may
not be clearly enough carried out.
However, the chronology is very imperfect and legend
ary,' as it appears from the following examples : 1 Sam.
vii. 2, " The time was long, for it was twenty years, and
all the house of Israel lamented after the Lord ;" xih. 1,
" Saul reigned one year, and when he had reigned two
years,  he chose," &c. 2 Sam. v. 4, " David
reigned thirty years  and he reigned forty years ; " '
XV. 7, " and it came to pass after forty years that Absa-

taunted David, (v. 6,) telling him, substantially, the blind and lame in the
city were able to drive him away ; so he could not conquer till he took them
away. Therefore David offers a reward to him who shall first break into
the fortress where the blind and lame were protected. When he had taken the
citadel, he forbade such persons ever to enter it, as their presence reminded
him of the disgraceful taunt But see Geddes, in loc, and Kennicott, Diss,
ii, p, 27, sqq,]
" See, also, 2 Sam, ii. 16, v. 20, vi. 8.
' See De Wette, Archaologie, § 27, 30,
" [In the first passage, a literal translation is, " Saul, son of one year in
his kingdom" and of the second, ^^ David, a son of thirty years in his
kingdom," fee. Our translators, to give a good sense, say, in the last passage,
" David was thirty years old when he began to reign," for which there is no
authority in the Hebrew words. They often, in these books, take strange
liberties with the text See Pcdfrey, I. c. p. 267.]

212 BOOKS OF SAIWUEL. [§ 178.
loni said," &c. We are not told from what point of
time the forty years are reckoned.
[These books abound with little natural touches, which
constitute one of the chief beauties of the narrative. For
example, the relation of Eli's death ; of the fate of the
wife of Phinehas, (iv. 10 — 22 ;) the conversation between
David and his brethren, (xvii. 28,) are of this character.
In 2 Sam. xih. 30, is a remarkable instance of this ; Ab
salom had murdered Amnon, his brother, at a feast, and,
with the usual exaggerations, tidings came to David,
" They have slain ah the king's sons, and there is not
one of them left." The account of Shimei is distress
ingly natural ; when David was obliged to flee for his
life, he assahs him with dust, stones, and curses, (2 Sam.
xvi. 5, sqq. ;) but when he returns in triumph, this same
Shimei is the first to supplicate mercy, (xix. 16.) The
conduct of Zibah, and the fidelity of Mephibosheth, are
highly characteristic, (2 Sam. xvi. 1 — 3, xix. 24.) It
is in perfect fidelity to nature, that a woman finds, of
a sudden, a hiding-place in the well for David's two
friends, and so adroitly conceals them by spreading a
cloth over the mouth of the well, and putting meal upon
it, (xvh. 19.) The conduct of Ahithophel is character
istic of the statesman and courtier. He was in high
repute for wisdom; " his counsel was as if a man inquired
at the oracle of God ; " but when his really wise plan was
rejected for a traitor's scheme, " he gat him home to his
house, put his household in order, and hanged himself,"
(2 Sam. xvii. 23 ; compare xvi. 23.)
Some passages savor of anthropomorphitic and mean
conceptions of God ; for example, (1 Sam. xv. 10 — 35,)
God repents of making Saul king. He is represented
as advising Samuel to dissemble, and act an untruth,

§ 178.] BOOKS OF SAMUEL. 213
(xvi. 2, sq.) Samuel feared Saul would kill him, if he
went openly to anoint David, as successor to the throne ;
so Jehovah says, " Take a heifer with you, and say, ' I am
come to sacrifice to Jehovah.' " Jehovah refuses to an
swer Saul, because he had not kept his vow, but appears
to be appeased when Saul condemns Jonathan to death
for breaking the command, though Jonathan is not exe
cuted, and was not the only offender, (xiv. 19, sqq.)
David was displeased because Jehovah had made a
" breach upon Uzzah," (2 Sam. vi. 7.)
In some passages, unworthy actions are attributed to
the Most High. He wished to destroy the sons of Eli ;
so they did not obey their father's instructions, (1 Sam.
ii. 25.) He wished to bring evh upon Absalom, and so
excites Hushai to defeat the good counsel of Ahithophel,
(2 Sam. xvii. 14.) He moves David to number the
people, having resolved to bring evil upon him, (xxiv. 1,
sq.) But passages of this character are far from com
mon in these books. In general, a beautiful, childlike,
and trusting piety pervades them.
In some few instances, we discover a sacerdotal, though
not a Levitical spirit. The Bethshemites are punished
for looking into the ark, and fifty thousand and seventy
are slain, if the text is correct, (vi. 19.) In 2 Sam. vi.
6, 7, the ark is jostled by the uneasy gait of the cattle
which draw it ; Uzzah, with the best intentions, puts
out his hand to secure it, " and the anger of Jehovah was
kindled against him, and God smote him there for his
error." Obed-edom is blessed because the ark remains
in his house. The evils which befell the Phihstines
whhe they kept the sacred ark, are detailed in a Levit
ical spirit. Dagon falls down before it; a "deadly
destruction " consumes the people. The very cows,

214 BOOKS OF SAMUEL. [§ 179, «.
selected to bear the consecrated ark, — though never
yoked before, and separated from their young, — take the
road, from their own home, and proceed directly to a Jew
ish town. (See 1 Sam. v. vi.) A curse is denounced upon
Saul, because he offered sacrifice when Samuel delayed
to come. But the general spirit of the books is more
liberal ; there is little that savors of theocratical, still less
of hierarchical despotism. Worship is free ; men do not
assemble at stated periodical festivals. There is no one
place of public and national worship. On one occasion,
the people offer a sacrifice unknown to the later Mosaic
law. They pour water before Jehovah, (1 Sam. vii. 6.)"
A few miraculous legends are mingled iu the story : such
are the accounts of David's wonderful preservation,
(1 Sam. xix. 20, sqq.,) when three companies of messen
gers, sent to take him, receive the Spirit of God, and
prophesy ; Saul himself is overcome in the same manner,
and prophesies, lying naked all day and all night. To
this class belong the stories of the witch of Endor,
(xxviii.,) of the pestilence, (2 Sam. xxiv.,) and of the
oracular responses to David, (1 Sam. xxiii. 2 — 12.)
Sometimes he inquires by means of an ephod, (xxx.
7,) but often without it, (2 Sam. h. 1, v. 19.)]
§ 179, a.
TRACES OF DIFFERENT DOCUMENTS.
It is perfectly obvious that the following passages do
not agree together : In 1 Sam. xvi. 14 — 23, David is
Saul's musician and armor-bearer, and is greatly beloved
by him : in xvii. 31 — 40, he arms David for the contest
' [But see Palfrey, 1, c, p, 261,]

§ 179, a.] BOOKS OF SAMUEL. 215
with Goliah ; but in xvii. 55 — xvhi. 5, David is wholly
unknown to Saul, and is afterwards placed by him over
the soldiers.
1 Sam. xvi, 14 — 23. " But the Spirit of the Lord departed from
Saul, and an evil spirit from the Lord troubled him. And Saul's
servants said unto him, ' Behold now, an evil spirit from God troubleth
thee. Let our lord now command thy servants, which are before
thee, to seek out a man who is a cunning player on a harp : and it
shall come to pass, when the evil spirit from God is upon thee, that
he shall play with his hand, and thou shalt be well.' And Saul said
unto his servants, ' Provide me now a raan that can play well, and
bring him to me.' Then answered one of the servants, and said,
' Behold, I have seen a son of Jesse the Bethlehemite, that is cunning
in playing, and a mighty valiant man, and a man of war, and prudent
in matters, and a comely person, and the Lord is with him,'
" Wherefore Saul sent messengers unto Jesse, and said, ' Send me
David thy son, which is with the sheep.' And Jesse took an ass
laden with bread, and a bottle of wine, and a kid, and sent them by
David his son unto Saul. And David came to Saul, and stood before
him : and he loved him greatly ; and he became his armor-bearer.
And Saul sent to Jesse, saying, ' Let David, I pray thee, stand before
me ; for he hath found favor in my sight,' And it came to pass, when
the evil spirit from God was upon Saul, that David took a harp, and
played with his hand : so Saul was refreshed, and was well, and the
evil spirit departed from him."
Chap, xvii, 55 — 58, " And when Saul saw David go fortn against
the Philistine, he said unto Abner, the captain of the host, ' Abner,
whose son is this youth ? ' And Abner said, ' As thy soul liveth, O
king, I cannot tell.' And the king said, ' Inquire thou whose son the
stripling is.' And as David returned from the slaughter of the Phi
listine, Abner took him, and brought him before Saul, with the head
of the Philistine in his hand. And Saul said to him, ' Whose son art
thou, thou young man ? ' And David answered, ' I am the son of thy
servant Jesse the Bethlehemite,' "
Chap, xviii. 5. " And David went out whithersoever Saul sent him,
and behaved himself wisely, and Saul set him over the men of war."
Chap, xviii, 12—16, "And Saul was afraid of David, because the
Lord was with him, and was departed from Saul, Therefore Saul
removed him from him, and made him his captain over a thousand ;

216 BOOKS OF SAMUEL. [§ 179, «.
and he went out and came in before the people. And David behaved
himself wisely in all his ways; and the Lord was with him. Where
fore, when Saul saw that he behaved himself very wisely, he was afraid
of him. But all Israel aud Judah loved David, because he went out
and came in before them,''
Here, then, we can distinguish two different accounts,
from which, however, we must separate the interpolation,
(xvii. 54,) " And David took the head of the Philistine,
and brought it to Jerusalem ; but he put his armor in his
tent." It is evident this does not agree with xxi. 10,
sqq., and 2 Sam. v. 6, sqq. Eichhorn thinks the verse
an interpolation. Bertholdt thinks the original has been
preserved in the Vatican codex of the Septuagint, where
1 Sam. xvii. 12 — 31, and 55 — xviii. 6, is omitted."
Elsewhere in the book two different sources are discov
ered in the history of David. 1 Sam. xxhi. 19, the Ziph-
ites inform Saul that David is on the hill of Hachhah, on
the south of the desert. In 1 Sam. xxvi. 1, they tell
Saul he hides in the hih of Hachhah on the east of the
desert. So, 1 Sam. xxiv., David spares Saul's life in
tlie cave; 1 Sam. xxvi., he does the same thing in SauVs
camp. These accounts are so closely simhar that we can
not fah to see they are two diflferent legendary stories of
the same event.
So the account, 1 Sam. xxi. 10, sqq., where David flees
to Achish, and pretends to be mad, because he is sus
pected by his friends, excludes the later account, xxvii.
2, sqq., where David dwells with Achish, who gives him
the command of Ziklag as a reward, and xxix. 1, sqq.,
where the chiefs of the Phhistines are suspicious of him.
If we now turn back to the history of Saul, we see
traces of different documents there ; for example,
« Eichhorn, § 477. Bertholdt, p. 897.

§ 179, a.]

BOOKS OF SAMUEL.

217

1 Sam. ix. 1 — x. 16, — where Samuel, by the divine
command, anoints Saul, — differs from 1 Sam. viii. x. 17
— 27, where Samuel, compelled by the demands of the
people, chooses Saul as king, by lot. With the first
document (ix. 1 — x. 16) agrees 1 Sam. xi., where Saul,
in consequence of his victory over the Ammonites, is pub
licly confirmed in the dignity of king : to the latter (viii.
X. 17 — 27) belongs chap, xh., where Samuel cannot con
ceal his disapprobation of the appointment of a king.
The statement, (xh. 12,) "Jehovah your God vms your
King," agrees perfectly with vih. 6, sqq., where Jehovah
says to Samuel, " They have not rejected thee, but 
me." Samuel's death is related twice — xxv. 1, "And
Samuel died, and all Israel assembled and lamented him,
and buried him in his house at Ramah." This is related
in almost the same words in xxviii. 3. The following
accounts of Saul's death differ from one another : —

1 Sam,
" And the
hard upon

xxxi. 2—6, 8—13.
Philistines followed
Saul and upon his

sons ; and the Philistines slew
Jonathan, and Abinadab, and
Malchi-shua, Saul's sons. And
the battle went sore against Saul,
and the archers hit him ; and he
was sore wounded of the archers.
Then said Saul unto his armor-
bearer, ' Draw thy sword,and thrust
me through therewith ; lest these
uncircumcised come and thrust
me through, and abuse me,' But
his armor-bearer would not; for
he was sore afraid. Therefore
Saul took a sword, and fell upon
it. And when his armor-bearer
saw that Saul was dead, he fell
VOL. II. 28

2 Sam, i 2—12. "It came
even to pass on the third day, that,
behold, a man came out of the
camp from Saul with his clothes
rent, and earth upon his head :
and so it was, when he came to
David, that he fell to the earth,
and did obeisance. And David
said unto him, ' From whence
comest thou 1 ' And he said unto
him, ' Out of the camp of Israel
am I escaped.' And David said
unto him, ' How went the matter ?
I pray thee, tell me.' And he
answered, ' That the people are
fled from the battle, and many of
the people also are fallen, and
dead ; and Saul and Jonathan his
son are dead also.' And David

218

BOOKS OF SAMUEL.

[§ 179, a.

likewise upon his sword, and died
with him. So Saul died, and his
three sons, and his armor-bearer,
and all his men, that same day
together. And it came to pass
on the morrow, when the Philis
tines came to strip the slain, that
they found Saul and his three sons
fallen in Mount Gilboa. And
they cut off" his head, and stripped
oif his armor, and sent into the
land of the Philistines round
about, to publish it in the house
of their idols, and among the peo
ple. And they put his armor in
the house of Ashtaroth : and they
fastened his body to the wall of
Beth-shan, " And when the inhabitants of
Jabesh-gilead heard of that which
the Philistines had done to Saul,
all the valiant men arose, and
went all night, and took the body
of Saul, and the bodies of his
sons, from the wall of Beth-shan,
and came to Jabesh, and burnt
them there. And they took their
bones, and buried them under a
tree at Jabesh, and fasted seven
days.''

said unto the young man that told
him, ' How knowest thou that
Saul and Jonathan his son be
dead ? ' And the young man
that told him said, ' As I hap
pened by chance upon Mount
Gilboa, behold, Saul leaned upon
his spear ; and lo, the chariots
and horsemen followed hard after
him. And when he looked behind
him, he saw me, and called unto
me. And I answered, " Here
am I." And he said unto me,
"Who art thou?" And I an
swered him, " I am an Amalekite."
He said unto me again, " Stand,
I pray thee, upon me, and slay
me : for anguish is come upon
me, because my life is yet whole
in me," So I stood, upon him,
and slew him, because I was sure
that he could not live after that
he was fallen : and I took the
crown that was upon his head,
and the bracelet that was on his
arm, and have brought them hith
er unto ray lord.' Then David
took hold on his clothes, and rent
them; and likewise all the men
that were with him. And they
mourned and wept, and fasted
until even, for Saul and for Jona
than his son, and for the people
of the Lord, and for the house of
Israel ; because they were fallen
by the sword."
2 Sam. iii. 14, has the number one hundred, where
1 Sam. xvih. 27, has two hundred.

2 Sam. V. 1 — 3. "Then came all the tribes of Israel to David

§ 179, a.] BOOKS OF SAMUEL. 219
unto Hebron, and spake, saying, ' Behold, we are thy bone and thy
flesh. Also in time past, when Saul was king over us, thou wast he
that leddest out and broughtest in Israel : and the Lord said to thee,
" Thou shalt feed my people Israel, and thou shalt be a captain over
Israel." ' So all the elders of Israel came to the king to Hebron ;
and King David made a league with them in Hebron before the Lord :
and they anointed David king over Israel."
Here it is not supposed that Samuel had previously
anointed David, and consequently this passage does not
belong to the same document with 1 Sam. xvi. 1 — 13,
where the anointing is related. 2 Sam. viii. seems to be
different from chap, x., for, in the former, not only the
Syrians, but the Ammonites also, are conquered by the
citizens of Zoba, (verse 12,) though the Syrians might
rise again. Besides, chap. viii. is distinguished by the
brief style of its narrative, which resembles a chronicle,
as in V. 6 — 25, and xxi. 15 — 22. In xxi. 8, Michal is
written by mistake for Merab. This, perhaps, is not
written by the same author who has given us the other
notices of Michal, (1 Sam. xviii. 19, xxv. 44, 2 Sam. iii.
14, 15, vi. 23.)"
" Gramberg (1. c. vol. ii. p. 80, sqq.) thus separates the two accounts : —
NaiTative A. 1 Sam. ix. 1— x, 16, xi. 1 — 15, xiii— xv, xvi, 1 — 23, (verse
21 is an interpolation by the compiler,) xvii. I — 53, (verse 54 is likewise
an interpolation,) xviii 6—30, xix,— xxv. 42, xxviii, 3—25, xxxi, 2 Sam,
V. 6 — 12, vi, — viii, xxi, xxiv.
Narrative B, 1 Sam, viii x, 17—27, xii xvii, 55— xviii, 5, xxv, 43, 44,
xxvi, xxvii. xxviii. 1, 2, xxix. xxx. 2 Sam. i — iv. v. 1 — 5, ix.— xx, Stahelin
(in Tholuck, Theol, Anzeig, for 1838, p, 526) partially agrees with him,
and admits two accounts. One corresponds to Gramberg's narrative B, To
this belong 1 Sam, iii. vii 2— viii, x, 17— xii, 25, perhaps xiv, 47—52, cer
tainly XV, and part of xvii xviii, and still farther, xx, xxvi xxvii xxix, xxx.
The other comprises the rest of the first of Samuel, the whole of the second,
and the first book of Kings i, ii.
According to BeHholdt, (p. 894, sqq.,) 1 Sam. i— vii viii— xvi. and xvii—
xxx. are independent documents. But this opinion does not agree with that
given above. In 2 Samuel, chap, i— iv., containing the history of David's

220 BOOKS OF SAMUEL. [§ 179, 6.
§ 179, b.
[THE SAME SUBJECT CONTINUED,
There are other numerous inconsistencies in these
books, which can be explained only on the supposition
that the author drew from various sources, whose testi
mony was imperfect, and often conflicting; that he
sometimes relied upon unwritten tradition, and made use
of lyric compositions and popular sayings in constructing
his narrative. Sometimes his materials failed him alto
gether, especially in the history of Samuel, and the early
administration of Saul, in which he drew upon his im-

govemment at Hebron, are separated from the other sources, which EichJwm
maintains form a short biography of David, (I Sam. xxxi. 2 Sam. v. vi, 3 — 11,
vii, viii x, xi 1, xii 30, 31, xxi 18 — ^22, xxiii, 8 — 39, xxiv.) These passages
are all distinguished by a summary character, which they have in common,
and are connected together by this, as he thinks. But this is not true of all of
them ; for example, of 1 Sam. xxxi 2 Sam, vii x. xxiv, ; and in some passages
the obvious similarity fails, (xxi, 1 — 14, 15 — 17,) and other passages are, by
their statements of facts, necessarily connected with them. Compare 1 Sam-
,\xxi with xxviii 4 ; 2 Sam, v, 13 — 16, with iii. 2 — 5 ; 2 Sam, vi, 3 — II, witii
verses 12 — 20, and 1 Sam, vii, I ; 2 Sam, xi. 1, xii, 30, 31, with the verses
between them ; especially compare the words, " and David remained at Je
rusalem," with verse 2, sqq., which relate the story of Uriah, and xii, 27 — 29,
where David takes Rabbali. (See the application of this hypothesis to the
Chronicles, in § 192.) StiU further, to ascertain the true connection of the
book, compare 2 Sam. i with 1 Sam. xxx, ; 2 Sam. iii. 14, with 1 Sam. xxv,
44, where there is a difference in names ; 2 Sam, iv, 4, with ix, 1, sqq, ; 2 Sam,
-xii. II, 12, witii xvi, 22 ; 2 Sam, xxi, 12, witii 1 Sam, xxxi, 12, 13,
The author ofthe critical essay on tiie second book of Samuel, in Paulus,
Memorabilien, vol, viii. p, 61, sqq., thinks the books are made up of small,
independent pieces. Havernik, (1, c, p, 121, sqq.,) who does not ac
knowledge any of those discrepancies, maintains there are two principal
sources of the book, one, the sayings of Samuel, JVathan, and Gad, cited
in I Ch. xxix, 29, fi-om which the prophetic elements are derived ; the other,
the annals of David's reign, to which the minute biographical and political
accounts belong. The existence of the latter is conjectured from 2 Sam.
viii 17. See below, § 192, b.

§ 179, 6.] BOOKS OF SAMUEL. 221
agination, or passed over a period in silence. The writer
has a strong leaning towards the sacerdotal interest;
though this tendency is by no means so strong as in the
Chronicles.
I. The History of Samuel. — Though Samuel was a
priest, he was not of Levitical descent. His father is
called an Ephraimite ; and Ramah, the subsequent place
of Samuel's residence, is nowhere cahed a Levitical city.
It is true the later writer, in 1 Chron. vi. 18 — 28, claims
a Levitical birth for Samuel, and even descent from
Aaron ; but this is conformable with the general spirit of
that book. Samuel is a mythical character, like Orpheus
and Minos, and not the subject of exact historical infor
mation. Like them he stands in the period where
history and mythology interpenetrate. Thus his birth is
a prodigy, like that of Isaac and Samson, (i. 9 — 11, 17,
19, 20 ;) his communication with God is pecuhar and
miraculous, (ih. 1—14, 19, 21, vih. 7—9, 22, ix. 15,
sqq. ;) even after his death " his body prophesied,"
(xxviii. 3, 14 — 16;) he is consecrated before he is born,
(i. 11.) If Samuel offers a sacrifice, or admonishes -the
people, Jehovah thunders to confirm his authority, (vii.
10, xh. 16, sqq.) He makes kings, and unmakes them,
in the name of Jehovah. The writer loved the mythical
more than the historical element, for he gives a detahed
account of what preceded the birth of Samuel ; repeats
his mother's song of joy at that event, but gives scarce
any detahs of his long administration of forty years.
But the song (h. 1 — 10) he puts into Hannah's mouth
is entirely inappropriate. There is but a single strain
which relates to her peculiar circumstances — verse 5,
" the barren hath borne seven." To judge from its

222 BOOKS OF SAMUEL. [§ 179, b.
character, and from such passages as the following, —
" the bows of the mighty men are broken, and they that
stumbled are girded with strength ; " " he raiseth up the
poor out of the dust," &c., — it might be inferred this was
a triumphal song, more properly put into the mouth of
some warrior of humble origin and inferior resources,
who had gained a victory over some powerful opponent.
The mention of the King and the Messiah (verse 10)
betrays its recent and spurious birth.
This book, however, may be taken as descriptive of
the manners of the Israelites at some period of their
history. Here we find no traces of the Mosaic institu
tions. There is one annual feast at Shiloh, (i. 3, 7, 21,
ii. 19,) where a yearly sacrifice is offered. There is a
chasm between chap. iii. and iv., perhaps of many years.
In iv. 1, Samuel assembles the people for war, at a time
when he had no authority, that is mentioned. But he
takes no further concern in the management of affairs,
and does not once appear in the history of the next
twenty years, (iv. 2 — vh. 2.) In the mean time the ark
reappears, as the miracle-worker, and 5070 men — if the
text is correct — die in a little vhlage because they looked
upon it, (vi. 19.) It is said, in vh. 15, Samuel judged
Israel all the days of his hfe, though, in vih. 1, his sons
judge wickedly ; and he lived some years after the con
secration of Saul, and even after that of David, though
the latter was not anointed until the son of Saul, born
after his coronation, had grown up. Only four places
are named in which Samuel judges the nation, and they
are all within the limits of the tribe of Benjamin, (vh.
16, 17.) In XV. 35, it is said Samuel did not see Saul
again till the day of his death ; that is, he never saw him
again; but, xix. 18 — 24, Saul prophesied before Sam-

§ 179, b.] BOOKS OF SAMUEL. 223
uel, and lay down naked all day and night before him."
These statements show very clearly that we have not
before us a history of those times, but only a collection
of mythical and historical materials, from which, how
ever, it is scarce possible to collect the true course of

II. The History of Saul. — The first time Samuel sees
Saul, he knows he is to be king. Jehovah says, " Be
hold the man I told thee of," (ix. 17.) The next day
he is privately anointed king, (ix. 1 — x. 16.) Then
follows a passage, (verses 17 — 27,) apparently from
another source, in which Samuel chooses Saul by lot,
making no reference to the former choice. The style in
ix. 1 — X. 16, differs shghtly from the rest of the book;
Elohim is more frequently used for the Deity. The
statements respecting the occasion of the change from
the government by judges to that by kings are at vari
ance ; vih. 5, it is because Samuel is old, and his
chhdren are not suitable rulers; xii. 12, because the
nation is in distress, for Nahash, the king of Ammon, had
invaded Judea ; while from xi. 1 , we learn this invasion
took place cfter the election of Saul, and not before it.
There is some geographical confusion in x. 2, sqq.,
where Saul, in going from Zuph to Gibeah, must pass
by Rachel's tomb, at Zelzah, near Beth-lehem, thence to
the plain of Tabor, and thence home to Gibeah, and
actually accomplishes the journey in one day." Saul is

" But see Dr. Palfrey, in loc.
» There is little or no reason for the severe stnctures sometimes made
upon Samuel ; e. g. Schiller, Neue Thalia, voi iv. p. 94, sqq. ; the Wol-
fenbuttel Fragmentist, ed. Schmidt, p. 200, sq. ; and Vatke, Bib. Theol. p. 300,
sqq. His adminUtration, to judge from the liti;le we know of it, was wise
and profitable to the people.
' See Leclerc, in loc, and Palfrey, vol. ii. p. 253.

224 BOOKS OF SAMUEL. [§ 179, 6.
evidently a young man when anointed by Samuel, (ix.
1,2;) only a year old, according to the present text of
xih. 1 ; and we hear nothing of his exploits, except his
assembling the people and receiving their confirmation
of his authority, (xi. 1 — 15,) until he has a son capable
of commanding a garrison, (xiii. 2.) When Saul was
first anointed, the Spirit of God came upon him, and he
prophesied (x. 9): —
" And it was so, that when he had turned his back to go from
Samuel, God gave him another heart : and when they came thither
to the hill, behold, a company of prophets met hira ; and the Spirit of
God came upon hira, and he prophesied among them. And it came
to pass when all that knew him beforetime saw, that, behold, he
prophesied among the prophets, then the people said one to another,
' What is this that is come unto the son of Kish ? Is Saul also
araong the prophets ? ' And one of the same place answered and
said, ' But who is their father ? ' Therefore it became a proverb,
' Is Saul also among the prophets? ' "
In xix. 20 — ^24, we find a simhar account, though
later in Saul's hfe : —
" And Saul sent messengers to take David : and when they saw
the company of the prophets prophesying, and Samuel standing as
appointed over them, the Spirit of God was upon the messengers of
Saul, and they also prophesied. And when it was told Saul, he sent
other messengers, and they prophesied likewise. And Saul sent
messengers again the third time, and they prophesied also. Then
went he also to Ramah, and came to a great well that is in Sechu :
and he asked and said, ' Where are Samuel and David 1 ' And one
said, ' Behold, they be at Naioth, in Ramah.' And he went thither
to Naioth, in Ramah : and the Spirit of God was upon him also, and
he went on and prophesied, until he came to Naioth, in Ramah.
And he stripped off his clothes also, and prophesied before Samuel in
like manner, and lay down naked all that day and all that night.
Wherefore they say, ' Is Saul also among the prophets 1 ' "
The statement (xhi. 19) that there was no smith in
Israel, seems somewhat at variance with the account in

§ 179, 6.] BOOKS OF SAMUEL. 225
xi. 8, that Saul assembled 330,000 soldiers, and sthl
more with that of the formidable force the Philistines
brought against the nation— 30,000 chariots, (xih. 5.)
The passage, xiv. 47—52, stands isolated, and is
evidently out of its proper connection ; for in verse 48,
Saul conquers the Amalekites, 'and the next chapter
contains an account of the beginning and progress of the
expedition which was undertaken at Samuel's command.
This part of the book, also, may, perhaps, contain a
fair account of the manners which prevailed, or were
supposed to prevah, at some period of Jewish history.
We do not find the Levitical customs of the later Mosaic
books. Saul builds altars, (xiv. 35,) " and asks counsel
directly of God, (verses 37, 41 ;) the Mosaic law is
never referred to, nor known ; at least, no traces of it are
left. In general, it may be said of the history of Samuel
and Saul, that it is a cohection of accounts, mythical
and historical, descriptive of the end of the government
% Ju<ig6S, and the beginning of the kingdom. But out
of such confusion who shall disentangle for us the thread
of history ? Two facts, however, may be considered as
established ; namely, that Samuel the Ephraimite was
the last of the judges ; that Saul, the tah and weh-
favored son of Kish, was the first king. It is natural to
believe that Samuel reluctantly yielded his power, as the
nation passed from the theocratical to the regal govern
ment, and that he attempted to throw obstacles in the
way of his successor, embarrass his proceedings, and
even set up a rival who promised greater fidelity to the
sacerdotal interest. There seems little reason for the
belief that Samuel was instrumental in establishing the
royal government of Saul, or that he wrote a constitution
" But see Pcdfrey, voi li p. 272.
VOL. II. 29

226 BOOKS OF SAMUEL. [§ 180.
of the realm, (x. 25.) It is easy to see how such a
report might originate at a later period, and be preserved.
The solemn address of Samuel at Ghgal (chap, xii.) is
probably a rhetorical fiction, as well as the present form
of the admonition agcunst a regal government, (vhi. 10
— 18,) which this Avriter seems to affect. as little as a
popular government is affected by the author of Judges,
(xvh. — xxi.)] § 180.
TIME OF THE COMPOSITION OF THIS BOOK.
The references to a later time are indefinite ; for
example, unto this day, (1 Sam. v. 5, vi. 18, xxvii. 6,
xxx. 25, 2 Sam. iv. 3, vi. 8.) " Therefore it became a
proverb — 'Is Saul among the prophets,?'" (1 Sam. x. 12,
xix, 24.) " Beforetime in Israel, when a man went to
inquire of God, thus he spake — ' Come, and let us go to
the SEER ; ' for a prophet was beforetime called a seer,"
(1 Sam. ix. 9, xih. 18.)
The following prophecy (1 Sam. ii. 35) was probably
first written in or after Solomon's time : —
" And I will raise me up a faithful priest, that shall do according
to that which is in mine heart and in my mind ; and I will build
him a sure house; and he shall walk before mine Anointed forever,"
There is a mistake made in the insertion of the fol
lowing unsuitable and anachronistic passage (1 Sam.
ii. 1—10): —
" And Hannah prayed, and said, ' My heart rejoiceth in the Lord ;
mine horn is exalted in the Lord ; my mouth is enlarged over mine
enemies ; because I rejoice in thy salvation. There is none holy as
the Lord : for there is none beside thee ; neither is there any rock
like our God. Talk no more so exceeding proudly ; let not arro-
gancy come out of your mouth : for the Lord is a God of knowledge.

§ 180.] BOOKS OF SAMUEL. 227
and by him actions are weighed. The bows of the mighty men are
broken, and they that stumbled are girded with strength. They that
were full have hired out themselves for bread ; and they that were
hungry ceased : so that the barren hath borne seven ; and she that
hath many children is waxed feeble. The Lord killeth, and maketh
alive : he bringeth down to the grave, and bringeth up. The Lord
maketh poor, and maketh rich : he bringeth low, and lifteth up. He
raiseth up the poor out of the dust, and lifteth up the beggar frora the
dunghill, to set them among princes, and to make them inherit the
throne of glory : for the pillars of the earth are the Lord's, and he
hath set the world upon them. He will keep the feet of his saints,
and the wicked shall be silent in darkness ; for by strength shall no
man prevail, The adversaries ofthe Lord shall be broken to pieces;
out of heaven shall he thunder upon them : the Lord shall judge the
ends of the earth ; and he shall give strength unto his King, and
exalt the horn of his Anointed.' "
This brings us down still later ; so does the promise
relating to the royal family of David, (2 Sam. vh.,) "I
whl set up thy seed after thee; I whl estabhsh his
kingdom. My mercy shah not depart away from him.
Thine house and thy kingdom shall be established for
ever." " The statistical notice, (1 Sam. xxviii. 6,)
" Ziklag pertaineth unto the kings of Judah unto this
day," leads us to the time after the separation of the
kingdom. The mistake in respect to Jerusalem, in 1 Sam.
xvh. 54, — where David brings Goliah's head to that city,
as if it were the national capital, whhe it was still in the
hands of the Jebusites, — could not possibly be made thl
long after David. But the expressions Israel and Ju
dah belong to the time of David.'
From the expression Jehovah Zebaoth — Jehovah of

" Comp. Ps. Ixxxix,, and see Otmar, in Henke's Magazin, voi iv, pt 2,
p, 354, Bertholdt, p, 91.5,
'- 1 Sam, xviii 16, 2 Sam, xxiv. 1. Comp. 2 Sam. v. 1 — 5, xix. 41, xx. 2.
David's death is not mentioned, but this does not prove the author wrote
soon after it, as Havernik supposes, p, 144,

228 BOOKS OF SAMUEL. [§ 180.
hosts — (1 Sam. i. 3,) we may conclude it was written
later than the book of Judges. But otherwise it is not
distinguished by any later usage." The book must have
been composed before the time when the Levitical and
Deuteronomical spirit became prevalent ; for there is no
trace of this spirit in the book.* [In 1 Ch. xxix. 29, it
is said, " The acts of David, first and last, are written
in the book of Samuel the seer, and in the book of
Nathan the prophet, and in the book of Gad the seer."
Here the reference to the books of Samuel appears more
certain than the statement of the authorship of the books ;
for the citations in Chronicles are so uncertain. On the
authority of this passage, many Jewish writers, with
Theodoret, Procopius, Gregory the Great, Isidore, Eu
cherius, with the moderns Walther, Calovius, Hugo, De
Lyra, Vatable, Sixtus Sinensis, Cajetan, Cornelius a
Lapide, and others, think Samuel wrote the first
twenty-four chapters, and Nathan and Gad the rest.
But Abarbanel, Jacob, Ben Chajim, and Grotius, make
Jeremiah the author. Spinoza, Hobbes, Simon, and
Leclerc, dissent from these opinions.] "
° Comp. 1 Sam, i 1, and xxv, 14, with Judg, xiii 2.
' Comp. 1 Sam, xi. 15, xiii 8 — 14, xiv, 35, xvi, 2, 2 Sam, xv, 7, sq,, with
the passages referred to in § 184, note a. Does not the rareness of
Chaldaisms in the book compel us to date it earher than the end of
Manasseh's reign? Bertholdt [j). 9M) thinks that n3"1ia^1 (1 Sam, vi 12;
comp. Gen. xxx. 28, Ewald, Kr. Gr. p. 270) is not to be taken for a Chalda-
ism. But it must be remarked that l^'^'.r'?^ occurs, instead of IS'i^dj'^ ,
1 Sam, xvii. 25 ; S^'Bin'; , instead of S''icii , verse 47 ; the infin, with b ,
instead of the finite verb, xiv, 21 ; IB?''. , instead of IFi'^ , 2 Sam, xxi. 6 ;
-inF!tl,xxii27; ''5'n^Pil, verse 40. Comp. De Wette, Com. iib. Ps. xviii
27,\o. " [See Carpzov, p. 213, sqq. See, also, vol. i. § 14.]

§ 181, 182.] BOOKS OF THE KINGS. 229
CHAPTER V.
THE BOOKS OF THE KINGS."
§181.
NAME AND DIVISION.
Among the Jews, these books hkewise make but
one,' and the division into two books, which was made
in the Alexandrine and Latin versions, and fohowed
in Christian editions, is entirely arbitrary. It is self-
evident that the name' merely indicates the contents.
§182.
THE CONTENTS.
It contains the history of all the kings after David
unth the exhe of the people.
1. First, it contains the history of Solomon's admin
istration, commencing with his ascent to the throne,
consequently with the last times of David ; 1 Kings
i. — xi.
2. Then follows the history of the revolt of the ten
tribes, and of the government of the two kingdoms, —
placed opposite one another, — with particular notice of
" Serrarii, Vid. Strigdii Comment. Seb. Schmidii Annotat. in Libb. Reg.
Jo. Clerici, Maur. Comment
Seb. Leonhardi, ' Ynofivfipaxa in Libb. Reg. ; Erf, 1606; Lips. 1610, 1614.
Frarw. de Mendoza, Comm. in Libb. Reg. ; Coi 1634, fol.
Exegetisches Handbuch des A. T. 8 and 9 pt
Geddes, 1. c. vol. ii;
' See Origen, as above, voi i p. 89, sqq., and Jerome, p. Ill, sqq.
" fiisba ^5D ; BaaiXBimv jqlxtj xal zBx&qjri ; Regum iii and iv.

230 BOOKS OF THE KINGS. [§ 183.
the prophets who were active in the kingdom of Israel.
This history comes down to the overthrow of the king
dom of Israel ; 1 Kings xii. — 2 Kings xvii.
3. Finahy, there comes the history of the surviving
kingdom of Judah tih its destruction, with an account
of the fate of the rest of the nation which remained
in the land, and of King Jehoiakim, who was retained
a prisoner at Babylon ; 2 Kings xviii. — xxv.
According to Eichhorn," in this part of the book, the
author has only treated of the history of Judah, because
it was connected to, and contemporary with, that of the
kingdom of Israel, which was his main subject. But
this is a false explanation of the relation of the history of
the two kingdoms in reference to particulars, — though
the relation, as a matter of fact, is not to be denied, —
and the true ground lies merely in this, that the history
of the kingdom of Israel is more rich in events, cind the
influence of the prophets upon it is more important.*

§183.
CHARACTER OF THE NARRATIVE.
Here Hebrew history rather retrogrades than makes
any such advance as we should expect from the in
crease of literature after the time of David. Besides
the authentic historical accounts which are simhar to
those in the books of Samuel," the history of Solomon
contains some myths: —
Chap. iii. 5 — 15. " In Gibeon the Lord appeared to Solomon in
a dream by night : and God said, ' Ask what I shall give thee.' And

§ 481. ' De Wette, Beitrage, vol. i p. 3L
" 1 Kings i ii, iv, vi, vii, ix, 10 — 28, &c.

§183.] BOOKS OF THE KINGS. 231
Solomon said, 'Thou hast showed unto thy servant David my father
great mercy, according as he walked before thee in truth, and in
righteousness, and in uprightness of heart with thee ; and thou hast
kept for him this great kindness, that thou hast given him a son to
sit on his throne, as it is this day. And now, O Lord, my God, thou
hast made thy servant king instead of David my father ; and I am
but a little child : I know not how to go out or come in. And thy
servant is in the midst of thy people which thou hast chosen, a great
people, that cannot be numbered nor counted for multitude. Give,
therefore, thy servant an understanding heart to judge thy people,
that I may discern between good and bad : for who is able to judge
this thy so great a people 1 ' And the speech pleased the Lord, that
Solomon had asked this thing. And God said unto him, 'Because
thou hast asked this thing, and hast not asked for thyself long life;
neither hast asked riches for thyself, nor hast asked the life of thine
enemies ; but hast asked for thyself understanding to discern judg
ment ; behold, I have done according to thy words : lo, I have given
thee a wise and an understanding heart ; so that there was none like
thee before thee, neither after thee shall any arise like unto thee.
And I have also given thee that which thou hast not asked, both
riches and honor: so that there shall not be any among the kings
like unto thee all thy days. And if thou wilt walk in my ways, to
keep my statutes and my commandments, as thy father David did
walk, then I will lengthen thy days.' And Solomon awoke ; and
behold, it was a dream. And he came to Jerusalem, and stood
before the ark of the covenant of the Lord, and offered up burnt-
offerings, and offered peace-offerings, and made a feast to all his
servants," Chap, ix, 1 — 9. " And it came to pass, when Solomon had fin
ished the building of the house of the Lord, and the king's house,
and all Solomon's desire which he was pleased to do, that the Lord
appeared to Solomon the second time, as he had appeared unto him
at Gibeon. And the Lord said unto him, ' I have heard thy prayer
and thy supplication that thou hast made before me : I have hallowed
this house, which thou hast built, to put my name there forever ; and
mine eyes and my heart shall be there perpetually. And if thou wilt
walk before me, as David thy father walked, in integrity of heart, and
in uprightness, to do according to all that I have commanded thee,
and wilt keep my statutes and my judgments ; then I will establish
the throne of thy kingdom upon Israel forever, as I promised to David

232 BOOKS OF THE KINGS. [§ 183.
thy father, saying, " There shall not fail thee a man upon the throne
of Israel." But if ye shall at all turn from following me, ye or your
children, and will not keep my commandments and my statutes
which I have set before you, but go and serve other gods, and wor
ship them ; then will I cut off Israel out of the land which I have
given them ; and this house, which I have hallowed for my narae, will
I cast out of my sight ; and Israel shall be a proverb and a by-word
among all people : and at this house, which is high, every one that
passeth by it shall be astonished, and shall hiss ; and they shall say,
" Why hath the Lord done thus unto this land, and to this house ? "
and they shall answer, " Because they forsook the Lord their God,
who brought forth their fathers out of the land of .(Egypt, and have
taken hold upon other gods, and have worshipped them, and served
them : therefore hath the Lord brought upon them all this evil." ' "
Chap. viii. also contains mythical accounts ; namely,
the miraculous smoke which filled the temple, and the
immense sacrifices Solomon offered — 22,000 oxen, and
120,000 sheep, if the text is authentic. The book also
contains exaggerations ; for example, v. 1 — 14, where
it appears Solomon had raised 30,000 men to work at
Lebanon, 10,000 being there at one time. Besides
these, the account gives him 70,000 porters " that bare
burdens," and " 80,000 hewers in the mountains,"
with tbe addition of 3,300 officers to rule the workmen.
The same must be said of chap. x. The queen of She
ba gave Solomon one hundred and twenty talents of
gold, equal to ^2,917,080, besides " very great store" of
spices and precious stones, (x. 10.) His annual income
was 666 talents of gold, that is, if the weight is intended,
83,250 pounds of gold ; and if the talent is the sum of
money, ^16,189,794. This did not include the profit
from his merchant vessels, from the spice merchants,
from the kings of Arabia, and the governors of his prov
inces. The accounts, also, of his furniture are perhaps
exaggerated.

§ 183.] BOOKS OF THE KINGS. 233
Indeed, in the following history, there is no want of
credible accounts and lively portraiture ; but the greatest
part of the narrative consists of prophetic legends, and
dry chronicles, interwoven with pragmatic remarks.
The author had evidently a prophetic and didactic ten
dency. The chief object he aimed at was to set forth
the efficacy of the prophets." He dwells at length on
the sayings and doings of the prophets : In 1 Kings xi.
29 — 40, the prophet Ahijah excites Jeroboam to stimu
late the ten tribes to revolt ; xh. 22, Shemaiah, the man
of God, forbids Rehoboam to fight the ten tribes, so
the army disperses ; chap. xih. contains the mythical
story of prophecy against the altar at Beth-el, its won
derful destruction, and the death of the false prophet,
with other adventures; in xiv. 1 — 16, Ahijah foretells
the destruction of the posterity of Jeroboam; in xvi. 1 —
13, is Jehu's prophecy against Baasha, and its fiilfilment;
chap. xvii. — xix., the story of the prophets Elijah and
Elisha ; xx. 35 — 43, the symbolical action of an un
known prophet; xxi. 17 — 29, the prophecy of Elijah
against Ahab; xxii. 5 — 40, the adventures of Micaiah
the prophet, his predictions, and their fulfilment ; in 2
Kings i. h. and iii. 11 — viih 15, ix. 1, sqq., and xih. 14
— 21, are the adventures of Elisha the prophet, his pre
dictions, and their fulfilment ; xix. 2 — 7, and 20 — 37,
XX. 1 — 19, the oracles of Isaiah, and their fulfilment;
xxi. 10 — 16, the oracles of certain unknown prophets;
xxh. 14 — 20, the sayings of Huldah the prophetess. We
find pragmatic remarks : In 1 Kings xiii. 33, 34, the
house of Jeroboam was cut off* because he made priests

" See Kem, On the Principal Point of View in the Books of Kings, in
BengeVs Neu. Archiv. voL ii p. 2, sqq. Gesenius, Com. z. Jes. vol. i p. 934.
Havernik, voL ii. pt 1, p. 146.
VOL. II. 30

234

BOOKS OF THE KINGS.

[§183.

of the lowest of the people, and not of the Levites ; xv.
4, 5, Asa the son of Abijam (a wicked king) is allowed
to succeed his father, because David his ancestor " did
what was right in the eyes of Jehovah ; " verses 29, 30,
Asa conquered Jeroboam " because of his sins ; " and in
xvi. 7, 12, 13, 19. In 2 Kings h. 17, vih. 19, Jehovah
would not destroy Judah on account of David ; in ix. 36,
X. 10, XV. 12, the predictions of a prophet are fulfilled.
National calamities are sent to punish national sins,
(xvii. 7, sqq., xvih. 12, xxih. 26, xxiv. 3, 4.)
In this history, the connection of later events with
earlier predictions is carried to the greatest extent, and
is not free from arbitrary treatment, as it whl appear
from the following examples: 1 Kings ii. 26, 27. Com
pare 1 Sam. ii. 35.

Chap. xi. 30, " Ahijah the Shi-
lonite found him [Jeroboam]
in the way,  and Ahijah
caught the new garment that was
on him, and rent it in twelve
pieces, and said, ' Take the ten
pieces, for thus saith the Lord,
" I will rend the kingdom out of
the hand of Solomon, and will
give ten tribes to thee," ' "
Chap, xiii 1,2, 31,32. "And
behold, there came a man of God
out of Judah by the word of the
Lord unto Beth-el : and Jeroboam
stood by the altar to burn incense.
And he cried against the altar in
the word of the Lord, and said, ' O
altar, altar ! thus saith the Lord,
" Behold, a child shall be born
unto the house of David, Josiah
by name; and upon thee shall he

Chap. xii. 15, " Wherefore the
king hearkened not unto the peo
ple, for the cause was from the
Lord, that he might perform his
saying which he spake by Ahi
jah the Shilonite unto Jeroboara,"

2 Kings xxiii, 15—18, " More
over, the altar that was at Beth-el,
and the high place which Jerobor
am the son of Nebat, who made
Israel to sin, had made, both that
altar and the high place he brake
down, and burned the high place,
and stamped it small to powder,
and burned the grove. And as
Josiah turned himself, he spied
the sepulchres that were there in

§ 183.]

BOOKS OF THE KINGS.

235

offer the priests of the high places
that burn incense upon thee, and
men's bones shall be burnt upon
thee." '
" And it came to pass, afler he
had buried him, that he spake to
his sons, saying, ' When I am
dead, then bury me in the sepul
chre wherein the man of God is
buried; lay my bones beside his
bones: for the saying which he
cried by the word of the Lord
against the altar in Beth-el, and
against ali the houses of the high
places which are in the cities of
Samaria, shall surely come to
pass.' "

Chap, xiv, 10, " And the
Lord said unto Ahijah, ' There
fore, behold, I will bring evil
upon the house of Jeroboam, and
will cut off from Jeroboam him
that pisseth against the wall, and
him that is shut up and left in
Israel, and will take away the
remnant of the house of Jerobo
am, as a man taketh away dung,
till it be all gone,' "
Chap. xvi. 1, 3. "Then the
word of the Lord came to Jehu
the son of Hanani against Baasha,
saying, ' Behold, I will take away
the posterity of Baasha, and the
posterity of his house ; and will
make thy house like the house of
Jeroboam the son of Nebat.' ""

the mount, and sent, and took
the bones out of the sepulchres,
and burned them upon the altar,
and polluted it, according to the
word of the Lord ¦which the man
of God proclaimed, who pro
claimed these words. Then he
said, ' What title is that that I
see ? ' And the men of the city
told him, ' It is the sepulchre of
the man of God, which came
from Judah, and proclaimed these
things that thou hast done against
the altar of Beth-el.' And he
said, ' Let him alone ; let no man
move his bones.' So they let his
bones alone, with the bones of
the prophet that came out of
Samaria." Chap, XV, 29, " And it came
to pass, when he reigned, that he
smote all the house of Jeroboam ;
he left not to Jeroboam any that
breathed, until he had destroyed
him, according unto the saying of
the Lord, which he spake by his
servant Ahijah the Shilonite."

Chap. xvi. 12. "Thus did
Zimri destroy all the house of
Baasha, according to the word of
the Lord which he spake against
Baasha by Jehu the prophet."

" Compare, also, Josh, vi 26, with xvi. 34.

236

BOOKS OF THE KINGS.

[§ 183.

Chap. xxi. 19, 24. " And
thou shalt speak unto him,
saying, ' Thus saith the Lord,
" Hast thou killed, and also taken
possession ? " And thou shalt
speak unto him, saying, ' Thus
saith the Lord, "In the place
where dogs licked the blood
of Naboth shall dogs lick thy
blood, even thine. Hira that dieth
of Ahab in the city the dogs shall
eat; and him that dieth in the
field shall the fowls of the air
eat." ' "
Chap. xxi. 23. " And of Jeze
bel, also, spake the Lord, saying,
' The dogs shall eat Jezebel by
the wall of Jezreel ; ' " and
2 Kings ix. 10. "And the
dogs shall eat Jezebel in the
portion of Jezreel."

Chap. X. 30. " And the Lord
said unto Jehu, ' Because thou
hast done well in executing that
which is right in mine eyes, and
hast done unto the house of Ahab
according to all that was in my
heart, thy children of the fourth
generation shall sit on the throne
pf Israel.' "

Chap. xxii. 37, 38. " So the
king died, and was brought to
Samaria ; and they buried the
king in Samaria, And one
washed the chariot in the pool of
Samaria; and the dogs licked up
his blood; and they washed his
armor ; according unto the word
of the Lord which he spake."

2 Kings IX, 35, sq. " And
they went to bury her, [Jezebel,]
but they found no more of her
than the skull, and the feet, and
the palms of her hands. Where
fore they came again and told
him. And he said, ' This is the
word of the Lord, which he spake
by his servant Elijah the Tish-
bite, saying, " In the portion of
Jezreel shall dogs eat the flesh of
Jezebel. And the carcass of
Jezebel shall be as dung upon the
face of the field in the portion of
Jezreel ; so that they shall not
say, ' This is Jezebel.' " ' "
Chap. XV. 12, " This was the
word of the Lord which he spake
unto Jehu, saying, 'Thy sons
shall sit on the throne of Israel
unto the fourth generation.'
And so it came to pass."

§ 183.]

BOOKS OF THE KINGS.

237

In XX. 16, sq., a curse is denounced upon the descend
ants of Hezekiah, and in xxi. 10, sqq., it is repeated,
with an application to Manasseh his son : —

Chap, xxiii, 27, " And the
Lord said, ' I will remove Judah
also out of my sight, as I have
removed Israel, and will cast off
this city Jerusalem, which I have
chosen, and the house of which
I said, " My name shall be
there," ' "

Chap, xxiv. 2, sqq., 20, and
chap, xxv, " And the Lord sent
against him bands of the Chal
dees, and bands of the Syrians,
and bands of the Moabites, and
bands ofthe children of Ammon,
and sent them against Judah to
destroy it, according to the word
of the Lord, which he spake by
his servants the prophets. Surely
at the commandment of the Lord
came this upon Judah, to remove
them out of his sight, for the sins
of Manasseh, according to all
that he did."
The great carefulness, in respect to dates, is character
istic. In the beginning, it leads to round numbers,
(1 Kings ii. 11, xi. 42;) but afterwards it is carried out
to definite numbers. Sometimes the book rises to a
general view of the vv'hole history," (1 Kings vi. 1.)

" On the difficulties in the chronology, see De Wette's Archaologie, § 34,
Tiele, Chronol, d, A. T. ; Bremen, 1839, p, 58, sqq,
[chronology of the books of the kings.
From De Wette's Arch'iologie, ^ 30—34.
I. Before the Kingdom was divided.
Saul reigned. Acts xiii. 21, Josephus, Ant. vi 14, 19, 40 years, B. C. 1095.
David .... 1 Kings ii, 11  40 " " 1055.
Solomon ... 1  xi 42,  40 " " 1015.
Sum ofthe whole period,  120 "
From 1095 to 975 B. C.

238

BOOKS OF THE KINGS.

[§ 184.

§ 184, a.
LITERAKt CHARACTER OF THE BOOK.
A certain unity is obvious from beginning to end."
We do not any where find certain marks of the inser-
a 1, In the remarks relating to sacrifices on the high places, which are
regarded as sinfiil : 1 Kings iii 2, 3, xv. 14, xxii. 44, 2 Kings xii. 3, xiv. 4,
XV. 4, 35, xviii. 4.
2. In allusions to the Law : 1 Kings ii 3, " Keep the charge of the Lord
thy God,  as it is written in the law of Moses;" iii 14, "If thou
wilt walk in my ways to keep my statutes," &c. ; vi 11, 12, viii 58, 61, ix,
4, 6, xi, 38, 2 Kings x. 31, " Jehu took no heed to walk in the law of the Lord
God of Israel ;'' xiv. 6, "the book of the law of Moses;" xvii 13, 15, 34,
37, "law of the Lord;" xviii 6, and xxi. 8, xxiii. 3, 25, "law of Moses."
3. Expressions of preference for Jerusalem and the temple : 1 Kings viii
16, 29, ix. 3, xi. 36, xiv, 21, 2 Kings xxi 4, 7,
4, Of the duration of David's house : 1 Kings xi, 36, " That David may
have a light always before me in Jerusalem ; " xv, 4, 2 Kings viii, 19.
5. Of fidelity to Jehovcdi : 1 Kings viii 61, xi, 4, xv. 3, 14, 2 Kings xx. 3.
6. A proverbial expression to denote the male sex : 1 Kings xiv. 10, xxi. 21,
2 Kings ix. 8, xiv. 26.
7. Slept with his fathers — to denote death ofa king: 1 Kings xi 43, xiii.
20, &c., 2 Kings xxiv. 6.

II. After the Kingdom was divided,
1. Kingdom of Judah till Hezekiah.
Rehoboam reigned,  1 Kings xiv. 21,  17 years, B.
Abiam   xv. 2,  3
Asa   XV. 10,  41
Jehoshaphat   xxii, 42,  25
Joram  2 Kings viii, 17,  » , 8

Ahaziah 
Athaliah 
J oash 
Amaziah 
LTzZiah 
Jotham 
Ahaz 
Hf zekiah, first period of
hiS reign, 

viii 25,  1
xi, 4 — xii. 1, . . . . 6
xii. 1  40
xiv, 1  29
XV. 2,  52
XV. 33  16
xvi. 2,  16
xviii 2, 10,  6

Sum of all the reigns,  260

jarSjB. C

975.

U ((

957.

U (C

955.

a ii

914.

(( u

889.

H (C

885,

tt 1(

884,

it tt

878,

tt tt

838.

tt tt

809.

tt »

758.

a u

741.

ti tt
it

725.

§ 184, a.] BOOKS OF THE KINGS. 239
tion of different narratives, or of a comphation from
2. Kingdom of Israel.
Jeroboam reigned,  1 Kings xiv. 20,  22 years, B. C. 975.
Nadab   xv, 25  2 " « 954.
Baasha   xv. 33,  24 » " 952.
Elah   xvi. 8,  2 " « 930.
Zimri   x. 15,  — 7 days, « 928.
Omri   xvi. 23,  12 years, " 928.
Ahab   xvi. 29,  22 " " 917.
Ahaziah   xxii 52,  2 « « 897.
Joram  2 Kings iii, 1,  12 " » 896.
Jehu   X. 34,  28 " " 884,
Jehoahaz   xiii. 1,  17 " " 856.
Joash   xiii 10,  16 " « 840.
Jeroboam II   xiv. 23,  41 " « 825.
Zachariah   xv. 8,  — 6 mo. " 772.
Shallum   xv. 13,  — 1 « " 771.
Menahem   xv. 17,  10 years, " 771.
Pekaiah   xv. 23,  2 « " 760.
Pekah   xv. 27,  20 « " 758.
Hosea   xvii. 1,  9 " " 729.
241 y, 7 m. 7 d.
The chronologists have made various attempts to reconcile the two differ
ent series. The most successful method is to suppose imperfect are given
for entire years; that there are errors in the numbers; and sometimes that
there was an interregnum — e. g. in the kingdom of Israel, between Jeroboam
II. and Zachariah, of eleven years, and between Pekah and Hosea of nine
years; so that the duration of the kingdom of Israel may be fixed at
253 years. From 975 to 722 B. C.
3. Kingdom of Judah to the Exile.
Hezekiah, rest of his reign,  23 years, B. C. 722.
Manasseh reigned,  2 Kings xxi 1,  55 « « 696.
Amon   xxi- 19.  2 " " 641.
Josiah   xxii 1,  31 « " 639.
Jehoahaz   xxiii 31,  — 3 mos. " 609.
Jehoiakim   xxiii 36,  11 years, « 608.
Jehoiachin   xxiv. 8,  — 3 mos. « 598.
Zedekiah   xxiv. 8,  ^ years, « 598.
Sum of all the reigns,  133 y. 6 m. «
From 722 to 588 B. C.

240 BOOKS OF THE KINGS. [§ 184, fl.
them." But 1 Kings xix. 16, does not agree with 2
Kings viii. 7 — 16. In the first passage, Jehovah com
mands Elijah to anoint Hazael as king of Syria. In
the latter, Elisha informs Hazael that he shall be king
over Syria. The thought appears new to both of them.
The whole story of Elijah and Elisha is derived,
directly or indirectly, from legends of the people, or of
the schools of the prophets. Perhaps it is compiled
from two documents. Eichhorn infers this from the
difference of the language, and Meyer from the simi
larity of the two accounts.'

" [To me it seems we may discover such marks, though perhaps it is not
easy to say where one document begins and anotlier ends,
1 Kings iii 5 — 28, differs in character from the preceding and following
chapters. The writer or compiler of these books is hostile to sacrifices ; yet
in this chapter, after Solomon had sacrificed at the chief high place, Jeho
vah appears to him in a dream, and offers him whatever he will choose.
This tends to encourage such un-Mosaic sacrifices. The story of Solomon's
judgment in the case of the two harlots, has a legendary character, unlike
the rest of this part of the book. The connection is not broken, if this
passage (verses 5 — 28) is removed. One section may have closed with
iii 4, and the next have begun with iv, 1, and the compiler inserted from a
different source the verses now intervening.
Chap, iv. 20, 21, seems to be either an interpolation, or else to be mis
placed. Perhaps ii 45, has been added by a later hand, if it did not proceed
from the compiler : x. 1 — 13, story of the queen of Sheba, disturbs the
connection : x, 14, connects well with ix, 28. This account of the queen
contains an obvious interpolation: verse 10, "There came no more such
abundance of spices," &c,, to verse 12 ; this may have been added by the
compiler, but it could scarcely have proceeded from the original relator of
this anecdote. The whole of chap, xiii. is distinguished from its context
by its mythical character. The same may be said of the entire story of
Elisha and Elijah, 1 Kings xvii. — xix. (xx. 28 — 43.'), 2 Engs i ii iii,
6 — 20, iv, — viii, 15, xiii, 14 — 31. — I Kings xxi, 25, '26, is evidently an
interpolation,] » See Eichhorn, §482, p. 554, "la; , uistead of ';ib ; 2 Kings iv. 2. ''BS,
instead of PS? ; 16, 23. Suffix iST , for ';ii ; verses 3, 7. See § 185. See,
also, Meyer, Ub. d, Verhaltniss d, Erzahlungen von Elia, in Bertholdt, Krit.
Journal, voi iv. pt. 3, p. 223, sqq.

§ 184, a.] BOOKS OF THE KINGS. 241
The passage, 2 Kings xiv. 25, is abrupt, and sepa
rated from its connection; — Jeroboam, son of Joash, "re
stored the coast of Israel, from the entering of Hamath,
unto the Sea of the Plain, according to the word of the
Lord God of Israel, which he spake by the hand of his
servant Jonah, the son of Amittai.""
The fohowing passages have the most documentary
character : 1 Kings i. iv. vi. vh. ix. 10, sqq. The
passage, 2 Kings xvih. — xx., is not contemporaneous ;
it is by no means written by Isaiah.' Yet the author
seems to have made use of written authorities, which he
frequently mentions — such as the Book of the Acts of
Solomon,' the Book of the Chronicles of the Kings
of Israel,"* and of Judah.'
The date of the book,^ and the legendary character of
some of the narratives, forbid us to suppose these were
the official annals of the realm ; ^ but it is difficult to
determine whether they were private historical works,
as Eichhorn supposes, or extracts from the annals, as
Bertholdt and Movers maintain. The latter, however,
thinks he used one authority which he has not men
tioned; namely, the "Book of the Kings of Israel,"
which is referred to in 1 Ch. ix. 1, and 2 Ch. xx. 34."
" [No reference is made elsewhere to this prophecy of Jonah, nor is the
prophecy itself now extant]
» Comp. § 213. ' 1 Kings xi 41.
'' Chap. xiv. 19, xv. 31, xvi 5, 14, 20, 27, xxii 39, 2 Kings i 17, x, 34,
xiii 8, 12, XV. 11, 15, 21, 26, 31.
" Chap. xiv. 29, xv. 7, 23, xxii. 46, 2 Kings viii 33, xii 30, xiv. 18, 38,
XV. 6, 36, xvi. 19, xx. 20, xxi 17, xxiii. 28, xxiv. 5.
/ § 185. ^ Havernik, voi ii. pt 1, p. 150, sqq.
* [See Eidihom's opinion, § 482, and Bertholdt's, p. 947, sqq. With respect
to Eichhorn's hypothesis upon the affinity of our book and that of Chronicles,
it raay be remarked that there is no other vestige of the life of Solomon —
which, it is pretended, lies at its foundation, as collateral with the life of
David  than the fact that some passages have a coloring somewhat more
VOL. II. 31

242 BOOKS OF THE KINGS. [§ 184, 6.
§ 184, b.
[FURTHER CHARACTERISTICS OF THESE BOOKS.
1. Numerous passages occur in which natural actions
and events are referred to the ultimate, rather than the
immediate cause. Thus, in 1 Kings xi. 31, it is Jeho
vah who puts the threat in Ahijah's mouth. In xii. 16,
where Rehoboam refuses to grant the people's request,
it is added, " The thing was from the Lord." The
phrase " The word of God came," or " Thus saith the
Lord," — as in the previous books, — often denotes mere
human counsels, as in xih. 1, 2, 9, 17, 18, 20, 26, 32,
and xiv. 5, where it is probable Ahijah knew from other
sources that Jeroboam's wife was coming in disguise to
inquire respecting her chhd. In xx. 13, where a prophet
assures Ahab of the victory, the counsel is referred to
Jehovah, though it apparently originated with the
prophet himself. The same must be said of the mythical
narrative in verses 36 — 42. False prophets make use
of the authority of Jehovah ; for example, " Zedekiah
made him horns of iron, and said, ' Thus saith Jehovah,
" With these shalt thou push the Syrians, until thou have
consumed them,"'" (xxh. 11.) The result was very
different, for the Syrians conquered, and the king of Is
rael was slain. Micaiah — apparently a true prophet —
says to Ahab, in the name of Jehovah, " Go, and pros
per, for Jehovah shah deliver it into the hand of the
king." But when more earnestly adjured, he utters a
prediction of an opposite character. Even Rab-shakeh
ancient and chronological than others. From Esther x, 2, and the citations
of Chronicles, it may be doubted whether the author ever actually used
those works. For the anti-Israelitic spirit of the history of Israel, see
Bertholdt, p, 949,]

§ 184, b.] BOOKS OF THE KINGS, 243
appeals to the same authority, in 2 Kings xviii. 26 —
" Am I come up without the Lord against this place ?
The Lord said to me, ' Go up against this land and
destroy it. ' "
2. The priests seem to exert but little influence.
Solomon had but two — Zadok and Abiathar, (1 Kings
iv. 4.) They could be removed at the king's pleasure,
for the latter had been previously discharged," and was
afterwards restored to favor, (h. 27.) However, their
authority was sometimes respected, for Jehoiada would
not suffer Athaliah to be slain in the temple when the
priest forbade, (2 Kings xi. 16.) A priest and a prOphet
anointed Solomon king, (i. 34, 39.) The sacerdotal
office did not necessarily descend to the sons, for the
son of Zadok was a scribe, (iv. 2.) Even at the conse
cration of the temple, the priests are subordinate to the
king. Uriah the priest makes an idolatrous altar at the
command of Ahaz, (2 Kings xvi. 10 — 16;) and, at
Hezekiah's command, (2 Kings xix.,) the elders of the
priests wear sackcloth, contrary to the Mosaic law.
3. The book contains numerous mythical passages.
In some of them the mythical portion is very conspicu
ous. Such are the two visions of Solomon, in 1 Kings
iii. 6 — 16, and ix. 1 — 9; the story of the miraculous
cloud of smoke at the consecration of the temple, (vih.
10 — 12;) the prophecy against the altar and Beth-el,
with the symbolical action accompanying it, (xiii. 1 — 10,
especially 4 — 6 ;) the story of the death of the prophet,
(xih. 11 — 32;) Ahijah's prophecy against Jeroboam,
(xiv. 1 — 16 ;) the story of Elijah, (xvii. — xix.,) especial
ly in the account of his miraculous support, (xvii. 6, xix.
" But this seems contrary to the spirit of the Mosaic code, which does
not deem it possible for a priest to be faulty, or, at least, makes no provision
against a faithless priest. See Gramberg, 1. c. vol. i p. 220, sqq.

244 BOOKS OF THE KINGS. [§ 184, 6.
5 — 8 ;) the supply of the widow's flour and oil, (xvii.
16,) and the restoration of the chhd, (verse 22;) the
miraculous fire, (xviii. 38, sqq. ;) the visit of Jehovah,
(xix. 9 — 18.) The continuation and conclusion of the
history of Elijah and his successor are filled with mythical
narratives. Such are the accounts of the destruction
of the soldiers sent to capture Elijah, (2 Kings i. 6 — 16 ;)
and that of his ascent to heaven, (h. 1 — 1 1 ;) Elisha's mi
raculous passage of the Jordan, his healing the deadly
waters, and the destruction of the little children who
mocked him, (h. 19 — 22, and 23, 24.) The mythical
narrative ascribes nearly the same acts to Elisha which
had previously been wrought by Elijah ; for example,
Elisha increases the widow's oh, (iv. 1 — 7,) as his mas
ter had done, (1 Kings xvii. 16 ;) he restores the hfe
of a child, (iv. 18 — 37,) and Elijah had done the same,
(1 Kings xvii. 17 — 24.) He renders poisonous pottage
wholesome, and feeds one hundred men with twenty
barley loaves, (iv. 38 — 44.) He cures Naaman of the
leprosy, (v. 1 — ^27,) causes iron to swim, (vi. 1 — 7,)"
and smites with blindness the troops sent to take him,
leads them to the wrong place, and then restores their
sight, gives them a feast, and sends them home, (vi. 16
— ^23.) After his death, a dead body is accidentahy
thrust into his tomb, and is restored to life as it touches
his bones, (xiii. 14 — 21.) In all these instances, it is
obvious the accounts are mythical.
The story of the shadow on the dial of Hezekiah
being made to go backwards ten degrees, (2 Kings xx.
8 — 11,) is obviously a myth. But these are, perhaps,
the only mythical accounts in the book.
» Eichhorn (Allg. Bib, voi iv. p, 209, 210) thinks he fished the axe out of
the river with a stick. Naturalistic attempts at explanation seem often more
difficult to accept than the original story.

§ 184, b.] BOOKS OF THE KINGS. 245
4. References to the ancient history of the Jews, and
the Mosaic Law, or the Law of Jehovah, are most fre
quent in the latter part of the second book, as in 2 Kings
xiv. 6, where a Mosaic statute is quoted, (compare
Deut. xxiv. 16 ;) xvi. 3, where the nations cast out of
Canaan for their idolatry are alluded to ; and also in xvii.
7, 8, 11, 13, 36 — 39. The brazen serpent is men
tioned as an idol, (xvih. 4.) The covenant of Jehovah
and Law of Moses are referred to, (verse 12 ; compare
verse 32.) Instances of this sort are numerous in the
latter chapters of this book, (xxi. 1 — 8, xxh. xxih.)
This is one proof of the fidelity of the historian. As the
Mosaic laws began to be written and made known,
allusions to them occur in the history.
6. These books, like those of Samuel, abound in
little natural touches, which show the author's delicate
sense of historical fidelity, and prove he sometimes
drew from nature. Some of the most striking traits of
this character are the following: The threat of Ben-
hadad, (in 1 Kings xx. 10,) that he would bring so large
an army that the " dust of Samaria should not suffice
for handfuls," with the truly laconic reply of Ahab, " Let
not him that girdeth on, boast as he that putteth off,"
his armor." This is told Ben-hadad while he is drink
ing. He rephes in a single word' — "Place;" that is,
"Bring up the engines of war." Again: it is said,
(verse 27,) " The chhdren of Israel pitched before them
like two little flocks of kids. But the Syrians fihed the
country." The conduct of Jezebel — equally infamous
as a wife and a queen — is delineated with graphic
fidelity, in xxi. 7, sqq., and 2 Kings ix. 30, sqq. : " She
painted her eyes, and tired her head, and looked out at

246 BOOKS OF THE KINGS. [§ 184, b.
a window." Equally natural are the taunts uttered to
Micaiah the prophet, who had predicted the defeat of
the Israehtes — " Which way went the Spirit ofthe Lord
from me to speak to thee ? " and Micaiah's reply — " Be
hold, thou shalt see in that day when thou shalt go into
an inner chamber to hide thyself." The king says, " Put
this fellow in prison,  unth 1 come in peace ; " and
the prophet answers, " If thou return at all in peace, the
Lord hath not spoken by me," (xxii. 24, sqq.) Such
zeal inspired the nation to repair the temple, that " they
reckoned not with the men,  for they dealt faith
fully," (2 Kings xii. 16.) The king of Judah chahenges
the king of Israel, saying, " Come, let us look one
another in the face,"" (xiv. 8.) The honesty of a man
could not be better delineated, than is done in 2 Kings
vi. 6. A laborer had lost his axe in the water, and he
exclaims to the prophet, " Alas ! master ! for it was bor
rowed."* Throughout the book, the prophets of Jehovah usually
appear as hostile to the reigning power. Even in the
time of Solomon, Ahijah designates Jeroboam as destined
to succeed to the throne, and by a symbolic act predicts
the separation of the ten tribes, (1 Kings xi. 29 — 39.)
A prophet, in presence of Jeroboam, utters his fierce de
nunciations against the altar which that idolatrous king
had erected, (xiii. 1 — 10.) Ahijah, who had assisted
in elevating Jeroboam, is also ready to denounce and
execrate him and his posterity, (xiv. 1 — 17.) Micaiah
the prophet fearlessly opposes Ahab, who says, " I hate
' The Seventy render the Hebrew, ilstlS, by xsxgvppdfof, though per
haps xexQi^ppifot' is the true reading. The Dutch version quaintly reads
— Ach ! mynheere ! want hei was geleent.

§ 186.] BOOKS OF THE KINGS. 247
him, for he doth not prophesy good concerning me, but
evil," (xxii. 8—28.) Elisha expresses the greatest con
tempt for Jehoram, king of Israel — " W^ere it not that I
regard the presence of Jehoshaphat,  I would not
look towards thee, nor see thee," (2 Kings hi. 13, 14.)]
§ 186.
TIME OF THE COMPOSITION.
Here, likewise, the customary references to a later
period, such as unto this day, (1 Kings viii. 8, ix. 13, 21,
X. 12, xii. 19, 2 Kings viii. 22, x. 27, xiv. 7, xvi. 6, xvh.
23, 34, 41,) do not ah unite in one point of time.
Probably these references were made in the works
from which the author drew his materials. The same
reference to a later age appears in the parahel passages in
Chronicles : thus the staves of the ark are said to be
" there unto this day," in 2 Ch. v. 9, as weh as in
1 Kings viii. 8. Compare, also, x. 19.
According to 1 Kings viii. 8, the temple was then
standing, and David's family was sthl on the throne,
according to verse 26 ; and therefore Bertholdt places
the date of the document on which this part of the histo
ry is founded in the last part of the kingdom of Judah.
Jahn and Havernik place it during Evil-merodach's reign
of two years. According to 2 Kings x. 27, Samaria was
still standing."
Some of the works referred to bring us far down into
the period after the destruction of the kingdom of Israel.
In 1 Kings xiii. 2, the birth of Josiah, and his acts, are
spoken of, and again in 2 Kings xxh. xxih., especially
16, 26. To judge from these passages, the author
¦' See Bertholdt, p. 945.

248 BOOKS OF THE KINGS. [§ 186.
wrote long after the time of Josiah. " Like unto him,"
says the writer, " was there no king before him, 
neither after him arose there any hke him."
In 1 Kings viii. 47, the return from exile is men
tioned ; the destruction of the temple, (ix. 7, 8 ;) the
dispersion of the people, (xiv. 16 ;) the Babylonian exhe,
in 2 Kings xx. 17. According to these passages and
the conclusion of the book, it was written during the
Babylonian exhe, and towards the end of it."
This date agrees with the whole spirit of the book ;
with the constant reference to the Mosaic Law ; the
aversion to sacrifices on the high places ; the stiff pro
phetic pragmatism ; the gloomy view of the history ; the
legends and exaggerations.' § 186.
DIFFERENCE FROM THE BOOKS OF SAMUEL.
There is much in favor of the identity of the author
of the two books ; the strongest arguments are the ref-
* Bertholdt, p. 959, against Jahn, vol, ii p, 236, Hdvemik, vol, ii. pt 1,
p, 170.
' There are likewise more modern peculiarities of language, which de
termine in favor ofthis period: ipis, for SS ; 1 Kings xiv. 2, 2 Kings viii.
1 ; see § 184, a, p. 238. itli» , for 'iFiNi ; 2 Kings i 15 ; comp. iii 11, sqq., viii
8. Qm'i. , for Diri^; IKuigsix. 8, T^a"! ; 2 Kings xi 13, ni3ina ; I Kings
XX, 14, sqq. IS, for ISlh; 1 Kings v. 2. Dinri; I Kmgs xxi. 8, 11, 21;
2 Kings xxv, 8, D^IS ; 1 Kings viii. 61, et al. i'^Sijn ; 2 Kings xviii 7.
linea ; verse 19. [nn& ; 1 Kings x. 15, xx. 24, 2 Kings xviii 24.] ni-Jin"^ ;
verse 26 ; comp. Neh. xiii 24. ^H toBm>3 'la'n ; 2 Kings xxv, 6. To these
the names of the months (1 Kings vi 1, 37, viii. 2) are sometimes errone
ously added. From the words "iren 135 , 1 Kings v. 4, (iv. 24,) Gesenius
concludes it was composed in Babylonia. But see above, § 1 47, a, p. 41, note a.

§ 186.] BOOKS OF THE KINGS. 249
erence of 1 Kings ii. 26, sq., to 1 Sam. u. 36," of 1 Kings
h. 11, — " seven years reigned he in Hebron, and thirty
and three years reigned he in Jerusalem," — to 2 Sam.
V. 5. — "In Hebron he reigned over Judah seven years
and six months, and in Jerusalem he reigned thirty and
three years over ah Israel and Judah."
The following passages refer to the books of Sam
uel : —
1 Kings ii, 3, 4, " And keep the charge of the Lord thy God, to
walk in his ways, to keep his statutes, and his commandments, and
his judgments, and his testimonies, as it is written in the law of
Moses, that thou mayest prosper in all that thou doest, and whither
soever thou turnest thyself: that the Lord may continue his word
which he spake concerning me, saying, ' If thy children take heed
to their way, to walk before me in truth with all their heart, and
with all their soul, there shall not fail thee (said he) a man on the
throne of Israel.' "
Chap, V, 17, 18, " And the king commanded, and they brought
great stones, costly stones, and hewed stones, to lay the foundation
of the house. And Solomon's builders and Hiram's builders did
hew them, and the stone-squarers : so they prepared timber and stones
to build the house,"
Chap, viii. 18, 19, 25. " And the Lord said unto David my
father, ' Whereas it was in thine heart to build a house unto my
name, thou didst well that it was in thine heart. Nevertheless thou
shalt not build the house ; but thy son, that shall come forth out of
thy loins, he shall build the house unto my name.' Therefore now,
Lord God of Israel, keep with thy servant David my father that
thou promisedst him, saying, 'There shall not fail thee a man in
my sight to sit on the throne of Israel ; so that thy children take
heed to their way, that they walk before me as thou hast walked
before me.' "
They refer to
2 Sara, vii. 12 — 16, " And when thy days be fulfilled, and thou
shalt sleep with thy fathers, I will set up thy seed after thee, which

" See above, p. 226.
VOL. II. 32

250

BOOKS OF THE KINGS.

[§ 186.

shall proceed out of thy bowels, and I will establish his kingdom.
He shall build a house for my name, and I will establish the throne
of his kingdom forever. I will be his father, and he shall be my
son ; if he commit iniquity, I will chasten him with the rod of men,
and with the stripes of the children of men : but my mercy shall not
depart away from him, as I took it from Saul, whom I put away
before thee. And thine house and thy kingdom shall be established
forever before thee : thy throne shall be established forever,"
But in this parallel there is an important difference
between 1 Kings ii. 4, viii. 26, and 2 Sam. vii.
12 — 16, in respect to conditions of keeping the
law annexed to the blessings pronounced upon David.
The formula, " There shall not fail,"' does not occur in
the latter. The only striking parallel is between the com
mands respecting the erection of the temple. But this
is not more striking than the reference to Josh. vi. 26,
in 1 Kings xvi. 34. Yet from that no one infers Joshua
and Kings were both written by the same author.
There is a simharity also between the following
passages : —

1 Kings iv, 1—6. " So King
Solomon was king over all Israel,
And these were the princes which
he had, Azariah the son of Za
dok the priest ; Elihoreph and
Ahiah, the sons of Shisha, scribes ;
Jehoshaphat the son of Ahilud,
the recorder. And Benaiah the
son of Jehoiada was over the
host : and Zadok and Abiathar
were the priests : and Azariah
the son of Nathan was over the
officers : and Zabud the son of

the king's friend : and Ahishar

2 Kings viii. 15 — 18. "And
David reigned over all Israel ,
and David executed judgment
and justice unto all his people.
And Joab the son of Zeruiah was
over the host; and Jehoshaphat
the son of Ahilud was recorder ;
and Zadok the son of Ahitub,
and Abimelech the son of Abia
thar, were the priests : and Sera-
iah was the scribe : and Benaiah
the son of Jehoiada was over
both the Cherethites and the Pe-

Nathsm was piiScipal officer, and lethit'es; and David's sons were

chief rulers.''

" n'isi-Hi.

§ 186.] BOOKS OF THE KINGS. 261
was over the household : and Adoniram the son of Abda was
over the tribute,"
It has been said there is no resting-place between
2 Samuel and 1 Kings, and therefore both books proceed
ed from the same author. But there is a resting-place in
the narrative ; for 2 Sam. xxi. — xxiv. has all the charac
teristics of an appendix, [which was subsequently added
to connect that to the following book.] "
However, the essential difference between the two
books appears plain, 1 . from the traces of the Babylonish
period, from beginning to end ; 2. from the acquaintance
with the Pentateuch ; 3. from the disapproval of free
dom of worship; 4. from the different spirit of the
history ; 6. from a reference to the sources of the author ;
and, 6. from the accuracy of the dates.
[The Talmud makes Jeremiah the author;' but this
opinion is contradicted, amongst other arguments, by the
fact that the history of his own time is treated of but
superficially, and by the following passage : —
2 Kings xxv. 27 — 30. " And it came to pass in the seven and
thirtieth year of the captivity of Jehoiachin king of Judah, in the
" See Eichhorn, § 484. Jahn (p, 232) defends the opinion that there is but
one author. The remark of Stahelin (in Tholuck, Theol, Anz,, 1838, p, 526)
is still more important, viz,, that there is a close philological affinity be
tween 1 Kings i, ii. and the books of Samuel, and that originally they were
united, CrethUes and Pldhites occur in 1 Kings i 38, and nowhere else
except in 3 Samuel, 1Z5&3 'a'b'Q occurs in the books of Kings only once,
1 Kings i, 13; but in Samuel, 1 Sam. xix. 11, 2 Sam. xix. 6, Likewise,
mB3 ma , only in 1 Kings i, 29, but in 2 Sam. iv. 9 ; "^iJa pin , only 1 Kings
i, ii — but see 1 Sam. xiii 13, 2 Sam. v. 12 ; t«''ia , in the books of Kings
only, 1 Kings i. 9, 19, 25 ; but 3 Sam, vi 13 ; ark of the Lord Jehovah,
1 Kings ii 26, as in the books of Samuel, To follow this hint, we must
distinguish between two redactions, or suppose the author of Samuel left
something unused in his authorities, which was taken by the author of the
books of Kings.
' [See above, vol. i p. 30, sqq.]

262 BOOKS OF THE KINGS. [§ 186.
twelfth month, on the seven and twentieth day of the month, that
Evil-merodach king of Babylon in the year that he began to reign did
lift up the head of Jehoiachin king of Judah out of prison; and he
spake kindly to him, and set his throne above the throne of the kings
that were with him in Babylon ; and changed his prison garments :
and he did eat bread continually before him all the days of his life.
And his allowance was a continual allowance given him of the king,
a daily rate for every day, all the days of his life."]
Havernik and Movers" make use of the affinity be
tween the books of Kings, and, in some places, of Jere
miah's writings ; for example, between 1 Kings ix. 8, 9,
and Jer. xxh. 8 ; 2 Kings xvii. 13, 14, and Jer. vii. 13, 24 ;
2 Kings xxi. 12, and Jer. xix. 3 ; and the identity of
Jer. hi. with 2 Kings xxiv. 18, xxv.,' to support their
different opinions — one, that Jeremiah wrote the books
of Kings ; the other, that he wrote an older book of
Kings, the source of the present books, and that these
latter, and the prophecies of Jeremiah, were cohected by
the same compher, who also wrote Jer. Iii. But this
affinity can be explained in another manner, either on
the supposition that Jeremiah was used by the author of
Kings, or that Jeremiah made use of a more ancient
author, who wrote some passages now in the books of
Kings. In 2 Kings xxv. 27 — 30, especially, there is
evidence against the opinion that the books were com
posed by Jeremiah.
° Havernik, 1. c. p. 171. Movers, De utriusque Vatic, Jer. Indole, &c.,
p. 47, Hdvemik, Comm. z. Daniel, p, 14.
' The other passages cited by Movers prove nothing.

§ 187. J BOOKS OF THE CHRONICLES. 263
CHAPTER VI.
BOOKS OF THE CHRONICLES."
§ 187
NAME, DIVISION, AND CONTENTS, OF THE BOOKS OF
THE CHRONICLES,
These make but one book in the Hebrew canon, and
are but one, if we regard their internal character. In
the Hebrew, they have this title — s'^'s^n "'^y^. Words of
THE Days, or Annals. In the Alexandrine version,
they form two books, with the title IlaQaXeiTiS^eva, that
is. Supplements, or Things which are left. Follow
ing Jerome,' we call them the Books of Chronicles.
I. They contain a register of famhies, and other lists,
(1 Ch. i. — ix.) In this the list of families in the tribe of
Benjamin appears tuxice, (vii. 6 — 12, and vih. 1 — 40,)
and in part a third time, (ix. 36 — 40.) But the tribes
of Dan and Zebulon do not appear at ah. These
accounts are drawn in part from the older historical
booksj and in part from other sources unknown to us.
Single historical notices are interwoven with them^'^nd
there are chasms and inaccuracies.' • %
" Serrarii, Sandii, Vid. Strigdii, Jo. Clerici, lAghtfootii, Maur. Commentt.
Lud. Lavateri Comm. in Paralip. ; Heidelb. 1599, sq.
/. H. Michaelis, Annotatt in Paralip., in Uber. Annotatt in Hagiogr. ed.
J. H. Michaelis ; Hai 1719, 1720 ; 3 vols. 4to. Geddes, 1. c.
' As cited above, vol, i, p. Ill, sq.
" A Table of Passages parallel with 1 Ch. i — ix.
1 Ch. i. 1 — 4, compiled  Gen. v.
 i 5—23   X.-2— 29.
 i. 24 — ^27, compiled   xi. 10, sqq.

254 BOOKS OF the chronicles. [§ 187.
On account of the alterations and additions in the
parallels to chap, h., Keil and Havernik" maintain that
the Chronicler did not use the historical books of the
Old Testament as authorities, but resorted to some other
famhy registers. Bertholdt has a simhar theory,' and
the numerous variants favor this opinion. But these
very alterations and additions show that the Chronicler,
or his authority, referred to, and made use of, these his-
I Ch, i 39—31  Gen, xxv, 13—15,
 i 32, 33   xxv, 2—4,
 i, 35 — 54, compiled   xxxvi 10 — 43.
 ii, 3, 4, compiled   xxxviii 3 — 30.
 ii. 5   xlvi 12.
 ii, 10—12  Ruth iv. 19.
 ii. 13 — 17, enlarged  I Sam. xvi. 6, sqq,
 iii I — 9, enlarged and different 3 Sam, iii. 3 — 6, v. 14.
 iii. 10 — 16  Books of Kings,
 iv, 24  Num, xxvi, 12,
 iv, 28—31  Josh, xix, 2—5,
 V, 1 — 10, enlarged and differ- J Gen. xlvi, 9, Num. xxvi. 5, Josh, xiii,
ent  I 16, 17.
 V. 27—29  Gen. xlvi. II, Ex. vi 18, 23, xxviii, 1,
 V, 30 — 41, more complete, , , , Ezra vii. 1 — 5.
 vi. 1—4, 7  Ex. vi 16—29, 23, 24.
— — vi. 39—66, different  Josh, xxi, 10—39,
 vii. 1 — 5, enlarged  Gen. xlvi 13, Num. xxvi 23.
... ,„ ,.^ , SGen, xlvi 21, Num, xxvi 38—40,
 vu, 6 — 12, different  ^ , ^^i. •¦¦ ,
( 1 Ch, vm, 1, sqq.
 vii 13  Gen. xlvi 24.
 vii. 14 — 19, different  Num. xxvi. 29, xxvii 1.
 vii. 20—29  Num, xxvi 34—38.
vii. 30 — 40  Gen. xlvi, 17, Num, xxvi, 44 — 47.
Gen, xlvi 21, Num. xxvi 38—40,
1 Ch. vii, 6, sq.
 viii. '«i9— 40, and ix. 35—44, ^
different, with van- > 1 Sam. ix, 1, xiv, 49—51,
ous readings. , , , 5
 ix, 2 — 34, enlarged and different Neh, xi, 3 — 24,
° KeU, Versuch iiber d, Bucher d. Chronikeln ; 1833, p, 163, sqq, Ha
vernik, 1. c, vol. ii pt i p. 182, Movers, Ub. d, Ch. ; 1834, p, 65, sqq.
' P, 965, sqq.

viii, 1 — ^28, different  j

§ 187.] BOOKS OF the chronicles. 255
torical books. Thus, for example, the remark upon Er,
in ii. 3, that " he was wicked in the sight of Jehovah,
and he slew him," is taken, word for word, from Gen.
xxxvih. 7. The statement about Achar, (Achan) h. 7,
" the troubler of Israel  who sinned in the ac
cursed thing," refers to Josh. vh. In h. 6, there is a
false combination from 1 Kings v. 11, (iv. 31, in the
English Bible,) for Ethan, Heman, Calcol, and Dara, are
enumerated among the sons of Zerah. In ih. 1 — 6, the
sons of David are divided into two classes — such as
were born at Hebron, and such as were born at Jerusa
lem. This division refers to 2 Sam. hi. 2 — 6, and v.
14 — 16. Again: the genealogy of the kings (ih. 11 —
16) is borrowed from the books of Kings, as it appears
from the use of the more ancient form of the name, ter
minating in ^it; , which occurs nowhere else but in vi. 24.
In vi. 7, (vi. 22, English Bible,) among the sons of
Kohath are Amminadab, Korah, Assir, Elkanah, and
Ebiasaph, which are incorrectly borrowed from Ex. vi.
23, 24. Keil himself, however, admits that in vi. 39 —
66, the same original document — though disfigured —
lies at the bottom of both this passage and its parallels.
There is a remarkable parallelism between ix. 2 — 34,
and Neh. xi. 3—24."
* Keil entirely denies this, though Movers admits a common source.
KeU thinks this catalogue in the Chronicles ofthe inhabitants of Jerusalem,
was written before the exUe. But Dahler, (De Lib. Paralip. Auctoritate ;
1819,) Movers, and others, think both this and that in Nehemiah were
written after the exile. But the latter opinion is incorrect, for "the first
inhabitants, in their possessions and their cities," mentioned in 1 Ch. ix. 2,
are not " those who dwelt in it before Jerusalem was peopled with the
inhabitants of the adjoiiiuig country," (Neh, xi 1,) for these latter are not
the inhabitants of Jerusalem, but contrasted with them, as it is clear iVom
verse 3 — "And at Jerusalem dwelt of the childreh of Judah," &C, The
earlier inhabitants are obviously contrasted with those who had been
brought in from the country.

266

BOOKS OF THE CHRONICLF.S.

[§ 187.

The following are parallel : —

Neh, xi. 3, 4, "Now these
are the chief of the province that
dwelt in Jerusalem : but in the
cities of Judah dwelt every one
in his possession in their cities,
Israel, the priests, and the Le
vites, and the Nethinims, and the
children of Solomon's servants.
And at Jerusalem dwelt certain
of the children of Judah, and of
the children of Benjamin,''
So that the corruption is clear, especially in the addi
tions of the Chronicler " of the chhdren of Ephraim
and Manasseh," who are not mentioned again.
The following are also parallel : —

1 Ch. ix, 2, 3, "Now the
first inhabitants, that dwelt in
their possessions in their cities,
were, the Israelites, the priests,
Levites, and the Nethinims. And
in Jerusalem dwelt of the chil
dren of Judah, and ofthe children
of Benjamin, and of the children
of Ephraim, and Manasseh.''

I Ch. ix. 4—17. " Uthai,
the son of Ammihud, the son of
Omri, the son of Imri, the son of
Bani, of the children of Pharez
the son of Judah. And of the
Shilonites ; Asaiah the first-born,
and his sons. And of the sons of
Benjamin ; Sallu the son of Me-
shuUam, the son of Hodaviah,
the son of Hasenuah, and Ib-
neiah the son of Jeroham, and
Elah the son of Uzzi, the son of
Michri, and Meshullam the son
of Shephatiah, the son of Reuel,
the son of Ibnijah, and their
brethren, according to their gen
erations, nine hundred and fifty
and six. All these men were
chief of the fathers in the house
of their fathers,
" And ofthe priests; Jedaiah,
and Jehoiarib, and Jachin, and

Neh, xi. 4—19. " Athaiah
the son of Uzziah, the son of
Zechariah, the son of Amariah,
the son of Shephatiah, the son of
Mahalaleel, of the children of
Perez ; and Maaseiah the son of
Baruch, the son of Colhozeh,
the son of Hazaiah, the son of
Adaiah, the son of Joiarib, the
son of Zechariah, the son of
Shiloni. And these are the sons
of Benjamin ; Sallu the son of
Meshullam, the son of Joed, the
son of Pedaiah, the son of Kolai-
ah, the son of Maaseiah, the son
of Ithiel, the son of Jesaiah.
And after him Gabbai, Sallai,
nine hundred twenty and eight.
And Joel the son of Zichri was
their overseer : and Judah the
son of Senuah was second over
the city. Of the priests ; Jedai-

§ 187.]

BOOKS OF THE CHRONICLES.

267

Azariah, the son of Hilkiah, the
son of Meshullam, the son of
Zadok, the son of Meraioth, the
son of Ahitub, the ruler of the
house of God; and Adaiah the
son of Jeroham, the son of Pa-
shur, the son of Malchijah, and
Maasiai the son of Adiel, the son
of Jahzerah, the son of Meshul
lam, the son of Meshilleinith, the
son of Immer, and their brethren,
heads of the house of their fathers,
a thousand and seven hundred
and threescore; very able men
for the work of the service ofthe
house of God. And of the Le
vites ; Shemaiah the son of Ha-
shub, the son of Azrikam, the
son of Hashabiah, of the sons of
Merari ; and Bakbakkar, He-
resh, and Galal, and Mattaniah
the son of Micah, the son of
Zichri, the son of Asaph ; and
Obadiah the son of Shemaiah,
the son of Galal, the son of Jedu-
thun ; and Berechiah the son of
Asa, the son of Elkanah, that
dwelt in the villages ofthe Netoph-
athites. And the porters were
Shallum, and Akkub, and Tal-
mon, and Ahiman, and their
brethren : Shallum was the chief"

ah the son of Joiarib, Jachin.
Seraiah the son of Hilkiah, the
son of Meshullam, the son of
Zadok, the son of Meraioth, the
son of Ahitub, was the ruler of
the house of God. And their
brethren that did the work of the
house were eight hundred twenty
and two : and Adaiah the son of
Jeroham, the son of Pelaliah, the
son of Amzi, the son of Zecha
riah, the son of Pashur, the son
of Malchiah, and his brethren,
chief of the fathers, two hundred
forty and two : and Amashai the
son of Azareel, the son of Ahasai,
the son of Meshillemoth, the son
of Immer, and their brethren,
mighty men of valor, a hundred
twenty and eight : and their
overseer was Zabdiel, the son of
one of the great men. Also of
the Levites; Shemaiah the son
of Hashub, the son of Azrikam,
the son of Hashabiah, the son of
Bunni ; and Shabbethai and Jo-
zabad, of the chief of the Levites,
had the oversight of the outward
business of the house of God."
And Mattaniah the son of Micha,
the son of Zabdi, the son of
Asaph, was the principal to begin
the thanksgiving in prayer : and
Bakbukiah the second among his
brethren, and Abda the son of
Shammua, the son of Galal, the
son of Jeduthun. All the Levites
in the holy city were two hundred

* [There is no parallel to this verse.]
VOL. II. 33

258 BOOKS OF THE CHRONICLES. [§ 187.
fourscore and four. Moreover, the porters, Akkub, Talmon, and
their brethren that kept the gates, were a hundred seventy and two,"
But ix. 18 — 34, is entirely different from Neh. xi.
20 — 36, for Neh. xi. 20, speaks of such as dwelt in
the country, each on his own estate; verse 21, of the
" pecuhar people ; " verses 22, 23, treat of the
Levites ; verse 24, of the royal magistrate ; verse 25,
sqq., of the inhabitants ofthe country towns ; — and
all of this refers to the state of things in Nehemiah's
time. But in the Chronicles, on the conti'ary,
every thing is rather Levitical, and extending
backwards to the time of Moses. Movers considers
verses 18 — 26 an interpolation by the Chronicler, and
that the document is resumed in verse 26. But the
whole passage, from verse 18, is a more modern addition.
It departs from the main design and purport of this list,
which is resumed at verse 34. This passage, (verses 18
— 25,) like the whole chapter, is a recasting of Neh.
xi. But it is not from the age of Nehemiah, as Movers
has erroneously concluded from verse 18, which does
not relate to the particular individuals designated before,
but to the lohole class of porters. A contemporary of
Nehemiah could not have disfigured the list so badly,
nor have referred to the circumstances of other times.
The following is characteristic : Chap. ix. 34, " These
are the heads of famhies of the Levites according to
their famhies, chiefs ; these dwelt at Jerusalem." This
is simhar to vih. 28, where it is said, in the midst of a
register of the Benjamite famhies, " These are the heads
of famhies, according to tlieir famhies, chiefs ; these
dwelt at Jerusalem." It is like verse 32, " These 
dwelt at Jerusalem." Then, (ix. 34,) after taking occa
sion from the words " these dwelt at Jerusalem," the
author returns to his list of the Benjamite famhies, (so

§ 187.] BOOKS OF THE CHRONICLES. 269
that ix. 38, is parallel with viii. 32,) and adheres to it
throughout the passage, (36 — 14,) though he makes a
few deviations." The words in vih. 32, « These also
dwelt at Jerusalem," stand there without any connec
tion, for the same words, which occur in vih. 28, are, in
ix. 34, applied to the Levites. Movers explains this
confusion as the fault of a transcriber.
These books are not without their chasms and inaccu
racies. For example, the list of high priests, (v. 30
— 41,) though it is more perfect than that in Ezra, (vii.
1, sqq.,) has its chasms. The number of high priests —
twenty-two — is not sufficient for so long a period.
The sons of Zerah, Zimri, Ethan, Heman, Calcol, and
Dara, (ii. 6,) are probably the same that occur in
1 Kings V. 11, (English Bible, iv. 31.) But in Ps.
Ixxxviii. 1, Heman and Ethan appear among the Levites
of David's time, (vi. 18, 29.)"
In h. 49, Caleb,, that is, Calubai, is confounded with
the well-known Caleb the son of Jephunneh. Movers
thinks the passage is an interpolation. The Caleb,
whose children are enumerated in verse 60, is still diifer-
ent, or else there is another and somewhat simhar
genealogy. Caleb, in verse 50, is the son of Hur, and
the first-born of Ephratah ; but in verse 19, he is the son of
Hezron, and the husband of Ephrath, and father oi Hur."
" Compare viii 29—38,
* See Movers, p. 2-37. What Havernik (vol, ii, pt i p. 180) says to the
contrary is unintelligible,
" On iii 15, see Hitzig, Kritik, p. 189, and, on the other hand. Movers, p,
157, who, at least, admits the existence of an error in the statement that
Shallum — the same as Johas — is mentioned as the fourth son of Josiah. In
iii, 19, Zerubbabel is the son of Pedaiah ; in Ezra iii, 2, the son of Shealtiel.
Here Movers and Havernik help themselves out of the difficulty by assuming
a Lemrate marriage had taken place. Chap, vi 7, sqq., is defective, com
pared with Ex. vi. 23, 24. So are verses 18—23. See Movers, p. 236.

260 BOOKS OF THE CHRONICLES. [§ 187.
[In iv. 17, 18, something has, perhaps, fahen from
the text, for, after the sons of Ezra are named, it is said,
" she bare Miriam," &c., whhe there is no antecedent
to the pronoun she. The same has, perhaps, taken
place after verse 18, for it says, "these are the sons of
Bithiah," and no list is given ; and likewise after verse
19, where the sons of Hodiah are mentioned in general,
but no hst of them is given.]
There are some remarkable historical notices : —
Chap. iv. 21 — ^23. " The sons of Shelah the son of Judah were,
Er the father of Lecah, and Laadah the father of Mareshah, and the
families ofthe house of them that wrought fine linen, ofthe house of
Ashbea, and Jokim, and the men of Chozeba, and Joash, and Sa-
raph, who had the dominion in Moab, and Jashubi-lehem. And
these are ancient things." These were the potters, and those that
dwelt among plants and hedges : there they dwelt with the king for
his work."
Chap. iv. 38 — 43. " These mentioned by their names were princes
in their families: and the house of their fathers increased greatly.
And they went to the entrance of Gedor, even unto the east side
of the valley, to seek pasture for their flocks. And they found fat
pasture and good, and the land was wide, and quiet, and peace
able ; for they of Ham had dwelt there of old. And these written
by name came in the days of Hezekiah king of Judah, and smote
their tents, and the habitations that were found there, and destroyed
them utterly unto this day, and dwelt in their rooms : because there
was pasture there for their flocks. And some of them, even of the
sons of Simeon, five hundred men, went to Mount Seir, having for
their captains Pelatiah, and Neariah, and Rephaiah, and TJzziel, the
the sons of Ishi. And they smote the rest of the Amalekites that
were escaped, and dwelt there unto this day."
Chap. V. 10. " And in the days of Saul they made war with the

Compare vii 6, and viii 1, with Gen, xlvi. 21. See more examples, in Gram
berg, \. c, p, 51, sqq.
" [floTTie (pt V, ch, ii sect vii. vol. ii. p. 222) thinks these words refer to
" old records," which the Chronicler quoted, as a modern historian writes
" Gibbon " in the margin as his authority for a faot.J

§ 188.] BOOKS OF THE CHRONICLES. 261
Hagarites, who fell by their hand : and they dwelt ih their tents
throughout all the east land of Gilead,"
Chap. V. 19 — 22. " And they made war with the Hagarites, with
Jetur, and Nephish, and Nodab. And they were helped against
them, and the Hagarites were delivered into their hand, and all that
were with them : for they cried to God in the battle, and he was
entreated of them ; because they put their trust in him. And they
took away their cattle; of their camels fifty thousand, and of sheep
two hundred and fifty thousand, and of asses two thousand, and of
men a hundred thousand. For there fell down many slain, because the
war was of God. And they dwelt in their steads until the captivity."
Chap. vii. 21 — 24. "And Zabad his son, and Shuthelah his son,
and Ezer, and Elead, whom the men of Gath that were born in that
land slew, because they came down to take away their cattle. And
Ephraim their father mourned many days, and his brethren came to
comfort him.
" And when he went in to his wife, she conceived and bare a son,
and he called his name Beriah, because it went evil with his house.
And his daughter was Sherah, who built Beth-horon the nether, and
the upper, and Uzzen-sherah."

§ 188.
THE SAME SUBJECT CONTINUED.
II. 1 Ch. X. — xxix. contains the history of David.
In some parts, this is entirely consistent with that in the
books of Samuel, but it is distinguished from that by
having several accounts peculiar to itself, and especiahy
by its Levitical accounts.
III. The history of Solomon ; 2 Ch. i. — ix.
IV. 2 Ch. X. — xxviii. The history of the kingdom
of Judah while the kingdom of Israel also subsisted. It
does not contain the history of Israel.
V. 2 Ch. xxix.— xxxvi. The history of Judah after

262 BOOKS OF THE CHRONICLES. [§ 188.
the fall of Israel, with particular reference to the state
and history of the worship. The three last chapters
are like the books of Kings."

" Tdble of Passages parallel with 1 Ch. x, — 2 Ch, xxxvi,
1 Ch, X. I — 12  I Sam. xxxxi
 xi, 1—9  2 Sam, v, 1—10,
 xi. 10—47.   xxiii 8—39.
 xiii. 1—14   vi, 1 — 11,
 xiv. 1—7   V. 11—16,
 xiv, 8—17   V. 17—25.
 XV. xvi   vi 12—23.
 xvii   vii.
 xviii   viii
 xix   X.
 XX. 1—3   xi 1, xii, 26—31.
 XX. 4—8   xxi, 18—22,
 XXI   xxiv,
2 Ch. i, 2—13  1 Kings iii, 4—15,
 i 14—17   X, 26—29.
 ii   V. 15—32.
 iii 1— V, I   vi. vii. 13—51.
 V. 2 — vii. 10   viii
 vii 11—22.   ix, 1—9,
 viii   ix, 10—28,
 ix, 1—12   X, 1—13.
 ix. 13—31   X, 14—29,
 x. I — xi. 4   xii 1—24.
 xii. 2, 9—11, 13—16   xiv. 21—31.
 xiii. 1, 2, 23   xv. 1, 2, 7, 8.
 xiv. 1, XV, 16—19   XV. 11—24.
 xvi 1—6, 11—14.
 xviii   xxii. 2—35.
 XX, 31— xxi 1   xxii 41—51.
 xxi 5—10  2 Kings viii 17--24.
 xxii 1—9 J  ^"'- 25—29, ix. 16—28, x. 12-
 I —14.
 xxii. 10 — xxiii, 21   xi,
 xxiv, 1—14, 23—27.   xii
 xxv. 1—4, 11, 17—28   xiv, 1—14, 17—20.
 xxvi 1—4, 21, 23   xiv. 21, 22, xv. 2—5, 7.
 xxvii, 1—3, 9,   XV, 33—35, 38,
 xxviii, 1—4   xvi, 2 — 4,

§ 189.] BOOKS OF THE CHRONICLES. 263

§189.
RELATION OF THE CHRONICLES TO THE EARLIER
HISTORICAL BOOKS.
I. In Respect to ANTiq.uiTY.
To decide upon the degree of affinity between the
books of Chronicles and those of Samuel and the
Kings, is, above all, to determine upon their antiquity.
We have the following facts to guide us in this : —
1. The history itself comes down to the end of the
exile. 2 Ch. xxxvi. 20 — 23. " And them that had escaped from the
sword carried he away to Babylon; where they were servants to him
and his sons until the reign of the kingdom of Persia : to fulfil the
word of the Lord by the mouth of Jeremiah, until the land had
enjoyed her Sabbaths : for as long as she lay desolate, she kept Sab
bath, to fulfil threescore and ten years.
" Now in the first year of Cyrus king of Persia  the Lord
stirred up the spirit of Cyrus king of Persia, that he made a procla
mation throughout all his kingdom, and put it also in writing, saying,
' Thus saith Cyrus king of Persia, " All the kingdoms of the earth

2 Ch. xxix. 1, 2  2 Kings xviii 2, 3.
<  xviii 17—35, xix. 14, 15, 35
 xxxu. 9 — 21  < „_
 xxxii 24, 25, 30—33.   xx. 1, 2, 8, 9, 12, sqq, 20, 21.
 xxxiii 1—10, 20   xxi 1—10, 18,
 xxxiii. 21—25.   xxi 19—24.
 xxxiv, 1, 2, 8—28   xxii,
 xxxiv. 29—33   xxiii. 1—20.
 xxxv. 1, 18, 20—24, xxxvi. 1. .  xxiii. 21—23, 28—30.
 xxxvi. 2 — 4   xxiii. 31—34.
 xxxvi, 5, 6, 8   xxiii, 36, 37, xxiv. 1, 6.
 xxxvi 9, 10.   xxiv. 8—10, 14, 17,
 xxxvi. 11, 12   xxiv. 18, 19.
 xxxvi. 22, 23  Ezra i. 1, 2.

264 BOOKS OF. THE CHRONICLES. [§ 189.
hath the Lord God of heaven given me; and he hath charged me to
build him a house in Jerusalem, which is in Judah, Who is there
among you of all his people? The Lord his God be with him, and
let him go up." ' "
2. In that confused passage, 1 Ch. ih. 19 — 24, the
genealogy of the house of David is brought down to the
second generation after Zerubbabel, if no further : —
1 Ch. iii. 19 — 24. " And the sons of Pedaiah were Zerubbabel,
and Shimei : and the sons of Zerubbabel ; Meshullam, and Hananiah,
and Shelomith their sister : and Hashubah, and Ohel, and Berechiah,
and Hasadiah, Jushab-hesed, five. And the sons of Hananiah ;
Pelatiah, and Jesaiah: the sons of Rephaiah, the sons of Arnan, the
sons of Obadiah, the sons of Shechaniah. And the sons of Shecha-
niah ; Shemaiah ; and the sons of Shemaiah ; Hattush, and Igeal,
and Bariah, and Neariah, and Shaphat, six. And the sons of Nea
riah ; Elioenai, and Hezekiah, and Azrikam, three. And the sons
of Elioneai were, Hodaiah, and Eliashib, and Pelaiah, and Akkub,
and Johanan, and Delaiah, and Anani, seven."
R. Benjamin" thinks this genealogy contains nine
generations from Jesiah to Johanan, (verses 21 , 24,) and
therefore comes down to 270 B. C But, according to
Movers and Havernik,' it goes no further than the grand-
chhdren of Zerubbabel — Pelatiah and Jesiah; and
then, as they think, the author adds some names from
David's posterity in general. But Shemaiah is the son
of Shechaniah, (verse 22,) a contemporary of Nehemiah,
(Neh. ih. 29 ;) and therefore the genealogy comes down
to the third generation after Nehemiah. This passage
is commonly regarded as a later addition.''
3. Contrary to all historical propriety, the author
reckons by Daricks in the history of David, (1 Ch. xxix.
" In Meor Enajun, fol, 123, u. » Zunz, L c. p. 31.
' Movers, p. 29, sqq. Havernik, p, 266.
* Eichhorn, § 490. Dahler, 1. c, p, 5. KeU, p. 45,

§ 190, a.] BOOKS OF IHE CHRONICLES. 265
7.) It is plain that the name and use of this coin had
long been current among the Jews."
4. The document in 1 Ch. ix., from the time of Ne
hemiah, (chap, xi.,) could not have been so disfigured as
it has been shown to be, (§ 187,) except in a time
far more modern. Movers thinks the Chronicler was
a younger contemporary of Nehemiah, and wrote about
400 B. C. Zunz places him about 260 B. C.
5. Besides the orthography and language,' the myth
ological and Levitical spirit of the book, as well as its
place in the canon, is evidence in favor of its late
origin." § 190, a.
2. In Respect to their common Contents.
In the passages which the books of Chronicles have
in common with the books of Kings, there are many
" [liS'llK. This word does not appear in the English Bible, but is
translated dram. The origin of the name is doubtful. According to Suidas,
Harpocration, and the scholiast on Aristophanes, (Ecclesiazus, verse 741,) it
is derived from a more ancient Darius ; but according to the common opin
ion, from Darius Hystaspes. Herodotus (iv, 166) does not say this distinctly.
See the etymologies in Gesenius and Winer. But see, also, Hengstenberg,
1, c, vol, i. p. 51, sqq., and Movers, 1. c, p. 26, note 6, and the authorities there
cited.] ' l^-ll , for T]1 ; fi'^^ia*!^';' , for tliiB'l"!^ ; SW , 1 Ch. xiii. 7, for ni? ;
-rj^-l, 1 Ch. xiii 12, {oi1\^!A; ''UJ-'S, 1 Ch. ii 'l2, for ^aJ':; IWS, for
^aa'IS, 2Ch. ii6; f>ia, 2Ch. ii 13; ni'^a, 1 Ch. xxix, 1; '!]T33, 1 Ch,
xxviii 11; ffin.itin, 1 Ch. V. 17; lli'lia , 2 Ch. xiii 22, xxiv. 27; TJS, 1 Ch.
xxi. 27; 1\iS, 2 Ch. ii 15; iiap, 2 Ch. xxix. 16; l^^ijc}, 1 Ch. xxv. 8;
maiiCl , for man ; KSSI , for nasi . Jahn, vol. ii. p. 244, sq. Gramberg,
p. 5, sqq. According to Gesenius (Gesch. Heb. Sprache, p. 157, sq.) and
Gramberg, (p. 39,) some of the variants of the Chronicles may be explained
by the use of the square letter. But this is doubtfui
' Bertholdt (p. 983, sqq.) derives too much fi-om this curcumstanoe, for the
order ofthe book is not chronological. Keil, p. 72.
VOL. II. 34

266 BOOKS or the chronicles. [§ 190, a.
differences between the two. 1. The orthography of
the Chronicles is later." 2. The language is frequently
altered to suit the grammar, or the usage of a later time,
for the sake of clearness or elegance of expression, but
from ignorance and carelessness likewise.''
^ 1 . The Scriptio Plena frequently occurs in the Kethib ; e, g- 13 ilKci ,
I Ch, xviii ]0; nrsis , 2 Ch. viii IS.
2. Writing according to the more modern Aramaic Pronunciation. — T'T; ,
I Ch, xiii 12, for 'TIS; ; -^Tin, I Ch, xi 35, for i-|-|N; praiT, 1 Ch. xviii
5, 6, for pr-2-l ; iaisa , 1 Ch. XV, 27, for jasa , [Movers, p. 200, sqq.]
3. The Correction of inaccurate or irregular Writing. — ^ 2210 , 2 Ch. xxi, 9,
for ainiCJ : S-^aa , I Ch. xi 2, for 13a ; i\D5 , 2 Ch, ix, 18, for noS ; 1i2 , 1
Ch. xi, 17, 18, 22, for HKH, Hence the Chronicler often agrees with tlie
Keri in the parallel passages.
' \. Exchange of the old for tlte modern Formation. — ri5baa,with tllSia '
2 Ch. xiv. 2, sqq. ; ^DSS , with "^IS , I Ch. xvii. 16, and elsewhere. [See
Ewatd, Krit. Gram, p. 194,]
2. Exchange of the old and irregular Inflection for the vmdern or regular ;
e.g. QI1I8, for riT^ns, 2 Ch. ix. 19; ntT;n, for tj^'^n, I Ch, xix, 12;
"lIST^ , for 151^ , 2 Ch, vi. 29 ; and similar changes, which often occur.
3. Alteration of ihe Construction to favor the later Use. — Omission of the
infinitive absolute, 2 Ch. vi, 2, and elsewhere ; plural instead of the feminine
in the names of countries, 1 Ch, xviii 2, 5, 6. [?] Elohim in the singular
instead of the plural, 1 Ch, xvii, 21, [The same usage, however, occurs in
the very first verse of Genesis,] He local, or bst, instead ofthe accusative,
after verbs of motion; 1 Ch, xix, 15, Hl'^Sn; 2 Ch, xviii, 28, man bs,
[See Ewald, 1. c, § 311.] The preposition a , instead of the accusative of place.
Omission of b in the construction IS1  "pi , 1 Ch, xvii. 5 ; of 5 ,
where a second 3 follows, 1 Ch, xvii, 21, Use of the apocopated form ofthe
future conversive, for the not apocopated form ; 'yi , istil , 2 Ch, xviii, 33,
34, xxi, 9, for n5''1 , and hisni , Exchange of prepositions ; tsiacn "p ,
2 Ch, vi 21, for tjiaicn is; •<iob nas, 2 Ch. X. 6, for 13B tl8« nas; is,
1 Ch. X, 3, for bs ; and the reverse, 1 Ch, xiv. 10.
4, A later or more common Word for one older and more unusual. — MBIJ ,
1 Ch. X. 12, for iT'ia ; Dnmai ni?na , i Ch. xv. 29, for nsnsai ttsa ; lao'ii ,
2 Ch. xviii 3L for TIID^T; yn, 2 Ch, xxxiii 3, for lis*; lionb, 2 Ch.
xxxii 8, for T^anb .
5, Confusion of Geographical JVames. — b^l2 bas , Abd-nwim, 2 Ch, xvi.

190, 6.] BOOKS OF THE CHRONICLES. 267
§ 190, b.
The same Subject continued.
Some of these discrepancies in the language pass over
into such as relate to facts themselves ; and, accordingly,
we find omissions, abridgments, interpolations, and alter
ations, by which the history is generally changed for the
worse, though it may be altered only in minor matters.
4, for Abel-beth-maacha ; Silffl DIS , Syria of tlte two Rivers, 1 Ch. xix. 6,
for Beth-rehob. [See other examples in Movers, p, 208, sqq.]
6. Explanations like Glosses. — 'D.'i bS «an b^, 2 Ch. vii. II, all that came
into the heart, for DBH 'bS , all he wished ; IL'Si ISa-'l , 2 Ch, xxviii, 3, for
ICS2 niasn.
7, An indefinite is often used for a definite Term,— nbSM , a tree, I Ch, x, 12,
for blDsn , a tamarisk-tree ; nanban SSn , 1 Ch, xiv, 15 ; Snnn , go to bat
tle, for cut doivn ; dni3&b »2i1 , went out against them, 1 Ch, xiv, 8, for
misan bs "n^l , went down to the fort.
8, Euphemisms. — riSTtlzri nS , 1 Ch. xix, 4, for Dniminic -IS.
9, A Mark of Ignorance or Misunderstanding. — B^Bnn mabil T\T^'ii>i , ships
that go to Tarslmsh, 2 Ch, xix, 21, xx, 36, 37, for ffiiffilD las, a Tarshish
ship, 1 Kings x, 21, 2 Kings xxii 49 — a mistake which Keil (1, c, p. 303)
in vain seeks to justify, but which Movers acknowledges, (p, 254;)
"ibab nt^'^an TCK "aba , 2 Ch, ix, 12, beside what she brought to the king,
which is without meaning in this connection, instead of nb "p^ ICS naba
nabm "jbab ""la , beside what teas given her by the hand of King Solomon,
1 Kings X, 13, where Movers himself (1, c. p, 213) acknowledges either a
mistake of the copyist, or an oversight of the author ; anS lib'? , kings
of Arabia, 2 Ch, ix, 14, for ansn ^aba , kings of the allies.
There may be mistakes by the transcriber, in 2 Ch, iv, 3, 22. Compare
1 Kings vii. 24, 50 ; see Movers, p. 214, The obscure passages, "i^p ''Bnn ,
1 Ch. xiv, 1, instead of lip 'pm -^ann , 2 Sam. v. 11 ; S^a , without lib ,
I Ch, xvii, 25, bear marks of carelessness. The Chronicler alters the con
struction to serve his turn ; e, g, by the insertion of nibsn , 2 Ch. vii. 11,
(compare 1 Kings ix, 1 ;) by omitting the superfluous word, D'^BS!* , 1 Ch, x.
3, (compare 1 Sam. xxxi 3 ; compare also 1 Ch. xiii 7, with 2 Sam. vi.
3, See Movers, p, 213, sq.) ITi DX is inserted, 1 Ch, xiii 9, to make it
more clear, as likewise b-iasba , 1 Ch. xix. 2, 16. See Movers, p. 222. But

268

BOOKS OF THE CHRONICLES. [§ 190, b.

I. Omissions.
1 . In the Xames of Places. — 1 Ch. xiv. 13," And the
Phhistines spread themselves abroad in the vahey" —
Rephaim 'is omitted ; xviii. 17, the place, " at Helam,,"
is omitted ; 2 Ch. xxi. 9, " Jehoram went first trith his
princes," instead of " went even to Zair," 2 Kings \iii.
21. So in 1 Ch. xxi. 4, the population of Judah, by
Joab's census, is 470,000 soldiers; of Israel, 1,100,000;
2 Sam. xxiv. 4 — 10, bv the same census, in Judah,

m

there are 600,000 ; in Israel, 800,000. Compare also
2 Ch. xvi. 6, 6, with 1 Kings xv. 21, 22."
2, Omissions of correlative Designations and Circum
stances.

1 Sara. xxxi. 12, 13. " All the
valiant men arose, and went all
night, and took the body of Saul,
and the bodies of his sans, from
the icalJ of Beth-shan, and came
to Jabesh, and burnt them there.
And they took their bones, and
buried them under Tamarisk at
Jabesh, and fasted seven days.''

1 Ch. X. 12. "They arose,
all the valiant men, and took
away the body of Saul, and
the bodies of his sons, and
brought them to Jabesh, and
buried their bones under the
tree in Jabesh, and fasted seven
days."

something is omitted in 2 Ch. viii 10, (compare 1 Kings ix, '23,) by which
the sense is rendered less clear. Movers, p, 217.
[An amusing mistake occurs in I Ch, xi, '23, as compared witli 2 Sam,
xxiii 21.

Chkoxicles,
¦¦^¦j":- r'^N.-i-.-s nan [n":a] s-.-^i
&c, -¦jsa --••:r! r-a ¦w¦¦^;
And he slew the .lEg-yptian, a man of
tall stature,five cubits high, &c.

Samuel,
¦i-iSQ uJ^H-.-is nan [^.i^a] s~m.
&c, nNina i^'n:
And he slew an ^Egyptian, a respeda-
ble man, &c.
See the attempt o^ Movers (p, 58) to explain this,]
" [In Josh. xix. 2 — 6, we find a list of cities and towns belonging to
Simeon; verse 6, it is added, 'thirteen cities," &c,, (.~":-r5 - 'irb- D¦'^^'.)
The list is copied, though not Avithout alterations, in 1 Ch. iv. 28 — 31, but
the Chronicler has 6"'nyi' , verse 31, — a city of Judah, Josh, xv. 36, — in
stead of n"i"S"rb".r D^ns, .Movers (p, 57) thinks the error arose from
mistaking some numeral abhreiiations used in the text,]

§ 190, 6.J BOOKS OF THE CHRONICLES.

269

1 Ch. xix. 4, Hanun " took David's servants and
shaved them ; " 2 Sam. x. 4, " shaved off the one half
of their beards." 2 Ch. v. 3, ah the men of Israel "as
sembled in the feast which is the seventh month ; "
1 Kings viii. 2, " in the month Ethanim, which is the
seventh month."

1 Ch, XX. 3. " And he brought
out the people that were in it;
and cut thera with saws, and with
harrows of iron, and with axes.
Even so dealt David with all the
cities of the children of Ammon."

2 Ch. xvi. 2. "Then Asa
brought out silver and gold out
of the treasures of the house of
the Lord and ofthe king's house,
and sent to Ben-hadad king of
Syria, that dwelt at Damascus."

2 Ch. xxxiii. 20. " So Manas
seh slept with his fathers, and
they buried him in his own
house : and Amon his son reigned
in his stead."

2 Sam. xii. 31. " And he
brought forth the people that
were therein, andpai them under
saws, and under harrows of iron,
and under axes of iron, and made
them pass through the brick-kiln;
and thus did he unto all the cities
ofthe children of Ammon."
1 Kings XV. 18, " Then Asa
took all the silver and the gold
that were left in the treasures of
the house of the Lord, and the
treasures ofthe king's house, and
delivered them into the hand of his
servants; and King Asa sent them
to Ben-hadad, the son of Tabri-
mon, the son of Hezion, king of
Syria, that dwelt at Damascus."
2 Kings xxi. 18. " And Ma
nasseh slept with his fathers, and
was buried in the garden of his
own house, in the garden of
Uzza : and Amon his son reigned
in his stead."

II. Abridgments.
1 Ch. XX. 1, the author takes the words, " and David
remained at Kabbah," from 2 Sam. xi. 1, but he omits
the ivhole story of Uriah, (xi. 2— xh. 26,) and even the
statement (xh. 29) that David subsequently went to
Kabbah himself; so that the whole which is related
in 1 Ch. XX. 2, sqq., appears to take place at Jerusalem.

270 BOOKS OF the CHRONICLES. [§ 190, b.
There is a discrepancy betAveen the two following
passages : —
2 Ch. xxii. 9. " And he sought Ahaziah : and they caught hira,
(for he was hid in Samaria,) and brought him to Jehu : and when
they had slain him, they buried him : ' Because,' said they, ' he is
the son of Jehoshaphat, who sought the Lord with all his heart.'"
2 Kings ix. 27. " But when Ahaziah the king of Judah saw this,
he fled by the way of the garden-house. And Jehu followed after
him, and said, ' Smite him also in the chariot.' And they did so at
the going up to Gur, which is by Ibleam. And he fled to Megiddo,
and died there. And his servants carried hira in a chariot to Jeru
salem, and buried him in his sepulchre with his fathers in the city
of David."Movers thinks this may be explained as a corruption
of the text, or by some inaccuracy in abridging, or by
the use of a different authority, or in some other way ! "
III. Insertions of Matter not contained in the
PREVIOUS Books.
1. Edifying Glosses. — 1 Ch. xi. 3, David is anointed
king, " according to the ivord of Jehovah, by the hand of
Samuel the prophet." 2 Ch. xxi. 10, the Edomites and
Libnah revolted from Jehoram, " because he had for
saken the Lord God of his fathers." In 1 Kings xxii.
31, 32, the soldiers attack Jehoshaphat, mistaking him
for Ahab, king of Israel, but, discovering their error, by
his cries, they desist ; but in 2 Ch. xviii. 31, "Jehosha
phat cried out, and the Lord God helped him, and moved
them to depart from him." 2 Kings viii. 29, Joram, the
son of Ahab, went back to be healed of his wounds, and
" Ahaziah went down to see him, because he was sick."
In 2 Ch. xxii. 7, " the destruction of Ahaziah was of
God, because he came to Jehoram,  and went out
" Movers, p, 258.

§ 190, 6.J BOOKS OF the chronicles. 271
against Jehu  ivhom Jehovah anointed to cut off
the house of Ahab." In 1 Kings xiv. 11, 19, Amaziah,
king of Judah, would not listen to the proposal of Jeho
ash, but, hazarding a battle, was overcome ; he fled to
Lachish, and was there cut off. In 2 Ch. xxv. 20, 27,
" Amaziah would not hear, for it came of God that he
might deliver them into the hand  because they
sought after the gods of Edom ; " verse 27, " After the
time that he turned from following Jehovah, they made a
conspiracy against him."
In 1 Kings ix. 24, Solomon builds a palace in Millo
for one of his wives, the daughter of Pharaoh ; but in
2 Ch. vhi. 1 1, an edifying speech is put into his mouth : —
" My wife shah not dwell in the house of David, king
of Israel, because the places are holy, whereunto the ark
of Jehovah hath come ; " and she was a strange woman,
whose presence might defile the holy city of David and
the ark.
2. The Insertion of Verses of Psalms ; 2 Ch. vi.
41, 42.
" Arise, O Lord God, into thy rest ;
Thou and the ark of thy strength;"
from Ps. cxxxh. 8. Other edifying passages are taken
from other places and inserted in the text.
2 Ch, vii, 13, 14, " If I shut up heaven, that there be no rain, or
if I command the locust to devour the land, or if I send pestilence
among my people : if my people, which are called by my name, shall
humble themselves, and pray, and seek my face, and turn from their
wicked ways ; then will I hear from heaven, and will forgive their
sins, and will heal their land."
These are taken from 1 Kings vhi. 36 — 37, as are also
2 Ch. vi. 26—28.
IV. Alterations.

272

BOOKS OF THE CHRONICLES.

[§ 190, b.

1 . For the Sake of designating loith greater Clearness.
— 1 Ch. xiii. 10, " The anger of Jehovah was kindled
against Uzzah,  because he put his hand to the
ark ; and there he died before God ; " whhe in 2 Sam.
vi. 7, it is " for his mistake." Compare 2 Ch. xxxiv.
24, with 2 Kings xxii. 16.
2. But these alterations are sometimes made to perplex
and disguise the Sense. — Compare 1 Ch. xix. 3, AATth
2 Sam. X. 3. 1 Sam. xxxi. 6, " So Saul died, and his
three sons, and his armor-bearer, and all his men that
same day together ; " but 1 Ch. x. 6, " So Saul died,
and his three sons, and all his house died together."
2 Ch. h. 2 — 6, is an edifying recast of 1 Kings v.
16—18: —
2 Ch. ii. 2—5. "And Solo
mon told out threescore and ten
thousand men to bear burdens,
and fourscore thousand to hew in
the mountain, and three thousand
and six hundred to oversee them.
And Solomon sent to Huram the
king of Tyre, saying, ' As thou
didst deal with David my father,
and didst send him cedars to build
him a house to dwell therein, even
so deal with me. Behold, I build
a house to the name of the Lord
my God, to dedicate it to him,
and to burn before him sweet in
cense, and for the continual show-
bread, and for the burnt-offerings
morning and evening, on the Sab
baths, and on the new moons, and
on the solemn feasts of the Lord
our God. This is an ordinance
forever to Israel. And the house
which I build is great: for great
is our God above all gods.' "

1 Kings V. 15—18. "And
Solomon had threescore and ten
thousand that bare burdens, and
fourscore thousand hewers in the
mountains ; besides the chief of
Solomon's officers which were
over the work, three thousand
and three hundred, which ruled
over the people that wrought in
the work. And the king com
manded, and they brought great
stones, costly stones, and hewed
stones, to lay the foundation of
the house. And Solomon's build
ers and Hiram's builders did hew
them, and the stone-squarers ; so
they prepared timber and stones
to build the house."

§ 190, 6. J BOOKS OF THE CHRONICLES. 273
It is absurd to suppose, as we must, from 2 Ch. ii. 8,
that Hiram sent sandal-wood from Mount Lebanon."
Verse 6 also disfigures the original text. Numbers are
enlarged; in 1 Ch. xxi. 5, we have 1,100,000, instead
of 800,000, in 2 Sam. xxiv. 9 ; verse 26, 600 shekels
of gold, instead of 60 shekels of shver, 2 Sam. xxiv. 24.
But the numbers are sometimes made smaller. There
is a remarkable contradiction between the following
passages : 2 Ch. xhi. 23, " Asa reigned in his stead.
In his days the land was quiet ten years," or xv. 19,
" there was no more war unto the five and thirtieth year
of Asa," and 1 Kings xv. 32, '¦'¦and there ivas ivar be
tween Asa and Baasha  all their days."''
" [If this word, f^aiabs* , means sandal-wood, — which may be but one
of several substances to which it is applied, — then it may be used correctly
in 1 Kings x, II, 12, and 2 Ch, ix, 10, 11, where it is brought from Ophir,
But if it means only sandal-wood, the passage now before us is false.] But
see I Kings v, 20.
' Movers thinks the list of David's heroes, 1 Ch, xi. 10 — 47, is independent
of that in 2 Sam, xxiii 8 — 39, and drawn from a document used in common
by the two authors. He draws this opinion from the numerous variants
of the proper names ; from the greater perfection of the list in Chronicles, as
verse 41 to 47 is wanting in Samuel; and from the difficult readings in
Chronicles, for which the easier have been substituted in Samuel, But
verse 11 agrees with Samuel; verse 8 is obviously a conjecture drawn from
2 Sam, xxiii, 20. I do not find that the readings are more difficult in verses
14, 15. Compare 2 Sam, xxiii, I'2, 13. This is rather the case with verse
19, 25, Compare 2 Sam. xxiii 17, 2-3. He confirms this by the fact that
I Ch, XX, 4 — 8, only repeats verses 18 — 22 from 2 Sam. xxi 15 — 28, and
therefore at the end does not enumerate /om?- sons of Repha, and from the
circumstance that the Chronicler, in verse 8, uses the ancient form bs* , in
stead of nbs . Even 1 Ch, xi, 1 — 9, is, he thinks, more original than 2 Sam.
V, 1 — 10, because verses 4, ,5, in Samuel, are an interpolation, which disturbs
the connection between verse 3 and verse 6. The Chronicler does not dis
turb this connection, (but the use of vau conversive is slender proof,) for,
1 Ch. xi. 4, the expression " which is Jehus," refers to a time when this was
the common name. But the explanation was occasioned by the subsequent
mention of the Jebusites. Another argument is, that 1 Ch. xi. 6, contains
the additional account which is lacking in 2 Sam. xxiii 8. But this is a very
superficial conjecture.
VOL. II. 35

274

BOOKS OF THE CHRONICLES. [§ 190, C.

§ 190, C.
The same Subject continued.
The inaccuracy which has produced these discrepan
cies shows itself also in the improper insertion of 1 Ch.
xiv.," from which it would appear that, according to
1 Ch. XV. 1, David built houses in three months. It ap
pears, also, in the unsuitable anticipation of the catalogue
of Solomon's riches, in 2 Ch. i. 14 — 17, which should
have been put in 2 Ch. ix. 26, sqq. But, in some other,
and especially the most important, discrepancies, we dis
cover a peculiar manner of thinking, a certain predilec
tion and partiality, even a certain design, after which,
not only the style and manner of the history, but the
facts themselves, are altered and falsified. This appears,
I. In THE DOGMATIC AND MYTHOLOGICAL ALTERA
TIONS AND Additions.
1 Ch. xxi. 1. "And Satan 2 Sam. xxiv. 1. "And again
stood up against Israel, and pro- the anger of </ie iorrf was kindled
voked David to number Israel." against Israel, and he moved Da
vid against them to say, ' Go,
number Israel and Judah.' "
2 Sam. xxiv, 16, sqq. " And
when the angel stretched out his
hand upon Jerusalem to destroy
it, the Lord repented him of the
evil, and said to the angel that
destroyed the people, ' It is
enough : stay now thine hand.'
And the angel of the Lord was
by the threshing-place of Arau-
nah the Jebusite. And David

1 Ch. xxi. 15, sqq. " And God
sent an angel unto Jerusalem to
destroy it : and as he was destroy
ing, the Lord beheld, and he re
pented him of the evil ; and said
to the angel that destroyed, ' It is
enough : stay now thine hand,'
And the angel ofthe Lord stood by
the threshing-floor of Oman the
Jebusite, And David lifted up his

Compare 2 Sam. v. 11 — 25.

§ 190, C.J books of THE CHRONICLES.

276

eyes, and saw the angel of the
Lord stand between the earth and
the heaven, having a drawn sword
in his hand stretched out over Je
rusalem. Then David and the
elders, clothed in sackcloth, fell
upon their faces."
" Tlien the angel of the Lord
commanded Gad to say to David,
that David should go up, and set
up an altar unto the Lord in the
threshing-floor of Oman the Jebu
site. And David went up at the
saying of Gad, which he spake in
the name of the Lord. And Or-
nan turned back, and saw the
angel; and his four sons with
him hid themselves. Now Oman
was threshing wheat. And as
David came to Oman, Oman
looked and saw David, and went
out of the threshing-floor, and
bowed himself to David with his
face to the ground. Then David
said to Oman, ' Grant me the
place of this threshing-floor, that
I may build an altar therein un
to the Lord : thou shalt grant it
me for the full price : that the
plague may be stayed from the
people.' And Oman said unto
David, ' Take it to thee, and let
my lord the king do that which is
good in his eyes : lo, I give thee
the oxen also for burnt-offerings,
and the threshing instruments for
wood, and the wheat for the meat
offering ; I give it all.' And
King David said to Oman, ' Nay ;
but 1 will verily buy it for the full

spake unto the Lord when he saw
the angel that smote the people,
and said, ' Lo, I have sinned, and
I have done wickedly : but these
sheep, what have they done ? Let
thine hand, I pray thee, be against
me, and against my father's
house.' " And Gad came that day to
David, and said unto him, 'Go
up, rear an altar unto the Lord
in the threshing-floor of Araunah
the Jebusite.' And David, ac
cording to the saying of Gad,
went up, as the Lord commanded.
And Araunah looked, and saw
the king and his servants coming
on toward him : and Araunah
went out, and bowed himself be
fore the king on his face upon
the ground. And Araunah said,
' Wherefore is my lord the king
come to his servant ? ' And Da
vid said, ' To buy the threshing-
floor of thee, to build an altar
unto the Lord, that the plague
may be stayed from the people.'
And Araunah said unto David,
' Let my lord the king take and
offer up what seemeth good unto
him : behold oxen for burnt-
sacrifice, and threshing instru
ments and other instruments of
the oxen for wood.' All these
things did Araunah, as a king,
give unto the king. And Araunah
said unto the king, ' The Lord
thy God accept thee.' And the
king said unto Araunah, ' Nay :
but I will surely buy it of thee at

276

BOOKS OF THE CHRONICLES.

[§ 190,

price : for I will not take that
which is thine for the Lord, nor
offer burnt-offerings without cost.'
So David gave to Oman for the
place six hundred shekels of gold
by weight. And David built
there an altar unto the Lord, and
offered burnt-offerings and peace-
offerings, and called upon the
Lord; and he answered him from
heaven by fire upon the altar of
burnt-offering. And the Lord
commanded the angel, and he put
up his sword again into the sheath
thereof. " At that time when David saw
that the Lord had answered him
in the threshing-floor of Oman
the Jebusite, then he sacrificed
there. For the tabernacle of the
Lord, which Moses made in the
wilderness, and the altar of the
burnt-offering, were at that sea-
sou in the high place at Gibeon.
But David could not go before it
to inquire of God : for he was
afraid, because of the sword of
the angel of the Lord."
2 Ch. vii. 1 — 3. " Now when
Polomon had made an end of
praying, the fire came down from
heaven, and consumed the burnt-
offering and the sacrifice; and
the glory of the Lord filled the
house. And the priests could not
enter into the house of the Lord,
because the glory of the Lord had
filled the Lord's house. And
when all the children of Israel
saw how the fire came down, and

a price : neither will I offer burnt-
offerings unto the Lord my God
of that which doth cost me
nothing.' So David bought the
threshing-floor and the oxen for
fifty shekels of silver. And Da
vid built there an altar unto the
Lord, and offered burnt-offerings
and peace-offerings. So the Lord
was entreated for the land, and
the plague was stayed from Is
rael."

1 Kings viii. 54 — 61. "And
it was so, that when Solomon had
made an end of praying all this
prayer and supplication unto the
Lord, he arose from before the
altar of the Lord, from kneeling
on his knees with his hands spread
up to heaven. And he stood and
blessed all the congregation of
Israel with a loud voice, saying,
' Blessed be the Lord, that hath
given re.st unto his people Israel,

§ 190, C.J BOOKS of the CHRO.NICLES.

the glory of the Lord upon the
house, they bowed themselves with
their faces to the ground upon the
pavement, and worshipped, and
praised the Lord, saying, ' For he
is good; for his mercy endureth
forever.' "

according to all that he promised :
there hath not failed one word of
all his good promise, which he
promised by the hand of Moses
his servant. The Lord our God
be with us, as he was with our
fathers : let him not leave us, nor
forsake us : that he may incline
our hearts unto him, to walk in
all his ways, and to keep his
commandments, and his statutes,
and his judgments, which he
commanded our fathers. And
let these my words wherewith I
have made supplication before the
Lord, be nigh unto the Lord our
God day and night, that he main
tain the cause of his servant, and
the cause of his people Israel at
all times, as the matter shall re
quire : that all the people of the
earth may know that the Lord is
God, and that there is none else.
Let your heart therefore be per
fect with the Lord our God, to
walk in his statutes, aud to keep
his commandments, as at this
day.' "
In 2 Ch. xxxh. 31, it is said, " God left Hezekiah to
try him, that he might know all that was in his heart,''
in the negotiation with the Babylonians ; but in 2 Kings
XX. 12, 13, it is simply said, " The king of Babylon sent
letters and a present to Hezekiah, and he hearkened to
them." II. Alteration made out of a Preference for
THE Levitical Forms of Worship, and the Tribe of
Levi.

278

BOOKS OF THE CHRONICLES. [§ 190, C.

1. Amplifications and Embellishments.

2 Ch. V. 11—14. "And it
came to pass, when the priests
were come out of the holy place ;
(for all the priests that were pres
ent were sanctified, and did not
then wait by course : also the Le
vites which were the singers, all
of them of Asaph, of Heman, of
Jeduthun, with their sons and
their brethren ; being arrayed in
white linen, having cymbals, and
psalteries, and harps, stood at the
east end of the altar, and with
them a hundred and twenty priests
sounding with trumpets ;) it came
even to pass, as the trumpeters
and singers were as one, to make
one sound to be heard in praising
and thanking the Lord ; and when
they lifted up their voice with the
trumpets, and cymbals, and instru
ments of music, and praised the
Lord, saying, ' For he is good ;
for his mercy endureth forever : '
that then the house was filled with
a cloud, even the house of the
Lord ; so that the priests could
not stand to minister by reason of
the cloud : for the glory of the
Lord had filled the house of God."
2 Ch. vii. 5—10. " And King
Solomon offered a sacrifice of
twenty and two thousand oxen,
and a hundred and twenty thou
sand sheep. So the king and all
the people dedicated the house
of God. And the priests waited
on their offices ; the Levites also
with instruments of music of the

In IKings viii. 10, 11, only this :
" And it came to pass, when the
priests were come out of the holy
place, that the cloud filled the
house of the Lord, so that the
priests could not stand to minis
ter because ofthe cloud : for the
glory of the Lord had filled the
house of the Lord."
Here is no mention of the Le
vitical music.

1 Kings viii. 63—65. " And
Solomon offered a sacrifice of
peace-offerings, which he offered
unto the Lord, two and twenty
thousand oxen, and a hundred
and twenty thousand sheep. So
the king and all the children of
Israel dedicated the house of the
Lord. The same day did the

§ 190, C.J BOOKS OF THE CHRONICLES.

279

Lord, which David the king had
made to praise the Lord, because
his mercy endureth forever, when
David praised by their ministry ;
and the priests sounded trumpets
before them, and all Israel stood.
Moreover Solomon hallowed the
middle of the court that was be
fore the house of the Lord ; for
there he offered burnt-offerings,
imd the fat ofthe peace-offerings,
because the brazen altar which
Solomon had made was not able
to receive the burnt-offerings, and
the meat-offerings, and the fat.
" Also at the same time Solo
mon kept the feast seven days,
and all Israel with him, a very
great congregation, from the en
tering in of Hamath unto the
fiver of iEgypt. And in the
eighth day they made a solemn
assembly; for they kept the ded
ication of the altar seven days,
and the feast seven days. And
on the three and twentieth day of
the seventh month he sent the
people away into their tents, glad
and merry in heart for the good
ness that the Lord had showed
unto David, and to Solomon, and
to Israel his people."
2 Ch. viii. 12, 13. "Then
Solomon offered burnt-offerings
unto the Lord on the altar of the
Lord, which he had built before
.he porch, even after a certain
rate every day, offering according
.o the commandment of Moses,
on the Sabbaths, and on the new-
moons, and on the solemn feasts,

king hallow the middle of the
court that was before the house
of the Lord ; for there he offered
burnt-offerings, and meat-offer
ings, and the fat of the peace-
offerings ; because the brazen
altar that was before the Lord
was too little to receive the burnt-
offerings, and meat-offerings, and
the fat of the peace-offerings.
And at that time Solomon held
a feast, and all Israel with him,
a great congregation, from the
entering in of Hamath unto the
river of ^Egypt, before the Lord
our God, seven days and seven
days, even fourteen days."

1 Kings ix. 25. " And three
times in a year did Solomon offer
burnt-offerings and peace-offer
ings upon the altar which he
built unto the Lord, and he burnt
incense upon the altar that was
before the Lord. So he finished
the house."

280

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[§ 190,

three times in the year, even in
the feast of unleavened bread, and
in the feast of weeks, and in the
feast of tabernacles."
2 Ch. xxiii. 17—20. " Then
all the people went to the house
of Baal, and brake it down, and
brake his altars and his images iu
pieces, and slew Mattan the priest
of Baal before the altars. Also
Jehoiada appointed the offices of
the house of the Lord, by the
hand of the priests the Levites,
whom David had distributed in
the house of the Lord, to offer the
burnt-offerings of the Lord, as it
is written in the law of Moses,
with rejoicing and singing, after
the manner of David. And he
set the porters at the gates ofthe
house of the Lord, that none
which was unclean in any thing
should enter in. And he took
the captains of hundreds, and
the nobles, and the governors
of the people, and all the people
of the land, and brought down
the king from the house of the
Lord ; and they came through the
high gate into the king's house,
and set the king upon the throne
ofthe kingdom."

In 2 Ch. xxxv. 1 — 19, occurs the following minute
account of Josiah's passover : —
" Moreover Josiah kept a passover unto the Lord in Jerusalem ;
and they killed the passover on the fourteenth day of the first month.
And he set the priests in their charges, and encouraged them to the
service of the house of the Lord, and said unto the Levites that taught
all Israel, which were holy unto the Lord, ' Put the holy ark in the

2 Kings xi. 18, 19. " And all
the people of the land went into
the house of Baal, and brake it
down; his altars and his images
brake they in pieces thoroughly,
and slew Mattan the priest of
Baal before the altars ; and the
priest appointed officers over the
house ofthe Lord. And he took
the rulers over hundreds, and the
captains, and the guard, and all
the people of the land; and they
brought down the king from the
house of the Lord, and came by
the way of the gate of the guard
to the king's house ; and he sat
on the throne of the kings."

§ 190, C.j BOOKS OF THE CHRONICLES. 281
house which Solomon the son of David king of Israel did build ; it
shall not be a burden upon your shoulders ; serve now the Lord your
God, and his people Israel. And prepare yourselves by the houses
of your fathers, after your courses, according to the writing of David
king of Israel, and according to the writing of Solomon his son.
And stand in the holy place according to the divisions ofthe families
of the fathers of your brethren the people, and after the division of
the families ofthe Levites. So kill the passover, and sanctify your
selves, and prepare your brethren, that they raay do according to
the word of the Lord by the hand of Moses.' Aud Josiah gave to
the people, ofthe flock, lambs and kids, all for the passover-offerings,
for all that were present, to the number of thirty thousand, and three
thousand bullocks ; these were of the king's substance. And his
princes gave willingly unto the people, to the priests, and to the
Levites : Hilkiah and Zechariah and Jehiel, rulers of the house of
God, gave unto the priests for the passover-offerings two thousand
and six hundred small cattle, and three hundred oxen. Conaniah
also, and Shemaiah and Nethaneel his brethren, and Hashabiah, and
Jehiel, and Jozabad, chief of the Levites, gave unto the Levites
for passover-offerings five thousand small cattle, and five hundred
oxen. So the service was prepared, and the priests stood in their
place, and the Levites in their courses, according to the king's com
mandment. And they killed the passover, and the priests sprinkled
the blood from their hands, and the Levites flayed them. And they
removed the burnt-offerings, that they might give according to the
divisions of the families of the people, to offer unto the Lord, as it is
written in the book of Moses. And so did they with the oxen. And
they roasted the passover with fire according to the ordinance: but
the other holy offerings sod they in pots, and in caldrons, and in pans,
and divided them speedily among all the people. And afterward
they made ready for themselves, and for the priests; because the
priests the sons of Aaron were busied in offering of burnt-offerings
and the fat until night ; therefore the Levites prepared for themselves,
and for the priests the sons of Aaron. And the singers the sons of
Asaph were in their place, according to the commandment of David,
and Asaph, and Heman, and Jeduthun the king's seer ; and the por
ters waited at every gate; they might not depart from their service;
for their brethren the Levites prepared for them. So all the service
of the Lord was prepared the same day, to keep the passover, and to
offer burnt-offerings upon the altar of the Lord, according to the
commandment of King Josiah. And the children of Israel that were
VOL. II. 36

282 BOOKS OF THE CHRONICLES. [§ 190, C.
present kept the passover at that time, and the feast of unleavened
bread seven days. And there was no passover like to that kept in
Israel from the days of Samuel the prophet; neither did all the kings
of Israel keep such a passover as Josiah kept, and the priests and
the Levites, and all Judah and Israel that were present, and the in
habitants of Jerusalem, In the eighteenth year of the reign of
Josiah was this passover kept.''
In the parallel passage, (2 Kings xxiii. 21 — 23,) there
is only this simple narrative : —
"And the king commanded all the people, saying, 'Keep the
passover unto the Lord your God, as it is written in the book of this
covenant. Surely there was not holden such a passover from the
days ofthe judges that judged Israel, nor in all the days ofthe kings
of Israel, nor of the kings of Judah; but in the eighteenth year of
King Josiah, wherein this passover was holden to the Lord in
Jerusalem.' "
2. In the Omission or Modification of unfavorable
Accounts. — In 2 Ch. xii. 1, we have the following brief
statement of the idolatry of Judah : —
" And it came to pass, when Rehoboam had established the king
dom, and had strengthened himself, he forsook the law of the Lord,
and all Israel with him."
But in 2 Kings xiv. 22 — 24, we read : —
" And Judah did evil in the sight of the Lord, and they provoked
him to jealousy with their sins which they had committed, above all
that their fathers had done. For they also built them high places,
and images, and groves, on every high hill, and under every green
tree. And there were also sodomites in the land : and they did
according to all the abominations of the nations which the Lord cast
out before the children of Israel."
The following parallels deserve notice : —

2 Ch. xiii. 2. " He [Abijah]
reigned three years in Jerusalem.
His mother's name also was Mi-
chaiah the daughter of Uriel of
Gibeah."

1 Kings XV. 2, 3. "Three
years reigned he in Jerusalem.
And his mother's name was
Maachah, the daughter of Abish-
alom. And he walked in all the

§ 190, C] BOOKS OF THE CHRONICLES.

283

2 Ch. xxiv. 2. "And Joash
did that which was right in the
sight of the Lord all the days of
Jehoiada the priest."

2 Ch, xxv, 2. " And he [Am
aziah] did that which was right
in the sight of the Lord, but not
with a perfect heart."

2 Ch. xxvi 4. "And he
[Azariah] did that which was
right in the sight of the Lord,
according to all that his father
Amaziah did."

2 Ch. xxvii. 2, 3, " And he
did that which was right in
the sight of the Lord, according
to all that his father Uzziah did :
howbeit, he entered not into the
temple of the Lord. And the
people did yet corruptly. He
built the high gate of the house
of the Lord, and on the wall of
Ophel he built much."
2 Ch. xxix. 3. "He [Heze
kiah]  opened the doors of

sins of his father, which he had
done before him; and his heart was
not perfect with the Lord his God,
as the heart of David his father."
2 Kings xii. 2, 3. " And Je
hoash did that which was right in
the sight of the Lord all his days,
wherein Jehoiada the priest in
structed him. But the high
places were not taken aioay ,- the
people still sacrificed and burnt
incense in the high places."
2 Kings xiv. 3, 4. " And he
did that which was right in the
sight of the Lord, yet not like
David his father : he did accord
ing to all things as Joash his
father did. Howbeit the high
places were not taken cmiay : as
yet the people did sacrifice and
burnt incense on the high places.''
2 Kings XV. 3, 4. " And he
did that which was right in the
sight of the Lord, according to
all that his father Amaziah had
done ; save that the high places
were not removed : the people sac
rificed and burnt incense still on
the high places."
2 Kings XV. 35. " Howbeit
the high places were not removed :
the people sacrificed and burned
incense still in the high places.
He built the higher gate of the
house of the Lord,"

2 Kings xviii. 4. " He removed
the high places, and brake the

284

BOOKS OF THE CHRO.NICLES.

[§ 190,

the house of the Lord, and re
paired them.''

images, and cut down the groves,
and brake in pieces the brazen
serpent that Moses had made : for
unto those days the children of
Israel did burn incense to it : and
he called it Nehushtan."

The Chronicler never mentions the idolatry of the
brazen serpent. The following parallels show his de
sign to conceal the sins of Judah: —
•3 Ch. xxxiv. 33. "Josiah took away all the abominations out of
all the countries that pertained to the children of Israel, and made
all that were present in Israel to serve."
2 Kings xxiii. 4 — ^20. " And the king commanded Hilkiah the
high priest, and the priests ofthe second order, and the keepers of
the door, to bring forth out of the temple of the Lord all the vessels
that were made for Baal, and for the grove, and for all the host of
heaven : and he burned them without Jerusalem in the fields of
Kidron, and carried the ashes of them unto Beth-el. And he put
down the idolatrous priests, whom the kings of Judah had ordained
to burn incense in the high places in the cities of Judah, and in the
places round about Jerusalem ; them also that burned incense unto
Baal, to the sun, and to the moon, and to the planets, and to all the
host of heaven. And he brought out the grove from the house of
the Lord, without Jerusalem, unto the brook Kidron, and burned it at
the brook Kidron, and stamped it small to powder, and cast the
powder thereof upon the graves of the children of the people. And
he brake down the houses of the sodomites that were by the house
of the Lord, where the women wove hangings for the grove. And
he brought all the priests out ofthe cities of Judah, and defiled the
high places where the prie-sts had burned incense, from Geba to Beer-
sheba, and brake down the high places of the gates that were in the
entering in of the gate of Joshua the governor of the city, which
were on a man's left hand at the gate of the city. Nevertheless, the
priests of the high places came not up to the altar of the Lord in
Jerusalem, but they did eat of the unleavened bread among their
brethren. And he defiled Topheth, which is in the valley of the
children of Hinnom, that no man might make his son or his dauohter
to pass through the fire to Molech. And he took away the horses
that the kings of Judah had given to the sun, at the entering in of

§ 190, C.J BOOKS OF THE CHRONICLES. 286
the house of the Lord, by the chamber of Nathan-melech the cham
berlain, which was in the suburbs, and burned the chariots of the sun
with fire. And the altars that were on the top of the upper chamber
of Ahaz, which the kings of Judah had made, and the altars which
Manasseh had made in the two courts of the house of the Lord, did
the king beat down, and brake them down from thence, and cast the
dust of them into the brook Kidron. And the high places that were
before Jerusalem, which were on the right hand of the Mount of
Corruption, which Solomon the king of Israel had builded for Ash-
toreth the abomination ofthe Zidonians, and for Chemosh the abom
ination of the Moabites, and for Milcom the abomination of the
children of Ammon, did the king defile. And he brake in pieces
the images, and cut down the groves, and filled their places with the
bones of men.
" Moreover, the altar that was at Beth-el, and the high place
which Jeroboam the son of Nebat, who made Israel to sin, had
made, both that altar and the high place he brake down, and burned
the high place, and stamped it small to powder, and burned the
grove. And as Josiah turned himself, he spied the sepulchres that
were there in the mount, and sent, and took the bones out of the
sepulchres, and burned them upon the altar, and polluted it, accord
ing to the word ofthe Lord which the man of God proclaimed, who
proclaimed these words. Then he said, ' What title is that that I
see?' And the men ofthe city told him, 'It is the sepulchre of the
man of God, which came from Judah, and proclaimed these things
that thou hast done against the altar of Beth-el.' And he said, ' Let
him alone ; let no man move his bones.' So they let his bones alone,
with the bones ofthe prophet that came out of Samaria. And all
the houses also ofthe high places that were in the cities of Samaria,
which the kings of Israel had made to provoke the Lord to anger,
Josiah took away, and did to them according to all the acts that he
had done in Beth-el. And he slew all the priests of the high places
that were there upon the altars, and burnt men's bones upon them,
and returned to Jerusalem."
Some of these abominations, however, are named by
the Chronicler : —
2 Ch. xxxiv, 3 — 7. " And in the twelfth year he began to purge
Judah and Jerusalem from the high places, and the groves, and the
carved images, and the molten images. And they brake down the
altars of Baalim in his presence ; and the images that were on high

286

BOOKS OF THE CHRONICLES.

[§ 190,

above them, he cut down ; and the groves, and the carved images,
and the molten images, he brake in pieces, and made dust of thera,
and strewed it upon the graves of them that had sacrificed unto
them. And he burnt the bones ofthe priests upon their altars, and
cleansed Judah and Jerusalem. And so did he in the cities of
Manasseh, and Ephraim, and Simeon, even unto Naphtali, with their
mattocks rotuid about. And when he had broken down the altars
and the groves, and had beaten the graven images into powder, and
cut down all the idols throughout all the land of Israel, he returned
to Jerusalem."

2 Ch. xxviii. 23. " He sacri
ficed unto the gods of Damascus,
 and said, ' Because the gods
of the kings of Syria help them,
therefore will I sacrifice to them,
that they may help me.' But they
were the ruin of him," &c.

2 Kings xvi. 10—12. "And
they set them up images and
groves in every high hill, and
under every green tree : and
there they burnt incense in all
the high places, as did the hea
then whom the Lord carried
away before them ; and wrought
wicked things to provoke the
Lord to anger : for they served
idols, whereofthe Lord had said
unto them, ' Ye shall not do this
thins.' "

Movers acknowledges the fact that the earlier ac
counts have been thus modified.
3. Confiding Statements and Self-contradictions. —
2 Ch. xiv. 2 — 5, it is said, " Asa took away the altars
of the strange gods, and brake down the images, and
cut down the groves,  and took away, out of all
the cities of Judah, the high places and the images."
But, XV, 17, it is said, the high places were not taken
jiway out of Israel ; " and the same appears from 1 Kings
.XV. 14. So, xvii. 6, Jehoshaphat "took away the high

° [It is evident, from the context, that Israel does not mean the ten tribes,
— who are not mentioned in tbe chapter, — but all the Hebrews governed
by Asa. The other passage obviously relates to Jwlah.]

§ 190, C.J BOOKS OF THE CHRONICLES. 287
places and groves out of Judah ; " but in 1 Kings xxii.
43, and xx. 33, this is contradicted — " the high places
were not taken away." The reason is given — " for as
yet the people had not prepared their heart unto the
God of their fathers." Movers thinks the high places
consecrated to idols were destroyed, but those devoted
to other purposes were left untouched."
4. Alteration of similar Accounts. — 1 Ch. xvih. 17,
the sons of David were chief about the king, (the
first at the hand of the king,) instead of saying they
were priests," as is done in 2 Sam. viii. 18, and xx. 26.''
Again : 2 Ch. i. 3, " Solomon  went to the high
place at Gibeon, for there was the tabernacle of the
congregation of God, which Moses  had made,"
^vhhe in 1 Kings hi. 4, we have only " the king went
to sacrifice there, for that ivas the great high place."
Movers denies the fact that there were different holy
places ; and even Keil and Winer assume that the taber
nacle was conveyed from Shiloh to Nob, — where the
posterity of Eli appear as priests, in 1 Sam. xxii. 11, —
and from thence to Gibeon. But Nob — where there
were eighty-five priests, in 1 Sam. xxii. 18 — was one
of the old holy places, like Beth-el, and Abimelech might
go there without having carried the tabernacle from
Shiloh. The fact that David had two priests, — who
were not high priests, as some maintain, — Zadok and
" [This is a very poor attempt to escape the obvious conclusion ; for if
they were not idolatrous high places, why would such an excuse be made
for their preservation as that above quoted in the text ?]
See Dahler, p. 99, Keil, p. 299,
¦^ What Movers has said in justification of this change convinces me
as little as the remark of Gesenius, Heb. Lex, sub, voce p3 , and
Winer, 1, c, vol, ii, p, 387,

288 BOOKS OF THE CHRONICLES. [§ 190, C.
Abiathar, (2 Sam. viii. 17, xxi. 25,) and that Zadok took
Abiathar's place, (1 Kings ii. 35,) seems to confirm the
opinion that the former dwelt at Gibeon, (1 Ch. xvi. 39.)
But he might reside there, though there was no taber
nacle in the place. However, this fact does not agree
weh with the twenty-four classes of priests, mentioned
in 1 Ch. xxiv. ; for this would lead us to suppose there was
but one holy place. The passage in 1 Kings iii. 4,
where Gibeon is reckoned one of the high places, is
directly contrary to the account in Chronicles ; for if the
old Mosaic tabernacle had been there, it would not have
been an unlawful high place. It may have been cahed
the great high place, by way of preeminence, perhaps
because a regular priest resided there. The tabernacle
of the congregation, which was brought into the temple
with the ark, (1 Kings viii. 3,) can be no other than
that mentioned in 2 Sam. vi. 17.
The apologetic design of the account in Chronicles
appears from the manner in which the statement in
1 Ch. xxi. 29, 30, is connected with the similar narrative
in 2 Sam. xxiv. 26. David had offered sacrifice on ,the
threshing-floor of Oman, and it is said, " But the taber
nacle of Jehovah which Moses made in the whderness,
and the altar of burnt-offering, was at that time in the
high place at Gibeon. But David could not go there to
seek God, for he was terrified hy the sword ofthe angel
of Jehovah." Then, as if this circumstance was not
sufficient to justify the sacrifice at the threshing-floor, it
is added in the next verse, (xxh. 1,) that David deter
mined to build a temple an the spot.
The passage, 1 Ch. xiii. — xvi., is a Levitical recast
ing of 2 Sam. vi., with which 2 Sam. v. 11 — 25,
has been inserted, though it is evidently out of place.

§ 190, C.j BOOKS OF THE CHRONICLES. 289
The account in Samuel has been altered by the Chroni
cler. For example, in xiv. 2, he introduces the priests,
and the Levites, who are not mentioned in the parahel
account, 2 Sam. vi. 1. In xv. 1, he suppresses the
motive assigned in 2 Sam. vi. 12, for the second attempt
to remove the ark. On the other hand, he puts this
declaration in the mouth of David : " None ought to
carry the ark of God but the Levites, for them hath
Jehovah chosen  " Then fohows the assembling
of the Levites, (4 — 14 ;) and David says, (verse 13,)
" Jehovah our God made a breach upon us, because ye
(the Levites) did not undertake it in the former
attempt — because we did not seek him in due fashion."
This amplification of 2 Sam. vi. 15, which makes the
Levites carry the ark, may be historically correct.
The passage, 1 Ch. xv. 2 — 27, is an amplification
of 2 Sam. vi. 12. The apologetic design appears in
the addition of Levitical musicians, and other servants,
(verses 13, 14,) in the remark, that " God helped the
Levites." But he omits part of the account of David's
dancing, to which verse 29 refers. (2 Sam. vi. 16.)
1 Ch. xvi. 4 — 42. Here the Levites are appointed
to minister before the ark ; a cento of Psalms is sung ;
Zadok and others serve before the sanctuary at Gibeon ;
verse 43 is parallel with the end of 2 Sam. vi. 19, and
the beginning of verse 20. The conversation between
Michal and David is omitted, and therefore verse 29
stands there without any meaning."
In 2 Ch. xxih. 1 — 11, actions are referred to the Le
vites, which, in 2 Kings xi. 4 — 12, are ascribed to the
body-guard. This is done apparently to conform to

' On Movers's view ofthis, see below, § 192, d.
VOL. II. 37

290 BOOKS OF THE CHRONICLES. [§ 190, C.
verse 6. But it makes complete confusion in the nar
rative." In 2 Ch. xxiv. 4 — 14, we have an account of the
restoration of the temple. But no notice is taken of the
charge, tacitly implied in 2 Kings xh. 4 — 16, that the
priests had embezzled the money cohected for that work.
In 2 Kings xii. 7, the king asks Jehoiada the priest,
" Why repair ye not the breaches of the house ? Now,
therefore, receive no more money of your acquaintance,
but deliver it up [what you have already receivedj for
the breaches of the house." On account of their defec
tion, a chest was contrived with a hole in the lid to
receive the money. Now, this account is much qualified
by the Chronicler. The king says (verse 5) to the
priests and Levites, " Go out  and gather of all
Israel money to repair the house of Jehovah,  and
see that ye hasten in the matter. Howbeit the Levites
hastened not," in the collection of the money, as it ap
pears from verse 6, where the king asks Jehoiada, " Why
hast thou not required of the Levites to bring in 
the tax of Moses.?'" 

" Movers (p, 31 0) admits this, but will only explain it as an interpolation.
But the only interpolation which can be admitted is the word aiS'ili, in
xxiii, 12, parallel with 2 Kings xi, 13. See § 192, d.

' [2 Ch, xxiv, 4— 6, 8— 14, "And
It came to pass after this, that Joash
was minded to repair the house of
the Lord. And he gathered together
the priests and the Lemt.es, and said
to them, ' Go out unto the cities of
Judah, and gather of all Israel money
to repair the house of your God from
year to year, and see that ye hasten
the matter,' Howbeit, the Levites
hastened it not And the king called
for .Jehoiada the chief, and said unto

2 Kings xii 4 — 16, "And Jeho
ash said to the priests, • All the money
ofthe dedicated things that is brought
into the house of the Lord, even the
money of every one that passeth the
account, the money that every man is
set at, and all the money that cometh
into any man's heart to bring into the
house of the Lord, let the priests take
it to them, every man of his acquaint
ance ; and let them repair the breach
es of the house, wlieresoever any

§ 190, C.J BOOKS OF THE CHRONICLES.

291

2 Ch. xxxiv. 8 — 14, is also parahel with 2 Kings xh.
4 — 8. But a passage has been interpolated with a view

him, ' Why hast thou not required of
the Levites to bring in out of Judah and
out of Jerusalem the collection  of
Moses, the servant of the Lord, and of
the congregation of Israel, for the taber
nacle of witness ? ' And at the king's
commandment they made a chest, and
set it without at the gate of the house
of the Lord. And they made a proc
lamation through Judah and Jerusa
lem, to bring in to the Lord the col
lection that Moses the servant of God
laid upon Israel in the wilderness.
And all the princes and all the peo
ple rejoiced, and brought in, and cast
into the chest, until they had made
an end. Now, it came to pass, that
at what time die chest was brought
into the king's office by the hand of
the Levites, and when they saw that
there was much money, the king's
scribe and the high priest's officer
came and emptied the chest, and took
It, and carried it to his place again.
Thus they did day by day, and gath
ered money in abundance. And the
king and Jehoiada gave it to such as
did the work of tlie service of the
house of the Lord, and hired masons
and carpenters to repair the house of
the Lord, and also such as wrought
Iron and brass to mend tlie house of
the Lord. So the workmen wrought,
and the work was perfected by them,
and they set the house of God in his
state, and strengthened it And
when they had finished it, they
brought the rest of the money before
the king and Jehoiada, whereof were
made vessels for the house of the
Lord, even vessels to minister, and to

breach shall be found.' But it was
so, that in the three and twentieth
year of King Jehoash the priests had
not repaired the breaches ofthe house.
Then King Jehoash called for Jehoi
ada the priest, and the other priests,
and said unto them, ' Why repair ye
not the breaches of the house ? now
tlierefore receive no more money of
your acquaintance, but deliver it for
the breaches of the house,' And the
priests consented to receive no more
money ofthe people, neither to repair
the breaches of the house. But Je
hoiada the priest took a chest, and
bored a hole in the lid of it, and set
it beside the altar, on the right side
as one cometh into the house of tlie
Lord: and tlie priests that kept the
door put therein all the money that
was brought into the house of the
Lord. And it was so, when they saw
that there was much money in the
chest, that the king's scribe and tlie
high priest came up, and they put up
in bags, and told the money that was
found in the house of the Lord, And
they gave the money, being told, into
the hands of them that did the work,
that had the oversight of the house of
the Lord : and they laid it out to tlie
carpenters and builders that wrought
upon the house of the Lord, and to
masons, and hewers of stone, and to
buy timber and hewed stone to repair
the breaches of the house of the
Lord, and for all that was laid out for
the house to repau- it Howbeit, there
were not made for the house of the
Lord bowls of silver, snuffers, basins,
trumpets, any vessels of gold, or ves-

292 BOOKS OF THE CHRONICLES. [§ 190, C.
to aggrandize the Levites ; for, in verses 12, 13, they are
placed over the work — to superintend it. Levitical
scribes are mentioned, (verse 13,) who were not needed
in this business.
We cannot, however, so clearly detect the same mo
tive in the interpolation of 2 Sam. xxiv. 3 — 9, which
has been made in 1 Ch. xxi. 3 — 6. Here the speech
of Joab has been altered, and he is made to say, " Are
not ah the people servants of my lord ? " [David ?'\ (verse
3.) We might suppose, from verse 6, that the tribe of Levi
was not included in the enumeration, because the cen
sus was made for a warlike purpose, if the Chronicler
had not himself given us another reason, that " the king's
word was abominable to Joab." We cannot agree with
Movers and Keh, who think Benjamin was not included,
because the census was interrupted by the pestilence,
(1 Ch. xxvii. 24.) Besides, 2 Sam. xxiv. 5 — 9, — which
is an account of the journeys to take the census, — will
not allow this hypothesis. "
III. Apologetic Omissions and Alterations ;

offer withal, and spoons, and vessels
of gold and silver. And they offered
burnt-offerings in tlie house of the
Lord continually all the days of Je
hoiada," Compare xxxiv. 8 — 14,

sels of silver, of the money that was
brought into the house of the Lord ;
but they gave that to the workmen,
and repaired therewith the house of
the Lord. Moreover tliey reckoned
not with the men into whose hand
they delivered the money to be be
stowed on workmen: for they dealt
faithfully. The trespass money and
sin money was not brought into the
house of the Lord : it was tlie
priests',"
The Chronicler seems to have had the earlier account before him, and to
have colored it intentionally to suit his purpose,]
° Compare 2 Ch, xxiii 17—20, with 2 Kings xi, 18—20,

§ 190, C.J BOOKS OF THE CHRONICLES. 293
Passages to enhance the Glory of those Kings
WHO SUPPORTED THE PuBLIC WoRSHIP OF JeHOVAH.
1. Omissions. — In 1 Ch. xiv. 3, the concubines of
David are omitted, though they are mentioned in
the parallel, (2 Sam. v. 13.) In 1 Ch. xvh. 13, no
mention is made of the chastisement which is threat
ened the posterity of David in 2 Sam. vh. 14 — "If
he commit iniquity, I will chasten him with the rod of
men, and with the stripes of the chhdren of men, but
my mercy shall not depart away from him." In 2 Sam.
vih. 2, it is said : —
"And he smote Moab, and measured them with a line, casting
them down to the ground; even with two lines measured he to put to
death, and with one full line to keep alive: and so the Moabites be
came David's servants, and brought gifts.''
In the parahel, (1 Ch. xvih. 3,) this cruelty is omitted —
" He smote Moab ; and the Moabites became David's
servants." In 2 Sam. xh. 31, amongst other torments, it
is said David made the men of Rabbah " pass through
the brick-kiln," which is omitted in 1 Ch. xx. 3." The
omission of larger passages may be accounted for in the
same way. Thus, for example, the Chronicler makes no
mention of Nathan's touching apologue, or of David's
adultery with the wife of Uriah, which is dwelt upon at
length in 2 Sam. xi. 2 — xii. 26. Nothing is said of the
murder of Saul's seven sons, whom David. gave up to
satisfy the vengeance of the Gibeonites, which is related
in 2 Sam. xxi. 1 — 11. Nothing is said of the strange
women of Solomon, his seven hundred wives, his three
hundred concubines, or of his idolatry, so distinctly set
forth in 1 Kings xi. It is on the same principle that we
" [This omission may be explained on the supposition that the Chronicler
did not understand the term isift , or was not famUiar with this method of
torture, and omitted to mention what he did not understand.]

294 BOOKS OF THE CHRONICLES. [§ 190, C.
may account for the omission of the troubles in David's
family, the wickedness of Amnon and Absalom, and, in
general, the whole contents of 2 Sam. xiii. — xx."
2. Alterations. — In 2 Sam. v. 21, the Phhistines left
their idols at Baal-perazim, and David, with his men, took
them away. In 1 Ch. xiv. 12, he burns them with fire.''
3. Passages are added to enhance the Glory of the
Kings. — 2 Kings xx. 21, is the plain statement, "and
Hezekiah slept with his fathers." In 2 Ch. xxxh. 33,
it is said, " Hezekiah slept with his fathers, and they
buried him in the chief est of the sepulchres ofthe sons of
David, and all Judah and the inhabitants of Jerusalem
did him honor at his death." Besides, (verses 27 — 29)
there is a detahed statement of his great wealth and
honor, which are not particularly mentioned in the paral
lel account. In 2 Kings xxhi. 30, Josiah died, and " his
servants  brought him to Jerusalem, and buried
him in his own sepulchre." In 2 Ch. xxxv. 24, 26, it
is added : —
" And all Judah and Jerusalem mourned for Josiah. And Jere
miah lamented for Josiah : and all the singing men and the singing
women spake of Josiah in their lamentations to this day, and made
them an ordinance in Israel : and behold, they are written in the
Lamentations.'' IV. Hatred against Israel.
This often appears in the peculiar accounts of the
Chronicles, and lies at the bottom of the disagreement
between the following passages : - —
" [These omissions are the more sti-iking, since the character of both Da
vid and Solomon was so well known, and their offences were so flagrant An
historian who would omit the offences of these kings, the trouble in David's
own family, must write with some other design than that of telling the
whole truth.] See Movers, 1, c, p, 220,
' [The English Bible has " burned" in both cases, though it gives the true
meaning in the margin of 9 Sam, v. 21.]

§191.J

BOOKS OF THE CHRONICLES.

295

1 Kings xxii. 48, 49. " Je
hoshaphat made ships of Tharshish
to go to Ophir for gold : but they
went not ; for the ships were
broken at Ezion-geber. Then
said Ahaziah the son of Ahab
unto Jehoshaphat, ' Let my ser
vants go with thy servants in the
ships.' But Jehoshaphat would
not "'

2 Ch. XX. 35—37. " And after
this did Jehoshaphat king of Ju
dah join himself with Ahaziah
king of Israel, who did very wick
edly : and he joined himself with
him to make ships to go to Tar
shish : and they made the ships in
Ezion-geber. Then Eliezer 
prophesied against Jehoshaphat,
saying, ' Because thou hast joined
thyself with Ahaziah, the Lord
hath broken thy works.' And
the ships were broken, that they
were not able to go to Tarshish."
[This partiality of the books oi Chronicles shows
itself in the whole narrative. The books of Kings are
perfectly impartial in respect to the kingdom of Israel.
There is no indication in them of a political and religious
hosthity. They only censure the kings of Israel as
founders of the false, Israelitish form of worship. Their
impartiality shows itself in the circumstance that these
books give the history of Israel as minutely as that of
Judah, sometimes even more minutely, but with a pref
erence for the latter, which is particularly obvious in the
accounts of the achievements of Elijah and Elisha. Now,
the Chronicles omit every thing which can add to the
honor of Israel. This renders the book suspicious.
The whole of 2 Ch. xiii. is a striking instance of this
hosthity to Israel.]

§ 191.
CHARACTER OF THE PECULIAR ACCOUNTS OF THE
CHRONICLES.
The results of this comparative criticism place these
books in an unfavorable light, and tend to weaken the

296 BOOKS OF THE CHRONICLES. [§ 191.
credibility of those accounts which have been added to
the earlier statements, and even of those which are in
dependent of these statements. Besides, in the contents
themselves we find some grounds for suspicion, improba-
bhities, and exaggerations. Thus the additions relative
to the Levites, in 1 Ch. xv. 16, sqq., and xvi. 4, sqq.,
are suspicious. Obed-edom, who is appointed porter,
in the latter part of David's life, seems arbitrarily reck
oned with the Levites in xv. 18, 21 , 24, xvi. 38, xxvi. 15.
This is suspicious, for he is called a Gittite in 2 Sam. vi.
10, — though Movers thinks he was a citizen of Gath-
rimmon, a Levitical city, — and the ark was not left in
his house because he was a Levite. His father, Jedu
thun, was one of David's musicians, (1 Ch. xxv. 3.)
His children are introduced as Levites in the service of
David, (xxvi. 4, 5,) and his grandchildren, (verse 6,)
so that four generations seem to have served under
David." The list of Levites in chap, xxiii. differs from that in
chap. vi. Thus, in xxih. 7, we have Laadan for Libni,
(vi. 2 ;) in xxiii. 8, the sons of Laadan are Jehiel, Zetham,
and Joel ; in vi. 3,' the sons of Libni are Jahath, who is
the son of Shimei, (xxih. 10.) On the other hand, (xxvi.
21, 22,) Zetham and Joel are the sons of Jehieli, and
therefore the grandsons of Laadan, and were treasurers
in the time of David. In xxiii. 15 — 17, Gershom and
Eliezer are mentioned as the sons of Moses, Shebuel is
the son of Gershom, and Rehabiah the son of Elie
zer. But in xxvi. 24, Shebuel appears as chief over
seer of David's treasures, and Shelomith, a descendant
of Rehabiah in the fourth degree, has the same office."
». See Movers, p. 239, 339. ' Verse 17, English Bible.
' [The common solution of this difficulty is, to make the gratuitous

§191.] BOOKS OF THE CHRONICLES. 297
In 2 Sam. xv. 18, David's body-guard consists of six
hundred men; in 1 Ch. xxvh. 1 — 15, of two hundred
and eighty-eight thousand men. In the list of the twelve
captains of this guard, David's heroes reappear, and in
the same order as iu xi. 10, sqq."
The accounts of David's preparation for buhding the
temple (1 Ch. xxii. xxvhi. xxix.) agree with the state
ment which Solomon — as his successor — made iu the
assembly of the people, at the time he was anointed
king, (xxix. 22.) But these obviously contradict the
authentic narrative, (1 Kings i.,) and consequently the
course of affairs in chap, xxviii. xxix. is fictitious. Par
ticular passages also favor this conclusion. Thus, for
example, xxviii. 11 — 19, David gives Solomon a plan or
model of the temple, ivhich he had received from Jeho
vah;'' xxix. 4, gold of Ophir is mentioned; there is an
admonitory passage in xxix. 15, which is a reminiscence
of Psalm xxxix. 13. In the details of the preparation,
itself, the numbers are obviously exaggerated. In xxii,
14, there are 100,000 talents of gold and 1,000,000 tal
ents of silver. David, in an address to his son, (xxii. 8,)
says, "Jehovah forbid him [David] to build a temple,
because he had been a man of blood." This contradicts
the earlier account of the matter, 2 Sam. vh. 5, sqq.,
and 1 Ch. xvii. 4, where a different reason is assigned —
" Thou shalt not build me a house, for — I have not dwelt

supposition that the term son is used vaguely, to denote descendants in
generai] " [There is some difference in the names as well as in the order of the
two rolls,] See Movers, p. 135.
» [11 — 19. The following is perhaps more accurate than the common
version : " David gave Solomon  the pattern of the porch, &c., 
all in writing from the hand of Jehovah, who informed me [David] of all the
work ofthe model," See the remarks of Clarke in explanation.]
VOL. II. 38

298 BOOKS OF THK CHKOMCLES. [§ 191.
in a house since the days that I brought up Israel." The
relation in Chronicles contradicts that in 1 Kings v. 17,
20, 27 — 31, which is certainly the more credible of the
two." The accounts which relate to the worship of Jehovah
are suspicious, when they go beyond the earlier narra
tives in the books of Kings. There is a contradiction,
in the history of Asa, between 2 Ch. xiv. 3 — 5, and xv.
1 — 15; for in the latter passage he does, at the com
mand of Obed, what he had done before.'' There is a
contradiction in xvii. 7 — 9."
In xxix. — xxxi. we have an account of an extraordi
nary celebration of the feast of the passover, under
Hezekiah, which lasted fourteen days. Here it is said,
(xxx. 26,) " Since the time of Solomon, the like was
not in Jerusalem." This does not agree with 2 Kings
xxih. 22, and 2 Ch. xxxv. 18 : " Surely there was not
holden such a passover from the days of the judges,
 nor in all the days of the kings,"  as that
of Josiah. Movers attempts to explain the contradiction
by saying, that " no passover was kept with so much
pomp." But this does not remove the difficulty ; for,
according to the Chronicler, that under Hezekiah was
begun with sufficient pomp.
In 2 Ch. xxxiv. 3 — 7, the reformation under Josiah
takes place in the twelfth year of his reign, while in 2
" The sophisms of Movers (p. 319, sqq.) cannot remove tlie difficulty.
» See § 190, b.
" [The author does not tell in what it consists, and I am at a loss to dis
cover the contradiction.]
Notice, also, the suspicious relationship between Kish, the son of Abdi,
(xxix, 12,) and Ethan, one of David's singers, tlie son of Kishi, the son of
Abdi, (1 Ch, vi, 29, [44,]) Note, also, that of Joah, the son of Zimmah,
and of Eden, the son of Joah, with the ancestors of Samuel ; namely, Zim
mah, Joah, and Iddo, (1 Ch. vi .'5, 6, [20, 21.])

§191.]

BOOKS OF THE CHRONICLES.

299

Kings xxih. 4, sqq., it takes place in the eighteenth year.
[The attempt of the Chronicler to disguise the idolatry
of the inhabitants of Jerusalem is very obvious, in the
suppression of many circumstances detailed in the
former history : —

2 Kings xxiii. 4 — 19. " And
the king commanded Hilkiah the
high priest, and the priests of the
second order, and the keepers of
the door, to hnng forth out of the
temple of the Lord all the vessels
that were made for Baal, and for
the grove, and for all the host of
heaven : and he burnt them with
out Jerusalem in the fields of
Kidron, and carried the ashes of
them unto Beth-el. And he put
down the idolatrous priests, whom
the kings of Judah had ordained
to burn incense in the high
places, in the cities of Judah, and
in the places round about Jerusa
lem ; them also that burnt incense
unto Baal, to the sun, and to the
moon, and to the planets, and to
all the host of heaven. And he
brought out the grove from the
house of the Lord, without Jeru
salem, unto the brook Kidron,
and burnt it at the brook Kidron,
and stamped it small to powder,
and cast the powder thereof upon
the graves of the children of the
people. And he brake down the
houses of the sodomites, that were
by the house of the Lord, where
the women wove hangings for the
grove. And he brought all the
priests out of the cities of Judah,

2 Ch. xxxiv. 3—7, 33. " In
the twelfth year he [Josiah] began
to purge Judah and Jerusalem
from the high places, and the
groves, and the carved images,
and the molten images. And
they brake down the altars of
Baalim in his presence ; and the
images that were on high above
them he cut down ; and the
groves, and the carved images,
and the molten images, he brake
in pieces, and made dust of them,
and strewed it upon the graves of
them that had sacrificed unto
them. And he burnt the bones
of the priests upon their altars,
and cleansed Judah and Jerusa
lem. And so did he in the cities
of Manasseh, and Ephraim, and
Simeon, even unto Naphtali, with
their mattocks round about. And
when he had broken down the
altars and the groves, and had
beaten the graven images into
powder, and cut down all the
idols throughout all the land of
Israel, he returned to Jerusalem.
And Josiah took away all the
abominations out of all the coun
tries that pertained to tbe children
oi Israel, and made all that were
present in Israel to serve, even to
serve the Lord their God. And

300

BOOKS OF THE CHRONICLES.

[§19!.

and defiled the high places where
the priests had burnt incense,
from Geba to Beer-sheba, and
brake down the high places of
the gate that were in the entering
in of the gate of Joshua the gov
ernor ofthe city, which were on a
man's left hand at the gate ofthe
city. Nevertheless the priests of
the high places came not up to
the altar of the Lord in Jerusa
lem, but they did eat of the
unleavened bread among their
brethren. And he defiled To
pheth, which is in the valley of
the children of Hinnom, that no
man might make his son or his
daughter to pass through the fire
to Molech. And he took away
the horses that ihe kings ofJzidah
had given to the sun, at the enter
ing in of the house of the Lord,
 and burnt the chariots of
the sun with fire. And the altars
that were on the top of the upper
chamber of Ahaz, which the kings
of Judah had made, and the altars
which Manasseh had made in the
two courts of the house of the
Lord, did the king beat down,
and brake them down from
thence, and cast the dust of them
into the brook Kidron. And the
high places that were before
Jerusalem, which were on the
right hand of the Mount of Cor
ruption, which Solomon the king of
Israel had builded  And all
the houses also of the high places
that were in the cities of Samaria,

all his days they departed not
from following the Lord, the God
of their fathers,"

§ 191. j BOOKS OF THE CHRONICLES. 301
which the kings of Israel had made to provoke the Lord to
anger, Josiah took away, and did to them according to all the acts
that he had done in Belh-el."
The Chronicler contradicts himself, (verse 33,) and
gives a short notice of this reformation, and, contrary
to the fact, does not suppose the reformation was first
brought about by the terror which arose on discovering
the book of the Law."
The story in 2 Ch. xxvi. 16 — 21, which relates that
Uzziah was punished with a leprosy because he offered
incense with his own hands, is a legend written to
confirm the prescriptive privileges of the priests.
Some accounts of victories are liable to suspicion.
For example, 2 Ch. xih. 2, sqq., Abijah appears as an
orthodox king, and the sacred trumpets perform a mira
cle ; for " God smote Jeroboam  so there fell
down slain of Israel .500,000 chosen men.'" Of the
same class is the story in 2 Ch. xiv. 6 — 15, of Asa's
victory over the ^Ethiopians, which he obtains by the
help of a prayer, (verse 11.) In 2 Ch. xx. 1 — 25, Je-
hoshaphat's victory over the Moabites and others is
related in an admonitory and entirely miraculous man
ner. It is said the Jews had nothing to do but gather
up the spoh, which they were three days in collecting
The whole of the hosthe army had fallen without a
" Movers prefers the narrative of the Chronicler to that in 2 Kings,
chiefly on the ground that the passover which Josiah celebrated, in the
eighteen years of his reign, in consequence of discovering the Law book,
must have been celebrated in the first month, and consequently there would
be no time for extirpating the idolaters. Here he supposes tlie eighteenth
year of Josiah's reign was coincident with the civil year.
Usher puts this passover in the end of the eighteenth year. See the reply
of Movers, in the Bon. Zeitschrift, vol, xvii. p. 169, to this objection, which
Von Bohlen has brought against him.
^ KeiFs defence (p, 444) does not deserve a refutation.

302 BOOKS OF THE CHRONICLES. [§ 191.
blow — "dead bodies fahen to the earth." This story
is probably made out of Jehoshaphat's campaign, men
tioned in 2 Kings iii. 4, sqq."
" See Gesenius, Comni. zu. Jes, vol. i p, 502, Winer, Lexicon, vol, i
p, 710, On tlie other hand, see Kleinert, (Aecht, d. Jes, Weis, vol, i, p, 45,)
Keil, (1, c, p, 241,) .Movers, (p. III,) who seek in vain for a support in
Ps, xlviii, 83. See Clarke, in loc,
[The exaggeration appears plain from tlie following : —
2 Ch, xvii, 10 — 12. " And tlie fear ofthe Lord fell upon all the kingaoras
of the lands tliat were round about Judah, so that tliey made no war against
Jehoshaphat Also, some of the Philistines brought Jehoshaphat presents
and tribute silver ; and the Arabians brought him flocks, seven thousand and
seven hundred rams, and seven thousand and seven hundred he-goats.
" And Jehoshaphat waxed great exceedingly ; and he built in Judah
castles and cities of store."
The army comprised 1,160,000 soldiers, under five generals, besides his
garrison-troops in the walled towns ! The Moabites, Ammonites, and
others, invade this powerful king. "Jehoshaphat feared, and set himself to
seek the Lord, and proclaimed a fast." He then offers a public prayer in
presence of the multitude assembled before the " new court ; " the spirit of
the Lord comes upon a Levite, who prophesies.
2 Ch. XX. 15, sqq. " And he said, ' Hearken ye, all Judah, and ye inhab
itants of Jerusalem, and thou King Jehoshaphat : Thus saith the Lord unto
you, " Be not afraid, nor dismayed by reason of this great multitude ; for
the battle ia not yours, but God's ; to-moiTow go ye down against them. Ye
shall not need to fight in this battle ; set yourselves, stand ye still, and see
the salvation of the Lord with you, O Judah and Jerusalem ; fear not, nor
be dismayed ; to-morrow go out against them ; for the Lord will be with
you."' And Jehoshaphat bowed his head with his face to the ground : and
all Judah, and the inhabitants of Jerusalem, fell before tlie Lord, worshipping
the Lord. And the Levites, of the children of the Kohathites, and of the
children of the Korhites, stood up to praise the Lord God of Israel with a
loud voice on high.
" And they rose early in the morning, and went forth into the wilderness
nf Tekoa : and, as they went forth, Jehoshaphat stood, and said, ' Hear me,
O Judah, and ye inhabitants of Jerusalem; believe in tlie Lord your God,
so shall ye be established ; believe his prophets, so shall ye prosper.' And
ivhen he had consulted with the people, he appointed singers unto the Lord,
and that should praise the beauty of holiness, as they went out before the
army, and to say, ' Praise the Lord ; for his mercy endureth forever.'
" And when they began to sing and to praise, the Lord set ambushments
Rffainst the children of Ammon, Moab, and ilount Seir, which were come

§ 191. J BOOKS OF THE CHRONICLES. 303
The relations of the power, wealth, and achieve
ments, of the kings of Judah, (2 Ch. xiv. 6, sqq., xvii.
10, sqq., xxvi. 5, sqq., xxvh. 4, sqq.,) are suspicious, —
like the above description of victories, — on account of
the exaggeration in the numbers. There is an obvious
anachronism in 2 Ch. xx. 12, sqq. There are difficul
ties in the history of Manasseh, (2 Ch. xxxiii. 11—17.)
The accounts in Chronicles of his captivity, his conver
sion, and especially of his pretended extirpation of
idolatry, do not agree with the history in 2 Kings xxi. 1
— 17; for examjjle, 2 Ch. xxxih. 15, "He took away
the strange gods, and the idol out of the house of Jeho
vah, and all the altars,  and cast them out of the
city, and repaired the altar of Jehovah." This contra
dicts the account in Kings, which sums up his whole life
in few words : " Now the rest of the acts of Manas
seh, and ah that he did, and his sin that he sinned, are
they not written in the book of the Chronicles.?" &c.
Here no mention is made of his captivity, or his conver
sion. He lives and dies in sin, and is referred to again
as an idolater, in verse 21, and xxiv. 3, where his sin is
deemed unpardonable."
As, in the above case, Manasseh's conversion rests on
against Judah ; and they were smitten. For the children of Ammon and
Moab stood up against the inhabitants of Mount Seir, utterly to slay and
destroy them : and when they had made an end of the inhabitants of Seir,
every one helped to destroy another. And when Judah came towards the
watchtower in the wilderness, they looked unto the multitude, and, behold,
they were dead bodies fallen to the earth, and none escaped. And when
Jehoshaphat and his people came to take away the spoil of them, they found
among them in abundance both riches with the dead bodies, and precious
jewels, which they stripped off for themselves, more than they could carry
away: and they were three days in gathering ofthe spoil, it was so much,"]
" See, also, 2 Ch. xxxiii. 22, Jer, xv, 4. Movers (p. 327) acknowledges
this contradiction, — though .KeiZ (p. 425) will not, --and attempts only to
show that he was really carried into captivity.

304

BOOKS OF THE CHRONICLES.

[§191.

a pious conjecture, so it is probable Amaziah is made
out an idolater, in 2 Ch. xxv. 14, sqq., because he was
afterwards unfortunate. It is probable, also, that the
narrative in 2 Kings xii. 18, 19, is amplihed in 2 Ch.
xxiv. 23, in order to make out a suitable recompense for
the apostasy of Joash. The two accounts speak for
themselves : —

2 Kings xii. 17, 18. "Then
Hazael king of Syria went up,
and fought against Gath, and
took it : and Hazael set his face
to go up to Jerusalem. And
Jehoash king of Judah took all
the hallowed things that Jehosha
phat, and Jehoram, and Ahaziah,
his fathers, kings of Judah, had
dedicated, and his own hallowed
things, and all the gold that was
found in the treasures of the
house of the Lord, and in the
king's house, and sent it to Ha
zael, king of Syria : and he went
away frora Jerusalera  and
his servants arose  and
slew Joash  and they
buried him with his fathers."

2 Ch. xxiv. 23—25. " And it
came to pass at the end of the
year, that the host of Syria came
up against him, and they came to
Judah and Jerusalem, and de
stroyed all the princes of the
people from among the people,
and sent all the spoil of them
unto the king of Damascus. For
the army of the Syrians came
with a small company of men,
and the Lord delivered a very
great host into their hand, because
they had forsaken the Lord God
of their fathers. So they exe
cuted judgment against Joash.
And when they were departed
from him, {for they left him in
great diseases,) his own servants
conspired against him for the
blood of the sons of Jehoiada the
priest, and slew him on his bed,
and he died: and they buried
hira in the city of David, but
they buried him not in the sepul
chres of the kings."
In 2 Kings xvi. 6, " Rezin king of Syria, and Pe
kah king of Israel, came up to Jerusalem to war, and
they besieged Ahaz, but could not overcome him." He
made terms with the king of Assyria ; and, though an

§ 191. J BOOKS OF THE CHRONICLES. 305
idolater, suffered no remarkable calamity, as we learn
in the books of Kings. But in 2 Ch. xxvhi. 5, sqq.,
" Jehovah  delivered him into the hand of the
king of Syria, and they smote him, and carried away a
great multitude of them captives  and he was
also delivered into the hand of the king of Israel, who
smote him with a great slaughter ; for Pekah 
slew 120,000 in one day, all valiant men, because they
had forsaken Jehovah, God of their fathers." He sent
to the king of Assyria for help, who " distressed him,
and strengthened him not." At his death, he was not
buried in " the sepulchre of the kings of Israel." The
statement in verse 7, that Maaseiah, his son, was slain in
battle, is obviously false ; for, at that time, he could not
have had a son able to bear arms."
In 2 Kings xxiv. 6, it is said, " Jehoiakim slept with
his fathers ; " but in 2 Ch. xxxvi. 6, Nebuchadnezzar
 bound him [JehoiakimJ in fetters to carry him
to Babylon." This latter statement is very doubtful.
The speeches put in the mouth of kings and prophets
all have the same admonitory tone, and resemble each
other, even in particular expressions.'
It must be admitted, also, that these books contain
some credible narratives.'
" Movers, following Usher, Vitringa, and Rosenmvller, attempts to defend
the Chronicler, on the ground that there was an earlier invasion of Judah
by the united armies of Syria and Israel, (but neither Kings nor Chronicles
speaks of two invasions,) and by reference to Isa. i. ; but this explanation of
Isaiah is unsuitable for other reasons. Keil (p. 420) thinks there was but
one invasion, and attempts to reconcile the two statements.
' See 1 Ch. xv. 12, 13, 2 Ch. xiii. 4, sqq,, xiv, 11, xv. 1, sqq., 12, sqq., xix,
2, 3, XX, 6, sqq,, xxviii. 9, xxix. 5, sqq., xxxii 7, 8, xxxv. 3, sq. See Movers,
p. 180.
' Movers has shown much acuteness and power of combination in his
attempts to prove this. The present is not the place for a thorough exami
nation ofthis question,
VOL. II. 39

306 BOOKS OF THE CHRONICLES. [§ 192, fl.
§ 192, a.
SOURCES OF THE BOOKS OF CHRONICLES.
The accounts which run parahel with the books of
Samuel and Kings were derived from that source. This
appears from the following considerations: —
1. The earlier accounts in Samuel and Kings have a
natural connection with those other accounts therein,
but which are omitted by the Chronicler. Thus, in
1 Sam. xxxi., the death of Saul and his sons is naturally
connected with the previous accounts, (xviii. — xxx.)
The assembling of the tribes at Hebron, to elect David
king, (2 Sam. v. 1,) refers, naturally, to ii. 1, where,
by Jehovah's counsel, David has gone up to that place.
So the account of his family at Hebron, (2 Sam. v. 13,)
connects naturally with the similar account in hi. 2 —
5. The relation that Michal despised David because
he danced naked before the ark, (2 Sam. vi. 16,) con
nects with verses 20 — 23, where Michal reproaches
David for the act, and he defends himself. So 2 Sam.
xi. 1, which says David remained at Jerusalem while
his army invested Rabbah, and xii. 24 — 31, which men
tions his departure for that city, and its destruction,
connect naturally with the account of his criminal con
nection with Uriah's wife, for the sake of which he had
remained at Jerusalem. Thus the detail of Solomon's
trade and wealth (1 Kings x. 26 — 29, parallel with 2
Ch. i. 14 — 17) connects with the general statement in
verse 14.° The extent of Solomon's dominion (1 Kings

" According to Mcmers, (p. 186,) 2 Ch, i, 14 — 17, is derived from another
source, namely, 1 Kings ix, 26 — 28, (for which the Chronicler had chap. x.
before him,) and from which he transcribed the same account in the same

§ 192, a.] BOOKS OF THE CHRONICLES. 307
V. 1)" connects with iv. 1, which is parahel with 2 Ch.
ix. 26. The time spent in building his palace and tem
ple, in 1 Kings ix. 10, (2 Ch. vih. 1,) corresponds with
1 Kings vh. 1 — 12, where the same number of years is
mentioned. The fulhlment of the prediction of Ahijah
(1 Kings xii. 15, 2 Ch. x. 15) connects with xi. 29,
sqq., where the prediction itself is made, which is
omitted by the Chronicler.'
2. .From the original character of these accounts,
compared with those in Chronicles.
3. From the certain fact that the Chronicler must
have been acquainted with the previous books.
words. But this is incorrect ; for i, 14 — 17, is parallel with 1 Kings x, 26 —
29 ; and, on the other hand, ix, 25 — 28, is an abbreviation of it. The
Chronicler wished to avoid repeating the whole, and therefore abbreviated it.
Movers contradicts himself, (p. 254,) and admits this.
- English Bible, iv. 21.
' See Movers, p, 100, lOI, The relation between 2 Ch, xxxii, and 2
Kings xviii. — xx. is a matter of controversy. In Chronicles, the earlier
account is sometimes condensed, sometimes enlarged. In some verses we
discern the original narrative. Compare, for example, verse 14 with 2 Kings
xviii 35; verse 15 with xviii. 29; verse 17 with xviii 12; verse 18 with
xviii. 28 ; verse 21 with xix, 35 — 37 ; verse 24 with xx, I,
The account of Hezekiah's defence against Sennacherib, by cutting off the
supplies of water, (2 Ch, xxxii, 3, sqq,,) — which differs from 2 Kings xviii,
14, where he asks for mercy, — is derived from a different source, according
to Keil, Movers, and Gesenius, (Jes, vol. ii. pt. ii. p. 936,) and is confirmed by
Isa, xxii 9. Reference is made to the same circumstance in 2 Kings xxii,
20, which, however, refers to a permanent alteration, that is also mentioned
in 2 Ch, xxxii, 4. [It seems to me doubtful that 2 Kings xx. 22, relates at
all to the attempt to deprive Sennacherib of water, or that 2 Ch. xxxii 4,
refers to the supply of water which Hezekiah brought into the city,]
Movers, though without good reason, thinks 2 Ch. xxxii, 8 — 31, is an ex
tract, but not from the second book of Kings, though he refers the citation in
verse 32 to this book. Verses 7 and 8 are written in the admonitory style of
the Chronicler, and the account of Hezekiah's defence, which is inserted to
avoid the discreditable statement in 2 Kings xviii. 14, sqq., may have been
derived from tradition, or from Isa, xxii.

308 BOOKS OF THE CHRONICLES. [§ 192, b.
§ 192, b.
THE SAME SUBJECT CONTINUED.
The above statement is apparently confirmed by the
fact that the Chronicler seems to refer to the earlier
books. The reference, in 1 Ch. xxix. 29, to " the dis
courses (histories) of Samuel, Nathan, and Gad," apphes
to our books of Samuel." " The discourses of Nathan
and the prophecy of Ahijah," cited in 2 Ch. ix. 29, are
found in 1 Kings i. — xi. The discourses of Shemaiah,
(2 Ch. xii. 15,) perhaps, refer to 1 Kings xh. 22.
" The book of the kings of Judah and Israel," (2 Ch.
xvi. 11, xxv. 26, xxvih. 26, xxxh. 32,) or "the book of
the kings of Israel and Judah," (2 Ch. xxvii. 7, xxxv.
27, xxxvi. 8,) and likewise " the history of the kings
of Israel," (2 Ch. xxxih. 18,)' might be understood as
relating to our present books of Kings. " The prophecy
of Isaiah" (2 Ch. xxx. 32) is found in 2 Kings xvih.
13—20, and xix.
But, on the other hand, it seems, this conclusion will
not stand, because, in company with the discourses of
Nathan and Ahijah, (2 Ch. ix. 29,) we find "the vision
of Iddo," which does not appear in the parahel, 1 Kings
i. — xi. With the discourses of Shemaiah, we have also,
(2 Ch. xh. 15,) "the discourses of the prophet Iddo,"
which do not occur in the parallel, 1 Kings xii. " The
book ofthe kings of Israel and Judah" (2 Ch. xxvh. 7,)
contained something not found in 2 Kings xv. 32 — 38 ;
"a book of the kings of Israel" is cited in 1 Ch. ix. 1,
" Movers, p. 178.
'> " The discourses of the seer " are found in 2 Kings xxi. 11, sqq. The
"prayer" is not found there, but, without violence, this expression may refer
to the following work, in verse 19,

§ 192, C.J BOOKS OF THE CHRONICLES. 309
and 2 Ch. xx. 34, which contained the genealogies and
discourses of the prophet Jehu, and neither appears in our
books of Kings. " The explanation of the books of the
Kings"" (2 Ch. xxiv. 27) is different from our books of
the Kings. " The explanation [MidrashJ of Iddo the
seer," (2Ch. xih. 22,) — which, however, may be re
garded as a citation of part of the former work, — and
"the history of Uzziah, by Isaiah the son of Amoz,"'
(2 Ch. xxvi. 22,) are referred to, as weh as " the dis
courses of Hosai," (2 Ch. xxxhi. 19,) and do not appear
in the former books. Hence some critics have concluded
that these were the sources of the peculiar accounts of
the Chronicler. § 192, c.
THE SAME SUBJECT CONTINUED.
There are several hypotheses which rest on the sup
position that the Chronicler did not use or refer to the
earlier books. According to Eichhorn, the Chronicler
did not use our books of Samuel and Kings ; but in
both accounts of the history of David and Solomon, he
thinks a short hfe of these kings hes at the foundation,
which has passed through different hands, and has been
wrought over in different ways. In the history of the
two kingdoms, there were two different imperial histo
ries of the two states, which were compiled from various
works. Now, the author of the books of Kings, Eich
horn thinks, adhered closely to these imperial histories,
' Perhaps here is an error of the text — "itfl ''lin, instead of Q^tnfl ilST,
Movers, p, 174, 176. [Our English version follows the conjectural reading
in the text, and the other in the margin. The Vulgate reads Hosai ; the
LXX. the Seers ; the Syriac has Hunan ; and the Arabic Saphan.]

310 BOOKS OF THE CHRONICLES. [§ 192, C.
whhe the Chronicler often himself went behind them,
back to the original sources, and followed them, and
not the historical work compiled from them. How
ever, he used only the history of the kingdom of Judah ;
and with him the " book of the kings of Israel and
Judah" is the same as the "book ofthe kings of Ju
dah." \Vhen both authors follow the larger historical
work, they agree ; but ^vhpn the Chronicler goes back
to the sources, there is a difference between them.
According to Bertholdt," both authors used merely
different extracts from these imperial histories. The
Chronicler did not use the particular words, but merely
the citations made from them in the comphation.
According to Keh,' the Chronicler did not use the
books of Samuel and Kings, but, in the history of
David, referred to the work cited in 1 Ch. xxix. 29,
and in the history of Solomon, to that quoted in 2 Ch.
ix. 29, from which latter the history of Solomon, referred
to in 1 Kings xi. 41, was comphed. In the history of
Judah, he thinks he used the histories of the kingdom
of Judah and Israel, — which are quoted under different
names, — and the particular sources, such as the dis
courses of different prophets, which constituted the
materials of the larger historical work.
Havernik" assumes the following sources of the
Chronicles ; namely, in the history of Samuel, the pro
phetic works cited in 1 Ch. xxix. 29, and the "book of
the kings of Israel," mentioned 1 Ch. ix. 1, which was
compiled out of the annals of the realm ; in the history
of Solomon, the prophetic works referred to in 2 Ch.
ix. 29, and the same " book of kings ; " in the history of
« P. 972. ' P. 206, sqq,
' L, c. vol, ii, pt. i p, 192,

§ 192, C.J BOOKS OF THE CHRONICLES. 311
the kingdom of Judah, the " book of kings," which was
one and the same with the Midrash, and contained,
likewise, the single prophetic discourses that are cited.
Besides these, he merely used two separate works, " the
discourses of Hosai," (2 Ch. xxxih. 19,) and " the his
tory of Uzziah by Isaiah," (2 Ch. xxvi. 22.)
But all these hypotheses are so strongly at variance
with the obvious character of the Chronicles, that they
fail to convince us.
But, on the other hand, the hypothesis of Movers"
deserves consideration. According to this, besides our
books of Samuel and Kings, the Chronicler made use of
the Midrash of the " books of kings," which is quoted,
and is identical with the " book of the kings of Judah
and Israel," otherwise called "book ofthe kingdom of
Israel and Judah," or " of Israel ;" and likewise he cites
particular parts of this book, as the "Midrash of the
prophet Iddo," or as the "discourses" of different
prophets, because the latter occurred in it. However,
" the history of Uzziah by Isaiah " was a monograph,
which he did not use.
This Midrash, or " book of the kings," contains the
edifying discourses by which the Chronicles are distin
guished from the earlier canonical books,' and also the
genealogies and registers of names."
" P. 160, sqq.
' For example, 2 Ch. xiii. 4 — 12. Compare the citation of the Midrash,
verse 22.
' Compare 1 Ch. ix. 1, and xxi. 6.

312 BOOKS OF THE CHRONICLES. [§ 192, d.
§ 192, d.
THE SAME SUBJECT CONCLUDED.
But the application of this theory in detah is very
uncertain and complicated. It is conceded that the
author did not derive the alterations and additions — in
which he differs from the earlier books — merely from
the Midrash, but that he himself made interpolations.
Thus Movers thinks 1 Ch. xvi. 40, is an interpolation
by the Chronicler, because it disturbs the connection."
But the cases in which he departs from the earlier
books, and is supposed to have fohowed another authori
ty, are almost always doubtful. If there were only
additions, and sometimes large ones, we might be satis
fied with this theory. But if there are interpolations
made in these very earlier accounts, we do not see why
the author himself may not have originated them;' at

" But is he correct in stating the design of placing ten priests before
the tabernacle ? (verse 39.) He thinks, also, that, in verse 41, the words
"to thank Jehovah because his mercy endureth forever," are interpo
lated. But here the same question may be asked as before. In verse 42,
says Movers, with these words, " and with them Heman and Jeduthun," the
author proceeds with copying the longer {?) list of names he had begun, but
left off in verse 41 But if this were so, he must have left off again, for only
two names follow. The senseless repetition, " and with them," &c,, (41, 42,)
may be ascribed to the Chronicler without such a process.
It is likewise a mistalie that he refers to his authority with the words
''ai 13p3 Trs ; for it does not mean that " they (who are mentioned in the
hypothetical register) are given with their names," but " they were (express
ly) designated by their names." These words are to be connected with the
following, "to thank Jehovah,'' [just as it reads in the English version.]
See, also, 1 Ch, xii 31, 2 Ch, xxi 19, Movers, p. 169. The same is the
case with I Ch, xxi,, where it is difficult to determine what is the Chroni
cler's amplifying detail and addition from another source, that Movers
speaks of in p, 224,
' Now, Movers admits (p. 224) that small additions, designed to perfect

§ 192, d.J BOOKS OF THE CHRONICLES. 313
least, nothing is gained by this hypothesis in favor of
the credibility of the book, and the explanation of its
origin is removed sthl farther off. Here I am reminded
of a passage in my Beitrage — " It troubles me little to
prove that the author of the Chronicles — that is, the man
the account, have been derived from other sources, and refers to 1 Ch, xi, 6,
8, compared with 2 Sam, v, 8, 9, 2 Ch. xi, 42 — 47, compared with 2 Sam,
xxiii, 39, and other places. But where is the certainty that such was the
origin of these passages? According to him, (p, ]86, 187,) the account
(2 Ch. vii, 1 — 3) that fire fell from heaven, and the glory of Jehovah filled
the house, is derived from another source, which was a recasting of
1 Kings viii, 1 — II, — where Solomon brings the ark into the temple, and
the glory of Jehovah fills the house, — because otherwise it is not conceiva
ble that the Chronicler (in verse 2) could repeat the account of the glory of
Jehovah, which he had already (in v, 14) copied from 1 Kings viii, 10, II.
But 2 Ch. vii 1, corresponds with 1 Kings viii, 54, Now, the Chronicler,
instead of making Solomon bless the people after his prayer, [as in Kings,]
makes fire come down from heaven, as the result of his prayer. With this
he connects the mention of the glory of Jehovah, partly for the sake of the
similarity between them, and partly from analogy with LeviL ix. 23, 24,
« here the glory of Jehovah appears to the people.
It is very improbable that the Chronicler, on the other hand, in 1 Ch. xiii,
XV. xvi, observed the earlier accounts, — as Movers thinks he did, (p. 166,) —
or derived I Ch, xiii, 1 — 5, from the second source, and verses 6 — 14 from 2
Sam, But why did tho Chronicler depart from that, and what did it contain
on this point ? To judge from the result, it could afford him more than the
earlier accounts. Movers ascribes the interruption of the account by the
insertion of chap, xiv. to the Chronicler; xv, 1 — 24, he derives from the
second source ; but verse 25, from 2 Sam, ; verse 27, from the second source,
verse 27, which speaks of the twofold raiment of David — [an overcoat of
byssus, and a mantle of linen, f IS b''S?3 , and 12 "16»] — is a combina
tion ofthe different accounts of tlie two sources. (This is not bad!) Chap,
XV, 28 — xvi, 3, proceeds in unison with 2 Sam. vi, ; in verses 15 — 19, the
agreement is verbal. But is this derived from the second source, or does it
contain nothing therefrom ? If so, it passes over the chief matters in silence.
He thinks that at 2 Sam. vi. 15, the Chronicler inserted the matter derived
from the second source, and contained in xv. 16, sqq. But, in the one case,
he tells what is to be done, in the other, what is done ; therefore there is no
repetition. Before the last words of 2 Sam. vi 19, he inserts from his second
source the different account of placing the Levites before the ark, &c., (xvi 4
— 42,) and in verse 43, he comes back to the last words in 2 Sam. vi, 19 6uid
20, But it remains unexplained why he omits the rest of 2 Sam. vi. 20 — ^23,
VOL. II. 40

314 BOOKS OF THE CHRONICLES. [§ 192, d.
who gave them the precise form in which we have them
now — in an arbitrary, and therefore deceptive, manner
made the alterations, additions, and falsifications, which I
shall proceed to detah. It is possible that, in the course
of time, several writers have taken a part in disfiguring
the accounts which yet remain unfalsified in the books
of Samuel and Kings. Who wih contend about that.?
But as the Chronicle lies before us, it makes a whole of
the same character throughout. This character, then,
without any falsehood, may be ascribed to one author.""
It has been unjustly denied, that, in the time of the
Chronicler, there were various writings which have not
found a place in the canon.' But the hterary references
are not to be trusted, as it appears from the false citation
of Jeremiah's Lamentations, in 2 Ch. xxxv. 25, which
is made on the erroneous notion that Josiah's death was
the subject of Jeremiah's Lamentations. It is doubtful
or, at least, verse 22, and therefore there seems no reason for this alleged
return to this document.
The departme, in 2 Ch. xxiii. I — 12, from 2 Kings xi,, is explained by Mo
vers (p. 307, sqq,) from the use of the second source ; but the prohibition in
verse 6, " Let none but the priests and they that minister of the Levites come
into the house of Jehovah," is ascribed to the Chronicler, In 2 Ch. xxiii, 12,
the interpolating alteration of 6''2'in is acknowledged, and it is admitted
that the account in Chronicles is unintelligible without the other.
The case is the same with 2 Ch, xxiv, 4 — 14. Compare 2 Kings xii. 5 —
16, (p. 312, sqq.) See above, § 190, c, p, 287. According to Movers, (p. 103,)
2 Ch. xii. 2, was derived verbally from 1 Kings xiv. 25, tlien verses 3 — 8
from the second source, and with verse 9 the Chronicler turned to 2 Kings.
But verses 3 — 8, as well as verse 12, are more correctly considered an inter
polation, as it appears from the fact that the connection is disturbed. The
remark, in verse 12, that Rehoboam humbled himself, — which connects with
verse 6, — is too late afler what has been said in verses 10, 11. It should
follow after verse 9, and be connected with the statement that God gave
the promised assistance, and sent away again the king of JEgypt ; but the
admonitory interpolator did not know this, for it was not in 2 Kings,
" Vol, i, p. 61,
' Gramberg, p. 2.5. On the other hand, Movers, p. 103, Zunz, p. 34.

^ 192, e.] BOOKS OF THE CHRONICLES. 315
whether the prophet Jehu — whom we find under
Baasha, king of Israel, (1 Kings xvi. 1, 7) — could
have been active under Jehoshaphat, who was king of
Judah, more than thirty years after, (2 Ch. xix. 2,) as
it is implied in the reference to his discourses, (2 Ch.
XX. 34.) Yet these (false) discourses are found among
the authorities of the Chronicler.

§ 192, e.
DESIGN AND AUTHOR.
The design of the author was obviously this — to
give an account of the theocratic kingdom of David,
which was obviously, but slightly, connected by genealo
gies, and the death of Saul, with the earlier history of
the people of Israel, — an account of that kingdom, which
at first embraced all the twelve tribes, and afterwards
only the tribe of Judah, and the tribes belonging to it,
— the kingdom which observed the Mosaic law, and the
Mosaic worship, — and to show how, in this, the true
worship of God was preserved in all its perfection under
pious kings, or restored by them, and how apostasy from
this brought on distress and ruin. This he does in such
a manner that the light far surpasses the dark side.
Every thing is tried by the priestly standard.
The author is unknown ; but it is certain he must
be sought among the priests. [Carpzov, Eichhorn, and
Havernik, follow Baba Bathra, and consider Ezra the
author. Jahn and Bertholdt differ from that opinion."
" Baba Bathra, fol, 15, c, 1. Carpzov, 1. u, p, 286, Eichhorn, § 494. Ha
vernik, vol. ii pt i p, 268, sqq. Jahn, vol. ii. p. 245. Bertholdt, p, 987.
On the opinion that its author wrote, also, the book of Ezra, see below,
§ 196, 6.

316 BOOKS OF THE CHRONICLES. [§ 192, C.
Home, after stating his reasons for the belief that Ezra
did not wTite the books, says, " Theh authenticity is
abundantly supported by the general mass of external
evidence ; by which, also, their divine authority is fully
established, as well as by the direct attestations of our
Lord and his apostles." " Independently of the impor
tant moral and rehgious instruction to be derived from
the tW'O books of Chronicles,  the second book is
extremely valuable in a critical point of view, not only
as it contains some historical particulars which are not
mentioned in any other part of the Old Testament, but
also as it affords us many genuine readings 
The discrepancies between the books of Kings and
Chronicles, though very numerous, are not of any great
moment, and admit of an easy solution, being partly
caused by various lections, and partly arising from the
nature of the books, which, being supplementary to
those of Samuel and Kings, omit what is there related
more at large, and supply what is there wanting.""
Respecting this opinion nothing need be said.']

" Home, 1. c. pt, v. ch. ii § vii vol, ii. p. 222, sqq,
' [The spirit of a considerable part of these books resembles that shown
in the public prayers offered by authority in England after the troubles of
Charles II, See them in King's Life of Locke, 2d ed. voi i, p. 261 sqq,]

§ 193.] BOOK OF RUTH. 317
CHAPTER VII.
THE BOOK OP RUTH."
§193.
CONTENTS AND DESIGN OF THE BOOK.
This family history of the royal house of Jesse is
placed in the cyclus of the history before the exile.
It goes back to the time of the judges, i. 1,' and there
fore, in the Alexandrian version, it is placed between the
books of Judges and Samuel."
The book relates the history of the marriage of Boaz,
(which was attended with remarkable circumstances,)
the great-grandfather of David, with idyhic simplicity
and loveliness, and with a faithful delineation of the
manners of the time : a genealogy is appended to the
end of the book. This genealogy is incomplete, as
genealogies often are with the Hebrews and Arabians.''
" Jo. Drusii, Bonfrerii, Serrarii, Seb. Schmidii, Jo. Clerici, Maur. Com
ment, Rosenmiiller, Scholia.
Sanctii Comm. in Ruth, Esr,, Nehem,, Tob,, &.c, ; Lugd. 1628, fol.
Vietorin. Strigelii Schol, in Lib, Ruth ; Jen. 1571,
/, B. Carpzov, Colleg, rabbin,-bibL in Lib, Ruth; Lips, 1703, 4to,
Jo. Jac. Rambachii Annott (Uberr, annotatt in Hagiogr, ed. J. H.
Michaelis, vol. ii.)
[Geddes, 1. c.
Pcdfrey, 1, c, vol. ii]
Ueberss, u. Erkli von Dereser, 1806 ; Riegler, 1812,
>> Josephus, Ant v, 9, 1, erroneously dates this occurrence in the time of
Eli See Bertholdt, p, 2349,
' See Origen, above, voi i, p, 89, sqq,, and Jerome, ibid, p. 111, sqq,
"^ See Eichhorn, § 465, and his Monumenta Antiquissima Hist Arab, § 7,
p. 18, [In this instance, there are but four generations between Nahshon
and David, a period of four hundred and eighty years, according to I Kings

318 BOOK OF RUTH. [§ 193.
The book was composed in honor of the royal house,
but not designed to lend it an outward splendor, — for
the mother of the family is a poor Moabitish woman, —
but, by means of history and genealogy, to place its
origin in a clear light. The mention of Nahshon — a
prince of the families of Judah, in the time of Moses —
among the ancestors, and the favorable moral picture of
Ruth and Boaz, tend to honor and exalt the house of
David. [But, on the other hand, we must admit that the
poverty of the family is not concealed. They are not
merely /brce^^ to flee from the land, on account of pov
erty, but, after their return, avail themselves of the rights
of the poor. Ruth and her mother live on the gleanings
from the fields, and design to sell their inheritance, which
they were probably unable to keep ; but neither the
ancient Orientals, nor the modern, who have not for
saken their simplicity, valued noble blood at a high
price.] Umbreit thinks this book was written with a specific
moral design; namely, for the sake of showing how even
a stranger, and that of the hated Moabitish stock, might
be sufficiently noble to become mother of the great King
David, because she placed her reliance on the God of
Israel." Bertholdt thinks the history is a pure fiction.

vi. I, or of five hundred and ninety-two years, if we accept the reading which
is followed by Josephus, (Antiq. i viii 3, 1,) and the apostle Paul, (Acts xiii,
21,) But some Hebrew genealogists allow tliemselves to pass over parts
of the scale in their genealogical table. See Gen. v, xi. Ex, vi 16 — ^20,
Matt i. See, also, Eichhorn, Allg, Bib, vol, i, p. 926, iii, p, 183, sqq,, v,
p, 400, sqq, Paulus, Repertorium, vol, iii, p, 395, sqq,]
" See his essay Uber Geist und Zweck des Buches Ruths, in Theol, Stud,
und Krit for 1834, p, 308,
See Havernik, vol. ii, pt i, p, 11.3. [Eichhorn (§463) thinks it was obvi
ously written to honor the house of David, though it does not conceal the
poverty of the family.]

§ 193. J BOOK OF RUTH. 319
But he decides on insufficient grounds, and misunder
stands i. 21, and thinks it is a contradiction of iv. 3 — 6.
He thinks it was designed to recommend the duty of a
man to marry his kinswoman. Certainly we do not
know the source whence this narrative was drawn, but
it was probably tradition."
[The arguments of Bertholdt are merely nugatory.
The chief stress is laid on the symbolic meaning of the
names,' and on the above contradiction, which, if it
really exist, is much more likely to occur in a history
than a fictitious narrative. He calls it a " romantic fam
ily picture." But since it contains nothing impossi
ble, or even improbable, it seems uncritical, at this time,
to attempt to decide that it must be a fiction throughout.
The most beautiful and splendid robe of virtue, says this
writer, is drawn over the whole. The author has taken
particular pains to delineate the characters of Naomi,
Ruth, and Boaz. In the former we have the finest pic
ture of intelhgent resignation, brought into the closest
connection with a mother's anxiety. She does not
complain, like a weak woman, at the death of her hus
band and sons, and is not comfortless in her poverty.
In the person of Ruth we have a woman who lives
entirely in her duties ; she does for her mother-in-law
what the national myth commanded a faithful wife to
do for her husband.
The whole book is a beautiful idyhic piece of compo
sition, descriptive of the ancient simplicity of rural life."
» Bertholdt, p. 2337—2357.
' [He mentions the following : Boaz, tsta , one in whom is refuge ;
Mahlon, plbnJa , diseased ; Chilion, ']^^'^p , pining ; Naomi, ^Wl, mybeauty ;
Elimelech, "^jibJpiibH , god-king ; Ruth, till , beauty. But the same may be
said of almost all Hebrew names.]
' [See Goethe, West-ostliche Divan, p. 249,]

320 BOOK OF RUTH. [§ 194.
To me it seems that the genealogy (iv. 18 — 22) is the
work of a later hand, and originally formed no part of
the book. The relation of Ruth to David is mentioned
in verse 17. When Boaz announces in public that he has
bought her for his wife, the elders utter a blessing, which
seems to have been a popular form of benediction, —
" Let thy house be like the house of Pharez, whom
Tamar bare unto Judah." Then a later writer, con
necting the two facts in verses 12 and 17, supplies some
of the links in the genealogical chain, and gives an air
of completeness to the whole.
Jahn thinks he discovers a reference to earlier docu
ments, especially in the use of the second of kin," (ii. 20.)
Eichhorn, though without sufficient evidence, refers it
to the author of the books of Samuel. J
§ 194.
ITS AGE AND AUTHOR.
It follows, from the contents and design of the book,
that it was written a considerable time after David. The
language, though akin to that of the books of Samuel,
seems to differ from that in its Chaldaisms' and other
peculiarities,' and to be more modern. Chap. iv. 7,
contains an allusion to more ancient times — " In former
" i^'ss ¦
' Chap, i 17, "i^ nin'^ nissi_ ns , Comp. I Sam. iii 17, xiv. 44. But
comp. also 1 Kings ii 23, 2 Kings vi. 31. Chap. iv. 4, ^ttsi ^IJtS nbas,
Comp. 1 Sam. ix, 15, xx, 2, 12, [and 2 Sam. vii. 27.]
« laia, laS, i 13; in';, for 15b, ibid.; "itiSb, ''SaSlli, iii 3, 4; K,
for n , i 20 ; D , sufi". for T, i. 8, 9, 11. According to Sand., (Comm. in Ruth
Prolegg. iv.,) there are in the book Moabitisms ; according to Dereser, (Vor.
p. 6,) Bethlehemitisms.

§ 194.J BOOK OF RUTH. 321
time,  to confirm all things, a man plucked off his
shoe and gave it to his neighbor, and this was a testi
mony in Israel."
Therefore it is improbable that this is by the same
author with the books of Samuel, though it must have
been written at a time when marriage with a foreign
woman was not unallowed." Now, it is forbidden in
Deut. xxih. 3, Ezra ix. 1, sqq., Neh. xiii. 1 — 3, 23 —
27. But we nowhere find any proof that a descent
from Ruth was objectionable ; nowhere is there the
slightest apology for it.
[It is not possible, either from the language or any
other circumstances of the book, to determine in what
age it was written. Perhaps the narrative circulated
some time orally, and was successively enriched with
the explanatory passage, iv. 7, and the genealogy of
David, (iv. 18 — 23.) The conjectures of the learned
are, as usual in such matters, various, and sometimes
absurd. Thus Kimchi considers Boaz the same person
with Jozan, a contemporary of Jephthah; Junius refers
the events of the book to the time of Deborah ; Usher,
to that of Shamgar ; Patrick, on account of the famine,
mentioned i. 1, to the time of Gideon, when a famine
also occurred, (Judg. vi. 3 — 6.) According to Matt. i.
5, 6, Salmon, the father of Boaz, married Rahab the
harlot, the contemporary of Joshua; and accordingly the
great-grandfather of David lived nearly four hundred
years before him. Admitting the genealogy to be true.

" See Pareau, Instit Interp, p. 144, See the ancient opinions in Carpzov,
1, c. voi i p. 198, sqq. [In Hebrew, this book was perhaps considered a
second appendix to that of Judges. Jerome says, ProL Galeato, subtexunt
Hebraii Judicum librum et in eundem compingunt librnm Ruth. In the
final Masora of a Spanish MS., Kennicott finds it called niBBBn SIDB "ItoS.
See Bruns, in Kennicott, Diss. Gen. p. 18, and Eichhorn, § 465.]
VOL. II. 41

322 BOOKS OF EZRA AND NEHEMIAH. [§ 195.
the difficulty may be solved as indicated above. But
Usher concludes that the ancestors of David, and, through
him, of the Messiah, were men of extraordinary piety
and strength, and were blessed with very long life. J"

CHAPTER VIII.
THE BOOKS OF EZRA AND NEHEMIAH.j
§195.
CONTENTS.
These books, which are regarded by the Hebrew and
Greek Jews as but one, or as two parts of the same
book,' — although they were originally separate books, —
contain the history of the restoration of the Jewish state
after the exhe.

° [See Junius and Patrick on Ruth i Leusden, Phil. Sac. p. 18, 86.
See, also. Home, i c, pt v, chap, ii §iv. voi ii p, 218. He follows the
date of Patrick, and counts Samuel as its author, and finds in it " reverent
observance of the Mosaic law " ! Eichhorn (§ 464) finds a Chaldaism, or
Syriasm, in the use of K , for H , in S"ia , i 20, (but the same form occurs
elsewhere; seeiJosenmitZ^er, in loc, ;) in the superfluous i in "'tiJato'' '^tin^l"'^,
iii, 3, and ''tiabffiT, vei-se 4. The custom of taking off the shoe to confirm
a bargain, (iv, 7, 8,) was obsolete when the book was reduced to its present
form. The name ofthe second of kin, Is'Jti , was forgotten, it would seem,
as it is not mentioned.]
' Jo. Cleiici, Sandii, Maur
Vietorin. Strigelii Schol. in Libr. Esrse ; Lips. 1571 ; — in Libr, Nehem.;
ib. 1575.
Jo. H. Michaelis, Annotatt in Libr. Esr. J. Jac. Rambachii Annotatt in
Libr, Nehem. (Uben-, annotatt in Hagiogr. voi iii.)
= See above, vol, i § 25, 27, 10. Buxtorf, Tib. xi. p, 108.

§ 195. J BOOKS OF EZRA AND NEHEMIAH. 323
1. The book of Ezra connects with the Chronicles.
The first part (i. — vi.) contains the history of the return
from exile, and of the buhding of the temple. It extends
from the first year of Cyrus to the sixth of Darius Hys
taspes, that is, from 536 to 515 B. C.
The second part (vh. — x.) contains the history of
Ezra's migration with a second company of Jews, and
the purification of marriages, effected by him. It begins
with the seventh year of Artaxerxes Longimanus," that
is, 458 B. C.
[Ezra was descended directly from the high priest
Seraiah, who had been executed at the time of the de
struction of Jerusalem. His genealogy is twice given
in the Old Testament, namely, in Ezra vii. 1, sqq., and
1 Ch. vi. 3, sqq., the latter containing six members not
mentioned in the former. While in exile, he busied him
self with the Law of Moses, as it seems, for he is cahed
a "ready scribe in the Law of Moses."' One of his chief
aims was to establish or restore the Mosaic institutions,
after his arrival in Palestine. In the time of Nehemiah,
he was active in promoting the welfare ofthe new colony.
The time of his death is not known. J
2. The book of Nehemiah relates that Nehemiah
received permission and an oral decree from King Ar
taxerxes Longimanus to return to his native land, and
to fortify Jerusalem, which he likewise accomplished in
spite of the obstacles \vhich the Samaritans threw in his
way, (i. 1 — vii. 5.) Then follows a list of the exiles
" It was in the seventh year of Xerzes, according to Josephus, Michaelis,
Jahn, and De Wette's Archaol, § 50 ; but of Artaxerxes, according to Bertholdt,
p, 989, sq,, Gesenius, Thesaurus, Keil, Ub, d, Chronik. p, 103, sqq.
' [ tlili'n niitia "I'^rin ^BiO , vii 6, et al. See the Arabic stories about
him in D' Herbelot, Bib, Orient sub voce Ozair.]

324 BOOKS OF EZRA AND NEHEMIAH. [§ 196, U.
who returned under Cyrus, (vii. 6 — 33, of the same tenor
with Ezra ii.,) to which is added an account of a religious
festival observed under Ezra and Nehemiah, (vii. 73 —
X. 40.) Chap. xi. treats of the repeophng of Jerusalem.
Chap. xii. 1 — 26, contains more lists ; xh. 27 — 47, the
consecration of the walls of the city ; and xiii., the
reformations introduced by Nehemiah. [The time of
the book extends from 444 to about 404 B. C.J
§ 196, a.
THE CONSTITUENT FARTS AND AUTHOR OF THE BOOK OF
EZRA.
It is quite obvious that this book is not the work of a
single author. In the fii'st part (i. — vi.) we find two
ancient documents have been used in constructing the
narrative. 1, The first document is chapter ii., which Nehemiah
found existing as a separate document, as he says, (vii.
5,) " I found a register of the genealogy of them which
came up at the first, and found written therein, ' These
are the chhdren of the province that went up out of the
captivity, of those that had been carried away, uhom
Nebuchadnezzar the king of Babylon had carried away,
and came again to Jerusalem, and to Judah, every one
to his city.' " [The quotation is verbatim from Ezra
ii-1-]^ 2. The second document is iv. 8 — vi. 18, which is
distinguished from the rest of the book by the use
of the Chaldee language, not only in the epistles, as in
vii. 12 — ^26, but in the narrative itself, and in the intro
duction at the beginning. The transition from the He
brew to the Chaldee language might be explained from

§ 196, a. J BOOKS OF EZRA AND NEHEMIAH. 325
the analogy of Dan. h. 4, by the fact that a letter is
inserted in the Chaldee language ; but the introduction
to the letter (verses 8 — 10) is also in that dialect."
The second part (vii. — x.) is connected with the pre
ceding by means of the formula, "Now, after these
things," (vii. 1 ;) but sthl it is distinguished from it by
the style, and makes a whole by itself, though, perhaps,
it is not all from the same hand.
The passage, vii. 27 — ix. 15, where Ezra speaks in
the first person, was evidently written by himself. To
this belongs the Chaldee document, vh. 12 — 26. The
tenth chapter speaks of him in the third person, but is a
contemporary narrative, and was either written by him
self or by one of his assistants. From the use of the ex
pression (vii. 6) Ezra was a " ready scribe," it is doubtful
whether the passage, verses 1 — 11, was written by him.'
All these parts were probably added quite late to the

° This passage, v. 4, leads us to think it was written by an eye-wit
ness, but it is not decisive, (Compare Josh, v. 6,) On the contrary,
the mention of Artaxerxes (vi, 14) would refer us to a later origin. How
ever, Havernik, (1, c. p. 293,) and some others, consider this passage an
interpolation. Kleinert (in Ddrpt Beitrage, vol, i, p, 101) separates iv,
8 — 23, from v, 1 — vi, 18, which is no more to be admitted than Movers's tlieo-
ry, which cuts off vi, 16 — 18, and ascribes it to the redactor. On account of
the expression, king of Assyria, instead otking of Persia, verse 2-3, Bertholdt
refers this passage to a later hand than that which wrote i, iii, iv, I — 7,
But this is unnecessary. The term " king of Babylon'' occui-s, v, 13, Com
pare, also, 2 Kings xxiii. 29, Jer, ii, 18, Lam. v. 6. Sec Keil, p, 119, Hav-
ei-nik, vol, ii. pt i p, 287,
' Bertholdt (p, 997, 1000) and Zunz (p, 23) derive vii, I— II, from the
redactor,) But Hdvemik refers them to Ezra. Movers (p. 16, 24) considers
them interpolated. The honorary appellation TTlJa ISIC — which is not a
mere title, as Havernik thinks — and the similar remark, verse 10, (12,) and
the genealogy, (verses I — 5,) could scarcely have been written by Ezra him
self. The fact that he speaks in the third person is nothing against his
authorship, though, on the other hand, the phrase in verse 7, (9,) Dirtim T^a
libs, — which also occurs, Neh, ii8, — is not decisive evidence in his favor.

326 BOOKS OF EZRA AND NEHEMIAH. [§196, ff.
present book of Ezra, as we judge from vi. 22, where
the Persian kings are called Assyrian. Perhaps the
compilation was made by the author of vi. 19 — 22."
[The singular character of this book, the variety in
its language, style, and in the person of the writer, have
given rise to several theories and ingenious attempts to
account for its peculiarities. Huet supposes the first
six chapters are the work of an uncertain author, whom
he fancies to be the same with the writer of Chronicles.
Leclerc' says none can doubt Ezra wrote the three
last chapters, for he speaks in the first person, (vh. 27,
28, ix. 1 , 5, et al.) From this circumstance, he thinks
he wrote the whole book, and thus accounts for some of
its peculiarities. At Babylon, Ezra determined to re
turn into Judea with Zerubabel and Joshua ; afterwards
he went back to Babylon, and returned, a second time,
to Judea, under Darius Hystaspes. In the early chap
ters he does not mention himself, because he was not
the leader, as in the second journey. But it is evident
that he was in the company of returning exhes, for he is
mentioned among them, (vi. 14, 15.) The objections
to this theory are so obvious that they need not be
mentioned. Eichhorn" thinks Ezra, when he came to Judea, or
began to write, found a Chaldee account of the quar
rels of the Samaritans with the Jews, about the new
temple, written by an eye-witness of and actor in the
affairs he described. Ezra wished to incorporate this
in his book, and to connect the latter with the book of
Chronicles. So he goes back to the time of Cyrus,

Bertholdt's arguments against chap, x, are erroneous.
[Diss, de Script V. T. c. viii, and note on Ezra vii I.]
[§ 498, sqq.]

§ 196, a.] liOOKS OF EZRA AND NEHEMIAH. 327
and writes, in Hebrew, a short history of the return
under Zerubabel, which is now i. — iv. 6, in this book.
He then affixed the Chaldee account of the quarrel
with the Samaritans, (iv. 7 — vi. 18,) and added the
history of the second colony, — led thither by himself, —
and of the improvements he made, (vi. 19 — x. 44.)
Here he made use of the Hebrew language, except in
the letter of the king, which he gives in its original
form. But this theory rests on the supposition that the
books of Chronicles were written before the time of
Ezra, which cannot be proved. Besides, apart from
this consideration, if he had been acquainted with the
Chronicles, would he not follow their text in giving his
own genealogy.^ (Compare vh. 1, sqq., and 1 Ch. vi.
3, sqq.) Still further, he would not speak of himself as
he does in vii. 6, 10, and x. 3.
Bertholdt's opinion is briefly this — the book consists
of three separate and independent pieces : i. — iv. 6, iv. 7
— vi. 18, and vii. 1 — x. 44. The last of these alone was
written by Ezra, — who was acquainted with the others,
— though not exactly in their present extent, for he
thinks vh. 1 — 11, is a summary introduction, and x. 1 —
44, is a supplement. Some man who lived, perhaps, in
the time of the Ptolemies, or Seleucidse, or shortly be
fore Antiochus Epiphanes, reduced them to their present
form. Justin Martyr quotes a passage from Ezra which is
now found neither in the Hebrew nor the Greek,
namely, " And Ezra said to the people, ' This passover
is our Savior and our refuge, and if you consider, and it
enters into your heart that we are about to humble him
in a figure, and afterwards if we shah put our trust iii^
him, this place shall never be made desolate, says the

328 BOOKS OF EZRA A.ND .NEHEMIAH. [§ 196, b.
God of power. But if you do not beheve in him, and
wih not hear his proclamation, you shall be a laughing
stock to the Gentiles.""" J

§ 196, b.
THE SAME SUBJECT CONTINUED.
The opinion that this entire compilation originated
with Ezra is wholly untenable.' But, on the other
hand, it must be admitted, the opinion that the author
of the Chronicles was also the compher of the book of
Ezra, is very strongly favored by the affinity between
 1 
° [Dial, cum Tryphone, ch, 72: Kul eItiev ' Eadgag no laS- rovro to
¦n&axa b acunjo ii/uar, xal r) xaioKpuytj ¦fipav xal i&v diavo-^dTjre, xal
avd^ri i/iay inl Trjv xaqSlav, 0Ti> /jei.XofiEV &iT0v Tanelvovv ef (njpeXa
xal |UET(i Tavia iXnlaiiifiep tJi aiiiop (! |U7J igij/idiO^ri 8 Tonog Srog sig rov
(xn&via xgdvov Xlyct o &iog z&v dvvafteiav. i&v dh pifi niqEvaijTE 6via,
fir/di elaaxBETjTS t5 xrjovy fiaiog icvra, iaid'E inix&Qfia Tolg 'itt^veai.
It was formerly the custom to ascribe several of the books of the Old
Testament to Ezra ; but recently the current of opinion has run in another
channel, leaving for the " ready scribe '' only a few chapters in all. Numer
ous apocryphal books have been assigned him. Thus, for example, Picus
Mirandula says — no one knows on what authority — that, after the return
from captivity, Ezra, fearing lest the knowledge of the Law should be lost,
assembled all the sages of the land, seventy in number ; each of them told
all he knew of the mysteries of the Law ; scribes recorded the matter, and
thus seventy volumes were produced. After forty days were completed,
continues Picus, the Most High commanded him to publish these books, —
containing tlie "vein of intellect," and "fountain of wisdom," tliat the worthy
and unworthy might read them. These books, he says, contain not only the
Mosaic, but the Cliristian religion, the mystery of the Trinity, the incarna
tion of the Word, the divinity of the Messiah, &c, &c. In the apocryphal
book of Ezra, (2 Esd, xiv, 44,) two hundred and four books are ascribed to him,
seventy of which are reserved for the wise, the rest are published. See
Carpzov, vol. i p. 319, sqq.]
<¦ Baba Bathra, fol, 15. Eichhorn, 3, § 493, 498. Klein, 1. c. Hdvemik,
ii 1, p, 285.

§196, 6. J BOOKS OF EZRA AND NEHEMIAH.

329

the two books." Thus, for example, the last three
verses of the Chronicles are almost word for word the
same as the fii'st three verses of Ezra : —

2 Ch, xxxvi, 22, 23, " Now
in the first year of Cyrus king of
Persia, that the word of the Lord
by the mouth of Jeremiah might
be accomplished, the Lord stirred
up the spirit of Cyrus king of
Persia, that he made a proclama
tion throughout all his kingdom,
and put it also in writing, saying,
' Thus saith Cyrus king of Persia,
" All the kingdoms of the earth
hath the Lord God of heaven
given me ; and he hath charged
me to build him a house in Jeru
salem, which is in Judah, Who
is there among you of all his peo
ple? the Lord his God be with
him, and let him go up," ' "

Ezra i, 1 — 3, "Now in the
first year of Cyrus king of Persia,
that the word of the Lord by the
mouth of Jeremiah might be ac
complished, the Lord stirred up
the spirit of Cyrus king of Per
sia, that he made a proclamation
throughout all his kingdom, and
put it also in writing, saying,
' Thus saith Cyrus king of Persia,
" All the kingdoms of the earth
the Lord God of heaven hath
given me ; and he hath charged
me to build him a house in Jeru
salem, which is in Judah." Who
is there among you of all his peo
ple ? his God be with him, and let
him go up to Jerusalem which is
in Judah, and build the house of
the Lord God of Israel, (he is the
God,) which is in Jerusalem.' " '
The whole passage in the Chronicles is out of its
proper connection, and therefore we must conclude that

°- So Eichhorn, Hdvemik, and Movers, p. 14. Zunz, p. 21, sqq,
' Attempts have been made to prove that the Chronicler did not borrow
these verses: 1, From the use of the copulative conjunction with which
Ezra begins. But Joshua, Judges, Esther, and Ezekiel, begin in the same
manner. See De Wette, (Beit voi i p. 47.) 2. From the reference to the
prophecy of Jeremiah, for which there is not the same reason in Ezra i 1, as in
2 Ch. xxxvi 21 and 22 ; [?] but this prophecy was sufficiently well known at
the time. 3. From the occurrence of easy and explanatory readings in Ezra ,
for example, ^Bta, for 163; but it is doubtful if this reading is of such a
character ; the verb ifti is inserted in verse 3, and omitted in the paralleL
See KeU, p. 91. Mamers, p. 12. H&vernik, p. 269.
VOL. II. 42

330 BOOKS OF EZRA AND NEHEMIAH. [§ 196, 6.
the books of Chronicles were originahy united with the
book of Ezra ; but we cannot properly tell how the two
have been separated, or rather torn asunder.
According to Movers, the passages, i. iii. iv. 1 — 7, and
vi. 16 — 22, have the same Levitical character, the same
diffuseness in the accounts of offerings, — though this
maybe doubted, — and the same favorite phrases, which
occur in the Chronicles." The affinity betAveen them is
undeniable ; but is it any thing more than a conformity
with the sjhrit of the times ?

" E. g. Favorite Phrases. — r;-J?3 riltli 31^33 tllbS 11^5 nisni ; Ez
ra iii. 2, Comp, 1 Ch, xvi, 40. Ezra iii, 3, is like 2 Ch, xiii, II, But iii,
4, 5, has but slight resemblance to 2 Ch, xxxi, 3, and viii, 18, is, in Movers,
an incorrect citation.
Again: the phrase n'nib n3~D 3":rf:, to consecrate voluntarily; Ezra
iii, 5, Comp, i, 6, ii 68, (but not Neh, vii. 70.) Comp. 1 Ch, xxht. 5, 6, 9, 14,
17. But here only the verb occui-s without the substantive. On the contrary,
it is found, also, in Neh. xi. 2,
r,3!si?3 is nsab, to superintend the work ; Ezra iii, 8. Comp, 1 Ch, xxiii
3, 4. In other respects, there is a difference in regard to the age of
the two,
lin i-ji b i' , at the hands of David, i e, according to his ordinances ; Ezra
iii. 10, Comp, 2 Ch, xxix. 27, and elsewhere, " Because he is good, his mercy
endureth forever ;" Ezra iii, II. Comp. 1 Ch, xvi, 41, 2 Ch, v, 13, et al,
bip 'Q'^'^Ti^ rirOi'::'^, lifted up their voices for joy ; 'E'as.'m.Vi. Comp, 1 Ch,
XV, 16, -2in , foundation ; Ezra iii, II, Comp. 2 Ch. iii 3, plITltoii nS ;
iii. 13. Comp, 2 Ch, xxvi, 15,
Chap, vi 16 — 18, resembles the previous passages, and yet is written in
Chaldee, and by a different author. So, likewise, Neh, viii, — x, ; e, g,
Qi:i3>3 , viii, 9, as in I Ch, xv, 29, xxv, 8 ; the exchange of IIZV with Dip,
ix, 2, 3, as in 1 Ch, xx, 4, xxi, I ; the joy of the feast, viii, 12, 17, (of which
Neh, xii 43 ;) blp 1i33>n , viii, 15, as in Ezra i 1 ; the remark, viii 17, as
in 2 Ch, XXX. 26, &c, ; therefore Zunz (p. 24, 25) refers these chapters to
the compiler of Ezra, Finally, the Chronicles never have the formulas
nns rin: (Ezra iii 1; see Neh, viii 1) and nns3 , (ii 64, iii 9, vi 20,)
though the latter occurs somewhat differently in 2 Ch, v, 13,

§ 197, a.] BOOKS OF EZRA AND NEHEMIAH. 331
§ 197, a.
CONSTITUENT PORTIONS, AND AUTHOR OF THE BOOK OF
NEHEMIAH.
The passage, i. — vii. 5, is written by Nehemiah in his
own manner, which is quite peculiar." After this, he
inserts an old catalogue which he had found, as he says
himself, (verse 5,) — " I found a register of the genealo
gy of them which came up at the first." This is to be
found also in Ezra ii. It includes vii. 6 — 73, as far as
the words " in their cities." But verses 70 — 72 have
been wrought over with reference to Nehemiah and his
time, though scarcely by his hand, but by that which
wrote viii. — x.'' But this passage connected therewith
" [He has some remarkable phrases: according to the good hand of my
God upon me, ibS ,"!3it:n iri'b»-ni3; ii 8, 18. lab'bs "^'i in'bs na,
which my God put in my heart ; ii. 12, ^Jinbi* ^'telli , hear, O our God ;
iii 36, (iv, 4,) tlinbs; tit^"}-} ^^t^'a •]^^ fromfear of God; V.IB. ib-iTpSt
n3iob in'bN , remember me, O my God, for good ; v. 19. See, also, vi, 9,
14, 16, vii, 5,]
' [The catalogue agrees in many points with that in Ezra ; but some of the
numbers are widely different, as will appear from the following, in which
the dissimilar numbers are given : —
List of Men.
In Ezra. In JVehemiah.
Children of Arah,  775  652
 Pahath-Moab, &c.,  2,812  2,818
 Zattu,  945  845
 Bani,  642 , . , Binnui,  648
 Bebai,  623  ^8
 Azgad,  1,222  2,322
 Adonikam  666  667
 Bigvai,  2,056  2,067
 Adin,  454  655
 — Hashum,  273  328
 Bezai,  323  324
 — Jorah,  112 ,. . Hariph, , . , 112

332 BOOKS OF EZRA AND NEHEMIAH. [§ 197, «.
and extending from vii. 73, — " and when the seventh
month came," — to x. 40, is an interpolation.
This appears from the following considerations : —
1. The style is different. The personal character of
Nehemiah does not appear; it is Nehemiah the Tir-
shatha, (governor,) vih. 9, x. 2 ; whhe elsewhere he is
cahed the Pachah, (prefect,) v. 14, 15, 18. The
names Jehovah, Adonai, and Elohim, are used promis
cuously, viii 1, 6, 8, 9, 10, 14, 16, and elsewhere, while
in all other parts of Nehemiah, except i. 5, 11, iv. 8,
Elohim is the prevalent name." On account of a cer
tain degree of affinity between this and the genuine and
spurious books of Ezra, Havernik ascribes the whole
passage to Ezra himself. Kleinert, however, refers only
chapters ix. and x. to him, and ascribes viii. to an assist-
In Ezra. In JVeliemiah.
Children of Bethlehem and Netophah, . , 179  IS8
 Bethel and Ai,  223  123
 Lod, &c,  725  721
 Senaah,  3,630  3,930
 ¦  Asaph,  128  148
 Shallum, &.C.,  139  138
 Delaiah, &c.,  652  642
Yet the sum total is said to be the same in both, though differing widely
from the amount ofthe separate numbers given. There is also a difference
in the sums of money contributed for the temple, Ezra says, the chiefs of
the fathers gave sixty-one thousand gold daricks, and five thousand pounds
of silver, and one hundred priests' garments ; while Nehemiah makes tlie
contribution of these chiefs twenty thousand gold daricks and two thousand
two hundred pounds of silver. He adds, also, the Tirshatha gave one thou
sand gold daricks, fifty basins, and five hundred and tliirty priests' garments,
and makes tlie rest of the people add twenty thousand gold daricks, two
thousand pounds of silver, and sixty-seven garments. Besides tiiis, Nehe
miah adds some names omitted in Ezra ; e, g. (vs, 7) JS/ahamani, one of the
companions of Zerubabel. There is also a slight deviation from the order
followed in the previous account, A name mentioned in Ezra is omitted in
Nehemiah ; e. g, children of Magbish, 156, Ezra ii, 30, There is sometimes
a difference in the names ; e. g, Neh. vii. 54, Bazlith ; in Ezra, Bazloth ; Neh.
Pherida ; Ezra, Plierouda ; and others.]
° See Kleinert, p. 132, sq.

§ 197, a.J BOOKS OF EZRA AND NEHEMIAH.

333

ant of Ezra and Nehemiah. But the passage could not
have been written by a contemporary of Nehemiah, nor
by the author of Ezra ih. Indeed, the argument that
Ezra died before Nehemiah's time, — which otherwise
might be of use," — in spite of Nehemiah's silence re
specting him, (i. 1 — vii. 5,) — is not tenable ; for in that
case we should be obliged to regard the mention of him
in xii. 36, as an interpolation.
2. The reading of the Law (vhi. 1, sqq.) is mentioned
here as if it now took place for the first time. In verse
14, the feast of tabernacles, which had already been
celebrated, (Ezra iii. 4,) is regarded as something which
has just been learned out of the Law, and (verse 17) the
celebration is mentioned as the first that has taken place
since the time of Joshua. Besides, in Ezra x. 3, sqq.,
an oath had been taken by the people that they would
not marry foreign women ; but here the same oath is
required anew, (x. 29, 30.) Again : in the mention of
the profanation of the Sabbath, and the measures for
preventing that (xiii. 15 — 22) and the marriage of
foreign women, (verses 23 — 31,) no reference is made
to the account of the same thing in x. 29, sqq.
3. Again : this passage is shown to be an interpolation,
from the verbal affinity between the beginning of it and
Ezra iii. 1.

Ezra iii. 1. " And when the
seventh month was come, and the
children of Israel were in the
cities, the people gathered them
selves together as one man to
Jerusalem.''

Neh, vii 73, viii 1. "And
when the seventh month came,
the children of Israel were in
their cities, and all the people
gathered themselves together as
one man," &c.

The same thing also appears from the connection

See Josephus, Ant. xi, 5, Augusti, § 152, Bertholdt, p, 1023.

334 BOOKS OF EZRA AND NEHEMIAH. [§ 197, 6.
between this and the document interpolated at the end
of chap, vh., which is parallel with Ezra ii." Chap. x.
has the appearance of a contemporary document, for
the author speaks in the first person, (verses 1, 31, 33,
40,) and it contains a list of those who signed the cove
nant, (verses 2 — 27.) But the spuriousncss of many of
the names shows it is a forgery of a later time.'
§ 197, b.
THE SAME SUBJECT CONTINUED.
Chap. xi. contains a hst of the inhabitants of Jerusa
lem, and is connected in a certain manner with vh. 5.
This may have been written by Nehemiah, and is at
least from his time. 1 Ch. ix. is, it is weh known, a
later recast of the same thing. But, according to Ber
tholdt," the list contains, also, the inhabitants from
Zerubabel's time. But this may be doubted.
Chap. xii. 1 — 26, contains a hst of priests and Le
vites, which comes down to Jaddua, a high priest, who
" [But it sometimes contradicts Ezra. Comp. viii. 17, with Ezra iii. 4. ]
' According to this passage, Zerubabel's contemporaries are Seraiah,
X. 2, mentioned in xii. 1, and Ezra ii. 2 ; while, instead of him, in Neh. vii 7,
we have Azariah, who reappears in this passage. Seraiah, indeed, occurs
as a priest in Neh. xi. 11 ; but the similarity of the name with Jeremiah, a
contemporary of Zerubabel, (xii. ],) favors the former opinion. Hattush
occurs verse 4, as in xii 2: one of that name occurs, indeed, in Ezra viii, 2,
but he is a descendant of David, while this one is a priest, Shebaniah[veicse
5) is the same with Shechaniah, (xii, 3,) Mallech (verse 4) occurs in xii, 2 ;
Harim, (verses 6, 28,) — in Zerubabel's time, there were only sons of Harim,
— Ezra ii, 32, x. 21, 31, Meremoih (verse 5) occurs in xii. 3 ; Mijamin (verse
7) as in xii. 5 ; yet a priest Minjamin occurs in xii 41. Maaziah and Bilgai
(verse 8) are called Maadiah and Bilgah in xii. 5. Jeshua and Binnui (verse
9) are found in xii. 8. Kadmiel (verse 9) and Sherebiah (verse 12) appear in
xii. 8 ; Bigvai (verse 16) in Ezra ii. 2.
' P. 1097.

§ 197, 6.J BOOKS OF EZRA AND NEHKMIAU. 335
is contemporary with Alexander the Great, as Josephus
says." This is probably derived from the history of the
times referred to, verse 23, and cannot be the work of
Nehemiah, In order to ascribe this to Nehemiah, Ha
vernik, without any reason, assumes that it relates to the
consecration of the walls, (xii. 27, sqq.,) and attempts
to make it probable that Nehemiah lived to the time of
Jaddua. According to xiii. 28, he outlived the sons of
Joiada, who was the grandfather of Jaddua.
The passage, xii. 27 — 43, relating to the consecra
tion of the wahs, is from Nehemiah's hand.
The clause, xii. 44 — xiii. 3, is an interpolation which
fills up a chasm in Nehemiah's memoirs, and is probably
from the hand of a later priest, perhaps the compher of
the book. Chap. xh. 47, combines the times of Zeruba
bel and Nehemiah. The use of the name Elohim, in
xhi. 1 — 3, favors the opinion that Nehemiah wrote the
passage ; but there is nothing else to support it. His
memorials commence again with xiii. 4, and continue to
the end of the book. It is, therefore, obvious that the
whole book did not originate with Nehemiah, but is the
work of a compiler who lived considerably later.
[Bertholdt* thinks xih. 28, is an interpolation. His
reason is, that it contradicts the well-known passage in
Josephus." The verse says, a son of Joiada, the high
priest, married the daughter of Sanbahat, while Jose
phus, who relates the story more in detail, says it was
a son of John, the high priest, and therefore a grandson
of Joiada, who engaged in this alliance. Besides, this
" Josephus, Ant xi. 7, 8. See, also, Rambach's Annot in hoc loco. Vi
tringa, Observ. sac, L, vi p, 337, Leclerc, in loo. The two last think the
passage is an interpolation. Darius the Persian (verse 22) may be Darius
JVothus, as Hdvemik thinks,
' P. 1033. " Ant xi. 8, 2.

336 BOOK OF ESTHER. [§ 198, «.
verse involves other chronological difficulties, making
Nehemiah live in the time of Jaddua, the high priest, in
the reign of Darius Codomannus ; consequently, he
must have lived at least one hundred and fifty years.
It may have been on account of this chronological diffi
culty that Josephus departs from this authority. The
next verse must hkewise be considered an interpola
tion, as the two are so closely united. J

CHAPTER IX.
THE BOOK OF ESTHER."
§ 198, a.
CONTENTS AND CREDIBILITY OF THE BOOK OF ESTHER.
This narrative relates that Esther, a Jewess, without
regard to her Jewish origin, was raised to the dignity of
queen, by Ahasuerus, the Persian king ; * that the
" Jo. Cleiiri, Jo. Drusii, Maur. Comment
J. J. Rambach. Annotatt in Lib, Esth, ; (Uberr, Annotatt in Hagiogr,
vol, ii,)
Oliv. Bonart. Comm. litter, et mor. in Lib. Esth, ; Col, 1647, fol.
Serrar. Comm, in Tob,, Judith, Esth,, et Maccab, ; Mog, 1610, fol.
Com. Adami Observatt theol, philol, ; Gron, 1710, 4to. cap. ii.
» See the old opinions about Ahasuerus, in Carpzov, vol. i. p. 3.56, sqq.
Gesenius, in Ersch and Gruber's Encyclop. vol. ii. p. 238. The following
authors think he was Xerxes: Scaliger, De Emend, Temp. lib. vi, Ani-
madvers, Eusebianse, p, 101, sqq, Drusius, Pfeiffer, Carpzov, and most of
the moderns ; e, g. L. J. C. Justi, on King Ahasuerus, in Eichhorn's Repert
vol. XV,, and in his own Vermischte Abhand, No. 2. Eichhorn, § .508.
Jahn, vol. ii p. 298, sqq. Bertholdt, p. 2422, sqq. Gesenius, Thesaurus
Heb. sub voce, Havernik, vol, ii pt i, p, 339. Mich. Baumgarten, De
Fide Lib. Estheris ; 1839, p. 129, sqq.

§ 198, a.J BOOK OF ESTHER. .337
destruction of the Jews in the Persian kingdom was
resolved upon by Haman, but prevented by Esther and
Mordecai, her foster-father ; that Haman was ruined,
and Mordecai elevated to his place, and that permission
was given to the Jews to take bloody vengeance upon
their enemies ; in memory of which, the feast of Purim
was instituted. It violates all historical probabhity, and
contains the most striking difficulties, and many errors
with regard to Persian manners, as well as just refer
ences to them."
The main point on which the authenticity of this
book has been rested, namely, that Ahasuerus is the
same with Xerxes, is very doubtful. If they are the
same, then the expedition against Greece must have
taken place between the third year of his reign, when
Vashti is repudiated, (i. 3,) and the seventh, when
Esther is made queen, (h. 16.) Now, no mention of
that event is made in this book, which can only be
accounted for on the supposition that the author knew
nothing of it.' But after the seventh year, history
speaks of other favorites, and another wife of Xerxes ;
namely, Amestris,' who, it is acknowledged, was not
Esther. The hypothesis that he had many wives beside
her, — for which the uncertain passage, ii. 17, has been
adduced, — is improbable, on account of his fear of
Amestris ; and, besides, in ii. 17, sqq., Esther is distinctly
¦* For the ancient and modern doubts, see Oeder, Freie Untersuch. iib.
d. Kan. d. A. T. p. 12, sqq. Michadis, Or. Bib. vol. ii. p. 35, sqq. Anmerk.
ub. d. B. Esther. Corrodi, Beleucht d. Gesch. d. Jiid. Kanon. vol. i p. 66,
sqq. Bertholdt, p. 2425, He considers the whole book a fiction. — See, on
the other side, Eichhorn, § 510. Jahn, p. 305, sqq. Kdle, Vindic. Esther ;
1820. Hdvemik, p. 339, sqq. Baumgarten, I. c. p. 10, sqq.
' Michadis, in loc. On the other side, Justi, Verm. Abhand. vol. i
p. 81. Baumgarten, p. 140.
' Herodotus, ix. 108, jKiq.
VOL. II. 43

338 BOOK OF ESTHER. [§ 198, «
cahed the queen. There would be a most decided
argument against this view, if the tioelfth, and not, as
is the common opinion, the tiventy-frst," year of
Xerxes, when Haman, and then Mordecai, w^ere his
grand viziers, were his last year ; for, about this time,
Artabanus, chief of his body-guard, who murdered
Xerxes, controlled him.
According to the most natural construction of ii. 5, 6,
Mordecai must have been carried into exile with Jecho-
niah ; consequently, at the time these events took place,
he must have been about one hundred and twenty years
old, and Esther must have been a superannuated beauty.*
From what we know of Persian manners, it is im
probable that the king should invite Vashti, his wife,
not to a banquet, but to a Bacchanalian carousal : it
would only be possible on account of the advancing cor
ruption in Xerxes' time, and through the folly of Xerxes
himself. It is not probable that he would have chosen
Esther — a person not descended from one of the seven
famhies from which the queens were exclusively taken
— for his queen ;° nor that he would have granted royal
honors to Mordecai, because — we know not how — he
had detected a conspiracy.'' This account of the honor
paid Mordecai has affinity with the reward of Joseph,
(Gen. xii. 43,) and on that account is suspicious.
From what we know of the base character and des
potism of Xerxes, it may perhaps be believed that Ha
man obtained from him a decree for the extirpation of
° Vitringa, Obs. sac. Lib. vi. 2. Hengstenberg, Christol. vol, ii, p, 541,
sqq, Kriiger, in Seebode, Archiv, voi i, pt. ii p. 205, sqq. Baumgarten, p.
146. On the other side, Kleinert, in the Dorpt Beit vol. ii
' See Rambacli, in loo.
' Baumgarten, p, 45, But see Herodotus, iii. 88, Ctesias, Pers, xx., and
Heeren, 1. c, p, 398.
¦^ Baumgarten, p. 38 — 44.

§ 198, b.] BOOK OF ESTHER. 339
the Jews, and Mordecai, in return, obtained a corre
sponding counter decree. But it is incredible that the
Jews, in consequence of this last decree, went to work
SO fiercely, and massacred more than seventy-five thou
sand Persians. It was only the national vanity of the
Jews that could induce the author to write this, or that
ah Shushan was thrown into consternation by Haman's
decree, but into joy by that of Mordecai.
The weakest part of the story is this — that Esther
concealed her Jewish descent, not only unth she was
queen, (h. 20,) but, as it appears, until the catastrophe
itself was over, (vih. 1 ;) that Haman suspected nothing
of it, or of her relation to Mordecai, though he came
every day into the court of the palace, — for if he had
known this, he w^ould have done differently, — and also
that the king himself knew nothing of it, and therefore
is struck with surprise at her petition (vh. 5) for her
self and her nation. § 198, 6.
THE SAME SUBJECT CONTINUED.
It IS incontestable that the feast of Purim (ix. 20, sqq.)
originated in Persia, and was occasioned by an event
similar to that related in Esther. But, farther than this,
perhaps it is not possible to determine how much of the
whole narrative is historically true. Although it is sim
ple in style, and free from declamation, and in this way
is advantageously distinguished from the similar stories
in the Apocrypha, — in particular from the third book of
Maccabees, — yet it breathes the spirit of revenge and
haughtiness." The book refers nothing to the opera-
" See ix. 13. But see how Baumgarten (p, 61, sq,) attempts to defend it.

340 BOOK OF ESTHER. [§ 198, C.
tion and direction of God, and contains no religious ele
ment, except in the value put upon the refusal to worship
Haman, (iii. 2,) in the fast that was kept, (iv. 16,) and
the allusion to the restoration ofthe Jews, (iv. 14.) Even
the name of God is not once mentioned. It is probable
these peculiarities are to be explained as belonging to the
spirit of the Persian Jews. However, Baumgarten finds
in this a proof of the author's historical fidelity, who
wished to depict the history of Mordecai and Esther in the
light of theh religious feeling, which prevented them from
pubhcly displaying their Jewish belief. Havernik, on
the contrary, says, "The author did not wish — in the
hypocritical way of the Alexandrian Jews — to conceal
the conviction that the Jews were forsaken by God, and
thereby lend a false coloring to the facts." But all the
books written after the exile prove the falseness of this
hypothesis." § 198, c.
THE SAME SUBJECT CONTINUED.
[For a long time this book was considered a history
of actual events. Some writers at this time hold such
an opinion, but it is involved in numerous and inexpli
cable difficulties ; for the book does not bear the marks of
an historical composition.
1. It is said (i. 4) that Ahasuerus made a feast unto
all his princes and officers, which lasted one hundred
and eighty days. How could the affairs of any govern
ment, especially an Oriental despotism, — where so much
" See the ancient opinions in Carpzov, vol, i, p, 368, sq, Rambach, Prsef
§ 7, See Luther's unfavorable judgment, De Servo Arbitrio, tom, iii ;
Jena, Lat, p, 182, See the judgment of Gregory Nazianz., Athanasius, and
the Synopsis Scrip, above, vol, i § 25, 26.

§ 198, C] BOOK OF ESTHER. .341
depends upon the magistrate, — be managed, when, for
a whole half year, all these magistrates were assembled
in Susa ? It is sometimes said they went up by turns,
each party remaining but a short time, and then giving
place to new guests. But of such an arrangement the
text says nothing.
2. The king, heated with wine, sends for his queen,
Vashti, to appear, unveiled, before his intoxicated guests.
She very wisely dechnes such an invitation. Upon this
he issues a decree, apparently dictated at the table, and
sends it to all the provinces of his kingdom, " that every
man shall bear rule in his own house." It may be said
a king " merry with wine " might issue such a decree,
and this explanation would perhaps suffice, were this the
only passage presenting such a difficulty. But it re
quires a great extent of credulity to believe the king
issued this decree.
3. Haman is offended because Mordecai, a Jew, re
fuses to do homage to him, and, therefore, scorning to
revenge himself on the offender alone, he wishes to
satisfy his vengeance by destroying the whole nation of
the Jews. Now, at that time, all Judea was a Persian
province ; besides, Jews were scattered throughout all
the other districts, and therefore it is a limited estimate
which computes them at two mhlions, at that time within
the Persian territories. Haman, to avenge himself in his
own quarrel, obtains permission to destroy ah this great
number of people. The king consents that all of them
should be massacred in a single day. The numerous
massacres that defile the page of history, naturally recur
to the mind. But amongst them all, among the Sicilian
vespers, the St. Bartholomew massacres, the horrors of
Roman or Arabian butchery, or the atrocities of the

342 BOOK OF ESTHER. [§ 198, C.
French revolution, there is nothing which approaches the
murder of two millions of human beings in a single day.
Nero, wishing all Rome had but one neck, must have
shrunk from such murder as this king is said to com
mand for the sake of avenging his grand vizier. The
ten thousand talents alleged to be offered as purchase
money for such a body of subjects, only increase the
difficulty, by showing the writer of this story was at a
loss what motive to ascribe to the king for so unnatural
and impolitic an act, and could find none more probable
than the love of gold."
The murderous decree is pubhshed in all the prov
inces, "to destroy, to khl, and to cause to perish, ah
Jews, both young and old, little children and women, in
one day." This is not done hastily, for the time vt'as
fixed upon by casting lots a whole year before the deed
was designed to be consummated, (ih. 7.) No attempt
was made to conceal the design from the intended vic
tims. The Jews were aware of the plan, yet neither
offered to flee nor to resist with arms. Yet the decree
for their total destruction was publicly promulgated in
all parts of the kingdom a whole year before the day ap
pointed for the massacre. Is it to be credited that this
number of men, enjoying the rights of other subjects of
the Persian monarch, and possessed of the warlike spirit
" Josephus, feeling this difficulty, as it seems, and considering 10,000
talents too small a sum for tlie lives of 2,000,000 human beings, fixes the
sum at 40,000 talents. Josephus differs, also, from the Hebrew text in other
particulars. His narrative is more full ; the remarks of tiie monarch more
minute, and farther extended ; the names are not always the same in the
two accounts : Josephus (xi. 6, 1) malies tiiis king Arta.\erxes Longimanus,
and not Xerxes the Great. In this he follows the apocryphal addition, con
tained in the Seventy, But tiie question, fflto is the Ahasuerus of Esther'}
seems to belong to the large list of queries that can never be answered,
and need not be asked.

§ 198, C.J BOOK OF ESTHER. 343
of the Jews, would wait tamely to be slaughtered,
" on a set day," like sheep ? An edict so unusual and
important must have been known to other historians ;
but none of them mentions it except Josephus, who
evidently draws his information entirely from this book
itself. The account of the Jews killing their enemies on the
appointed day, is, if possible, more incredible than the
preceding narrative. The whole story is this : One night,
the monarch, unable to sleep, commanded the chronicles
of his kingdom to be read to him. He found Mordecai had
formerly done him a good service, previously mentioned
in the book, but hitherto had received no recompense.
Mordecai is rewarded in public. At a banquet, Esther la
ments to her royal spouse, that her peojhe are all to be cut
oft". He seems then alike unacquainted with her descent,
and with the design he had so readily sanctioned before,
(vii. 6.) He finds, what he had previously known, that
Haman is at the bottom of the affair, and, seeing the
gallows erected for Mordecai, says, " Hang him thereon."
The current now sets in favor of the Jews ; and, on the
twenty-third day of the third month, public letters are
sent, sealed with the king's ring, " to the Jews, and to
the lieutenants, and deputies, and rulers of the provinces,
who are from India to ^Ethiopia, unto every province,
according to the writing thereof, and unto every people
after their language, and to the Jews after their writ
ing, and according to their language." These letters
" granted the Jews which were in every city to gather
themselves together, and to stand for their life, to de
stroy, to slay, and to cause to perish, all the power of the
people and province that would assault them, both little
ones and women, and to take the spoil of them for a

344 BOOK OF ESTHER. [§ 198, C.
prey." They were sent, and " published to all people,"
eight months and twenty days before the decree was to
be executed. Wherever the letters came, the "Jews had
joy and gladness, a feast, and a good day, and many of
the people became Jews." It would be supposed the
Persians, and others, likely to be injured by this decree,
with so long a time for preparation, would provide
means of defence against the Jews, who were a small
minority in the whole kingdom. But nothing of this
kind takes place. They wait quietly during the eight
months, as the Jews had done in the previous twelve
months. On the appointed day, the Jews assemble,
" to lay hand on such as sought their hurt," and no man
could withstand them. It seems no attack was made
upon the Jews, and no resistance offered to the massa
cre. Even the magistrates, for fear of Mordecai, helped
the Jews. Upwards of seventy-five thousand were
slain in a single day. It is not mentioned that a single
Jew fell in the slaughter. Permission is even granted
them to continue the murder on the next day, and three
hundred are slain at Shushan. The Jews celebrated
the next day as " a day of gladness and feasting, and a
good day, and of sending portions one to another."
Perhaps no amount of historical evidence would render
the above narrative credible to an unprejudiced inquirer.
How much less is it to be credited when related by an
apocryphal writer, who lived no one knows when, oi
where, and whose book is encumbered with so many
other difficulties ! Truly Xerxes was a foolish, but
scarcely a bloodthirsty king. The above account would
not only represent him as eminently stupid and barbarous
with scarce a parahel, but would ascribe first to the Jews,
and next to the Persians, a lameness of spirit, and inca-

§ 199.J BOOK OF ESTHER. 346
pacity of self-defence, " which are not paralleled even
among the most timid of animals, — sheep and doves, —
which at least whl flee from danger." It is not neces
sary to mention other less important historical objec
tions. It seems most probable the book was written as a
patriotic romance, designed to show that the Jews will
be delivered out of all troubles, and he that seeks to
injure them shah himself be destroyed. The narrative
may have some historical facts for its basis, or be purely
fictitious. This, at least, is certain — that it is impossi
ble, at this day, to determine where facts begin and
fiction ends.J § 199.
AGE AND AUTHOR OF THE BOOK.
It seems to be a fact that it was designed the book
should be considered as written by Mordecai : —
Chap. ix. 20. " And Mordecai wrote these things, and sent
letters unto all the Jews that were in all the provinces of the king
Ahasuerus, both nigh and far,"
It may be said, the " writing " " attributed to Mor
decai, in this passage, is limited to the letters he sent.
But (ix. 32) it is said, expressly, the command of
Esther was written in the book ; " and the decree of
Esther confirmed these matters of Purim, and it was
written in the book."'' The opinion, however, that Mor
decai wrote the book, does not deserve to be confuted.
Reference is made to the royal Chronicles of Persia : —
Chap. X. 2. " And all the acts of his power and of his might, and
' nlsn fti'ia'nn-ris "lanifa ansfi.
' Comp. Deut xxxi. ^
VOL. II. 44 4

346 BOOK OF ESTHER. [§ 199.
the declaration of the greatness of Mordecai, whereunto the king
advanced him, are they not written in the book of the Chronicles of
the kings of Media and Persia ? "
Some passages display an acquaintance with Persian
customs. The well-known one hundred and twenty-
seven provinces of Persia are mentioned ; the eunuchs
of the seraglio, the absence of females at the feast, the
magi, (i. 5, 10, 16, 19 ;) the unchangeableness of the
royal edicts, (verse 19, and viii. 8 ;) the use of lots in
divination, (ih. 7 ;) the prohibition of ah approach to the
king without permission ; the manner of publishing
decrees, (hi. 12 — 15, viii. 14 ;) and others, (i. 5, ii. 9,
iv. 11.) Besides, there is no theocratical spirit, or any
fondness for Palestine. Ah these circumstances would
favor the opinion that the author wrote in the Persian
empire. An explanation is sometimes given of Persian customs
and history ; vih. 8, " seal it with the king's ring,"
says the monarch ; and the writer adds, " for the
writing which is written in the king's name, and
sealed with the king's ring, may no man reverse."
Chap, i, 13, " Then the king said to the wise men, which knew
the times, (for so was the king's manner toward all that knew law
and judgment ; ") and.
Chap, i, 1, "Now it came to pass in the days of Ahasuerus,
(this is Ahasuerus which reigned from India even unto .Ethiopia,
over a hundred and seven and twenty provinces,)"
These explanations would lead us to the time after
the destruction of the Persian monarchy. The blood
thirsty spirit of revenge and persecution displayed in the
book refers to the time of the Ptolemies and Seleucidse ; "

° Bertholdt, p. 2449, sqq. Gesenius, in Allg. Lit Zeit for 1818, No. 54,
p, 432, Hdvemik puts it in the time of Artaxerxes.

§ 199.J BOOK OF ESTHER. 347
at all events, the language belongs to a very late
period." [Augustine, Isidore, and Origen, refer the book to
Ezra; Mr. Home inclines to the same opinion; for
getting that he died before the date of the alleged
events. Some of the Jewish rabbins, with the Pseudo-
Phho, refer it to Jehoiachim, a high priest of the Jews.
Other Jewish writers, whom Huetius follows, ascribe it
to the men of the Great Synagogue, R. Isaac Ben Ara-
mah goes so far as to add, that Esther entreated these
worthies of the Great Synagogue to write the book,
taking the facts from the Persian records. Aben Ezra,
and the greatest part of the Jewish and Christian schol
ars, refer it to Mordecai. Clement of Alexandria was
of this opinion. Spinoza thinks it was written by some
Jewish scribe, after the restoration of the temple by
Judas the Maccabee. An author in Leclerc's Biblio
theca' — supposed to be .Leclerc himself — says the
book embraces figments collected by Hellenistic Jews ;
while the grave authorities, Nicolius Serrarius and
Oliver Bonartius, consider it the joint work of Esther
and Mordecai. More modern writers, with better
judgment, affirm only their ignorance of the author
ship."] * The following examples are selected only from chap, i Persian words :
[.¦^.l, verse 8, and often ;] D'^ttSlfe , 3 ; MtlS, 20. — Later woards, forms,
and usages: •p^'a, 5; If^^jQ; ins,ll; I^SS, 15; '^'qi^, with sense of
command, 10, 17; n5i"!b, 1, and often; n33,5; tTlSitt , 2, and ofl»n ; ll?"^,
iionor, 20; ISB, marble; a"!, 8; bS aiB, 19.
' [Vol. iii p. 47 ; an. 1686.]
' Carpzov, voi i p. 360, sqq.

348 BOOK OF ESTHER. [§200.
§200.
ADDITIONS TO THE BOOK OF ESTHER.
The Alexandrian version and the Itala, besides other
less important variations from the Hebrew text, contain
some additions to the book of Esther, which Jerome,
in his Latin version, has placed at the end of the book,
and Luther has placed in the Apocrypha. Josephus,
also, is acquainted with these."
From the contradictions between these fragments and
the rest of the book, it appears they are not genuine.
[In the Enghsh version of these passages, (x. 2, xi. 1,
sqq.,) it is said Mordecai discovered the conspiracy
against the monarch in the second year of Artaxerxes.
Now, from Esth. ii. 16, it appears Esther became
queen in the seventh year, and at that time Mordecai sat
at the king's gate, and "in these days, while he sat

" The fragments are as follows : —
1, A dream of Mordecai, which, in the Alexandrian version, is prefixed to
i 1 ; in the Vulgate and English version, it appears after xi 1 — ^xii, 6. It is
chap. vii. in Luther's Bible,
2, The decree of Haman, referred to in iii. 12, sqq. In the Alexandrian
version, this is placed after iii 1.3. It is xiii 1 — 7 in the Vulgate and Eng
lish Bible, and chap, i, in Luther,
3. A prayer of Mordecai and Esther, which, in the Seventy, is put after
IV, 17 ; in the Vulgate and English, xhi, 8 — xiv, 19 ; and ii, and iii, in Lu
ther's version,
4, An embellished account of the scene between Esther and the king,
v, 1, 2, in the Seventy ; xv, 4 — 19, in the Vulgate and English ; and iv, in
Luther, 5. The edict of Mordecai, alluded to in viii 9, In the Septuagint, this
occurs after vui, 12; in the Vulgate and English, xvi, 1 — 15; Luther, vi
6, An explanation of Mordecai's dream, and an account of the manner in
which the feast of Purim was celebrated in ./Egypt In the Alexandrian,
Vulgate, and English versions, this is placed after x, 3 ; and in chap viii, in
Luther's version.

§ 200. J BOOK OF ESTHER. 349
at the gate," discovered the conspiracy. The names of
the two conspirators differ in the two accounts. In the
first, they are Bigthan and Teresh, (ii. 21 ;) in the second,
Gabatha and Tharra, (Apoc. xh. 1 .) In one, Haman is
angry because Mordecai will not do homage to him,
(hi. 5;) in the other, on account of the eunuchs of
the king, (xii. 6.) In ix. 20 and 32," Mordecai sends
letters commanding the Jews to keep the feast of
Purim, and Esther confirms these letters ; but in xvi.
22, the king himself orders, not merely the Jews, but all
his subjects, to keep it, " among their solemn feasts, a
high day, with all feasting."]
From its religious tone, it is probable it is of Hel
lenistic and Alexandrian origin. This appears, also,
from the party-colored and bomba.stic language, and
the transformation of Haman into a Macedonian, (xvi.
10 and 14.) Bertholdt thinks the fragments were
first added as supplementary notes, and has based this
opinion on the incompleteness of these fragments in
the Hebrew manuscripts, and in the Syriac and Arabic
versions in the London Polyglot.'
" Eichhorn, Einl, in die Apocryphen, p. 488, sqq,
' De Rossi (Specimen Varr. Lectt. sacri Textus et Chaldaica Estheris
Additamenta ; Tub, 1783) thinks the original book of Esther was a larger
work, written in Chaldee by Mordecai, containing the present apocryphal
additions, and the present book of Esther has been extracted from it He
founds tliis opinion upon a Hebrew MS, containing some of these chapters
in the Chaldee language. But Bertholdt (p. 2457, sqq.) has satisfactorily
answered the claims of this hypothesis. See, also, Usseri, Syntagmata de
GrsecBB LXX. Interprett Vers, cum Libri Esth,, Editione Origenica, et vet
Gneca altera, in the appendix,

360

BOOK II.
THE THEOCRATICAL INSPIRED BOOKS.

§201.
THEIR RELATION TO THE FOREGOING,
While the historical books show in what manner the
theocracy originated, and point out its destiny, to warn
and admonish later generations, here the present con
dition of the theocracy, and the future consequences of
this condition, are treated of for the warning and admo
nition of the people. Here, as there, the same religious
ideas are applied to the circumstances of the Jewish
nation, and the same view of the world is taken. But
the spirit and disposition " of the theocratic historian and
that of the inspired prophet are different in this respect :
The former, occupied with quiet contemplation of the
past, gives rather the true picture of affairs than his
own view of them; but the latter, impehed by his
active participation in the present, and in the yet un
formed future, hving in the fire of inspiration and of
holy zeal, expresses his own thoughts, demands, and
wishes, cares and hopes, rather than paints the history
of his time. This difference displays itself in their style.'
Besides, the Hebrew historians pay little regard to
" Stiramung. » § 126, 127.

§ 202.J prophetic books. 361
the history of other nations ; but the inspired guardians
of the theocracy had so much to fear from them that
they could not fail to bring them within the circle of
their vision."
§202.
NAME AND IDEA OF A PROPHET.
The authors of these books, for the most part, bear
the name of prophets, interpreters of God,'' (Ex. vii. 1.)
" See Knobd, Der Propbetismus der Hebraer; 1837, 2 vols, 8vo, Koster,
Die Propheten des A, und N, T, nach ihren Wesen und Wirken ; 1838,
' D'^S'^5?) ¦^:QOq)r^la^, not p&viEig, the word by which the LXX, trans
late dOp . Plato, Timasus, Opp. ix. p, 391, ed, Bipont, or p, 101, ed, Bekker :
 /iavTtx-fiv utpQOcruVTj ¦d'Eog dtv&giDTilvjj diSioxEv oidelg ydp 'evvovg
iqidmEzai. fiavjixrjg iv&iov xal uhjitoug, &).V ^ xa\^' vnvov t-)\v rijj
(foov/^aemg rreSijO'Elg Siva/iiv, ^ 5td v6aov r^ nva iv&ovaiaofiiv naqaX-
l,&^ag. 'jllXd. i^vvvor^atti fihv cfiqigovog t6. te Qrjdivra Avapvrjatt'ivTa
Hvng ^ vnag inb rrjs /lavrixrjg re xnl ivitovataarixr^g cpiaewg, xal oaa
&v (picrpara dtp&'fi, n&vra Xoyiapti diEXiaS^ai, onr^ jt atj/xalvsi xal oto)
fiillovTog ^ nctQsXxtdvzo'g ij nagdviog xaxov I) Ayaihov- rov di /lavivrog, ezt
TS iv TOvTto pivovTog, oix EQyov TCt cpavivia ^ cpcDvrj&ivTa i(f kavwv
xqIvsiv, HX' ei) xal ndXai XiyExai to nq&XTEiv xal yvavai t& te aiSioC xal
iavTov adcpQOVi, /i6vo Trpoo'TJXEjj'. " Od'EV dij xal to t&v nQOcprjTav yivog
inl xalg iv&ioig pavTElaig xgndcg inixaS-iOT&vai. v6fiog- o6s fi&VTEig airoig
inovo/id'Qovm, xty^;, lA nav riyvor/xdzeg on Trig SC alviypibv oiroi qi^prjg
xal cpttVT&aBtog inoxqiTal- xal oi) ti ^udi'TEif, nqocprftai, ih fiavTEVofiivav
StxamrccTa bvo[i&'C,oivT &v. Comp. Bardili, De Significatu primitivo Vocis
riqocffiTrjg ; Gott 1786. Chrysost. Horn. xxix. in Ep, ad Corinth,; ToCto
y&Q piivTEbjg &10V tA i^eoTrjxivai, t6 &.v&yxriv vno/iivetv, to 6)0^EXa9'ai,
TO eXxEO&ai, Tb (riQEaS'ai, SiansQ inaivdpEvov. ' O Sk ngoapTfiTTjg ovx ovrwc,
dUd /tBTck Siavolag vijcpoiarjg xal aoKpqovoiuTjg xaTaaz&crsixig x(xl eldiig &
(fxHy/ETai, (frjalv anavza. JVeander, Gnost Syst p. 387. Jerome, Prooem.
in Jes. : Neque vero, ut Montanus cum insanis feminis somniat, Prophetse
in extasi sunt loquuti, ut nescirent, quid loquerentur, et quum alios erudirent,
ipsi ignorarent, quid dicerent See Epiphanius, H^res. xlviii 3. Carpzov,
Introd. vol. iii. p. 36, sq.
Yet, on the other hand, Hengstenberg (Christologie, vol, i pt i p. 293)
maintains the fanatical opinions of Montanvs respecting the prophets of the
O. T. [See JVoyes, in Christian Examiner for 1833, vol. xvi. p. 321, sq., and

352 PROPHETIC BOOKS. [§ 202.
They are also called men of God, and angels, or mes
sengers of God, because, by theh insphed discourses,
they carried out the divine idea of the theocracy, or the
will of God, in the public life of the people."
They were hkewise called seers,'' on account of the
higher intuition they had of divine truth, and, enlight
ened by that, of the course of earthly events, both
present and future, and by virtue of which they were
prophets and foretellers of the future. After Samuel,
the common practice of soothsaying seems to have been
restricted by the prophethood, or office of prophets.
Other nations of antiquity had their seers also, but
they were destitute of the true and moral spirit of mono
theism, by which the Hebrew prophecy was purified and
made holy.' The reason why prophecy in general finds
no place in modern times, is to be found in the prepon
derance of reflection over spontaneity.
[" Samuel committed the direction of the spirit of the
theocratic government into the hands of the prophets,
to whom merely a personal reverence was paid among
the people. He left the management of the theocratic
forms to the priests. By these means he produced a
more free development of the Mosaic religion. The

vol. V, p, 348, sqq,] Hendewerk, Jesaias, vol, i, p, xxxiii,, sqq. See, also,
1 Cor, xix. 32, See the use of the word 5312^ in Jer, xxix, 26, Hos, ix, 7,
2 Kings ix, 11, On the use of s"'?', see Hartmann, Ubers des Mich, 3
Excurs,, and Gesenius, in Lexicon, sub voce. Knobel, vol, i, p. 103,
' Cn'is itaas and ts^n'is* ''^Ki)?. There is a distinction between
the prophets, and demagogues, (judges or heroes,) and kings, which is marked
hy the idea of the word of God. Redslob, Begriff, d, Nabi; 1839,
' bi»1 and D''tn. See 1 Sam, ix, 9.
' Jer. xxiii 22. De Wette, Programm. de Prophetarum in V. T, Ecclesia,
et Doctorum Theol, in Eccles, evang, Ratione, atque Similitudine, (Ber,
1816,) Opusc. theol. p, 169, sqq.

§203. J PROPHETIC BOOKS. 353
prophets broke through the symbolical forms, rose to a
spiritual view of them, and served the cause of truth by
proclaiming the word of God, whhe the priests re
mained attached to the symbols, and preserved them in
their ancient restrictions and narrowness. Thus it was
the office of the prophets to purify and extend the influ
ence of religion and morality; they were politicians,
naturalists, and workers of wonders. Their action and
influence on the public were sustained and promoted by
religion, poetry, symbols, and music. The last, perhaps,
held an important place in their education at the schools
ofthe prophets."]"
The writings of Isaiah and Jeremiah — especially
Isa. liii., Jer. xx  contain allusions to the conflict of
the prophets with the false prophets, with the priests
and rulers of the land, and with the unbelief of the
people. §203.
CONTENTS AND OBJECTS OF THE PROPHETIC DISCOURSES.
While the prophets were zealous for the support and
perfection of the theocracy, they fixed their eyes upon
the outward as weh as upon the inward. They censured
the false, untheocratical policy which was pursued with
respect to foreign nations, and disclosed the abuses in the
government and in the administration of justice. This
they seem to have done especially under a feeble adrain-
* De Wette, Bib. Dogmatik, § 70. On the relation of the prophets to the
priests, their political and scientific tendency, their ascetic life, and the
schools of the prophets, see De Wptte, as above, and ArchaoL § 145, 268.
Carpzov, voi iii. p. 41, sqq. Knohd, I. c. voL i. p. 39, sqq., 82, sqq., ii 39, sqq.
Koster, p. 52, sqq.
VOL. II. 45

354 PROPHETIC BOOKS. [§ 204.
istration." They found fault with the corrupt morals,
with the degeneracy of the public worship of God, which
was defiled with idolatry, and reduced to a mere shadow.
In respect to all these subjects, thev pointed out the
True aud the Right, and admonished the public and
individuals to reform and amend their lives. They
threatened the disobedient and impenitent with the
punishments of divine justice ; but they restored the
downcast by joyful promises, by predicting the humhia-
tion of the enemies of the theocracy, and the approach
of prosperous times.' §204.
SPIRIT OF THE PROPHETIC PREDICTIONS.
1 . The predictions of the future were occasioned by,
and founded upon, the idea of retribution, — as we see
in Levit. xxvi. and Deut. xxvih., — and on the unshaken
confidence in the love of Jehovah towards his people.
Consequently their predictions had a moral and religious
meaning, and might be recahed. This appears from
Jer. xxvi. 13, where it is promised Jehovah will repent
of the evil denounced, if the people whl mend their
ways; and verse 29, where an instance is given of his
actually withdrawing a denunciation against Hezekiah."
2. These ideas were applied to the circumstances of
the time ; and in this manner the predictions were occa
sioned by the historical phenomena of the age. Thus
Isaiah threatened the Jews with an invasion by the

° Credner, Der Prophet Joel, p. 65.
' Knobd, voi i p. 203, sqq,, 246, sqq, Koster, p, 223, sqq,
' See, also, Jonah iii, 10.

§ 204.J PROPHETIC BOOKS. 365
Assyrians ; Jeremiah, with invasion by the Chaldees.
[At first, says Eichhorn, the prophets of the kingdom of
Israel only threaten their nation with the Syrians, so
long as they were the only powerful nation in the neigh
borhood. Thus Elisha, in his reply to Joash, (2 Kings
xiii. 14, sqq.,) speaks of the Syrians. Sometimes they
promise victories over them, as Jonah did, under Jero
boam II. (2 Kings xiv. 25.)
In the mean time, the Assyrians were becoming a great
nation ; then the prophets alarm the quiet people with
threats of them ; but this is done gradually, as a knowl
edge of this people becomes more clear and distinct.
Thus Amos (vi. 14, vii. 10 — 17) predicts their coming
without naming them, probably because in his time they
were not entangled in the affairs of Israel. But during
the civil troubles that ensued after the death of Jerobo
am II. , one of the factions into which the state was
divided, it is probable, sought aid of the Assyrians,
(Hos. ix. 3, xi. 5.) Then Hosea comes out boldly, and
prophesies that the Assyrians, sooner or later, whl over
power the feeble kingdom of Israel.
The same is true of the prophecies which relate to
Judah. In the times of Isaiah, the Babylonians were so
unimportant that the Hebrew prophets do not mention
them. They begin to speak of them when the Chal
dees in Babylon took the place of the Assyrians as rulers
of Asia.J "
" Eichhorn, § 51.3. See, also, Justi, Verm, Abhandl, ub wichtig, Gegens-
tande d, theol, Gelehrsamkeit, vol, i, p, 266, sqq, [contained also in Paulus,
Memorab, voi iv, p, 139, sqq. He thinks it is so certain the prophets spoke
only of such nations as had direct intercourse with the Hebrews, that he
denies the date of certain oracles, which speak of distant enemies. He
says the office ofthe prophet was to be a counsellor ofthe king and people
in the exigencies of the time, not to satisfy or excite their curiosity by
dwelling on the distant future,]

356 PROPHETIC BOOKS. [§ 204.
3. Since this idea of retribution prevails in the
prophets throughout, their predictions are in part to be
regarded as hopes and wishes, menaces and expres
sions of anxiety ; and therefore the fundamental rule
of giving them an historiccd explanation, is to seek the
occasion of an oracle in history, rather than its fulfilment.
Particular caution is necessary in respect to predictions
against foreign nations.
4. These prophecies are almost always indefinite and
fluctuating. The later referred to the oracles of earlier
prophets ; and thus, for example, the Messianic idea
gradually received its form, and became permanent."
The definite predictions of Ezekiel (xii. xxiv. 25, 26,
xxxhi. 21, 22) seem not to have been fulfilled. The
same must be said of those of Jeremiah, (xxii. 18, 19,
xxxvi. 30,) as may be seen by comparing 2 Kings xxiv.
6, 2 Ch. xxxvi. 6, for the authority of Josephus (x. 6, 3)
can scarcely be decisive in this case. The following,
also, are not fulfilled : Amos vii. 1 1 ; Hosea's curse of
the people, (ix. 3, and xi. 5 ;) Isaiah's oracle, (xxii. and
xxix. ;) his curse pronounced upon Moab, (xvi. 14,) and
his prophecy of the destruction of Tyre, (xxiii.) — though
Hengstenberg is of the contrary opinion ; ' — the proph
ecy of Obadiah ; Jeremiah's curse of .^gypt and Edom,
(xliii. 8, xlix. 7, sqq. ;) Ezekiel's prophecies against Mount
Seir, (xxxv.,) against ^gypt, (xxix.,) and against Gog
and Magog, (xxxviii. — xxxix.)
The following are not completely fulfihed : Isa. vii.

" See Eichhorn, § 515, p. 27, Credner (L c, p, 63, sqq,, and 71, sqq,)
perhaps carries this reference of the later to the eai-lier prophets too far.
De Wette, Bib, Dogmatik, § ] 16,
' See Hengstenberg, De Rel, Tyr, ; 1832, [But see Heeren, Researches
into the Intercourse, Policy, Trade, &c,, Eng, translation; Oxford, 1833,
vol, ii, p, II, note 2, Knobd, vol, i. p, 300, sq,]

§206.] PROPHETIC BOOKS. 357
17, sqq. ; his oracle against Damascus and Samaria, (viii.
4 ;) that against Babylon, (xiv. 23 ;) against Damascus,
(xvii. 1 — 3 ;) and that against Idumea, (xxxiv. 9.)
There are also predictions in the historical books
which were either put into a more definite form, or were
forged, after the event. But it is entirely in opposition
to the spirit of the Hebrew prophets to suppose these
oracles were only veiled and obscure pictures of the
present and of the past." §205.
THE DISCOURSE AND STYLE OF THE PROPHETS.
The prophets expressed themselves spontaneously
and directly with the hving voice. They sometimes
appeared and spoke in public places, and sometimes at
home addressed a circle of men that sought advice or
edification. This latter appears from 2 Kings iv. 22, 23,
whence it appears men were accustomed to seek the
prophets, chiefly on the Sabbath, and days of the new
moon,'(vi. 32, Isa. xxxvih. 5, 21, Jer. xxi. 1, Ezek. vih.
1, xiv. 1, XX. 1.) When they spoke in public, their
speeches were, probably, for the most part, artless out
breaks of their zeal and inspiration, short addresses and
appeals, which, perhaps, were followed by replies, or a
disputation." When they spoke in private, their dis-
" Eichhorn, (Heb. Proph. on Isa, xxix, and elsewhere) takes this false
view. See Gesenius, Com, ad, Jes, vol, i p, 828, See, also, on this entire
subject, Griesinger, Priifung d. Jem. Begriffs von der iibernaturlich,
ursprung d, proph, Weissag. ; 1818. [But the author ofthe book of Daniel,
at least, seems to have done this continually. See below, § 254 — 257.]
' Perhaps this is the first trace of tlie synagogue service.
' 1 Kings xxii, 6, sqq,, 14, sqq,, Isa. vii,, Am, vii. 10, sqq,, Jer. xxviii.

368 PROPHETIC BOOKS. [§ 205.
courses may have been more connected, and have en
tered more into detahs. Sometimes they spoke after
making preparation, and sometimes unpremeditatedly."
Sometimes they confirmed their assertions, particu
larly such as related to the future, by signs,* some of
Avhich are the appointed tests of a prophet's truth, as in
Deut. xiii. 2, sq. Such is the case in 1 Sam. ii. 34, and
in Isa. vii. 10, sqq. Sometimes these signs consist in
the extraordinary deeds which they performed, (Ex. iv.
1, sqq.,) and which, it is probable, have, for the most part,
been enlarged, and misrepresented in the legendary
accounts. To bring theh thoughts and instructions before the
senses of the people, they made use of symbolical actions,
and ofa certain sort of signs. Thus Zedekiah made horns
of iron, and thrust with them, to show that the nation was
in like manner to thrust down the Syrians, (1 Kings xxii.
11;) Isaiah walks naked and barefoot for three years,
to show that the king of Assyria should lead away the
^Egyptians and jEthiopians naked and barefoot, (Is. xx.)
So in vih. 1 — i, and 18, he says, "Behold, I and the
chhdren whom the Lord hath given me are for signs and
for wonders." Ezekiel (iv. 1, sqq.) makes a drawing
of Jerusalem on a slate, and represents himself as lying
beside it four hundred and thirty days, to show the city
was to endure a long siege. Again: (xh. 1, sqq.) he
carries away his possessions, through an opening he has
digged in the wall, in the twilight, and bears them on his
shoulders, to show the nation that they likewise shall
remove and go into captivity.
In earher times, perhaps they made use of music, for

° Knobd, vol. i p, 418, ' frir-.s , ftinsift .

§ 205.J PROPHETIC BOOKS. 369
Elisha plays on an instrument in presence of the kings
of Judah and Israel, before he prophesied, (2 Kings ih.
15;) the prophets, mentioned in 1 Sam. x. 6, were pre
ceded by a band of music, and David played before
Saul, to drive away the evh spirit from him, (xix. 8, sqq.)
But it is certainly incorrect to consider the prophets as
singers and improvisators."
If they subsequently wrote down their speeches, or if
they preferred to publish their opinions by writing them,
they made use of a more artificial, rounded, and even
poetic style, and symbolic actions were then added to
the true or fictitious narrative. The following belong to
the latter class, namely, the story of Jeremiah bury
ing his girdle, (xih. 1 — 7 ;) of Ezekiel lying four hundred
and thirty days before a slate, (iv. 1, sqq. ;) of his typical
removal from Jerusalem, (xii. 1, sqq.;) of Hosea taking
an unchaste wife, (i. 2 — 9, iii. 1 — 5,) and elsewhere.
Many are uncertain, like the account of Isaiah walking
barefoot and naked.'
These symbolic actions, together with the symbolic
revelations and visions, make up the prophetic symbolism.

"¦ [The use of music, to excite the soothsayers, was not unknown to the
heathen. Jamblichus (De Mysteriis, iii. 9) says, "Some of the transported,
having cymbals or drums, or some other kind of music, are filed with the
Spirit," &c. So Cicero, (Div, i, 50,) " And so they whose minds, scorning
their bodies, fly and rush abroad, when inflamed and incited by some ardor,
behold these things which they predict Such minds, which inhere not in
their bodies, are inflamed by various causes. Some are incited by a certain
modulation of voices, and Phrygian songs,'' &c, &c.
Spinoza (Tract, theoi-polit p, 19) thinks Elisha, in the above instance,
used a musical instrument to moderate his anger; but the supposition seems
gratuitous.] ' See, on these symbolic actions, Staudlin, N. Beitrage zur Erlaut d.
Bibl. Propheten, p. 123, sqq., and Eichhorn, Einl, § 556, and 603. [See also
Knobd, Prophetismus, § 38. He thinks tbe following may have been per-

360 PROPHETIC BOOKS. [§205.
which assumes different forms, to suit the spirit of the times.
Without wishing to deny that there was a direct and im
mediate revelation, — that is, an actual divine excitement,
and, in some cases, an actual ecstasy or trance, — I only
maintain that it was indirect and mediate also, and that
there was something arbitrary in the style of their dis
course. This appears, 1. From the chcumstance of
their speeches being connected with symbols, which, it
is obvious, were arbitrary," and at the same time with
those symbolic actions. 2. From the variations of taste
in respect to this revelation ; thus Isaiah (vi.) receives
inspiration from seeing Jehovah, sitting on a lofty throne,
with a train that fills the temple, and surrounded by the
seraphim. Jeremiah (i.) says, simply, " The word of
Jehovah came to me;" and Ezekiel sees the heavens
opened, and has visions of God, (i.,) which are very
common in the later prophets. 3. From the well-known
analogy with other symbols, in Ps. xviii. 4, and 1 Kings
xviii. 25. And, 4. From the clear spirit of Hebrew
prophecy, which did not favor the state of ecstasy.

formed, though we are not expressly told that such was the case, viz.,
that of Zedekiah, mentioned above, (1 Kings xxii 11 ;) of Isaiah going
naked, though not during the whole period of three years ; of Jeremiah
breaking an earthen vessel, (xix, 1, sqq,, v. 14,) and his putting on a yoke,
(xxvii 1,) — it is not said he wore it; those mentioned in Ezek. xxxvii, 15, sqq,,
and Jer, xliii 8. Common actions, performed without any unusual design,
he thinks were sometimes made, afterwards, to assume a symbolical charac
ter; e. g. Jeremiah's purchase of his deceased kinsman's estate, (xxxii, 5,)
The following, he thinks, cannot have been performed, viz., that of
Ahijah stripping Jeroboam of his new garment, and rending it into twelve
pieces, (1 Kings xi, 29 ;) that of Hosea, mentioned above, which is peculiarly
inconsistent with a character so severely moral as that prophet; that of
Jeremiah, (xiii, 1 — 7,) and Ezekiel, (xii 1, sqq,, iv. v. and xxiv. 3, sqq.)]
" Am. vii. 1 — 9, viii 1, 2, Jer. i 11—14, Zach. i 7, sqq., 18, sqq-, ii hi.
1 Kings xxii. 19, sqq.

§ 205. J PROPHETIC BOOKS. 361
though it did not exclude it." This use of symbols de
generated, as it was copied by other prophets, — as may be
seen in the instances already given, (Ezek. iv. and xii.,) —
so that it became merely an unmeaning phantasmago
ria,' as in Ezek. i., or a sport with enigmatical language,
as in Zachariah's vision of a red horse, (i. 7, sqq.,) of the
golden candlestick, (iv.,) or the flying roll, (v.,) and in
the accounts in Daniel, (ii. and vh.) The power of the
prophetic spirit stands in inverse ratio with the use of
symbols. This fact is alluded to in Num. xii., " If
there be a prophet among you, I Jehovah will make my
self known unto him in a vision, and whl speak unto
him in a dream. But not so my servant Moses. He is
intrusted with all my house. Mouth to mouth speak 1
to him, and suffer him to see plainly, and not in images.
He looks on the form of Jehovah;" and in Jer. xxih.
26, " I have heard what the prophets said, that prophesy
lies in my name, saying, / have dreamed, I have dreamed
 they think to cause the people to forget my name
by their dreams." '
Since, among the Hebrews, all inspired discourse is
accompanied with rhythm, the prophets commonly made

" See Knobd, vol. i p. 169, sqq. Compare the case of Paul the apostle
* Schilderei.
' See Cajyzoi), i c. p. 14. Jlfaimom(fe«, (MoreNevochin,iic,45,p, 316,)inhis
various degrees of inspiration, has anticipated this conclusion, in some meas
ure, [Hemaintains there are eZeuere degrees ofthe prophetic spirit The first
is the spirit of heroism, as it animated the old judges and warriors to noble
deeds, and the last is that state of mind in which a man finds himself speak
ing with an angel in a vision. This happened to Abrahara, when he was
about to sacrifice Isaac. But Moses, says he, surpassed even this degree of
prophetic inspiration, by many a parasang ; for, while all the others heard
the word through the mediation of an angel, he spoke face to face with
God. See also K'nobd, I. c. § 11, 12.]
VOL. II. 46

362 PROPHETIC BOOKS. [§206.
use of a certain symmetrical arrangement of the mem
bers of their sentences. But since thev are rather ora-
tors than poets, their rhythm is usually distinguished from
lyric poetry by the use of longer periods. When they
relate facts, they make use of prose. The later prophets,
^vhose inspiration had grown cold, suffered their rhyth
mical periods to flow into the prosaic, or, perhaps, wrote
\\ holly in prose.

§206.
THE COMPOSITION OF THE PROPHETIC BOOKS.
The oldest prophets seem to have written nothing ;
probably because, in their time, the living speech and
action were more efficient, and literature was not suffi
ciently advanced. A prophetic literature first arose
more than two hundred years after the establishment of
the schools of the prophets."
In the written prophecies that have come down to us,
it is mentioned, sometimes, that the command of God
was given to write down particular words, as in Isa.
viii. 1 , xxx. 8 ; or a whole prophecy, as in Hab. h. 2,
3, Jer. xxx. 2 ; or a whole cohection of prophecies, as in
Jer. xxxvi. But sometimes they are written down

" See the article in Eichhorn's Allg. Bib. vol. x, p, 1077, sqq, " Why do
the written oracles ofthe Hebrew prophets begin about 800 B, C, ?" [It is
evident there were prophets from the commencement of Uie Hebrew state,
and fragments of their oracles appear throughout the early course of Jew
ish history, from Joshua to Joel ; e, g, Judg, ii. 1 — 3, an anonymous prophet
appears, and is called an angel of Jehovah, Deborah, also, is a prophetess.
An anonymous prophet appears, also, Judg, vi, 8, sqq. See the other in
stances collected in Eichhorn, 1. c.l

§ 206. J PROPHETIC BOOKS. 363
without mentioning any such express command of God,
as in Jer. li. 60.
But where no such remarks about the reduction of the
prophecies to writing occur, we must assume that the
genuine works of the prophets, now extant, were all
written down by themselves, or their assistants. Some
of them were written down after they had been deliv
ered in public, and even long after their first delivery,
(Jer. xxxvi. ;) and others were written without any such
previous delivery." The greater part of the extant
prophecies, probably ah, whereof the occasion is not
mentioned, seem to have originated in this latter way.
It can scarcely be true that we possess discourses taken
down by others, or sketches of discourses afterwards
delivered. Some prophets, in writing down their oracles, seem
to have designed to produce a complete hterary work ;
others, at least, wrote down their separate speeches in a
cohection. Only a few flying leaves of some other
prophets appear to have got into circulation ; and these
have been badly interpolated, in a course of uncritical
treatment, provided with false inscriptions, put in a
false connection, or worked over anew.' Finally, it has
happened that later predictions have been falsely at
tributed to the old prophets. This has been done, not
merely as an idle sport of fancy, but with real prophetic
design." " [About twenty-three years elapsed between the time he first began to
prophesy, (i 1, sqq.,) and the date of his committing his works to writing.
Jeremiah is the only prophet who has given any account of his loritings.]
" Seebelow, §217— 219.
' See above, § 147, 159, and below, § 257.

364 BOOK OF ISAIAH. [§207.
CHAPTER I.
ISAIAH." §207.
HIS LIFE AND TIMES.
We know nothing of the person of Isaiah, except that
tie was the son of Amos, (or Amotz,) an unknown man.

° Jerome, Comm. in Proph. maj, in his Opp, iii. Mart, iv, v, VaUcars.
CyrUli Alex, 'E^Tfffrjaig -dnoftvij/taTixfj in Isa, Opp, ii,
/*, Abarband, Comm, in Isa.
Dav. Kimchii Comm, in Isa, Lat Interpr, Coes. Malanimeo ; Flor, 1774, 4to,
Jo. Ccdvini Comm, in Jes, ; ed. 3, Genev, 1570, fol,
Vietorin. Strigelii Condones Esaite Proph, ad Ebr, Veritatem recogn, et
Argumentis atque Scholiis illustratte ; Lips, 1565.
Wolfg. Musculi in Esaiam Comm, ; Bas, 1570, fol,
Casp. Sandii in Comm. ; Mogunt 1616, fol,
Andr. Hyperii in Jes, Oracula Annotatt; Bas, 1547,
Seb. Schmidii Comm, super Prophet Isa. ; Hamb, 1702, 4to,
Campegii Vitringce Comm, in Librum Prophet Isa.; Leov, 1714, 1720,
2 vols, fol. Extracts by Bi'isching ; Halle, 1749, 1750, 2 vols, 4to,
Isaiah, a new Translation, with a Dissertation and Notes, by Robt Lowth
The German version, by Richerz, with Additions and Remarks, by J. B.
Koppe; Gbtt 1779, 1781, 2 vols, Comp. D. Kocher, Vindicie Text. Heb.
Bsaia; adversus Lowthii Criticam ; Berne, 1786.
Esaias ex Reo, Textus Hebr. Latine vertit et Notas subjecit J. Chr.
Doderlein ; ed. 3, 1789.
H. E. G. Paidus, Philoi Clavis uber das A. T, Jesaia ; Jen, 1793,
Jo. Clerici Comment Rosenmidleri Scholia.
Exeget Handb, des A, T. 6, 7 pt
Der Prophet Jesaia, libers., mit e. vollst philol. krit u, hist Comment
begleitet, von D, mih. Gesenius; Lpz, 1820, 182], 3 vols,
Der Proph, Esaias,, iibers, &c,, von Hitzig ; 1833, Hendewerk, Des
Proph, Jes, Weissagungen, chronolog. giordnet, &c, pt i, the proto-Esaianic
prophecies ; 1838 ; German version, by J. H. Walther, 1774, 4to, G, F.
Seiler, 1785, with notes, J. D. Cube, with notes, 1785, 1786, 2 vols, extend
ing to chap, xxxix, Ck. G. Hensler, 1788. G. Kragdius, 1790, 1791, 2

§ 207. J BOOK OF ISAIAH. 365
concerning whom the rabbins have a tradition, which
makes him a prophet, and the brother of Amaziah." It
is unnecessary, as well as uncertain, to suppose that his
standing with Hezekiah depended on any thing except
his piety, and vocation as prophet ; to say that it
depended on his family, and offices at court, is a suppo
sition equahy needless and unfounded.'
According to vi. 1, he appeared as a prophet in the
year of King Uzziah's death, 759 B. C. ; and accord
ing to i. 1, he prophesied in the reigns of the three
following kings — Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah. This
is confirmed by the subject and contents of his prophe
cies," and [with xix., which is of somewhat uncertain
authenticity, and belongs to the time of ManassehJ
brings us down to the fourteenth year of Hezekiah,
710 B. C."* The legendary story that he was put to
death by Manasseh, is very uncertain.' There is no
incontestable reason for extending the period of his
action thl the time of Manasseh's reign.

vols, [See the English works of White, 1709 ; Stodc, 1804 ; Hariis, 1739 ;
Horsley, I80I ; Jones, 1830 ; Jenour, 1831 ; Maculloch ; Barnes, Phil, 1840,
3 vols, 8vo, ; JVoyes's New Translation Heb, Proph,, Best 1833, sqq,, 3 vols.
8vo., 2d ed, 1843,] See list of writers in Rosenmiiller.
" Megilla, f. 10, c, 2 : " R, Levi said, there is a tradition, received from
our fathers, that Amos and Amaziah were brothers,'' But here f i?2Si: , the
father of Isaiah, is confounded with Di?2S , See, on the contrary, Jerome's
ProoBm, to Amos, For the rabbins' opinion that he was a prophet, see
Carpzov, (1, o, p. 91, sqq,,) who also gives the more ancient literature
relating to Isaiah,
' See Augusti, § 203. Bertholdt, p, 1348. Paulus, Clavis, p, 62, And on
the other side, Gesenius, Com, vol, i, p. 14, sqq,
' See chap, vii, xiv. 28, xxii and many other passages. Comp. xxxvi, —
xxxviii. ¦^ According to Gesenius, chap. xix. belongs in Manasseh's time. It is
Mailer's hypothesis that Isaiah composed the second part of his prophecies
during the exile of Manasseh. See De Authent Oracc. Es. c, 40—66,
p, 121, sqq. See below, § 210,
' Jebamoth, f. 49, c. 2, Sanhedr. f. 103, c. 2. JusHn Mart. Dial, p, 349,

366 BOOK OF ISAIAH. [§208.
In Isaiah's time, the powerful kingdom of Assyria
arose, and assumed a very threatening aspect. Its lust
of conquest was so much favored by the blind policy of
the smah states of Syria, Israel, and Judah, — which
mutually enfeebled one another, — that, after a few years,
an Assyrian army stood in the neighborhood of Jeru
salem. §208.
SPURIOUSNESS OF THE SECOND PART OF THE PROPHECIES
ASCRIBED TO HIM.
The whole of the second part of the collection of
oracles under Isaiah's name (xl. — Ixvi.) is spurious."
It contains discourses designed to console and admonish
the people, then in captivity, and promises their return
to their native land, and the restoration of the state.
The following are the arguments that support this
opinion : —
1. There is a difference of style. — The style is more
ed. Col, H. Michaelis, Prtef, in Jes. c, v. in the Halle Bible. StauMin^ 1, c,
p, 12, 17, sqq,; and on the design and effects ofthe death of Jesus, in Gott
Theol, Bibl, voi i p, 321, Gesenius has examined these legends, (1, c, p,
10, sqq,)
" The following works relate to this part ofthe subject: L. I.E. Justi,
on the oracles of Isaiah, and the deportation of the Jews in the Babylonian
captivity, in Paulus, Mem, vol, iv, p, 139, sqq,, and enlarged in his Abhand
lungen, vol, i, p, 254, sqq,, vol. ii, p, I, sqq, Eichhorn, § 525, Bertholdt,
p, 1374, Gesenius, 1. c. vol, ii, p, 19, sqq, Hitzig, p. 463, sqq, Knobd, vol, ii,
p, 332, sqq. .Maurer, p. 386, sqq., and others cited by Bertholdt, p, 1356,
On the other side are Hensler, Uebers, d, Jes, Beckliaus, Integntiit, d, proph,
Schriften d. A, T, ; 1796, p, 152, sqq, Jahn, 1, c. vol. ii pt i, p, 458, sqq,
Dereser's version of Isaiah, in Brerdano's Bibelwerk, p, 2, sqq, Greve, Ultima
Capp. Jes. ; Amst 1810, 4to. Proleg. p. 1—21, J. U. .Miilhr, 1, c, A. F.
Kleinert, Echtheit siimmtl. in d, B, Jes. entiialtenen Weissag, vol, i, ; 1829,
Hengstenberg, Christologie, d. A, T. ; 1829, vol, ii p, 172, [See, also, a reply
to Gesenins. in the Biblical Repository, vol. i. p. 700, sqq.]

§ 208.J BOOK OF ISAIAH. 367
flowing, perspicuous, and easy, than in the genuine
passages of Isaiah ; but, at the same time, it is also
weaker, and more diffuse. It has many peculiarities,
and bears marks of a later age. Some of the chief
peculiarities of the style may be seen below."
2. There is a difference in the political relations of

^ The phrase " servant of Jehovah," applied to Israel, (see Bertholdt, p.
1374, sq, ; De Wette, Com. ub, Psalmos, p, 23; Gesenius, vol, iii, p. 16, 23,
sqq.,) xii 8, 9, xlii, 19, xliv, 1, 21, xlv, 4, xlviii. 20; to the prophets,
and to himself, whom he also calls the messenger or angel of Jehovah;
xlii. I, xliv, 26, xlix, 3, 5, Iii 13, liii, 11, xlii, 18, The word bi'^S,
applied to distant lands ; xlii, 4, 10, 12, xlix, I, li, 5, lix. 18. &"IS , for salva
tion and victory ; xii 2, 10, xlii, 6, 21, xlv, 8, 13, li 5, Iviii, 2, Ixii 1, 2,
npTI , used in the same sense ; -xlv, 8, 24, xlvi 15, xlviii, 18, li. 6, 8,
liv, 17, Ivi, 1, (Comp, Jer, xxxiii, 16, and Dan, ix. 24, Ps. cxxxii 9, for the
same, or a similar use ofthe word.) 135".! ?3, used for law and rdigion ;
xlii, 1, 3, 4, li, 4, iTS'S, to sprout, used in the sense of to originate; xlii 9,
xliii, 19, 'i23!!«-|>p , in the sense of from old time ; xl, 21, xii, 4, 26, xlviii,
16. linsb, /or the future; xii. 23, xlii. 23. The use ofthe expression
darkness of prisons ; xlii, 7, xlvii 5, xlix, 9. Comp, Ps, cvii. 10.
The use of the figure of a widow; xlvii, 8, liv, 1, 4, Ixii. 4; of a fruit
ful mother; liv, 1, Ivi 7, The use of T;!*3, or ^^m, Dts3, or 0|8«)5 ,
and ^ni.'^ ; xl. 17, xii, 11, 12, 24, 29, xliv, 9, The relative use of the first
and second person; xii 8, 9, xlix. 3, 9, 23. The emphatic reiteration of
words ; xii 27, xliii. 25, li 12, xlviii, 15, xlviii. 1 1, xl. 1, Iii 11, Ixii 10, Ivii 14,
Ixii 10, h, 9, Iii 1, li. 17, Ivii 6, Ivii 19. The accumulation of epithets of
the person speaking, or the one addressed ; xlii. 5, xliii 16, 17, xliv, 2, 6, 24,
xlv, II, 18, xlviii, 17, xlix, 5, 7, li 15, Ivi, 8, Ivii, 15, xii 8, 9, xlviii 1, xlv,
1, and many others, Comp, Jer, xxxi 35. Repetition of prepositions ; xlii
22, xlviii. 9, 14, Iviii 13, Ixi 7. Synonymes ; xl, 27, xii. 8, 20, xlii, 22, xlviii,
12, 19, 20, xlix, 7, 14, Iii, 1, Ixvi 2, The double parallelism is more frequent
Wanton, and sometimes sportive descriptions ; xii, 18, sqq,, xliii. 20, xlix, 23,
liv, II, 12, Iv. 12, 13, Ix, 4, sqq.
Later Hebraisms and Chaldaisms. — ']n, for if; liv, 15. fen, an affair or
business ; xliv. 28, liii 10, Iviii 2, 13. S32 , to finish ; xl, 2, as in Dan, x, 1,
Job vii 1. "^f}^, exceedingly ; Ivi 12, ^'rn, to try, or to prove; xlviii 10,
ffi'ra ; lix. 10. ins ; Ixi 10. "iniK!? , instead of "iFiStt ; liv. 15. dni» ,
instead of dS!«; lix. 21, ''Pibitm, instead of ''tiisar;; Ixiii -3. b^'X; lix, 3,
f xisa ; Iii 5.
Hitzig (p, 474) finds Arabisms in the following: !?"'"12, xii, 26;

368 BOOK OF ISAIAH. [§ 208.
the people, which is not merely predicted, but supposed
to have actually taken place, and ^^'hich shows the
author wrote in the time of the Babylonian captivity.
According to the representations of the ^M'iter, Jeru
salem, the cities, and the temple, are ah destroyed.
" Who saith of Jerusalem, ' She shah be inhabited,' and
of the cities of Judah, ' They shah be buht,' and ' Her
desolate places I will restore ; '  of Cyrus, ' He is
my shepherd ; he shall perform all my work ; '  of
Jerusalem, ' She shall be buht ; ' and of the temple, ' Her
foundation shall be laid.' " "
The land is laid waste. " No more shalt thou be
called the Desolate, and thy land the Forsaken, but thou
shalt be called My-delight-is-in-thee, and thy land the
wedded-matron." (Ixii. 4.)
The nation is in captivity. " It is a robbed and plun
dered people ; they are all of them bound in prisons, and
hid in dungeons; they have become a spoh, and none
n&'lS, xlv, 23, in the sense of true and truth ; in llin , xlvii 13 ; n:3 , xliv.
5, xlv, 5 ; 3'llD , xlix, 10 ; and many others.
It is true this part has much in common with the genuine portion ; e. g.
Holy Oneoflsrad, isTiUi a'-ip, occurs in almost all the chapters, and else
where only in Ps, Ixxi, 22, Ixxviii, 41, Ixxxix, 19, Jer, 1. 29, li, 5, (Comp.
Hos, xi 9, " the Holy One m the midst of thee.") It has, also, in common,
the^ure of speech, m iv, 3, ix, ,5, xix, 18, xxx, 7, xxxv. 8, xhv. 5, xlvii 1, 4,
5, Ivi 7, Ix, 14, Ixi, 3, Ixii, 4. Yet there is something similar in Hos, i, 10,
and Zech, viii 3, But these peculiarities, which it has in common with the
genuine portion, and others adduced by Jahn and Moller, prove nothing.
Their agreement, in this respect, cannot have been accidental, and must be
explained as an imitation of the genuine, or in some other way. Thus, e, g,
Ixv, 25, is borrowed from xi. 9, And still farther, on the other hand, much
that is characteristic of the genuine Isaiah is wanting in this latter part ;
e, g, the word i2& , ihe burden, ix, 3, x. 27, xiv. 25; nt:^, and terr, a
branch, i e, a tribe, ix. 3, x, 5, xiv, 29, xxx. 31, 32 ; r:~V'o , applied to
divine punishments, v. 12, x. 12, xxviii. 21, xxix. 23 ; "is ISM , to lean
upon, X. 20, xxx. 12, xxxi. 1, and elsewhere. See Stahdin, in Stud, und
Krit for 1830, p. 91, sqq, Gesenius, I c, p. 29.
« Chap. xliv. 26, ^ li 3, Iii 9, Iviii 12, Ixiv. 9—11.

§208.J BOOK OF ISAIAH. 369
delivereth. Who hath given Jacob for a spoil, and Israel
to plunderers ? " (xhi. 22, 24.) " Shake thyself from the
dust,  O Jerusalem ; loose thyself from the bands
of thy neck, O captive daughter of Zion." (hi. 2, 3, 6.)
The oppression of the Assyrians is an old affair.
" Formerly  the Assyrian oppressed them with
out cause;" but now it is the Chaldeans to whom
they are subject. " O daughter of the Chaldeans,
 1 was angry with my people, and gave them
into thy hand. Thou didst show them no mercy.
Even upon the aged thou didst lay a very grievous
yoke." (xlvii. 6.) " Come ye forth from Babylon, flee
ye from the land of the Chaldeans with the voice of
joy." (xlvih. 20.)
But Jehovah will take vengeance upon their enemies.
" AH who are enraged against thee shall be ashamed
and confounded ; all that contend with thee shall come
to nothing and perish.""
He whl take vengeance by means of Cyrus. " Thus
saith Jehovah to his aiiointed, [Messiah, J to Cyrus,
whom I hold by the right hand," &c. (xlv. 1.) "He
whom Jehovah loveth will execute his pleasure upon
Babylon, and his power upon the Chaldeans." (xlvih.
14, 16.) " I have raised up one from the north, and he
cometh, from the rising of the sun, and he caheth upon
my name." (xii. 26, xlvi. 11.)
This king wih restore the nation. " He (Cyrus)
shall build my city and release my captives." (xlv. 13,
xliv. 28.)
The nation is to come out of captivity and return to
their native land, (xlvih. 20, xlix. 9.) " Thus shall
the ransomed of Jehovah return ; they shall come to
• Chap, xii 11, xlii 13, xliu. 14, xlvi 1, xlvii. xlix. 26, U. 23, lix. 17, 18.
VOL. II. 47

370 BOOK OF ISAIAH. [§ 208.
Zion with singing." (li. 11, hi. 11, Iv. 12, Ivii. 14, Ixv.
9.) They shall rebuhd their cities, (xliv. 26.) " The
voice of thy watchmen, they shout for joy  they
behold that Jehovah restoreth Zion." (hi. 8, 9.) " Thy
people shall build the ancient desolations." (Ivih. 12,
Ix. 10, Ixi. 4.)
They shall enjoy a happy future which will recom
pense them for all they have suffered. " Comfort ye
my people, speak encouragement to Jerusalem, and
declare to her that her hard service is ended ; that her
iniquity is expiated ; that she shall receive from the
hand of Jehovah double for ah her punishment.""
However, the apostates shall have no peace, but are
to suffer a severe punishment. " The wicked is like the
troubled sea, that can have no rest,  ' there is no
peace,' saith my God, ' to the wicked.'" (Ivh. 20, 21.)
" Ye that have forsaken Jehovah, and have forgotten my
holy mountain — yourselves do I destine to the sword."
(Iv. 6, and 11—15, Ixvi. 16, sqq., 24.) "Then shah
they go forth and see the dead bodies of the men that
rebelled against me, for their worm shall not die, and
their fire shah not be quenched."
Now, if we should admit that Isaiah foretold the exhe,
— and there is something like a prediction of it in xxxix.
6, sqq., and 2 Kings xx. 17, sqq., — yet stih such defi
nite and distinct predictions of events that lay beyond
the prophet's circle of vision, are themselves contrary to
the general analogy of Hebrew prophecies. Still more,
it is contrary to all analogy to maintain that he not
only [predicted the exile, but took his standing point in
the time of captivity.
3. The internal condition ofthe nation is different. —

" Chap. xl. 1, 2, xlix, 19, sqq,, liv. ], sqq,, 11, sqq., Ix, Ixi 7, sqq,, Ixn. 1-
'1, l.xv. 17, sqq,, iwi. 10, sqq.

§ 208.J BOOK OF ISAIAH. 371
It has only overseers or watchmen to govern it. " His
watchmen are ah blind ; they know nothing ; they are
all dumb dogs, that cannot bark; dreaming, lying down,
loving to slumber ; yet are they greedy dogs, that cannot
be satisfied," &c. (Ivi. 10—12.)
There is no regular offering of sacrifice. "Keep ye
justice and practise righteousness  Happy the
man that doeth this, ^ that keepeth the Sabbath." (Ivi.
1, 2, also Ivih. 1 — 14.)
Chap. Ivii. 9, seems to refer to Isaiah's time.
" Thou goest to the king with oh, and takest much
precious perfume ; thou sendest thine ambassadors afar."
But verse 12 much more certainly refers to the exile.
" But now I announce thy deliverance, and thy works
do not profit thee. When thou criest, let their host of
idols deliver thee ; but the wind shah bear them ah
away." The idolatry mentioned in Ivii. 3, sqq., and
especially in Ixv. 3,11, may, very properly, be ascribed to
the Babylonian Jews. It is not supposed, in Ixvi. 1 — 3,
that there is an actual temple existing, where service
is performed."
4. There are references to earlier 'prophecies. —
Jehovah says, " Let them come and show us what shall
happen. Tell us what ye have predicted in times past,
that we may consider and know its fulfilment." (xii. 22.)
" Behold, the former things are come to pass. (xhi. 9,
xlv. 19.) "Who hath made this known from ancient
time.? Is it not I, Jehovah.?" (verse 21, xlvi. 10.)
" I spake not in secret from the beginning." (xlvhi. 16.)
Chap. Ixv. 26, is borrowed from xi. 6, 7.
5. There are predictions of a splendid future, uttered
with as much distinctness as if it were present, and not
" See Stahelin, Stud, und Krit for 1831, p. 564,

372 BOOK OF ISAIAH. [§ 208.
in harmony with the state of things in Isaiah's time, and
the actual result. This may be seen by comparing these
descriptions in Isa. Ix. Ixv. Ixvi., with the books of Ezra
and Nehemiah, with Zech. i. 12, sqq., and Hag. i. 3, sqq.
Besides, the whole of this second part is the work of
one author, as the style, which is the same throughout,
and the unity of substance and spirit, prove in a manner
not to be mistaken." Although there is not a strict and
rigorous unity preserved, and the author falls into repe
titions, yet all his predictions refer to one and the same

" Compare the animating addresses to Israel : xl. 1, 2, 9, xli 8 — 10, 13,
14, xUii 1, 5, xliv. 1, 2, 21—23, xlix, 13—16, li 1—3, 12, 17, Iii 1, 2, 7—10,
liv. 1, 4, 11, Ix, 1, Ixvi, 10, 13, The grounds of consolation : xl, 2, xliii.
25, xliv. 22, liv, 6—8, 1. 1, xlix, 14—16, li 17—23, Mi 16—18, Ix, 10, The
announcement of redemption and restoration: xl, 4, xlii, 16, xliii, 19, Ivii, 14,
xli, 17—20, xhii, 20, xliv, 3, sq,, xlviii. 21, xlix, 9—11, Iv. 1, sq., 13, xlviii.
20, Iii, 11, Ixii 10, Promise of revenge and rewai-d : 1. 10, lix. 18, Ix, 4,
9, Ixii, II, Ixvi, 15, 16, The restoration of the people: xliii. 5, sq., xlix.
12, 22, sq,, Ixvi, 19, sq. The reestablishment of the holy city and state :
.xlix. 17—23, liv. 1—3, 11—13, be. Ixi, 5—9, Ixv, 17—25, Ixvi, 6—14. Do
minion over the heathen : xlv, 14, xlix, 2'3, sq., Ix, 4 — 7, 9, sq,, Ixi, 5, Ixvi,
20. Defence of the power and truth of God : xl. 6 — 11, xhv. 24 — 28, xlv,
5—7, 12, 18—25, xlvi, 8—13, xlviii, 3—8, 12—16, 1. 2, sq,, li. 12—16, Iii, 9,
sq,, Iv, 10, sq,, lix, 16—18, Ixiii, 3 — 6. In opposition to the impotence and
nothingness of idols : xl, 12—31, xli, 1—7, 21—29, xlii, 17—21, xUii. 8—
13, xliv, 6—20, xlv, 15—25, xlvi. 5—7, xlvii. 12—15, xlviii, 5—8, 14, Ivii, 3
—13. The threats: xhi 22—25, xhii. '.52—28, xlviii 1,4, 8, liii 4—6,
Ivi 10— li.x, 15, Ixiii, 17— Ixiv, 12, Ixv, Ixvi, 1—5, 15—17, 24, The prophet's
apologetic mention of himself: xl, 6, xlii, 1 — 7, xliv, 26, xlviii, 16, xlix, 1
—9, 1. 4—10, li. 16, Iii 13— liii 12, lix, 21, Ixi, 1—3, Upon Isa. liii,, comp,
Rosenmiiller, Leiden u, Hoffn. d, Propheten in Gablei^s Neuest theoi Journ,
voi ii, pt iv, De Wette, Comment do Morte Jes, Chr. p. 26, sqq., (Opusc.
p. 38, sqq.) Gesenius, Comm. On the other side, Rosenmidler, Schoi
Hengstenberg, Christol. vol. ii. p. 364, sqq, Stahelin, 1, c, p, 553, There is
a similarity of thought in xl, 12, sqq,, xliv. 24, xlv. 5 — 12, 18,22, xlviii 12, sq.,
)i, 6, Iv, 8, sq,, Ivii, 15, Ixvi 1, sq, ; xlii, 4, xlv. 23, h, 4, sqq,, Ivi, 3, sqq,, Ixvi
20, sqq, ; xli, 8, xliii, I, 4, 21, xliv. 1, sq., 21, 24, .xlv. 4, ixiii 8, 16, Ixiv, 8, sq.,
Ixv, 9, See other peculiarities of style above, with similar applications and
images : xli 28, lix. 16, Ixiv. 5 ; xliii, 3, xlv, 13, Iii 3. Against this view,
see Augusti, § 206. Bertholdt, p. 1375.

§209.J BOOK OF ISAIAH. 373
historical stand-point ; namely, the time of the appear
ance of Cyrus." In Ivi. 9, the author takes a different
tone — that of reproof. In the sins of the people he
finds the obstacle that has prevented the fulfilment of his
inspired promises. This is the cause of the earnest
prayers, and the deep and intense anxiety, shown in
Ixii. 1 ; " For Zion's sake I will not keep shence, and
for Jerusalem's sake I will not rest ; " and verse 6,
" Upon thy walls, O Jerusalem, have I set watchmen :
all the day and all the night shall they not keep silence.
O ye that praise Jehovah, keep not silence, and give him
no rest, until he establish Jerusalem." So in Ixxii. 15,
sqq., Ixiv. 1, sqq., he says, " O that thou would rend
the heaven and come down, that the mountains might
tremble at thy presence." Hence comes also the threat
of punishment against the ungodly, mentioned above.*
§ 209.
SPURIOUS PASSAGES CONTAINED IN THE FIRST PART.
The passage (xhi. 1 — xiv. 23) which trea'ts of the
destruction of Babel and the Babylonian empire by the
Medes, and of the return of the exhes, must be pro
nounced spurious, and for the same reason as the last
part of the book, — which is probably the work of the
same author, — because the writer takes his stand-point

" According to Zech. viii, 7, 8, our author, whom Jeremiah has worked
over, (Jer, xxxi,) prophesied in the time of rebuilding the temple. § 217, 5.
' See Stahelin, 1, u. 535, sqq, Bertholdt's unfounded date, p, 1390, See
Hilzig, p. 458, sqq, Gesenius, p, 33, sqq. Riickert and Hitzig divide it into
three books, each of nine chapters : I, Chap, xl, — xlviii, 2, Chap, xlix, — ^Ivii,
3, Chap, Iviii — Ixvi, But this is erroneous ; for, by this division, tiie point at
which the tone of reproof begins (Ivi, 9) is made obscure, and the form of
conclusion in xlviii and Ivii, affords us no true mark of division.

374 BOOK OF ISAIAH. [§ 209.
in the exile. Thus he says, " So shall Babylon, the
glory of kingdoms, the pride and boast of the Chaldeans,
be like Sodom and Gomorrah, which God overthrew."
(xih. 19.) " Then shalt thou utter this song over the
king of Babylon, and say, ' How hath the tpant fahen,
the tribute ceased ! ' " (xiv. 4.) " I will arise against
them,  I whl cut off from Babylon the name and
the remnant." (verse 22.) " For Jehovah wih have
compassion upon Jacob,  the nations shall take
them, and bring them to their own place ; and the house
of Jacob shall possess them in the land of Jehovah, as
servants and as handmaids ; they shall take captive theh
captors, and they shah rule over their oppressors."
(xiv. 1 — 4.)
This s]3urious passage appeal's to be the work of the
author of the last part of the book, from a compaiison of
the verses last quoted \^"ith the following sentences :
" The wealth of ^Egypt and the merchandise of tlie
^Ethiopians and Sabeans, men of stature, shah come over
to thee.'' (xhv. 5.) " I whl hft up my hand to the
nations,  and they shall bring thy sons in their
arms." (xlv. 14.) " The nation which thou knowest
not thou shalt call." (xlix. 22, sqq., and Iv. 6, and also
Ix, 4—7, 9, 10, Ixi. 5, Ixvi. 20.)
The inscription, (xih. 1,) "a prophecy concerning
Babylon, which was revealed to Isaiah, the son of Amoz,"
is incorrect, either tlirough design or mistake ; and
several of the inscriptions in Isaiah seem to be the work
of a foreign hand.
We must consider chap, xxxiv. xxxv. as spurious,
which treat of the devastation of Edom, and the return
of the exiles. We are enabled to fix the date of these by
the following considerations : By the parallel passages

§ 209. J BOOK OF ISAIAH. 376
in Obadiah, Jeremiah, (xhx. 7, sqq.,) Ezekiel, (xxv. 12,
sqq.,) and Isaiah, (Ixiii. 1 — 6.)
By the affinity between this and previous passages of
the book ; for example, in xxxiv. 4, we read, " Ah the
host of heaven shah waste away, and the heaven shah
be rolled up like a scroll ; " and in xih. 10, " The stars
of heaven, and the constellations thereof, shah not give
their hght ; the sun shall be darkened at his going
forth." In verse 11, sqq., we read, "From generation
to generation it shall he waste ; none shall pass through
it forever and ever ; the pelican and the hedgehog shall
possess it, and the heron and the raven shall dwell in
it ; " and in xih. 20, sqq., " It shah not be inhabited
forever, nor shall it be dwelt in from generation to
generation ;  there shall the wild beasts of the
desert lodge," &c.
By its affinity ivith the second part of Isaiah ; thus,
in xxxiv. 1, 2, we find, " The whderness and the
parched land shall be glad, and the desert rejoice, and
blossom as the rose ; " and in Iv. 12, " For ye shall go
out with joy ;  the mountains and the hihs shall
break forth before you into singing, and all the trees of
the field shall clap their hands. Instead of the thorn
shah grow up the cypress-tree." (xl. 6, Ix. 1, Ixh. 11.)
In verses 3, 4, we read, " Strengthen ye the weak
hands, and confirm the tottering knees ; say to the faint
hearted, ' Be strong ; fear ye not ; behold your God ; ' "
and in xl. 1, sq., " Comfort ye, comfort ye my people,
saith your God ; speak ye encouragement to Jerusalem,
and declare to her that her hard service is ended ; " in
verse 9, " Say to the cities of Judah, ' Behold your
God ; ' " in verses 5, 6, " Then shall the eyes of the blind
be unstopped," &c. ; and in xl. 16, " Then wih I lead

376 BOOK OF ISAIAH. [§ 209.
the blind in an unknown way ;  I will make daik-
ness hght before them."" We read, in verse 8, " And a
path shall be there, and a highway, and it shall be called
the holy way ; " and in xl. 3, 4, " Prepare ye in the
whderness the way of Jehovah ;" ' in verse 10, "Yea,
the ransomed of Jehovah shall return ; they shall come
to Zion with songs ; everlasting joy shall be upon their
heads ; they shall obtain joy and gladness, and sorrow
and sighing shah flee away;" and in li. 11, the self
same words occur.
The passage, xxi. 1 — 10, where the conquest of
Babylon by the Medes and Persians is predicted with
graphic minuteness, belongs to the same period.'' It is,
however, remarkably distinguished from the other spu
rious passages of the book.
We can also, with considerable certainty, refer to the
same period the passage, xxiv. — xxvii. This speaks of
the devastation of the land of Judea, the deliverance of
the Jews from their masters, (xxvi. 13,) of their return,
(xxvii. 12, 13,) and the destruction of the enemy's
capital, (xxv. 2, xxvi. 6.) We are led to refer it to this
date. By the nature of the contents of the passage : It
- Comp, verses 6, 7, with xliii 19, 20, xlviii, 21, xlix, 10, II,
' Comp, also xlix, 11, and Ixii 10,
' Comp, verse 5, "The table is prepared; the watch set; they eat,
they drink; arise, princes, anoint tiie shield," with the well-known
account in Herodotus, (i 191,) "There happened to be a feast;" witii Xeno
phon, Cyrop, vii 5, 15, sqq, ; verse 7, with Xenophon, vii 1, 14, 27, Strabo,
XX. p. 727, See Michaelis, and Rosenmiiller, in loc, [The last author
says there is no doubt that the poet himself was present at the capture
of the city, and, fuU of those things he had seen and heard, uttered this
oracle, Gesenius (Com. in loc.) is of a different opinion. See, also, Maurer,
in loc.]

§ 209.J BOOK OF ISAIAH. 377
teaches some doctrines which belong to a later age of
Jewish history, such as the resurrection of the dead,
contained in the following passages: "The dead
shall hve again ; " " The dead bodies of thy people shah
arise," (xxvi. 19;) "In that day wih Jehovah punish
the high ones, and the kings of the earth," (xxiv. 21 ;)
" He wih destroy death forever," (xxv. 8.)
By the style," which admits of a play upon words,
(xxiv. 3, 4, 16 — 19, 21 ;) of reminiscences, or allusions
to earher poets, as in xxiv. 7, and 11, " The new wine
mourneth,  there is a cry for wine in the streets,"
which refers to Joel i. 10, 6, " The new wine is
dried up ; " and the figure of an olive-tree, (verse 13,)
referring to xvii. 6 ; of reiterations, "My wretchedness,
my wretchedness," (verse 16, and xxvi. 3, 15 ;) of
tautological parahels ; * " Peace, peace," for constant
peace ; and of " painful efforts after beautiful expres
sions," as Bertholdt remarks.
By the parallel passages: (xxiv. 17, 18,) "The
terror, the pit, and the snare, are upon thee, O inhabit
ant of Moab. Whoso fleeth from the terror shall fall
into the pit, and whoso escapeth from the pit be
taken in the snare." Nearly the same words occur in
Jer. xlvih. 43.' In xxvi. 16, we read, " In affliction
they sought thee ; " and xxvii. 9, " By this shah the
iniquity of Jacob be expiated ; " and in xl. 2, " Declare to
her that her hard service is ended, that her iniquity is
expiated;" — in xxiv. 16, "The plunderers plunder;"

" The stand-point of the prophet in xxiv. 1 — 13, is doubtfuL Gesenius
and others suppose it refers to the desolation of the land of Judah ; Hitzig,
to the desolation of the enemy's country. The antithesis in verse 14, sqq.,
and the parallels, verses 17 — ^20, fkvor this opinion.
' Chap. xxiv. 3, 5, 22, xxv. 7, 9, 12, xxvi 5, xxvii. 5.
' Comp. also xxiv. 15, with xlii 10 — 12; xxvi, 13, with Ixiii, 19.
VOL. II. 48

378 BOOK OF ISAIAH. [§210.
and the same words occur in xxi. 2; — in verse 19,
" The earth is violently moved from her place ; " and
in xhi. 13, " And the earth shah be shaken out of her
place." On the other hand, there is a difference in the fol
lowing particulars : in the use of the figure of an olive-
tree, in xxiv. 13, and in the use of the same figure
in xvii. 6. In xxv. 4, it is said, " Thou hast been 
a refuge from the storm, a shadow from the heat ; "
and in iv. 6, " He shah be a tent by day, for a shadow
from the heat, and for a refuge and shelter from the
storm and rain." The nation is compared to a vine
yard in xxvii. 2, and v. 2."
§210.
DOUBTFUL PASSAGES IN THE FIRST PART,
But if those passages above named are later than
Isaiah's time, on the contrary, it is wrong to place the
oracle concerning Moab, contained in chap. xv. xvi., in
the time of Jeremiah,' as some have done, on the
ground that they contain an imitation of one of that
prophet's oracles, in Jer. xlvih." No sufficient argument
for rejecting them is found in the circumstance that
their historical fulfilment did not take place in the time
° See Gesenius, in loc. p. 756, sqq. Rosenmidler, in the first edition,
denied the genuineness of the passages, but admits it in the second. See
his edition of Arndt, De Loco Jes. xxiv. — xxvii vindicando et explicando ;
Hamb, 1826, Knobd, vol ii p. 319,
' The relation which the kindred verses bear to the whole passage, and
also the character of the various readings in Jeremiah, are against the
opposite opinion of Bertholdt, p, 1440, Comp. Isa. xvi 6 — ^9, with Jer. xlviii
3L32. See §225,
' Koppe, 1, c, in loc, Bertholdt, p, 1389,

§210.J BOOK OF ISAIAH. 379
of Isaiah." But yet, from the difference in language and
style, we must decide that they do not belong to Isaiah.
Hitzig and Knobel think Jonah is the author, (2 Kings
xiv. 25,) and that the oracle originally related to an
invasion by the Israelites under Jeroboam II.' It is
probable the ephogue (xhi. 13, 14) belongs to Isaiah —
" This is the word which Jehovah spake concerning
Moa-h of old : 'But now — within three years, like the
years of a hireling — the glory of Moab shah be put to
shame, with ah his great multitude. The remnant shall
be very small, and without strength.' " This is probable,
from its affinity with other passages, admitted to be genu
ine ; for example, with xxi. 16, "Within one year,
according to the years of a hireling, shah all the glory
of Kedar be consumed," and x. 25, and xxix. 17, "yet
a very little while."
[The following account, says Gesenius, appears the
most probable : The oracle was first uttered without
the ephogue, by a prophet contemporary with Isaiah, or
somewhat older than he. It was designed as a general
prediction of adversity that was to fall upon Moab, and,
like most of the oracles against foreign nations, is to be
considered as the production of national zeal, and national
hatred against the Moabites, — a wish and hope for
their destruction, uttered as a prophecy. Such oracles
would be most often uttered at a time when the na
tional hatred had received new nourishment from the

° According to Jer. xlviii 11, the Moabites appear to have suffered noth
ing from the Assyrians, in the time of Isaiah.
' Hitzig, Der Prop, Jonas Orakel iib, Moab ; Heidel, 1834, 4to, Knobd,
1, c. voi ii p, 125, sqq. On the other side, see Credner, in Stud, und Krit
for 1833, p. 780, He refers it to the expedition of Tiglatii-pileser, in the
time of Ahaz, Hendewerk (1, c) puts it in the early part of Hezekiah's reign.
Both think it a genuine production of Isaiah,

•'380 BOOK OF ISAIAH. [§210.
injustice experienced in one war or another, or when
some foreign conqueror afforded a hope of its fulfilment,
either sooner or later. In this particular case, the occa
sion may be found in the war waged against the He
brews because they had not paid the tribute, about 896
B. C. ; or in the incursion of the Moabites, about 849
B. C. ; or in the seizure of the domains of Reuben and
Gad, — though a special occasion is not needed. In
foretelhng the enemy that is to lay waste Moab, the
prophet certainly had the Assyrians before his eyes, who
had ruined so many of the enemies of Judah, and
might be expected to destroy Moab also. The oracle
was not immediately fulfihed, and therefore Isaiah re
peats it at a time when the Assyrians threatened soon
to swallow up all small states. He added an epilogue,
fixing the time, which, as usual, is done by the use of
a round and poetic number.J °
Chap. xix. The prophecy respecting iEgypt would
be subject to doubt if it relates — as Rosenmuller and
Gesenius suppose — to the ^Egyptian dodecharchy and
Psammeticus. Then we must place it in Manasseh's
time, (696 — 641 B. C.,) though chap. i. 1, would be
against such an hypothesis, as that does not make Isaiah's
prophetic office extend beyond the time of Hezekiah.
But this oracle may be placed earlier, — as it has been
showai by Hitzig and Hendewerk, — and may be referred
to the invasion of iEgypt by the Assyrians. The genu
ineness of this prophecy, therefore, need not be doubted.*

" Gesenius, p. 508, sq. See Hitzig, p. 16,
' Koppe, Eichhorn^ and Kilnol, (in Gabler's Theol, Journal, vol. i p. 564,)
consider verses 18 — 25 spurious. Hitzig thinks 16 — 25 spurious, while Ge
senius expresses doubts against only 18 — 20. Hendewerk (p. 422, sqq.) de-

§210. J BOOK OF ISAIAH. 381
The genuineness of the prophecy against Tyre (chap.
xxiii.) has been denied on account of its mention of the
Chaldeans, (verse 13;) on account of its alleged refer
ence to Nebuchadnezzar's siege of Tyre, and the later
style in which it is alleged to be written."

fends the genuineness of the whole. But the hopes expressed in verses
17 — 25 seem too fanatical for Isaiah: —
[" In that day shall there be five cities in the land of jEgypt, speaking the
language of Canaan,  one of them shall be called 'the city of Deliv
erance,' In that day shall there be an altar to Jehovah, in the midst of the
land of iEgypt, which shall be a sign and a witness  that they cried
to Jehovah, on account of their oppressors, and he sent them a Savior," &c,
 " And the iEgyptians shall know Jehovah in that day, and shall offer
him sacrifices and oblations  In that day shall Israel be the third in
a covenant with iEgypt and Assyria." Compare these expressions with iv,
5, 6, " Then shall Jehovah create upon the whole extent of Mount Zion,
 a. cloud and smoke by day, and the brightness ofa flaming fire by
night  He shall be a tent by day, for a shadow from the heat, and for
a refuge and shelter from the storm and rain,"
Now, in some similar passages of Isaiah, (ix, 5, 6, xxx, 19 — 26, xxxii, 1 —
8, 15 — ^20, and xxxiii, 17 — 24,) there is a modest picture of the happiness
the people are to expect The greatest blessing promised is, not that JudaJi
shall conquer Assyria and iEgypt, or that the latter country shall adopt the
worship of Jehovah, but the Jews shall have peace, " Thou shalt see no
more a fierce people,  of a dark language, which thou couldst not hear,
 Thine eyes shall behold Jerusalem as a quiet habitation, a tent that
shall never be moved," However, xxiii 18, contains similar predictions
respecting the glory of Judah ; for he says the gain of Tyre " shall be holy
to Jehovah ; it shall not be treasured nor laid up in store, but it shall be for
them that dwell before Jehovah, for abundant food and for splendid clothing,"
Gesenius thinks verses 18 — 20 may have been inserted in the text in Jere
miah's time, by the party who considered the nation's flight to iEgypt —
which Jeremiah opposed — was not Contrary to the spirit of the theocracy
At tiiat time the Jews possessed Migdol, Tahpanes, Noph, and Patros, which
may be the cities mentioned, as the immheT five is probably a poetical rather
than an exact number ; or, perhaps, the place they first visited in coming to
iEgypt — well enough called " city of Deliverance " — is to be added to the
list, and the number /we taken in its proper sense. The entire chapter, with
the exception of 18 — 20, he thinks closely resembles the genuine portions of
Isaiah, in style and sentiment]
" See Eichhorn, § 525, p, 106, sq, ; Hebr. Propheten, vol. ii. p. 574. Ber
tholdt, p. 1389. Rosenmiiller and Hitzig, in loc. Movers (in Theol. quartal-

382 BOOK OF ISAIAH. [§210.
But these arguments, to say the least, are not suf
ficient to prove the passage spurious."
[An historical occasion for Isaiah uttering this prophecy
against Tyre can easily be found. After Shalmaneser
had taken Samaria, — in the year 717 B. C, according
to Calmet, — he invaded Syria and Phoenicia. Jo
sephus cites Menander's account of the invasion, which
that historian had translated out of the archives of Tyre
into Greek, as follows: "One whose name was Eluleus
reigned thirty-six years. This king, on the revolt of the
Citteans, (Chittin,) sahed to them, and reduced them
again to submission. Against these did the king of
Assyria (Shalmaneser) send an army, and in a hosthe
manner overran all Phoenicia, but soon made peace with
them all, and returned back. But Sidon, and Ace, (Arke,)
and old Tyre, — which was built on the continent, the
chief city at that time being on a neighboring island, —
revolted ; and many other cities there were which de
livered themselves up to the king of Assyria. Accord
ingly, when the Tyrians (inhabitants of the great city on
the island) would not submit to him, the king returned,
and fell upon them again, whhe the Phoenicians had
furnished him with threescore ships, and eight hundred
men to row them ; and when the Tyrians had come upon
them in twelve ships, and the enemy's ships were dis-
schrift for 1836) ascribes it to Jeremiah, Hitzig thinks the following par
ticulars are not like Isaiah: the slow movement ofthe discourse, (verses 2 —
4 ;) the return of the thought of verse 6, in verse 12 ; the dulness of verses
6, 12; the grammatical inaccuracy in verse 13; "nri'w, verse 3; the agree
ment of verse 7 with Zeph, ii, 15; virgin, daughter of Sidon, verse 12;
rot , to drive a trade, comp. Nab, iii. 4, Ezek, xxiii 11, 29 ;) n&i)p , verse 18,
Compare xiv, II, the 70 yeais, verse 17, Jer, xxix, 10,
" Gesenius, Hendewerk, and Hengstenberg, (De Rebus Tyr,) But the
latter makes the oracle refer to Nebuchadnezzar, as Jerome, Vitringa, and
J. D. .Michaelis, have done.

§ 210.J BOOK OF ISAIAH. 383
persed, they took five hundred prisoners ; and the repu
tation of all the citizens of Tyre was thereby increased.
But the king of Assyria returned, and placed guards at
their river and aqueducts, who should hinder the Tyrians
from drawing water. This continued for five years, and
still the Tyrians bore the siege, and drank the water they
had out of the wehs they dug." The Jews had good
reason for their aversion to the Tyrians, for they had
trafficked in Jewish slaves, taken in war, and sold them
to the Greeks; and when the Assyrian king invaded
Tyre, Isaiah very naturally expresses the indignation of
his countrymen against their oppressors, and predicts
their ruin. But it has been aheged that the Chaldeans
mentioned in verse 13, as composing the army of Shal
maneser, were not at that time known to the Jews.
But this is a statement, in our present knowledge of the
history of Asia at that period, we are by no means
justified in hazarding. The oracle mentions them as a
new nation, " who not long ago were not a people."
This was their first appearance in history, and here they
are represented as a nomadic people whom the Assyrians
had introduced to their armies, and assigned them pos
sessions and fixed habitations. We may suppose, with
Gesenius, they first came into the dominions of the
Assyrians about 747, not long before the date of this
oracle. Soon after, they became a powerful nation,
their might increasing as the Assyrians degenerated
under the influence of wealth and luxury. They seem
to have run the same course with the Medes and Per
sians ; that is, were first a rude and nomadic people,
were admitted to the armies and territories of a neigh
boring and superior nation, and at length became their
masters. In the beginning of the next century, the

384 BOOK OF ISAIAH. [§ 210.
Chaldeans were masters of Assyria, and the Babylonian-
Chaldean empire was founded, which Nebuchadnezzar
exalted to such a degree of wealth and power. This,
in its turn, shared the fate of its predecessor, and Cyrus
founded the Median empire on its ruins.
The question may now be asked. Was the prophecy
against Tyre ever fulfilled ? The Bible does not say it
was, and Menander, cited above, says, expressly, that
the city was not taken, though old Tyre, with other
cities, had surrendered. Some have referred the oracle
to the time of Nebuchadnezzar's invasion of Tyre ; but
the prophecy does not suit the historical relations of the
Chaldeans, at that time well known, and the most
powerful nation in Western Asia; nor, indeed, is it
fulfihed, for Nebuchadnezzar, after wasting thirteen"
years in a siege, retired without effecting his purpose,
as it is evident from Ezek. xxix. 17, sqq., " Son of
man, Nebuchadnezzar, the king of Babylon, caused his
army to serve a great service against Tyre. Every
head was made bald, and every shoulder peeled, (with
carrying burdens :) yet neither he nor his army had
wages from Tyre for the service which he served
against it."]'
Nothing important can be urged against the genuine
ness of the short passages, xxi. 11, 12, and verses 13 —
17, the oracle concerning Dumah, and the oracle
against the Arabians. In the latter, we find, on the
contrary, marks of Isaiah's style. On account of the
" See Josephus, Ant x. 11, § 1, who quotes Diodes's accounts of Persia,
and Philostratus's of India and Phoenicia, for the fact See, also, Joseph.
against Ap. i § 21,
' See Gesenius, 1, c. Also, Heeren, Researches, vol, ii, p. 11, note 3, and
p, 146, sqq^ and Knobel, I. c. § 22.

§211.] BOOK OF ISAIAH. 386
threats against Arabia in Jer. xlix. 28 — 33, this oracle
has been incorrectly referred to his time."
[The short passage, (vh. 8,) " And within threescore
and five years shall Ephraim be broken, that he be no
more a people," is evidently an interpolation, as it inter
rupts the sense completely. Besides, it is contrary to
the custom of Isaiah to give definite numbers, as in this
place. It contains great chronological difficulties.]
§211.
GENUINE PASSAGES OF ISAIAH.
I. From the time of Uzziah, (chap. vi. ;) the prophet's
consecration in the year of Uzziah's death, (758 B. C.)
However, Hitzig thinks this is a prediction after the
event, and was written iti Hezekiah's time.
II. From the time of Jotham, (758 — 741.) Here,
perhaps, belong chap. ii. — iv. However, these are
placed by some in the first part of the reign of Ahaz.
Gesenius hesitates between Ahaz and Jotham ; Hitzig
refers it to the former, Hendewerk and Knobel to the
latter. Chap. ii. 1 — 3, is parahel with Micah iv. 1 — 3,
though it is more complete.

Isa. ii, 1 — 4, " It shall come
to pass, in future times, that the
mountain of the house of Jeho
vah shall be established above all
the mountains, and exalted above
the hills, and all nations shall
flow to it, and many kingdoms
shall go, and shall say, ' Come,
let us go up to the mountain of

Mic, iv. 1—3, " But it shall
come to pass, in future times,
that the mountain of the house
of Jehovah shall be established
above all the mountains, and ex
alted above the hills, and the
nations shall flow to it : and
many nations shall go, saying,
' Come, let us go up to the moun-

" Gesenius, in loc,
VOL. II. 49

386

BOOK OF ISAIAH.

[§211.

Jehovah, to the house of the God
of Jacob, that he may teach us
his ways, and that we may walk
in his paths ; for from Zion shall
go forth a law, and the word of
Jehovah from Jerusalem, He
shall be a judge of the nations,
and an umpire of many king
doms ; and they shall beat their
swords into ploughshares, and
their spears into pruning-liooks ;
nation shall not lift up sword
against nation, neither shall they
learn war any more.' "

tain of Jehovah, to the house of
the God of Jacob ; that he may
teach us his ways, and that we
may walk in his paths. For
from Zion shall go forth a law,
and the word of Jehovah from
Jerusalem ; he shall be a judge
of the nations, and an umpire of
many kingdoms afar off. They
shall beat their swords into
ploughshares, and their spears
into pruning-hooks ; nation shall
not lift up sword against nation,
neither shall they learn war any
more."

Judging from the state of the times, and the Messi
anic idea in this passage, it is not probable Micah was
its author, but that both he and Isaiah borrowed it from
an old prophet, — perhaps, as Hitzig thinks, from Joel."
III. It is expressly stated the following are from the
time of Ahaz, (741 — 725 B. C.,) namely, 1. Chap.
vii. 1, X. 4; and, 2. Chap. xvii. 1 — 11 ; both relating to
the hosthe kingdoms of Israel and Damascus. 3. Chap.
xiv. 28 — 32, an oracle against the Philistines. Perhaps,
4. Chap, i., as Gesenius thinks. Vitringa, Eichhorn,
and Hitzig, refer it to Hezekiah's time ; Hendewerk to
Jotham's, and Rosenmuller to Uzziah's. 5. Chap. v.
IV. The following belong to Hezekiah's time, (725
— 696 B. C.) 1. Chap, xxviii. — xxxih., announcing
the destruction of the kingdom of Ephraim by the As
syrians ; the peril of Judah ; the siege and deliverance
of Jerusalem, (xxix. 1 — 8 ;) the desolation of the land.

" See Michadis, Gesenius, and Hendewerk. Hitzig (in Stud, und Kritik.
for 1829, p. 349, sqq.) ascribes it to Jod ; but Hendewerk and Credner
(1. c. p. 72, sqq,) do not agree with him.

§ 212.] BOOK OF ISAIAH. 387
(xxxii. 10 — 14, xxxiii. 8, 9 ;) the humiliation of the
enemy, (xxx. 27 — 33, xxxiii. 10 — 12 ;) reproof for dis
believing prophecies, (xxix. 9, sqq. ;) reproof of a
wanton rehance on the friendship and help of iEgypt,
(xxx. xxxi. ;) and the promise of happier times after their
misfortunes, (xxxii. 1, sqq., xxxiii. 17, sqq.)" 2. Chap. x.
3, xii. 6, and perhaps the fragment, xix. 24 — 27, should
be inserted after x. 34. • It speaks of the arrogance of
the Assyrians, the chastisement they inflict on Judah,
their humhiation, and a Messianic prophecy, from the time
after the fah of Samaria, (x. 9.) 3. Chap, xx., threat
against iEgypt, from the time of Sargon, the predecessor
of Sennacherib, and therefore before the fourteenth year
of Hezekiah. 4. Chap. xxh. 16 — 25, the fah of
Shebna, the elevation of Eliakim. This is from the time
before Sennacherib's invasion.' 5. Chap. xxii. 1 — 14,
the siege of Jerusalem by the Assyrians. It was proba
bly written during this invasion. 6. Chap. xvii. 12 —
14, the extirpation of the Assyrians. 7. Chap, xviii.
an enigmatical passage, relating to the embassy to
^gypt. §212.
ON ISAIAH XXXVI.— XXXIX.
This historical passage is not the work of Isaiah. "^
Its spuriousncss is proved by its relating the murder of
Sennacherib, and the succession of Esar-haddon, events

" These chapters seem to belong together, and to the period before the
time when Samaria was taken by Shalmaneser. Hitzig and Hendewerk
try to determine the date of the separate chapters. Hitzig erroneously
places chap, xxviii, after this event
' Comp, 2 Kings xviii. 18, xix. 2.
' Comp. 2 Chron. xxxii. 32,

388

BOOK OF ISAIAH.

[§21^

much later than Isaiah's time, (xxxvii. 38,) and by its
mythical contents, and more modern language." With
the exception of Isaiah's song of thanksgiving, (xxxviii. 9,
sqq.,) it may be found in 2 Kings xviii. 13 — xx. 19.
The passage, xxxvi. 1,2, is made more intehigible by
referring to 2 Kings xviii. 7, 13 — 16 : —

Isa, xxxvi, 1 — 3, " Now it
came to pass in the fourteenth
year of King Hezekiah, that Sen
nacherib king of Assyria came
up against all the defenced cities
of Judah, and took them. And
the king of Assyria sent Rab-
shakeh from Lachish to Jerusa
lem unto King Hezekiah with a
great army. And he stood by
the conduit ofthe upper pool in
the highway of the fuller's field.
Then came forth unto him Elia
kim, Hilkiah's son, which was
over the house, and Shebna the
scribe, and Joah, Asaph's son,
the recorder." '

2 Kings xviii. 7, 13 — 16.
" And the Lord was with him ;
and he prospered whithersoever
he went forth : and he rebelled
against the king of Assyria, and
served him not.
" Now in the fourteenth year
of King Hezekiah did Sennache
rib king of Assyria come up
against all the fenced cities of
Judah, and took them. And
Hezekiah king of Judah sent to
the king of Assyria to Lachish,
saying, ' I have oflTended ; return
from me ; that which thou put-
test on me I will bear.' And the
king of Assyria appointed unto
Hezekiah king of Judah three
hundred talents of silver, and
thirty talents of gold. And
Hezekiah gave him all the silver
that was found in the house of
the Lord, and in the treasures of
the king's house. At that time
did Hezekiah cut off the gold
from the doors of the temple of
the Lord, and from the pillars
which Hezekiah king of Judah
had overlaid, and gave it to the
king of Assyria."

" nne , xxxvi, 9 ; tr^lln'; , verse 11.
' Verse 3 is imperfect. Comp, 2 Kings xviii. 18.

§212.]

BOOK OF ISAIAH.

Isa. xxxviii. 4, 5. " Then
came the word of the Lord to
Isaiah, saying, ' Go and say to
Hezekiah, " Thus saith the
Lord, the God of David thy
father, ' I have heard thy prayer,
I have seen thy tears : behold, I
will add unto thy days fifteen
years.' " ' "

2 Kings XX, 4, 5. "And it
came to pass, afore Isaiah was
gone out into the middle court,
that the word of the Lord
came to him, saying, ' Turn
again, and tell Hezekiah the
captain of my people, " Thus
saith the Lord, the God of David
thy father, ' I have heard thy
prayer, I have seen thy tears :
behold, I will heal thee : on the
third day thou shalt go up unto
the house of the Lord."" " "
The following passage from Kings is more complete
than that from Isaiah, and perhaps its author was more
fond of the marvellous : —
3 Kings XX, 9 — 11, "And Isaiah said, 'This sign shalt thou
have of the Lord, that the Lord will do the thing that he hath
spoken : shall the shadow go forward ten degrees, or go back ten
degrees 1 ' And Hezekiah answered, ' It is a light thing for the
shadow to go down ten degrees : nay, but let the shadow return
backward ten degrees.' And Isaiah the prophet cried unto the
Lord, and he brought the shadow ten degrees backward, by which
it had gone down in the dial of Ahaz."
Isa. xxxviii. 7, 8. " And this shall be a sign unto thee from the
Lord, that the Lord will do this thing that he hath spoken; ' Behold,
I will bring again the shadow of the degrees, which is gone down in
the sun-dial of Ahaz, ten degrees backward.' So the sun returned
ten degrees, by which degrees it was gone down.''
Now, since the text of the passage in Kings in many

" Comp, Isa, xxxviii, 22. Verses 21, 22, are misplaced. Comp. 2 Kings
xviii, 7, 8. Comp. Isa. xxxvi, 21, with 2 Kings xviii 36, (dsn is wanting ;)
and xxxvii, 25, with 2 Kings xix, 24, bi"iT. Explanatory readings occur
in Isaiah : '^Pi"i'3S , for Pi'l^^ ; xxxvi, 5. IT^S is omitted. Verse 14,
31315 is more regular than ^''pS. "'SS'l 512; xxxvii 17. Verse 24 is like
the Keri in 2 Kings, nisUJni , for fliiu'ni , (a more difficult form ;) verse 26,
and many others.

390 BOOK OF ISAIAH. [§213.
places seems to be more correct and original than that
in Isaiah," and since the collection of the Isaianic
prophecies was made at a later date than the books of
Kings, therefore some have maintained that the passage
in Isaiah was derived from that in Kings. Such was
the opinion of Gesenius, and expressed in former editions
of this work. But, on the other hand, it has been
observed that the text in Isaiah, also, has, sometimes,
an original character,' and that the song of thanksgiv
ing, (xxxvih. 9, sqq.,) and the whole chapter, must have
been derived from one and the same source. Accord
ingly, it has been maintained that both collectors drew
from a larger historical work.'' But the analogy of Jer.
Iii. is not favorable to this hypothesis ; for that chapter is
derived from the second book of Kings, and its text has
been subsequently revised and enlarged.''

§213.
ORIGIN OF THIS MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTION.
Since in chap. i. xii. there are combined passages that
are certainly genuine, all of which relate to the kingdom
of Judah, this is, perhaps, the original cohection, to
which the inscription (chap, li.) belongs. Bertholdt
makes use of the account in Baba Bathra to support the
opinion that Hezekiah caused this collection to be made.
" See last note.
' 1i:3 (Isa. xxxvii, 38) is lacking in 2 Kings xix, 37, lllK'liJil (Isa.
xxxvii 14) is more difficult than Ds'lpil , (2 Kings xix, 14.) But compare the
following : tlis'isn - 3S Dtl; , (xxxvii, 18,) which is more difficult than
Qiiari , (2 Kings xix, 17,) [?]
' Hitzig, 1, c. p. 41 1, sq, Keil, Chronik, p, 229, sqq,
"' .Sep below, §219, 6, &o.

§ 214.] BOOK OF ISAIAH. 391
However, he also, on this account, separates i. 1 — ii. 4,
from it, which is too hazardous.
The prophecies, (xiii. — xxiii.,) with the exception of
xiv. 24 — 27, xvii. 12 — xvih. 7, and xx., relate to for
eign nations, and bear the title "oracle."" Perhaps
the miscellaneous collection (xxviii. — xxxiii.) is a sep
arate, smah cohection of passages that are certainly
genuine. The first part (i. — xxxix.) originated from the com
bination of these independent collections, to which xxiv.
— xxvii. xxxiv. xxxv. were added. Then xxxvi. — xxxix.
were appended, with the design of cohecting together
all that related to Isaiah.'
Finally, the second part (xl. — Ixvi.) was added ; but
it is not clear for what reason. Ah this was done after
the exile, and probably after the redaction of the older
historical books." §214.
LITERARY CHARACTER OF ISAIAH.
The genuine passages of Isaiah, both in form and
substance, are to be ranked with the noblest productions
of the golden age of prophetic literature.
The discourse is, for the most part, oratorical ; it
rarely contains symbols or parables. The style is
noble, powerful, concise, rich in images and thoughts,
and rarely indulging in enumerations or antitheses,
as in ii. 12 — 17, and ih. 1—4, 18 — 24. It makes
• SffiJS. » Compare Jer. Iii
" Gesenius, vol. i p. 19, sqq. See the opinions of Eichhorn, §.526, sqq.,
and Bertholdt, p. 1393, sqq. [Also, Knohd, 1. c, § 19, 28, 31, 32,] Geseni'us
divides Isaiah into four books, viz., i — xii, xiii, xxiii., xxiv. — xxxv., and
xl. — ^Ixvi He makes the third consist of supplementary matter.

392 BOOK OF ISAIAH. [§ 214.
moderate use of a play upon words;" but it is not
without hardness, and sudden transitions, which appear
in the following passages : —
" Yea, in that day shall they i;oar against thera like the roaring of
the sea ; and if one look to the land, behold, darkness and sorrow,
and the light is darkened ,in the heavens." (v. 30.) "But the
darkness shall not remain, where now is distress. Of old he brought
the land of Zebulun and the land of Naphtali into distress, into con
tempt. In future times shall he bring the land of the sea beyond
Jordan, the circle ofthe Gentiles, into honor." (viii. 23, and xxviii. 15.)
The rhythm is strong and full, often running out into
beautiful periods. One passage (ix. 7 — x. 4) consists
of strophes. The thoughts are earnest, natural, and
free : —
" What to me is the multitude of your sacrifices? I am satiated
with the burnt-offerings of rams, and the fat of fed beasts : in the
blood of bullocks, and of lambs, and of goats, I have no delight.
 Incense is an abomination to me ; the new moon, also, and
the Sabbath, and the solemn assembly, iniquity, and festivals I cannot
endure. Your new moons and your feasts my soul hateth. They
are a burden to me. I am weary of bearing thera," &c. (i 11, sqq.)
" Since this people draweth near to rae with their mouth, and
honoreth me with their lips, while their heart is far from me, and
their worship of me is according to the commandments of men,
therefore, behold, I will proceed to deal marvellously with this
people." (xxviii. 13.)
Sometimes the style is subhme : —
" Go into the rock; hide yourselves in the dust; from the terror
of Jehovah, and the glory of his majesty," (ii. 10.) " At that time
shall men cast away their idols of silver, and their idols of gold,
which they have made to worship, to the moles and the bats; fleeing
into the caves of the rocks, and the clefls of the craggy rocks, from
the terror of Jehovah, and the glory of his majesty. Trust, then, no
more in man, whose breath is in his nostrils ; for what account is to
be made of him ? " (ii 20— 22.)»
" See examples in i 23, ii 19, x. 18, xvii. 1, xxix. 9, xxxii 18.
' See, also, v. 15, 16, x, 5 — 15,

§214.] BOOK OF ISAIAH. 393
Sometimes it is full of a high inspiration, but without
fanaticism, as in iv. 2 — 6."
There is but one parable in the book, and that is suc
cessful, (v. 1 — 6.)
There is but one vision, (chap, vi.,) and that is simple
and sublime. It contains but few symbolical actions,
and these are performed without any pretension, (vhi.
1 — 3, XX.) The somewhat enigmatical sign (vh. 14)
was probably suited to the circumstances of the time —
" Behold, the damsel shall conceive and bear a son, and
she shall call his name Immanuel," &c.
The spurious passages also — in particular, xiii. xiv.
xl. — Ixvi. — deserve great praise on account of their
lively and flowing style, — which is sometimes lyric, —
(Ixiii. 7 — Ixiv. 12,) and of their beautiful and often
sublime thoughts, (xl. 15 — 17, Iv. 8, 9, and Ixvi. 1, 2.)
Sometimes the thoughts are free and bold, as in Ivih.
3 — 17, where real and not formal holiness is commend
ed ; but verse 13 enjoins the formal observance of the
Sabbath. In Ixvi. 21, the poet says, priests and Levites
shah be taken, not from one tribe, but from all nations.
But, in general, the spurious parts are destitute of the
powerful dignity of the genuine Isaiah, and the depraved,
sunken taste they display cannot be denied.*
" See i 27, sq., and xxviii 16, sqq., xi. 1 — 16, and xxxii. 16 — 18,
' There is an apocryphal book of Isaiah, published with the title Ascen-
sio JesaisB Vatis, Opusculum Pseudepigraphum, multis abhinc Seculis, ut
videtur, deperditum, nunc autem apud .^thiopes repertum, cum Versione
Lat Anglicanaque publici Juris, factum a Rieardo Laurence ; Oxon. 1819,
8vo. See Gesenius, 1. c. vol. i p. 47. JWzsch, Examination of two Frag
ments of an old Latin Version of the ' Avu^dTtiov 'Haatov, in Stud, und
Krit for 1830, p. 209, sqq.
VOL. II. 60

394 BOOK OF JEREMIAH. [§215.
CHAPTER II.
JEREMIAH.- §215.
HIS LIFE AND TIMES,
Jeremiah of Anathoth (i. 1) was the son of Hhkiah
the priest, who, as Eichhorn thinks, is mentioned in
2 Kings xxii. 4, though Jahn maintains another Hilkiah
is there spoken of.' He prophesied from the thirteenth
year of Josiah (i. 2, 3) to the destruction of the king
dom of Judah, — from 629 to 588 B. C, — and even after
that event, or nearly half a century, (xl. — xlv.)
He lived in that eventful period when the feeble
" Sandii Comm, in Jerem, Proph. et Thren, ; Lug, Bat 1618, fol.
Jocu (Ecolampadii Comm, in Jerem. et Thren, ; Arg, 1530, fol,
Joa. Piscatoris Comm, in Jerem. ; Herb, 1614,
iSe5, Schmid. Comm, iu Jerem, ; Frcf, 1685, 2 vols, 4to,
Jo. Clerici Comment in Proph,
Herm. Venemce Comment in Librum Prophet Jerem, ; Leov, 1765, 2 vols, 4to.
Benj. Blayney's Jeremiah and Lamentations ; a new Translation, with
Notes, critical, phU. and explanatory ; Lond. 1784, 4to.
J. D. Michadis, Observatt philol, et crit in Jerem. Vaticinia et Thren.
Ed. J. F. Schleusner ; Gott 1793, 4to,
Chr. F. Schnurrer, Observatt ad Vatic, Jeremise, 4 Dissert ; TUb, 1793
— 1797, 4to, in Commentatt theoi, ed, Vdthvsen et al, vol, iii,
Hensler, Bemerkk, iib, Stellen in Jerem, Weissagg, ; Lpz, 1805,
Rosenmidleri Scholia in Jerem, Maurer, 1. c.
Spohn, Jeremias Vates e Vers. Jud. Alexandr. ac Reliqu. Interpr. Grtec,
emendatus Notisque crit iUustratus ; Lips. 1794, 1824, 2 vols,
F. C. Movers, De utriusque Recensionis Vet Jeremite, GriEcee Alex
and. et Heb. Masoret Indole et Origine, Com. Crit ; 1837. [HUxig, Der
Prophet Jeremia; Lpz, 1841, (pt iii, of Exegetische Handbuch, zur.
A. T,)]
' Eichhorn, § 535, Jahn, vol, ii, p, 540. [See Knobel, vol. ii, p, 253, sqq,]

§ 216. J BOOK OF JEREMIAH. 395
kingdom of Judah, torn asunder by inward disorders,
must necessarily fall a sacrifice in the collision of the
two prevailing powers, Babylon and iEgypt. His efforts,
by wise counsel, to retard the destruction of his earnest
ly-beloved country, were rewarded by his corrupt con
temporaries with ingratitude, and even with a prison,
and attempts to murder. He himself complains touch-
ingly of his treatment. Chap. XV. 10.
" Alas for me, my mother, that thou hast borne me, ^
To live in strife and contention with all the land ! *^
I have neither borrowed nor lent money.
Yet doth every one curse me,"
Chap. xi. 19.
"I  knew not that they had formed plots against me,
[Saying,] ' Let us destroy the tree with its fruit.
Let us cut him off from the land ofthe living,
That his name may no more be remerabered.' " "
When he was set free by Nebuchadnezzar, he preferred
to dwell among the ruins of his native land, (xxxix. 1 1 ,
sqq., xl. 1, sqq.,) but followed the relics of the people in
their flight to jEgypt, though he had spoken against it.
(xhi. xlih.) Here he probably ended his life.

§216.
CONTENTS OF THE BOOK.
Besides prophecies, this book contains also historical
accounts, and may be divided into two parts : —
" See, also, xii 5, 6, xvi 18, sqq,, xviii. 18, sqq,. xix. 7, sqq., xx. xxvi. 7,
sqq., xxxii 2, xxxvi 26, xxxvii, 13, sq., xxxvih. See the stories about Jere
miah, in 2 Maccabees, ii, 1 — 7, Fabricius, Cod. Pseudepigraphus, V, T.
p. 1111, Carpzov, 1. c. p. 130. Bertholdt, p. 1415, sq.

396 BOOK OF JEREMIAH. [§ 217, «.
I. Domestic Prophecies and History. — 1. Till the
destruction of Jerusalem, (i. — xxxix.) — 2. After that
event, before and after the flight to iEgypt, (xl. — xlv.)
n. Prophecies relating to Foreign Nations, (xlvi. —
li.) An appendix (hi.) relates the history of the last
king, Zedekiah. •
The prophecies of the first part (i. — xxxix.) relate
mostly to the destruction of Judah, then threatened by
Babylon. The prophet sees this continually approach
ing, and admonishes the people to avert it, by a penitent
JKd humble submission to the will of Jehovah, who gives
^le dominion to the Chaldeans.
The prophet's reproaches, lamentations, and threats,
are rarely interrupted by more cheerful views, but such
occur in xxx. xxxi. and xxxih. The prophecies of the
second part (xl — xlv.) are directed against the flight to
jEgypt, against iEgypt itself, and the Jews who dwelt
there. The foreign prophecies in xlvi. — xlix. relate
mostly to the victories of Nebuchadnezzar. But in 1. —
li. the destruction of^the haughty Babylon itself is
threatened. § 217, a.
SPURIOUSNESS OF PARTS OF THE BOOK.
Since some larger and smaller paragraphs have been
inserted in the text," so likewise some false inscriptions
have been added. Thus, for example, to judge from
xxvi. 1, the inscription in xxvii. 1, is false — "In the
beginning of the reign of Jehoiakim,  came this
word unto Jeremiah." It should be Zedekiah.'

" § 218.
' [Verses 3, 12, 20, are against the time of Jehoiakim. Leclerc would

§ 217, a.J BOOK OF JEREMIAH. 397
In xlvh. 1, the date — "before Pharaoh smote Gaza"
— is false ; for in this chapter the author predicts the
destruction of the Philistines by a people from the nofth,
(verse 2,) and not by the ^Egyptians."
The hard construction — "The word of Jehovah,
that came to Jeremiah"' — which occurs in xiv. 1, xlvi. 1,
and xlix. 34, but never in the Septuagint — seems to be
the work of some foreign hand. Since the oracle, (xlix.
34 — 39,) to judge from the analogy of the others, against
the same people, seems to belong to the fourth year of
Jehoiakim, therefore it appears that the date is false in
verse 34 — "in the beginning of the reign of Zedekiah."
It seems the original inscription was " concerning Elam," "
which is still preserved in the Septuagint.'^ The' date
(i. 2, 3) — from the thirteenth of Josiah to the eleventh
of Zedekiah — does not include the oracles in xl. — xliv.,
but belongs to an earlier collection ; or else it originated
¦ in a mistake. Perhaps it was interpolated, because it
applies to the last chapter of Jeremiah.
Jeremiah cannot be the author of hi. ; for in verse 31,
sqq., events are related which took place after Jeremiah's

insert "''nv^ lil'iplS: before Jehoiakim. The contents of the chapter hardly
agree with the_^rsf year of Zedekiah. Hitzig, in loc] The Seventy have
merely ovroig eItce xigiog.
" Here the Seventy have simply inl rod; illocpiilovg j&Se Uyei xigwg.
' "^1 im n^n nms,
^ Movers (I, c, p. 35) explains the circumstance that the masoretic inscrip
tion of xlix. 34 — 39, is in the Seventy found at the end of the oracle, by the
hypothesis that some one added the collection in xxvii. — xxix, to the original
collection of oracles against foreign parts, [xlvi, — ^xlviii,,] but that another
man afterwards separated these three chapters (xxvii — xxix.) therefrom, and
left the inscription of xxvii remaining. On other inscriptions, probably
added later, see Movers, 1. c, p. 24,

398

BOOK OF JEREMIAH.

[§217, a.

time." The whole passage, with the exception of verses
28 — 30, — which are not in the Septuagint, — is bor
rowed from 2 Kings xxiv. 18 — xxv. 30, and interpolated
here. There are two interpolations in I. li., namely, I. 39 —
46, and h. 15 — 19. The first is borrowed from Isaiah,
and other parts of Jeremiah : —

Jer. 1. 39—46. "Therefore
the wild beasts of the desert, with
the wild beasts ofthe islands, shall
dwell there, and the owls shall
dwell therein : and it shall be no
more inhabited forever ; neither
shall it be dwelt in from genera
tion to generation. As God over
threw Sodom and Gomorrah and
the neighbor cities thereof, saith
the Lord, so shall no man abide
there, neither shall any son of
man dwell therein.
"Behold, a people shall come
from the north, and a great
nation, and many kings shall
be raised up from the coasts of
the earth. They shall hold the
bow and the lance : they are
cruel, and will not show mer
cy - their voice shall roar like
the sea, and they shall ride upon
horses, every one put in array,
like a man to the battle, against

Isa, .xxxiv. 14. " The wild
beasts of the desert shall also
meet with the wild beasts of the
island, and the satyr shall cry to
his fellow; the screech-owl also
shall rest there, and find for her
self a place of rest"
Chap, xiii 19—21, "And
Babylon, the glory of kingdoms,
the beauty of the Chaldees' excel
lency, shall be as when God over
threw Sodom and Gomorrah. It
shall never be inhabited, neither
shall it be dwelt in from genera
tion to generation : neither shall
the Arabian pitch tent there ;
neither shall the shepherds make
their fold there : but wild beasts
of the desert shall lie there ; and
their houses shall be full of doleful
creatures ; and owls shall dwell
there, and satyrs shall dance there."
Jer. xlix. 18. " As in the over
throw of Sodom and Gomorrah

" [It relates, in part, what Jeremiah had treated of elsewhere, (xxxix, xl, ;)
in part, what took place at Babylon, while Jeremiah was in jEgypt, whence
he never returned ; and, in part, what took place in the time of Evil-merodach,
when, it is probable, Jeremiah was not alive. The subscription (li 64)
— " Thus far the words of Jeremiah" — shows that his genuine books were
supposed to end there. See also Hitzig, 1. c. p. 41.5, sqq,]

§217, a.J

BOOK OF JEREMIAH.

399

thee, O daughter of Babylon,
The king of Babylon hath heard
the report of them, and his hands
waxed feeble : anguish took hold
of him, and pangs as of a woman
in travail. Behold, he shall come
up like a lion from the swelling
of Jordan unto the habitation of
the strong : but I will makfe them
suddenly run away from her :
and who is a chosen man, that I
may appoint over her? for who is
like me? and who will appoint
nie the time? and who is that
shepherd that will stand before
rae? Therefore hear ye the coun
sel of the Lord, that he hath
taken against Babylon ; and his
purposes, that he hath purposed
against the land ofthe Chaldeans :
Surely the least of the flock shall
draw them out : surely he shall
make their habitation desolate
with them. At the noise of the
taking of Babylon the earth is
moved, and the cry is heard
among the nations."

and the neighbor cities thereof,
saith the Lord, no man shall abide
there, neither shall a son of man
dwell in it."
Jer. vi. 22—24. " Thus saith
the Lord, ' Behold, a people com
eth from the north country, and
a great nation shall be raised
from the sides of the earth. They
shall lay hold on bow and spear ;
they are cruel, and have no mer
cy ; their voice roareth like the
.sea, and they ride upon horses,
set in array as men for war against
thee, O daughter of Zion. We
have heard the fame thereof: our
hands wax feeble : anguish hath
taken hold of us, and pain, as of
a woman in travail."
Chap. xlix. 19—21. " Behold,
he shall come up like a lion from
the swelling of Jordan against the
habitation of the strong : but I
will suddenly make him run away
from her : and who is a chosen
man, that I may appoint over her ?
for who is like rae? and who will
appoint me the time ? and who is
that shepherd that will stand be
fore me ? therefore hear the coun
sel of the Lord that he hath taken
against Edom ; and his purposes
that he hath purposed against the
inhabitants of Teman : Surely the
least of the flock shall draw them
out : surely he shall make their
habitations desolate vi^ith them.
The earth is moved at the noise
of their fall ; at the cry, the noise
thereof was heard in the Red Sea."

400

BOOK OF JERE.MIAH.

[§ 217, ff.

The second is borrowed from earlier passages in Jere
miah: — "

Jer. li 15—19. "He hath
made the earth by his power, he
hath established the world by his
wisdom, and hath stretched out
the heaven by his understanding.
When he uttereth his voice, there
is a multitude of waters in the
heavens; and he causeth the va
pors to ascend frora the ends of
the earth : he maketh lightnings
with rain, and bringeth forth the
wind out of his treasures. Every
man is brutish by his knowledge ;
every founder is confounded by
the graven iraage : for his molten
image is falsehood, and there is
no breath in them. They are
vanity, the work of errors : in the
time of their visitation they shall
perish. The Portion of Jacob is
not like them : for he is the former
of all things : and Israel is the
rod of his inheritance : The Lord
of hosts is his name.''

Jer. x. 12—16. "He hath
made the earth by his power, he
hath established the world by his
wisdom, and hath stretched out
the heavens by his discretion.
When lie uttereth his voice, there
is a multitude of waters in the
heavens, and he causeth the va
pors to ascend from the ends of
the earth ; he maketh lightnings
with rain, and bringeth forth the
wind out of his treasures. Every
raan is brutish in his knowledge :
every founder is confounded by
the graven image : for his molten
image is falsehood, and there is
no breath in them. They are
vanity, and the work of errors :
in the time of their visitation they
shall perish. The Portion of
Jacob is not like them ; for he is
the former of all things ; and Is
rael is the rod of his inheritance :
The Lord of hosts is his name."

The passage, li. 44 — 48,' which is omitted by the
Seventy, is probably spurious ; for the supposition in 1.
28, li. 11, 51, that the temple is destroyed, and the long
duration of the Babylonian exile, in I. 33, do not agree
with the date given in li. 59, 63, 64, although v\'e find

" Movers, 1. c. p. 16. See doubts on the genuineness of this passage in
Eichhorn, § 542, a. Von CoUen, in A. L. Z. Erganz. Blat for 1828, xvi p.
118. Gramberg, \. c. vol. ii, p. 396, sqq., and the 4th edition of this work.
Knobd (vol. ii. p. 353, sqq.) ascribes it to Baruch.
' Prom -B3 , in verse 44, to 48,

§ 217, b.] BOOK OF JERE.MIAH. 401
obviously the expressions and turns of the prophet Jere
miah ; " yet there are, likewise, the peculiarities of the
pseudo Isaiah.' Therefore it may be conjectured that
this portion of the prophet has been wrought over by
some later hand.

§ 217, b.
THE SAME SUBJECT CONTINUED,
The fohowing chapters (xxx. xxxi. and xxxiii.) have
been wrought over by the pseudo Isaiah, as it appears
from the following considerations : —
1. The fohowing passage, in Zech. vih. 7, 8, refers
to Jer. xxxi. 7, 8, 33.
Zech, viii, 7, 8, " Thus saith the Lord of hosts, ' Behold, I will
save my people from the east country and from the west country ;
and I will bring them, and they shall dwell in the midst of Jerusa
lem : and they shall be my people, and I will be their God, in truth
and in righteousness,' "
Jer, xxxi, 7, 8, 33, " For thus saith the Lord, ' Sing with glad
ness for Jacob, and shout among the chief of the nations : publish ye,
praise ye, and say, "O Lord, save thy people, the remnant of Israel,"

<¦ Jer, 1. 3 = ix. 9 ; i4 = iii 18,21; i 5 = xxiii 1, sqq. ; i7 = ii3; il3
= xlix. 17, xix. 8, xviii. 15 ; i 16 = xlvi 16 ; 1. 19 = xxiii 3 ; i 20 = xlix.
26; i 32 = xlix. 27, xxi 14, xvii 27; li 7 = xxv. 16; li 8 = xlvi 11, viii
22; li 14, 27 = xlvi 23; li 25 = xxi 13, xxiii 30, 31; li 24, 27=ii. 15,
&c.; li 43 = xlix. 33.
b bK'ilBi laiij; 1. 29, li. 5. Js^a- 1. 34. (Comp. Isa. xli 14, xlvii 4.)
Slin Saiaj, Ih/toas xutA Toii ^gaxlovog ; li 14. Comp. Isa. Ixii 8; i 17,
33. Comp. Isa. Iii 4, L 8, li. 69. Comp. Isa. Iii 11; xlviii 20, li 5. Comp.
Isa. liv. 4 ; 1. 33. Comp. Isa. xiv. 17. See Movers, p. 45. He has not cited
all these passages, but some which he has adduced seem unsatisfactory to
me. In xlviii, especially verses 24—38, 40, 43, 44—47, he finds additions
from Isa. xv. xvi, and burdens that prophet with the mistakes in verse 32.
[See Hitzig, 1. c. p. 375, sqq.]
VOL. II. 51

402 BOOK OF JEREMIAH. [§ 217, b.
Behold, I will bring them frora the north country, and gather them
from the coasts of the earth, and with them the blind and the lame, the
woman with child and her that travaileth with child together : a great
company shall return thither  But this shall be the covenant
that I will make with the house of Israel ; after those days, saith the
Lord, I will put my law in their inward parts, and write it in their
hearts, and will be their God, and they shall be my people.' "
Now, the former passage appears as an exclamation
of the prophets who prophesied at the founding of the
temple. Zechariah did not regard it as a prophecy of
Jeremiah." 2. The style is like that of the pseudo Isaiah.'
3. Chap, xxxiii. is connected to chap. xxx. xxxi. by
the similarity of its contents ; it carries out what is said
in xxxi. 31. Zechariah (viii. 16 — 19) ahudes to
" Peace and Truth," " in Jer. xxxiii. 6, and therefore
must have read this chapter in connection with the
others, (xxx. xxxi.)
4. Here (xxxih.) we find the style of the pseudo
Isaiah."*

" [This argument has littie force in itself. The later prophet may have
borrowed from the other without acknowledgment, or even without remem
bering he had borrowed at all.]
' Comp. Jer. xxx. 10, 11, with Isa. xli. 8, 10, 14, xliii 1, xliv, 1, sq. Since
xxx. 10, 11, is wanting in the LXX,, and xlvi, 27, 28, — containing the same
words, — occurs in both masoretic and Alexandrian text, Movers (p. 44) has
concluded that it was an interpolation in xxx. 10, 11, (Comp, Jer. xxx, 17,
with Isa. Ix, 15, and Ixii 4 ; xxxi, 13, with Isa, xlix, 13, and elsewhere ;
xxxi, 3, with Isa, xliii, 4 ; xxxi, 8, with Isa. xliii. 5, xlix, 12, lix, 19 ; xxxi, 9,
with Isa, Ixiii 16, Ixiv, 7, Iv, 12, xlix, 10, Ixiii, 13 ; xxxi, 10, with Isa, xl,
II; xxxi, 10, sq,, with Isa, xlix, 1, xliv, 23, xlviii, 20, &c,) The use of
t3"'"'K and isa deserves particular notice, Comp, xxxi 12, wiUi Isa, Iviii
11 ; xxxi. 21, with Isa. Ixii 10 ; xxxi, 33, with Isa, li, 7 ; verse 34 with Isa,
liv, 13, xliii 25 ; verses 35, 36, with Isa, Ixi, 8 ; verses 35, 37, with Isa. xlii
5, xlv. 7, li 15.
" nasi tsiiia.
'' Comp, xxxiii, 2, with Isa, xlvi II, xliii 7, 8; verse 3 with Isa, xlviii. 6.

§ 217, C.J BOOK OF JEREMIAH. 403
5. The introduction of the Levites (xxxih. 18, 21)
is unsuitable," and does not correspond with the views
of Jeremiah. In fine, xxxiii. 24, seems to apply to the
Samaritans However, the stand-point of the writer (xxx. 5 — 7,
xxxhi. 4, 5) agrees with Jeremiah's time. I cannot, with
Movers, find the condition of the returning exhes de
picted in xxx. 5 — 7 ; and in xxxih. 4, 5 I find no trace
of the pseudo Isaiah. His rejection of the inscription
of these two chapters seems, also, too hasty. In many
passages, the style of Jeremiah is so obvious that it
cannot be mistaken.'

§ 217, c.
THE SAME SUBJECT CONTINUED.
Chap. X. 1 — 16, when purified from the additions
made to the masoretic text, which are not in the Sep
tuagint, (x. 6 — 8, 10,) is entirely the work of the
pseudo Isaiah. This appears from the following con
siderations : —
1. There are warnings against the soothsaying and
idolatry of the heathens.
" The expression IDij* fi^i'^ N^ (verse 18) is imitated from the earlier
passages. In verse 21, the construction is forced, and the parallelism dis
turbed. [I must confess that I cannot see the force of the above arguments, either
to prove the authorship upon the pseudo Isaiah, or to sustain the spuriousncss
of tiie passage.]
' Comp. xxx. 6, with xlvi 5, ii 14; verse 11 with v. 10, 18; verse 12
with XV. 18, X. 19; verse 13 with xlvi. 11 ; verse 17, and xxxiii 6, with viii.
22 ; xxxi, 4, 21, with xviii 13 ; verse 28 with 1, 10, 11 ; xxxiii 4, with xix.
12; verse II with vii. 34, xxv. 10, xvi. 11; verse 15 with xxii 15,
xxiii 5.

404 BOOK OF JEREMIAH. [§217, C.
Chap. X. 2 — 5.
2 " Thus saith Jehovah,
' Conform ye not to the way of the heathen,
And be not dismayed at the signs of the heavens,
Because the heathen are dismayed at thera !
3 The customs ofthe nations are vanity.
For a tree of the wood is cut down,
It is wrought by the hands of the artificer with the axe,
4 It is decked with silver and gold.
And with nails and with hammers is it fastened,
That it may not totter,
5 They are like a pillar, and cannot speak ;
They must be borne by men, for they cannot walk.
Be not afraid of them, for they cannot hurt,
Nor is it in their power to do good,' "
Verse 11 is in Chaldee." These circumstances show
that the writer lived during the exile.
2. The style is that of the pseudo Isaiah.'
According to Movers, chap. xxvh. — xxix. have been
wrought over anew by some later hand. This appears
from the later form of some names," the frequent addition
of the term the prophet, before proper names, (xxvhi. 5,
6, 10 — 12, 15, xxix. 1, [xxvih. 17, J) which is wanting in
the Septuagint, and, above all, from the following inter
polations : —
" According to Houbigant, Venema, Rosenmiiller, Maurer, this is spurious.
This opinion is necessary on the supposition that Jeremiah is the author,
and that verses 6 — 8, 10, belong in the text. But, on the above hypothesis,
it agrees well with the connection, and is required by verse 15.
' Comp, verse 2 with Isa, xlvii, 13 ; verse 3 with Isa, xliv. 12 ; verse 4
with Isa, xl, 19, 20, xli, 7, xliv, 12, xlvi, 7; verse 5 with Isa. xlvi 1, xli, 23,
xliv, 9 ; verse II with Isa, Ix, 12 ; verses 12, 13, with xlii, 5, xliv. 24, li, 13 ;
verse 14 with Isa, xliv. II, xlv. 16, xlii, 17, xli, 29, xliv, 21. In verse 16,
"i2i is hke Isa. xlv. 7, Comp. also Isa. Ixiii, 17, xlvii, 4, xlviii 2, li. 15,
liv. 5. However, smipa insa is Jeremianic. (viii 12,) Comp, vi 18.
[See Hitzig, 1. c. p, 80, sqq,, and 238, sqq., who favors the above view of
De Wette and Movers.']
' iTi?:"li, iT'pnS, n''35'i, and others.

§217, c.j BOOK OF JEREMIAH. 405
Chap, xxvii, 7, 16 — ^22, " And all nations shall serve hira, [Neb
uchadnezzar,] and his son, and his son's son, until the very time of
his land come : and then many nations and great kings shall serve
themselves of him. Also I spake to the priests and to all this people,
saying, ' Thus saith the Lord, " Hearken not to the words of your
prophets, that prophesy unto you, saying, 'Behold, the vessels ofthe
Lord's house shall now shortly be brought again from Babylon ; for
they prophesy a lie unto you,' Hearken not unto them ; serve the
king of Babylon, and live : wherefore should this city be laid waste? "
But if they be prophets, and if the word of the Lord be with them,
let them now make intercession to the Lord of hosts, that the vessels
which are left in the house of the Lord, and in the house of the king
of Judah, and at Jerusalem, go not to Babylon.
" ' For thus saith the Lord of hosts concerning the pillars, and
concerning the sea, and concerning the bases, and concerning the
residue of the vessels that remain in this city, which Nebuchadnezzar
king of Babylon took not, when he carried away captive Jeconiah the
son of Jehoiakim king of Judah from Jerusalem to Babylon, and all
the nobles of Judah and Jerusalem ; yea, thus saith the Lord of hosts,
the God of Israel, concerning the vessels that remain in the house
of the Lord, and in the house of the king of Judah and of Jerusalem,
" They shall be carried to Babylon, and there shall they be until the
day that I visit them, saith the Lord ; then will I bring them up,
and restore them to this place." ' "
Verse 7 is entirely wanting in the Septuagint. It is
obviously a later addition, for it is designed to show
that the Babylonian captivity should continue under the
son and grandson of Nebuchadnezzai-, and the Chaldeans
are threatened with subjugation by the Persians. But
this is done also in xxv. 14. In xxvii. 16 — 22, accord
ing to the Seventy, Jeremiah contradicts the false
prophets, who predict that the vessels of the temple,
which had been carried away, should be brought back,
and adds that the remaining vessels should, likewise,
be carried away. According to the masoretic text, the
false prophets predict that these vessels should now,

406 BOOK OF JEREMIAH. [§218, ff.
immediately, be returned ; and Jeremiah says, on the
contrary, that the remaining vessels should also be carried
away, but, at some time, should be restored. Thus the
masoretic text preserves the veracity of the prophet,
who, according to the Alexandrian text, seemed more
in error than the false prophets."

§218, a.
MASORETIC AND ALEXANDRIAN RECENSION.
In the Alexandrian version, the prophecies against
foreign nations have a place by themselves, and are
collected together after xxv. 13. But theh order is
different from that of the masoretic text, as may be seen
in the table below.'

" Movers considers the prolixity of verse 18 a mark of its spuriousness.
The masoretic certainly seems not the genuine text ; but the Alexandrian
also seems imperfect What does this mean, in verse 18, — &TiavTrja&.zaaili.v
iioi? Even if this be a poor translation, instead of anavz, tS xvglca =
mn'^a 1J'3i;i , still it is, in this connection, without a proper sense.
' Alexandrian Version. Masoretic Text.
Chap. xxv. 34—39,  xlix, 34—39,
 xxvi, 1—11,  xlvi. 2—12.
 xxvi 12—26,  xlvi 13—28.
 xxvii. xxviii.,  1, li
 xxix, 1 — 7,  xlvii, 1 — 7,
 xxix, 8—22,  xlix, 7—22,
 xxx, 1 — 5,  xlix, 1 — 6.
 xxx, 6—11  xlix. 28—33.
— — XXX. 12—16,  xlix. 23—27.
 xxxi,,  xlviii,
 xxxii  xxv, 15 — 38.
 xxxiii. — li,  xxvi. — ^xlv,
 Iii.,  Iii,

§218, 6. J BOOK OF JEREMIAH. 407
§ 218, 6.
THE SAME SUBJECT CONTINUED,
The two texts stand in the following relation to one
another : —
1. The Alexandrian version has short passages,
that are taken from the context, near or remote, or
from parallel passages, and which have been added to
explain the text, or make it complete. They are not
in the masoretic text. Examples of this may be seen
below." 2. The masoretic text has yet more numerous ad
ditions of this sort, which are not in the Septuagint.'
" Chap, xxiv. 6, elg d.ya&&, is repeated; xxix, 22, inolijae, from the
preceding. Chap, i, 17, 'dri pEr& aov elfu, taken from verses 8, 19, Chap.
xxviii 10, iv itfd-al^oXg navrbg tov Xaov, from verse I, 5, 11. Chap, xlvii,
12, xal eXaiov, from verse 10. Chap, xxxii, 25, xui eygutpa, &c,, from verse
10, 12, Chap, ix, 14, rrjs xaxrj;, from iii, 17, vii 14, &c. Chap, iii, 18,
xal un6 TTttO&v zibv %oig(i>v, from xvi, 15, Chap, ii, 28, xal xaz &gi,&/j.bv,
&c,, from xi 13, et al.
' Chap, i, 1-3, n6<"i "^SS, from verse 11, Chap, iii, 10, ntTlrt!*, from
verse 7, Chap, iii 11, mmtt, from verses 6, 8, 12, Chap, vii, 10, iltn , from
verse 11, Chap, vii 27, MMiSi  ISKim'^ S^l, from verses 13, 26,
Chap, xi 22, "ai 1)3K ra ¦p'b , from verse 21. Chap, xiii, 4, n^Dl? Iffis , from
verses 1, 2, Chap, xxviii. 11, "within two years," from verse 3, Chap,
xxviii. 15, "hear now, Hananiah," from verse 7, [?] Chap, xxviii, 17, "the
same year," from verse 16, Chap, xxxii. 7, ni^an , from verse 8, Verse 9,
" in Anathoth," from verses 7, 8, Chap, xxxvi. 22, " in the ninth month,"
from verse 9. Verse 25, " Gemariah," from verse 12, Verse 28, " the king
of Judah," fi-om vei-se 30, Chap, xxxviii, 6, 11 , " with cords," frora verse 12, [?]
Verse II, T\>'2 , from verse 10. [?] Verse 17, " princes ofthe king of Baby
lon," from verse 17, et al. Very often the Hebrew text has "sword, famine,
and pestilence," where the LXX. have only " sword and famine," xxi 9,
xxvii 8, 13, et ai ; often it has the epithet N'^ajn , which is omitted by the
LXX., except in xlii 2, xliii 6, xlv.l, li. 59; it adds tiie epithet DiDBi iffiDaa
to Q^ailK, xix. 9, xxxiv. 20, 21. This occurs three times in xix. 7, et al, ;
and the phrase " whereunto I have driven them," or " whereunto they are

408 BOOK OF JEREMIAH, [§218, 6.
3. Both texts have additions of this character, but in
different places."
4. The masoretic text has large additions that are
spurious. Among these Movers reckons xxxix. 4 — 13,
which, he thinks, has been taken from hi. 7 — 16.'
driven," in xxiii 8, and three times in viii. 3, et al. We find, also, BS'^iTI
" D3"'ib5?;l , "your ways and your deeds," xviii 11, xxiii 22, xxxii, 20;
here an addition has been made from xxvi 13, et ai So, in xxxi, 28, an
addition is made from i 10, &c, &c. However, 1 am not convinced that
all which the Hebrew has more than the LXX, is a spurious addition.
Sometimes the reading of the masoretic text seems necessary ; sometimes
suitable, in the following examples: xiv, 3, xxv, 3, xxvii, 10, xxviii, 19,
xx.Ts-i, 6, (here Dslpn demands mn"' "^^ST  fir; irs , which is
omitted by the LXX,) xxxvi, 9, (where tiie LXX, have olxog 'lovSa,) 15, 28,
xlii. 22, xliv, 12, The same may be said of the repetition of standing
phrases, such as " sword, famine, and pestilence,''
" Thus, in xxix, 21, the Hebrew has, in addition, " who prophesy lies to
you in my name," and verse 23, " lies ; " the LXX,, in xiv, 15, have ipsvdJi.
In xlix, 24, the Hebrew has, " anguish and sorrow have seized her as a trav
ailing woman;" the LXX,, viii. 21, &SivEg ibg TixToiarjg. In xxiv. 10, the
Hebrew has, " and their fathers ; " the LXX, have a similar addition in xvii,
23. In xliii, 2, the Hebrew has " proud " men, 'Q^l.'^n ; the LXX,, in xlii 17,
have n&VTeg ol iiXXoyEveXg ; (here they read Dint , for C^nt ,) mrT^ D»3 often
occurs in tbe Hebrew, where it is omitted by the LXX, ; sometimes they add
it, as in ii, 2, and frequently. Instances hke the above are numerous,
' His reasons, which are not satisfactory, are as follows : —
I, The connection between xxxix, 3, and 14, is disturbed by this insertion
of 4 — 13, (But this is true only ofthe text ofthe LXX,)
2, It is false that Zedekiah fled as soon as he saw the Chaldee princes
" in the middle gate," for, according to verse 1, they went there after they
had taken the city, (But the sense of tiie Hebrew text is, they had previ
ously taken post in the middle court)
3, It is not true that Nebuzar-adan took Jeremiah out of tiie prison after
tiie capture of the city, (excidium ,') for Nebuzar-adan arrived later, (Iii, 3,
Comp, xl, 2,) (But xxxix, 8 — 10, parallel witii Iii 12—16, places the arrival
of Nebuzar-adan before that)
4, This addition is derived from the later recension of chap. Iii, and be
longs to the time of Nehemiah, as it appears from the more modern read
ings; e. g. "^nn, (verse 6,) for ''IQ, (Iii. 10,) and ¦^a'l, (verse 13,) for ''IB,
(verse 3 ;) for the expression ft'^in was there used ; (but it occurs also in
1 Kings xxi. 8, 11.) [However, see Hitzig, 1. c, p. 318, sqq.]

§218, 6.J

BOOK OF JEREMIAH.

409

Chap, xxxix, 4 — 13. " And it
came to pass, that when Zede
kiah the king of Judah saw them,
and all the men of war, then they
fled, and went forth out of the
city by night, by the way of the
king's garden, by the gate be
twixt the two walls : and he went
out the way of the plain. But
the Chaldeans' army pursued af
ter them, and overtook Zedekiah
in the plains of Jericho; and
when they had taken him, they
brought him up to Nebuchadnez
zar king of Babylon to Riblah in
the land of Hamath, where he
gave judgment upon him. Then
the king of Babylon slew the sons
of Zedekiah in Riblah before his
eyes : also the king of Babylon
slew all the nobles of Judah.
Moreover he put out Zedekiah's
eyes, and bound him with chains,
to carry him to Babylon,
" And the Chaldeans burned
the king's house, and the houses
of the people, with fire, and brake
down the walls of Jerusalem.
Then Nebuzar-adan the captain
of the guard carried away captive
into Babylon the remnant of the
people that remained in the city/
and those that fell away, that feff
to him, with the rest of the peo
ple that remained. But Nebu
zar-adan the captain ofthe guard
left of the poor of the people,
which had nothing, in the land
of Judah, and gave them vine
yards and fields at the same time.
"Now Nebuchadrezzar king
VOL. II. 52

Chap. Hi. 7—16. " Then the
city was broken up, and all the
men of war fled, and went forth
out of the city by night, by the
way of the gate between the two
walls, which was by the king's
garden ; (now the Chaldeans were
by the city round about :) and
they went by the way of the
plain. " But the army of the Chalde
ans pursued after the king, and
overtook Zedekiah in the plains
of Jericho ; and all his army was
scattered from him. Then they
took the king, and carried him
up unto the king of Babylon to
Riblah, in the land of Hamath;
where he gave judgment upon
him. And the king of Babylon
slew the sons of Zedekiah before
his eyes : he slew also all the
princes of Judah, in Riblah.
Then he put out the eyes of
Zedekiah ; and the king of Baby
lon bound him in chains, and
carried him to Babylon, and put
him in prison till the day of his
death. " Now, in the fifth month,
in the tenth day of the month,
which was the nineteenth year
of Nebuchadrezzar king of Baby-
ion, came Nebuzar-adan, captain
of the guard, which served the
king of Babylon, into Jerusalem,
and burned the house ofthe Lord,
and the king's house ; and all the
houses of Jerusalem, and all the
houses of the great men, burned
he with fire : and all the army of

410

BOOK OF JEREMIAH.

[§ 218, C.

of Babylon gave charge concern
ing Jeremiah to Nebuzar-adan
the captain of the guard, saying,
' Take him, and look well to
him, and do him no harm ; but
do unto him even as he shall say
unto thee,' "

the Chaldeans, that were with
the captain of the guard, brake
down all the walls of Jerusalem
round about. Then Nebuzar-
adan the captain of the guard
carried away captive certain of
the poor of the people, and the
residue of the people that re
mained in the city, and those that
fell away, that fell to the king of
Babylon, and the rest of the mul
titude. But Nebuzar-adan the
captain of the guard left certain
of the poor of the land for vine
dressers and for husbandmen."
Chap. vih. 10 — 12, he thinks, is derived from vi. 13 — 15 ;
perhaps xi. 7, 8, from vh. 24, 25 ; xvii. 1 — 4, in part from
XV. 13, 14, though this is doubtful; xxx. 10, 11, and
xlviii. 45, sq., from Num. xxi. 28, xxiv. 17, and xxi. 29."

§218, c.
THE SAME SUBJECT CONTINUED.
5. Both texts have additions designed to complete
and embellish the sentence, which are not derived from
any known source. They are more numerous in the
masoretic text.' Some of these contain historical errors."

« See § 217, 6, p. 402, note b.
' E, g, xiv. 15, dmodavovvzai ; xvi, 4, nEOoiivTai ; viii, 21, TllSlon ; xx, 9,
i2ba; xxxv, 7, IStJm »i; V, 15, 16, "a mig'hty nation, an ancient nation
 their quiver an open sepulchre,"
' E, g, xxxiv, 1, " all the kingdoms of the land of his dominion," instead
of xnl rcaaa ¦fi y^ t^s ^QX^S aizov ; xlvi. 5, " its kings," while .iEgypt at that
time had but one king. In x. 16, li. 19, the LXX. have the text, oix laxi,
TOV aiTtj psglg T(i '/axtbj?, ozi 6 nX&aag rd; navza, aizbg xXrjgovofila aizov,
— more correct than the Hebrew Kin ;5n i:2T^ ^3 mi;!"^ prn n^KS sb'

§218, C.J BOOK OF JEREMIAH. 411
6. Additions are sometimes found in the Hebrew
text, and more rarely in the Alexandrian, which make
the sense clear, or explain the matters of fact." Some
historical passages are furnished with such additions ; '
their late origin is shown by the use of such phrases as
"king of Babylon," and "Nebuchadnezzar." (xxxvii.
1, xxvh. 20, and elsewhere.) Perhaps the names of the
priests, Seraiah and Zephaniah, in hi. 24, are errone
ous.' In xxv. 1, the addition, "The first year of
Nebuchadnezzar," is of later origin.'' Here belong the
false inscriptions mentioned above." In xxv. 9 — 14, the
Hebrew text is fiirnished with many additions which
are not in the Septuagint. They came from a later
author, who wrought over the text, designing to make
the prediction more clear.^
" E. g. xxxv. 5, bn"iii« - "las ; ix, 13, xix, 1, Eins  ng6g pe ; xlviii 4,
njpS^t _ "iSiteirn, (here the later orthography is observable;) xliii 2,
IflK - 'llpi;3 1in?2 ; the LXX, have merely ii/EvSr], as in xxxvii. 14.
' Chap, xl, 2—9, 11, 12, xli. 1—3, 6, 7, 9, 10, 13, 15, 16, xxxviii 6—12,
14, 18, xxix. 2, iDi'n-'i rrnn-i i-iia _ tj^o'i'ien .
" Comp. 1 Ch, V. 41, Jer, xxix, 26, The names interpolated in xxvi 22,
betray themselves by the repetition of "to jEgypt," a^iaJab .
¦* The same may be said of Iii 12, xxxii, 1, where the LXX, have the
same. In xlvii. 4, the additions 'lllnM and D'lnziifi disturb the sense:
tiie simpler text ofthe LXX, gives a suitable sense — "Jehovah destroys the
reUcs of the sea-coast," Comp, xxviii, 16, xxix, 32, v, 13, xxiii. 36,
' § 217, a.
f Verse 9, " Behold, I will send and take all the families of the north,
saith Jehovah, and to JVebuchadnezzar, the king of Babylon, my servant ; "
verse II, " the king of Babylon ; " verse 12, " to the king of Babylon 
and tlie land ofthe Cluddeans ,- " verse 14 is added entire, and is like the inter
polation in xxvii 7, (See § 217, c) So, verse 26, "31 l^TV I^S is wanting
in the LXX., and, indeed, the name Sheshach actually seems to be not
Jeremianic. Venema has justiy observed — though Movers has not — that
verse 13, ntn 1203 aiDStt bs , cannot have come from the hand of Baruch.
In verse 18, flTn bT^n belongs also to the later additions.

412 BOOK OF JEREMIAH. [§ 218, d.
§218, d.
THE SAME SUBJECT CONCLUDED.
7. In both the masoretic and Alexandrian text, we
find in different places different readings, for the most
part easier, or of an explanatory character." Some
times the Alexandrian readings are older than the
masoretic' 8. In both we find common variants, which arose
from the repetition of a word or a letter, and the mis
conception of the sense, occasioned by that repetition,'
or from the admission of glosses into the text."*
9. In chap, hi., the Seventy follow the text of 2
Kings XXV., which appears to be older than the maso
retic text of Jer. hi.
These discrepances between the Hebrew and Greek
text of Jeremiah may be traced at an early date. They
are mentioned by Origen and Jerome." From the char-
" E. g, xxii, 5, the LXX, have noi-ZiarizE, as if it were in Hebrew IffiSti ,
according to verse 4, instead of IStolCtl; xxii, 22, IftSI "{"'las, as in iv, 21 ;
xxi 7, the LXX, have 6 olxog aov xal 6 Xa6g aov.
' E, g, ii, 18, rrjStv, for UTiffi [?]; li. 14, &poae xigiog xiza zov ^gaj(lo-
vog aizov, instead of iaE:3; xliii 13, xal avvzgltliEt zoig ariXovg 'HXiov-
TidXsiug, (a mistranslation for temple of the sun,) zoig iv "Slv, instead of
Bi-isa 21S3 1ID!* iDtt^a rria mass ns laiDi,
' There is such a mistake of the LXX, in ii 2, 3, In xli 9, sin i)n3 113 ,
the letters in were accidentally repeated, and the LXX. translated (pgiag
fiiya Tmzd iaxiv ; from a misunderstanding of 112 arose the masoretic
reading, sin in^iia 112 .
¦* In this way, in xi 13, bsai ItJpb r.lPiata is added to riia2ii mnaitt ;
the LXX, have only Btapoig ¦Ovfuav t'^ BdaX. Comp, xliv. 3, vii. 24.
' Origen, Ep, ad Africanum : IloXXdt di TOiavza xal iv xu 'Ugs/ita xo-

§219, a.J BOOK OF JEREMIAH. 413
acter of the variations above described, and from the
literal fidelity of the version, it is plain these discre
pances are not to be charged to the transcriber, as
Grabe maintains," nor to the translator, as others have
thought.' §219, a.
DIFFERENT EDITIONS AND COLLECTIONS OF THESE
PROPHECIES.
According to Jer. xxxvi., — written in the fourth year
of Jehoiakim," — the previous oracles of the prophet were
written down by Baruch,"* and, when the first copy was
burnt, they were written anew, and enlarged. The
several parts of this collection are not arranged in chron-

TEVoijcro^Ei', iv (S 11^1' noXXijv fiEz&ft'Eaiv xal ivaXXay^v rije Xi^Eoig t&v
ngocpEZEvo/jivmv sigofiEv. Jerome, Prooem, ad Com, in Jer. : Jeremiffi ordi
nem librariorum errore confusum, multaque qute desunt, ex Hebraiis fontibus
digerere, ordinare, deducere, et complere (censui,) ut novum ex veteri,
verumque pro corrupto atque falsato prophetam teneas, Prcef in Jer, : Prse-
terea ordinem visionum, qui apud Grsecos et Latinos omnino confusus est,
correximus, " De Vitiis LXX. Interpret, p, 12, sqq,
' Spohn, Prtef, ad Jerem, p, 7, sqq, De Wette, in the 4th edition of this
work. For an example of the fidelity of the LXX,, see xlii 7, According
to Movers, the translator has only made omissions from o^oioziXsvzov, and
misunderstanding. He gives no explanation of the difference between the
Hebrew and Greek text in xlvi. 15, (Heb, xxvi, 15,) Siarl 'dcpvyEv ind aov
i5 " Antg ; 6 fidaxog u ixXEXzdg aoH osex efietvEv. I should rather ascribe
these differences, and some others, to the translator, (See above, § 218,
a. p, 406,)
' Moveis (p, 34, note) thinks in verse 9 we must read fifth year, and not
fourth '' Eichhorn (§ 537) rightiy maintains that Jeremiah dictated to Baruch
from memory, Bertholdt (p, 1421) erroneously explains Sip (verse 18) by
reading from what was written down before. It is contrary to verse 32 to
suppose, as Eichhorn does, that Baruch wrote on separate leaves.

414

BOOK OF JEREMIAH.

[§ 219, a.

ological order, either in the masoretic or Alexandrian
text." The following chapters seem to belong to the first
collection : i. — xx.' xxvi. xxxv. xxxvi. xlv. xxv. 1 — 13.
Here, the words " which Jeremiah hath prophesied
against all the nations" seem to have made the transi
tion to the oracles against foreign nations, (xxv. 15 — 38,
xlvi. — xhx., — in the Septuagint xxv. 34 — xxxii. 38,)'

Table of the Prophecies, with their Date,

xxvi, beginning of J,
(xxxiii in LXX,)
xxxv, 4th year of J,
(xlii, in LXX,)
xxxvi 4th year of J,
(xliii in LXX,)
xlv, 4th year of J,
(li in LXX,)

Under Josiah. Under Jehoiakim. Under Zedekiah.
iii 6 — vi 30, xxv. 4th year of J, xxi,xxiv. beginning of Z,
xxvii id,, according
to the true reading,
(xxxiv, in LXX,
xxviii, 4th year of Z.
(xxxv. in LXX,
xxix, beginning of Z,
(xxxvi.)
xxxii. 10th yr. of Z.
(xxxix,) xxxiii, (xl.) xxxiv.(xli xxxvn.(xliv.) xxxviii,
(xlv,)xxxix, 15,
(xlvi, 15,)
xlix, 34, (false,)
1, li, 4th year of Z,
(xxvii. sq,]
' According to Movers, (Bonner Zeit voi xii, p, 98, sqq,) chap, i — ix.
belong in the tune of Josiah ; x, 17— xx, in that of tiie ^Egyptian invasion.
Maurer places ii 1— iii, 5, vii,— ix, a, 17—25, xi, 1—17, xvi 1— xvii, 18,
xviii,, in Jehoiakim's time ; xiii, in Jehoiachin's ; and xix, I — 13, in Zede
kiah's time. See Knobel, vol, ii p, 270, sqq.
' According to Movers, Isa, xxiii, belongs to Jeremiah, and to this date.

After the Capture
of the City.
xl, — xlii,
(xlvii, — ^xlix,)

§219, (t. J BOOK OF JEREMIAH. 415
which hkewise were uttered before that time — the
fourth year of Jehoiakim." The position of these proph
ecies against foreign nations in the book, is given more
correctly in the Septuagint, but the arrangement in the
masoretic text is the best ; for, as the ^Egyptians are
mentioned first, (xxv. 19,) and Elam last, (verse 25,) so
the oracle upon .^gypt should come first, (chap, xlvi.,)
and that on Elam last. (chap, xlix.) The Alexandrian
text places the oracle on Elam first, because that was of
the greater interest when that version was made.
Chap. xxh. — xxiv. were written at the beginning of
Zedekiah's reign, (xxiv. 1,) and published ; ' for Ezekiel
was acquainted with chap, xxiii., and had reference to
it in his simhar prophecy, (chap, xxxiv.,) — though this
may be questioned, — which was written after the de
struction of the city. He was acquainted with Ba-
ruch's collection, as Movers concludes from the numerous
parallels between that and Ezekiel."
Chap, xxvii. — xxix. were written at the beginning of
Zedekiah's reign ; and, since they have passed through
the hands of the redactor, it appears they were published
separately. Chap. xxx. xxxi. xxxhi. (according to xxx. 2) and
I. li. (according to li. 60) form, likewise, separate books.

But if we remove the spurious additions from chap, xxv., (see above, § 218, c,)
and leave verse 1.3, n^is ini21 IBS, remaining, then, according to his
hypothesis, the logical connection would be lost ; for these words would
relate to chap, 1, li,, which do not belong to this collection, for they are of
later origin, and belong to the 4th year of Zedekiah.
" Comp, xlvi, 2, xlv, 1, xxxvi, 32,
' But xxii 1 — 19, must have been written in Jehoiakim's time, and xxii,
20 — 30, in Jehoiachin's, See Maurer, Knobd, and Hitzig, in locc,
" The most certain are Ezek, v. 12, vi, 11, 12, vii, 15, xii, 16, xiv. 21,
(comp. Jer. xiv. 12, et al.,) xiii 10, 16, (comp. Jer. vi 14,) xvi. 51, (comp, Jer.
iii 11,) xxiii, 11, (comp, Jer. iii, 7,) xxxiii, 4, (comp. Jer. vi 17.)

416 BOOK OF JEREMIAH. [§219,6.
Chap. xxi. xxxiv. xxxvii. xxxii. xxxviii. — xliv. were
written before and after the destruction of Jerusalem,
and published by Jeremiah in jEgypt.
It appears, then, that originahy the Jeremianic proph
ecies were in six books."

§ 219, "6.
THE SAME SUBJECT CONTINUED.
According to Movers, these six different books of
prophecies previously extant — with the exception of
xxvii. — xxix. xxxi. xxxih., which were unknown to
Zechariah — were first collected into one book, soon after
the exhe, by the same author who comphed the books of
Kings. This author wrote 2 Kings xxv. at the end of
Jer. hi. Since the Talmud' declares that "Jeremiah
wrote his book, the book of Kings, — that is, an ancient
book of Kings, the source of our present books of Kings
— and his Lamentations, and since there is a certain
affinity between Kings and Jeremiah," therefore it is
probable that the same author compiled the Prophecies
and Lamentations of Jeremiah, as well as the books of
Kings ; ' that he originally placed the latter between the
Prophecies and the Lamentations of Jeremiah ; that
afterwards the passages mentioned in Baba Bathra" were,
for the first time, put between Jeremiah and Kings,^and,
when the others were separated from the Prophecies, 2
" [1. Chap, i — XX, xxvi, xxxv. xxxvi xlv. xxv. 1 — 13. 2. Chap, xxv. 15
— 38, xlvi — ^xlix. 3, Chap, xxii — xxiv. 4. Chap, xxvii, — xxix. 5. Chap.
XXX. xxxi xxxiii. 1. li 6. Chap, xxi xxxiv, xxxvii xxxii. xxxviii — xliv.]
>¦ Baba Bathra, foL 14, c. 1, vol. i p. 31. ' See above, § 186, p, 251, sqq,
* "Fragmenta t|i5i?3 ISO," ' Foi 14, c, 2, voi i p. 31.
/ [De Wette s&ys, "between Samttel and Jeremiah;" but this appears to
be a misprint for Kings.]

§219, C.J BOOK OF JEREMIAH. 417
Kings XXV. was ahowed to remain at the end of Jere
miah. (Iii.)" §219, c.
THE SAME SUBJECT CONTINUED.
A second and complete collection of these Prophecies
was afterwards made, distinguished by the insertion of
xxxix. 4 — 13, which is derived from a later recension
of hi. ;' by the later recension of xxvii. — xxix. xxx. xxxi.
xxxih., which were then first added to the collection ;
and by numerous additions to the text, such as xlvi. 25,
xlvh. 1, 1. 28." Nehemiah was the author of this col
lection, for xxxih. 18, 23, refers to his time. 2 Mace. ii.
13, ascribes the collection of the Prophets to him, and
the writer of the book of Chronicles — which Movers
thinks was composed in his time — is actually ac
quainted with Jer. xxvii., with its present additions.''
He, or the previous compher, used Baruch's collection
as the basis of his work, but separated the predictions
against foreign nations from chap, xxv., placed them at the
end, and added thereto chap. I. h. He then inserted the
other prophecies in chronological order, and according to
a certain similarity of their contents, so that, in his ar
rangement, the domestic prophecies were together,
(i. — xlvi.,) and foreign prophecies came afterwards, (xlv.
— li.) At the same time, he made a recension of the
text. For this purpose, he made use of an old copy of the
" The opinion of Movers is still obscure to me. Sometimes he says this
passage (Iii) is added to Jeremiah from the books of Kings, (p. 64 ;) some
times (p. 47) he seems to regard the passage in Jeremiah as original.
» See § 218, b, note 6, p. 407.
" It would be more consistent to maintain that chap. 1. and li. were also
first added at this time. [?]
'' Comp. 2 Ch. xxxvi 20, 21, with Jer. xxvii 7, and xxv. 13, 14.
VOL. II. 53

4(18 BOOK OF JEREMIAH. [§ 219, d.
Jeremianic writings, free from additions, and took from
other manuscripts sometimes different readings, and
marginal notes likewise, and sometimes such additions
as 1. 45 — 48. He found others, but did not insert them.
The author of the Alexandrian recension, which is
not much later than the masoretic, adhered to the un-
chronological arrangement of this compher, but left the
prophecies against foreign nations in their former place.
In the recension of the text, he pursued a simhar plan ;
he also adopted some later additions into the text, but
rejected many, and, for the most part, adhered to the
old text. §219, </.
THE SAME SUBJECT CONCLUDED.
The above hypotheses are far less admissible than the
results of the preceding critical inquiries. There is but
a feeble argument for supposing that the books of Kings
and the prophecies of Jeremiah were collected by the
same compher. The use made of the statement in the
Talmud is arbitrary ; there is but a feeble reason for
assuming that the compher of Jeremiah's prophecies did
not take chap. Iii. from a contemporary work. The above
conjectures do not explain why the Seventy, who left
the prophecies against foreign nations in their former
place, transposed xxv. 15, sqq. ; nor why, if they had
the old edition before them, they followed the masoretic
recension in its false arrangement of the domestic
prophecies. There are other hypotheses, but they are still more
improbable." " Eichliom (§540) supposes there was an old collection of Jeremiah's

§ 220.J BOOK OF JEREMIAH. 419
§220.
LITERARY CHARACTER OF THE PROPHECIES OF JEREMIAH.
In Jeremiah's prophecies, the spirit of his time and
the condition of his people are faithfully reflected. His
humor is sad, melancholy, and depressed. His thoughts
oracles, written on separate sheets, or leaves, which was circulated in iEgypt,
and another and later edition — enlarged in some parts — that came into cir
culation in Babylon and Palestine. This hypothesis in an easy manner ex
plains many variations from the Hebrew text; such, for example, as vii. 1, 2,
xxv. 1, xxix. 1, xxv. 18, and others. But it does not account for the additions
made in this version. The position of the oracles against foreign nations,
considered as a whole, might have been changed by the caprice of some crit
ic, who took occasion to malie this change, from xxv. 13, and Ezek, xxv, sqq.
This change would involve the omission of xxv. 14. The different arrange
ment of the separate chapters in this portion of the book might have been
caused b)' an accidental confusion of the separate leaves on which it was
written. But this whole hypothesis rests on the false supposition that the
oracles were written on loose and separate sheets. And, besides, it is
improbable for other reasons,
Bertholdt (p, 1457, sqq,) maintains that the book of Jeremiah originated
out of three compilations, and two loose leaves. Chap, i, — xxiv, he calls
Codex A, Chap, xlvi, — li, (in the Greek, xxv. 14— xxxii.) he supposes was
compiled twice, a different arrangement being followed each time. These
he calls Codex B, 1, and B, 2, Chap, xxvi — xlvi, (with the omission of xxiii.
14 — 19,) and xxxix, 4 — 13, he calls Codex C, 1, but with these passages
Codex C. 2, Chap, xxv, 15 — 38 (in Greek, xxxii,) he calls Codex D, ; xxv,
1 — 13, with an amplification of verses 1 — 13, Codex E, ; or the last two
united. Codex P, In Palestine he supposes Codex A,, F,, C, 2, and B, 1,
were united together in the order, A. F, C, 2, B, 1, And in jEgypt Codex
A,, E,, B, 2, D,, C. 1, were united in their order. At the same time,
abbreviations and omissions were allowed to be made.
But this hypothesis is too artificial, and is, in part, very improbable also.
It divides chap, xxv., which makes a whole by itself. It is improbable that
chap. xxvi. — xlv, ever constituted an independent collection, since there is
no inscription to this portion, which lends it the appearance of probability.
This theory does not show why both ofthe collections, independently of one
another, should contain the supplementary chapter hi For it is an arbi
trary supposition to maintain that it was first added to the Greek Jeremiah,
after a comparison had been made with the Hebrew text. Besides, too
much stress is laid on the statement of Josephus, Ant x, 5, 1.

420 BOOK OF JEREMIAH. [§ 220.
have no great elevation, and only attempt short, single
flights. But he is not destitute of noble and liberal
ideas, as in the following passages : —
" And when ye shall have multiplied, and have increased in the
land,
Then shall ye no more speak of the ark of the covenant of Je
hovah,
Nor shall it come into your mind.
None shall remember it ;
None shall care for it.'' (iii. 16.)
" Thus saith Jehovah of hosts, the God of Israel,
•Add your burnt-offerings to your sacrifices,
And eat ye flesh.
For I spake not to your fathers, nor commanded them
Concerning burnt-offerings and sacrifices.
At the time when I brought them out of the land of iEgypt.
But this command gave I unto them :
" Hearken  to my voice.
And I will be your God,
And ye shall be my people ;
And walk ye in all the ways which I command you.
That it may be well with you." ' " (vii. 22, 23.)
" This is the covenant I will make with the house of Israel :
.... I will put my law into their inward parts,
And upon their hearts will I write it 
And they shall teach no more
Every man his neighbor and every man his brother,
Saying, ' Know ye Jehovah ; '
For they shall all know me.
From the least of them, even to the greatest of them, saith Jeho
vah." (xxxi 31, sqq.)
But xxxiii. 18, differs from this : —
" Neither from the priests and Levites
Shall a man fail before me.
To offer burnt-offerings, and to kindle meat-offerings,
And to perform sacrifice continually,"
He does not lack deep feehng : —

§ 220. J BOOK OF JEREMIAH. 421
" For the wound of the daughter of my people is my heart
wounded ;
I mourn ; amazement hath taken hold of me ;
Is there no balm in Gilead ?
Is there no physician there?
Why, then, are not the wounds of my people healed ?
O that my head were waters.
And mine eyes a fountain of tears.
That I might weep day and night
For the slain of the daughter of my people,'' (viii, 21, sqq.)
Other instances may be seen in xih. 17, and xxxi. 20.
His style is without uniformity or consistency in
regard to expression and rhythm. It is unequal, fre
quently energetic and concise, especially in the first
twelve chapters ; but more frequently it is tedious,
running out into flatness. It is full of repetitions, and
fixed thoughts and expressions. But it is not without
certain charms of its own. Jerome says of him, " As
he is simple  and easy in his language, so is he
the most profound in the majesty of his thoughts 
In language, he seems to be more rustic than Isaiah and
Hosea, and some other prophets among the Hebrews,
but in thought he is equal to them."" The style,
with its alternations, now rising to rhythm, then sinking
to prose, is attractive. It is like the flickering of a flame
which finds not sufficient fuel. Sometimes whole pas
sages are repeated ; ' sometimes images, thoughts, and

" Jerome, Com. in Jer. Prooem, ad lib, iv, [Some writers deny this
alleged rusticity. See in Carpzov, 1, c. p. 159, sqq. Lowth, De sac, Poes,
Heb, Preelect, xxi,]
' Chap, viii, 10, sqq,, (comp, vi, 1-3, sqq,,) ix, 8, (comp, v, 9,) xi 12, sq,,
(comp. ii, 28,) xx, 12, (comp, ii, 20,) xxii, 4, (comp, xvii, 25,) xxiii, 7, sq,,
(comp, xvi. 14, sq,,) xxvi, 6, (comp, vii. 14,) xxx, 23, sq,, (comp, xxiii, 19,
sq,,) xxxiii. 25, sq., (comp. xxxi. 35, sq.,) xliii 11, (comp. xv. 2,) xlvi 28,
(comp, xxx. 11.)

422

BOOK OF JEREMIAH.

[§ 220.

expressions." Some of his expressions are circumlocu
tory, and some passages are so prolix as to become
wearisome.' The passages relating to foreign nations are distin
guished by a more energetic tone, and by a more ani
mated style, which has a tendency to rhythm, but also
by borrowed passages, as the following parallels will
show : —

Jer. xlvih.
"CONCERNING MOAB,"
3 " A cry is heard from Horo-
naim,
4 At the ascent of Luhith,
Weeping goeth up after weep
ing.
37 Every head is bald.
And every beard shorn.
And upon the loins sackcloth.
38 Upon all the house-tops of
Moab, and in her streets.
All is lamentation.
34 From wailing Heshbon to
Elealeh,
Even to Jahaz, is their voice
heard.
From Zoar even to Horonaim,
As of a heifer three years old ;

Isa. XV. xvi.
"CONCERNING MOAB."
" In the way of Horonaim they
raise a cry of despair.
For they ascend the heights of
Luhith weeping.
On every head is baldness.
And every beard is shorn.
In their streets they gird
themselves with sackcloth ;
On the tops of their houses,
and in their public walks.
Every one howleth.
Heshbon and Elealeh utter a
cry;
Even to Jahaz is their voice
heard.
Fugitives wander to Zoar,
Like a heifer of three years old ;

° Chap, xxv, 10, (comp, xvi 9, vii, 34 ;) xxiii, 15, (comp, viii, 14, ix, 14 ;)
xlix, 22, 24, (comp, xxx, 6, xxii 23, xiii, 21, vi, 24, iv. 31 ;) xxxii, 33, vii 24,
ii 27 ; xliv, 4, xxxv, 15, xxix. 19, xxvi, 5, xxv, 4, vii. 25 ; xliv. 13, 18, xlii
16, sq,, xxxviii, 2, xxxiv, 17, xxxii 36, xxix, 17, xxvii 13, xxi, 7, 9, xviii 21,
XV. 2, xiv, 12, xliv, 22, xxvi 3, xxv. 5, xxiii, 2, 21, xxi. 12, iv, 4 ; xxiii 17,
xviii 12, xvi, 12, xi, 8, ix. 13, vii 24, iii 1 7 ; xlix, 37, xliv, 30, xxxiv, 20, xxi
7. Comp, § 216, b.
' Chap, viii, 3, xxiv, 8, xxxix, 9; v, 17, viii, 1, sq,, xvii, 25, sq,, xxi, 5, 7,
xxii 25, xxiii, 37, sq,, xxiv, 9, xxv, 18, xxvii. 9, xxix, 18, xxxi. 27, xxxii 32,
44, xxxiii. 10, 13, xlii, 18, xliv, 9, 12. Comp, § 218, b.

§ 220.J

BOOK OF JEREMIAH.

423

For even the waters of Nim-
rim are desolate,
36 Therefore doth my heart
sound like a flute for Mo
ab,
And for the men of Kir-ha-
resh 
45 A fire is gone forth from
Heshbon,
And a flame from the midst
of Sihon,
Which devoureth the region
of Moab,
And the heads of the sons of
tumult.
Woe to thee, O Moab.
Undone is the people of Che
mosh,
For thy sons are taken cap
tives.
And thy daughters are cap
tives," Jer. xlix. 7 — 17.
"CONCERNING EDOM."
9 " If grape-gatherers had come
upon thee,
Would they not have left
some gleanings ?
If thieves by night.
They would have destroyed
only till they had enough.
14 I have heard a proclamation
from Jehovah,
And an ambassador hath been
sent among the nations,
[Saying,] ' Assemble your
selves and come against
her,
And arise to battle.'

6 For the waters of Nimrim
are desolate.
11 Therefore shall my bowels
sound like a harp for Moab,
And my heart for Kir-haresh."
Num. xxi. 28, sq.
" For there is a fire gone out
of Heshbon,
A flame from the city of Sihon.
It hath consumed Ar of Moab,
And the lords of the high
places of Arnon,
Woe to thee, Moab,
Thou art undone, O people
of Chemosh,
He hath given his sons that
escaped,
And his daughters into cap
tivity,"

Obad. verses 1 — 6.
"CONCERNING EDOM."
" Have grape-gatherers come
upon thee?
But would they not leave
gleanings of the grapes ?
Have thieves come upon
thee ? 
Would they not cease steal
ing when they had enough?
We have heard a message
from Jehovah,
And an ambassador hath
been sent among the na
tions, [saying,]
' Arise ye, and let us arise
against her to war,'

424 BOOK OF JEREMIAH. [§ 220.

15 Behold, I will make thee
small among the nations.
Despised among men," &c.

Behold, I will make thee
small among the nations ;
Thou shalt be greatly de
spised," &c,
Eichhorn " thinks the higher rhythmical tone which so
strikingly pervades the oracles against foreign nations,
arises from the prophet's copying the words of other wri
ters. But perhaps it is better to explain it from the
greater elevation of spirit which the subject brought
with it. Besides, the discourse elsewhere rises to the
same height, whenever he threatens in a decided man
ner, (v. vi.) His admonitions, on the contrary, usually
sink down to prose. There are other imitations or
reminiscences of older writers, — of Isaiah, Job, and the
Psalms.'' In his visions, Jeremiah's use of symbols is poor and
weak, and also in his frequent symbolical actions, (xih.
xviii. xix. 1 — 13, xxvii. xxxii. xxxv.,) which, for the most
part, are fictitious. The last two alone are emphatic.
The language bears the marks of its age, Emd is very
much degenerated."
° §536.
' See Jahn, i c. p. 559.
Comp. X. 12, with  Ps. cxxxv. 7. [?]
 x. 25, with  Ps, Ixxix, 6, [?]
 ii, 21, with  Isa. v, 2,
 XV, 10, and xx, 14, with  Job iii,
• xlviii 43, 44, witii  Isa. xxiv. 17, 18. [?]

' u\^^^an , for n^pn ; xi 16. naiis , for nabs ; li 51, stib , for n':.
•ijriis, BtliS, for IjFlS, tJFiS; i 16, xix, 10, xx, II, IBS, for &»; iv. 30.
ipina^; ii. 33, (comp. iii. 4, 5, iv. 19, et al.) ^S, for '^I; xi 15. nlbjn; xiii.
19. Di3irsii ; xxv. 3. ITl^riit^ ; xlvi 8. tlias , for nsas ; xxvi, 9. *l5tlH, for
IJiri!*; iii 22, Substantives in n^l, and tl^, as nil'^'lffi, ^''>2'^S. b sign
of ace; xi 2. Tia, bsa, 3M, t:n3, t'^/i, nms, nbCPi, &c. See
A'Ug. Knobd, Jeremias Chaldaizans ; Vratisl, 1831, 8vo, [Knobel, Heb, Proph.
vol. ii, p, 264, sqq,]

§221.] BOOK OF EZEKIEL. 425
CHAPTER III.
EZEKIEL,- §221.
CIRCUMSTANCES OF HIS LIFE AND TIMES.
Ezekiel, son of the priest Buzi, and a younger con
temporary of Jeremiah, was carried into exile by the
Chaldeans, with King Jehoiachin, or Jechoniah, and a
portion of the people. This took place eleven years
before the destruction of Jerusalem. He was carried to
Mesopotamia, to the River Chaboras.* According to
i. 2, he was carried away in the first captivity, men
tioned in 2 Kings xxiv. 14, sqq., and Jer. xxix. 2. Jo
sephus erroneously says Ezekiel was carried away in
the time of Jehoiakim.'
In the fifth year of his residence there, seven years
» Joa~ (Ecolampadii Comment, in Ezech, ; Bas, 1543, foi
Vietorin. Strigelii Ezech, Proph. ad Hebr. Veritat recogn. et Argumentis
et Scholiis illustr. ; Lips, 1564, 1575, 1579,
Casp. Sandii Comm, in Ezech, et Dan, ; Lug. Bat 1619, fol,
Hieron. Prodi et Jo. Bapt. Villalpandi in Ezech, Explanatt et Appara
tus Urbis ac Templi Hieros, Commeutariis iUustratus; Rom, 1596 — 1604,
3 vols, fol,
Jo. Fr. Starkii Comm, in Ezech. ; Frcf, 1731, 4to,
Herm. Venemas Lectiones acad, ad Ezech, pt, i c, i, — xxi Praef, Verschuir ;
Leov, 1790, 4to,
Will. JVewcome, An Attempt toward an Improved Version, a Metrical
Arrangement, and an Explanation of the Prophet Ezekiel; Dubl. 1788, 4to.
Rosenmiilleri Schoi in Ezech, Maurer, 1, c. See the Elenchus Interprett
in Rosenm. Schol, in Ezech.
' [Here (Semens Alex, thinks he was visited by Pythagoras. Strom, i
p. 304, ed. Sylburg. See also Hudius, Demons. Ev. ; Amst 1680, Prop. iv.
vol. i p. 131, sq,, p, 78, sqq.]
' Ant X, 6, 3.
VOL. II. 54

426 BOOK OF EZEKIEL. [§ 222
before the destruction of Jerusalem, he appeared as a
prophet, as he says in i. 1 : " Now it came to pass in the
thirtieth year [of Nabopolassar, 595 B. C]  1
saw visions of God." So far as we know, he prophesied
unth about the twenty-seventh year of his captivity,
that is, unth the sixteenth year after the destruction of
Jerusalem, (572 B. C. ;) for this is the last date he men
tions, (xxix. 17.)° It is not known whether he prophesied
later or not, or when he closed his life.' He was held
in much respect by the exhes, and afforded them a point
of union, (vii. 1, xiv. 1, xx. 1.)
§222.
CONTENTS OF THE BOOK.
Ezekiel amongst the exiles, as Jeremiah at home, had
to contend with the spirit of obstinacy and impatience,
and vain hopes, which were nourished by the false
prophets. (Jer. xxvh. xxix. Ezek. xih.) His chief
theme, (i. — xxiv.,) as well as that of Jeremiah, is the
unavoidable Hestruction of Jerusalem, and the captivity
of the people, which he represents as the well-merited
punishment of the apostasy of Israel, and in particular
of the idolatry which he so bitterly reproaches, (vi. viii.
9 — 18, xiv. 1 — 8, XX. xxhi. :) only once (xxi. 33 — 37)
there is a threat against the Ammonites.
After several prophecies — some of which belong to a
later period — against foreign nations, and respecting
Nebuchadnezzar's victories, (xxv. — xxxii.,) the prophet
continually applies himself to the circumstances of his
" RosenmSUer, in loc
' See the apocryphal accounts respecting him in Carpzov, p. 200, and
Bertholdt, p. 1479, sqq.

§ 223, a.] BOOK OF ezekiel. 427
own nation ; for the destruction of Jerusalem had taken
place at that time. At first he threatens and punishes
them, (xxxiii. xxxiv. ;) afterwards he promises restoration
and prosperity, (xxxvi. xxxvii.,) victory and vengeance
upon their enemies, (xxxv. xxxviii. xxxix.) In a vision
he sees the new temple, the new metropolis, and the
establishment of the new state, (xl. — xlvhi.) The book
may, perhaps, be divided into three parts : —
1. Domestic prophecies before the destruction of
Jerusalem, (i. — xxiv.)
2. Prophecies respecting foreign nations, (xxv. —
xxxii.) 3. Domestic prophecies after the destruction of Jeru
salem, (xxxiii. — xlvih.)
It is true the oracle against Edom (xxxv.) ought to
stand in connection with chap. xxvi. ; but it has a suita
ble place here where it stands, very much like that of
Isaiah. (Ixih. 1 — 6.) Chapters xxxvhi. and xxxix. have
rather a reference to domestic than to foreign affairs, and
therefore are properly connected with chap, xxxviii.

§ 223, a.
THE LITERARY AND PROPHETIC CHARACTER OF EZEKIEL.
Ezekiel's striking peculiarities are impressed upon the
work from beginning to end. Oeder and Vogel have
raised doubts respecting the genuineness of chap. xl. —
xlvhi., Corrodi against chap, xxxviii. xxxix., and an anon
ymous writer against the oracles relating to foreign na
tions." But Eichhorn, Jahn, and Bertholdt, have replied
' Monthly Magazine for March, 1798. See Gabler, Neu. Theol. Journal,

428 BOOK OF EZEKIEL. [§ 223, «.
satisfactorily to all these objections. The latter oracles,
— those respecting foreign nations, — it is true, have
this peculiarity, that they are without symbolism, and are
written in a more poetical and learned style. Chap.
xxvii., especially, is very learned."
The most striking peculiarity is his Levitical spirit,
which leads him to set a high value on religious ceremo
nies, as the following passages show : —
" Behold, I have never been polluted ; for, from my youth until
now, have I not eaten that which died of itself, or was torn in pieces,
neither hath unclean food come into my mouth." (iv. 14.)
" I [Jehovah] would not bring them into the land flowing with
milk and honey, the glory of all lands, because they despised my
laws, and walked not in my statutes, but polluted my Sabbaths."
(xx. 16.)
" I would scatter them among the nations, because they did not
observe mine ordinances, but despised my statutes and polluted my
Sabbaths,  therefore I gave them statutes that were not
good," &c. (verse 24.)
" Her priests  make no distinction between the holy and
profane, and show not the difference between the clean and the un
clean, and they hide their eyes from my Sabbaths, and I am profaned
among them." (xxii 8, 26.)
Even in the formation of his ideals he cannot rise
above these ceremonies, (xlih. 13, sqq., xliv. — xlvi.,)
but insists strongly on the old ritual observances.
But in xlvii. 22, he allows strangers to have an inherit
ance, as well as native Jews.' This adherence to the
ritual and Levitical forms and ceremonies, is the cause
of his want of depth and richness of mind, and his
deficiency in great thoughts. However, there are ex-
vol. ii p. 322, sqq. Eichhorn, § 548, sqq. Jahn, p, 594, sqq, Bertholdt,
p, 1491, sqq,
" See Vogel, Freie Untersuch, Biich, A, T, p, 344, Corrodi, Beleucht d.
Gesch, d, Kanon, i 95, sqq, Gabler's Neuest Theol, Journal, vol, ii, p, 322,
'' See Gramberg, I. c, § 10, 27, 44,

§ 223, a.} BOOK OF ezekiel. 429
ceptions to this rule, as may be seen in what fol
lows : —
" Have I any pleasure at all that the wicked should die, saith
Jehovah, and not that he should turn from his ways and live?"
(xviii. 23.)
" I have no pleasure in the death of the wicked, but that the
wicked turn from his way and live. Turn ye, turn ye, from your
evil ways, for why will ye die?" (xxxiii. 11, and xxxvi. 26.)
His sense of duty is very deep and clear : —
" Speak thou my words to them, whether they will hear, or
whether they will forbear." (ii, 7,)
" If the watchman see the sword coming, and blow not the trum
pet, and the people be not warned, and the sword come and take
away any person from among them, he is taken away for his iniquity,
but his blood will I require at the watchman's hand."
" I [Jehovah] have set thee [Ezekiel] for a watchman to the house
of Israel,  when I say to the wicked, ' O wicked man, thou
shalt surely die,' and thou speakest not to warn the wicked, — that
wicked man shall die for his iniquity, but his blood will I require
at thy hand." (xxxiii. 2 — 9.)
His policy is wise. (xvh. 11, sqq.)
The prophetic style, with him, is sunk down to low,
tedious, and dull prose." It is only in symbolical and
allegorical fictions that he rises above the common ; but
then he usually falls down again to what is exaggerated.

" Amphfication ; ii 3 — 8, iii 4 — 11, vi 3 — 6,13, xxxix. II — 16. Great
minuteness ; xviii (Comp, Jer, xxxi, 29,) Repetition of thoughts and forms
of expression ; v, 12, 16, vi, 11, 12, vii, 15, xiv, 21 ; v, 11, vii 4, viii, 18, ix.
to ; vii. 3, 4, The formula ^Sj'^'i {and they shall know) occurs more than
forty times. Strophes occur in xxv,, and something similar in xxxii 22 — 30,
See Knobel, vol. ii p. 308, sqq.
[His obscurity was confessed by the Jews themselves. Jerome, Preef ad
Ezek., says, Aggrediar Ezek. prophetam cujus difficultatem Hebrseorum
probat traditio. Nam nisi quis apud eos aetatem sacerdotalis ministerii (i e,
tricesimum annum) impleverit, nee principia Geneseos, nee Canticum Can-
ticorum, nee hujus voluminis exordium et finem legere permittitur, &c.J

430 BOOK OF ezekiel. [§ 223, a.
far-fetched, and confused. He uses the supernatural to
excess, as in the remarkable account of his call to the
prophetic ofSce, (i. — iii. 14;) in the visions respecting
the punishment of Jerusalem, where the same imagery
occurs ; and in chap. xl. — xlvhi. H« is the first among
all the prophets who introduces angels. He repeats the
formula, " thus saith Jehovah," to satiety. He even
uses it in the proper speeches of Jehovah, as in vi. 3,
and repeats it more than eighty times. The allegories
could not be understood unless he explained them, as
in xvii. xix. ; at other times they are a medium between
allegory and personification, as chap. xvi. xxiii. Some of
the symbolical actions are too minute in their similitude.
Instances of this fault may be seen in the account of his
lying down and besieging a the for four hundred and
thirty days, (iv. ;) of his cutting his hair and dividing it
into three parts, to represent the different fate that
awaited different portions of the people, (v. ;) and that
of his eating his food, trembling while he ate. (xh. 18.)
Some of them are not sufficiently striking to the eye,
as the account of his boiling flesh in a caldron, (xxiv.
3, sqq. ;) of taking two sticks, one representing Judah,
the other Israel, and uniting them, to show that the two
nations should be united, (xxxvii. 16, sqq.) The sym
bolic account of the dry bones restored to life (xxxvii.
1 — 14) is the only one that can be considered successful.
The language is still more degenerate than that of Jer
emiah." " Besides the forms "^m; ''PibOiP; "^3, for \, VHK^ for "ifis*^ as in
Jeremiah: KriM, for ntlM; xxxi 5. sn "ig'iSS!;, for t}'^  ; xh. 15.
"iMIoa, for ¦'nrica ; xlvii 7. t:in'i'iriF|ffi">a ; viii 16, Infinitive Hophd;
xxxii, 19. DIS " "^a ; ii. 1, and very often. [See Gesenius, Thesaurus, sub
voce.] See other examples in Eidthom, § 548, and Gesenius, Gesch. d.

§223, 6. j BOOK OF ezekiel. 431
In his writings the literary art predominates over all,
and the greater part of his prophecies are to be consid
ered simply as literary productions, (i. — vii. viii. — xi. xl.
— xlvih.) In none of the old prophets do we find such
definite predictions as in Ezekiel. Thus, in the follow
ing, he predicts the flight of the Jews and the captivity
of Zedekiah : —
" I will bring him to Babylon,  yet he shall not see it,
though he shall die there," (xii, 13.)
" Moreover the word of Jehovah came to me in the ninth year, in
the tenth month, in the tenth day of the month,  ' Write the
name of the day, even ofthis same day.'" (verse 1.)
" In the day when I take from them their strength,  in that
day shall one that is escaped come to thee, to cause thee to hear it
with thine ears." (verse 26.) This is fulfilled in xxxiii. 21, " In the
twelfth year of our captivity, in the tenth month, on the fifth day
of the month, one who had escaped from Jerusalem came to me,
saying, ' The city is smitten,' "
§ 223, b.
THE SAME SUBJECT CONTINUED,
[" One characteristic of Ezekiel, universally acknowl
edged, is this, — that he explains every thing minutely,
down to its smallest parts. He unfolds and develops
formahy, and places before us in all possible lights, what
the old prophets would touch upon in a metaphor, or
allude to with a glance, or, at most, present in a very
few words, or exhibit in one only of its phases. Another
characteristic, which distinguishes his oracles from all

Heb. Sprache, p. 33, «qq., above, vol. i Appendix, D. Havernik, vol. i p. 239.
Zunz, 1. c. p. 159, sqq. He makes the observation that Ezekiel, still more than
Jeremiah, uses the language of the Pentateuch. In this he resembles the
latest writers ofthe Hagiographa.

432 BOOK OF ezekiel. [§ 224.
others of whatever age, is fiction. To use the word in
its noblest sense, — ah the prophets of all times have
made use of fiction ; without it oracles cannot be. But
no other prophet has given so free course to his fancy,
nor produced so many fictions of such various character.
We find scarcely any prophetic discourses in Ezekiel
worked out and rounded off like those of the other
prophets. Almost all is clothed in symbolical actions,
fables, narratives, ahegories, or in the yet higher kind
of fiction, — in visions. Since these are, for the most
part, very complicated, so great labyrinths of fictions
occur in his writings ; and since but very few commen
tators have the skhl of Theseus, so complaints resound,
from all quarters, on the obscurity of the prophet.
What belongs in the spiritual he brings over into the
material world ; introduces long trains of ideas in a
single picture, and, as they are represented by objects
purely sensual, so there arise great and sometimes
dazzling compositions. He who can embrace all these
in an eagle-glance, and is not distracted from the main
piece by the subordinate parts, all of which concur only
to produce the chief figure, — he alone can understand
the meaning of the whole picture, and can sccucely fancy
how any one can accuse the artist of obscurity."] 

§224.
MANNER IN WHICH THE BOOK ORIGINATED.
There is no doubt that Ezekiel, who commonly
speaks of himself in the first person, wrote the whole
book. Some of the rabbins expressed doubts respect
ing the authority of the book, but merely on account

§ 224.] BOOK OF EZEKIEL. 433
of its doctrines." Ezekiel himself may have compiled
the separate prophecies, for they are arranged according
to a certain plan. The first part (i. — xxiv.) is arranged
in perfect chronological order, as the table in the note
whl show.'
In the comphation of the prophecies against foreign
nations, (xxvi. — xxxh. 17,) the order of events alone is
followed. The fohowing table, in the note, shows the
chronology of the chapters."
This collection of prophecies relating to foreign na
tions may have been inserted as a supplement, or epi
sode, since a resting-place is afforded at the end of the
first part of the book, (xxiv. 27 ;) or because some of
these prophecies actually belong between xxiv. 27, and
xxxiii. 21 : others may have been connected with them
on account of the simharity of their subject. Jahn's
supposition that these oracles were misplaced at a later
period, is unnecessary. Chap, xxxiii. 1 — 20, a passage
of a general character, has been inserted in its present
place, without regard to chronology. The prophecy
goes regularly on in verse 21, and all that follows
belongs in the period after the destruction of the city.
Chap. xl. belongs to the twenty-fifth year of the exile.
" See Carpzov, voi iii. p. 214, sqq, [Spirwza, Tractatus Theol, polit
ch, ii,] The statement in Baba Bathra (in § 14, above, p, 31) is striking,
Zunz (1, c, p, 158, sqq,) makes use of that, the peculiarities of the language,
and some other arguments, and dates the composition in the Persian era,
[But see Knobd, voi ii, p, 314, sqq,]
' Year of the exile, 5, chap, i 1.
 6,  viii 1,
 7,  XX, 1,
 9,  xxiv. 1.
' Year ofthe exile, 11, chap. xxvi. 1. Year of exUe, 11, chap, xxxi 1.
 10,  xxix. 1,  12,  xxxii 1.
 27,  xxix. 17.  12,  xxxii 17.
VOL. II. 55

434 THE TWELVE MINOR PROPHETS. [§225.
Eichhorn explains the arrangement of the book by his
favorite theory, that it was written on several separate
rolls. Bertholdt thinks there were several independent
cohections made, namely, chap. xxv. — xxxii. xxxih. 21
— xxxix. But xxxih. 21, is necessarily connected with
xxiv. 27.

CHAPTER IV.
THE TWELVE MINOR PROPHETS,"
§225.
COLLECTION OF THE TWELVE MINOR PROPHETS
These twelve prophetic works formerly composed but
one book in the canon. In the Wisdom of Sirach it

" Jerome, Comm, in Proph, min,, Opp, iii Mart., vi Vallars.
Theophyladi Comment in Hos,, Habac, Jon,, Nah,, et Mich,, in Opp, ;
Venet, 1754—1763, vol, iv,
Vietorin. Strigelii Argumenta et Scholia in XII, Proph, minores ; 1561.
Joa. Merceri Comm. in Prophetas quinque priores inter eos, qui minores
vocantur, Joa. Drusii Comment, in Proph, min.
Casp. Sandii Comm. in XH. Proph, min, ; Lugd. 1621, foi
Joa. Schmidii in Proph, min, Comm, ; Lips, 1685, 1687, 1689, 4to,
Joa. Tamovii Comment in Proph, min,, c, Prsef, /. B. Carpzovii; Frcf
et Lips, 1688, 1706, 4to,
Ed. Pococke, Commentaries on Hosea, Joel, Micha, and Malachi, Oxf
1685, foi, and in his Works, Lond. 1740, fol.
Joa. Markii in Proph, min, Comm, ; Amst 1696 — 1701, 4 vols, 4to,
Apparatus crit ad formandum V, T, Interpretem congestus a D, C. Fr.
Bahrdt. Vol, i ; Lips, 1775, 8vo, (Hos,, Jo,, Hab,, Hagg,)
WiU. JVewcome, An Attempt towards an Improved Version, a Metrical
Arrangement, and an Explication of the twelve minor Prophets ; Lond.
1785, 4to.
G. L. Bauer, Die kleinen Proph, iibers, u, m, Comm, eri ; Lpz. 1786,
1790, 2 pts.

§225.] THE TWELVE MINOR PROPHETS. 435
is said, (xhx. 10,) " And of the twelve prophets let the
memorial be blessed, and let their bones flourish again
out of their place ; for they comforted Jacob, and
delivered them by assured hope." But this passage is
probably spurious. However, Gregory of Nazianzen
says, " The twelve, indeed, are one scripture," and
enumerates our present minor Prophets." The Jewish
writers make four books of the prophets — Isaiah, Jere
miah, Ezekiel, and the Twelve.
It is probable, therefore, after each of these had,
for some time, been in circulation by itself, that they
were all cohected together, and written on the same roll.
Kimchi says, " Our teachers of pious memory say that
they were cohected into one volume, lest, if they re
mained separate, one or the other of them, on account
of its smahness, would be lost."
They seem to be arranged in a chronological order,
though differently in the Hebrew and Greek manu-
C. F. Staudlin, Beit z. Erlaut d, bibl, Propheten u, z, Gesch, ihrer
Auslegung; als Versuche Hoseas, Nahum, Habakuk neu Ubers, u. exeg.
krit erl. ; Stuttg. 1786.
Chr. G. Hensler, Animadverss. in quaadam XII, Prophet min, Loca ; Kilon,
1786. J. Ch. Dahl, Observatt philol, atque crit ad quaedam Prophet, min. Loca,
Bubjecta vernacula Chabacuci Interpretatione ; Neostrelitise, 1798.
Rosenmuller, Hitzig, and Maurer, 1. c.
Translated into German, by Struense, 1770 ; Vollborth, 1783 ; Molden
hauer, 1787, A translation of Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, and
Obadiah, with remarks, 1791 ; by Theiner, with remarks, 1828, JVoyes, 1. c.
See the Elenchus Interprett in Rosenmiiller's Scholia on the minor Proph
ets, [Exeget Handbuch d. A, T, pt i ; 1&38.]
° [Mlav piv Eiaiv ig ygatf->iv ol JihSsxa-
'Slarji X A^wg, xui Mixaiotg 6 zglzog,
'EnEi-iy Ibi-^X, eTz' lavag, A^Slag,
Naovp TE, A^^axoix tb xal Socfovlag,
'Ayyaiog, eha Za'/ag&iag, MaXa^lag,
Mia fdv olds.] Greg. Naz, Carm. xxxiii.
See Carpzov, vol. iii p, 270, sqq.

436

THE TWELVE MINOR PROPHETS.

[§ 226.

scripts, and not with perfect accuracy, as the table
beneath \^ill show."
This collection may have been commenced earlier,
but it cannot have been completed unth a long time
after the exile.'

I. HOSEA.'

§226.

HIS LIFE AND TIMES.

Hosea, the son of Beeri, was, perhaps, a citizen of
the kingdom of Ephraim. But this does not follow from

Order of the Twelve Hebrew Prophets.

Greek Text.
I. Hosea.
2. Amos.
3, Micah.
4, Joel,
5, Obadiah,
6, Jonah,
7, Nahum.
8. Habakkuk,
9, Zephaniah,
10, Haggai,
11, Zechariah.
12. Malachi,
' See Jiiger, De Ordine Prophetarum minorum chronolog. in the Tu
bingen Zeitschrift, pt ii, 1828, [But see, also, Xewcome's chronological
table, prefixed to his minor Prophets.]
" Hoseas cum Targ, et Comment Rabb. ed. Herm. von der Hardt. See
above, § 59,
7s, Abarbanelis Comm, in Hoseam, Latinitate donatus, una cum Notis
suis ab Francisr. ab Huysen ; Lug, Bat 1687, 4to,
Capitonis Comm, in Hoseam ; Argent 1528, 8vo,
Joa, Brentii Comm, in Hoseam Prophetam ; Hagenose, 1560, 4to, ; Tiib,
1580, fol, [Burroughs, Exposition of Hos, ; Lond. 1643, ed, Sherman, 1840,]
Seb. Schmidii Comm, in Hoseam ; Frcf ad M, 1687, 4to.

Acccn-din^ to Hebrew Text.
1, Hosea.
2, Joel,
3, Amos.
4, Obadiah,
5, Jonah,
6, Micah,
7, Nahum,
8, Plabakkuk,
9, Zephaniah,
10, Haggai,
II. Zechariah,
12, Malachi,

Ace

ording to the Chronology.

I.

Joel, about 810 B. C,

0.

Jonah, , , ,

810 "

3.

Amos, , , ,

790 "

4,

Hosea,, , ,

785 '-

5,

Micah, , ,

725 "

6,

Nahum, , ,

710 "

7,

Zephaniah.

,640 "

8,

Habakkuk,

605 "

9,

Obadiah, .

570 "

10.

Haggai, . .

520 "

11,

Zechariah,

520 "

12,

Malachi, .

440 "

§226.] HosEA. 437
the contents of his prophecies, so certainly as it is com
monly supposed. Amos furnishes us with an example
to prove that Jewish prophets sometimes prophesied in
Israel, and concerning Israel. The pseudo Epiphanius,
in his lives of the prophets, says he was born at Bele-
moth, in the tribe of Issachar. Dorotheus of Tyre
confirms this statement. But they prove nothing. Mau
rer, judging from the analogy between Amos i. 1, and
Hosea i. 1, concludes he was descended from Judah,
and appeared as a prophet among the Ephraimites.
But Credner and Hitzig disagree with him upon this
point." It is said, in i. 1, that he prophesied in the days
of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah, kings of
Judah, and in the days of Jeroboam II., king of Israel.
But this statement is very incorrect. If he first
appeared as a prophet in the last years of Jeroboam,
and prophesied thl the beginning of Hezekiah's reign,
the time of his active life would extend to almost sixty
years, which is quite too much. Hitzig thinks the first
date, in the time of the kings of Judah, is spurious.
Jo. Henr. Manger, Comm. m Hos. ; Campis, 1782, 4to,
Der Proph, Hosea aus der bibl, u. weltl. Historie erl, u, m. krit, phil. u.
theoi Anmerkk, versehen von /, G, SchrSer ; 1782, 8vo.
Annotatt hist exeg, in Hos., auctore L. J. Uhland, pt i, — xii ; Tiib, 1785
—1797, 4to,
Der Prophet Hos, erki von J. Chr. Vaupel ; Dresd, 1793, 8vo,
F. J. V. Dom. Maurer, Observatt. in Hos,, in Comment theol, ed, Rosen
muller et Maurer, vol, ii, pt ii, ; Lips, 1827, p, 275,
Hoseas Propheta, Introductionem praemisit, vertit et commentatus est
Joh. Christ. Stuck ,- Lips. 1828, 8vo.
Schroder, Die Propheten Hoschea, Joel, u, Amos ; Lpz, 1829,
Translated by Struense, 1769; A. Fr. Pfeiffer, 1785; Kuinol, 1789;
Bockel, 1801 ; into English by Horsley, and JVoyes, 1, c,
" Pseudo Epiphanius, De Vitis Prophet ch, xi, Dorotheus Tyr, De
Prophetis, ch, i, Maurer, 1, c, p. 295, sqq, Credner, Joel, p. 66, sqq, —
Hitzig, (1, u, p, 73,) to support his opinion, makes use of the passage, " our
king," vii, 5 ; " the land," i 2 ; and the fact tiiat Judah is not mentioned in
the promise, xiv, 2, sqq.

438 THE TWELVE MINOR PROPHETS. [§ 227.
The prophecies of Hosea presuppose the kingdom of
Israel to be in that condition in which we know it was
under Jeroboam II. and his successors ; that is, rent
by factions at home, and threatened by dangers frora
abroad." §227.
CONTENTS OF THE PROPHECIES.
Hosea's prophetic zeal was excited by the kingdom
of Ephraim. The corruption and distraction of the
" Chap, 1, 4, refers plainly to 2 Kings xv, 10, and, therefore, belongs in
tiie last time of Jeroboam II, So ii 4, the prophecy of an interregnum after
Jeroboam IL, belongs in 785 B, C, though Hitzig refers it to the inter
regnum. Chap, vii, 7, and xiii, II, refer to the same event; and the death
of Shallum, Pekahiah, and Pekah, 2 Kings xv, 10, 24, (perhaps 25, 30,)
Chap, vii, 11, "They call upon .^gypt, [but they shall] go to Assyria,"
and xii, 1, 2, refer to 2 Kings xvii 4. Shalman, tiiat is, Shalman-ezer, is
mentioned, (x, 14 ;) yet the final catastrophe is not clear to the prophet. It
lies in the obscurity ofthe future, as we see from the prophecies that were
not fulfilled ; for example, ix, 3, " To iEgypt shall Ephraim go back, and
eat unclean things in Assyria ; " verse 6, " .^gypt shall gather them ; Mem
phis shall bring them ; " and xi, 5,
It is probable he wrote chap, iv, — xiv, in tiie time of Hoshea, 731 — 722
B, C, But, according to Maurer, chap, i — iii. ix. xii, 8, sqq,, belong in the
time of Jeroboam II,, 825 — 784 B, C, Chap, iv. belongs in the first inter
regnum, 786 — 774 B, C. ; chap, viii, in tiie time of Menahem, 771—761
B. C. ; chap, v, and vi, in Pekah's time, 761 — 7.59 B, C, ; chap, xiii, xiv, in
the second inten-egnum, 739 — 730 B, C, ; and vii, x, — xii, 7, in the time of
Hoshea, 731 — 722, But most of these combinations ai-e uncertain ; the
division into these portions is only effected with violence,
Knobel (p, 158, sqq,) makes Pekah's death (740 B, C) the terminus u. quo.
Hitzig places chap, iv, — xiv, within this period. From the fii-st interregnum
till the reign of Menahem he sets Shalman aside entirely, while Knobel
thinks he is mentioned as Tiglath-pileser's marshal. Chap, iv, — xiv, form
a whole, in which the order of time cannot be determined. If the prophet
lived under the last king, Hosea, liis active life lasted but about fifty years :
and this is not so very improbable.
See on Hosea's prophetic discourses in the Theol, Stud, und Krit for
1831, p, 807, Stuck differs from the above, both in the division and in the
references to the history of the times.

§ 227.] HOSEA. 439
nation, their apostasy and approaching destruction, are
the principal subjects of his discourse. Idolatry," and
the meretricious desire of foreign alliances,' in particular
excite his indignation. He likewise looks upon Judah
with a threatening and chiding countenance," yet sthl
with a preponderance of hope for her reformation and
deliverance.'' The book is divided into two parts, namely, chap. i.
— ih. and chap. iv. — xiv. The former contains two
symbolical actions, and their explanation : we are not,
however, to suppose the actions were ever actually per
formed." The latter contains a prophetic discourse suited
to punish and admonish. It is divided into several sec
tions, with resting-places between them. Probably they
were written down from memory, without reference to
the order of time.
It is probable the second part is not to be divided into
separate chapters, relating to different times, but that
old and recent events are united in one picture of the
times, with a visible progress from wrath and threaten
ings to compassion and promises. But the remark of
Eichhorn is just : " The prophet followed his subject up
to a certain point, unth his heart was too deeply moved,
or his enthusiasm had reached a certain height. He
there stopped for a short time, and after a pause pro
ceeded. In this case, the separate clauses and parts of
the same discourse would naturally assume the form of
short, independent discourses."-''
" Chap, ii, 4 — 6, iv, 12, sqq,, v, 1, sqq., viii. 4, sqq,, ix. 10, x, 1, 5, xi, 2,
xii. 12, xiii. 1,
* Chap, V, 13, vii 11, viii, 9, xii 2, xiv. 4.
" Chap, V. 5, 12—14, vi, 4—11, viii. 14, xii 1—3.
i Chap, i 7, iv. 15.
' As Sludi (1. c. p. 53) maintains.
f Eichhorn's, Bertholdt's, and Maurer's divisions do not seem to be just

440 THE TWELVE MINOR PROPHETS. [§ 228.
§228.
THEIR LITERARV CHARACTER.
Hosea relates his symbolical actions (i. iii.) in prose ;
but as soon as he gives free course to the emotions of his
heart, he writes in rhythm. But as his style is abrupt,
unrounded, and ebullient, so his rhythm is hard, leaping,
and violent." Eichhorn says, " His discourse is like a
garland woven up of the most manifold flowers ; images
are woven over images ; similitude is wound upon simili
tude, and metaphor connected with metaphor. He
breaks off one flower and throws it away, that he may
likewise break off another. Like a bee, he flies from
flower-bed to flower-bed, to suck his honey from the
most various juices."*
The language is peculiar and difficult." His thoughts
disclose rather a warm and beating heart, than a mind
that sees clearly and soars sublime. Yet in matters of
religion and politics he discerns the truth, (vi. 4, sqq.,
and necessary, Hitzig adheres to the present division into chapters, but
puts chap, iv, in the interregnum; chap, v, under Zechariah, He finds
Zechariah's murder in vi, 8 ; Shallum on the throne, in vii 3, 5 ; his murder,
vii. 7 ; Menahem's elevation to the throne, (" They chose kings without me,")
viii 4 ; the Assyrians, in verse 10, x, 4, xii, 2, and dependence upon them,
xi. 5,
" Jerome, Prsef, ad XII, Proph, : Commaticus est et quasi per sententias
loquens, ' Eichhorn, § 55.5, Comp, the diiferent images, v, 9, sqq,, vi, 1, sqq,, vii, 8,
sqq,, X, 11, sqq,, xiii. 3, 7, 8, 13,
' In respect to the connedion : vii. 16, bs sj ; ix, 8, 65 n62 ; xiv. 3,
i)5i£]6il! D'lIB ~>2ym ; — to the vocabulary : viii, 13, B'^anari ; xiii 5, fiiaiStbS ;
X. 2, ens ; xi, 7, »*liFi ; v, 13, x, 6, an';' 'f^;n ; xi, 4, the form i'^'ais , for
i'^asH , Hitzig finds a use of Amos in many passages of Hosea. This is
most probable in viii 14, (comp. Amos ii 5 ;) less probable in iv. 3, (comp,
Amos viii. 8,) and iv. 15, (comp. Amos v. 5.)

§ 229, 230.J JOEL. 441
vii. 9.) He soon passes from indignation to reconcilia
tion, and from threats to promises, (ii. 16, sqq., and
xi. 8.) He is poor and unimaginative in his symbols.

§229.
THE COLLECTION OF HIS PROPHECIES.
Since the prophecies of the first part are the earliest;
since the second part does not consist of separable por
tions, and contains a reproof which would apply to the
whole period of corruption and misery, extending to the
reign of Hosea, — therefore we cannot reasonably doubt
that this book, in its present form, and, perhaps, with
its present inscription, proceeded from the hands of
Hosea himself.

II. JOEL."
§230.
HIS LIFE AND TIMES.
Joel, the son of Pethuel, was a Jew, as we learn from
" Joel cum Adnotatt et Vers, trium Rabbinorum expositus per Gilb.
Genebrardum ; Par, 1563, 4to,
Joel explicatus, in quo Textus Ebr, variis Modis per Paraphrasin Chald.,
Masoram magn, et parv., perque trium prsestantiss, Rabb,, R, Sal. Jarchi,
R, Aben Esi-e, et R, Dav, Kimchi, Comm,, nee non per Notas philol, illus-
tratur, cui in Fine adjectus est Obadias eodem fere modo iUustratus, Auc
tore Joa. Leusden ; Ultra], 1657,
Corn. Haseei Prophetia Joelis, Analysi et Positionibus theoi-philoi
illustrata ; Brem, 1697.
A Paraphrase and critical Commentary on the Prophecy of Joei By Sam.
Chandler; Lond, 1735, 4to,
VOL. II. 56

442 THE TWELVE MINOK PROPHETS. [§ 230.
several distinct allusions to the kingdom of Judah." The
pseudo Epiphanius says he was of the tribe of Reuben.'
We know nothing further respecting him. Even his
age is uncertain. Jahn and others place him in the
time of Manasseh ; Eckermann, under Josiah ; and
Schroder, with others, after the destruction of the Jew
ish state.
We cannot determine his age from the plague of
locusts and the drought of which he prophesies. The
language proves nothing." The age can be determined
only by his references to the political state of the nation.
These lead us to a time when neither the Syrians nor
the Assyrians were hostile to Judah; but the Phoeni
cians and the Philistines, (iv. 4,) the ^Egyptians and the
Edomites, alone (iv. 19) had shown themselves their
enemies. Consequently, Joel seems to have been an
elder contemporary of Amos. This appears from the
similarity of their language. (Compare iv. 4, 19, with

Interpretatio Joelis in Turretini Tract, de sac. Script Interpret ed. a Guil.
A. Teller, p, 307—343,
Sigm. Jac. Baumgarten, Auslegung des Propheten Joel ; Hal, 1756, 4to,
C. F. Cramer, Scythische Denkmaler in Palastina; Kiel, 1777, p, 143
-245, C. PL Conz, Diss, de Charactere poetico Joelis, cum Animadverss, philol,
crit ; Tub, 1783, 4to,
Joel Vates olim Hebrseus, Cura Joa. Biittneri ; Cob. 1784,
Joel Latine versus et Notis philol, iUustratus ab A. Svanborg in sex
Dissertatt ; Upsal, 1806, 4to,
Translated, with explanations, by Eckermann, 1786 ; Justi, 1792 ;
Holzhausen, 1829 ; Credner, 1831.
" Chap, i 14, ii. 1, 15, iii. 5, iv, 1, 2, 6, 16, 17, 20, 21,
* De Vit Proph, c, xiv.
' Kimchi supposes the famine alluded to is that mentioned in 2 Kings
viii. 1. See Eckermann's version, p. 49, and compare Jer. xiv. 1. See
Carpzov, p. 310, and Bertholdt, p, 1604, Knobd, p, 135, sqq., Credner,
p, 55, sq.

§231.] JOEL. 443
Amos i. 9, 11.) He seems to have prophesied under
Uzziah," about 810 B. C.

§231.
CONTENTS AND SPIRIT OF THE PROPHECY.
The distress produced by the extraordinary devasta
tions of swarms of locusts, accompanied with a drought,
gave Joel occasion to admonish his nation to repent.
By their repentance, he says, not only will abundance
return, but a golden age wih be introduced, in which the
theocracy shall be triumphant, and exert a more inspir
ing influence.
The Chaldee interpreter, Ephraim Syrus, Jerome,

" Abarbanel, Vitringa, (Typus Doct Proph, c, iv, p, 35, sqq.,) Rosenmiil
ler, Von Colin, (De Joel, ^tate; 1811,) Holzhausen, (1. i:, p. 17,) Eichhorn,
(§559,) and Knobel, (§ 15,) are ofthis opinion. On the other hand, Credner
(1, c, p, 41, sqq.) places him in the first period of Jehoash, 870 — 865 B. C,
He is led to this conclusion by the fact that the pretended incursion of the
Syrians, mentioned in 1 Kings xii, 17, is not spoken of in Joel ; (but this was
only a feint, which has been exaggerated in 2 Ch, xxiv. 23, sqq, Amos i 3,
does not mention it, Knobel, vol, ii, p, 1.39 ;) by the hostile positions ofthe
Edomites, which is presupposed in iv, 19, (but see Amos i, 11, sqq. ;) and on
account of the condition ofthe law here presupposed. Such is the opinion of
Winer, (Lexicon,) Krahmer, (De Joel. jEtate ; 1837,) Movers, (Chronik, p. 119,
sqq,,) and Hitzig. In support of this, some maintain there is in iv, 4 — 6, 17,
a reference to the pretended conquest of Jerusalem, by the Philistines, under
Jehoram. (2 Ch, xxi, 16.) Others place him still lower — Hengstenberg,
(Christoi vol. i pt i, p, 209,) in the time of Micah ; Bertholdt and Steudel,
{Bengel, Archiv, vol, ii, p, 234,) in that of Hezekiah ; Eckermann, in that of
Josiah ; Jahn, under Manasseh ; and Schroder, at the end of the Jewish state.
Chap, iv, 1, 2, taken by itself, speaks in favor of the Assyrian, or rather
Chaldee period, [Eckermann, p, 44, Beiiholdt, p, 1604,) but not in connection
with the rest,
Jerome's maxim is false, Prol, in XII. Proph, min. : In quibus (Proph.
script) tempus non profertur in titulo, sub illis eos regibus prophetasse, sub
quibus et hi, qui ante eos habent titulos, prophetarunt

444 THE TWELVE MINOR PROPHETS. [§231.
Abarbanel, Grotius, and others, — whom Bertholdt and
Theiner have recently followed, — maintain that the
book must be explained as an allegory, [the locusts repre
senting hosthe armies.] " But this view is contrary to ah
the analogy of Hebrew prophecy. It has been opposed
by Justi and Rosenmuller, while Holzhausen takes a
middle course. There are some passages which refer to
political events, (h. 17, 20, iii. iv.,) but they agree very
weh with the common «nethod of interpreting them.
Credner thinks Joel prophesied after this plague of the
locusts had taken place. He supposes (h. 10) "The
earth quake th before them, the heavens tremble," refers
to a thunder-storm, and puts verse 18, "Then whl Je
hovah be zealous for his land, and pity his people," in the
preterit tense. But all this is contrary to analogy, and
not demanded by the rules of grammar.* Chap. ii. 20,
which predicts the removal and destruction of the locusts,
must, with his view, be treated contrary to the spirit of
the parallelism, and rendered highly artificial.
The prophet's discourse is to be praised as much on
account of his classic language, as for his blooming, rich,
and yet finished style, and his regular, measured rhythm.
Notwithstanding his national and sacerdotal limitations,
his thoughts are liberal and magnanimous. The proph
ecy, ii. 28 — 32, has become important from the fulfil
ment in Acts h. 16.

" See Eichliom, Allg, Bib, voi iv, p. 3, and Justi's version of Joel, p, 39, sqq,
' Gesenius, Gram, p, 228, Hitzig and Knobel put it in the preterit [But
yet Joel is cautious in his use of tenses, and if these passages axe read in
the future, they appear hard and unsuitable,]

§ 232.] AMOS. 445

III. AMOS."

§232.

HIS LIFE AND TIMES.

Amos was a shepherd of Tekoah. But we are not
on this account to suppose he was a poor and rude man,
though he was simple and unlearned, (vh. 14.) The
historical information he sometimes affords (ii. 9, v. 26,
vi. 2, vih. 8, ix. 7) does not prove him a learned man.
He prophesied in the time of Uzziah and Jeroboam II.,
in the latter part of Jeroboam's reign, (i. 1, vii. 10 —
14 ; compare 2 Kings xiv. 25,) about 790 B. C. The
contents of his oracles agree with this date.'
The kingdom of Israel under Jeroboam regained its

" Jo. Gerhardi Adnotatt posth, in Proph, Amos, et Jon, (with his Adno
tatt in Psalm, quinque priores ;) Jen, 1663, and 1676, 4to,
Amos Proph, expositus, interpret Latina  ampliss. Commentario 
iUustratus, &c. Cur, atque Stud, J. Chr. Harenberg ; Lug. Bat 1763, 4to.
L. Jos. Uhland, Annotatt. ad Loca qusedam Amosi imprimis historica;
Tub, 1779, 1780, 4to,
Amos iibers, u, eri, mit Beifiig, d, hebr, Texles u. d. griech. der Septua-
ginta, nebst Anmerkk, zu letzterem, herausgeg, von J, S, Vater ; Halle, 1810,
4to, ; also with title, Oracula Amosi. Textum et Hebr, et Gr. Versionis
AlexandrinsG Notis crit. et exeg. insti'uxit adjunctaque Vers, vern, edidit 
Translated and explained by J. E. W. Dahl, Gott 1795, and Justi, 1799,
' The date of the earthquake refers indefinitely to Uzziah's time ; Zech
ariah (xiv, 5) mentions it, Credner (p, 85) has combined i, 6 — 8, with 2
Ch. xxvi6; but this combination is very uncertain. The date in Joseph.
(Ant, ix, 10, 4,) and in Jerome, (ad Am, i 1,) is fictitious. Chap, vi, 2,
refers to the fall of Gath, (comp, 2 Ch, xxvi, 6, or 2 Kings xii, 18 :) this
city is not mentioned in i 6 — 8, Chap, i 3, (see Hitzig, in loc,,) refers to the
depopulation of Gilead by the Syrians. (2 Kings x. 32.) In respect to the
contemporaneity of Uzziah and Jeroboam IL, there is a difference of 12 years
between 2 Kings xv. 1, and xiv, 23, 17, The latter is probably correct,
and Uzziah came to the throne in the 15th year of Jeroboam II. See
Dahl's translation, p, 6, 7,

446 THE TWELVE MINOR PROPHETS. [§ 233.
ancient limits ; for, in vi. 13, the Israelites say, " Have
we not acquired dominion .f"' (Comp. 2 Kings xiv. 25.)
But yet their careless arrogance, (vi. 1, 13,) their luxury,
(iii. 12, 15, vi. 4, sqq.,) and their injustice, (h. 6, sqq.,
hi. 9, sqq., iv. 1, v. .7, 10,) led to the destruction of
the kingdom, which the prophet had foretold, (viii. 2.)
The prophet only alludes obscurely to the supremacy
of Assyria — " Therefore whl I cause you to go into cap
tivity beyond Damascus, saith Jehovah." (v. 27, vi. 14.)
He appeared at Beth-el in his character of prophet,
and was opposed by the priests of that place." (vh.
10, sqq.) §233.
CONTENTS OF HIS PROPHECIES.
In the first two chapters Amos chides and menaces
all nations and kingdoms that were known to him. In
the following chapters he applies himself to Israel alone,
and speaks boldly of its transgressions and approaching
destruction. Chap. i. ii. and hi. — vi. form each a whole,
and are all purely rhetorical. Chap. vii. — ix. is symbol
ical, but it contains explanations, and an historical ac
count that has been interpolated, (vii. 10 — 17.) Ah
the single passages probably belong to the same period,
and were written by the prophet in their present order,
according to a plan he had devised. An artificial ar
rangement is obvious in vii. — ix.'

° See the apocryphal account of his death in pseudo Epiphanius, ch.
xii, and Carpzov, p, 319.
' This is Eichhorn's and Hitzig's opinion ; but Dahl and Bertholdt differ
therefrom, and think part of these prophecies were impromptus, and the rest
had been meditated before they were uttered. It is more just tn consider
them all as oracles, at first uttered orally, and afterwards written down

§ 234.] AMOS. 447'
§234.
THEIR LITERARY CHARACTER,
In the style of his discourse, Amos is, perhaps, the
most regular of all the prophets. He loves what is uni
form and measured, (i. 2, ii. 16, iv. 6 — 11, vii. 1 — 6,
ix. 2—4.) He loves detail, (hi. 3—6, vi. 4—6, 9, 10.)
He is not without force and elevation, (iv. 13, v. 8, viii.
7, sqq., ix. 5, 6.) His figures are original and fresh.
Jerome says, " Amos the prophet was a shepherd of the
shepherds ; a shepherd not in cultivated places set with
trees and vines, nor indeed among groves and green
meadows, but in the wide whderness of the desert,
where lions display their fierceness, and the flocks are
devoured, and he uses the language derived from his
occupation."" His rhythm is finished and periodical.
Sometimes he writes in regular strophes, (i. ii.) He
makes use of symbols with moderation and good taste.
His language, with a few departures from the usual
orthography, is pure and elegant.'

and carried out with more art. According to Credner, Amos refers to Joel :
i 2, is borrowed from Joel iv, 16. Chap, i 3, 6, 9, sqq,, confirm Joel's threats,
" Jerome on Amos, i, 2, Comp, ii, 13, iii, 4, 5, 12, iv, 1, vi 12, vii 1, 2,
» isn?a, instead of asrita ; vi 8. tSSDlpia, for ESDDia; v. 11, Jerome,
Com. in Am,, says, Imperitus sermone, [?] sed non scientia, [Eichhorn says,
his chief merit, as a writer, is great power of delineation. His painting often
speaks so clearly to the senses, that little groups proceed from his hands.
Many passages seem as if selected from a collection of miniatures ; and, if a
painter were to copy them, the loveliest scenes would be produced: —
" As if a man fled from a lion,
And a bear met him," &c. (v. 19, iv. 8, vi. 10, &.c.)
He is the first among the old prophets who clothed his oracles in visions.
The same power of painting individual scenes led to this choice. His im
agination is sufficiently rich to enable him to paint several sides of the same

448 THE TWELVE MINOR PROPHETS. [§ 234,
object, and each time with naturalness and fidelity, and thereby he is always
new. Under what manifold forms does he represent tyranny, and the omnipo
tence of God ! When he paints the golden age, how does one figure vie
with the others in his delineation ! In his hands every tiling becomes local
cind individual ; notiiing is expressed generally, but all in the individual
form. Many of his images and similes are derived from rural scenes ; fields
and vineyards, herds and droves, are ever present before him. His vocation
of herdsman probably led him to use images derived from a dry and parched
land, and proverbial expressions. He is not unhappy in the invention of
new figures, though he commonly uses those of his predecessors. He makes
a new application of the figure of tiie sun, — in the day of adversity, delaying
to rise, and first appearing at noon. His graphic account of the extreme
fertility of the land is new : —
*' The plougher shall draw near to the reaper,
.\nd the treader of grapes to the sower ofthe seed." (ix. 13.)
Since the fulfilment of his prophecies was near at hand, they have a pecu
liar definiteness. He mentions the place to which the Syrians are to be
transferred, namely, the River Kir. He describes the destiny of the Israelites
definitely. All shall not be destroyed, but the best part of them shall return
to their native land. Yet, here and there, he leaves obscurity still hanging
over his oracles. The children of Israel shall go into a land beyond Damas
cus ; but he leaves it indefinite what land it shall be. It is undecided
whether the wanton woman of Israel shall be carried into Armenia, or
into the harem of a foreign king. (iv. 3,) Eichhorn, § 566, Jerome has
accused him of inexpertness in the use of language ; but this only arises
fi-om the supposition that he was merely a shepherd, and a man of no literary
education. But the same objections brought against him on account of
his grammar and orthography, might be urged against the author of every
book in the Old Testament The opinion of Bishop Lowth seems to be
more correct — "Let any person who has candor and perspicuity enough
to judge, not from the man, but from his writings, open the volume of his
predictions, and he will, I think, agree that our shepherd is not a whit behind
the very chief of the prophets. He will agree that as in sublimity and
magnificence he is almost equal to the greatest, so in splendor of diction
and elegance of expression he is scarcely inferior to any. The same celes
tial Spirit, indeed, actuated Isaiah and Daniel in the court, and Amos in the
sheepfold, constanfly selecting such interpreters as were best adapted to the
occasion, and sometimes from the mouth of babes and sucklings perfecting
praise." — See Lowth, lect xxi. Also, Knobel, 1, c, vol, ii, p, 143 — 153,]

§ 236.] OBADIAH. 449
IV. OBADIAH.''
§235.
CONTENTS, AND DATE OF HIS PROPHECY,
False combinations of 1 Kings xvih. 3, and 2 Ch.
xvh. 7, have been made, in order to show that our
prophet was mentioned in these passages. But his
history is wholly unknown to us. Only a single oracle
has come down from him, and that contains a censure
and menace directed against the Edomites, who had
been malicious and hosthe to the Jews, at the destruc
tion of Jerusalem. Compare Lam. iv. 21, 22, Ezek.
xxxv. Ps. cxxxvh. 7.
The date of the composition of this book must be
placed after the destruction of Jerusalem, and the cap
tivity of the Jews ; for " the captives of Israel " and
" Jerusalem" are mentioned in verse 20.'
This prophecy is related to that in~ Jer. xlix. ' 7,
sqq., and it is sthl matter of controversy which is the

" Obad. Ebr. et Chald., &c. Auct. Joa. Leusden.
Aug. Pfeifferi Comm. in Obad  exhibens Vers, Lat et Examen
Commentarii Is, Abarbanelis, &c, ; Viteb, 1666 ; ed, 2, 1670, 4to,
Der Prophet Obad, aus. d. bibl. u. weltl. Hist erl. u, m, theol, Anmerkk.
vers,, von J. G. Schroer ; Bresl, 1766,
J. B. Kohler, Anmerkk. ii. ein, St, im Obad. in Rep. voi xv, p, 250, sqq,
Chr. Fr. Schnurrer, Dissertatt philol. in Obadiam, Tub, 1787, 4to,, and
Dissertati;,, Gotii. 1790, p. 383, sqq,
H. Venema; Lectt in Obad,, mit Zusatzen von Verschuir u. Lohze, in
Verschuir, Opusc. ed. Lohze ; Ultraj. 1810.
Translated by Happach, Cob, 1779 ; Holzapfd, Rint 1798,
' See Jerome, ad Obad. 1. Carpzov, p. 332. [See C. L. Hendewerk,
ObadjsB Prophets Oraculum in Idumseos, &c., (Regiomonti Program. 1836,)
reviewed in Jahrbiicher fiir wiss. Kritik. for 1836, vol, ii. p, 852, sqq.]
VOL. II. 57

450 THE TWELVE MINOR PROPHETS. [§ 235*
original and independent production." Obadiah men
tions the captivity of the Jews, (verse 20,) and the
malicious joy of the Edomites at the destruction of
Jerusalem, (verses 11 — 14.) On the contrary, Jeremiah
wrote his oracle in the fourth year of Jehoiakim.*
Jeremiah seems to have a definite expectation of the
punishment of the Edomites by Nebuchadnezzar, (xlix.
19, sqq.,) which, it seems, never took place, whhe
" The following writers believe that Jeremiah is the original author:
Bertholdt, p, 1631 ; Von Colin, A. L, Z, 1828 ; Erg, Blat xvi. p, 122 ; Bib,
Theol, vol, i p, 55; Credner, Joel, p, 81; Knobel, voi ii, p, 327; Hitzig,
p, 341, sqq. The following favor the originality of Obadiah : Eichhorn,
§512, sqq,; Schnurrer, p. 427; Rosenmidler; Jdger, Ub. die Zeit Obadjah,
1837 ; and Hendewerk.
Arguments may be found on both sides. Thus the difficult '^''nsicn (Jer,
verse 16) is omitted in Obad, verse 3. On the other hand, the unsuitable
13S)3'i3 (Obad. verse 1) is exchanged for '^ilStelD , (Jer, verse 14,) which may
be an easier substitute. In Obad. verse 2, ntlN ''Hi is obscurer than
ilts, sc, ¦jTins, (Jer, verse 15;) so in Obad, verse ,5, compared with Jer.
verse 9. Obad. verse 17 is dependent on Joel iii, 5,
It is probable this, like the similar oracles of Jeremiah and Ezekiel, was
nevSr fulfilled. Josephus (Ant x, 9, 7) says nothing of Edom's destruction,
as Bertholdt maintains. (See Gesenius's introduction to chap, xxxiv,, sq., of
Isaiah, [and the valuable article of Dr, Robinson, on Ancient Idumea, or
Edom, in Bib, Repository, vol, iii, p, 247, sqq,) Dr, R, differs from De
Wette in regard to the fulfilment of this oracle, and says, (i c, p, 258,) " The
opinion that the Edomites, notwithstanding their alliance with the Chalde
ans, escaped the lot of the Jews, and other surrounding nations, so as not to
be brought under subjection to the proud monarch of Babylon, is not in
itself probable ; and tiiere would seem, indeed, to be a direct allusion to
such an event in Mai, i 2, 3, But, however this may be," he adds, " they
were, at least, not carried away captive,'' Gesenius (1. c. p, 906) justiy
thinks Edom was spared by Nebuchadnezzar; indeed, there seems to be no
reason why he should make war with the Edomites, who had taken his side,
and furnished him forces so esurly, (Obad. 11 — 15.)] Eidihom's conjedure —
that Nebuchadnezzar conquered Edom a few years after the destruction of
Jerusalem — is merely conjecture. [He thinks, also, the five last verses
were interpolated into the text, in the time of Alexander Jannseus. But
there appears no reason for the suspicion.]
' See § 219, a. Verse 12 is to be judged according to xxv. 17, sqq.

§236.] JONAH. 451
Obadiah hopes only in general for a day of judgment
from Jehovah, and the return of the exhes. (verses 16,
20.) Accordingly, Obadiah wrote later, and made use
of Jeremiah from recohection. It is probable the book
received its present place in the canon, on account of
the reference to Edom, in Amos ix. 12."
[It is difficult to determine the literary character of a
prophet who has left us so few lines. However, he is
not wanting in strength or vivacity. His language is
pure, and his thoughts noble. Theocratic arrogance,
and national antipathy towards foreign nations, are too
obvious to be denied. Yet his hatred towards other
nations is not so deep and deadly as that of some of his
younger contemporaries. In style, he resembles the
better and more elevated passages of Jeremiah and
Zephaniah. Sometimes his figures are bold and strik
ing, (verses 4, 18.) He is fond of questions; and, for
the sake of emphasis, repeats a thought in a different
form, (verses 12 — 14.)]

V. JONAH.''
§236.
CHARACTER OF THE BOOK, JUDGING FROM ITS CONTENTS.
Among works which are prophecies, in the proper
sense of the word, there is one small book in the collec-

° See Schnurrer, 1. c. p. 432.
' Jo. Gerhardi Annotatt in Proph. Am. et Jon.
Jonas iUustratus per paraph, Chald,, Masoram m. et p. et per tnum pwe-

452 THE TWELVE MINOR PROPHETS. [§ 236.
tion of the twelve minor Prophets, which is a mere narra
tive. The hero of the book is Jonah, the son of Amit
tai, and is probably the same who is mentioned in 2
Kings xiv. 25. This narrative is certainly not a true
history ; but, on the other hand, it is not a mere fiction."
It is probable the materials were derived from popular

stantiss, Rabb,, S, Jarchi, Abr, Aben Esrse, Dav, Kimchi, Textum punctat,
ut et per Michlal Jophi Textum non punctat nee non per varias Notas phi
loi, Auct Joa. Leusden ; Traj, 1692,
Jo. Theoph. Lessing, Observatt, in Vatic, Jonse et Nahumi ; Chemn. 1780.
Curarum crit et exeg. in LXX-viralem Vers, Vatioiniorum Jonss Spec, i
ii. iii, Auct Jo. G. Chr. Hoepfner ; Lips, 1787, 1788, 4to.
Der Proph, Jonas iibers, u, mit erklar, Anmerkk, herausgeg, von H. A.
Grimm ; Diisseld, 1798,
Ex Michlal Joplii  part complect Prophet Jonje,
" The following authorities favor the opinion that it is a real his
tory: 3 Mace, vi, 8, [?] Josephus, Ant ix. 10, 2, Buddeus, Hist Eccles.
V, T, vol, ii. p. 589, sqq, /, B. lAidenoald, Uber Allegorie und Mytholo
gie in d, Bibel ; 1787, 8vo. Griesdorf, Diss, i, ii, de verosimillima
Libr, Jons interpretandi Ratione ; Viteb, 1794, 4to, Th. C. Piper, Diss,
Historiam Jon» a recentiorum Conatibus vindicatam sistens ; Gryph, 1786,
4to, J. H. Verschuir, Diss, de Argumento Lib. Jonse ejusque Veritate hist.,
in his Opuscula, ed. Lohze ; Ultraj. 1811, 8vo. Steudel, in BengeVs Archiv,
voi ii, p, 401, sqq, Reindl, Sendung d, Proph, Jonas ; Bamb, 1826. Sack,
Apologetik, p. 345, sqq. Hengstenberg, Kirchenzeitung ; 1834, No. 27,
sqq. Laberenz, De Vera Lib. Jonse, Interp. ; Fulda, 1836, (See Jiiger, On
the Moral and Religious Design of Jonas, in Tub, Theol, Zeitschrift ; 1840,
vol. i p. 62, sqq.) Some explain it as a history, and maintain,
1. That it has taken a mythical form : Thaddeus, Sendungsgeschichte der
Proph. Jonae ; Bonn, 1786, 4to, Goldhom, Excurse z, B, Jona; 1803, p, 28,
sqq, Bauer, Einleit 3d ed, p. 489, sqq, ; his Hebrew Mythology, vol, ii,
p, 213, Friedrichsen, Krit Uberblick, der merkwurdigsten Ansichten d. B,
Jona ; 1817, 8vo, 219, sqq,, 238, sqq,
2, The supposition that it contains a dream : Grimm, Uebersetz, p, 61, sqq,
3. The supposition that the language has been perverted : Anton, Von der
alten Tonkunst Hebraer, in Paulus, N, Rep, vol, iii p. 36, sqq.
4, 3Vie opinion it is an allegory: Less, on the historical style of anti
quity, in his Vermischte Schriften, vol. i p. 161, sqq. Palmer, On Jonah
in the Whale, in Scheerer's Archiv, voi i, pt i p, 93, sqq. See Bertholdt,
p. 2364, sqq., and Rosenmidler, Proi in Jon, p, 346, sqq.

§ 236.J JONAH. 453
legends, and wrought over, with the design of making a
didactic work." However, it cannot be proved from
Ps. h. 3, sqq., and Tob. xiv. 4, that facts from the
actual history of Jonah lie at the foundation of the work,
as some maintain.* This fact remains certain, that the
book was written for a moral end. We must not, how
ever, insist on a rigorous unity in the means which the
author uses to attain this end. The most prominent
doctrine of it lies, incontestably, in the fact that God

" Some consider the narrative as historical allegory : Hermann von der
Hardt, ^Enigmata prisci Orbis, Jonas in Luce in Hist, Manassis et Josia ;
Helmstadt, 1723, fol, ; and in his work, Jonas in Carcharia, Israel in Car-
catiiio Kerta ; 1718, (Comp. Rosenmiiller, 1, c, p, 388, sqq,) Some take it
as a moral fiction : Sender, Apparat. ad Lib. V, T, Interpret p, 271, Michae
lis, Uebersetz d, A. T. pt xi Anmerk, p. 101, Herder, Briefe, voi i, p, 136,
2d ed, JViemeyer, Characteristik d, B, vol, v. Eichhorn, § 577, a. Staudlin,
N, Beiti-age, p, 224, sqq, Hezel, Bibel, d. A, und N. T, vol, vii, p, 129, sqq,
Paidus, Memorab, vol vi p, 32, sqq, G, A. Miiller, in Paulus, ibid, vol, vi
p, 124, sqq, Augusti, Einleit ^ 223, 1st ed, (Comp, § 224, 2d ed.) Meyer,
Hermeneutik, d. A, T. vol, ii, p, 574, sqq, Bohme, in lllgen's Zeitschrift;
1836, vol. i p. 195, sqq.
* There is a mythus of Hesione, the daughter of Laomedon, whom Her
cules delivered from a sea-monster, in Diodorus Sic, iv, 42, Apollodorus, ii
5, §9 — 12, and, with later additions, by Tzelzes ad Lycophron, Cassand,,
verse 33: — riig ihnXia/nlvog nag& zb ajoplov, ii: y.exrjvhg inr^ei, zb ZTJro?,
a&od'jig z(u zoizov i/ineni'iSijXB azdfiaii. Tgial 8h -l^fiigaig evSo&ev xaia-
x6nztx)v aiiu i^riXd'ev, &no^E^X7]x(j>g zi)v TTJg iaviov XEcpaXrfg zqlxwaiv.
See, also, Cyrill. Alexand, in Jon, u. ii. Isaac Porphyrogenitus, in Posthome-
ric. in AUat. Excerpta var, p, 274. Eudocia, p. 344,
A mythus of Andromeda, Plin, v. 13. Bochart, Hieroz, ii 743, Rosen
miiller, p, -354, Gesenius, A. L, Z. 1813, xxiii, p, 177, sqq, Friedrichsen,
p, 237, Forbiger, Comment de Lycophron, Cassand, verse 31 — 37, Cum
Epimetro de Jona ; Lips, 1827, Anton, Comp, Libb, sac, V, T, et Script,
profan, pt x, ; 1831, p. 7, Krahmer, Das Buch Jonas ; 1839, p, 47, sqq.
The story of Jonah has a certain resemblance to the legends of Elijah,
especially with 1 Kings xix, Goldhom refers to this. The combination of
the history of Jonah with the mythus of Cannes, — which Baur has made in
his " The Prophet Jonas an Assyrio-Babylonian Symbol," in lllgen's Zeit
schrift for 1837, p. 101, sqq., is peculiar to him, Comp, JOger, 1, c, p, 145,

454 THE TWELVE MINOR PROPHETS. [§ 237.
forgave a heathen people, and remitted the punishment
intended, in consequence of their repentance. There
fore this is distinguished from the other theocratical
books by its universal religious character. " This
prophecy is written," says Kimchi, on i. 1, "that it
may be a lesson to the Jews ; for a foreign nation,
which was not of Israelitish descent, was inclined to
repent, as soon as the prophet had accused and con
vinced them of their sin ; and with perfect penitence
they turned from their wickedness, whhe the Israelites
had not repented, and turned from their impiety, though
the prophets had accused them, both early and late.
Accordingly, the book is designed to teach, also, that
God — to whom be glory — will spare the penitent, of
whatsoever nation they are, and will pardon them, es
pecially if they are numerous."" §237.
ITS LITERARY CHARACTER.
The opinion that the book is composed of several
distinct pieces, cannot be maintained.' However, the
hymn (ii. 3 — 10) is very improperly borrowed from
some other source.' Taken by itself, it must be ex-

" According to Jftger, the author had also this special design, — to justify
the policy of God in sparing Nineveh, (Babylon.) See Knobel, vol, ii p.
375, sqq. Bohme thinks it teaches tiie hatefulness of the Hebrews before
God, and other nations. Krahmer (p. 65, sqq.) thinks it refers to the Jewish
colony, and its relation to the Samaritans, But these conjectures cannot
find much favor,
' See Miiller, in Paulus, Mem, vol, vi p. 167, sqq,, and JVachtigall, on the
book of Jonah, in Eichhorn, Allg. Bib, voi ix, p, 221, sqq,
" The following are the principal peculiarities of the language : 2"i ; i, 6,

§ 237.]

.lONAH.

455

plained in the same manner as Ps. Ixix. 1, 2, and 15,
which is borrowed from Ps. xvih. 5, and xhi. 7." The
¦i&SiEia; i 7. ibma; i 12. I'^SSn, deposuit; iii 6. snip; i- 2, iii. 2.
(Comp. Isa. xi 6.) 1>2';il; ii 1, iii6,sqq. tiSt!;iii7. ia"! ; iv. 11. WC'S;
i 6. [2ffiri ; i 4.] Chap. iii. 9, is an imitation of Joel ii, 14 ; and iv, 8, of
1 Kings xix, 4,
" [The hymn is placed below, with its parallel passages : —

2 " I cried in my distress to Jehovah,
And he heard me 
3 "Thou didst cast me into the deep.
Into the heart of the sea,
And the flood compassed me about ;
All thy billows and thy waves
passed over me,
4 " Then I said, ' I am cast out from
before thine eyes,
O, might I once more look to thy
holy temple I '
5 " The waters compassed me about,
even to my life.
The deep enclosed me,
6 " I went down to the foundation of
the mountains.
Yet hast thou brought up my life
frora the pit
7 "When my soul fainted within
me,
I remembered Jehovah,
And my prayer came to thee,
To thine holy temple.

8 " They that honor lying vanities
Forsake their mercy.
9 " I will sacrifice to thee
With the voice of thanksgiving.
I will pay what I have vowed.
Salvation is firom Jehovah."

" To Jehovah in my distress 1 cried,
And he heard me." Ps. cxx, 1,

" All thy waves and thy billows are
passed over me," Ps, xlii, 7.
" Then I said,  'I am cast out
from before thine eyes,' "
Ps, xxxi. 22,
See 1 Kings viii 38,
" The waters come even to my life,"
Ps, Ixix, 1.
" The cords of Sheol enclosed me,"
Ps, xviii, 5.
" Thou wilt not leave my soul in
Sheol." Ps, xvi, 10,

" When my spirit fainted within me,"
Ps, cxlii, 4.
" I cried unto thee, Jehovah." Ps. cxlii. 5.
" Let my prayer come unto thee."
Ps. Ixxxviii. 3.
" He heard my voice out of his tem
ple." Ps, xviii, 6.
" I have hated those
Who honor lying vanities," Ps. xxxi C.
" I will sacrifice to thee
The sacrifice of thanksgiving.
I will pay my vows." Ps. cxvi. 17, 18.
" From Jehovah is salvation." Ps. iii. 8.]

456 THE TWELVE .MINOR PROPHETS. [§ 238.
ninth verse is to be compared with Ps. xxxi. 7; but
it does not suit the circumstances and condition of
Jonah."

VI. MICAH."
§238.
HIS LIFE AND TIMES.
According to the inscription of the book, (i. 1,)
Micah prophesied under Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah.
He belonged to the town of Moresheth, and hence is
called the Morasthite, which appehation some have
erroneously considered as a patronymic. Jerome says
" To judge from the language, the book is one of the latest of the Old
Testament ; but it is still a matter of controversy whether it was written
before, after, or in the exile Krahmer (p, 55) is mistaken in the opinion that
the restoration of the temple is presupposed in ii, 5, 8, (See Gesenius, 1, c.
p. 180,) The statement respecting the size of Nineveh (iii, 3) is of no im
portance in determining its date ; for the destruction of this city is not neces
sarily the terminus ad quem, as Rosenmiiller maintains. Prolegomena ad Jon.
p, 358. He, with Gesenius, Goldhom, and Bertholdt, places it before the exile ;
Jdger, during the exile ; Jahn, Knobd, and Koster, place it after that event ;
and Hitzig refers it to the time of the Maccabees, and, on account of
Oip^l? , gives it an .(Egyptian autiior. Vatke (Bib. Theol. vol, i, p. 597)
places it in the time of the Ptolemies. Jager finds in it a resemblance to
Ezekiel, [The same fondness for the grotesque appears in Ezekiel, Jonah,
Daniel, and some of the apocryphal books,]
' Theod. Bibliandri Comm, in Micham ; Tigur, 1534,
Dav. Chytrcei Explicatio Michse et Nahum Proph.; Viteb. 1565, 8vo,
Also, in Chytrai Opp, ii, p, 2183,
Animadverss, philoi-crit ad Vatic, Michse ex CoUatione Versionum Grsec,
reliquarumque in Polyglottis Lond. editarum, prses. CK F. Schnurrer, Auct
resp. /. Guil.Andler; Tub. 1783, 4to.
G. L. Bauer, Animadverss. crit in duo priora Proph. Michse Capp. ; Altorf.
1790, 4to.
Ueberss. von Grossschopf, 1798; Justi, 1799; A. Th Hartmann, 1800,

§ 238.] MICAH. 4.57
Moresheth is a small vihage of Palestine, near tlie city
of Eleutheropolis. Others think it is the Maresah,
mentioned in Josh. xv. 44, which Eusebius says is
a place, now in ruins, in the tribe of Judah, two mhes
from Eleutheropolis."
But Micah distinguishes his Moresheth from that, by
calling it Moresheth of Gath. (i. 14.) The Micah [or
Micaiah] who occurs in 1 Kings xxh. 8, is a different
man from this.
The above date is but partially confirmed. Since
Micah presupposes the perilous situation of the two
kingdoms with regard to Assyria and .^gypt, which
were soon to destroy the kingdom of Israel, and that
of Judah, at a later date ; ' since Jeremiah (xvi. 18) ex
pressly places one oracle of Micah (iii. 12) in the time
of Hezekiah ; and since the other prophecies contain
no reference to any different time, — we have the best
reason for regarding the last years of Ahaz, and the first
of Hezekiah, as the period of his prophetic glory.
The mention of Babylon (iv. 10) makes little differ
ence in the political relations of Israel and Judah ; for
Babylon also belonged to the kingdom of Assyria.
Some think this passage refers to the captivity of Ma
nasseh at Babylon, (2 Ch. xxxih. 11;) but this opinion
is contrary to the prophetic spirit of the passage, and is
also uncertain, considered as a matter of history." Hart-

° See Cyrill. Alex. Com. in loc. ; Jerome, ProU. in Mic. ; Eusebius, De
Locis Hebraicis ; Hitzig, in loc. ; BeUermann, Handbuch d. bib. Litt vol. iii.
p. 139 ; [and Robinson's Calmet, art Mareshah.]
<• Chap, i 6—16, iii 12, iv. 9—14, v. 4, 5, vii. 12.
• Juai, Theoi Abhand. vol. ii p. 300. Bertholdt, p. 1^5. EidOurm,
Heb. Proph. vol. i. p. 381, sqq. Einleit § 580, p. 37L See above, § 191.
Hartmann, p. 16. Rosenmuller, in loc. According to Hartmann, (p. 8, sqq.,)
VOL. II. 58

458 THE TWELVE MINOR PROPHETS. [§239,
mann's opinion is still more uncertain and venturesome.
He regards iv. 10, as a later interpolation. Bertholdt
supposes that vii. 13, — " Therefore whl I sorely smite
thee, and make thee desolate on account of thy sins," —
implies that the ten tribes were already ccirried into
captivity. But the supposition is unnecessary, at the
least ; for idolatry stih prevahed in Hezekiah's time, as
it appears from 2 Kings xxiii."

§239.
CONTENTS AND SPIRIT OF HIS PROPHECIES.
Micah prophesied against Israel and Judah, especially
against the latter. The moral corruption, apostasy, and
false prophecy, and not political mistakes, are the ob
jects of his indignation. He utters bold threats, which
he may have lived to see partly fulfilled, (i. 12, sqq.,
ii. 3, sqq., 10, 12, iv. 9, 10, 14.) Lofty promises Eire
mingled with these threats, (ii. 12, 13, iv. 1, sqq., 8,
13, vi. 1—8, vh. 11, 12, 17.)
He resembles Hosea in his rapid transition from
threats of punishment to promises of prosperity, as weh
as in his style. But he has more roundness, fulness,
and clearness, in his style and in his rhythm. He
frequently indulges in play upon words in i. 10 — 15.
In vi. 1 — 8, and vii. 1 — 20, he makes a successfiil use of

with whom Eichhorn agrees, Micah prophesied from the fourteenth year of
Hezekiah to some period in Manasseh's time. Against this view, see Ro
senmidler, Prooem. in Mic.
* HUzig places iii 12, iv. 9, 11, 14, in the time after the fall of Samaria.
But this date is doubtful.

§239.] MICAH. 459
the form of a dialogue. He is full of feeling, (i. 8, and
vu. 1): —
" W^oe is me 1 I live when the summer fruits are gathered,
And the vintage is gleaned ;
There is no cluster to eat :
I long for the first ripe fig." °
His prophecies are penetrated by the purest spirit of
morality and piety, (vi. 6 — 8) : —
" Wherewith shall I come before Jehovah,
And bow myself before the most high God 1
Shall I come before him with burnt-offerings,
With calves of a year old ?
Will Jehovah be pleased with thousands of rams.
Or with ten thousands of rivers of oil ?
Shall I give my first-born for my sin,
The fruit of my body for my transgression ?"....
" He hath showed thee, O man, what is good :
What doth Jehovah require of thee.
But to do justly, and to love mercy.
And to walk humbly before thy God 1 "
Also, vii. 1 — 10.
" I will look to Jehovah;
I will hope in the God of my salvation ;
My God will hear me.
Rejoice not over me, O my enemy 1
Though I have fallen, I shall arise ;
Though I sit in darkness,
Jehovah shall be my light,
I will bear the indignation of Jehovah,
Because I have sinned against him ;
Until he maintain my cause, and execute judgment for me ;
Until he bring me to the light.
And I behold his mercy,"
" It is hardly possible to make an accurate distinction between the sepa
rate prophecies. Probably they were all written one after the other. But
see Bertholdt, p. 1638, sqq, Eichhorn, Heb, Proph. p. 360, sqq, Hitzig,
p. 164.

460 THE TWELVE .MINOR PROPHETS. [§ 240.
VII. NAHUM.''
§240.
HIS LIFE AND TIMES.
Nahum of Elkos ' — to follow the contents of his oracles
— prophesied after the unsuccessfiil irruption of Senna-
" Theod. Bibliandri Proph. Nahum, juxta Veritatem Ebr, Latine redditus
cum Exegesi, &c, ; Tigur, 1534,
J. H Ursini Hypomnemata in Obad. et Nah. ; Frcf. 1652,
Matth. Hafenrefferi Comm. in Nah. et Habac. ; Stutg. 1663, 4to,
R Abarbanelis Rabbinicus in Nsihum Comm, Latio donatus a J. Did.
Sprechero ; Helmst 1703, 4to,
Petri von Hoke, Zergliedemde Auslegung Ub. d. seehs letztern kL Proph.
Nah., Hab,, Zeph,, Hagg,, Zachar,, u, Malach. u, s. w. ; Holi Leid, 1709, 4to. ;
Deutsch Prkf, 1710, 4to,
Vaticc. Chabac, et Nah, itemque nonnulla Jes,, Mich, et Ezech, Oracula,
Observatt, hist phii illustr., &c. Auct /. GottL Kolinsky ; Vratisi 1748, 4to.
Vaticc, Nah, Observatt phil, Ulustratum. Diss, pnes, M. C. M. Agrell,
resp, JV. S. CoUiander; Ups, 1788, 4to.
Vaticc. Nah, et Habac, Interpret et Notas adjecit E. J. Greve. Edit
metrica; Amst 1793, 4to,
Nahum Latine Vers, et Notis philol, iUustratus, pt i. Diss, Prses, Andr.
Svanborg, resp, J. Boden ; Ups, 1806, 4to.
Chr. M. JFrShn, Curarum exeg. crit in Nah. Proph. Spec. ; Rost 1806, 4to,
Nahumi Vatic, phil, et crit expositum. Spec, acad,, praes, /, H. Pareau,
resp. Ever. Kreenen ; Harderv, 1808, 4to,
Translated into German, by Wahl, in his Mag, 1790 ; Grimm, 1790 ; jYeu-
mann, 1808; Middeldorpf, 1808; Justi, 1820, and in his Blumen althebr,
Dichtic, vol, ii p. 577,
' Jerome, in the Proem to his Commentary on this prophet, says, " Some
think Helkeseus was the father of Nahum, and, according to the Hebrew
tradition, he was a prophet also. But, at this day, Elkos (Helkesei) is a vil
lage in Galilee, small, indeed, and scarcely disclosing the remnants of some
ancient edifices, in ruins, yet it is well known to tiie Jews, and was pointed
out to me by my guide."
Some have conjectured that Capernaum, BITO "ISS, derived its name
from JVahum, filflD. {See Hitzig a.ni Knobel.) Psenio Epiphanius {DeYii.
Proph. c. xvii.) says, O^rog ^y dmb 'EXxEael {vlbg 'EXxeaalov ind 'lea^el)
nigav tov 'logS&vov slg B-fy(E^ag ix (fvXrig Svpsihv. Cyrill. Alex, ad Nah,

§ 240.] NAHUM. 461
cherib into Judea, and consequently after the fourteenth
year of Hezekiah." Sennacherib's hl-success led Nahum
to hope for the deliverance and restoration of his coun
trymen, (i. 13, ii. 3,) and the destruction of the hosthe
kingdom, (i. 14, h. 2, 4, sqq., ih. 1, sqq.)'
The destruction of Thebes is mentioned in ih. 8 —
" Art thou better than No-ammon, that was situated
among the rivers ? " &.c. But this is an uncertain date.
However, it leads us to Hezekiah's time. [It is uncertain
when Thebes was conquered, or to what conquest of it
the prophet alludes ; but we may reasonably conjecture
it was near the beginning of Hezekiah's reign, for in
Isaiah's time, Sargon, one of the Assyrian monarchs, in
vaded iEgypt, conquered Ashdod, and for three years
i 1 : " Ogaaig IVaoifi, toO &.nb Tijj 'EXxsai' xdfirj Si ailTrj n&vzoig nov Trjg
'lovSaloiv x<i>Qag. Asseman (Bib, Or, vol. i p, 525, and iii, pt, i, p, 352) and
JViebuhr (Reise, vol. ii. p, 352) think Elkos was in Assyria, Michaelis,
(Uebers, A, T, vol, xi Anmerk, p, 138,) Eichhorn, (§ 585,) Hezel, (Bibelwerk,
vol, vii p, 175,) and Grimm, (Ubers, p. 1, sqq,,) think Nahum was born there.
See the well-founded objections of Jahn, (p, 509, sqq,,) Kreenen, (Nah. Vatic,
p, 28,) Bertholdt, (p, 1652, sq,,) and Knobd, to this view,
" ill, 12, ii 1, 3, 14, Comp. 2 Kings xix. 22, 23,
' Jerome, 1. o, : Post Micheam sequitur Nahum, qui interpretatur consola-
tor. Jam enim decem tribus ab Assyriis deductse fuerant in captivitatem
sub Ezechia rege Juda, sub quo etiam nunc in consolationem populi transnu-
grati adversum Niniven visio cernitur. Nee erat parva consolatio tam his,
qui jam Assyriis serviebant, quam reliquis, qui sub Ezechia de tribubus Juda
et Benjamin ab iisdem hostibus obsidebantur, ut audirent Assyrios quoque a
Chaldseis esse capiendos. And yet Jerome makes him the first to prophesy
the defeat of Sennacherib.
The above view is taken by Vitringa, (Typ. Doct Proph. p. 37,) Rosen
miiller, (ProcEm, in Nah,,) Bertholdt, and Knobd. On the other hand, Hitzig
places him somewhat later. See the erroneous opinions of Josephus, (Ant
-X. II, 3,) Jarchi, Abarbanel, Grotius, and Grimm.
Nahum could not have alluded to the historical circumstances under which
Nineveh was taken by Cyaxares, king of the Medes, with the help of Nabo
polassar the Chaldean, (625, 603, or 600, B, C,,) for at that time Babylon, and
not Assyria, was formidable to the Hebrews. Perhaps, however, he was
led to prophesy by the liberation of the Medes (from the Assyrians,) and
their election of a king, in the person of Dejoces.

462 THE TWELVE MINOR PROPHETS. [§241.
waged a successful war against the .Egyptians and their
allies. The history is silent respecting the particular
events of this war, and of its date. But it must have
taken place soon after the commencement of Hezekiah's
reign ; and the capture of Thebes, to which Nahum
alludes, may have taken place at that time, — perhaps
between 720 and 716 B. C.]"

§241.
CONTENTS AND SPIRIT OF HIS PROPHECY.
Aroused by a holy indignation at the ruin brought by
the Assyrians upon the land of Judea, and confiding in
the retributive justice of God, Nahum looks upon it as
already at work, and so paints the destruction of Nine
veh with lively colors. But he only speaks of it with
the inspiration of the prophet, without mentioning the
political combinations by which it was to be effected.
The style is classic in all respects.' It is marked by
clearness, by its finished elegance, as well as by fire, rich
ness, and originality. The rhythm is very regular, and
peculiarly lively. The whole book holds together well,
and makes but one poem. The prophet only holds his
breath, as it were, in the last chapter." [" The most

° See Eichhorn, (§ 584,) Rosenmiiller, and Gesenius, on Isa. xx.
' Hitzig (p, 214) finds peculiarities in the language; impure and later
usages ; the pronunciation of n'^^ia, for MISO, i3, (Job ix, 17;) KiSiJ, i2,
(Josh, xxiv, 19;) ^BQ3, for ^3103, iii 18; the form ofthe suffixes ofthe
second person, ii. 14, and of the third, i, 13, ii. 4, (comp, Hab, iii, 10 ;) the
un-Shemitish "IDCD, iii 17, and jrt:, ii, 8, in the Syriac sense; "im , iii,
2, (Judg, V, 23,) Chap, ii, 11, betrays a late writer, (Comp, Isa, xxiv. 1, xxi 3,
Ezek, xxx, 4, 9,) Nahum often agrees with Jeremiah, (ii, 5, 14, iii, 5, 13, 17,)
' Eichhorn, §586. Bertholdt, to the contrary, p. 1661, Kolinsky and oth
ers erroneously think there were two conquests of Nineveh, The single

§ 242.] HABAKKUK. 463
striking characteristic of Nahum's style is the power of
representing several phases of an idea in the briefest
sentences. Examples of this are his description of God,
(i. 2 — 6,) the conquest of Nineveh, (ii. 4,) and the de
struction of No-ammon, (ih. 8, sqq.) The variety in
his manner of presenting his ideas discovers much poetic
talent in the prophet. The reader of taste and sensi
bility whl be affected by the entire structure of the
poem, by the agreeable manner in which the ideas are
brought forward, by the flexibility of his expressions, the
roundness of his turns, the delicate outline of his figures ;
by the strength and delicacy, and the expression of sym
pathy and greatness, which diffuse themselves over the
whole subject. He does not come upon you roaring and
violent, nor yet softly and lightly. Here, there is some
thing sonorous in his language ; there, is something mur
muring ; and with both there alternates somewhat that
is soft, delicate, and melting — as the subject demands.
This is not possible for a poet of art, but only for the
poet of nature."]"

VIII. HABAKKUK.'' §242
HIS LIFE AND TIMES,
We have only apocryphal accounts of the person of
Habakkuk.
inscription, niJ^J KIBS, seems to have been added later. Bertholdt, p.
1659, sq.
¦* Eichhorn, § 587.
' R. Abarbanelis rabbinicus, in Habac. Comm. Latine redditus a /. Didr.
Sprediero ; Helmst 1790.

464 THE TWELVE MINOR PROPHETS. [§242.
Habakkuk lived and prophesied in the Chaldee period ;
but it is doubtful, and contested, in what part of this
period we are to place him." Chap. i. 5, sqq., certainly
refers to the beginning of it, and belongs to the reign of
Jehoiakim, 610 — 599 B. C. (Compare 2 Kings xxiv. 1 .)
Even the last chapter does not seem to demand a later
W. F. Capitonis Enarratt in Proph, Hab, ; Arg, 1526,
Dav. Chytroei Lectiones in Proph, Hab,, in his Opp, t ii.
Anton Agdli Coram, in Proph, Hab, ; Antverp, 1597,
Habac, Vates olim Hebr,, imprimis ipsius Hymnus denuo iUustratus (Auct
Chr. Gottl. Perschke ,-) Frcf 1777,
Chabac. Vatic, Comm, crit atque exeg, Ulustratum, ed, B. P. Kofod ;
Havn, 1792,
/, Ad Tingstadii Animadverss. philol, et crit ad Vaticc. Hab. ; Ups.
1795, 4to.
Hanlein. Symbola crit ad interpret Vatic. Hab. ; Eri 1795,
G, A. Ruperti Explicatio Cap, i, et ii Chab, in the Commentatt theol, ed.
Vdthusen, Kuinol, et Ruperti, vol, iii p, 405, sqq.
Guil. Ad Schroderi Dissert in Cant Chab. ; Gron, 1781, 4to,
Ch F. Schnurreri Diss, phii ad Carm. Chab. Cap. iii, (Tub. 1786, 4to.,) in
his Dissertatt phil. crit p. 342, sqq.
Hymnus Hab. Vers, ac Notis phii et crit illustr, auct Mcemer ; Ups,
1791, 4to,
Translated and explained in German, by B. I/udwig, 1779 ; Wald, (mit Einl.
und Abhandll,,) 1790 ; an anonymous writer, Lpz. 1796 ; Horst, 1798 ; Justi,
1821 ; Wolf, 1822,
" [Pseudo Epiphanius (1, c, c. xviii.) says he was of the city of Bethzochar,
or Bidzechar, in the tribe of Simeon ; that, when Nebuchadnezzar came to
lay waste Jerusalem, he fled to Ostrakine, — a city on the borders of .^gypt,
Arabia, and Palestine, — and remained there, a dweller in the land of Ish
mael. But when the Chaldeans withdrew from Jerusalem to their own terri
tories, he returned to his native place, betook himself to agriculture, and
died two years before the return from the Babylonian exile. Isidore and
Dorotheus of Tyre agree, substantially, with this account In the apocry
phal fable of Bel and the Dragon, Habakkuk is made to carry food to
Daniel in the lions' den, (verse 33, sqq. ;) but that story contains its own refu
tation. Some of the rabbins have, in their tasteless method, combined his
name, P'lpsn, with the words 13 fliJS'ri itlN, (i e. thou shalt embrace n
son,) which the prophet Elisha addresses to the Shunansniitish woman, and
have attempted to show that Habakkuk was the son of this woman.] Ahar-
hand, in Hab. i 1. Carpzov, p. 398. Knobd, p. 291.

§ 243.] HABAKKUK. 465
date, for he has no misgivings of the destruction of Judah,
(ih. 16, 17 ;) consequently he was a younger contempo
rary of Jeremiah. Rosenmuller, in his Proem to this
prophet, thinks chap. ii. belongs to a later period ; but it
obviously agrees with chap, i., and the last chapter
agrees with both. Stickel says that in chap. iii. only
" the day of trouble, the approach of the destroyer, and
the devastation of the land," are in sight. Jahn, misun
derstanding i. 2 — 4, and the purity of Habakkuk's lan
guage, places him in the time of Manasseh."
§243.
CONTENTS AND SPIRIT OF HIS PROPHECY.
When the prophet, in the spirit, saw the formidable
power of the Chaldees approaching and menacing his
land, and saw the great evils they would cause in Judea,
he bore his complaints and doubts before Jehovah, the
JUST and the pure. (i. 2 — 17.) Aud on this occasion
the future punishment of the Chaldees was revealed to
him. (ii.) In chap. iii. a presentiment of the destruction
of his country, and acquiescence in Jehovah's whl, con
tend, in the inspired breast of the prophet, with his hope
that the enemy would be chastised.
If Habakkuk is to be compared with the most excel-
' Stidcd, Proi ad interpret Tent Cap. Heb. pt i ; Neostad, 1827, p. 22, 27.
See Hirzel, in Winer's Zeitschrift. vol. vii p, 393, The opinions of Bertholdt,
(p, 1667,) and of Friederich, (in Eichhorn's Allg. Bib. vol. x. p, 400,) that Habak
kuk lived in the time ofthe destruction of Jerusalem, are not tenable. The
Chaldees appear, in iii. 14, 17, et ai, in hostility with the Jews,
See Jahn, voi ii p. 513, and WahTs version, p. 16. Rosenmidler explains
these verses correctiy. Perschke, Ranitz, (Introd. in Hab. Vatic. ; Lips. 1808,
p. 24,) and Stickel, (i c. p. 47,) justiy suppose Habakkuk prophesied before the
invasion of the Chaldees. [JVoyes (L c. voi ii p. 245, sq.) and Knobd (L c.
293) are of this opinion.]
VOL. II. 59

466 THE TWELVE MINOR PROPHETS. [§ 243.
lent prophets — with Joel, Amos, Nahum, and Isaiah — in
point of prophetic style, so, in the lyric passage, chap, hi.,
he surpasses all which Hebrew poesy can offer in this
department. In his subhmest flights, he unites the
greatest strength and fulness with moderation, clearness,
and beauty. His rhythm is at once the purest and the
most regular. His language is fresh and pure.
[" The two first chapters are written in the form of a
dialogue between the prophet and Jehovah. Habakkuk
complains of the sad state of his nation, opposed by their
enemies, (i.2 — 4.) Jehovah replies that he is doing a great
work in raising up the Chaldeans, " a fierce and swift
people," for his purposes. They are to gather captives
like the sand, and to scoff" at kings ; to mock at fortresses,
and take them. (i. 5 — 11.) The prophet rejoins, and
confesses that he knows the Chaldeans have been sent
to judge and punish the Jews, — but the Jews are less
wicked than their proud oppressors, who regard them as
but fish and worthless reptiles, whom no man protects or
cares for. Shall these, he inquires, continually slay the
nations without mercy ? (i. 12 — ii. 1.) Jehovah answers
again, that the Chaldeans also are to be punished, and
the time is hastening to approach, when the proud
Chaldeans shah not be at ease, and the just Jews shall
be saved by their faithfulness. The violence done to
the Jews shall return upon the perpetrator, and his
graven images shah not save him. (h. 2 — 20.) The last
chapter is a lyric prayer.
" The theme of this poem was the most interesting and
inspiring to a Jew. He saw the foe invade his native
land ; he saw equity and justice lying prostrate ; he saw
independence and the dignity of the nation — what
once was dearest and best to a Jew — now lost. This

§ 243.] HABAKKUK. 467
prospect must depress every feehng heart into deep sor
row ; but a heart warm as the prophet's it must quite
rend asunder. It was not natural that, with such a
thought in his mind, Habakkuk should waken the soft
lute over the ruins of his wicked nation. He must hear
the war- trumpet sound.
"He has all the attributes ofa great poet united — an
imagination full of creative power; just judgment, which,
in almost every case, gives correctness and the most del
icate outline to the creations of his glowing fancy ; an
unlimited power over language, to give it, at whl, har
mony and loveliness, or sonorous strength. O that
greedy time, and the Babylonian exile, which have de
voured so many monuments of the Hebrews, had left
us more of this sublime poet's works ! He begins with
a hving portraiture, and ends with the same. Did poet
ever paint a powerful and haughty conqueror in finer
colors than he has depicted the Chaldeans ? (i. 6 — 1 1 .)
Did a poet ever mock with more biting taunts than he,
when he makes the abused people triumph over their
haughty tyrants, after they have themselves lain at their
feet ? (ii. 6 — 17.) Did ever a poet represent the solem
nity of universal nature at the arrival of God with more
strength and sublimity,^ (ii. 3 — 15.) The entire ancient
history of the Jews, with ah its great and wonderful
scenes, lends him ideas and images ; all that is grand
and terrible in nature flows together into one stream.
He contends with words ; he struggles with images ; and
who is not seized with a holy shudder as he reads, —
like that of the sacred prophet, as he saw the sublime
and terrible appearance of the Indescribable ? Paint it
better, ye who can."] "
° Eichhorn, § 591. A sort of strophe occurs in ii. 6 — ^20. Chap, iii con
tends for originality with Ps, xviii and Ixviii, Chap, ii. 1, 2, is syinbolical.

468 THE TWELVE MINOR PROPHETS. [§244.
IX. ZEPHANIAH.'
§244.
HIS LIFE AND TIMES,
Zephaniah was a descendant of Hezekiah, though it is
scarcely probable he was descended from the king of that
name, as Eichhorn seems inclined to suppose, while Jahn
and Rosenmuller are of a different opinion. He proph
esied under King Josiah, (642 — 611 B. C.,) and since
he zealously opposes idolatry, (i. 4 — 6,) ' and is the first

The formation of liip"^!? (ii 16) is peculiar. (See Gesenius and Rosen
midler.) What Eichhorn says (p. 412) of the pecuhar language of Habakkuk,
requires examination.
[The inscription and the subscription of chap, iii were occasioned by the
use ofthis passage in public worship. In the latter there is a mistake in the
text— ^niaiasa, instead of niiijaa .
It is very improbable that ii. 19, is an interpolation, arising from the same
cause, as Bertholdt maintains, p, 1669, Hanlein's attempt at a critical emen
dation of chap, iii. is unsuccessfiil. See Bertholdt, p. 1675.]
" ]\lart. Buceri Sophonias ad Veritatem Ebr, versus et Comm, explicatus ;
Arg, 1528,
Jo. Am. JVoltenii Diss, exeg, pnelim, in Proph, Zeph, ; Traj, ad Viadr,
1719, C, F. Cramer, Scyth, Denkmaler in Palastina; 1777,
Dan. a Colin, Spicileg. Observat exeget crit in Zephan. ; Vratisl,
1818, 4to,
F. A. Herwig, Beit z, d, Erlaut des Proph. Zeph., in Bengel, Arch, vol, i,
pt iii.
Translated into German, with Remarks, by E.'Ewald; 1827.
' The phrase bssn "isci, remnant of Baal, cannot support the opposite
conclusion, — viz. that he wrote in the latter part of Josiah's reign, after
the extirpation of idolatry, — as Eichhorn, Bertholdt, Rosenmiiller, and
Jager, maintain. HUzig places him between the 12th and 18th of Josiah,
following 2 Ch. xxxiv. 3, 8, xxxv, 19, Movers, Chron. p, 334, sq. See above,
§ 191, p. 298, sqq. Knobd, p. 247,

§245.] ZEPHANIAH. 469
to expect the destruction of Nineveh, (ii. 13,) it appears
that he prophesied in the first years of Josiah."

§245.
CONTENTS AND SPIRIT OF HIS PROPHECIES.
Zephaniah has left us two prophecies, (i. — h. and hi.,)
in which he treats the same thoughts in different man
ners. In chap. i. he predicts the destruction of the idol
atrous and corrupt nation,* and in chap. ii. exhorts them
to reformation, but promises that all the enemies of the
land shall be punished, (h. 4, 15.) In chap, iii., after
reproving anew the sins of the nation, he foresees the
restoration of the people after they have reformed them
selves. In respect to style, Zephaniah is by no means equal to
the best prophets. He is often heavy and tedious. His
rhythm frequently sinks down to prose ; however, his
language is pure."
" The king's sons, (i 8,) on which Bertholdt lays so much stress, are not
necessarily the sons of Josiah.
' According to the common view, he speaks of its conquest by the Chal
deans. Knobel, p. 248. Cramer, Eichhorn, and Hitzig, understand the Scythians
to be referred to, who, in the time of Psammeticus, made an incursion as far
as jEgypt, Herodotus, i 103, sq,
" [Eichhorn and Jahn accuse him of imitating the earlier prophets. The
former selects the following instances: Zeph, ii. 14, "Flocks shall lie down
in her ; tiie pelican and the hedgehog shall lodge in the capitals of her pil
lars," compared with Isa, xiii, 21, and xxxiv, 11, "The pelican and the
hedgehog shall possess it," &c ; and also ii, 15, " That said in her heart,
' I, and none beside me,' " compared with Isa, xlvii 8, " And sayest in thy
heart, 'I am, and there is none beside me,'" &c. But, unfortunately for this
hypothesis, each of these parallels belongs to the spurious portion of Isaiah,
which was written after the time of Zephaniah, But yet, though his want
of originality has been exaggerated, it cannot be denied. He borrows both
figures and thoughts from his predecessors. Chap, i 13.

470 THE TWELVE MINOR PROPHETS. [§ 246
X HAGGAI.'
§246.
HIS LIFE AND TIMES.
Haggai prophesied at the time of Zerubbabel and
Joshua, in the second year of Darius Hystaspes, 520 B.C.,
(i. 1,) at a time when the temple, which had been be
gun by the young colony, had for some time been im
peded by outward hinderances and the indolence of the
Jews, and when a favorable opportunity presented itself
for finishing the work. See Ezra iv. 24, v. 1.'
" They also shall build houses, but not inhabit them,
And shall plant vineyards, but not drink the wine thereof."
Compare with Amos v. 11 : —
" Though ye build houses of hewn stone, ye shall not dwell in them ;
Though ye plant pleasant vineyards, ye shall not drink the wine of them."
Compare also ii 8, witii Isa- xvi. 6 ; iii, 10, with xviii, 1, sqq. He is fond of
a certain kind of repetition. Chap, ii 15,
" .\ day of distress and anguish,
A day of destruction and desolation,
A day of darkness and gloominess," &.c.
And iii, 2, 17,
He furnishes more proofs of a poor and low taste than we could reasona
bly expect in so short a book. He sometimes indulges in paronomasia and
play upon words ; e. g. i 1.5, ii, 1, 4,] See Eichhorn, § 595, Knobd, ii p,
246, sqq,
" /, Merceri Scholia et Vers, ad Proph. Hagg. ; Par. 1551,
Jo. Jac. Gryncei Comm, in Hagg, ; Genev, 1581,
Frid, Balduini Comm. in Hagg., Zach,, et Malach, ; Viteb, 1610, 8vo,
Published in Joa. Schmid. Comm, in Proph, minor,
Balth. Willii Prophetje Hagg,, Zach,, Malach,, Comment Ulustrati ; Brem,
1638, Aug. Varenii Trifolium Prophet, s, tres poster, Prophetse, scU. Hagg.,
Zach,, et Malach,, explicati; Rost 1662, 4to, His Exercitatt duse in Hagg, ;
ib, 1648, 1650, 4to,
Andr. Reinbeck, Exercitatt in Proph, Hagg, ; Brunsv, 1692, 4to.
Dan. Pfeffinger, Notae in Proph, Hagg, ; Arg, 1703, 4to,
Franc. Woken, Annotatt. exeg. in Proph, Hagg, ; Lips, 1719,
Vaticc, Haggsei vers, et illustr, a JVic. Hesslen ; Lund. 1799, 4to,
' Jerome, commenting on Hag, i. 13, says some think that John the Bap-

§247.] HAGGAI. 471
§247.
CONTENTS AND SPIRIT OF THE PROPHECY,
Haggai has left us four short prophecies on the sub
ject of the erection of the temple, which was then at a
stand. They are carefully furnished with historical
statements. Eichhorn thinks that these are only sum
maries ol the real discourses he delivered. The dis
courses themselves, then, must have been more meagre
than even these tedious productions. The last four
verses compose a supplementary explanation of ii. 6 — 9.
Without any inspiration, and following the principles
of the common doctrine of retribution, and at the sugges
tion of a vulgar patriotism, (ii. 6 — 9,) he chides, admon
ishes, and promises, with an unprophetic zeal for the
restoration of the ancient worship. He uses frequent in
terrogations, (i. 4, 9, ii. 2, 3, 12, 13, 19.) The style
is devoid of ah spirit and energy ; yet he sometimes at
tempts rhythm. See also i. 5, 7, ii. 15, 18.
[High religious and moral views nowhere occur in the
book. He has a few favorite formulas, which he uses to
excess ; for example, " Consider how it goeth with
you;" "Saith Jehovah of hosts," (which occurs ten
times in this short book ;) and, " Zerubbabel, the son of
Shealtiel, governor of Judah, and Joshua, the son of Jos-
edech, the high priest, and all the people." Parahehsms
tist, Malachi, — whose name is interpreted angel ofthe Lord, — and Haggai,
whom we have now before us, were angels, who took human bodies, at God's
command, and dwelt among men. However, both he and Cyril of Alex, (ad
loc.) take the phrase, nirT^ '=1'*-^ , in the sense of prophet. See also pseu
do Epiphanius, ch. xx. He is said to have been a member of the Great Syn
agogue. See Carpzov, i c. p. 426.

472 THE TWELVE MINOR PROPHETS. [§248.
sometimes occur, (i. 6, 9, 10, &c.) The language is
somewhat Chaldaic, and poor.] "

XI ZECHARIAH.''
§248.
HIS LIFE AND TIMES.
Zechariah was the son of Barachiah, the son of Iddo.
(i. 1, 7.) According to Ezra v. 1, and vi. 14, he was
the son of Iddo ; but here the term son is used in the
sense of descendant, and requires no further explanation.
In Matt. xxih. 35, this Zechariah is confounded with
another Zechariah, the son of Jehoiada the priest, who
is mentioned in 2 Ch. xxiv. 20, sqq. He was con
temporary with Haggai, and entered upon the office of a
prophet only a few months later than Haggai. His taste
" See Hitzig and Knobd.
' Ph Mdanchthonis Comm. in Proph. Zachar. Opp. ii p. 531.
Jo. Jac Grynasi Comm. in Zachar. ; Genev. 1581, 4to.
Casp. Sandii Comm, in Zachar, ; Lugd, 1616, 4to,
Jo. Henr. Ursini Comment in Proph, Zachar. ; Frcf. 1652.
Sanu Bohlii Analys. et Exeg. Proph. Zachar. ; Rost 1711.
C. Vitringa Comm, ad Libr, Prophetiarum Zachar. qute supersunt ; Leo-
vard. 1734, 4to.
{B. G. Fliigge) Die Weissagungen, welche den Schriften des Zacharias
beigebogen sind ; Hamb. 1788.
H. Venemce Sermones acad. vice Comm. in Libr. Proph. Zach. ; Leov.
1789, 4to.
B. Blayney, A new Translation, with Notes ; Oxf. 1797, 4to.
Kbster, Meletemata crit et ex. in Zachar. pars poster, c. ix. — ^xiv. ; Gott
1818. Ed. Farberg, Comment crit et exeg. in Zachar. Vatic, pars post pt i ;
Cob. 1824, 4to.
Translated into German (by Trinius ;) Quedlinb. 1780.

<5 249.] ZECHARIAH. 473
and fondness for symbols, and the Chaldaic doctrine of
angels and spirits, which he has adopted, show that he
had received his education in Chaldea."

§249.
CONTENTS AND SPIRIT OF THE FIRST PART OF HIS
PROPHECY,
The oracles contained in chap. i. — vih. constitute a
whole, by themselves, and ah relate to the restoration of
the Jewish state and temple. After exhorting the peo
ple to obedience in general, (i. 1 — 6,) the prophet, in a
series of symbolical visions, (i. 7 — vi. 8,) and accompa
nied by one symbolical action, (vi. 9 — 15,) gives many
admonitions, encouragements, and promises. In a later
prophecy, he answers the question which is put to him
respecting the days of fasting, hitherto observed, and
promises a joyful future, (vii. and viii.)
Zechariah writes almost entirely without rhythm, with
out energy, and without effect. Like Ezekiel, he loves
" [Pseudo Epiphanius {\. c. cap. xxi) says he came from the land of the
Chaldees in old age, and when he was there he taught the people many
things, and performed many miracles, to confirm their faith in him, {slg &n6-
dei^iv.) He foretold that Josedech should have a son, who should discharge
the office of priest at Jerusalem. He also blessed Salathiel, announcing
that he should beget a son, and call his name Zerubbabel. Besides this, he
performed a miracle under Cyrus, king of the Persians, promoting the victo
ry over Croesus, king of the Lydians, and over Astyages, king of the Medes.
Besides, he predicted the service which Cyrus should perfojm for Jerusalem,
and blessed him with great blessings  He died in Judea, in extreme
old age, and was buried near Haggai, the prophet But another codex of
Epiphanius adds, that he was slain by Joash, king of Judah, between the
temple and the altar, while he was exhorting both king and people to desist
from impiety, and return to God, &c. &c. The author of this sentence did
not reflect that Joash, and Zechariah, son of Barachiah, were separated by
a period of 320 years. See Carpzov, 1. c. p. 439, sq.]
VOL. II. 60

474 THE TWELVE MINOR PROPHETS. [§ 249.
to repeat his favorite formulas ; as, for example, " Thus
saith Jehovah of hosts," (i. 3, &c.,) [a phrase which oc
curs no less than forty-one times in these eight chap
ters ;] " Ye shall know that Jehovah of hosts sent me."
(h. 9, 11, iv. 8, vi. 15.)
His language bears marks of a late age." His man
ner of using symbols is obscure, and displays no power
of invention. His symbols require the explanations,
which he gives himself. The substance and contents
of his writings by no means compensate for these defects
of style, for there is nothing original or living in his ad
monitions, or his prophetic visions. He refers to the
earlier prophets.* Hengstenberg adduces many other
instances of imitation, or acquaintEmce with the earlier
prophets ; but all the rest are too uncertedn."
The arrangement of the prophecies is, incontestably,
to be ascribed to the prophet himself. [A Jewish and
Levitical spirit pervades the book. It relates, almost
" rt art before the stat constr. ; iv. 7, 10. fit!'??^ , Syriasm. for ts^SDS .
vii 14. Its witii b; i 15, (Comp, 2 Sam, viii. 5,) l^S naa; ii 12,
liasn, abstulit; iii 4, B-^D^ntt; iii 7, 53, n|g; iv, 2, a (Comp, Ecci
xii. 6.) ^i?3B'; vii 12. (Ezek. iii 9. Jer. xvii 1.) Hard constructions :
^.Vr'^&, cas. absoi; ii. 8. tiiilBn S'lt ; viii 12. riisipti , cas. abs. or suppi
nJ-i^^PlPl ; iv. 7. nls - 5a - n« ; viii 17. B'l'iann-rist »in; vii7. b'^S IDS;
ii 4, lias -insii ; ii 12, vi, 6, 13, Omission of '•'3 ; vii 23. Comp.
Koster, i c. p. 27, sqq., 38, sqq.
' Chap, i 4 — 6, and vii, 7, sqq,, iii 8, and vi 12. Comp. with Jer. xxiii
5, xxxiii. 15, vi 13. Comp. Ps. ex. 4, (?) viii. 20 — 23. Comp. Isa. ii 3.
' [The resemblance in these instances, except the last, is exceedingly
slight Hengstenberg (1, c. voi i p. 367, sq.) considers an acquaintance with
the old prophets, and an imitation of them, as one of the characteristics of
Zechariah. He mentions the following instances : Chap, ii 8, an imitation
of Isa. xlix. 19, 20 ; iii 10, of Mich. iv. 4 ; iii 8, and vi 12, ftom Jer. xxiii
5, and xxxiii 15, and Isa. iv. 2. The fiindamentaj thought of chap. v. he
takes from Ezek, ii, 9, 10; viii, 4, fiom Isa. Ixv. 20.]

§ 250, a.] ZECHARIAH. 475
exclusively, to the temple and the form of worship ; yet
some general ethical maxims occur, which the prophet
applies. He is fired with revengeful hatred against the
heathen nations, and, on account of their ancient oppres
sions, he predicts their ruin and subjugation to the Jews,
for whom he entertains high and rash hopes. He often
reminds the people of the fruitless prophecies and admo
nitions of the earher prophets. For the most part, he
makes use of visions, to set forth his thoughts. They
are almost always symbolical, and often very obscure, so
that he usually explains them. Simple comparisons and
images do not occur in his writings, as in those of the
elder prophets. Instead of these, he has symbols, and
in this respect resembles Daniel and Ezekiel, with whom
he has in common the frequent introduction of higher
spiritual beings. He alone, of all the prophets, mentions
Satan, who occurs in a similar manner in the later apoc
alyptical writers. In general, he writes without inspi
ration, energy, or effect; abounds in repetitions, and
therefore is diffuse and uniform. He closely resembles
Ezekiel, but is to be placed below him in rank. The
style is prosaic, and the language slightly Chaldaic] "
§ 250, a.
ON THE SECOND PART, IX.— XIV.
The contents of these chapters are in part enigmat
ical. Chap. ix. contains threats against Hadrach, —
which is, perhaps, Persia, — Damascus, Tyre and Sidon,
Philistia, and a promise that Judah shall be powerfiil,
victorious, and happy, under its conquering and peaceful
» Km>bel, 1. C. p. 384, sq.

476 THE TWELVE MINOR PROPHETS. [§ 250, b.
kings. Chap, x., in like manner, predicts that the house
of Judah — notwithstanding its present condition —
shah be warlike and triumphant ; the exhes shall return,
(x. 6,) and no foreigners — neither Assyrians nor iEgyp
tians — shall rule over them any more. Chap. xi. 1 — 3,
relates the humhiation of the proud. Lebanon is taken
as an image of Persia, or of ah the enemies of Judah.
The enigmatical part of the picture now begins, —
though there was an allusion to it in chap. x. 2, 3.
Israel wih be corrupted by bad shepherds ; the harmony
will be disturbed ; God will punish them, (chap. xi. 4 —
xiv. ;) Judah must pass through a great purification, for
she has forsaken God ; all nations shall besiege Jerusa
lem ; the herdsman shall be slain ; two thirds of the in
habitants shall perish, and the remaining third must be
purified yet more. But Jehovah, appearing in terrible
majesty, contends against the foreign nations, and smites
them with plagues. Then Jerusalem will be quietly
inhabited ; a living water wih proceed from it ; sin and
unrighteousness whl be abolished, and all nations shall
come up to Jerusalem to worship.
§ 250, b.
THE SAME SUBJECT CONTINUED.
Here, with the single exception of chap. xi. 14 — 17,
the style is not symbohcal ; sometimes it is not de
void of poetical elevation and rhythm, (ix. 3, sqq., and
xi. 1—3.)
The form of introducing his oracles, used in the
first part, (i. 1, iv. 8, vi, 9, vh. 1, 8, vih. 1, 18,) is
omitted, and others occur, in which the name of Zech
ariah is not mentioned, (ix. 1, xi. 4, xii. 1.) The

§ 250, b.] ZECHARIAH. 477
historical circumstances seem to be different, for Damas
cus, Tyre, Philistia, (ix. 1 — 6,) Javan, (ix. 13,) Assyria,
and .^gypt, (x. 11,) are the enemies of Judah. The
separation of the tribes is mentioned, (xi. 14, ix. 13,
X. 6, 7 ;) the kingdom itself, (xi. 6, xiii. 7 ; comp. xh. 7,
8, 12 ;) idolatry and false prophets, (x. 2, sqq., xhi. 2,
sqq. ; but compare Nehemiah vi. 10 — 14 ;) and these do
not belong to the time when Zechariah actually lived.
Thus there seem sufficient grounds for denying that these
chapters belong to Zechariah, and for referring them to
some earlier prophet."
But, on the other hand, it must be said that these

° [Doubts respecting the authenticity ofthe latter part of the book were
first suggested, it is believed, by Mr. Mode, in his remarks on Matt xxvii.
9, 10. He says, "It may seem the evangelists would inform us that these
latter chapters, (ix. x. xi,) ascribed to Zachary, are indeed the prophecies
of Jeremy, and that the Jews had not rightiy attributed them, Cei-tainly, if
a man weigh the contents of some of these, tiiey should, of a likelihood, be
of an elder date than the time of Zachary ; namely, before the captivity,
for the subjects of some of them were scarce in being after tiiat time 
As for their being joined to the prophecies of Zachary, that proves no more
they are his, than the like adjoining of Agur's proverbs to Solomon's, proves
they are therefore Solomon's ; or that all the psalms are David's, because
joined in one volume with David's psalms," ]
J. Mede's Works, foi ; Lond, 1678, He was followed by Joh. Bridge, Ham
mond, Rich, Kidder, (Demonstration ofthe Messiah,) Will. Whiston, JVewcome,
and Doderlein, who doubted the genuineness of these chapters, after making
a regular investigation. See the literature in KSster, (i c, p, 10, sqq,,) Fliigge,
J. D. Michaelis, Bauer, Eichhorn, (in 4th edition,) Corrodi, and Augusti, Ber
tholdt, De Wette, (in the first three editions of this Introduction,) Forberg, (1, c)
Rosenmiiller, (2d ed, of his Schol, on Minor Proph.,) Hitzig, (in Studien
und Kritiken for 1830, p, 25,) Credner, (Joel, p. 67.) The genuineness has
been defended by Carpzov, (Crit Sac. p. 808,) Beckhaus, (Integritat d. Proph,
p. 337,) Jahn, (1. c. voi ii p. 675,) Rosenmidler, (1st ed,,) Koster, (i c,) and by
Hengstenberg, (Beit vol, i, p, 361, sqq,) [Blayney also attempted a defence of
the genuineness in the preliminary discourse to his translation of Zechariah,
p, xii, sq,, and notes on chap, ix, p, 35, sqq. See, also, Henndl, Inquiry into
the Origin of Christianity ; Lond. 1841, p, 333, note. He refers be. — ^xiv. to
Jeremiah,]

478 THE TWELVE MINOR PROPHETS. [§ 250, b.
chapters have some affinity with the former part in lan
guage and style," and also in the reference to other and
sometimes quite late prophets.* These circumstances
show it could not have been written before the exhe.
It is clearly presupposed that the nation, and not merely
the ten tribes, are in exile, (ix. 12, x. 6, 9, 10.)' The
° ntoS'l, for nS"!; xiv. 10. ms, for !*i2; ix. 8. T^l'l, for Tl'l; xii 7,
and often, as in Chronicles. T^asn; xiii, 2, (iii. 4.) tii'Ti; ix. 15. (Comp,
Ps, cxliv. 12,) t'ltn; X. 1, (Job xxviii 26, xxxviii 25.) bna; xi 8. Hard
constructions: DIS; y^V; ix. 1, miJPin '^'I'^D^; ix, 12, Dljiis sbl; xiv.
18. n^2 , perhaps cas. absoi ; x. 11. (Comp. Koster, p. 44.) Omission of
¦13 ; ix. 12. (Comp. viii. 23.) rc'l inb ; ix, 8, vi. 14. (Comp. Ex, xxxii,
27, Ez, xxxv, 7,) For the formula, " Ye shall know that Jehovah of hosts hath
sent me," which occurs in ii, 9, 11, iv, 8, vi 15, a corresponding expression
occurs but once, (xi 11,) tliey " knew it was the word of Jehovah." The
formula, " God said," is more rare. (x. 12, xi. 6, xii, 4, xiii, 2, 7, 8, ix, 9,)
" Rejoice greatiy, O daughter of Zion ! Shout, O daughter of Jerusalem ! "
&c,, is similar to ii, 14, (10 in our version and JVoyes,) " Sing and rejoice,
O daughter of Zion 1 " [The phrase, " Jehovah of hosts," occurs but 7 times
in the latter, and 41 in the former portion.] The prolixity of xii, 10 — 14,
and xiv, 15, reminds one of viii, 19; but comp. vii 5. [The resemblance is
much less striking than with many passages of more ancient prophets ; e. g.
Jer. xxxi 9, vi, 26, Amos viii, 8 — 12. It would perhaps be difficult to equal
the prolixity of i 2 — 6, — to mention but a single instance, — with any
passage in the second part] The parallelism of many members (ix. 5, 7, 9,
10, 13, 15, xii 4, et ai) reminds us of vi, 13, and both belong to the taste of
later times, [But examples of this kind of parallelism are common even in
80 old a writer as Hosea, or Joel ; e. g. Joel ii 6, 9, 10, 20, Hos. ii. 14, iv. 3,
V. 1, &c,] The symbol in xi, 4, sqq., is equally obscure with any symbol in
the first part of the book, and in general much in this part is obscure,
' Chap, ix, 5, comp. Zeph. ii. 4 ; ix. 10, comp, Ps, Ixxii 8, Mich, v. 9 ; ix. 13,
comp. Joel iv. 6 ; ix. 12, comp. Isa. xl, 2 ; x, 3, comp. Ez. xxxiv. 17 ; xi 3, comp.
Jer. xii. 5, xlix. 19; xi 6, comp, Jer, 1, 7 ; xi 16, comp, Ez, xxxiv. 4 ; xii, 1, comp,
Isa, xliv. 24, li. 13 ; xiii. 2, comp, Hos, ii, 19 ; xiii, 8, sq,, comp, Ez, v, 12 ;
xiii 9, comp, Hos, ii, 25 ; xiv. 5, comp. Deut xxxiii 3 ; xiv. 8, comp, J oel iv. 18,
Ez. xlvii 1, sqq. ; xiv. 16, comp. Isa. Ixvi 23, [This proves nothing, for the
references to old prophets are rare in the first part of the book. See above.]
" It is not a. future, but a. present thing. fiS'lt!*'! is in tiie past time, as it
appears from vii, 14,

§ 250, b.] ZECHARIAH, 479
Levitical spirit, (xiv. 16, 20,) and the fantastic expec
tations, agree with the times after the exile. There are
also some other marks which point to this period."
Now, since it is not possible to combine all the allu
sions to the time into one point, and make them all
harmonize with the condition of the land at any one
period of its history,* therefore it may be the most ad-
" Uzziah, king of Judah, is mentioned, xiv. 5 ; but comp, Jer, xxvi 18, 19.
[The inference the author would draw from this mention of Uzziah is proba
bly this : If the oracle were written before the exile, the tune of Uzziah
would not be referred to as time long past, nor would it have been added
that he was king of Judah. Uzziah came to the throne about 811 B, C,
while the exile commenced 588. But in Jeremiah, (i u.,) the days of Heze
kiah, king of Judah, are referred to, and in Haggai, his contemporary Ze
rubbabel is called " the son of Shealtiel, the governor of Judah."] Theformer
gate ( lilCS'nn "iStp ) is mentioned, xiv. 10 — as the old gate is mentioned,
Neh. iii 6. A drought is alluded to, x. 1, which also is mentioned in viii
10, sqq,, and in Hag. i, 6, 10, sqq, ; and the jealousy between Judah and
Jerusalem, alluded to in xii 7, seems to have been caused by the state of
affairs at that tune. The addition of the term "oracle" (m'a) to the
" word of Jehovah," ( illlT' "iIlT ,) ix, 1, which also occurs in Mai i, 1,
seems to be caused by Jer. xxiii 33, sqq,, where the same word occurs.
Hadrach is probably a mystical name for Persia. Chap, x, 4, seems to imply
that Judah was not warlike at that time. John, Append, Hermeneut vol, i,
p, 175, Koster, p, 77.
'> JVeuicome separates ix. — xi. from xii. — xiv. The former he places before
the overtiirow of the kingdom of Israel, and the latter after Josiah, and be
fore the destruction of Jerusalem. Fliigge divides it into nine sections,
which he ascribes to different authors and ages, and refers chap, ix, to that
Zechariah who is mentioned in 2 Ch, xxvi 5. Bertholdt places ix. x. in the
time of Ahaz ; xi. a little earlier ; xii 1 — ^xiii 6, under one of the last kings
of Judah ; xiii, 7 — ^xiv. 21, and the first two passages, he refers to the Zech
ariah mentioned in Isa. viii 2. The author of this Introduction took a view
slightiy difierent in the three first editions. Hitzig once placed the whole in
the time of Uzziah, — but is now compelled to place it after that time, —
and Credner puts it in that of Ahaz. [But ui the passages, xiv. 5, (x. 6, ?) ix. 9,
where a personal Messiah is mentioned, the style, language, and expression,
and in particular the acquaintance with later writers, show it must not be
referred to the time of Uzziah.]
Knobd (p. 172) places ix.— xi. about 770—740 B. C, and xii— xiv. he
ascribes to a different author, (p. 280, sqq.,) for he finds a difference in style,

480 THE TWELVE MINOR PROPHETS. [§ 250, 6.
visable to suppose that these parts, which seem to belong
to an earlier period, were written with reference to the
future, and that the form of a prediction was adopted in
part. This view agrees well with the unconnected, in
consistent, and obscure character of these prophecies."

viz. iT^m ; xii, 3, 9, xiii, 2—4, 8, xiv. 6, 8, 14, 16, 21, «inr; DT^a; xii 3,
4, 6, 8, 9, 11, xiii 1, 2, 4, xiv, 8, 9, 13, 20, 21, nini t^: ; xii 1, 4, xiii, 2, 7, 8 ;
(but the 2d occurs in ix. 16; the 3d only x, 12, xi, 16.) "All nations," "all
nations around," " all nations of the earth ; " xii. 2, 3, 6, 9, xiv. 2, 12, 14, 16,
19, "Theinhabitantsof Jerusalem;" xii, 5, 7,8, 10, xiii, 1. "The house of
David;" xii 7, 8, 10, 12, xiii, I, Family for people ; xiv, 17, 18, The sacer
dotal and Mosaic words, mi, xiii 1; 11^3, xii 6, Saints, i e. angels;
xiv. 5. The scriptio plena ; xii 7, 8, 10, 12, xiii 1.
Hitzig thinks the style of these chapters more uniform and duU ; he ex
plains this by their composition at a period somewhat later, and reminds us of
the affinity of ix, 7, and xii 5, 6, (governors in Judah;) ix, 15, xii 8, "pJ ; x.
5, xii 4, (riders upon horses.) He compares xii, 8, and x. 7, 5 (?) ; xiii. 7, and
ix, 16, sq. ; xiv. 17, and x, 1 ; and appeals to the similar use that is made of Joel,
The supposition that both houses of Israel are rejected and dispersed,
(x, 6, sqq,,) and the idea of a Messiah, (ix, 9,) which has become positive,
are not in favor of the times of Uzziah, Jotham, and Ahaz, Knobel errone
ously finds a special hatred of .^gypt in xiv, 18, sqq. ; but there is no definite
historical relation with foreign nations at the bottom of xii — ^xiv. Something
seems to waver before the prophet's mind, like the campaign of Gog, in
Ezek. xxxviii. However, not only xiv. 4, sqq,, but the whole, is fantastic.
" In this manner we can explain the reference to political affairs, (ix, 1 —
6, 13, X. 11,) Zechariah would not wish to prophesy against Persia, at least
not publicly, (See vi 8, and Hag, ii 22.) Therefore he transferred himself
to an earlier time, and then directed his predictions to the future. The ex
pressions, ix, 13, X, 6, sqq,, are archaisms, and are based on the expected
restoration ofthe nation, as also is x, 10, where Gilead and Lebanon are put
for the extreme limits ofthe land ; xi, 6, and xiii 7, belong to the future. It
seems that he expected tyrants, or false Messiahs, to precede the Messianic
kingdom. The house of David is mentioned in connection with the Messiah,
(xii, 7, 12,) Chap. x. 2, and xii 2, may have been 'designed as warnings
for the future, or for the present time ; for it seems, ftom Neh. vi 10 — 14,
they were needed, and who knows that idolatry had not at that time
secret supporters ? I cannot, with Koster, (p. 166, sq,,) understand xiii, 2
— 6, as applying to the extirpation of the prophecy. Every thing is in
deed taken ftom fancy ; but this was conformable to the spirit of the later
prophets. [See KnobeTs arguments against the passage, L c. § 18, 25.]

§^251.] MALACHI. 481
XII. MALACUr
§251.
We know nothing of the person of Malachi. [Origen
supposed he was an angel incarnate ; and in this opinion
he has been followed by many, both ancient and modern.
Others think the name Malachi is only a title of Ezra,
and that he is the author of these oracles.] * He proph
esied, it is probable, in the time of Nehemiah. Vitringa
and Bertholdt place him in the time of Nehemiah's
second coming to Jerusalem. He seems to have aided
Nehemiah in his efforts to induce the people to repudiate
" the outlandish women" they had married, and to give
the tithes to the Levites, and offerings to the Lord.
Compare ii. 10 — 16, with Neh. xih. 23, sqq., and ih.
7—12, with xih. 10."=
* Dav. Chytrai Explic. Malach. Proph. ; Rost 1568, Opp. ii p. 455,
/, Jac. Gryneei Hypomnemata in Malach. ; Genev, 1582, 8vo. ; Bas, 1583,
1612, 4to.
Sam. Bohlii Malach, Proph. cum Commentariis Rabbinorum, Disputationi
bus Ebr. et Explicatione ; Rost 1637, 4to.
J. H. Ursini Comment in Malach. ; Frcf. 1652.
Sal. van Til, Malach. iUustratus ; Lug. Bat 1701, 4to.
Joa. Wessdii Malachias enucleatus ; Lubec. 1729, 4to.
Malachise Proph. c. Targum Jonath. et Radaki, Raschii et Aben Esras
Commentariis Interpretatio a /. Chr. Hebenstreit (xvii Diss, et Progr, ;) Lips.
1731—1746, 4to,
H. Venem. Comment ad Librum Malach, ; Leov, 1759, 4to.
C. F. Bahrdt, Comment in Malachiam c. Examine crit Verss. Vet et
Lectionum var. Hubigantii ; accedit Spec. Bibliorum polygi ; Lips, 1768,
/, M. Faber, Comm. in Malach. Proph. ; Onold. 1779, 4to.
' Jonathan Ben Uzzid (ad Mai. i 1) says, Malachi, whose name is called
Ezra the scribe ; and Jerome (1. c.) thinks he was the same person. (See,
also, § 246, sup.) The LXX. translate the title of the book, Ar\pfm Uyov
kvqIov inl t6v 'lagaiiX iv x^i'Q^ dyy^l^v otiiTov. See other trifling specu
lations in Carpzov, 1. c. p. 454, sqq.
' filringa, Ob. sac. L. vi. p. 331, sqq. ; Typ. Doctr. prophet, p. 42. Carp-
VOL. II. 61

482 THE TWELVE MINOR PROPHETS. [§ 252.
He prophesied later than Haggai and Zechariah, as
it appears from the position which this book holds in the
canon, and also from the fact that the temple was fin
ished when he wrote, as we see, i. 10, and ih. 1 : —
" O that some one would close the doors,
That ye might not kindle the fire upon mine altar in vain ;
The Lord, whom ye seek, shall suddenly come to his temple."
The mention of the Jewish governor (i. 8) forbids us
to place the time after the death of Nehemiah, as Rosen-
muher observes. But Hitzig thinks this governor pre
ceded or followed Nehemiah.

§252.
CONTENTS AND SPIRIT OF THE PROPHECY.
After the destruction of the theocracy, and the loss of
true prophetic inspiration, Malachi, in his six prophetic
discourses, undertakes to reprove the nation for trans
gressing the rules relating to public worship, and other
precepts of the law ; in particular, that which prohibited
marriage with foreign women, (i. 6 — h. 9, h. 10 — 16,
iii. 7 — 12.) The dissatisfaction which the people ex
press with these restrictions, only leads him to make the
comforting comparison of their condition with the harder
lot of other nations, (i. 2 — 5,) and the promises of a
Messiah, (h. 17 — ih. 9, hi. 13—24.) These are not
devoid of the moral spirit of ancient prophecy, and are
not destitute of peculiar and original ideas, (hi. 2, 23.)
In style, rhythm, and imagery, Malachi imitates the
zmi, p. 463. Pseudo Epiphanius says he was of the tribe of Zebulon, and was
highly honored by the people for his gentieness and sanctity. Hitzig refers
to differences in these parallels, and observes that Malachi not only reproves
the Jews for marrying heathen women, but for deserting their former wives.

§ 253.] BOOK OF DANIEL. 483
old prophets, and not without success. Yet we are
continually sensible of the dull, exhausted spirit, which
attempts, but cannot perform, for the thought is not
sufficiently vigorous."

CHAPTER V.
DANIEL." §253.
ACCOUNTS OF DANIEL.
Daniel, a young Hebrew, of noble birth, according
" See Eichhorn, § 609, sq,, and Knobd, 1, c p, 388, He repeatedly uses
the same turn of words, (i, 2, 6, 7, ii. 14, 17, iii. 7, 8, 13.)
' Ephraim, Expos, Proph, Daniel, Opp, ii p, 203, sqq,
Hieron. Comment in Dan,, Opp, iii p. 1071, sqq, Martianay.
Theodordi Comment in Visiones Danielis Prophetse, Opp, ed, Schulz, ii
p, 1053, sqq,
Paraphrasis Dni Josephi Jachiadce in Danielem c. Vers, et Annotatt Const.
L'Empereur ab Oppyk ; Amst. 1633, 4to,
Ph. Mdanchthonis Comm, in Danielem ; 1543, 8vo,
Prtelectt Jo. Calvini in Libr. Prophetiarum Danielis, Jo. Bvdan et Car.
JonuUlcei Lab. et Industr, exceptse ; 1571, foi
Praelectt acad, in Dan, Proph., habitse antehac Lipsite a Mart. Geiero ;
Lips, 1767, ed, 2, corr. 1684, 4to.
Is. JVewton, Observatt upon the Prophecies of Dan. and the Apoc. of St
John; Lond, 1733, 4to, Latin, by W. Sudermann; Amst 1737, 4to,
Deutsch mit Anmerkk. von Chr. Fr. Grohmann ; Lpz. 1765, 8vo,
Herm. Venema Dissertatt ad Vaticc, Danielis, c, ii, vii et viii, ; Leov.
1745, 4to. Comment ad Dan, xi 4 — .xii ; ib, 1752, 4to,
Chr. B. Michadis, Annotatt in Dan, in /. H. Michadis, Uberr. Annotatt
in Hagiogr. voi iii. p. 1, sqq.
Bertholdt, Dan, aus dem Hebraisch-Aramaischen neu iibers, und erki mit
e, vollst Einleit u, einigen hist u, exeg. Excursen ; Erl. 1806, 1808.
Havernik, Comment, ub. d. B. Daniel ; Hamb. 1832.
Rosenmidler, Schol. See his Elenchus Interprett
[Wintle, Daniel, Improved Version, with Notes ; Lond. 1807, 4to. Amner,

484 BOOK OF DANIEL. [§ 263.
to the narrative in this book," was brought to the court
of Nebuchadnezzar, with other Jewish youths, in the
third year of King Jehoiakim, (about 605,) and, under
the name of Belteshazzar, was educated in the wisdom
of the Chaldeans, for the service of the court.*

Essay towards Interpret Dan.; Lond. 1776, 1798, 8vo, Girdlestone, Ob
servations on the Visions of Dan. ; Oxf, 1820, 8vo. Wilson, Dissertations on
the Proph, Dan, ; Oundle, 1824, 8vo, Dissertations on Dan, by Blayney,
Faber, Stonard, and Atwood. Folsom, Proph. of Dan, ; Bost 1842,]
" According to i, 3, the captive youths were " of the king's seed, and the
princes," Josephus (Ant, x, 10, 1 ) says he was of tiie race of Zedekiah, and
pseudo Epiphanius (chap, x,) makes him descended ftom some of the chief
officers in the kingdom — t5>' i^djcmv jijs ^aaiXixrig inrigEzlag, — E)'J'E^'rji^H
iv Be&E^ogia zij Avtazigtf, nXijalov ' legovaaXi'j//.
* It is obviously false that he was carried thither at that date, for, accord
ing to Jer, xxv, 1, and xlvi 2, the fourth year of Jehoiakim is ihe first of
Nebuchadnezzar ; and according to xxv, 9, in the fourth year of Jehoiakim,
yea, according to xxxvi. 9, even m his fifth year, the Chaldeans had not yet
come to Jerusalem, [Besides, in tiie third year of Jehoiakim, the Egyptians
were the masters of Judea. If he had said in the third month of Jehoiachin,
the date would have been more correct (2 Ch, xxxvi 9,)] Excepting the
captivity under Zedekiah, none is known to history, save that under Jehoia
chin, in the eighth year of Nebuchadnezzar, (2 Kings xxiv, 12, sqq. Ac
cording to Jer, Iii, 28, this was in the seventh year of Nebuchadnezzar,)
The Chronicles alone (2 Ch, xxxvi 6, 7) mention the captivity under Je
hoiakim, [but make this take place after Jehoiakim had reigned deven
years.] Perhaps the author made use of this passage, and took the date,
the third year of Jehoiakim, from 2 Kings xxiv. 1. Chr. B. jyRchadis (Prtef,
in Dan, § 8) and Bertholdt (Daniel, p, 172) have attempted to explain the
difficulty by showing that the third year of Jehoiakim may, by a different
enumeration, be the eleventh year, when Josephus (Ant x, 6, 3) says Jerusa
lem was taken and the people carried off. Hengstenberg (Beit vol, i, p, 5)
and Havernik (on Dan, chap, i,) have made artful and plausible combina
tions to show that the capture of Jerusalem, mentioned in Dan. i 1, was
accomplished in Nebuchadnezzar's expedition, undertaken during the last
years of his father, and mentioned by Berosus, in Josephus, Ant x. 11, 1, —
the expedition in which Phoenicia and Syria were brought under the domin
ion ofthe Babylonians, They maintain that this expedition commenced in
the third year of Jehoiakim ; that after the battie of Carchemish, (which
Jeremiah places in the fourth year, xlvi. 2,) and in the same year, Nebu
chadnezzar came to Jerusalem, as Jeremiah had predicted, (xxv. 9.) Here
they rely upon Jer. xxxvi, 9, and, following the analogy of Zech. viii, 9,

§ 253.] BOOK OF DANIEL. 485
Whhe Daniel is at the court, he commends himself
to the king by a felicitous explanation of a dream, and
is raised to the office of chief governor of the wise men
of Babylon, (ii. 48.) He seems to have held this office
to the end of the Chaldee monarchy, (v. 11.) After
the conquest of Babylon, he is elevated by Darius the
Mede — Cyaxares II. — to one of the three highest
offices ofthe state, (vi. 1.) This he held thl the first
time of Cyrus, (i. 21, vi. 29, x. 1.)
Ezekiel mentions Daniel as a model of righteousness
and wisdom." But the Daniel of this book must, at
that time, have been very young. Therefore it is not
improbable that the author of this book has falsely
transferred an old mythical or poetical character to the
times and circumstances of this work, and, at the same
time, has made use of the statements of Nehemiah (x.
3, 7, 24, and viii. 4) for the same purpose.* The false

refer the fast, which is mentioned, to tiie invasion of the Chaldeans, which
had taken place the previous year, and refer the threat denounced in verse
29 to a future and total annihilation of the state. The words, (Dan, i 1,)
"Nebuchadnezzar came unto Jerusalem," (IpilU^"!'' SS,) refer only to the
undertaking of the expedition, as if it meant he drew towards Jerusalem.
(Comp. Jon, i, 3.) They make the first year of Nebuchadnezzar fall part in
the third and part in \.he fourth of Jehoiakim, and consequently there is,
then, only an apparent, and not a real, contradiction between Dan, i 1, and
Jer, xxv. 1. But if we admit the accuracy of Berosus's statement, — which
does not mention the battle of Carchemish, and which even Josephus (x, 6, 1)
does not follow, — then, if we rightly balance these passages of Jeremiah,
and the circumstances, the warlike expedition of Nebuchadnezzar against
Jehoiakim could not have taken place before the fifth year of the latter; and
besides, no captivity is mentioned, Hitzig, Begriff der Kritik, p, 183, 185,
sqq. Von Lengerke, Daniel, Einleit to chap, i Schmeidler, Unters. Jud.
p. 84.
" " Though these three men, Noah, Daniel, and Job, were in it, they
should deliver only themselves by their righteousness." (xiv. 14, 18, 20,)
" Thou art wiser than Daniel," (xxviii 3.)
' See Bleek, in the Berlin Theol. Zeitschrift, vol. iii, p. 283, sqq.

486 BOOK OF DANIEL. [§254.
statement, in i. 1, renders the historical existence of
Daniel exceedingly doubtful.
Afterwards, the fiction was continued sthl farther.
The stories of Susannah, of Bel and the Dragon at Bab
ylon, were added in the Septuagint, and later legends
have been written respecting him."

§254.
CONTENTS OF THE BOOK OF DANIEL,
After an account of the circumstances of Daniel's life,
written in Hebrew, (chap, i.,) there follows (chap, ii.,
which is in Chaldee from verse 4) the story of Nebu
chadnezzar's dream, of a figure composed of various
materials, and of a stone which broke it in pieces.
Daniel interpreted this dream, and, according to his
explanation, four kingdoms were symbolically repre
sented in it, the last of which was the Messianic
kingdom. Chap, ih., written in Chaldee, relates the
miracle of the three men in the fiery furnace. Chap.
iii. 31 — iv. 34, in Chaldee, purports to be a narrative
by Nebuchadnezzar himself, in which he relates that, in
accordance with Daniel's explanation of the dream, he
fell into an insane and brutal state,* and was delivered
from it. Chap, v., in Chaldee, contains an account of
a writing which appeared to Belshazzar at a feast on
the night of the conquest of Babylon, and which was
explained by Daniel as relating to that event. In chap.
vi., also in Chaldee, under Darius the Mede, Daniel is
cast into the lions' den, and is miraculously preserved

° See them in Carpzov, 1, c, p, 231, Bertholdt, Dan, i, 9, sq,
' Waltnsinnigen viehischen Zustand.

§254.] BOOK OF DANIEL. 487
therein. Chap, vii., in Chaldee, contains Daniel's
vision of the four beasts," which signify so many king
doms. They are the same as in chap, h., but their
meaning is contested. This same chapter treats also
of the judgment of the world, and the kingdom of God,
in which all former kingdoms are to come to an end.

" Jahn incorrectly gives difierent explanations of the term. By the
golden head, (ii. 32,) and the first beast, (vii. 4,) all the interpreters under
stand the Babylonian empire, except Hitzig (Heidelberg Jahrbuch; 1832,
vol. ii p. 132) and Redepenning, who refer it to Nebuchadnezzar himself.
By the breast and arms of silver, (ii 32,) and the second beast, (vii, 5,) some
VLnieist&ni the Medo-Persian empire, (Theodoret, Jerome, Chrysostom, Poly-
chron, Grotius, C. B. Michaelis, Bertholdt, Jahn, on chap, vii, Rosenmuller,
Hengstenberg, and Hdvemik.) Others understand the Median empire,
{Ephraim Syrus, Eichhorn, Jahn, on chap, ii,, and Von Lengerke.) The writer
actually seems to have thought of that kingdom (vi 1 ) as the one which was to
succeed the Babylonian, while, in v, 28, the Medes and Persians are named
together, Doubtiess the beast (viii, 3) denotes the Medo-Persian empire ;
but it may be said the author here places himself in the period when the two
kingdoms of which it is composed — represented by two horns — are united.
According to this view, the three ribs (vii, 5) — which Jerome, Rosenmidler, and
others, refer to the three kingdoms of the Medes, Persians, and Babylonians,
which Jahn refers to the Lydian, Babylonian, and ^Egyptian, and which
Bertholdt, Hdvemik, and others, refer to the Median, Babylonian, and Lydian,
— are only emblems of frailty. By the belly and the loins of brass, (ii 32,)
and the third beast, (vii. 6,) Jerome, Polychron, C. B. Michaelis, Hengsten
berg, and Hdvemik, understand the kingdom of Alexander and his successors;
while Cosma's Indicopleustes, Gi-otius, J. C. Becmann, (De Monarch, quarta,
in his Meditatt Polit; 1679,) Bertholdt, Rosenmidler, and Jahn, on chap.
vii, understand the kingdom of Alexander alone ; and Ephraim Syrus,
Eichhorn, and Von Lengerke, understand the Persian kingdom. The first
refer the four heads of the beast to the four chief Macedonian empires ;
the second, to the four chief generals of Alexander ; and the third refer
them to the four Persian kings. By the legs of iron and the feet of
iron and clay, (ii 33,) and the fourth beast, (vii, 7,) Theodoret, Jerome,
Chrysostom, C. B. Michadis, Hengstenberg, and Havernik, understand the
Roman empire ; while Grotius, Becmann, Bertholdt, and Rosenmiiller, under
stand that of Alexander's successors ; but Ephraim Syrus, Eichhorn, and Von
Lengerke, refer it to that of Alexander and his successors. Since the last
explanation is necessary in vii. 7, therefore those which harmonize with it
are the true ones.

488 BOOK OF DANIEL. [§ 265.
Chap, viii., in Hebrew, contains another vision of two
beasts, which, according to Daniel's explanations, de
note the Medo-Persian and the Macedonian kingdom,
with that which grew out of it, especially the Mace-
donico-Syriac, for King Antiochus Epiphanes is very
distinctly described.
Chap, ix., in Hebrew, contains a revelation made to
Daniel respecting the seventy years of exile, predicted
by Jeremiah, which he here enlarges to seventy weeks
of years, so that they may include the time to Antiochus
Epiphanes. Chap. X. — xii. contain an unsymbolic, but very clear
and perspicuous revelation of the Persian and Macedo
nian monarchies, with the Asiatic monarchies which
arose out of them, down to the death of Antiochus
Epiphanes. After this, the resurrection of the dead,
and the kingdom of God, are to fohow.
§255.
SPURIOUSNESS OF THE BOOK.
It appears Daniel is not the author of this book, —
I. From its legendary contents. It is full of improba-
bhities. Nebuchadnezzar demands that the wise men
should tell him the dream he had forgotten, and threat
ens to put them to death in case of their inability to
obey his command, (ii. 3, sq.) He gives the greatest
rewards to Daniel for restoring his lost dream, and
explaining it. (ii. 46, sq.) He makes an image of gold,
sixty cubits high, and six cubits in diameter, (iii. 1,)
and commands men to worship it. (iii. 5.) He com-
mcinds the mightiest men in his army to bind Shadrach,
Meshach, and Abed-nego, (verse 20,) and cast them into

§ 255.] BOOK OF DANIEL. 489
the furnace, which was so hot as to destroy these mighty
men, as they cast in their victims, (verse 22.) He
blesses the God of these three men, and makes a decree,
that " every people, nation, and language," which speaks
any thing reproachful of this God, " shah be cut to
pieces, and its houses made a dunghill." (verse 28, sq.
iii. 31, and iv. 31; al. iv. 1, and 34.)" Other im
probable circumstances are mentioned: v. 11, sqq.,
the mention of Daniel; verse 18, sqq., his remarks to
Belshazzar, and the honors bestowed upon him by that
king, (verse 29,) on account of his explanation of the
words written on the wall. The prohibition to ask any

" Hengstenberg (1. c. p, 105, sq,) attempts to justify the account of Nebu
chadnezzar's peculiar madness, by the statements of Berosus in Josephus,
Cont Apion, i 20 : " Nebuchadnezzar, after he had commenced the fore-
mentioned undertaking, yaZKrag- into a sickness, died," But Berosus merely
says, Nebuchadnezzar fell sick and died. He also uses the passage of
Abydenus, in Eusebius, Prsep, Ev. ix, 41, and Chron, Comm, Lat p, 151, for
the same purpose : " I found these narrations in the writing of Abydenus
upon the Assyrians, and upon Nebuchadnezzar, Megasthenes said that
Nebuchadnezzar was more valiant than Hercules, and waged war against
Lybia and Iberia ; and, having conquered both, transplanted a colony from
thence to the right side (elg t& Se^Iu) of Pontus. It is said by the Chalde
ans that, after this, when he had returned to his palace, he was suddenly
struck by some god, so that he cried out, and said, ' I, Nebuchadnezzar, O
ye Babylonians, foretell the fate that is coming upon you, which neither
Belus, my ancestor, nor Queen Beltis, can persuade the Fates to avert
There will come a Persian mule, who, using the aid of our deities assisting
him, will force you into subjection. A certain Mede — the former boast of As
syria — will be his coadjutor in this. O that, before he had thus afilicted my
citizens, some Charybdis, or deepgulf of the sea, had received and destroyed
him ; or that, destroyed by other methods, he had been borne through the
wilderness, where there are no cities, nor any vestige of man, but where
wild beasts have their dwelling, and birds fly at large, that he might perish
alone, among rocks and clefla of the earth, O that I had found a happier
end, before these things came into my mind,' " Having uttered these oracles,
he immediately vanished. But there is, at the most, only a traditional con
nection between them, as Bertholdt, Bleek, and Kirms, maintain. Jcdin
(p. 214) and Lengerke (p. 151) find a later forgery in this story of Abydenus.
VOL. II. 62

490 BOOK OF DANIEL. [§255.
thing of God, or man, except from the king, (vi. 8, sqq.,)
and the subsequent decree, that all men " should trem
ble and fear before the God of Daniel," (verse 26, sqq.,)
are of this character." It is full of grotesque miracles —
Daniel recahing the dream which the king had forgot
ten, (h. 28 ;) the preservation of the three men in the
furnace, (iii. 23, sqq. ;) the apparition of a hand on the
wah, writing an oracular sentence, (v. 5 ;) and the pres
ervation of Daniel in the lions' den. (vi. 23 — 25.) It
abounds, also, in historical inaccuracies.'
II. This appears from its prophetic contents, which differ
in a striking manner from ah the other prophetic books, —
1 . In its apocalyptic character, or the fact that the future

" See Bertholdt's introduction to chap, v, and vi, and Eichhorn, § 614, p, 501,
' Inaccurate accounts ofthe wise men of Babylon, and the inconceivable
reception of Daniel among them, (ii, 2, iv, 4, v, 7, 14,) Von Lengerke, p, 74.
On the other side, Havernik, Neu. Unters, p, 66, Darius the Mede, instead
of Cyaxares II, (vi, 1, ix. I, xi. 1.) See Bertholdt, 4th Excurs, on Dan, p, 841.
Rosenmidler, Alt vol, i, pt i, p, 369, ProtEm. in Dan. p, 13, Hengstenberg
(p. 49, sq,) attempts to justify the use of the names as surnames, and Kno
bel agrees with him. For this purpose he quotes the Chron, Armen, of
Eusebius, (ed, Ven, vol, i, p, 61,) A Dario rege eadem provincia pulsus est,
(but here Darius Hystaspes is meant,) and, also, the etymology of the word
^agsixdg, Darick, in Suidas and Harpocration, who say it was not named
" from Darius the father of Xerxes, but ftom another and more ancient king."
Hitzig (p, 141, sq,) and Lengerke (p, 219, sqq,) doubt his existence ; but see
Havernik, 1. c, p, 74, sqq,, Knobd, p, 359, and Gesenius, Thes, 349, sqq.
Mention is made of the government by one hundred and twenty satraps
under JVebuchadnezzar, (iii 3,) and Darius the Mede. (vi, 2.) [This seems to be
an exaggeration of what Herodotus ascribes to Darius Hystaspes.] — Ahasue
rus is called the father of Darius the Mede, (Cyaxares II.,) when Astyages
was his father, (ix, 1 ;) but Hengstenberg (p, 52) maltes them identical. On the
other side, see Lengerke, p, 234, sqq, — Belshazzar, the last king of Babylon,
is made a son of Nebuchadnezzar, (v, 11, 13, 18, 22, 30,) in opposition to
Berosus, in Josephus, Cont. Ap. i 20, (See Lengerke, p. 204, and Hitzig, in
Heidel, Jahrbuch ; 1832, p, 137.) Hdvemik, to remove the difficulty, makes
Belshazzar and Evil-merodach the same person ; and, after his downfall
and the capture of Babylon, he puts JVabonned between v. 1, and vi. 1, The
den of lions is represented as if it were a cistern, or pit, (vi. 18,) See Knobd,
p, 401, on the legends in Daniel,

§255.] BOOK OF DANIEL. 491
splendor of the Messianic kingdom is conceived of and
described, and its historical circumstances related. This
is done in a manner unusuahy symbolical, with a great
outlay of visions, and the hke." 2. The events of a dis
tant future, and the fate of kingdoms not then existing, —
though extending only to the time of Antiochus Epipha
nes, — are related with great distinctness and accuracy,
even with the addition of the dates, (viii. 14, ix. 25,
sqq., xh. 11, 12.)' This was evidently done after the
event. 3. The moral spirit of admonition appears with
less prominence than usual in the prophets. If Daniel
were a prophet, it must have been in the spirit of Ezekiel
and Zechariah ; but although the symbolical style of this
book is not wholly foreign to them, yet they are very far
from the apocalyptical style of this book. This later
shoot of the Old Testament prophecy belongs to a time
long after them.*- Through the apocalyptic spirit of the
later Jews, prophecies were forged, and made to apply
to the events of actual history, and then dated back to
ancient times. This is shown by the Sibylline oracles,
which are strongly analogous to the book of Daniel.''

' See iMcke, Offenb ar. Joh, p. 24.
' Hengstenberg (p. 195) attempts to remove this objection, by supposing
that the author extends his prophecies beyond the time of Antiochus Epipha
nes. He thinks the fourth monarchy is the Roman empire, and the eleventh
horn (vii 8) is Antichrist But it is evident that this, as well as the horn,
(viii 9,) refers to Antiochus Epiphanes, who is clearly described in xi 21,
sqq. The double sense which Hengstenberg adopts is only a help he has
snatched at in extremity,
" In Jer, xxv, 12, 13, xxix. 10, we see an occasion for the explanation of
the seventy years, in Dan, ix, 2,
'' [See the fourth book of Ezra, as it is called. The apocryphal writings of
Isaiah are also analogous with the book of Daniel, Its resemblance to the
third book of the Sibylline oracles (156—271, aud 319—746) is sti-iking.
The latter, like the former, announce the destruction of all the kingdoms of
the world, especially the ^Egyptian and Roman ; they threaten Antiochus

492 BOOK OF DANIEL. [§ 255.
III. It appears Daniel is not the author, from the fact
that honorable mention is made of Daniel himself —
" Daniel had understanding in all visions and dreams,"
(i. 17 ;) " Among them ah was found none hke Dan
iel, Hananiah," &c., (verse 19;) " He found them ten
times better than all the scribes," &c., (verse 20 ;) " In
whom is the spirit of the holy gods, — hght, and under
standing, and wisdom, hke the wisdom of the gods,"
(verse 11, 12;) "He was faithful, and no error or
fault was found in him." (vi. 4, ix. 23, x. 11.)
IV. This appears, also, from the corrupt language," both
Epiphanes with destruction. The order of nature is to be changed ; the
people of God, under the guidance of kings sent by him, are to extend his
dominion over the whole world. See Bleek, I. c, p. 253, sq. See, also, his
article on the origin and compilation ofthe Sibylline oracles, in vol, i of tiie
same work, where he shows this third book was written by an Alexandrian
Jew, in the second century B, C, See, also, Schod, Geschichte der Griech-
ischen Literatur, &o,, translated from the French, by J. F. J. Schwatze ;
Berlin, 1828, vol, i p. 33, sqq. See Laurence's translation of the book of
Enoch, Oxford, 1821, 8vo,, or Hoffman, Das Buch Henoch, Jena, 18-33 and
1838.] The book of Enoch is an imitation. See above, § 50.
" Besides the later Chaldee and Persian words which occur in the other
recent books of the Old Testament, (such as nja , xi 24, 33, S'l?? , i 4, 17,
:3inS,x, 21, T'S'l??, X, 11, b'^tefi'lE), i 3,) the following occur: TIBN ;
xi45, BffiSt!; i 20, ii 2, iip, age, race; i 10, B^il'S'^T, ftisSt ; i 12, 16,
niSSSa ; xi, 43, I'lttPiri , witiiout tibis or nn3>3 ; viii, ] 1-13, xi 31, xii
11. &i3nf1 , to lead to revolt ; xi, 32, 1]nn ; ix. 24. tlS-l ; x, 21, '^V'^bl ; viii,
13. tJiffiip , applied to the Jews ; viii. 24, The Syi-iac infinitive, tTlianr.n ;
xi23, Persian words : n3 ; v. 29, 1113; iii 4. naft: ; (?) ii 6, v, 17,
Sometimes the style is negligent, indefinite, [.'] and obscure ; i. 2, 21, viii. 8.
miri , for "n ^^i-fp ; ix. 2, 13, 26, x. 7, 20, xi 2, 6, 17, The article is often
omitted ; viii, 13, 14, ix, 24, (?) 25, 27, Sometimes the style is well studied
and elegant; VyT}; x. 10, DilS bS G'I'li; viii 18, x, 19, ^'l^^ ; xl, 1,
(Job ix, 27,) DiSilt , ni3iSt , an amy; xi. 15, 22, 31, The poetic use of
the apocopate form, xi, 16, and the abbreviated form of the future, xi, 10,
17, sqq,, 25, 28, 3, 30, Use of the archaism 1W12J , i 2, and of the Penta
teuch, ii 1, viii, 14, x. 14, Blil b'-ai: in , Daniel makes use of Ezekiel,
who lived near his time, if the book is genuine, (viii. 26. Comp. Ezek, xii.

§255.] BOOK OF DANIEL. 493
Hebrew and Chaldee, and from the Greek words that
are found in it."
V. The doctrine of angels, (angelologie,) the chris
tology and asceticism, form, at least, an auxiliary to this
argument.' VI. The position of the book in the canon — inthe
Hagiographa — seems to prove it was written after the
cohection of the Prophets was closed.'
VII. Finally, the shence of Jesus Siracides (xlix.)
27, and also Hab. ii, 3, x, 8, Ezek, ix, 2, x, 6, Ezek. i. 7,) and also Neh,
ix. (Dan. ix.)
" Diiriip, xld-agig; S53D, aap^ixr, ; ff^^'l^KV: , avfUfiavla ; TilWDB,
yittXT-figiov ; iii 5, 7, 10. But it is certainly possible that Greek instruments,
and their names, may have been known to the Babylonians at this time.
The Greek origin of the last word may, at least, be placed in doubt
Hengstenberg (p, 15, 16) refers to the use of the word (in Midr. Kohel, i. 3)
in the sense of " oUa," " lebes ;'' but this is against him, for, in the passage
referred to, S1t53DE) is probably a false reading for SISSsS , which is the
Greek tpvxT-fig. See Rosenmiiller, Prooem. p. 14, note.
' The author recognizes orders, or classes of angels, and introduces
Gabriel (viii. 19, ix. 21) and Michael (x. 13, 21, xii, 1) by name. This has
no parallel in tiie Old Testament He sees, also, a watcher (T^?) coming
down from heaven, (iv. 14.) He mentions the Messiah as a mysterious
being, that comes in the clouds of heaven ; is to rule forever, over all people,
nations, and languages, (vii. 13, 14.) He foretells a general resurrection
from the dead, and final retribution ofthe good and the bad, (xii, 1 — 3,) He
thinks sins may be expiated by alms-deeds, (iv, 24, or 27,) A similar doc
trine is taught in Tobit xii, 9 — " Alms doth deliver from death, and shall
purge away all sin,'' (iv, 11,) He takes an ascetic view of the use of food,
and rejects flesh and wine, (i 8 — 16,) similar to that in 2 Mace, v, 27, and
the apocryphal Esther, iv, 17, in the LXX, He commends prayer three times
a day, (vi 11,) (Comp. Acts ii. 15, iii. 1, x, 9, 12,) All of this has its
parallel only in the degenerate spirit of the times in which Esther, the
Chronicles, and some of the apocryphal books, were written, and is quite
foreign to the true Hebrew spirit (See Knobd, 1, c. p. 402, sq.) According
to Hdvemik, only abstinence from flesh and drink offered to idols is spoken
of, (i5,)
' Hengstenberg revives the old view that the book was placed there on
account ofthe lower degree of inspiration ascribed to it Hdvemik (p. 62)
differs fi-om him in this.

494 BOOK OF DANIEL. [§ 255.
respecting Daniel — who must have appeared to him a
very important prophet, if he had lived at the time and
place aheged — deserves to be taken into consideration."
" [Some writers lay but little stress on this argument Eichhorn does not
mention it Beri^ioWt only mentions it in passing, Bretschneider and Kirms
deny that it bas any value ; while Bleek assigns a high importa.nce to this
argument Hengstenberg, (p, 21,) in reply to his remarks, maintains this
argument would prove too much, for Ezra and Mordecai are omitted as well
as the minor Prophets ; for he considers xlix. 10, not genuine. But this con
sideration does not weaken the value of the argument to any considerable
degree ; for the writer does not pretend to give an exhaustive catalogue of
" famous men," and there was less reason for naming those prophets, or Ezra
and Mordecai, than for mentioning so remarkable a person as Daniel, if tills
book is genuine and authentic]
The following is a summary of the history of objections to the genuine
ness of the book. Porphyry made objections to it, which have been pre
served by Jerome, in the Prooem, ad Comm. in Dan,, who says, " Porphyry wrote
his twelfth book against Daniel the prophet, wishing to prove the book was
not written by him with whose name it is inscribed, but by some one who
had been in Judaea, in the times of Antiochus Epiphanes, and that the book
of Daniel did not so much foretell things which were to come, as relate
events that had taken place ; and, finally, that whatever was related of the
times before Antiochus was true history, but when he attempted to go be
yond this, his remarks were false, because he was ignorant of tiie future.
Eusebius, Apollinaris, and Methodius, replied to these arguments."
After this, the genuineness of Daniel remained undisputed until quite
recent times, Spinoza (Tr. theol, pol, c, x, p, 130) merely conjectured that a
later writer had taken the first seven chapters fi-om the Chaldean annals, and
Isaac JVeioton and Beausobre (Remarques sur le N, T,, vol, i p, 70) ascribe
only the last six chapters to Daniel himself, [JVewton says, he that would
reject Daniel's prophecies would undermine the Christian religion, which
was based upon them by Christ himself, Bertholdt thinks that some Chris
tian teachers doubted, in silence, its genuineness, Hobbes (Leviathan, c, 33)
also denied it] Urid Akosta and Anthony Collins actually denied its genu
ineness, [Akosta did this in a tract in tiie Spanish language, called An
Examination and Comparison of the Tradition of tiie Pharisees, with the
Written Law touching the Immortahty of the Soul ; Amst 1624, 4to, (See
Wolf, Bib, Heb, vol, ii, p. 161,) Collins (in a treatise. Scheme of literal
Prophecy considered ; Lond. 1727) made but a feeble attack, through his
want ofthe requisite learning, 5am, Chandler has replied — after his man
ner — to his arguments, and with no great courtesy pointed out his numerous
mistakes, inhis Vindication ofthe Antiquity and Authority of Daniel's Proph
ecies, Sic ; Lond, 1728, 8vo,] Semla; in his Inquiry on the Canon, (vol, iii.

§ 256.] BOOK OF DANIEL. 495
§256.
UNITY OF THE BOOK,
Single passages have a relation and connection with
one another. Shadrach, Meshech, and Abed-nego, are
mentioned as " set over the affairs " of Babylon, (ii. 49,

p. 505,) denied its inspiration, J. D. Michaelis, in his remarks on ii, 40,
rejected chap, iii,— vi,, and Eichhom, in the second edition of his Introduc
tion, rejected tbe first six chapters, Hezel (1, c, vol, vi,) has followed him.
The following writers have declared against the genuineness ofthe whole
book, namely, Corrodi, Freim, Vers, iib. Versch, in Theoi, &c, ; 1783, p, 1.
Beleuchtung d. Gesch, d, Kanon, vol, i, p, 75, Eichhom, in his third and
fourth edition, Bertholdt. Giiesinger, N, Ansicht d, Aufsatze in B, Dan, ; 1815.
Bleek and Kirms, Com. Hist crit de Dan. Libro Opinionum ; Jena, 1828, 4to,
Luderwald, Die vi, ersten ch. Dan, ; 1787, Staudlin, N, Beit zur Eriaut d,
Proph, p, 95, sqq, Beckhaus, Integ, Proph. Schriften, p, 197, sqq, Jahn,
1. c. p, 624, Dereser, Die Proph, Ezek. und Daniel, p. 228, sq. Sack,
Apologetik, p, 276, sqq, Ackermann, Introduct in V, T, Hdvemik, 1, c.
Hengstenberg, Beit vol, i; 1831, The arguments of these critics, and
especially of the latter, are as follows : —
I, The External Arguments.
1. Daniel announces himself the author, at least of the second part —
"Daniel spake and said," (vii 2;) "I Daniel," (15, 28, viii 2, ix. 2, x, 2.)
The inscriptions betray no other hand — "In the first year of Belshazzar
 Daniel had a dream ; then he wrote the dream and related the sum
ofthe matters," &c,,(vii 1, 2;) "In the third year of Cyrus was a revelation
to Daniel  In these days I Daniel," &c, (x, 1, 2,) Compare this with
Ezra i 1—3.
The fact that Daniel is always spoken of in the third person (i, — vi.) does
not prove that Daniel did not write the passage, as it appears from a com
parison with Hos. i — iii, Isa. vii, xx., Amos vii, and other examples.
The first and second part are written by tiie same hand, (§ 256,) and this
circumstance renders it difficult to suppose it was written at a later date in
Daniel's name. But yet it must be observed, that such is the fact with
respect to Deuteronomy, Ecclesiasticus, and the apocryphal books of Wis
dom and Tobit,
2. The alleged late composition of tiiis book is not consistent with the
history of the canon, wiiich, according to Josephus, and the Jewish and
Christian tradition, was closed in the time of Ezra and Nehemiah. But
Josephus's statement (Cont Apion, i 8) is indefinite, and depends on the
alleged date of the book of Esther. It is certain that the books of Ezra,

496 BOOK OF DANIEL. [§ 256.
and ih. 12.) In i. 2, it is said Nebuchadnezzar brought
from Jerusalem part of the vessels of the temple, and

Nehemiah, Esther, Chronicles, and Ecclesiasticus, were written and received
into the canon after the time of Ezra and Nehemiah. See § 189, 197, 6,
199, 284.
3. There is direct and indirect testimony of Christ ; e. g. « the abomination
of desolation, spoken of by Daniel the prophet" (Matt xxiv. 15, Mark xiii, 14.)
The appearance of the Son of man, (Matt x, 23, xvi, 27, xxvi 64,) as it is
used in Dan, vii 13: and the testimony of the aposties, also, (1 Peter i 10,
sqq, ;) but here the reference to Daniel (xii 8) is doubtfui The apostasy, and
the man of sin, mentioned by Paui (2 Thess, ii, 3,) have only a doubtful ref
erence to the predictions in Dan. vii, 8, 25, The passage, " We know that
the saints shall judge the world," (1 Cor, vi, 2,) is supposed to refer to the
sentence, " Judgment was given to the saints of the Most High," (Dan, vii,
p, 22 ;) and that Heb, xi, 33, " stopped the mouths of lions, quenched the
violence of fire," is supposed to refer to circumstances mentioned in this
book, (chap, vi) But if all tiiis were admitted, still, from the nature of
things, Christ neither would nor coidd be a critical authority,
4, The narrative of Josephus shows the book was in existence in Alexan
der's time. But this narrative is not credible in each of its circumstances,
Jesus Siracides refers to Daniel ; xvii, 17, " He set a ruler over every
people, but Israel is the Lord's portion," This is said to relate to Dan, x.
21, and xii 1, "No one aideth me but Michael your prince," and x. 20,
where the angelic princes of Persia and Greece are mentioned. But the
passage of Siracides is well explained by verses 14 and 15, " He gave every
man commandment concerning his neighbor," &c. The following passage
is thought to refer to Daniel's kingdoms : " Because of unrighteous dealings,
injuries and riches got by deceit, the kingdom is translated fi-om one
people to another.'' (x. 8.) See Hdvemik, p, xl.
The writer ofthe first book ofthe Maccabees presupposes an acquaintance
with the book of Daniel, and even with the Alexandrian version of it The
abomination of desolation, mentioned in Dan. ix. 27, is spoken of in i 54 —
" Ananias, Azariah, Mishael, by believing, were saved out of the flames,
Daniel  was delivered fi-om the mouth of lions," (ii, 59, 60,) Here the
reference is evident to Dan. iii, and vi But it is a sectarian assumption to
suppose the book of Maccabees was originally written in Hebrew, and at the
time of John Hyrcanus, as Hengstenberg maintains, (134 — 105 B, C,,) for it
appears from xvi, 23, sq,, that it was written later. It cannot be determined
at what time the Greek version of Daniel was made, but from its character we
might suppose it was a considerable time after the book was written, (§ 258.)
n. Internal Arguments.
1. The alternate use of Hebrew and Chaldee would point to the time of
the exile, when both languages were currently spoken by tbe Jews, But

§ 256.J BOOK OF DANIEL. 497
in verse 2, we find them used at a feast ; ii. 48, Daniel is
set over the province and the " wise men " of Babylon ;
and in V. 11, he is alluded to as holding that office.

this was the case at a date still later, at least among the learned, who still
used the Hebrew language. The books of Chronicles, Ecclesiastes, and
others, are a proof of this.
The agreement of the Chaldaisms in Daniel with those in the book of
Ezra, in opposition to those of the Targums, is sometimes used as an argu
ment; but its force is weakened by the consideration that probably tiie
Chaldaizing popular language ofthe Jews in exile — like every patois —
fluctuated very much. But this agreement is more easily explained on
the supposition that the book is spurious, than on the supposition of its
genuineness. The comparison with the Targums can lead to no certain
results, on account of our ignorance of the time when they were composed.
There is, however, some difference. In Daniel we always find 'ivii , I'^b »
but in Ezra, S'ni and D'Si . But see Hengstenberg, p. 303, sqq.
2. In the book we find numerous proofs of an actual acquaintance with
the history of that time. (See Bertholdt, Daniel, p. 68, 817, sq. Gesenius,
in Ersch and Gruber's Encyclopadie, vol. xvi. p. 188, sq. Bleek, 221, sqq.)
[The latter writer has shown that it ia common to overrate the historical
fidelity of this book ; but he goes too far in assuming the author's ignorance
of the subject The common method has been to assume the correctness
of such passages as ii 2, where the conjurers are mentioned by classes,
tiiHtJ"in, Qiam, D'^aiBS?;, and D"''I1B2i, and iii 2, where the magistrates
are mentioned by classes, S^JB-lTOns, K'jaaD, Kmn&, S'^'IJ^'I'IS , !*t'^^'ia,
K'fl^am, SiPlfin, and all the la'tsio, and then, reasoning in a circle, infer
t-:t|'t~:.' " :¦ ^
that such minute and accurate information could only be obtained by a resi
dent at Babylon. But, granting the accuracy, a writer in the time of Antio
chus Epiphanes could have easily obtained the information ; and, besides, he
may have lived at Babylon, or at least have visited that city, and thus have
become familiar with institutions both ancient and modem. Some curious
information respecting the Chaldee magic, &c., may be seen in Brucker,
Hist Phii vol. i p. 113 ; but, on the other hand, see Hengstenberg, i c. p. 343,
sqq. See a good account of the Babylonians in Heeren, Researches, &C.,
voi ii p. 130—399, in the English translation.] But the book also contains
inaccuracies and improbabilities, which show the author could not have
been eye-witness or contemporary witii the events he relates. These argu
ments, therefore, only show that he derived much that is correct from the
tradition, and perhaps from his own acquaintance with the Babyloniana.
See § 149.
3. The spirit and taste displayed in this book — especially its peculiar
VOL. II. 63

498 BOOK OF DANIEL. [§ 266.
The remarks upon Nebuchadnezzar (v. 18, sqq.) agree
with the oracle in a former passage, (iv. 22, sqq.) The
successor of Belshazzar is called Darius, (v. 30, and
vi. 1 .) In viii. 1 , reference is made to the vision of the
preceding chapter, and in ix. 21, mention is made of the
man Gabriel, spoken of in the previous chapter, and
again in x. 5. So x. 12, refers to ix. 23.
The historical and prophetic passages are similar, and
related to one another. Nebuchadnezzar honors Jeho
vah — "Your God is the God of gods," (h. 47 ;) and
in iii. 28, he commands ah men to worship him. He
is spoken of in the same honorary manner in ih. 31 — 33,
iv. 34, vi. 27, 28. Chap. iii. and vi. have a general
resemblance. (Compare, for example, iii. 30, and vi. 29.)
Similar visions occur in chap. ii. vii. and viii. In viii.
26, it is said, " Shut up the vision, for it relates to
distant days; " and the same opinion is repeated, (xii. 4,)
" Shut up these words, and seal the book even to the
time of the end. Many shall run eagerly through it,
and much knowledge shall be gained ; " and again verses
8, 9. Compare, also, ix. 3, with x. 2, 3; and viii. 18,
with X. 10.
The oracles are written in a reguleu: series, ascending
use of symbols — could only belong to an author who lived in Chaldea, and
are, besides, different fi:om those which prevailed in the times ofthe Macca
bees. These are very Vague statements, but we are still at liberty to sup
pose the real author ofthe book lived at Babylon.
Finally, it is said the immediate appearance of the kingdom of God after
the death of Antiochus Epiphanes, as predicted in this book, could only
occur in the prospective vision of an ancient prophet, but is not consistent
with the hopes of a contemporary of this king. But we find such an instance
in Matt xvi 28, "There be some standing here wbich shall not taste of
death till they see the Son of man coming in his kingdom," and in 1 Thess.
iv, 17, " Then we which are alive and remain shall be caught up together
with them into the clouds, to meet the Lord in the air," See De Wett^s
article on Danid,in Ersch and Gruber's Encycl., and HUzig,l.c. p. 133, sqq.

§ 256,] BOOK OF DANIEL, 499
from the indefinite to the definite, and following a chron
ological order. The same style not only pervades each
of the separate (Chaldee or Hebrew) portions, but ex
tends throughout both."
Now, if any one takes all these facts into consideration,
he cannot maintain this book is the work of different au
thors, either on account of the use of different languages,
— which he used with equal fachity, as it is probable^'' —
or on account of the contradictions which occur in the
first part, but yet make no claim to be independent doc
uments. Such passages are the following : i. 5, 18, 21."
" The same threats of punishment occur, ii 5, iii 29. KJK^ ^Itn , visions
of thy head; ii 28, iv, 2, 7, 10, vii 1, 15. b'^ria S'lp, cried u»th strength.;
iii 4, V, 7, iv. IL SS© l^ij, his bright, looks were changed; v. ,6, 9, vii. 28,
(Comp, the equivalent Hebrew expression, X. 8.) ';|&I13 Hin ; iii 8, vi 25,
'^^ '^?'!it? ^?^. ' to accuse, (literally, to eat up the pieces of any one ;) iy. 16,
V. 6, 10, vii, 28, ns^f]?'] '^O?^*'??, his thovghU grew side; ui 4, 7, 31, v,
19, vi 26, vii 14. Jt'^Sffib", Ik'^'iiift, i^'^'aipV, people, nations, and languages;
vii. 25, xii. 7. The same length of time,,viii. 26, x, 11, d^ttjb , /trfure time ;
viii,19,xi 27,35. ISiaib,; viiil8,x.9. S^l'l?, s«unjierf,- ix. 27,.xi31, xii
11. DSJy 2*lplp, the abominations of the destroyer; viii 9, xi., 16, 41.
^SS; &c
Daniel is mentioned and commended in the same manner, ii, 26, iv. 5, 16,
X, 1, iv. 15, V, 11, ix, 23, x, 10, 19, Repetitions : iv. 17, sq., 29, sq., iii. 7,
10, 15, The dissimilarities of style mentioned by Bertholdt can scarcely
be shown to exist,
' Observe the easy transition from Hebrew to Chaldee, ii, 4,
¦ Where it is said. Nebuchadnezzar nourished the young Jews, of noble
birth, three years, with bis meat and wine, that they might be brought before
the king at the end of that time. In ii. 1, — 13, it appears that Daniel was
wont to stand,, with, the other magicians, beforethe king, in^the second year
of his reigfi. In i 21, it is said Daniel lived until the first year of King Cy-
rMs,and in x. 1, that he had a vision in the ttirrf^eorof that.monarch. ifeng--
s<en6erg-(p. 66,.sq.) has explained this latter contradiction pretty well, by
maintaining; that the first year of Cjrrus is not mentioned as the ultimate ter
minus; but, be attempts to remove the former, and the difficulty in i. 1, hy
supposing Nebuchadnezzar had a partner on the throne, and was sQle king

500 BOOK OF DANIEL. [§257.
§257.
AGE AND DESIGN OF THE BOOK.
At the time of Antiochus Epiphanes, when prophecy
had long been extinct, a Jewish patriot wished to excite
his suffering and struggling countrymen, and to strength
en them by predictions of the approaching triumph of
the theocracy. For the sake of obtaining the more ready
belief, as well as to compensate for the want of credibil
ity in the predictions themselves, he ascribes them to the
old prophet, Daniel, of whom, perhaps, some legends
were sthl in circulation. He very wisely makes his
promises come to fulfilment gradually, and at a distant
time, so that he may speak with the more certainty. Af
ter the manner of the old works of the prophets, he in-
again in ii. 1; but admitting the fact, — which is not proved, — still the cap
ture of Jehoiakim (i 2, sqq.) took place during the same period, after Nebu
chadnezzar's restoration to the throne.
Eichhom ($ 615, c) divides the book into two parts, which he ascribes to
two dififerent authors. They are vii. — ^xii, and ii, — vi,, with the introductory
passage, i, — ^ii 3. But this seems to be arbitrary, especially if we compare
ii. 4, sqq., with the preceding verses.
The difference between the first and second of his divisions is, that in tiie
first, Daniel is spoken of in the third person, while in the second, he speaks
m the first person. But this manner of speaking agrees well with the subj ect
It is true there is g. recension of vii. — xii, ii, — vi differing firom the original;
but this is likewise to be explained fi:om the peculiar character of this
passage. According to Eichhorn's hypothesis, we could not explain why
chap. vii. was written in Chaldee. Bertholdt maintains there were as many
authors as there are passages or sections, viz. nine, of whom the later
connected their writings with the earlier; but this has not the smallest
probability. Bertholdt divides the book as foUows, (p. 1549, sqq, :) 1. Chap, i,
2. Chap, ii. 3. Chap. iii. 1 — 30. 4. Chap. iii. 31 — iv. 34 ; (according to an
other arrangement of the verses, chap. iv. 1 — 37.) 5. Chap. v. vi 6. Chap,
vii 7. Chap. viii. 8. Chap. ix. 9. Chap. x. — ^xii (See Bleek, 1. c. p, 242.)
[The same spirit, aim, and style of expression, are manifest in all parts of the
book, so that its unity is almost perfect Chap. vi. 29, has the aspect of an
interpolation.]

§ 257.] BOOK OF DANIEL. 501
terweaves history with his predictions, but especially such
accounts as are applicable to the history of his own times,
and are suitable to nourish the spirit of martyrdom among
his people.
Nebuchadnezzar and Belshazzar are used to signify
Antiochus Epiphanes. The source of the historical state
ments was, perhaps, traditionary legends ; but still more
the author's fancy, quickened by his zeal. Chap. iii. and
vi. may be an entire fiction ; for there was no occasion
for making such legends of martyrs before the time of
Antiochus Epiphanes. The legends which are parallel
with chap. iv. have already been mentioned, (§ 256,) and
there is an historical foundation for chap. v. But there
is reason for suspecting chap. i. is an entire fiction.
Composed in this manner, the book might receive such
an historical value and importance as the predictions of
the old prophets enjoyed.
[Taking into consideration these facts, and the peculiar
character of the book itself, there seems abundant reason
for placing the date of the book in the time of Antiochus
Epiphanes, (175 — 160 B. C.,) and towards the latter
part of his reign ; certainly after the Jews had experi
enced many calamities from him. The Jewish nation,
oppressed with adversity from without; distracted by
their fondness for foreign customs, introduced by the
Greeks ; torn by dissension among themselves, and be
coming, each day, more indifferent to the Law of Moses,
and the ancient institutions of the theocracy, — certain
ly needed both instruction and encouragement. And
both would be peculiarly welcome and useful at the time
when the temple worship had been forcibly suspended.
The author seems to have written with the design to
arouse whatever patriotism and religious feeling was left

502 BOOK OF DANIEL. [§ 257.
in their hearts. But, at the same time, he must veil his
words of reproof and encouragement in obscure and dark
symbols, lest his meaning should be too obvious, and his
work be suppressed. To accomphsh this object, he as
sumes the position and historical circumstances of Dan
iel, — an old sage, of whom little was known. Perhaps
tradition had related something respecting his fidelity to
Jehovah, while a captive at Babylon ; but perhaps the
reference to him and his three companions, in 1 Mace. ii.
39, 60, is to be traced to the book of Daniel itself. Go
ing back to that age, he could speak with an authority
which did not belong to his own times, when there was
no longer open vision, but men waited " till a prophet
should come." (1 Mace. iv. 46.) Taking his stand in the
time of Daniel, he introduces into his work enough that
is historical and local to give it the appearance of a real
historical statement, and yet composes it so skhfuhy that
none could fail to see the application to his own times.
He showed how his countrymen, even under heathen
kings, like Nebuchadnezzar and Belshazzar, had been
faithful to Jehovah, who had rewarded them for their
fidelity ; that these kings had violated the law of God,
and were punished, the one with madness, the other with
a violent death. The inference to be drawn was obvious ;
the application to the Jews and their persecutors was
plain. If the former were faithful, they should be
blessed, whhe the latter wouldi soon be destroyed.
If we read carefully the first and second books of
Maccabees, we shall see that our author has taken his
coloring from his own fancy, but his facts from the histo
ry of his times, and has copied and altered events that
took place under his own eyes.
1. After the destruction of Jerusalem, Antiochus issues

§ 257.] BOOK OF DANIEL. 503
a decree, that all nations in his kingdom should be one
people, and that each should have its own peculiar laws.
He sent letters to Judea, commanding the people to fol
low his new and strange laws. He forbids the accus
tomed sacrifice, the observance of the Sabbath, and holy
days; pohutes the sanctuary and the saints; sets up
altars and shrines to idol deities, and " sacrifices swine's
flesh and unclean beasts, to the end that they might for
get the law and change all the ordinances." He com
mands that all who disobey shall be put to death. (1
Mace. i. 41 — 50, 2 Mace. vi. 1.) In hke manner, the
writer makes his idealized Darius the Mede, after con
quering Babylon, issue a decree forbidding ah men from
asking any thing of man or God, except from himself,
under penalty of death. This imaginary decree is a
refinement and caricature upon that of Antiochus. But
Daniel refuses to obey the decree of the Persian despot,
suffers the extreme rigor of the monarch's wrath, and is
saved by a miracle, while the tyrant confesses the great
ness of God, permits Daniel to enjoy his religion in
peace, and commands ah men to worship the God of
Daniel. Those who had accused the faithful man are
themselves put to the same death they had designed for
him. The lesson to be learned from this is very plain;
and the satire upon Antiochus is not contemptible.
2. Antiochus, after defiling the temple at Jerusalem,
consecrated it to Olympian Jove; and that on Gerizim,
to Jupiter Hospitalis. In the former, he erects an altar
on the high altar of Jehovah, and commands the Jews to
worship and sacrifice there, and eat the uncleali and for
bidden food. This was the abomination ofthe destroyer."
' [BdiXvy/xa igtjpihaeo)g. (1 Mace, 1.-54, 2 Mace, vi 1, sqq.) Such as dis
obeyed the command were put to death. (1 Mace, i Ix. — Ixiii) Eleazar
and the seven brothers, with their mother, suffered nobly. (2 Mace, vi vii)]

504 BOOK OF DANIEL. [§257.
This also is repeated, with some refinements, in the
book of Daniel. There it is said that Nebuchadnezzar
erected a statue, and commanded men to worship it, at
the time when all the instruments of music sounded."
Three Jews are faithful to the law of Jehovah, and re
fuse, — three, who hitherto had refused to eat the idola
ter's meat or to drink his wine. They, for their disobe
dience, suffer all which the angry despot can inflict —
are cast into a furnace heated seven times hotter than
usual. The result is, that their persecutors perish, while
they escape without the smell of fire on their garments.
They are permitted to worship Jehovah as they wish,
are exalted to high offices, and all the people are forbid
den to speak reproachfully of the living God, " because
there is no other God that can deliver after this sort."
The application of this, also, is obvious.
3. When these brothers and their mother are about
to suffer death, they denounce curses upon Antiochus,
and predict his downfall — " Be not lifted up without
cause, nor puffed up with uncertain hopes ; for thou hast
not yet escaped the judgment of Almighty God — thou
shalt receive just punishment for thy pride." (2 Mace.
vii. 31, sqq.) Daniel, in explaining Nebuchadnezzar's
dream, utters oracles foretelling his fate, all of which are
executed ; and at the end of his punishment he confesses
the greatness and justice of God. (chap, iv.) Again :
Daniel predicts the ruin which is to fall upon Belshaz
zar, and, wonderful to tell, receives a recompense from
the tyrant, whom he denounces in the name of God.
(chap, v.)
» [Sir Thomas Brown long ago remarked on the strangeness of the pro
portions ascribed to this image, — sixty cubits high, and six cubits in breadth,
— thinking that the Babylonians had strange ideas respecting symmetry.
Hengstenberg attempts to show >3^S and tt&bs may mean an obelisk as well
as a statue ; and if this is true, the proportions are symmetrical.]

§257.] BOOK OF DANIEL. 605
4. Antiochus " Epiphanes " was called, also, and with
perfect propriety, "Epimanes" — ^Hhe mad.''^ This
may have given the author a hint to represent the
old and idealized persecutor of his nation as bereft of
reason, and reduced to the form and character of a beast.
Here the historical fact is ideahzed, and an exquisite
piece of sarcasm on the folly and brutality of Antiochus
is produced, (Dan. iv. 14, 22—24, 29, 31, 32, 34,) and
his future disgrace and penitence are foreshadowed."
5. Antiochus had penetrated into the temple, and
plundered it of the sacred vessels, including all the fur-
nkure of the altar, (1 Mace. i. 21 — 24, 2 Mace. v. 15,
16.) In the prophetic book, Nebuchadnezzar also
had plundered the sacred vessels, and brought them to
Babylon, (i. 1.) Belshazzar used them in a scene of
great debauchery and riot ; and forthwith there appeared
a miraculous hand to write the words of doom against
his kingdom and himself, which were executed that very
night, and a deliverer of the Jews possessed his empire.
Here was a very plain prophecy of the approaching fate
of Antiochus, and the delivery of the Jews. Viewed in
this hght, the whole book appears as a very ingenious,
and, judging by the Oriental standard, a very beautiful
work, suitable to encourage the desponding Jews.] '
" [It is vain to attempt to prove Nebuchadnezzar actually suffered the
kind of transformation mentioned in this book. Origen and Jerome could
find no authority for the story. The latter admits this fact, but says, " Who
does not see that mad men live like brute beasts in the fields and woody
places ,' and in what is it wonderful that this punishment should be in
flicted by God's judgment to show the power of God, and to humble the
pride of kings ? Greek and Roman histories relate that much more incredi
ble things have happened to men. Their stories {fahulai) relate that men
were changed into Seylla, the Chimara, the Hydra, and the Centaurs, into
birds and beasts, flowers and trees, stars and stones. " Note on iv. 1. See
Ovid's Metamorphoses, passim.]
' See Bleek, 259, sqq. Gesenius, Esaias, voi i p. 52.
VOL. II. 64

506 BOOK OF DANIEL. [§ 258.
Griesinger maintains that it has a parenetic or moral
relation to the times, but denies that it has any prophetic
tendency. Gesenius and Bleek admit its prophetic
character, whhe Eichhorn and Bertholdt think it con
tains only history, in the guise of prophecy."
§258.
ALEXANDRIAN VERSION OF DANIEL.
The Alexandrian version, although in general adher
ing pretty accurately to the original text, differs from it
" Griesinger, N. Ansicht der Aufsatze in B. Daniei Gesenius, A. L. Z.
for 1816, Nos. 57 and 80, Bleek, L c, p, 246, sqq. The dates which Ber
tholdt assigns to the separate portions of the book have no certain ground,
except the gradual progress of the work. (See Gesenius, 1. c. p. 635.) Ac
cording to X. 6, 17, the passage (ii 43) relates to the marriage of the Mace
donian kings in general, and not merely to that of Antiochus Theos with
Berenice. The account in the Talmud, Baba Bathra, fol. 15, c. i,, (see above, § 14,) is
not to be regarded in this place, for it is false in respect to Ezekiel. See
Staudlin, i c. p. 98. Bertholdt, Dan. p, 87.
[Bleek attempts to fix the time when the several portions of the book were
written. He supposes the first six chapters were written at the same time,
while the Hebrew worship was suspended, and shortly aft^r the altar of
Jehovah had been consecrated to idols. The prophetic passages were
written soon after the restoration of the Jewish worship by Judas the Mac
cabee, which took place 164 B. C, (1 Mace, iv, 52, 2 Mace x, 5,) and
shortly before, or immediately after, the death of Antiochus himself, which
occurred the next year, (1 Mace, vi, 16,) They were probably written in the
order they now stand, for viii 1, refers to the previous vision ; be, 21, to chap
viii, ; and xi, 1, alludes to chap, ix. In chap, vii the prophecy is brought down
to the time of Antiochus, " who is to harass the saints ofthe Most High, and
resolves to change times and laws," (verse 25,) for three and a half times, or
years, when the kingdom is to be taken from him, and given forever to the
people of God, This period, perhaps, is to be dated from the time when Apol-
lonius took Jerusalem, to the time when the worship of Jehovah was restored.
(I Mace. i. 29, 2 Mace. v. 24.) The eighth and ninth chapters were probably
written a littie before Antiochus's death. The last passage (10 — 12) was
written immediately after that event, which is accurately described, with all its
circumstances — " But [while he is in iEgypt] tidings out ofthe east, [Persia,]

§258.] BOOK OF DANIEL. ¦ 507
in many passages, (i. ii. vii. ix.,) and in particular ex
pressions and sentences."
In several passages, as chap. iii. — vi., almost the
whole form of the text is different. Sometimes impor-
and out of the north, [Judea,] shall trouble him, and he shall go forth with
great fury to destroy, and utterly to make away many. And he shall pitch
his palace-tents [shall encamp] between the sea [the Nile, so called in
Nah. iii. 8, Isa. xix. 5, Ezek. xxxii. 2] and the glorious holy mountain, [Zion.
In his march out of .^gypt into Judea and Persia, he will encamp between
Judea and Mgypt.] And he shall come to his end, and none shall help
him," (xi 44, 45.) This passage involves many difficulties, and has led to
very various interpretations, as any one will see from Rosenmidler, and to
many absurd conjectures ; such appear in JVewton on the Prophecies. .-S,
Clarke observes, " From the beginning of the chapter to verse 30, all is very
clear and plain, relative to the Grecian, Syrian, and ^Egyptian histories.
From the 31st verse to the end, the mode of interpretation is not so satisfac
tory in its application to the times since Christ Yet possibly these alone
may be intended, though the whole might he, with considerable ease, applied
to the remaining part ofthe Syrian and Egyptian history. It is a wonderful
piece of prophecy, and of great utility to the cause of divine revelation."
Jerome, and many others, consider the word incs {a palace) as the name of
a place, Apadno, which Porphyry places between the Tigris and Euphrates.
See Jerome, in loc]
" Chap, i 3, 11, and 16, where Abiesdri is read, instead of Ashpenaz.
[The Syiiac follows both Ashpenaz and Abiezer.] Chap, ii 8, there is an
addition — " But as I have commanded, so shall it be ; " in verse 11, " The
thing is hard," and « illustrious," {inldo^og,) adds the LXX. ; in verses 28, 29,
" There is a God in heaven that revealeth secrets  he has shown King
Nebuchadnezzar what is to come to pass in the last days  yea, he that
revealeth secrets has shown thee what is to come to pass." Again : in vii. 6,
the following passage is omitted : " And dominion was given to it ; " while
in ve/se 8 there is an addition — " And it made war against the saints." In
ix. 25, the reading is different from the Hebrew, viz. " Thou shalt know,
and understand, and rejoice, and shalt find commandments to keep them,
and shalt build Jerusalem a city to the Lord ; " verse 27, " and the covenant
{dia-^-^xij) shall prevail over many ; and again it shall return, and be restored,
in its length and breadth, even till the consummation of the times, and after
seventy and seven times, and sixty-two years, until the time of the con
summation of war, and the desolation shall be taken away in the estab
lishment of the covenant for many weeks ; and in the end of the week
the sacrifice shall be taken away, and the libation ; and in the temple the
abomination of desolations shall continue until the consummation, and con
summation shall be made of the desolation,"

608 BOOK OF DANIEL. [§ 268.
tant additions are made : such are, the prayer of Aza
riah, (ih. 24, sqq.,) and the song of the three men." (ih.
61.) Sometimes the text is abridged, (v. 17 — 25, 26 —
28.) Sometimes there are additions and abridgments
both. (hi. 31 — 33.) The passage, iv, 3 — 6, is omitted.
Chap, iv, 15, 33, sqq,, contain additions. Other varia
tions from the original are found in iv, 10, sqq., 28,
sqq., V. 69, and chap. vi.
We find the addition to chap. ih. in Theodotion's
version, in the Syriac, and the Vulgate, but it is proba
ble they use interpolations. In the Codex Chisianus —
which contains the Septuagint version of Daniel — there
is a short recension of the fifth chapter, as well as a
translation of that chapter itself.'
Some critics have thought they found traces of a Chal
dee original in these additions." Hence it has been

* [The song ofthe Three Holy Children of our Apocrypha.]
' [The recension or abstract of the chapter consists of only tiiree verses,
corresponding in sense to 1, 4, 5, 26, and 27, of the original. Some have
thought this addition was an independent fragment But see Bertholdt,
Dan. p. 131 and 113,]
For the opinion of the primitive church on this version, see Jerome's
Prsef,, as cited in § 44, above.
' Chap, iii 32, iTtoazmav = WP^ (¦') ; verse 35, 'A^gai/j, tov ^yo-
Tirjfiivov imi aov =r 'T|?a''ri'1 , (?) (comp. LXX. 2 Ch. xx. 7, to iiyanrniiva aov ;)
verse 37, tutieivoI ev n&ar^ xj; y^ =: SS^K " ipa , instead of S"i3?3 (,');
verse 40, i^ikaaai bnta&sv, TeXeiaaai dnia&ev =: S'laatlS ''"nins , S'lSSrs
''^insji , (,') (comp, Heb, ix. 9 ;) verse 44, ol ivSeixvifievoi = T?^'!"? , or
V^y? > (-') (comp. 2 Tim. iv. 14 ;) verse 48, nvsv/ia dgbaov Siaavgt'Qov =
iP'ia bo n>n(?)i verse 51, dy«ia|?(ii'T£s = n:B:i,(,') (comp. Jer. vii. 29, Targ.
1 Makk. i 27. Bertholdt : " They arose ; ") verse 65, Tzvevftara, instead of
SvEiUot^mni"! (?); iv, 25, TOijToiis Toig Xdyovg dj'djn/frovr^Bri'] (?); verse
31, tdnoxa T^v yvx^v fiov elg 3ii;fftv = i^sb "^CBS tl3ri3 (?); verse 8, ^v
iv aina &xovv = 1ST IT'S HIH (?); verse 28, Hovala r^'^)sXi (?); v. 4, id*'

§258.] BOOK OF DANIEL. 509
conjectured that the Chaldee text has been rewrought
and altered by later and different hands. It appears,
indeed, as Bertholdt has shown, that the prayer of Aza
riah and the song of the three men are the work of
different authors. (Compare ih. 38, with verses 63, 55,
84, 86.) Perhaps they were originally composed to be
used in public worship, in a liturgy.
It appears the prayer of Azariah is an interpolation,
from the Hebrew names of the three men, that are used
instead of the Persian titles, by which they are men
tioned in other places. Compare hi. 24, 49, 88, with
verses 19, 93, 96, 97.
[Bertholdt maintains, though with small probabhity,
that, after the collection of the fragments of the canonical
Daniel, there were some other pieces relating to him
still in circulation, and that a second collection was
made, which comprised them.
But, on the other hand, we see that the Jewish text
is the original, from the efforts of the Alexandrian writer
to introduce a better connection into the narrative.
There is no connection between ih. 23, in the Hebrew,
where the three men faU down into the fire, and the
next verse, where the astonished king rises up with ex
clamations at a great wonder he appears to have seen.
The Greek makes the connection plain by inserting
between these passages the following clause, (hi. 49,
sqq. :) " The angel of the Lord descended at the same
time with these men who were with Azariah in the
furnace, and drove out the flame of fire from the furnace,
ixovxa Ti[v i^Qvarlav tov nveifiajog aixav = TiilBJBp ^ab^aj Fib 1? (?);
verse 6, ixavxavTO =z ITin, an error for 'iTIrt ; vi. 5, vsavlaxoi, T^"]^? , (,')
&c. Bertholdt, Dan. p. 130, sq,, 138, sqq. JiKchaelis, Or. Bib. voi iv. p. 118,
eqq. Eickham, Einl. § 617.

510 BOOK OF DANIEL. [§ 259.
and made the midst of the fiirnace like the gently-
breathing spirit of dew," and the fire touched them
not ; " " They, arising, sang a hymn, as it were with
one voice ; " and (verse 91,) " And it came to pass, that,
when the king heard them praising God, he stood up,
and saw them alive."
They attempt, also, to remove whatever is inappro
priate, though without perfect success. Therefore they
omit the first three verses of Nebuchadnezzar's epistle,
(ih. 31 — 33, or iv. 1 — 3,) and add a long confession of
the king at the end of chap. iv. An attempt, also, is
made to moderate exaggerations. Chap. u. 5, where
the Hebrew reads, " If ye whl not make known to me
the dream, and the interpretation thereof, ye shall be cut
in pieces," &c., the Seventy read, " You shah be made
an example of, and all your property shall be confis
cated." Again : in hi. 1, instead of the famous statue,
sixty cubits high, and six in breadth, the Seventy read,
"its height was six cubits."]
But the cJleged errors of translation do not hold ; and
so, perhaps, we may come to this conclusion, that the
translator allowed himself to recast the passages, which
gave an opportunity for such treatment. This only is
certain, that the prayer of Azariah and the song of the
three men are the work of different authors.*

§269.
THE APOCRYPHAL ADDITIONS TO DANIEL,
Besides the additions to the third chapter, in the Al
exandrian and the other versions, there are found two
* IIvBvfta dgdaov dtaavgl^ov. ' See Hdvemik, p. xlix.

§ 259. j BOOK OF DANIEL. 511
additions to the book of Daniel. One is the history of
Susannah. In the Codex Chisianus, and in the Com
plutensian edition of Theodotion, this forms chap. xiii.
But in the Vatican Codex and Roman edition of the
Seventy, it precedes chap. i. The other is the history
of Bel and the Dragon, at Babylon, (chap, xiv,) Both
were written originally in Greek, There are some He
braisms in it, (xhi, 1, 7, 14, 15, 19, 28, 62, xiv. 4, 9, 13,
26,) but they do not prove there was a Hebrew or Chal
dee original. Neither is it proved by the fact that they
are admitted into the version of Theodotion, Symma
chus, and Aquila. In Theodotion's version, they ap
pear after having undergone a different recension," The
play upon words proves there was a Greek original,'
° See Bertholdt, Daniel, p. 149, in opposition to the editor of the Codex
Chisianus, See De Magistris, ad cap. xiii 1. Dereser, Ubers. des Ezech. and
Dan. p. 227, sqq. Eichhom, Allg. Bib, voi ii. p. 1, sqq. ; Einleit § 617, in Die
Apok. p. 431. Bertholdt, Dan. p. 145, sqq,, and Einleit p, 1576, sqq,
' Jerome was aware of this, and says, in the Procem, ad Comm, on Daniel,
" We ought to know that, amongst others. Porphyry made this objection to
the book of Daniel, viz., that it appeared to be a forgery ; that it was not
extant among the Hebrews, but was a false story written in the Greek
language ; for, in the fable of Susannah, where Daniel is speaking to the
elders, it is said, 'Ano zdv axlvov axlaai, xal &nb loi; nglvov nglaai, an
etymology which agrees rather with the Greek than with the Hebrew lan
guage. Eusebius and Apollinaris agree with him in this, and reply that the
stories of Susannah, and Bel and the Dragon, are not contained in the
Hebrew, but are a part of the prophecy of Habakkuk, the son of Joshua,
(Jesu,) ofthe tribe of Levi, as it is said in the title of the story of Bel and
the Dragon, according to the LLX.
" Accordingly, when I translated Daniel, many years ago, I marked these
visions with an obelus, to indicate that they were not in the Hebrew. And
1 wonder that some censorious fellows {pEfii/jipolgovg) were offended at me,
as if I had curtailed the book, when Origen, Eusebius, Apollinaris, and other
ecclesiastical men and teachers of Greece, confess, as I have said, that these
visions are not extant among the Hebrews," Again : commenting on xiii.
59, he says, "If this etymology does not hold good in Hebrew, the passage
must be rejected; but if it can be shown to belong to the Hebrew, then it
may be received."

612 BOOK OF DANIEL. [§259.
These additions are later and supposititious offsets
from the original Danielitic stock of traditions and
legends. Chap. xiv. 31, 32, has a resemblance with vi.
15, 16, namely, in representing Daniel as cast into the
lions' den. The author may have been a certain Habak
kuk, to judge from the title of chap, xiv." At any rate,
they did not originate with the Alexandrian translators,
but have an independent origin.'
" 'Ex ngoqiTjTElag 'Ap^axoip viov 'Iijaov ix jr^g (pvXrig Aevl.
» See Bertholdt, Dan. p, 150, Einleit p. 1581, 1589, on tiie Syriac and
Arabic versions of these passages.

613

BOOK III.
POETICAL BOOKS.

§260.
CHARACTER AND KINDS OF HEBREW POETRY — ITS
RELATION TO PROPHECY.
[" The promise made to Abraham was never per
fectly fulfilled, by reason of the disobedience of the
people : the land of Canaan was not entirely conquered,
and thus an occasion was left for the apostasy and misery
of the nation. History presents us only the alternative
— apostasy and repentance, punishment and reconcilia
tion. In vain God sent new messengers and heralds of
his word, with threats and promises. Only once, under
David, did the empire flourish, through obedience to its
sovereign, Jehovah. Soon after his death, the greater
part of the nation rebelled from the covenant of God,
and were destroyed. Afterwards Judea, which, for a
time, remained more faithful, revolted, and suffered the
consequences of her apostasy. But, under this imperfect
realization of the promise, the pious worshipper con
soled himself only with the hope, that at some time,
after their sin had been expiated, and God's wrath
mitigated, the divine Spirit would appear in a more
perfect form on the earth, through the mediation of a
descendant of David, on whom all divine gifts would
VOL. II. 65

514 POETICAL BOOKS. [§260.
rest ; that the divine Spirit would be difiused over the
whole nation, (Joel iii. 1,) and a new and more perfect
covenant would be made. (Jer. xxxi. 31.) According
ly, the nation was governed by the sense of a higher
power in history, and of a benefit which surpassed their
own powers, emd was conferred on them by their wor
shipping the invisible God, and fulfilling his holy will.
But, at the same time, there arose the feeling that they
were the objects of God's choice, and that his word was
continually imparted to some consecrated men in the
midst of them. In the better part of public opinion,
there was a reverence for the Spirit of God, which was
continually working in the human mind, though the
expression of this Spirit was often perplexed and dis
turbed by the intrusions of a false spirit. There was
left, therefore, a free right of judging between what was
divine and true, and what was human and false. The
primitive revelation by Moses was only authenticated
by the law of the two tables and the institutes of the
theocracy. It therefore remained the object of free
inquiry, and of further and more perfect development.
Yea, the thought of rendering it more perfect might be
entertained. " The Hebrew conceived of God as continually active
in preserving the material universe he had created. He
produces the common phenomena of nature, and by his
immediate action. In particular he was conceived of
as the God of thunder. He causes physical evhs, to
punish and correct mankind. It was the whl of God,
and not any natural necessity, which governed all things.
In these conceptions, the idea ofthe eternal duration of
all things, through the power of God, shows itself rather
in feeling than in thoughts."]

§261.] POETICAL BOOKS. 515
This being the case, we find the sentiment of devotion
prevahs in the institutions of the Hebrews. Lyric
poetry corresponds to this sentiment, and therefore it
prevailed among the Hebrews to such a degree, that
whatever poetry there is in the prophetic writings, it is
of this kind. The theocratic, moral, and religious sub
jects of the prophetic discourses, must have often led to
lyric flights, while the general course of thought and
style continued to be rhetorical and more quiet, by-
reason of its intelhgible application to the detahs of
actual public life. But, on the other hand, the prophets
themselves at other moments, or some other pious poets,
treated the same subjects, or more especially the par
ticular state of the religious life, in the higher tone, and
with the higher vision of lyric poetry,"
§261.
THE SAME SUBJECT CONTINUED.
As the lyric element of prophecy was particularly
developed, so likewise was the didactic. Not only the
rehgious doctrine of retribution, which lies at the founda
tion of all the prophecies, and constitutes the fundamen
tal thought in all their lyrico-elegiac effusions of the heart,
but likewise religious ethics, which the prophets brought
within their sphere, are treated of in independent pro
ductions, in a general or universal manner, and free from
all particular applications. But both of these depart-
" The difference betv/een the prophetic and lyric manner of treating the
same or similar subjects, may be seen by comparing Psalms xlvi, and xlviii.
with Isa. xxxii, and xxxiii. The affinity of prophetic and lyric poetry is
indicated by the names ^"'53 and ntn , which are common to both. See
Ex, XV, 20, Judg, iv. 4, 1 Ch, xxv, 5, 2 Ch. xix. 30. De Wette, Dogm. § 94, 105.

516 POETICAL BOOKS. [§ 262.
ments, the doctrine of retribution and of ethics, always
remain with them, to a certain extent, under the domin
ion of lyric poetry, and can never obtain an entire inde
pendence. The form of a proverb, which these subjects
sometimes take, is the only one which appears peculiar
to them ; but this form was highly favored by the sym
metry of the members in Hebrew poetry.
§262.
LYRIC POETRY.
Agreeably to its nature, this kind of poetry, — the
handmaid of song, — in its simple form, at first sprang
from the mouths of the people, particularly of the women.
Thus Miriam sings, Ex. xv. 20; a woman in Psalms
Ixvih. 12, Judg. V. 1, xi. 34, xxi. 19, 21, 1 Sam. xvih. 6.
It continued with them unth David, the master of the
chinnor, and perhaps other contemporaries of the pro
phetic schools, brought it to perfection." It was found
in the sanctuary and at the court of Jerusalem, in con
nection with more highly finished songs. (2 Sam. vi. 16,
21, xix. 35, Eccl. ii. 8, Ps. Ixvih. 26.) Here it re
ceived further attention from the Levites and prophets.
Since it did not, hke prophecy, derive its support from
public life, it lived through the exile in all the vigor of
Its youth ; and the collection of Psalms contains some
beautiful specimens produced at that period. Although
it was consecrated to holy uses, agreeably to its main
purpose and religious tendency, yet, in the time when it
flourished most, among the Hebrews it embellished
" See De Wette, On the Origin and Cultivation of Lyric Poetry among
the Hebrews, p. 5 ; and in Biblical Repository, vol. iii p. 445, sqq.

§263,264.] POETICAL BOOKS. 617
common life also, and served the purposes of wine and
love. (Amos vi. 5.) But only a few specimens of the
amatory poetry have come down to us.

§263.
LYRIC LITERATURE.
As prophecy was divorced from the living speech by
means of the increasing use of writing, and was arti
ficially expressed in books, so, Ihiewise, there are many
lyrical productions which had not their origin in living
song, and which never were actually sung. In this
class must be reckoned the greater part of the Psalms,
for they contain prayers, lamentations, contemplations,
and the like, and belong to didactic poetry. The free
use of the chinnor seems in general to have been lost
among the people at a subsequent date.
§ 264.
DIDACTIC POETRY.
Among all nations, common sense, wit, and practical
wisdom, first express themselves m proverbs.'' The He
brew parallelism is its natural form. The Proverb and
the Ode were originally distinguished only as Discourse
and Song.' (Compare Judg. xv. 16, with 1 Sam. xviii.
6.) As the ode was winged by instrumental music, and
' See the parallels among the Arabs, Persians, and Greeks, collected in
Ziegler, Uebers d. Denksprache Salomes, p. 1, sqq. Rhode, De vet. Poetarura
Sapientia gnomica, Hebrteorum imprimis Gnecorum ; Havniae, 1800, 8vo.

518 POETICAL BOOKS. [§265.
thus attained a higher development, so, by the conversa
tion of sages," and by the use of writing, the proverb
increased, and became a didactic discourse, or didactic
poem. Subsequently it became again the companion
of lyric poetry, now expressed in writing.
The wisdom of proverbs found its master in Solomon.'
"And Jehovah gave Solomon wisdom," and "he spake
three thousand proverbs, and his songs were a thousand
and five." (1 Kings v. 12, iv. 32.) Proverbs found a
genial home at his court. So long as the religious spirit
of devotion animated them, they preserved their pecuhar
beauty ; but this was destroyed by the spirit of skepticism,
which, however, never passed into philosophy. After
wards it threw out a vigorous shoot in the proverbs of
Jesus the Son of Sirach.

§265.
CLASSIFICATION OF THE POETIC BOOKS.
The most purely lyrical productions, such as hymns,
odes, and prayers, are found in the Psalms. But many
of these belong to the class of lyrical elegies. The
Lamentations of Jeremiah must be reckoned with these.
The Song of Solomon is of the amatory idyllic character.
The book of Psalms contains also didactic and gnomo-
logical passages. The religious doctrine of retribution
° The conduct of the book of Job justifies this assumption. (Comp. Prov,
xxv, 1,) Perhaps the prophet-schools had an influence in producing this
effect See JVacldigall, on Samuel's company of singers, in Henke's Maga
zin, vol, vi,, and in JVachiigalPs Koheleth, p, 25, sqq,
» Ewald (Poet. Biich, A, T, vol, i, p, 34, sq,) thinks Solomon was the
author tiiereof, for proverbs do not occur before his time. But this is
doubtful.

§266.] POETICAL BOOKS. 519
is the most fully developed in Job ; that of morals, in
Proverbs. The book of Ecclesiastes stands midway
between the two, but it is the product of uninspired
reflection." §266.
RHYTHMICAL PECULIARITIES.
The rhythm of lyric poetry is less periodic, and more
bold and easy in its movement, than the prophetic. A
peculiar limitation of the verse appears in the Songs of
Degrees, as they are called.' In the Proverbs, the sym
metry of numbers is almost always simple, rigid, and
exact. The Lamentations have this peculiarity, that
the symmetry, which is merely rhythmical, and not logi
cal, is, in part, regularly formed and uniform. Ecclesi
astes is almost entirely prosaic'
" Ewald (1. c, p, 38, sqq,) treats of a dramatic poetry of the Hebrews.
But there is only a distant approach to it in the alternate songs of Solomon's
Song, and speeches in Job, and in the sort of dialogue in Hos. vi and
]\Iic, vi,
' tlibSan "^Ti^- See Gesenius, in A, L, Z. for 1813, No, 205, De
Wette, in Bib, Repos, 1, c. For other opinions on these names, see Rosen
muller, Proleg, in Psalm. Bertholdt (p. 1932) on the stirophes. See above,
§ 134. The musical execution of the Psalms lies in great obscurity, but it
is probable they were merely cantiUated, Bertholdt compares it to the
sacred song of the primitive Christians, The favorite opinion of choruses in
the Psalms, — which Bertholdt favors, — can neither be proved to exist
from the rhythm nor from exegesis, except, perhaps, in Ps, cxxxvi.
" See Lowth, Pnelect xxii, p. 453, and De Wdte. 1. ¦

620 POETICAL BOOKS. [§ 267.
CHAPTER L
THE PSALMS."
§267.
THE TITLE, CONTENTS, AND DIVISION, OF THE BOOK.
Under the title ''¦'inri , d-i?fi , •\^l& , (xitalfioi, ^laltriqiov,)
which was probably introduced by theh liturgical use,
" Psalmorum LL, V, ad Ebr, Veritatem versi et fanuliari Explanat eluci-
dati per Ardium Fdiniim {Mart. Bueei-um ;) Arg, 1526, foi, 1529, 4to., and
under the authoPs real name,
M. Ant Flaminii in Libr, Pss, brevis Explanatio ; Ven. 1548. Recudi
ciu-avit S, Th Wald; Hai 1785.
F: Vatabli Annotatt in Pss. (in Bibl, R, Stephan. ; Par. 1557, foi) sub-
junctis H, Grotii Notis, quibus Observatt adspersit G. J. L. Vogd ; Hal, 1767.
Libri Psalmorum Paraph. Lat, quce Oratione soluta breviter exponit
Sententias singulorum, ex opt Interpretum vet et recent Rationibus, Ad
dita sunt Argumenta singulorum Pss,, et redduntur Rationes Paraphraseos,
adspersis alicubi cert, Locorum Explanatiunculis, Excepta omnia e scholis
Esromi Rudingeri in Ludo litter. Fratrum Boem. Evanzizi in Moravis ; Gorl.
1580, 1581, 4to.
Anton. Agellii Comment in Psalmos; Par. 1611, fol,
Mos. Amyraldi, Paraphrasis in Pss. Davidis una cum Annotatt et Argg. ;
Sahnur, 1662, ed. 2; Traj. ad Rh, 1769, 4to.
Mart Geieri Comm. in Pss. Dav. ; Dresd, 1668, 2 vols, 4to,, 1709, fol.
Herm. Venemce Comm. in Pss, ; Leov, 1762 — 1767, 6 vols, 4to.
J. Chr. Doderlein, Scholia in Librr, V, T. poeticos, Job,, Pss. et tres Salom, ;
Hal, 1779, 4to.
Philoi Clavis Uber das A. T, Die Psalmen. Von H E. G. Paulus ;
Jen, 1791, 2 Ausg, Heidelb. 1815.
Psalmi ex Rec, Textus Hebr. et Verss, antt Latme versi Notisque crit
et philol, illustrati (a JV. M. Berlin;) Ups. 1805.
Commentar Uber die Psalmen von W. M. L. de Wette ,- Heidelb. 1811, 4th
ed, 1836-
/, B. Kohler, Krit Anmerkk, iib, d, Pss^ in Eichhorn's Rep. vol. iii p. 1,
sqq., vol. iv. p. 96, sqq,, voi v. p, 1, sqq,, voi vi. p. 1, sqq^ voi vii p, 240, sqq,,
vol, viii, p, 227, sqq^ vol ix. p, 47, sqq,, voi x, p, 110, sqq,, vol. xiii p, 95,
sqq,, vol, xviii, p. 95, sqq., p. 117, sqq.

§267.] THE PSALMS. 521
we have a collection of miscellaneous, though for the
most part religious, odes and poems. They are one
hundred and fifty in number."

Tft. F. Stange, Anticritica in Locos quosd. Psalmorum a Criticis solicita-
tos ; Lips, 1791, 1794, 2 Thle,
G, Ph. Chr. Kaiser, Zusammenhang, hist Erklarung der fiinf Psalmen-
BB, als National-Gesang-B. auf die Zeit von David bis zu Simon d, Mac
cab,; Niimb, 1827,
Rosenm. Schoi /. A. Cramer, (poet) mit Abhandll. 2 A. 1763, fol, 4 vols,
J. Chr. Fr. Schulz, m. Comm. 1 Th, (Ps. i,— i) 1772, G. T. Zacharid, (frei.
u, erklar,) 1773. Knapp, mit Anmerkk. 1773, 3 A, 1789. Struense, 1783.
Mos. Mendelssohn, 1783, 2 A. 1788. Thenius, ra. Anmerkk, 1788, Seiler,
1784, 2 A, 1788. Briegleb, 1789, 1790, 2 vols. Zobel, metr, mit Anmerkk.
1790. G. Ringdtaube, 1 voi (Ps. i— i) 1790, Herm. Muntinghe, a. d, Hol
land, von Scholl, m, Anmerkk, 1792, 1793, 3 vols, Wobeser, 1793. /, A.
Jaeobi, mit Anmerkk, 1796, 2 vols, JVachtigcdl, 1796, foi 2 vols, Kiinol,
m, Anmerkk, 1799, Hezel, 1800. Vollbeding, 1806, Stuhlmann, 1812,
ScUrer, 1812, Lindemann, 1812. F. V. Reinhard, 1814, Stolz, 1814,
Goldwitzer, 1827. Krahmer, 1837. Koster, 1SS7. [A New Translation of the
Book of Psalms, by G. R JVoyes ; Boston, 1831, 1 vol, 12mo, There are,
also, translations ofthe Psalms into English, by Z. Mudge, Lond, 1774, 4to,
Ihos. Edwards, Lond. 1755, 8vo. Wm. Green, Lond, 1763, 8vo, /, Merrick,
1765, 4to,; his Annotations, in 1768, 4to, Steph. Stred, 1790, 2 vols, 8vo,
W. Wake, 1793, 2 vols, 8vo, Alex. Geddes, 1807, 8vo, Wm. Goode, 1811,
2 vols, 8vo, Bishop Horsley, 1815, 2 vols, 8vo, There are, also, commen
taries, and notes, and applications, by Hammond, 1659, fol. Bishop JVicholson,
1662, fol. Fenwick, 1759, 8vo, Bishop Home, 1771, 2 vols, 4to, Dim-
made, 1761, 4to, Travell, 1794, 8vo.]
" The number and the division of the same psalms differ in the Hebrew
MSS, from tiie LXX, and Vulgate.
Hebrew. LXX.
Psalms ix. X  Psahns ix,
 xi.— cxiii   X. — cxii
 cxiv. CXV.   cxiu.
 cxvi   cxiv. CXV,
 cxvii — cxlvi   cxvi— cxlv.
 cxivii   cxlvi cxlvii.
 cxlviii. — cl   cxlviii. — cL
 cli. apocryphal.
According to the MSS., it is certain that Ps. xlii. and xliii. are to be united ;
perhaps, also, ix. and x. See Eichhorn's Allg. Bib. vol. ii. p. 944. Anton,
VOL. II. 66

522 POETICAL BOOKS. [§ 267.
They are divided into five books, separated by doxolo-
gies : 1 . Ps. i. — xli. 2. Ps. xhi. — Ixxii. 3. Ps. Ixxih.
— Ixxxix. 4. Ps. xc. — cvi. 5. Ps. cvii. — cl.
A sharp classification of the Psalms cannot be made,
but they may be divided according to theh contents,
as in the note."

Carmen alphabet integrum, Ps, ix, et x. conjuncto restituit ; Viteb, 1805.
Bdlermann, Metrik, p, 140, sqq, Stuhlmann, in Keil and Tzschimer's Annal,
vol, iii pt iii. p, 1, sqq, [These writers maintain that these two originally
formed one alphabetical psahn, which they attempt to reconstruct, by
changing the position of some verses, and amending the text according to
conjecture. There are traces of an alphabetical psalm ; e, g, the letters
T , t , n , 13 , follow one another in regular order. But 2 occurs three times,
and n not at all. Not to mention other objections ofthis character, the tone
ofthe two psalms is entirely distinct]
On the other hand, Ps, xix, is to be divided into two parts, viz, i, — vii
viii, — ^xv,
" I, Hymns in Honor of God. — Ps, viii. civ. cxlv, ; xix, xxix, xxxiii, Ixv,
xciii. xc. cxxxv, cxxxvi cxxxix, cxlvii, ; xlvii, Ixvi, Ixvii, Ixxv, ; xlvi, xlviii.
Ixxvi, ; xviii, xxx, cxxxviii,
n, JVational Psalms. — Ps, Ixxviii cv, cvi cxiv,
III. Psalms of Zion and the Temple. — Ps, xv, xxiv, Ixviii, btxxi, Ixxxvii,
cxxxii, cxxxiv, cxxxv,
IV, Psalms respecting the King. — Ps, ii xx. xxi, xlv. Ixxii ex. The
Messianic signification, sometimes ascribed to many of these psalms, is
not consistent with the spirit of lyric poetry, nor even with the Messianic
idea itself
V, Supplicating and plaintive Psalms of pious men in distress, — These
often relate, also, to the misfortunes of the nation. Ps. vii xi, xxii, Iv, Ivi
cix, ; X, xliv, Ixxiv, Ixxix. Ixxx, cxxxvii, ; Ixix. Ixxvii, cii ; xii, xiv, xx.xvi.
To this class belong the songs of thanksgiving, Ps, xxxiv, xi, &c,, and tiie
ieleological didactic Psalms, like Ps. x.xxvii, xlix, Ixxiii, See De Wette's
remarks in Daub and Kreuzer's Studien, vol. iii, pt ii p, 252, sqq, Gesmi-
us (in A, L, Z, for 1816, No, 81, p, 6.13) confirmed some of De Wette's opin
ions, and corrected others. He has made a profound comparison of this
kind of psalms with such passages of the prophets as Jer, xi, 19, 20, xii, 1,
sqq,, XV, 10, sqq., xvii 14, sqq , xviii. 18, sqq,, xx, 7, sqq,. Lam. iii, Isa, xlix,,
1, sqq^ Iii 13, liii Yet such passages as Isa. xiv. 28, sq,, xxix, 18, sqq,,
Hab, i, 2, sqq^ are also to be regarded. See De Wette's Com. in Ps. ix.
X, xiv,
VI, Rdigious Odes. — Ps, xxiii xci, cxxi. cxxvii cxxviii, ; xlii, xliii, ci.

§268.] THE PSALMS. 623
§268.
INSCRIPTIONS OF THE PSALMS.
With the exception of thirty-four, all the psalms are
furnished with inscriptions." 1. Sometimes the inscrip
tion designates the kind of compositions to which the
psalm belongs.' 2. Sometimes the titles designate the
author.*" 3. Sometimes they mention the occasion of
the psalm."* 4. Sometimes they contain directions for
the musical or liturgical use to be made of the psalm."
cxxxi ; i cxxxiii, and tiie religious didactic Poems, Ps, xxxii, 1, cxix.
With regard to the degree of inspiration and the tone of each, these may
be divided into, 1, Hymns and Odes, Ps, xviii Ixix, xc, cxxxix,, &c,
2, Songs, Ps, xxiii cxiv, cxx,, &c, 3. Elegies, Ps, xlii, xliii Ixxxiv,, &c.
And, 4. into didactic Poems, Ps, xxxix, Ixxiii, and others, De Wette, 1, c,
Augusti, § 159, and Einleit inPs, p, 11.
" Namely, i ii x, xxxiii. xliii, Ixxi xci, xciii xciv. xcvii xcix, civ, — cvii,
cxi-»cxix, cxxxv, — cxxxvii, cxlvi, — cl. According to Carpzov and Rosen
midler, there were formerly only twenty-five destitute of inscriptions. But
Bertholdt has corrected this mistake.
See Chr. Sonntag, T^bn ^•m•^ ; i, e, Tituli Psalmorum, &c, ; Silus. 1687,
4to. 01. Celsius, De Titl, Pss, ; Holm, 1718, 4to, Guil. Irhov, Conjectan.
in Pss. Titulos ; Lug, Bat, 1728, 4to, Calmet, Bibl, Untersuch, vol, vi, p,
259, sqq,
» Such are tiie tities "I'Jata, iiia, b'^sic?? , li'^aci, n>n?i, ttS^Jp,
riibStn, which may originally have been characteristic appellations, in
most cases ; but now they are not,
' For example, nilb Cjpsb, iTl'l? laab. (?) Comp, Hab, iii L
^ Ps, iii vii, xviii. xxxiv, li, Iii, liv. — Ivii lix, Ix, Ixiii, cii, cxlii. This can
scarcely be the case in Ps, Ixxii, and ex, De Wette, i c, p. 13.
' Directions to the music-master, flS3?;b , which occurs in 53 psalms, and in
Hab, iii, 19, at the end, Andros calls it the Syriac infinitive Pael, which
means to be sung. But Gesenius conjectures it is a symbolical narae of
David, — as Koheleth is of Solomon, — and denotes that he is the author.
To the choir, l^tTrii, ; Ps, xxxix, Ixii, Ixxvii, (1 Ch, xxv, 1, 2 Ch, xxxv. 15,)
The sons of Koraii; Ps, xlii, — ^xlvii, Ixxxiv, Ixxxv, Ixxxvii Ixxxviii,,
though it is better to suppose this term denotes the authors. The proba-

624 POETICAL BOOKS. [§ 269.
The inscriptions of the second and third class are, for
the most part, false ; and their character, also, refers
us to a later period, and therefore they may justly be
rejected as not genuine." They originated with the
compilers of the Psalms, who followed inaccurate con
jectures and traditions, as they did in regard to the
prophecies that were scattered.

§269.
THE AUTHORS OF THE PSALMS.
In the titles, the following authors are mentioned :
Moses,' David, Solomon, Asaph, Heman, Ethan, the
sons of Korah.

bility of this is not destroyed by the fact that a different author is men
tioned besides the sons of Korah. Probably this inscription is composed of
two, or the author considered Heman the Ezrahite as one of the sdns of
Korah, which is not impossible, since the Chronicles are very uncertain
respecting the genealogy ofthis singer. (ICh. ii6, Comp, 1 Kings v, 11,
1 Ch, vi, 18, XV. 17, 18, See Bertholdt, p, 1774, Gesenius, ubi sup. p, 646,
sq,) The instrument with which it was to be accompanied ; Ps, viii, vi, v,
Ixxxviii,, &c. The manner in which it was to be sung ; Ps, Ivi, — ^lix. Ixx,,
&c. The liturgical use to be made of it; e, g, Hjiflb, Ps, c. [for praise,
or thanks ;] "i-i^trib , Ps, xxxviii, Ixx, cii,, &c, [to bring to remembrance.]
" See De Wette, Introduction to the Psalms, mentioned in No, 3, (in his
Commentary,) and § 269, infra.
Such is the opinion of Theodore Mopsuestius, cited in Leontius Byzant-
lib, iii cont Nestor, et Eutych, n, 15, G, /, L. Vogel, Diss, inscript Pss.
serius demum additas videri ; Hal. 1767, Eichhom, § 627, and De Wette,
Com, p, 26, and Bertholdt, who brings forward some new arguments, (p, 1978,
sqq,,) and yet defends the genuineness of some of these. But this must be
proved of each one. It may be doubted that the directions as to the manner
of singing originated with the author. But see Bertholdt, p, 1995, [De Wette,
Introd, to the Psalms, chap, vi]
' Moses is made the author of Ps, xc, but this can hardly be correct ; Da
vid, of Ps, iii, — IX, xi. — xxxii, xxxiv, — xh. li — Ixv, Ixviii, — ^Ixx, Ixxxvi, ci,
ciii cviii, — ex, cxxii, cxxiv, cxxxi, cxxxiii, cxxxviii, — cxlv,, in all seventy-

§269.] THE PSALMS. 625
It is surprising that none are ascribed to the old
prophets, who certainly wrote a great part of the

four. To these the LXX add Ps. xxxiii. xliii. xci. xciv. — ^xcix. oiv. But
it is certain many of these do not belong to David ; e. g. v. ix, xii xiv, xx,
xxi, (which probably were written concerning David ;) xxv, — xxvii, xxxiv,
xxxv, xxxviii, li, lix, — Ixi Ixiii Ixv, Ixix, ciii, cviii — ex,, (the last is probably
written concerning David,) cxxii, cxxiv, cxxviii cxxix, cxliv. Others are
more or less doubtful ; iii, iv, vii, xi xiii. xvi. xvii. xix. xxii xxiv,, which
probably belong to the time of Solomon ; as also xxviii, xxxi xxxvi xxxvii,
xxxix, xl, xli, Iii Iviii Ixii Ixiv. Ixviii. Ixxxvi. cxxxi. cxxxiii. cxi — cxliii,
cxlv. To judge from the psalms that are undoubtedly genuine, (vi, viii
XV. xviii, xxiii, xxix, xxx. xxxii. ci, 2 Sam. i. 18, sqq,, and others,) David is
equally excellent and successful in the. hymn, the song, the elegy, and the
didactic poem. See Eichhom, § 622.
The following are the positive results of the latest criticism on the
Psalms ascribed to David: — According to Ewald. According to HUzig.
Psalms iii iv,, ...... by David,  by David,
C from the 2d period, from j
 v.,  5 the 7th century B. C, > by Jeremiah,
C till the exile,  5
 vi,,  from the age after David, . , by Jeremiah.
 vii. viii,  by David,  by David.
 ix. X.,  after the exile,
 xi,  by David,  by David,
 xii,  2d period,  by David,
 xiii,  1st period  by David.
 xiv,,  time of the exile,  by Jeremiah,
 XV.,  time of David  by David.
 xvi xvii, ... 2d period,  by David.
 xviii,  by David,  by David,
 xix,,  by David,  by David,
 XX, xxi,  1st period,  tune after David.
 xxii,  2d period,  by Jeremiah,
 xxiii,  1st period,  by Jeremiah,
 xxiv.,  by David  by Jeremiah,
 XXV.,  after the exile,  by Jeremiah.
— ¦  xxvi— xxviii, . . 2d period,  by Jeremiah,
 xxix.,  from David,  hy Jeremiah,
 XXX,,  1st period,  by Jeremiah,
 xxxi,,  2d period,  by Jeremiah,
 xxxii,  by David,  by Jeremiah.

526 POETICAL BOOKS. [§269.
Psalms, and in general belonged to the first golden age
of Hebrew poetry. This circumstance would not pro
duce a prejudice in favor of the correctness of the
tradition. It is surprising also that the songs which
occur in 1 Sam. i. 19 — 27, and xxih. 1 — 7, are omit
ted." A false rule has sometimes been given, that ah the
psalms, whose author is not mentioned in the title, should
be ascribed to the author of the last psalm preceding.'
According to Ewald. According to Hitzig.
Psalms xxxiii, sq,,  after the exile,  by Jeremiah,
 xxxv, sq,,  2d period,  by Jeremiah.
 xxxvii,,  after the exile,  by Jeremiah,
 xxxviii,— xli,, , . , 2d period,  by Jeremiah.
 ci,,  David,  Maccabaic,
 ex.,  David,  Maccabaic.
Solomon is mentioned as the author of Ixxii cxxvii. The first may
have been written concerning him, and the second has been ascribed to him
by an erroneous conjecture. On the other hand, Ps, cxxxii, belongs to his
time, and perhaps was written by him,
Asaph, David's chorister according to 1 Ch, vi. 24, xv. 17, xvi, 5, is
called the author of 1, Ixxiii — Ixxxiii Only the first, with perhaps some
part of Ixxiii, and Ixxv,, can be ascribed to him.
Heman, one of David's singers, (1 Ch, xv, 17, 19,) is mentioned as
the author of Ps, Ixxxviii,
Etlian, also, one of David's singers, is called tiie author of Ps, Ixxxix,
But both incorrectly.
The sons of Korah. (See above, §168, No, 4,) Some ofthe nameless
psalms may belong to David, or to his contemporaries ; but this cannot be
proved with certainty,
" On the inscriptions peculiar to the old versions, in which prophets are
mentioned, see Bertholdt, p, 1963, He thinks they had merely a liturgical
meaning, Hitzig ascribes too many psalms to Jeremiah.
' Jerome, (ad Cyp, Opp, ii, p, 695,) Augustine, (Civ, Dei, xvii, 14,) [see the
curious note of Vives,] Chrysostom, (Prol, in Psalm,) Euthymius Zigabenus,
(Praef in Pss, Tr, Pesach, foi 117, c, 1,) support the opinion that David
wrote all the psalms, Baba Bathra, fol, 14, c, 2, David scripsit hbruni Psal
morum, ad modum (-l•T^ bs) decem seiiiorum, ad modum primi hominis, ad mo-
dum Melchisedeki, According to Ezra iii, 10, we must refer this to a repro
duction, or writing over anew. See Bertholdt, p, 197],

§270.] THE PSALMS. 627
§270.
AGE AND ORIGINALITY OF THE PSALMS.
In respect to the spurious and anonymous psalms,
there are questions to be asked, not only relating to their
authors, but more especially to their age, and the his
torical circumstances to which they refer. It is pretty
certain that a great part of them, in particular the plain
tive psalms, are to be placed in the later times, not far
from the exhe. A great many belong to the time of the
exile." Some are to be placed after it.
There are strong exegetical arguments for referring
some psalms to the time of the Maccabees, such as xliv.
Ix. Ixxiv. But on account of the difficulties arising from
the history of the canon and of the Septuagint version,
this becomes doubtful.'
Besides, the critic must distinguish, by means of the
language and sesthetical considerations, the ancient from
" Psalm xiv. li, Ixxvii Ixxxv, cvi, cvii, cxxvi, cxxix, cxxxvii cxlvii,, and
others, ' The following authors believe there are psalms from the Maccabaic
age : Rudinger, Herman von der Hardt, Venema, Rosenmiiller, E. G. Bengel,
(Diss, in Psal, ; Tub, 1806,) Bertholdt, Kaiser, and Hesse, (De Psai Mace, ;
1838,) Hitzig finds none before the time of the Maccabees, after Ps,
Ixxiii, [?] [Eichhorn, (§ 621,)] Gesenius, (A. L, Z, for 1816, xvi. No, 81, p,
643,) and Hassler, (Com, crit, de Ps, Maccab, ; Ulm, 1727—1732, 4to,,) think it
is doubtful that there are Maccabaic psalms. Certainly it is not necessary,
on account of the late composition of the book of Daniel, to assume that the
canon was finally closed, and the Alexandrian version complete, in all
parts, at the time when the Wisdom of Sirach was translated ; but yet it is
difficult to believe the collection of Psalms remained open till that time, for
the later books ofthe Psalms were needed for liturgical purposes. Yet it is
still more difficult to explain how Maccabaic psalms came in the first books
of Psalms, Finally, it is not easy to see how false opinions on the origin of
such recent works could, in so few years, become current, and be preserved
in the inscriptions of the psalms.

528 POETICAL BOOKS. [§271.
the more modern, and the originals from the imitations.
Imitations occur most frequently among the temple
hymns, the psalms of entreaty and complaint."

§271.
ORIGIN OF THE COLLECTION OF PSALMS.
This collection was gradually made from several small
er collections. This appears, 1. From the dissimilar
ity of the titles. 2. From the repetition of a psalm ;
thus, Ps. liii. is the same as Ps. xiv. The recurrence,
however, of parts of psalms, is not so strong an argu
ment.' 3. From the fact that the psalms of the same
author are not all collected together, but are in part scat
tered about, here and there, (Psalms of David, ih. — xli. ;
of the Korahites," xlh. — xhx. ; of Asaph, Ixxih. — Ixxxiii.)
Sometimes those hymns of a similar character are placed
together, (the plaintive psalms, Ivi. — lix. ; the songs
of degrees, so cahed, cxx. — cxxxv. ; and the songs of
praise, cxlvi. — cl.) 4. From the doxologies at the end
of the books, and the formula at the end of the second
book, " The prayers of David, the son of Jesse, are end
ed." (Ixxii. 20.)
It is certain we are to regard the first book (i. — xli.)
as the original collection. The second book, it is prob
able, was made up fi"om several separate comphations
" Psalm xxv. xxxv. Ixix. Ixxxviii. cxix,, and otiiers ; xcvii c. cxxxvi,, and
others, De Wette, Com. in Ps. p. 15, sqq. ,
' Ps. Ixx. is the same as xi 13 — 17 ; Ps. cviii. 1 — 5, as Ivii 8 — 12 ; and
Ps. cviii 6 — 13, as Ixx. 7 — 14. The difference in the text of these reiterated
pieces, and also between Ps. xviii, and 2 Sam. xxii, does not arise from dif
ferent recensions of the poet, but only from the free treatment it received in
being copied, or in passing from mouth to mouth.
' [Psalm xliii., however, is anonymous.]

§271.] THE PSALMS. 529
(xhii. — 1. and li. Ixv.) and supplementary additions, and
afterwards appended to the first book. A third collec
tion was made, in the same manner, from separate col
lections, (Ixxih. — Ixxxhi. Ixxxiv.— Ixxxix.) This formed
the third book, and was distinguished from the two
preceding by the formula. Here Ps. Ixxxvi., standing
among psalms that certainly are not David's, is ascribed
to him, by the title ; but this title has, perhaps, been
interpolated, through force of a conjecture founded on
verses 2, 4, 16. It is the only psalm in the book ascribed
to David; ah the rest are referred to Asaph, the sons of
Korah, and Ethan the Ezrahite.
The two last books, which contain most of the liturgi
cal pieces, were added in the same manner."
Judging from Ps. xiv., the first cohection was made
about the time of the exile, or after it. The completion
of the whole must be referred to a much later period.
The collection was designed, incontestably, for religious,
ascetioal, and liturgical uses. Bertholdt has examined
the various opinions of ancient and modern writers, re
specting the age of the collections, but he has himself
gone the farthest in this analysis, and certainly too far.*
" Ewald (vol. i p. 194) thinks Ps, xcii, — c, which closely resernble each
other, form a collection by themselves. The connection between the psalms
of degrees (cxx, — cxxxiv,) is obvious. The hallelujah psalms begin with
civ,, and Ewald thinks they also form an independent collection. Book i, is
mostly Davidic; book ii mostly Koraitic' {xlii. — i) and Ddvidie. (li,— Ixv,),
' Bertholdt, p, 2009, sqq, Ewald (p, 188) thinks the division into five books
was subsequently made ; and Hitzig divides them into three larger books,
which were originally independent collections : 1, Ps, i, — xli,, for the most
part Davidic, and perhaps older odes, 2. Ps. xlii. — Ixxxix., odes ofthe mid
dle period. 3, Ps,Xc, — ei,, modern and very modem odes. He makes the
interesting remark, that Elohim is the prevalent name of God in xlii, — Ixxxiii,
which he sets down to the account of the collector, but we to that of the age
when they were composed. See below, § 284,
VOL. II. 67

630 POETICAL BOOKS. [§ 272.
CHAPTER II.
THE LAMENTATIONS," §272.
THE KIND OF COMPOSITION.
On the one side, these Lamentations are connected
with the psalms of entreaty and complaint. They have
the same occasion and the same subject. They are
national songs, — of true patriotism. But on the other
side, they are connected with the lamentations for the
dead, which occur in 2 Sam. i. 19, sqq., ih. 33, and
2 Ch. xxxv. 25. Perhaps they have the same tone
and rhythm as these. The literary notices in these
passages, in Samuel and Chronicles, must certainly
refer to our book of Lamentations : this is plain,, since
the writer of the Chronicles thought that Josiah was

" Tamovii in Tlirenos Jer, Comm,; Hamb, 1707, 4to,
J. Theoph Lessing ; Observatt in Tristia Jer, ; Lips, 1770,
Threni Jer, philol, et crit, illustrati a J. H. Pareau ; Lug, Bat 1790,
Curse exeg, et crit in Thren, Jer,, Auctore Jo. Fr. Schleusner, in EidJiom's
Rep. vol, xii,
Beit z, Erkl. des sogen, hohen Liedes, Koheleths und der Klaglieder, von
Gaab; Tiib, 1795,
Diss, ad Thren, Jer, Auct J. Otto, praes, Schnurrer ; Tiib, 1795, 4to,
Rosenmuller, Schol,
Translated by Biimid, m, e, Vorr, v. Herder, 1781 ; Horrer, 1784 ; Jod
Lowe and Aaron Wolfssohn, 1790 ; M. Hartmann, in JustPs Bliimen althebr.
Dichtk,; {ff'dcker,) in griech, Versmaas, 1810; Ri^ler, 1814 ; Goldwitzer
mit Vergi der LXX, u, Vulg, u, Icrit, Anmeildc, 1828 ; Wiedenfdd, Elberf,
18-30 ; Ewald, 1. u, vol, i,
[Translated into English by Broughton and Blayney.]

§273.] THE PSALMS. 531
celebrated in both, and at his time it is scarcely probable
there were other lamentations extant."

§ 273.
TITLE AND CONTENTS OF THE BOOK.
Under the title ni'^!*, which is' the characteristic word
for beginning a complaint: — in 2 Sam. i. 19, 27 —
and also with the title tiiD^p, (or d-Qrivoi among the
Greeks,) we have five songs relating to the conquest
and destruction of the city of Jerusalem, and the temple,
(i. ii. iv. V.,) and to the. unfortunate lot of the poet him
self, (iii.) The historical relation of the whole cannot
be doubted ; but yet there seems to be a gradual ascent
in describing the condition of the city.*
" See § 273,
' Bee Josephus, x, 5, 1 ; Jerome, Com, in Zech, xii 11 ; J. D. Michadis, in
his Uebers, ; note on Lowth, Sac, Poet, Heb, xxii (p, 565, Rosenmiiller's ed.j)
though he. afterwards changed his opinion in N, Or, Bib, vol, i, p. 106 ;
and Dathe, Proph, Maj, ed, 1, (different in ed, 2,) See, on the other side,
Eichhom, § 652, — Horrer and Jahn (p,'572) think the final chapter refers to the
events related in 2 Kings xxiv, 8, sqq. Bertholdt (p, 2314 — 2322) takes the
opposite view ; but, even if this is not correct, Eichhorn's explanation is forced.
He says, " The first lamentation hewails chiefly the deathlike stillness about
Jerusalem; and the second, the destruction of the city and temple," Per
haps chap. i. is written in the interval between 2 Kings xxv, 4 and 8, This
is tl;i,6 opinion of Riegler, (Uebers, p, 4 ;) but Bertholdt (p. 2318) dissents, frora
it Pdi-eau refers chap, i to Jer. xxxvii 5, sqq,; chap, iii to Jer. xxxviii. 2,
sqq. ;. chap. iv. to Jer, xxxix, 1, sqq,, and 2 Kings xxv, 1, sqcj, ; chap, ii. tg the
destruction of the city and temple. Chap, v, appears to be the latest, and is
referredto the time after, it JSw(i/rf(p, 145; sq,) says the situation is the same,
only the time is different " In chap, i, and ii, we find sorrow without con
solation; in* chap, iii, consolation for the poet himself; 'in chap, iv., the
lamentation is renewed with greater violence'; but soon the whole peopl^, as
if urged by their own spontaneous impulse, fall to weepingand hoping, (17
 Sl ;) (?) and in chap, v,, nothing remains but the simple prayer ofthe whole
community for deliverance — a prayer, which, though fulLof ^nguish, is yet
composed and hopeful,"

532 POETICAL BOOKS. [§ 274.

§274.
THE AUTHOR.
An old tradition mentions Jeremiah as the authoi:.
It is contained in the beginning of the first chapter of
the Septuagint version — "And it came to pass after
that Israel was taken captive, and Jerusalem was laid
waste, that Jeremiah sat weeping, and lamented this
lamentation over Jerusalem, and said"" 
The contents, spirit, tone, and language, of the book
agree with this tradition.* The elegiac humor of the
sufferer has here expressed itself with a certain com
pleteness." " Compare Josephus, Ant x, 5, 1,
' Comp, i, 8, sqq,, with Jer. iv, 30, xiii, 21, 22, 26 ; i, 20, and iv, 13, sqq,,
with Jer, xiv, 7, 18 ; ii, 14, with Jer. xiv, 13 ; i, 16, and ii, 11, iii, 48, 49, with
Jer, viii, 21, sqq., ix. 16, sqq., x, 19, sqq,, xiii 17, xiv, 17; iii. 52, with- Jet.
XV, 26, 27 ; iii, with Jer, xv, 10, sqq,, 15, sqq,, xvii. 5, sqq,, 14, sqq,, xx, 7, sqq,,
14, sqq,
las na nb^na; i 15, ii 13, (Compare Jer, xiV._ 17, xlvi 1],)- -|i3?9;
ii 22, (Compare Jer, iv, 25, x, 3, 10.) bbiT; i, 11. (Compare Jer. xv. 19.)
Diiiana, for di'ian>5; i 11, rrjij, for my, i. 8. ixii, for sb; :?»
b; iv, 5, bN3; iv, 14. rainn; i 1. bCR; iil4, Chaldaisms: T^?:!:ir:';
i 4, Stri-;, for nri-^; iv. L N-jtStt ;, iii. 12, n^Sri; ii 1, SYb ; i 14, Pe
culiarities: ~^'.a, applied to men; i 13, 16, iii, 11, iv, 5, - prefixed; ii,
15, iv. 9,
' [Each chapter, or elegy, is divided into twenty-two periods, to correspond
to the letters in the Hebrew. alphabet The first four chapters are in the
form of acrostics. In the first three chapters, each verse contains three lines,
and the initial letters are, with a slight variation, in the order of the letters
in the alphabet In the fourth chapter, each verse consists of four lines. In
the third, the alphabet is repeated three times,]

§ 275.] THE SONG OF SOLOMON. 533
CHAPTER III.
THE SONG OF SOLOMON,"
, §275.
THE KIND OF COMPOSITION TO WHICH THE BOOK
BELONGS.
In the Song of Songs, we possess the only relic
of the amatory poetry of the Hebrews. This, from its
" J. H. Micliadis Annotatt uberr, in Hagiogr, vol, ii.
See the other numerous authors in Rosenmiiller, Schol, p, 283, sqq,
Eclogae Regis Salom, interpr. Jo. Th Lessing ; 1777.
Doderlein, Auctar, ad Hug. Grot adnotatt; 1779, 4to.
Materialien z, e, n. Erklar, d, h, Liedes vom Verf, der Beobacht. lib, d.
Orient, {Harmar.) Aus d, Engl, 1778, 1779, 2 Thle, 4to,
G. A. Ruperti Symbolae ad interpret S- Cod, vol, i, Fasc, 1, 2 ; Gott 1792,
JVic. Schyth, Cant- Cantic, r'ecens versum, comment exeget, atq, crit illus-
tratum; Havh, 1797,
Gaab, Beitrage Z, Erklar, d, sogen, h, L, li, d, ; Klagi 1795.
Salom, Regis et Sap. quce supersunt ejusque esse perhibentur omnia ex
Hebr. La.t, vertit Not?.sque adji Jos. Fr. Schelling ; 1806.
Kistpmak^, Cant. Canticorum ilhistraitum ex Hierographia Orientalium;
1818, ' : ¦ .
/.. Chr. C. Dijpke, Philol, krit, Comm, z, h, L, Sal, 1829,
Ueberss. u, Erkli von (/. P. Jaeobi) d  .' gerett. h, L, 1771 ; Hezel, 1777 ;
Herder, 1778 ; /. F. Kleuker, 1780 ; /. F. Schlez, 1782 ; Doderlein, (m, d, Pred,)
1784 ; Huftiagd, 1784 ; Vdthusen, 1786 ; (comp, his Amethyst, 17*86 ; Canti
lena Cantilenarum in Sal. 1786 ;) {Ammon,) ' Sai verschm, Liebe, 1790 ;
^«/cr, 1792; Briegleb, 1798 ; Jiwfi, Blumen alt-hebr, Dichtk. 1807; Umbreit,
1820,2 A. 1828 ; G, H. A. Ewald, 1826.
[See Robinson's ed, of Ccdmet, and JyRchadis in Lowth, p, 609,
It has been translated into English by Bishop Percy, 1764, 12mo, ; Hodg
son, J785, 4to, ; Tlios. Williams, 1801, 8vo.; J.M. Good, 1803, 8vo,; Fry, 1811,
8vo, The following authors have written commentaries or explanations upon
it^ Ainsworth;^ Axinota.tion on Pent, Ps., and Cant ; 1627, fol. Gill, 1728, foi,
(often republished.) Harmer, Outlines of a Com. on Sol, Song, 1768, 8vo.
Durdl, 1772. Ananonymous Scotch author, 1775. (See in Critical Review,
vol. XV. for 1795.) Thos. James, D. D., Oxford, 1607. Other writers in Eng-

534 POETICAL BOOKS. [§ 276.
nature, must fluctuate between lyric and epic poetry,
and therefore it often becomes descriptive and pictorial,
(or idyllic,) and willingly makes use of the form of dia
logue. This kind of poeti-y must have existed in the
form of song ; iiut there are only slight indications
thereof — ii. 12, "the time of song has come," and
Lam. V. 14, "The young men have ceased from their
music." The relation of the amatory idyl to the Psalms
cannot be determined more accurately. The rhythm is
more periodic than that of the Psalms."

§276.
TITLE AND CONTENTS.
The tide (Q'^l^sn "i"'?) signifies the most beautiful song.
This is the only explanation which is conformable to the
usage of the language, and the rules of gratnmar." Un
der this title are included several songs, and fragments
of songs, which treat of love. For the most part, the
subject is rural and pastoral love, which is treated of ^^ith
the glowing passion of the East, and without the degen-
lish, on this book, are, Durham, Bishops Halt and Patrick, Messrs.' Dove,
Trapp, Jackson, Callings. Dr, Owen " has given one of the best spiritual
explications of the most interesting passages," in his "Communion witii
FaUier, Son, &,c." See also Croxcdl, Fair Circassian ; -Lond, 1720, David
son, Brief Outline, &c, ; 1817, 8vo, See the translation and explanation of
Mr, Taylor, in Calmd's Dictionary, and the remarks of Dr. Robinson, its
American editor, article Cantides.]
" See a comparison of the Canticles and Theoeritus'sldyls, by Stdudlin,
in Paulus, Mem, vol, iip, 161, and an explanation of tiiese songs, p, 171, sqq. .
'. See other significations in Gesenins, Lexicon, and Bertholdt, p, 2580.
Ewald (Hohesleid, p, 25, and Poet Buch, A, T, vol, i, p, 184) connects _
n^:b-r"; ":-.:.¦» more intimately witii the inscription, and translates it. Das
schonste lAed, welches von Salomo ist ; i e. which Solomon composed.

§ 276.] THE SONG OF SOLOMON. 535
erate bashfulness of modern times, but stih in conformity
with the moral spirit of the Hebrews."
" But one is my Dove, my chaste one." (vi. 9.)
" Apply me, like a seal, to thine heart.
Like a seal to thine arm ;
For love is strong as death;
Fixed as the grave is its zeal ;
Great waters cannot quench love.
And streams cannot wash it away.
Let a man offer all the wealth of his house for love.
It will be despised," (viii, 6, 7,)
It has been explained as an allegory by the writer ot
the Targum, Jarchi, Aben Ezra, Origen, Epiphanius,
Theodoret, and many others, among the ancients.* The
latest attempts of this kind are by Rosenmiiher, Hug, and
Kaiser.' But this method of explaining it derives no prob
able support from the exegesis of the book ; and, besides,
it is by no means necessary for the honor of the Bible.''

" This is Herder's opinion, which has been followed by most of the mod
erns, who only differ in their modifications ofthis view, Carpzov, p, 348,
' See the different exegetical hypotheses in Kleuker, 1, c, 41, and a criti
cism ofthis kind of explanation in Dopke, p.. 41, Umbreit, p. 6, and Hassler,
Tub. Zeitschrift, vol. iii. p. 172,
' Rosenmidler, in Keil, and Tzschirner, Anal, vol, i p, 138, sqq,, though
differently in- his Prolegg, p, 271, sqq. Hug, Das Hoheslied, fee! ; 1813, 4to,
Schutzschrift, &c, ; 1815, 4to, Kaiser, Das Hoheslied, ein CoUectiv-Gesang,
die, ; 1825,
A similar mystical explanation has been made of some of the amatory
poetry of the Orientals, See Herbelot, Bibl, Crient, art Jussuf and William
Jones, On the Mystical Poetry of the Persians and Hindoos, in Asiatic Re
searches, vol, iii. p. 165, sqq, [in his Works, vol, iv, p, 227, sqq, 8vo,]
¦* Herder, 1, c, p, 120, sqq, Ewal4, Hoheslied, p, 355.
Some of the Jews had their doubts upon this book, R, JVathan says,
" Formerly they determined that the Proverbs, Canticles, and Ecclesiastes,
were apocryphal books, written after the manner of parables, and - therefore
were not to be reckoned with the Hagiographa, For this reason, they con
cealed them until the time of the men of the Great Synagogue, who at last
explamed them," Capitula, c. i Jerome, in his Preface to Ezekiel, says

536 POETICAL BOOKS. [§276
Equally improbable is the opinion that the book is a
whole, and is founded upon a true history."
There is a connection between the fohowing passages :
i. 2 — 8, the maiden's anxiety for her lover ; i. 9 — ii. 7,
the lover's conversation when they come together ; ii. 8
— 17, the lover's visit to the maiden, in the vineyard ;
ih. 1 — 5, the maiden seeking her lover by night, and
finding him; iv. 1 — v. 1, the dialogue between the young
man, excited with love, and the complying maiden ; v. 2
— vi. 3, the maiden seeking her lover by night, and prais
ing him ; vi. 4 — 9, the faithful lover's praises of his be
loved ; vii. 2 — vhi. 4, the conversation of the pair, now
intoxicated with love, and united therein ; (compare i. 9
— ii. 7, with this ;) vih. 5 — 7, the love of the faithful
wedded pair.
If these passages are treated rigorously, it cannot be
shown that they constitute one whole, for the scene
and the costume change somewhat ; thus, in i. 5, ii. 7,
no one who has not completed his thirtieth year, is permitted to read the
beginning of Genesis, or Canticles, or the beginning and end of Ezekiel, so
that he may come to perfect knowledge and to the mystical sense of these
books, when his mind is in its greatest vigor. See Origen, Proi ad Cant
Bartolocci, Bib, Rab, vol, iv, p. 373,
" This is tiie theory of Jaeobi, Vdthusen, Ammon, and others, Umbreit
maintains there is a certain unity in the book, and succeeds without forcing
the matter much, though not without arbitrary interpretation. In particu
lar, he gives a false explanation of the slumber song, (ii, 7, iii, 5, and viii, 4,)
Ewald maintains it is a drama, and is stUl more guilty of arbitrary treatment,
especially in separating the dialogue, (i 9 — ii 6, vi2 — 4, vii, 2 — viii 4,) and
thereby separating tiie terms which clearly are connected with one another —
"My Beloved," ("'t]"'?!!,) and "My Love," C"li",) which latter term is ap
plied to the absent lover, (i, 15, 16.)
Both Ewald and Umbreit make the heroine a country maiden, shut up in
Solomon's harem. But this opinion is favored only by i 4 — 6, and vi 8.
But the intervening passages, (i, 7, sqq,,) where the scene presents us flocks
and pastures, &.c,, as well as those which foUow, (vii. 12, sqq^) lead us away
fi-om the court See A. T. Hartmann, On the Character and Explanation of
the Song of Songs, in Winer's Zeitschrift, vol, ui p, 412,

§276.] THE SONG OF SOLOMON. 637
in. 1, V. 1, sqq., the scene is in Jerusalem; but it is in the
country in i. 7, sq., h. 8, sqq., vii. 12, sqq., and vih. 13, 14.
But yet all seems to relate to one and the same pair of
lovers, and to bear the impress of one single author.
There are yet other passages which are insulated, ab
rupt, and perhaps stand in a false connection : ih. 6 —
11, the bridal song of Solomon, if verse 6 could other
wise belong to it ; vih. 8 — 10, innocence protecting it
self; vih. 11, 12, the lover's self-complacency ; (,?) vih.
13, 14, the lover alarmed.
The passage, vi. 10 — vii. 1, is extremely obscure: —
" Who is this that shines forth like the dawn.
Beautiful as the moon.
Pure as the sun.
And terrible as an army 1
" I went down to the nut-garden
To see the green things of the valley.
To see if the vine sprouted,
And the pomegranates bloomed.
I did not know, — my soul made me a chariot of my noble
people.
Return, return, Shulamith,
Return, return, that we may look upon thee.
What shall you see in the Shulamith,
[Who is] Like the dancing of angel-choirs ? "
Perhaps the fragments, ii. 16, iii. 6, and vih. 5, are in
serted in the wrong place. Chap. ih. 6, vi. 10, and
vih. 5, have a suspicious affinity with one another, as
likewise have h. 16, 17, iv. 5, 6, [,?] vi. 2, 3."
" Herder, Kleuker, Doderlein, Dopke, Hufnagd, Paulus, {Eichhom, Rep.
voi vii and xvii) think the book consists of fragments. See Umbreit, Erin-
nerung an das Hoheslied,
VOL. II. 68

538 POETICAL BOOKS. [§ 277.
§277.
AGE AND AUTHOR,
In respect to their language, these songs are to be
classed with the latest productions of Hebrew litera
ture, in particular with the book of Ecclesiastes." For
this reason, some, like Eichhorn, Bertholdt, and Rosen
muller, place their composition in a very late period.
Hartmann places it the lowest.
But the whole circle of images, and historical rela
tions, and the freshness of life it describes, belong to the
age of Solomon ; for example, i. 4, 5: —
" To the horses in Pharaoh's chariot
I compare thee, my friend." (verse 9.)
" While the king is at his table,
My nard gives its fragrance ;
A bunch of myrrh is my friend." (verse 12.)
" Behold the bed of Solomon ;
Sixty strong men around it,
Of Israel's strong ;
All grasping the sword.
Ready for war,'' &c, (iii, 7, sqq,, iv, 4, vi, 4, 8, 9,
viii 11, 12,)
Bertholdt thinks the author transferred himself back
to the age of Solomon. But this is certainly very
improbable, for, as Herder says, " Nothing in the world
D^'lB (iv. 13) is Persian, (a park, nagadelaog.) Comp. Ecci ii. 5, Neh.
ii 8, The following are Aramaean: fli^a,i,,17; yBl5,ii8; bn'5,ii9;
inp , ii 11 ; BSa , V, 3 ; li'''15H , (= cpogEiov a/j.ip6gewv,) iii 9 ; isb , for '^'b
ii, 13, The following belong to the later Hebrew usage: b, as nota
accusal., iii 11; nSi^s , v, 3, (Esth, viii 6 ;) S'^ari, ii 12, (Ezra vii, 12,
Ecci xii 1 ;) HJ , prefixed, i, 7, iii 1, sqq, ; ^ip, iii, 7, i, 6, sqq, ; Till , iv, 4,
Eichhom, § 646, sq, Hartmann, 1, c, p, 420, sqq,, from whose statements
much is to be abated, Koster, p, 31, On the other hand, see Dopke, 1, c.
p. 29, sqq.

§277.] THE SONG OF SOLOMON. 539
demands so entire and intimate a presence as love 
You can do no greater injustice to expressions of love
than to rob them of their individuality."
The passage, ih. 6 — 11, follows the course which
Solomon's nuptial song must take. It cannot be shown
— as it has been contended — that Thirza (vi. 4) was
not a chief town in Solomon's time. It is mentioned in
Josh. xh. 24, and the mention of this city proves an
earlier age than the Persian.
Herder and Dopke rely on the freshness of the com
position, as an argument for its early date. Religious
lyrics could not flourish after the exhe, and the amatory
idyl could scarcely thrive. But Hartmann takes the
other side."
Perhaps the riddle may be solved by maintaining that
these songs were preserved orally, — in the mouth of the
people, — and in some degree transformed. This also
will explain the fragmentary compilation of them. A
simhar opinion has been maintained by Scyth, Ewald,
and others, who seek the cause of the peculiarity of the
language in the idiom of the province where the songs
were composed.
The opinion that Solomon was the author, is but poorly
supported by the inscriptions of the book, and is in itself
improbable. Such passages as i. 4, 5, 12, hi. 6 — 11,
vii. 6, viii. 11, 12, show that Solomon is not the author.
Yet the opinion that he was the author, and the age of
the songs, seem to have led to their reception into the
canon, which was probably excused by the allegorical
interpretation put upon them.
° Koster (p, 32) thinks the book is of late origin, on account of its alle
gorical character, its far-fetched images, and its learned allusions to other
books of the Old Testament some of them quite recent ; e, g, i, 3, 4, iii 8,
iv, 11, 14, vii 5, comp. Ps, xlv, 15, 4, 9, 8; vi 12, comp, Ps. ex, 2; viii, 11,
comp. Isa, V 1 ; ii, 14, comp. Obad, 3 ; vii, 10, comp. Prov, xxiii, 31.

540 POETICAL BOOKS. [§278.
CHAPTER IV.
THE PROVERBS OF SOLOMON."
§278.
CONTENTS OF THE BOOK.
Here, not only short, disconnected proverbs and
enigmas, but likewise longer, connected sententious
° Phil. Mdanchthonis Explicatio Prow, ; 1555, Opp. t ii.
Jo. Merceri Comm, in Prow. Salom., with his Comment on Job.
Prow, Salom, c, Cura enucleata a Mart. Geiero ; Lips, 1669 ; 1725, 4to,
Chr. B. J^Bchaelis, Annotatt in Prow, in J. H. J\lichaelis Uberr. annotatt in
Hagiogr, Proverbia Salom,: Versionem integram ad Hebrsum Fontem expressit
atque Comment adjecit Alb. Schultens ; Lug. Bat 1748, 4to, ; in compend,
redegit et Observatt crit auxit G. J. L. Vogel, cum Auctario per G, A.
Tdler; Hal, 1769,
J. F. Hirts, Vollst Erklar, der Spriiche Salomes ; Jen, 1768, 4to,
Chr. Fi: Schnurrer, Observatt ad queedam Loca Prov, Salom, ; Tub, 1776,
4to. Dissertt phii crit vol, i,
J. J. Reiske, Conjecturse in Jobum et Prow, Salom, ; Lips. 1779.
Zur Exegetik u. Kritik des A, T, von A. J. Amoldi; Frkf, u, Lpz. 1781,
/, G, Jdger, Observatt in Prow, Salom, Versionem Alex, ; Lips, 1788, 8vo.
Hensler, Erlauterungen des 1 B, Sara, u, der Salom, Denkspr, ; Hamb,
1796, F. W. C. Umbreit, Phdol, krit u, philosoph, Comm, ii. d. Spriiche Sai, nebst
e. neuen Uebers, u, e, Einleit, in die morgeni Weisheit iiberh, u, in d. hebr,
salomonische insbesondere ; Heidelb, 1826,
Rosenmuller, Schol,
Paraphrase by G, /, L. Vogel, 1767; Ch A. Bode, 1791,
Translated by J. D. Michadis, (n, d, Pred, m. Anmerkk, f, Ungei) 1778,
4to,; Doderlein, 3 A, 1786; Struensee, 1783; Kleuker, 1786; R Ch Rein-
hard, 1790 ; W. C. Ziegler, m, Einl, u, Anm, 1791 ; Muntinghe, n, AnmerlA,
aus d, Holland, von Scholl, 2 Bde, 1800, 1802 ; /, G, Dahler, n, d, Abweich-
ungen d, alexandr, Uebers,, 1810 ; C. P. W. Gramberg, Systemat geordnet
m. Anm. u, Parali, 1828 ; E. G. A. Boded, 1829 ; Ewald, 1, c, voi iv.
[Hunt, Observations on the Book of Proverbs ; Oxford, 1775, 4to. Hodg-

§279.] THE PROVERBS OF SOLOMON. 641
discourses, are cohected together. These are the man
ifold productions of Hebrew wisdom, expressing itself in
the formation of proverbs. This wisdom rests chiefly
on a practical shrewdness, — the result of experience, —
and on the rehgious doctrine of retribution, conceived
of in a very positive form. The two mutually support
one another. Yet it is not wanting in ideas of a pure,
living morality and religion. The style is various, often
ingenious, witty, sportive, and enigmatical ; but, for the
most part, it is simply proverbial, abounding in antitheses,
comparisons, and images. §279.
COMPOSITION OF THE BOOK.
After the inscription, (i. 1,) "Proverbs of Solomon,
son of David, king of Israel," and the preface, (i. 2 — 6,)
there follows, —
I. 1. Chap. i. 7 — ix. 18, — a connected discourse,
exhorting men to chastity and wisdom, and extolling the
excellency of the latter.
2. Under the title Proverbs of Solomon,"- are single
proverbs, (chap. x. 1 — xxii. 16.) A better connection,
and an admonitory tone, — like that in the beginning of
the book, — prevail in the next passage, which is not
separated from this by any inscription, (xxii. 17 — xxiv.
22.) After this, other single proverbs follow, with the
inscription. These also from the wise.''
II. 1. A new inscription, (xxv. 1,) "These also
son, On the Book of Proverbs, trans,, with Notes ; Oxford, 1778, 4to, Holden,
Attempt towards an Improved Trans, of Proverbs, with Notes, &c, ; London,
1819, 8yo. Lawson, Exposition of Proverbs ; Edinburgh, 1821, 1822, 12mo,]

642 POETICAL BOOKS. [§ 280.
are proverbs of Solomon, which the men of Hezekiah,
king of Judah, collected." " This connects the collection
of Proverbs (xxv. 2 — xxix. 27) together, and separates
it from the preceding collection.
2. The following aie supplements to the book : —
(1.) Chap. XXX., containing several proverbs and enig
mas, with the inscription, " The words of Agur the son
of Jakeh, the prophecy : The saying of the man to Ithiel,
to Ithiel andUcal."'
(2.) Chap. xxxi. 1 — 9, containing precepts for kings,
Avith the inscription, " Words spoken to Lemuel the
king, a proverb which his mother taught him.""
(3.) Chap. xxxi. 10 — 31, containing the praise of a
virtuous woman. §280.
ORIGIN OF THIS COLLECTION,
The inscription and preface, (i. 1 — 6,) it is certain,
do not relate merely to the first section, (i. 7 — ix.,) but
to a cohection of proverbs. Chap. xxii. 17 — xxiv. 22,
is, indeed, like i. 7 — ix. in its design and contents, but
yet is not from the same author.* Chap. xxiv. 23 —
xxv. 1, appears to be a supplementary addition. There-
" rmn\ t\)i^ n^i?!n ^'^:h ^D'^fiSfi 'i?.»? ri>a"bEi, ''bio'a s5)s->33.
" ias ifi-itp^ las sisa 'r\b'n bsttb '''12'n.
"^ The peculiarities of the first section (i 9, iii, .3, ^, iv, 9, vi, 21, vii, 3)
do not reappear, and even where a similar thought occurs, (xxiii, 27, 28,) the
form of speech is different (ii 16, sqq,, v. 3, sqq,, et al.) Other peculiarities
appear, as (xxii. 19, xxiii, 15) the emphatic pronouns, (xxii, 18, xxiii, 8, et
ai,) C^-'^J , and many otiiers. The tone of admonition is not preserved long
at a time, Ewald, p. 49.

§ 280. J THE PROVERBS OF SOLOMON. 643
fore we must consider i. — xxii. 16, as an independent
whole, forming the first collection, to which xxii. 17 —
xxiv. 22, was afterwards added by way of supplement."
It is diflicult to determine whether the admonition
(i. 7 — ix.) was composed by the collector of this book,
or was of earlier date, and previously in circulation.*
The later cohection, (xxv. — xxix.,)" which originated
in Hezekiah's time, was either discovered by the same
author who comphed i. — xxii. 16, and with the supple
ments, xxii. 17 — xxiv. 22, added it to that collection, or,
which is more probable, it was added at a later period.
The supplements, (xxx. xxxi.,) which in diflferent
" Most critics are of this opinion, {See Bertholdt, -p. 2181, sqq.) Ziegler
(Uebers, p, 273, sq,) finds marks of a later composition in the first passages,
and the use of earlier forms of speech in the second, (Comp, xxiv, 24, with
xi, 26, and xvii, 15 ; xxiv, 29, with xx, 23 ; xxiv, 33, sq,, with vi, 10, 11,)
Ewald {Tp. 41) thinks the inscription to the supplement (xxiv, 23) came from the
same author as that in xxv, 1, who likewise added xxii 17 — xxiv, 22, But
if this were the case, xxii. 17, would also have an inscription. To me,
xxii, 17 — xxiv. 22, seems to be a later epilogue, written in imitation of i — ix.
Chap, xxiv, 23, sqq,, may have been added at tiie same time with xxv, 1, sq.
' Ewald (p, 36, sqq,) favors the first opinion, and regards this passage as
an introduction to the whole collection. But, excepting i, 1 — 6, no reference
is made to the whole collection, as, perhaps, it is done in xxii, 17, The author
continually admonishes us to strive after wisdom, to observe and follow his
doctrine, and that of father and mother. In particular, he dwells on the sub
ject of chastity, Ewald thinks the language is more modern, and finds
some imitations. (KB^??, iv. 22, vi. 15, and "tree of life," iii 18, .') He
finds an imitation of Job, (iii, 13, sq, viii. Job xxviii) He maintains that
such connected discourses are more characteristic of a later time than the
short maxims ofthe older collection.
' For the difierent character of the language in the second part, see
Ziegler, p, 25, sq, Bertholdt, p. 2187, Ewald, p, 31, sqq. The latter ad
duces the following proofs : 1. Different style : the interrogative or con
ditional preterit ; xxv. 12, 16, xxix, 20, Fact and figure connected merely
by and; xxv. 3, 20, 25, xxvi. 3, 7, 9, 10, 21, Cases of asyndeton; xxv, 11
—14, 18, 19, 26, 28, xxvi, 23. (But comp, xi, 22, xxi, 1,) 2. We do not
find the simple, rigorous parallelism, the condensed fulness and strength of
expression, but the thought is extended to two or more verses ; xv, 4 — 10,
Longer proverbs ; xxvi, 23—28, (?) xxvii. 23—27, (But compare x, 4, 5, 16,

544 POETICAL BOOKS. [§281.
ways transgress the limits of the ancient proverbs, were
probably added sthl later."

§281.
AGE AND AUTHOR.
It is highly probable in itself that many proverbs
have been ascribed to Solomon — as well as many lyTic
poems to David — which he never wrote.
These proverbs, judging from their number and varie
ty, seem rather the productions of a whole nation than
of a single man. Many of them relate to private and
rustic life ; with one of which Solomon was not
sufficiently acquainted, and in the other he could not
participate.'
17, 31, 32, XV. 16, 17, xxi. 25, 26.) 3, Signs of a party-colored, complicated,
and perilous state of society, where one portion was hostile to another ;
xxviii, 2, 3, 15 — 22, 28, xxix, 2, 16, (only xi, 10, is like this ; but see xi 11,
14, xvi, 10 — 23,) xxv, 3 — 5, xxix, 12, — Some other peculiarities are not
characteristic — the maxims on modesty in the presence of great men, (xxv.
6, sq, ;) on being troublesome or importunate in visits and desire of success,
(xxv, 16, 17, xxvii, 14;) on love of glory, (xxv, 10, xxvii 1, 2;) on quarrel
someness, (xxv, 8 — 10,) &c. To these I will add, the obvious effort to be
witty in comparisons, (xxv, 11, sqq., 20, xxvi 2, 8, 17, 23, et al, ;) and the
love of paradox, (xxvi 4, 5,) — To this may be added the repetition of
many proverbs already given before, (xxv, 24, comp, xxi, 9 ; xxvi 15, comp,
xix, 24 ; xxvi 22, comp. xviii, 8 ; xxvii, 12, comp, xxii 3 ; xxvii 13, comp.
XX, 16,) fi-om which we may conclude, not only that these were collected
later, but that they originated later.
Naa , in the inscription of xxx, and xxxi,, means, elsewhere, a. prophetic
orade ; and here the tone sometimes rises to lyrical elevation, (xxx, 2, sq,,
xxxi, 2, sqq,) There are "spiteful descriptions" in xxx, 11, sqq,, 18, 19, 21,
sqq,, as Ewald says. Chap, xxxi. 10, sqq,, is simple in sense, though artificial
in form. In xxxi 2, we find the word "13 , [but see Ps, ii 12,] and T'^'b'a
in verse 3,
' See, in particular, xii 10, 11, xiii, 23, xiv, 4, xxiv. 27, 30 — 34, xxvii 23,
sqq, ; xiii. 7, II, xiv. 1, xv. 15 — 17, xvi. 8, 26, xvii 1, 2, xviii. 9, 22, xix, 14,
15, XX. 13, 14, xxi 9, 17, xxiii 1, sqq,, 20, sqq,, 29, 30, xxv, 17, xxi. ], xxii.

§281.] THE PROVERBS OF SOLOMON. 545
Chap. i. — ix., with their didactic and admonitory tone,
and their strict injunction of chastity, agree rather with
the character of a teacher of youth, a prophet, or priest,
than a king like Solomon."
We know for a certainty that he did not write xxv. —
xxix. ; but, three centuries after him, many proverbs
might easily be taken for Solomon's which did not really
belong to him.
It may at least be doubted that the first collection was
made by Solomon ; and there is nothing to prove it.'
29, xxv. 6, 7, xxviii, 15, 16, See Bertholdt, p, 2180, 2186, [It is probable,
from the well-known passage, 1 Kings v. 12, that Solomon wrote proverbs ;
succeeding ages very naturally ascribed to him most of the proverbs which
came into general circulation. In the same manner, the Greeks ascribed many
of their gnomic sentences to Pythagoras, as the Arabians referred theirs to
Locman, Abu-Obeid Mophaddel, and Meidani, and as the northern nations
referred their wise sayings to Odin, or as the Oriental fables are ascribed
to Pilpay. Part of these sayings may, doubtiess, belong to Solomon; yet it
is not possible for tiie critic to lay his finger on any one witii the absolute
certainty that it is his. Negative criticism is here more safe than positive
affirmation, for many passages bear internal marks which show conclusively
they could not have proceeded from him.]
" Bertholdt, p, 2176. Chap, v. 10, vi. 26 — 31, seem to have proceeded from
a private man,
' [Jahn (p, 731) has a different hypothesis. He thinks, since Solomon ut
tered 3000 proverbs, and this book has been commonly ascribed to him, that
we have no adequate reason for denying that he was the author. He sup
poses that the chancellor ( "I'^S^^n ) wrote in the annals all the remarkable
sayings of the king, with the occasion which gave birth to them, and at Sol
omon's command collected them into a book, to which the king himself wrote
the introduction, (i — ix.) Various readers made extracts from this book, to
suit their own taste ; the whole was copied more rarely. Thus it happened
that much, especially from the end of the book, was lost Afterwards at
tempts were made to restore it, and the later additions were made. This
explains the reiteration of some proverbs.]
Ewald (p. 30) thinks there is a Salomonic book of proverbs at the basis,
which was much abridged, in the two fnst centuries after its publication, (?)
transformed, and gradually enlarged witii new additions. In i.— v. he thinks
the greater part is old and Salomonic ; but additions have been made in the
VOL. II. 69

546 POETICAL BOOKS. [§ 282.
But it is certain they come from the most flourishing
period of Hebrew literature. A large share in the com
position of the Proverbs may therefore be reasonably
allotted to Solomon, especially in the first part. (i. —
xxii. 16.)
The authors of the first two of the latter appendices
are mentioned — Agur, and the mother of King Lemuel ;
but their age is unknown to us."

CHAPTER V.
ECCLESIASTES, OR THE PREACHER.'
§282.
STYLE AND SPIRIT OF THE BOOK.
In all respects, this book belongs to the gnomological
and didactic compositions of the Hebrews. It not only
contains, in some parts, actual proverbs, while a connect
ed and prosaic style prevahs from beginning to end, but
maxims relative to correcting a son, and the proverb about a fair woman
without discretion, (xi. 22, sq.,) and some others, have been added,
" See the opinions about Jlgur and King Lemuel, in Gesenius's Lexicon,
Bertholdt, p, 2193, sq,, and Rosenmidler, 1, i;, [Michaelis " explains away "
Agur, and changes the pointing in xxx, 1, and reads ni? "^53 1135* ''1-57
isisart , i c, colled my words, my son ; receive the proverb.]
' Hieronym. Comm, in Ecclesiast, Opp, iii. Vallars.
Merceri Comm, in Eccles,, in his Comm, on Job,
Mart. Geieri Coram, in Koheleth ; Lips, 1668.
/, /, Rambach, Annotatt in Eccles, in J. H. Michadis, Uberr. annotatt in
Hagiographa. Ecclesiast philol, et crit iUustratus a Van der Palm ; Lug. Bat 1784.
Der Pred, Sal, mit e, Erkl, nach dem Wortverstande, vom Verf, dea

§ 282.] ECCLESIASTES. 647
in its entire character and spirit it seems to be the result
of the same practical wisdom of the Hebrews, seen in
another point of view. The doctrine of retribution on
earth, elevated by no hope of a future state, which con
stitutes the rehgious principle of the book, had to contend
with powerful doubts, which the sad experience of life
suggested, and which show themselves, here and there,
perhaps in Proverbs, (xxiv. 19,) but more clearly in the
Psalms, (xxxvh. and Ixxiii.,) as the times became more
disastrous and hopeless. As Faith and Inspiration became
more cool, so these doubts became more powerful, and
at last took the form of a practical system, inchned to
skepticism, fatalism, and Epicureanism. To this the au
thor of the book professes to adhere."
Bergst thinks he finds a foreign influence in the book.*
Phadon, Aus dem Hebr, iibers, vom Uebers. der Mischnah {Robe) ; Ansb,
1771, 4to,
G, Zirkel, Unterss. ub, d, Pred, n, krit u, phil. Bemerkk. ; Wiirzb. 1792,
His Uebers ; ibid,
G. Ph. Chr. Kaiser, Koheleth das CoUectivum der davidischen Konige zu
Jerusalem ; Eri, 1823, 8vo, Knobd, Com, ub, Kohel ; 1836, Ewald, 1, c.
Ueberss, und Erkli von Kleuker, 1777 ; Struensee, 1780 ; Doderlein, 2 A.
I79I; G. L. Spohn, 1785 ; Friedldnder, 1788; Ch. A. Bode, 1788; J. E.
Chr. Schmidt, 179i; JVachtigall, 1798; B. H. Bergst, \799 ; Umbreit, 1818;
Koster, (n, Hiob,) 1831,
[Des Vceux, A Philosophical and Critical Essay on Ecclesiastes, &c, ; Lond,
1762, 4to, Greenaway, Ecclesiastes translated, with a Paraphrase and Notes ;
1781, 8vo, iSba^son, A New Translation ; 1791, 4to, An Exposition of the
Book of Eccl. by Bishop Reynolds; 1811, 8vo. Wardlaw's Lectures on
Ecci ; 1821, 2 vols. 8vo, Holden, Attempt to illustrate Ecci ; 1822, 8vo,
The Philosophy of Ecclesiastes, by Dr, /, JVordheimer, in the Biblical Re
pository for 1838, vol, xii, p, 197, sqq,]
" See De Wdte, Characteristik der Hebraismus, in Daub und Creutzer,
Studien, vol. iii pt ii, p. 287, sqq.
' In Eichhom, Allg. Bib, vol. x. p, 963, sqq, [He discovers a Grecian in
fluence in the book, and calls its author an " Oriental sophist," Luther, in
his Table-Talk, says the author of Ecclesiastes rides without boots or spurs,
and only in his stockings.]

548 POETICAL BOOKS. [§ 283.
Here the prosaic style is as natural as in the later
prophets ; but Koster thinks he has discovered a regu
lar rhythmical strophe in it.

§283.
TITLE AND CONTENTS.
The meaning of the word n^nip, the Hebrew title of
the book, has long been contested ; but the most satis
factory explanation of it is sthl ixy.lrjOiao'vriq, conciona-
tor, that is, speaker in the assembly, (inl?.) This agrees
whh xii. 9."
At any rate, if the text is correct, the word is a title
of King Solomon.' Indeed, it is probable that the name
" [The word, tiiough masculine in sense, has the feminine form ; but Jahn
(p, 828) shows that in Arabic many appellatives were used with a ri at the
end, which corresponds vdth the Hebrew ri , and were then used indiffer-
entiy in a, masculine or feminine sense. Even in the Hebrew, names of
men soraetimes occur in a feminine form ; e, g, fTlpD , Ezra ii, 55, and fi5|l C ,
verse 57, Some suppose the word means Collector of sentences, or proverbs ;
others. Old man. Life-weary, Penitent, a man gathered to his fathers, as if it
were D^rib?? .] Comp, ntlS ri33 , adduced by Eichhom, Gesenius, and
Knobel, to which Ewald and Koster add h>33n. See Bertholdt, p, 2202,
Umbreit, Coheleth Scepticus de summo Bono, p, 76 ; 1820, Dindorf, Quo
modo nomen Koheleth Salomoni tribuatur ; 1791, 4to, Carpzov, p, 200, sqq,
' [Bertholdt (p. 2208) conjectures that only the first two words of the in
scription, viz, fiin'p i|ll1,aregenuine, and the rest of the inscription, as well
as the word Ci'^n p , every time it subsequently recurs, is interpolated. See
Gesenius, sub voce,] Umbreit, p. 95, 1, c,
[Dr, Peters, Crit Diss, on Book of Job, (2d ed, Lond, 1757,) says, " The book
is a sermon, preached by Solomon, but long after his death, I raean that it
is composed out of Solomon's remains  by those that were appointed
[by law ?] to revise and publish them ; amongst whom, Isaiah  hath left
us a little mark of his own hand-writing, at tiie end of the book, for those
who are capable judges of it  The sermon ends with a repetition of the
text, ' Vanity of vanities,' " &c, (xii, 8,)]

§ 283.] ECCLESIASTES. 549
Solomon itself is but a title or surname, as well as Jedi-
diah, in 2 Sam. xh. 25. Symbolical and mythical names
were not uncommon among the Hebrews, as other pas
sages can prove."
[By a fiction, Solomon is introduced here as speaking.
Augusti maintains that he appears in the character of a
man deceased, or a ghost. But there is no clear intima
tion of this in the book, and the whole agrees very well
together, if we suppose that the author wished to make
him appear to speak at the end of his life, but did not
adhere rigidly to this plan in his composition.]
The doctrine of the uselessness and nothingness of all
things, and the reality of enjoyment alone, would make
a deeper impression from the mouth of this wise king,
who was surfeited with enjoyment and success, than
from any other. Such is the doctrine of wisdom which
this later teacher chiefly propounds, in the name of Sol
omon, and which, with much regularity, he has uttered
from the beginning of the book. Since, in general, he
lays down the results of his reflection in this book, and
from them proceeds to the more thorough treatment of
his principal theme, he introduces likewise many other
observations and rules of life, which, however, are almost
always tinged with skepticism. Though they sometimes
contradict the doubts he has elsewhere expressed, (viii.
12, 13, xii. 14,) this only shows the want of clearness
and certainty in his reflections. Thus, beneath the in
terrupted and broken unity of the book, there appears a
deeper unity.'
" Isa, xxix, 1, Jer. xxv. 26, Ezek. xxiii 4. Perhaps Agur (Prov. xxx, 1) is
a name of Solomon.
' The following is a sketch of the contents. The main point of the book
is this : Ml is vain and fruitless. The arguments in support of it are, —
1, The aimless course of things, (i 4 — 11.)

550 POETICAL BOOKS. [§ 283.
Since the style of the book, as weh as its contents, lies
clearly obvious to the eye, it is wonderful that hitherto
the interpreters have not agreed respecting it."
2, The vanity of attempts to gain wisdom, (i, 12 — 18,)
3, The vanity of earthly enjoyment, and all attempts to reach it, in com
parison with wisdom, although the gratification of desire has still the highest
value, (ii,)
4, The transitoriness and change of all things, for which reason gratifi
cation of desire is again coraraended, as the most valuable, (iii 1 — 15.)
5, The dominion of injustice and death among men, for which cause death
is more to be desired than life, though life is still to be enjoyed cheerfully,
(iii, 16— iv, 3,)
6, The vain troubles and strivings of men, (iv, 4 — 12,)
7, Vanity of royal honors, (iv. 13 — 16.) Separate maxims respecting idol
atry and injustice, (iv. 17 — ^v, 8,)
8, Vanity of the struggle after wealth and honor. Commendation of an
enjoyment of life, (v, 9 — vi, 9,) Subjection to destiny by the vanity of all
things, (vi, 10 — 12,) Single maxims, mostly of a skeptical character, (vii. 1
—viii. 13.)
9, Fruitless striving after wisdom, (vii. 23, 24.)
10. Death is unavoidable, (viii, 8,)
11, Success of the wicked. Adversity of the pious. The government
of tiie world incomprehensible, (viii, 14— ix, 6.) Commendation of pleasure.
(ix. 7 — 10.) The superiority of wisdom, which often is of no avail, (ix, II —
X. 1,) Single maxims, of a skeptical nature, (x. 2 — xi, 6,) An exhortation
to enjoy life, before old age approaches, (xi. 7 — xii. 8.) Conclusion and
summary of the book, with an account of Koheleth himself (xii. 9 — 14.)
" The following writers think it is written in the form of a dialogue :
Herder, Briefe, vol. i p, 180, sq, Clericus, Sentimens de quelques Theol, de
Holland, p, 272, The third edition of Eichhorn, voi iii, p, 650, sqq, Bergst,
in Eichhorn's Allg, Bib, vol, x, p, 963, sqq, Rhode, De Vet Poet Sap,
gnom, p. 213, sqq, Kelle, Die Heil, Schriften in ihrer Urgestalt vol, i,
p, 279, And on the other side, Doderlein, Pref to his translation, p, x, sqq,,
and Rosenmidler, Prolegg, p, 1.3, See the similar views of Paulus, in his
new version of the book in his Repert vol, i, p, 201, JVachtigall, Kohel,
p, 36, sqq. He finds no plan in it J. E. Chr. Schmidt found in this book a
work not fully completed and ready for the people. Others have sought to
prove there were in it an orderly plan and division, Rosenmiiller and /. D.
Michaelis think it is divided into two parts ^ — i, 1 — iv, 16, and iv, 17 — xii 8,
Van der Palm divides it thus : i, — vi, vii, — xii. The foUowing is Koster's
arrangement: i, 2 — 11, the introduction; i, 11 — iii, 22, the first chapter,
nothing permanent, or the absolute good ; iv, — vi, the second chapter, the
relative good ; vii, 1 — ix. 16, the third chapter, of true wisdom ; ix, 17 — xii, 8,

§ 283.J ECCLESIASTES. 551
The objectionable character of the book is not to be
denied. To do this were to mistake its peculiar mean
ing, as Koster has done, who finds too much in it that is
positive, and maintains that the book " teaches us what
is permanent in nothingness ; " or as Ewald, who thinks
the happiness it recommends is an ideal of life. But
Jerome, in his commentary on Eccl. xh. 13, says, " The
Hebrews say, that this book ought to be obhterated, —
as well as other writings of Solomon, which have become
obsolete, and have been lost, — and for this reason, that
he asserts the creatures of God are all vain, and thinks
the whole of no value, and because he prefers food and
drink, and transient pleasures, before all things. But
the book deserves to be placed among the divine volumes
for that sentence alone, in which he condenses the whole
contents and meaning of the book, and says that the end
of his discourses is very easy to be heard, and contains
nothing difficult, namely, that we should fear God and
keep his commandments." " The book denies the im-

the fourth chapter, of wisdom in its application to the affairs of life, Umbreit,
(Uebers, p. 13, sqq,, Coheleth script p, 44, sqq,,) to verify bis arrangement,
makes use of arbitrary transpositions. Herder, Eichhorn, Friedldnder, and
Knobd, justly maintain there is a free course of ideas in it, [not restricted
by a formal plan,] Herder (1. c, p, 178) and Eichhorn (§ 661) give the con
tents and design of the book correctiy, yet Knobd^s modification thereof
may be accepted, " Koheleth wished to prove the nothingness of human
life, and then to lead a life conformable thereto," The following give the
design ofthe book erroneously or one-sidedly, and too definitely : Des Vaux,
Critical Essay of Ecclesiastes, J. F. Jaeobi, Vorwiirfen gerettete Prediger
Buch ; 1779, /. D. Michaelis, Poet Entvnwf d. Pred, Buch ; 2d ed, 1762,
Kleuker, Salomon, Denkwiirdigkeit ; 1785, Doderlein, 1, c, p, viii, Zirkel,
Untersuch. p. 76. Schmidt, Sal. Pred, p. 23. Paulus, 1. c. p, 209, Gaab,
Beitrage, &c, p, 48, Hanlein, On the Traces of a Belief in Immortality in
Ecclesiastes, in his Theol, Journal, vol, iv, pt iv. p. 278, sq, Bertholdt,
p, 2248. Rhode, I c. p. 223, sqq, Umbreit, 1, c, p. 35, Ewald, Hohes
lied. p. 153, sq. Koster, 1. c. 105, sqq., and particulariy Kaiser, 1, c.
" See Pesikta Rabbati, fol. 33, c. 1. Midrash, Cohel. fol, 311, c, 1.
Vajikra Rab. sect 28, fol, 161, c, 2 : Voluerunt sapientes, inoKgimeiv,

552 POETICAL BOOKS. [§ 284.
mortality of the soul, and this denial is not affected by
the passage, (xii. 7,) " And the dust returns to the
earth as it was, but the breath of life to God, who gave
it." This denial is not mere poetry.
§ 284.
ITS AGE AND AUTHOR.
To follow the letter of the book, it is ascribed to
Solomon. Tradition and common opinion favor this
hypothesis. The statement in Baba Bathra and Shal-
sheleth Hakkabala, that Isaiah wrote his own book, the
Proverbs, Canticles, and Ecclesiastes, does not deny that
Solomon was the author."
But if it is probable that Solomon wrote some of the
Proverbs, and that their spirit is conformable to that of
his age, then this book can neither belong to the same
author, nor the same age, for its spirit is entirely dif
ferent. This hypothesis is favored by the obvious
fiction, and the introduction of Solomon saying, " I the
preacher was king over Israel at Jerusalem. I did great
things. I buhded me houses, and planted me vine
yards," &LC. ; " Besides this, since the preacher was
wise, he taught the people knowledge, investigated, and
inquired, and set in order many proverbs," &c. (i. 12,
ii. 4, xh. 9.) '
librum Coheleth, quod deprehenderunt in eo verba qute ad hteresin vergant
Compare Carpzov, p, 222, Tr, Schab, fol. 30. On the silence of the New
Testament and the Fathers respecting it, see Knobd, p, 101, sqq,
" Baba Bathra, foi 15, c, 1. (See above, § 14, and Hakkabala, fol. 66, c, 2,)
Grotius (on xii. 11) was the first to deny that Solomon was the author.
Even Jahn does the same, p. 849. But the following defend the genuine
ness ofthe book: Carpzov, p. 207 ; Schdling, Salomon quse supersunt, Prtef
p. 10 ; Van der Pahn, p, 34 ; and others,
' Doderlein, (Schol. in Libr. V. T. poet p. 187 ; Uebers. p, 161,) Schmidt,

§ 284.] ECCLESIASTES. 553
This theory is favored, also, by the later character of
the language, which is strongly Aramaean." Besides, it
bears other marks of a recent and unfortunate age, which
had made some advance in religious and literary culti
vation.' We shall not be far out of the way, if, with Rosen
miiller, Knobel, and Ewald, we date the composition of
the book in the last time of the Persian period, or the
beginning of the Macedonian, when literary fictions of
this kind were common."
(Sal, Pred. p. 204,) Bertholdt, (p, 2250, sq,,) and Umbreit, (Coheleth, p, 94,)
consider the epilogue (xii, 9 — 14) spurious, but on grounds perfectly worthless.
Here the author appears very properly, and speaks of the sage whom he has
introduced in the fiction. Besides, he is spoken of in tiie third person,
(vii. 27,) The language of this part does not differ from the rest of the
book, as Schmidt maintains, who finds Graecisms in it, but only by misun
derstanding 1?3 irii"i , (verse 9,) Comp, Van der Palm, p. 83, sqq,
° inn , for ban ; i 2. D^n^on for oiiiosn ; iv, 14, naa ; i lo, ii 12, 16,
iii 15, iv, 2, et ai lillD^ ; ii 21, iv. 4, v, 10, liua ; xi 6, x, 21, I'at ; iii, 1,
im'B ; viii, 1, baa ; xii. 3, Y'a^^ ; x, 8, B3ri5 ; viii, 11, obis , world ; iii 11,
B , prefix, perhaps fifty times, B " nto ; i, 9, iii. 15, 22, vi. 10, vii 24, "JS? ,
with finite verb ; ii, 12, 13, 15, 20, iii 18, iv, 4, et ai The use of Elohim.
Many things approach the Talmudic usage : I^JS* ; i, 3, ii 26, iv, 8, v, 13,
et al, I'a f ^n ; ii, 25, lliin ; ii 25, et al. See Gesenius, in vol, i,, Appen
dix, D, Hartmann, Linguistische Einleit in d, B, Koheleth, in Winer's
Zeitschrift, vol, i p, 29, sqq, Knobd, p. 70, sqq,
' Ewald (p, 181) adduces some passages in proof of the political condition
of the age, which prove nothing. What has been brought forward by
Schmidt (p. 299, sq.) and Jahn (p. 853) firom viii, 2, x, 4—7, 16, 17, 20, iv, 13
— 16, in proof of an earlier age, from Manasseh to Hezekiah, (725 — 696 B. C.)
is of little assistance. See Bertholdt, p. 2218, sq.
' Bertholdt and Zirkel bring it down still later. The latter finds allusion
to the Sadducees and Pharisees in the book ; but see, against this, Eichhom,
Allg. Bib. vol. iv. p. 904, sqq. /. E. C. Schmidt, p. 278, sqq., and 306, sqq.
Bertholdt, p. 2221, sqq. But Knobd thinks the views of the Pharisees and
Sadducees began to develop themselves in the time when this was written.
VOL. II. 70

POETICAL BOOKS. [§285.

CHAPTER VI.
THE BOOK OF JOB,"
§285.
STYLE AND SPIRIT OF THE BOOK.
This book is closely connected in character with Ps.
xxxvii. and Ixxiii. Its subject is the common Hebrew
' Catena Grtec, Patrura in b. Job., collectore JViceta, Heraclete Metropoli-
ta, ex duobus MSS, Biblioth, Bodlejante codd,, Grtece nunc priraum in lucem
edita et Latine versa op. et st. Patricii Junii. Accessit ad calcem textus
Jobi azixiQ'^g, justa veram et gennanam LXX. Seniorum interpretat, ex
Biblioth. Reg. MS. cod, ; Lond, 1637, fol.
Mart. Buceri Comment, in Libr, Job, ; Arg, 1528, fol,
Jo. (Ecolampadii Exegem, in Job, et Dan, ; Bas, 1532, 4to., and often,
Vietorin. Strigelii Liber Jobi, ad Ebr, Veritatem recogn, et Argumentis
atque Schol, illustr, ; Lips, 1566; Neostad, I57I,
Joa. .Merceri Comm, in Job,, Genev. 1573, foi, cum Comm, in Librr, Sal,,
Lug, Bat 1651, fol,
C. Sanctii Commentarius in Jobum ; Lug. Bat 1625, fol,
Jo. Drusii Nova Versio et Scholia in Job. ; Amst 1636, 4to,
Seb. Schmidii in Libr, Job., Comm, ; Arg, 1670, 4to,
Jo. Henr. Michadis, Notte uberr, in Libr, Jobi, Uberr, Annotatt in Hagiogr,
vol, ii,
Animadverss, philoi in Jobum, &c,, Auct, Alb. Schidtens ; Traj. ad Rh.
1708, 8vo, Opp, rain. ; Lug. Bat 1769, 4to,
Liber Jobi cum nova Vers, ad Hebr, Fontem et Comment perpetuo. Cur,
et ed. Alb. Sdiultens ; Lug, Bat 1737, 2 vols, 4to,
Liber Jobi in versiculos metrice divisus, cum vers. Alb, Schultens notis
que ex ejus coram, excerptis, Ed, atque annotatt suas ad metrum prtec,
spectantes adj, Ricard Grey ; Lond, 174) .
Alb. Schultensii Comm, in Jobum, In Comp. redegit, Observatt crit atque
exeg. adspersit G. /, L. Vogd. Tom. i ii ; Hai 1773, 1774,
Observatt, miscell, in libr. Job., quibus verss, et interprett passim epicrisis
instituitur, &c, Prtemissa est crit, disquisitio, ubi operis totius indoles et
scriptoris consilium expenditur. Cum examine oraculi celebratiss, de Goele.
(Auct Dav. Renat. Bovllier ,-) Amst 1758, 8vo. Ewald, 1, c. vol. iii
E. F. C. RosenmOlleri Schoi in V, T. pt v.

§ 285.] BOOK OF JOB. 555
doctrine of final causes, contending with doubts. The
inspired soul of the poet must triumph over these
doubts, to which the author of Ecclesiastes had yielded.
He conquers them, not by rationalism," but by resigna
tion and faith. This spirit of the book, and its form, —
that of a dialogue, — borrowed from the assemblies of
sages, render it closely similar^ to the Greek tragedies ;
and it may be called the Hebrew tragedy. It is char
acteristic of the Hebrews, that they represent the
tragic idea by words and thoughts, rather than by
action.'

Ueberss, und Erkli von S, Gryndus, 1767; /, D. Cube, 1769—1771,
voi iii ; Eckermann, 1778; Moldenhauer, 1780, 1781,2 vols, 4to,; Hufna
gd, 1781 ; Kessler, 1784 ; H. A. Schultens und H. Muntinghe. Aus d,
Holland, m. Zuss, u, Anmerkk, ; J. P. Bergs von K. F. Weidenbach, 1797 ;
Pape, 1797; Block, (raetrical,) 1797; Eichhom, 1800, A, Bibl, vol, x, p, 579,
sqq,, 2 A. 1824; Stuhlmann, 1804; Gaab, 1809; J. R Schdrer, 1818, 2
vols,; E. G. A. Bockel, 1821 ; L. F. Mdsheimer, 1823; Umbreit, 1824, 2
A, 1832 ; Gerh. Lange, (metrical,) 1831 ; KosUr, (starophic,) 1832,
See Elench, Interprett, vor Rosenmiiller's Schol, vol, i, und Umbreit's
Uebers, [A Translation of the Book of Job, &c,, in Broughton's Works, voi ii p,
246, sqq. Heath's Essay towards a new English Version, &l,c, ; 1756, 4to,
The Book of Job in English Verse, by T. Scott ; Lond, 1773, 8vo, An Im
proved Version, with Notes, by Gardner; Lond, 1796, 8vo, The Book of
Job metrically arranged  and newly translated, &c,, by Bishop Stock ;
Bath, 1805, 4to, The Book of Job, translated by Elizabeth Smith ; Lond,
1810, 8vo. The Book of Job, literally translated, hy John Mason Good;
Lond, 1812, 8vo, An Exposition, &c,, by /, Caryl; Lond, 1669, 2
vols, fol. Elihu, or an Inquiry into the principal Scope, &c,, of the
Book of Job, by Walter Hodges ; Lond, 1750, 4to, A Dissertation on the
Book of Job, its Nature, &c,, by J^, Gamett, 2d ed, ; Lond, 1751, 4to, A
Commentary on the Book of Job, by Chappdow ; 1752, 2 vols, 4to, A
critical Dissertation on the Book of Job, by Peters; Lond, 1757, 4to,
See, also, Warburton, Divine Legation, b, vi, sect ii, A New Translation
of tiie Book of Job, by G. R. JVoyes, 2d ed, ; Boston, 1838, 1 vol. 12mo.]
" Vernunftdei.
' The ancients compared it, too closely, to a tragedy ; e, g. Beza, Obser
vatt in Job. Prooem, p, 2, sq, Jo. Gerhard, Bxeges, Loci i, de SS, § 140. Mer-

556 POETICAL BOOKS. [§ 286.
§286.
THE CONTENTS, SUBJECT, AND UNITY, OF THE POEM.
It is pretty clear that the poet writes to disclose the
weakness of the common doctrine of retribution. 1. In
the prologue, (i. ii.,) he relates the history of Job's mis
fortunes, and the design of God to try him. 2. Then
fohows Job's discussion with his friends, (hi. — xxxi.,)
beginning, (1.) with a monologue by Job, (hi.,) express
ing his despair and weariness of life. This discussion
is carried on throughout three acts of the dialogue,
namely, (2.) in chap. iv. — xiv. ; (3.) xv. — xxi. ; and,
(4.) xxii. — xxviii. In this controversy. Job's friends set
forth and defend the common doctrine of retribution,
making it more and more apparent thereby that Job is
a transgressor, and deserves what he suffers. Job de
nies this doctrine, and defends his own innocence. In
this way the problem is stated. (5.) Then fohows the
monologue of Job, (xxix. — xxxi.,) which closes the dis
cussion, but without solving the problem. There is a
confusion in this part of the poem, occasioned by Job's
conceding to his adversary (xxvii. 13 — 22)" what he
cerus, Preef. in Job, But see Carpzov, p. 76, sq,, and Lowth, Prselect xxxiii,,
who says this poem is not a proper drama.
The comparison with an epic poem is altogether absurd, J. H. Stuss,
De Epopceia Jobaea Comment iii,; Goth, 1753, 4to. Lichtenstein, Num Lib,
Job. cum Odyssea Homeri comparari possit ; Helmst, 1773, 4to, lUgen,
Jobi antiquissimi Carminis Hebrteorum Natura atque Virtus ; Lips, 1789,
.iugusti, Einleit § 106,
" [Eichhom gives a solution ofthe difficulty, Allg, Bib, vol, ii. p. 614. It
is that of Kennicott, Diss. Gen. § 165, viz, that it is not Job, but Zophar, who
speaks in this passage, Bildad and Eliphaz had each spoken three times,
and it was therefore necessary, for the sake of symmetry, that Zophar also
should speak a third time. He thus arranges the discourses : Bildad, chap,
xxv, ; Job's reply, xxvi 1 — xxvii. 10 ; Zophar, xxvii. 11 — ^23 ; Job, xxviii

§ 286.] BOOK OF JOB. 557
had previously denied, (xh. 6, xxi. xxiv. 22, sqq.,)
namely, that the transgressor receives his just recom
pense, and by his praising the unfathomable wisdom of
God, (xxvih.,) and consequent hint at an answer of the
question. 3. The progress of the poem is sthl more
disturbed by the solution given in the third part, (the
speech of Elihu, xxxii. — xxxvii.,) and the argument that
suffering is an instrument, in the hand of the Allwise
and Just, for the correction of the wicked. By this,
violence is done to the true solution. 4. This is given
in the fourth part, in the speeches of God, who makes
his appearance, xxxvhi. — xlii. 6. These describe the
power and wisdom of God, and reduce Job to shence
and submission. 5. The book concludes with an epi
logue, (xlii. 7 — 17,) in which God approves Job, but

1, sqq. But he passes over the most difficult verses, 7 — 10, and leaves them
as the words of Job, Ewald says in his defence, " These chapters contain
the chief theme of the book, the solution of the riddle," But it is in this
that the difficulty consists, Dr, JVoyes (1, c, note in loc, p. 165, sq,) denies
the fact of inconsistency in Job's language. He does not concede his
position that the innocent often suffer, and does not admit that human suf
fering implies guilt ; but as the virtuous do suffer, there is some mysterious
cause of it, besides the vices of men. This apparent inconsistency he takes
for a necessary part of the plan of the book. But there seems to be an
essential discrepancy between this and Job's former speeches, (Compare, in
particular, xxi. 6—21, xxiv, 21—25,) But in xxvii 7—23, the wicked
universally, a.t \ea,st generally, meet with just punishment. But, to me, this
and other inconsistencies of Job seem perfectly natural, and show the exqui
site art with which the poem was written. What more natural than this,
that a man deprived of all, reduced to the last stage of physical suffering,
tempted by his wife, and tortured by his friends, should affirm what he just
denied ! At one time he seems to believe a sort of immortality of the soul,
(iii, 13 — 19 ;) then, when exasperated still more, he positively denies it
(xiv, 10, 14, et al,)]
Kern (in BengeVs Archiv, voi iv, pt, ii, p, 362) maintains that the poet wished
to introduce a higher view, in the contested speeches of Job, and those of
Elihu, for the purpose of mitigating the severity of Job's conclusions, and
also to impede the progress of the poem !

558 POETICAL BOOKS. [§ 287.
disapproves of his friends. It relates, also, that a two
fold restoration of all that was lost, was made to the
suflferer. The first of these narrative passages (i. ii.)
informs us, that Job's sufferings were designed for a
trial of his character, and the second (xlii. 7 — 17)
confirms the common belief in retribution. The two
disturb the sublime idea of a trusting and humble sub
mission under the ordinances of divine omnipotence and
wisdom, which is given in the speeches of God."
§287.
SPURIOUSNESS OF ELIHU'S SPEECHES.
These speeches (xxxii. — xxxviii.) are a later interpo
lation. This fact is shown by the following considera
tions : —
1. By the matter and the style, which is far-fetched,
dull, tedious, and obscure ; as appears in the language
itself, and in its peculiar expressions.*
2. Elihu's speeches weaken the force of those of Job,
and of God, and obscure the antithetic relation between
the two. They, in part, anticipate the remarks of God,
and make them superfluous, for they give the solution
of the difficulty in the way of knowledge, which, accord
ing to God's declaration, is only to be found out by sub-
" See Dt Wette, art, Hiob, Allg, Encylop. vol, ii. sect viii, p, 293.
' ST; xxxii, 6, 10, 17, xxxvi, 3, rflr\; xxxii 6, 10, 17, xxxvi, 2, n'O;
xxxiii 1 8, 20, 22, 28, (Comp, xxxviii 39.) nS3 ; xxxiii '25, xxxvi 14. "i25
n'"B'a ; xxxiii, 18, xxxvi, 12, i?t3C ; xxxiv, 26, pC-^i ; xxxvi, 18, (Comp, xxvii,
23.) "¦'w" ; xxvi, 16, 18, et ai Reminiscences frora former parts of tiie
book; xxxiv, 3, 7, Comp, xii 11, xv, 16; xxxiii, 15, comp, iv, 13; xxxvii,
4, 10, 22, corap, xl, 9, xxxviii 29, 30, xxviii. ], 12, See Michadis, Einleit in
A, B. vol. i p, 113, sqq, Hirzel, Hiob, p, 190,

§ 287.] BOOK OF JOB. 559
mission." Staudlin is right in saying that the controversy
is decided in Elihu's speeches, while the succeeding
discourses of God only confirm the decision, for Elihu
says more than God.
3. The opinions of Job are misunderstood or per
verted. He is made to say, "A man hath no advantage
when he is in friendship with God." (xxxiv. 9.) " I am
more righteous than God  What advantage have
I ,^ What have I gained more than if I had sinned.^"
(xxxv. 2, 3.) This error could only be committed by
a writer who was not the author of the rest of the
book.' 4. Job makes no reply to Elihu.
6. Job is mentioned by name in Elihu's speeches,
and not in those of the other speakers.
6. The prologue and epilogue do not mention Elihu.
Stuhlmann, Bernstein, and Ewald, deny the authen
ticity ; Bertholdt, Jahn, Umbreit, and others, defend it.
Umbreit thinks the difference in the style arises from the
poet's artistic skhl, and denies the impropriety of these
discourses." But in this matter every thing depends on
" Comp, xxxvi, 22, xxxvii, 24, with xxxviii — xi ; in special, xxxvi 27 —
32, and xxxvii 6 — 8, with xxxviii, 12 — 30, Stdudlin, Beit, zur Gesch. Phil.
und Rel. vol, ii p. 137, sq. Kem (in Bengel, Archiv. vol. iv, pt ii p, 362)
thinks the poet aims to give the higher view in these speeches of Elihu,
» See Eichhom, § 644, 6, p. 205, 206,
¦-' Stuhlmann, Ubers, p, 20, Bernstein, in Ked, and Tzschimer's Anal,
vol, i pt iii. p. 150, sq. Ewald, in Stud, und Krit for 1829, xv, p, 767, pt iii, ;
A, T, p. 247, sq, Hirzel, p. 189. Bertholdt, (p. 2158,) Jahn, (xi p, 776,)
Umbreit, (p. 25, sqq,,) defend it [Dr, JVoyes contends against De Wette, and
defends the genuineness of Elihu's speeches. 1, The difference in style
was designed ; the autiior did not wish to " give the most respectable appear
ance to a young man appearing on such an occasion," The "favorite
expressions" and "reminiscences" are " circumstances of littie importance,"
2, The speech of Elihu sets off that of Gbd by the contrast, and if the omission
of Elihu's speech would render the poem more perfect, we are not, therefore,
to reject it. " The author does give one view of the cause of human suffer-

560 POETICAL BOOKS. [§288.
the critic's taste and judgment ; yet I cannot understand
how any one can contend that the beauty of the poem
would be injured by the omission of Ehhu's speeches,
on the ground that there would not be then sufficient
preparation for the appearance of God ; and that it
would be a Deus ex machina in that case, whhe it must
be a Deus ex machiiia at any rate."

§288.
SUSPICIONS AGAINST XXVII, 11— XXVIII. 28.
It is certain that this passage is unsuitable and con
tradictory in the mouth of Job. This has long been felt.
Kennicott and Eichhorn,'' therefore, refer xxvii. 13 — ^23,
to Zophar; Stuhlmann allots verses 11 — 23 to him.

ing in this discourse, not distinctiy stated elsewhere, (chap, xxxiii, 14 — ^28,)"
(What is it.') 3. Elihu does not pervert Job's speeches to any great extent,
and a young raan would naturally misunderstand and pervert his opponent
in some measure. (?) (But to me the perversion seems great tmd unnatural,)
4, It was in accordance with Eastern feelings to give this youth no answer, (.')
5, The mention of Job's name is uniraportant (True, if this were the only
objection ; but combined with otiiers, it has some force,) 6, Elihu is not
mentioned in the prologue, because the author thought best to have but three
speakers in the chief part ofthe poem; and if he did not judge so wisely as
the German professors, still we should not alter his plan, (Here Dr, JVoyei
assumes that the " German professors" would alter, and not restore, the au
thor's plan,) Elihu is not mentioned in the epilogue, "because nothing
occurred to the author which was particularly appropriate to be said to hira,"
But this judgment is soraewhat arbitrary. On the whole, Dr, JVoyes thinks
there is a strong presumption against a Jew tampering with such a work.
But to me there seems a presumption on the other side ; for, as we have seen,
they did tamper with the prophecies of Isaiah, and perhaps Zechariah, with
the names of David and Solomon,]
¦ Besides, it may still be doubted whether the passage, (xxxviii 1, sqq,,)
alleged to be introductory, refers to the following appearance of God,
' See Kennicott, Remarks on select Passages in the O, T, p, 169. Diss.
Gen. ed. Bruns, p. 539. Eichhom, Allg, Bib, voi ii, p, 613,

§288.] BOOK OF JOB. 561
but refers chap, xxvih. to Bhdad. Bernstein considers
the whole as a later interpolation, while Rosenmuher
and Umbreit consider it genuine."
But it cannot, with propriety, be assigned to either
of Job's adversaries ; for, though Zophar has spoken but
twice, this is obviously by the author's design.'
A good deal has been said in defence of this passage,
by Kern, Rosenmuller, Umbreit, and Ewald. Hirzel
says weh, " Whhe Job's opponents wished to prove this
proposition against him, that ' the transgressor did not
escape punishment in his life,' and charged it upon Job
himself, that, since every transgressor was miserable,
therefore every miserable man was a transgressor ; to
stave off this argument. Job had hitherto, though against
his better judgment, denied the entire proposition; and,
since his opponents laid it down as a permanent and
universal rule, he had confirmed this denial, by adducing
numerous examples where the contrary was true. But
now he goes on to explain the matter to his friends, and
admits that they have rightly apprehended the law by
which the transgressor's lot is determined, (verse 12.)
He gives a description which agrees with their propo
sition, (13 — 23,) as a sort of supplement to his remarks,
and then calls their attention to this fact, that, in spite
of the justice of their general view, they had yet fallen
into an error, (verse 12.) He then adds chap, xxvih.,
designing to show his opponents how great were the
depths of divine wisdom, and how narrow the limits of
human knowledge." Sthl, after all, we must charge
' Stuhlmann, Anmerk. zur Uebers. p. 68 — ^76. Bernstein, 1. c. p. 134.
Rosenmidler, and Umbreit, on xxvii 13. [JVoyes, in loc]
' How could Zophar utter verses 11 and 12? — "I will teach you," &c,,
" Ye yoursdves have cdl seen it," &c. Elsewhere the opponents of Job
speak only to him,
VOL. II. 71

562 POETICAL BOOKS. [§ 288.
the poet with obscurity, at the least, if not with incon
sistency ; for, in sjhte of his sublime aspirations, he can
not wholly free himself from the common doctrine of
retribution. It is scarcely right to maintain that here
is an interpolation, though the bombastic passage, (xli. 4
— 26,) which disturbs the connection between God's
speech (xli. 1 — 3) and Job's reply, (xhi. 2 — 6,) is sus
picious." [It is plain xxxi. 38 — 40, is out of its place. The
speech of Job would end finely with verse 37.' Chap.
xxxi. 38 — 40, would suit the connection if inserted
after verse 25. Chap, xxxviii. 36, disturbs the con
nection as it now stands, but the sense is preserved if
this is placed after verse 38.] '
" [Dr. JVoyes (i u, p, xxiii,) admits the inconsistency of Job's statements,
m xxvii 7, sqq., with his former assertions, but thinks this not incompatible
with the autiior's design, which was " to throw all possible light upon a
moral subject" The object of the poem is advanced by this course, and
Job's admission is not inconsistent with his assertions in xxix, 30 and 31,
but it is inconsistent with his assertions in xii, 6, 7, xxi, 6 — 21, xxiv. 2 —
8, 21—25,]' Eichhom, Allg, Bib, voi ii p, 619. On the other hand, see Hirzel,
in loc,
" Stuhlmann, Bernstein, and Eichhom, insert xli, 12 — 34, immediately after
xl, 7, BO that the following order prevails : xli, 1 — 7, xli 12 — 34,  xli
8 — 11, Ewald considers the whole passage, xl, 15 — xli, 26, as spurious, and
chiefly for this reason : The sole design of Jehovah's second speech (xl, 6,
sqq,) is to answer Job's doubts respecting the justice of the government of the
world, and the description of Behemoth and Leviathan is not suited to this
end. But the design of xi 6, sqq,, cannot be determined so sharply, (comp,
verse 9,) for sharpness of distinction does not belong to the character of our
poet (See Umbreit, Theol, Stud, und Kritiken for 1831, p, 833, sqq, Hir
zel, in loc.) Eichhom connects xxxix, 30, with xl, 15 — ^24, and places xl, 1 —
14, between verses 6 and 7 of chap, xlii [The passages which involve
difficulties in their present order will then stand thus : xxxix. 30, xl. 15 —
24, xl, 1—7, xli 12—34, xli 8—11, xlii, 1—6, xl, 1—14, xhi 7, sqq,, and
then all these difficulties vanish. Heath inserts xl, 1 — 14, between xlii.
6 and 7,]

§ 289.] BOOK OF JOB. 563
§289.
SUSPICIONS AGAINST THE PROLOGUE AND EPILOGUE.
For the sake of the perfection of the poem, we could
wish these historical passages were away. Accordingly
they have been rejected by Hasse, Stuhlmann, and Bern
stein." But the prosaic style, the occurrence of Satan
therein,' the use of the name Jehovah, — whhe Eloah° is
elsewhere used in the book for its poetic effect, — prove
nothing against the genuineness of these passages. There
is a contradiction between i. 19, where it appears all
Job's children were khled, and xix. 17, where he says, —
" My breath is become loathsome to my wife.
And my supplication to the children of my own body." ''
Compare, also, viii. 4 : —

" Hasse, Conjectures on the B. Job, in the Magazin fiir d, bibi or, Litt
vol, i p, 162, sqq.
' Herder, Eichhom, Stuhlmann, and Bertholdt, think the Satan mentioned
here is not tbe common Satan, But this is contrary to all analogy, De
Wette, Bib, Dogmat § 171, and the authors there cited, Hirzel defends the
prologue and epilogue, and says, " Neither belongs to the didactic part of
the book. The prologue initiates the reader into divine mysteries, but in
the poem itself he must see that all the attempts of Job and his friends are
unable to disclose the causes of his affliction. This would give him a hint to
abandon inquiry into what was resolved upon in the counsel of God, In the
epilogue, the poet restores Job to prosperity, and thus performs a duty to the
reader's feelings, which will clearly appear if we consider tiie opposite case
 had he left Job in endless misery. If Job is repaid for unmerited suffer-
ino- and loss, the reader goes away satisfied with the divine order of things,"
But I think he would be confirmed in the common doctrine of retribution, for
here a case occurs in actual life where an innocent man suffers to the last,
and is not, as in the epilogue, finally restored to happiness. The reader
then would be dissatisfied with the divine order of things,
" See Eichhorn, § 644, a. By the use of this word he avoided all the
popular and theocratic notions of God,
"* [JVoyes translates i3t)S ^ia , " children of my mother." The LXX. ren
der it vlovg naXXaxl6o)v fiov, but the Vulgate literally, /Zios ventris met.

564 POETICAL BOOKS. [§ 290.
" As thy children sinned against hira.
He hath given them up to their transgression,"
But this contradiction proves little."
More stress is to be laid on the contradiction between
xhi. 7, 8, and xxxviii. 2, xl. 2, xlh- 3, in the judgment
pronounced on the expressions of Job.' The submis-
siveness of Job (i. 21, 22, and h. 10) does not agree
with what is said here. But still all these considera
tions are not sufficient to justify us in rejecting the
passage. §290.
THE IDEA AND DESIGN OF THE POEM.
Now, if all the contested passages are spurious, then
the author carried out the sublime idea, that man can
pass no judgment upon the government of the world,
and the allotment of human destiny ; only a confession
of his ignorance and humble submission are left for him.
But since the critic can venture to reject only the
speech of Elihu, then the poem is an attempt to rise
above the common doctrine of retribution. But this

So Schultens. But Gesenius (Lex, Heb,) renders it " my brdhren."] I can
not agree with Ewald and Hirzel, that the word means grandsons.
" According to Hirzel, Job merely defended his innocence, which his
friends had attacked ; but the word "lis is against this view. At least, the
poet has expressed himself very obscurely,
' [Jehovah said to Eliphaz  " My wrath is kindled against thee and thy
two friends : for ye have not spoken concerning rae that which is right, as
hath my servant Job. Take ye therefore, &c  my servant Job shall pray
for you, (for to hira will I have regard,) lest 1 deal ivith you according to your
folly ; for ye have not spoken concerning me that which is rigid, as hath mi
servant Job ; '' and xhi, 3, [Thou Job sayest,] " Who is it that darkeneth coun
sel witiiout understanding ? " " I [Job] mentioned what I did not imder-
stand, because — what I did not see into was incomprehensible to me,"
Dr, JVoyes translates differently.]

§290.] BOOK OF JOB. 565
attempt is successful only in this, — it teaches, 1. that
an innocent man may suffer; and, 2. that he must not
murmur, but confide in the wisdom of God, who may
have good designs in the infliction of suffering, and turn
all to the best result. The poet presents this comforting
doctrine to his countrymen, when misfortunes and doubts
of Providence were wavering before his eyes."
The application of this poem to the condition of the
Jewish people,' is not to be disguised by the fable, and
the scene on which the events take place. Job is
a patriarchal character, and the scene is laid in the east,
and in the nomadic period of history." Now, if the
whole is not a poetic fiction, — and there are many
reasons to favor that opinion, — but if the poet made use
of traditional materials,'' yet his intention in working
" § 285.
' Bernstein has placed this in a favorable light, p, 190, sqq. See De Wette,
On the Characteristics of Hebrew Spirit, in Daub and Creutzer, i u, p, 278,
Similar opinions may be found in Herman von der Hardt, Com, in Jobum,
sive Historia Populi Israelis in Ass3n-, Exilio, tom, i ; Helmst 1728, fol,
Leclerc, on Job, i 1, Warburton, Divine Legation, pt, iii, b, vi, § 2, ch, 3,
[Peters (1. c) attempts to rebut the statements of Warburton, respecting the
age, &c,, of Job,] /, Gamett, Dissertation on the Book of Job, &c, ; 2d ed,
Lond, 1751.
' See chap, i 3, 5, xlii, 11. Comp. Gen. xxxiii 15, xlii 16. Some writers
find too much of the patiiarchal and nomadic in the poem. Eichhorn, §614,
p. 164, Against this, see Bernstein, p. 27, sqq,, p, 79, sqq. Numerous pas
sages are opposed to this — v, 4, xv, 28, xxiv, 12, xxix, 7, xxxix, 7, xii, 18,
19, xxxi, 35. Others are in its favor — xxi, 10, sqq,, xxix, 6, xxx, 1, sqq.
According to i 3, we must seek the land of Uz (*1J>) in the north of
Arabia, and not in the neighborhood of Damascus, See Jer, xxv, 20, Lam,
iv. 21, Gen, xxxvi. 28, xxii. 21, x, 23, See Spanhdm, Hist Jobi, cap, iii,
p, 35, sqq, Rosenmuller, Proi in Job, § 5. Gesenius, Lexicon, Bertholdt,
p. 205, sqq,
"^ Baba Bathra (p, 15, c, 1) says, " Job never existed, nor was created,"
So says Maimonides, Mar, Nevoch, iii, 22, p. 395, sqq, Junii., De Partibus
div. Legis, lib. i Clericus, Sentimens de quelques Theologiens, p, 274, sqq.

666 POETICAL BOOKS. [§ 290.
it over is so obvious, that no one can fail to see the
didactic object he had in view.
The addition of the Seventy favors the opinion that
Job was an historical person : — "

See others in Carpzov, vol, ii, p, 34, Jllichaelis, Einleit p, 1, sqq. The
hypotiiesis that the book is a fiction, is favored by the fact, that the ideal is
mingled with the narrative, (i 2, 3, xlii, 13, 14, 16,) and by the significant
name of Job, ^i'^S^S^'^S, the persecuted See Gesenius, Lexicon, and
Hirzd, p. 8. On the otiier side, Ewald
" The following passages in Ezekiel are not certain proofs that the poet
made use of traditionary materials : xiv, 16, 20 ; though Luther, (Tischre-
den, p, 318,) Eichhom, Rosenmidler, and Hirzd, are of this opinion, as well as
the addition ofthe Seventy: Oozog kg/^TjvEvEzai ex zr^g Svgiaxrjg ^l^Xov, iv
fuv yr^ xajotxwv zr^ AvotriSi, inl rote ogtoig zr^g 'Idovfialag xal ' Aga^ia;'
ngov7iy\gxe Si avziS bvofia ' Iw^ij.^. Au^Cjv di yvvalxa 'AgdiSiaaav, yEvru
vlov, (I) bvopa 'Evvdiv, 'Hv di ccdibg naigbg piv Zagi ix twv ^Haav vlibv
vibg, ftr/zgdg di Boadggag, aaze Elvai avzbv nipnzov &nb 'A^ga&/i, xui ovzoi
ol ^aaiXetg ol ^aaiXEiaavzEg iv 'EStSifi, ^g xal aizbg ^gSe ^(igag- ngibzo;
BaX&x 6 ToC Bewo  pszdi di BaXdix,' Iio^dS 6 xaXoifiEvog 'Idd. tleza
di Tovzov, 'Aad>fi 6 in&gyiov fiyEftCiv ix zrj; 0aifiavlzidog ;f(ijas"- |UET<i di
ToUzov, 'Adad vldg Bagid  01 di iXS-dvzeg ngbg aizbv cplXoi, 'EXicpfi'Q
ziav ''Haav viSiv, Qai/navHv ^aaiXevg, BaXdid 6 ^av;(al(av vugavvog, Si^icpag
6 ]\/ivaUDv ^aaiXEvg. (Corap, Jahn, § 758, sqq, Carpzov, p. 36, sqq.) ["The
book of Job," says Dr. Hodges (1. c.) "has suffered as much as Job himself,
fi-om critics, Mr, Home (1, c, vol, iii p, 63, sqq,) maintains the book is a
real history, " There is every possible evidence that the book  con
tains a literal history," &c. The arguments are, 1, " Ezekiel and Daniel men
tion him." So Christ mentions Lazarus : does this prove him an historical
person? 2. The book of Job "specifies the names of persons, places, and
facts,  usually related in other true histories." So does every work of
fiction, e. g, the Arabian Nights' Entertainment, and Paradise Lost. It were
impossible to write an intelligible poem without " persons, places, and facts,"
3, Job is mentioned in Eastern tradition, in the book of Tobit, by Moham
med, Noble Arabians boast of descent from him. And, at tiie " end of
tiie fourth century (A, C)  many persons  went into Arabia
to see Job's dunghill;" therefore, "The book of Job contains the history
of a real character." Dr. Hales (cited in Home, p. 69) forces the stars
to tell the very date of Job's trial ; for, assuming that " Chimah and Chesil,
or Taurus and Scorpio, were the cardinal constellations of spring and
autumn," and knowing their present longitude, and the usual rate of the

§291.] BOOK OF JOB. 667
" This is translated from the Syriac book, for he dwelt
in Ausitis, on the borders of Idumea and Arabia. His
first name was Jobab, and, marrying an Arabian woman,
he had a son, whose name was Ennon. He himself
was the son of Zare, of the children of Esau ; his mother
was Bosorrah, so that he was the fifth from Abraham.
Now these are the kings that reigned in Edom, which
country he also governed : First, Balak, the son of Beor,
and the name of his city was Dennaba ; and after
Balak, Jobab, who is called Job ; after him Asom, who
was governor of the country of Thaimanites, [Teman ;]
after him, Arad, the son of Barad, who cut off Madiam
in the plain of Moab. The name of his city was Geth-
aim. The friends who came to Job were Eliphaz, of
the children of Esau, king of the Thaimanites, [Teman-
ites,] Baldad, the sovereign ofthe Sauchaeans, [Shuhites,]
and Zophar, the king of the Minseans, [Naamathites.]"

§291.
THE COUNTRY AND AGE IN WHICH IT WAS WRITTEN.
The prologue has led to several mistakes, in particu
lar points. The book has been taken for a. foreign pro
duction, though it is Hebrew throughout, both in form

precession of the equinoxes, we can, by the rule of three, determine the
tirtte when these constellations were the cardinals of spring and autumn,
namely, 2130 years B. C. This, then, is the date of Job's trial ; the confirma
tion of the book. Unfortunately there is reason to believe Orion and the Ple
iades are the stars mentioned, and the whole theory falls to the ground, and
we are driven from the sky to philology to determine the age of the work.
See very different reasoning in Warburton, 1. c. ; Heath, i c, p. viii, sqq.,
xi, xix,, sqq,, xxxv. ; and JVoyes, 1. c, p, xx,, sq,]

568 POETICAL BOOKS. [§291.
and substance. It has been referred to the most an
cient times."

" Some tiiink it is of foreign origin. Aben Ezra, Com, in Jobum, ii, 1.
1. That it is of Aramcean origin is maintained by the pseudo Origen, and
the addition to the LXX. given above ; but Stark, (Davidis Carmina, i 198,
sq.,) Eichhom, (§ 645,) and Bertholdt, (p, 2045, note 4,) erroneously explain
these words of the above addition oirog igprjveiETui ix j^g avgiaxr^g Bl-
^)mv, as if they related only to the addition itself. See Carpzov, I. c, p, 52,
and the pseudo Origen, Com, in Job.
2, The theory of an Arabian original is defended by Spanheim, (Hist
Jobi, c, xiii sqq, p, 221,) /, Gerhard, (Exeges. lib, ii de Script s, § 137,)
Calov, (Bibi illustr, ad Job, Prsf,) Kromayer, (FUia Matri obstetricans, i e,
De Usu Linguae Arab, in addiscenda Ebraea, p, 72,) Jerome (Pnef, in Dan.)
says, "Job has a strong resemblance to the Arabic language," On the
other hand, see Gesenius, Gesch, Heb, Sprach, p. 33, quoted above, voi i
Appendix, D,
3. The theory of an Idumean origin is defended by Herder (Spirit of
Hebrew Poetry, voi i p, 125, sqq,) and Illgen, (Jobi antiq, Carm, Hebr, Vir
tus, p, 28,)
4, The theory of a JVahoritic author is advanced by JViemeyer, (Charakter.
d. Bib, voi ii p, 480, sqq,) Eichhom (§ 642) adopts the modified opinion that
it was written before the time of Moses, by a Hebrew, who resided in Idu
mea, and was familiar with the appearance and manners of jEgypt But,
on the other hand, see Richter, (Prog, de jEtate Libri Jobi definienda ; Lips.
1799, 4to. § 11, p, 23,) Rosenmidler, (Proi in Job, p, 31, sq,,) Staudlin, (i c.
p. 238, sqq,,) Bernstein, Bertholdt, and Umbreit.
The absence of geographical, historical, and theocratic notions in the
poem, which conform to the opinions ofthe Hebrews, can be explained only
on the supposition that the work is a fictioiL (Comp, Michaelis, i c, p, 47,
sqq,) But see xxii 15, 16, where the deluge seems to be referred to, and
xl, 23, where the Jordan is put for a great river.
But, on the other hand, the book is not destitute of peculiar conceptions
of another kind ; for example, ix, 5 — 9, xii, 10, xv, 7, xxvi, 5, sqq,, xxxviii
4, sqq, ; iv, 19, x. 9, xxvii 3 ; iv, 17, sqq,, viii 9, ix, 2, xiii, 26, xiv, 4, xv, 14,
xxv, 4, and 6 ; iv, 18, v, 1, xv. 15, xxi, 22, xxxviii 7 ; xxxi, 26, 27 ; vii 7,
sqq,, X, 21, sq,, xiv, 10, sqq,, xvi 22, xxx. 23, xxxviii, 17.
To this must be added the affinity between the book and the Proverbs
and Psalms; e, g, xxviii, 18, "Wisdom is more precious than pearls ; '' and
Prov, viii 11, "Wisdom is better than pearls:" xxviii. 28, "The fear of
the Lord, that is wisdom ; " and, Prov. i 7, " The fear of the Lord is the
beginning of wisdom." (Compare, also, xxvi. 6, with Prov. xv. 11 ; xv. 16,
and xxxiv. 7, with Prov, xxvi 6; xiii, 5, with Prov, xvii, 28; xxvi 5, with
Prov. ii. 18, and xxi 16 ; xxvii, 16, 17, with Prov, xxviii, 8 ; xxii, 29, with

§291.] BOOK OF JOB. 569
In respect to the language," to the contents and entire
spirit,' the book belongs not at all to the golden age,*"
but to the later period of Hebrew literature.
Prov, xvi 18, xviii, 12, and xxix, 23.) rpm'W ; v, 12, vi 13, xi, 6, xii, 16,
xxvi, 3, xxx, 22, (Comp. Prov. ii. 7, iii 21, viii, 14, xviii. 1.) Hin ; vi 2,
xxx, 13. (Comp. Prov. xix, 13,) nibSHR ; xxxvii 12, (Comp, Prov, i, .5,
xi, 14, and elsewhere. Chap, xii, 21, 24, comp, with Ps. cvii, 40; v. 16, and
xxii, 14, with Ps, cvii 42.) (See others, in Michaelis, 1. c. p, 93; Rosen
miiller, 1. c, p, 32; and Gesenius, 1. c, p, 33,) The tendency ofthe whole
book speaks still more strongly in favor of its Hebrew origin,
Carpzov, (p, 53, sqq,,) and several ancients adduced by him, suppose it
was written before Moses, This is the opinion, also, of Eichhom, (§ 641, sqq,,)
Jahn, (p, 799, sqq,,) Stuhlmann, (p, .55,) and Bertholdt, (p, 2132, sqq,) But
some ofthe arguments ofthe latter, though sought out with great pains, are
refuted by the supposition that the work is a fiction, and others are them
selves of no value, — such as this, that after Moses, there was no belief in the
appearance of God, which is contradicted by Ps, xviii, i, and Hab, iii, ;
that ini (xii, 19) does not mean priest, to support which he gives a wrong
interpretation of Gen, xiv. 18; and that D12Z is used differently in the
books written after Moses, Baba Bathra and the rabbins considered
Moses the author, (see Hottinger, Thes, Phil, p, 499 ; Wolf, Bib, Heb, ii,
102 ; Michadis, § 11 — 17 ;) and this is the opinion, also, of pseudo Origen,
Ephraim the Syrian, Huetius, (Dem, Ev. Pr. iv. § 2,) and Michaelis, (p. 89,)
while Eichhom (§ 643) and Stdudlin (p, 256) refer it to some other writer of
great antiquity,
" Gesenius, 1, e. p, 33. Bernstein, p. 49, sqq, (But the latter puts here
what belongs to the poetic style,) Besides its affinity with the usage of the
Psalms and Proverbs, the language has a strong tendency to the later Chal
dean Hebrew ; e. g, D^llinp , angds. nnip ; xvi. 19. Sj^tl ; xiv. 20, xv, 14,
iai?; ii 10. ^T3, to ddermine; xxii. 28. tn!*, to shut up; xxvi, 9,
fpn ; xxi, 21, xxii, 3, MSJa ; vii, 3, 'ifflg , for iSp ; xviii, 2, ^n , for t} i
xli, 4, i , (as not. accus. ;) v, 2, xxi 22,
" Later Rdigious JVotions. — i 6, ii. 1, iv, 18, v, 1, xv, 15, xxi. 22, xxxiii
33, 34, xxxviii. 7. Later Manners and Customs. — xiii, 26, xix, 23, 24, xxxi,
35 ; V, 4, XV. 28, xxiv. 12, xxix. 7, xxxix. 7 ; iii 14, sq,, xii. 18, sq., xv, 19, ix,
24, xii 6. Bernstein, p. 79, sqq, A still stronger proof is furnished by its re
lation to the sufferings ofthe Hebrews, to their doctrine of final causes, and
the advance in this kind of philosophy, in comparison with the kindred Psalms
and Proverbs, [See Warburton, Div, Legat vol, ii. p. 389 ; Lond. 1837.]
" The following writers refer it to Solomon, or an author of his times :
R. JVathan, in Talmud, 1, c, Gregory, Naz. Orat ix. Luther, Table-Talk,
Harduin, Chronoi vol. i p. 533. Reimarus, Einleit zur Hoffmann, N. Erk-
VOL. II. 72

570

POETICAL BOOKS. [§291.

Since Ezekiel was acquainted with the character of
Job, (xiv. 14, 16, 20,) and it is probable that Jeremiah
had read the book," we cannot place its date so low as
the Chaldee period,' but near it, in the time when the
kingdom of Judah was sinking to ruin. Ewald places it
at the beginning ofthe seventh century B. C., and Hir
zel at the end of it. The latter critic conjectures that
the author of Job was carried to iEgypt by Pharaoh
Necho, with King Jehoahaz, 611 B. C, and in this way
acquired that famhiarity with -^gypt and its remarkable
things, which strikes us in his descriptions."

lar, d, B, Hiob ; 1734, 4to, Doderlein, Schol, in Lib, poet vol. i p. 2, Stdud
lin, p, 260. Richter, 1, c, Rosenmiiller, p. 35,
" Comp, Jer, xx, 14 — 18, with Job iii, 3 — 10, x, 18 ; xvii 1, with Job xix.
24 ; xxxi, 29, 30, with Job xxi, 19; but comp, also Deut. xxiv. 16, But the
resemblance is too slight to warrant the conclusion that one author had seen
the work ofthe other. [There is, indeed, a very obvious affinity between Job
iii, 3—10, X, 18, and Jer, xx, 14 — 18, But perhaps the thought was original
with neither ; and, besides, it is quite as probable that the author of Job bor
rowed from Jeremiah, as Jeremiah from Job, Ezekiel's reference to Job is
easily explained on the hypothesis that there was a tradition, oral or written,
respecting such a person. At the most, it could only prove there once lived
a Job, remarkable for piety and virtue — not that the hero of this poem ever
lived, StiU less that it is a grave narration of facts. The same may be said
of the reference to Job, in James v, 11, and Tobit ii, 12, " Quis, quaeso,"
says Michaelis, (Epimetron de Lib, Jobi, p, 648,) " aegre feret, Lazari aut
Samaritani exempli moneri ecclesiam, licet utrumque nuspiam fuisse credat ? "
and, alluding to the passage of Ezekiel, " nee inauditum aut absurdum veras
personas et fictas in proponendo exemplo conjungi, Fac patrem, Lucretiae
et Pamelae castitatera comraendare fUire, quis tam rigidus censor sit, ut id
reprehendat ? "]
' Bernstein, Gesenius, Umbreit, and the former editions of this Introduction,
placed the date in the Chaldee period. Herman von der Hardt, Lederc, War
burton, Thomas Heath, J. Garnet, Rabbi Johannan, (Baba Bath. fol. 15, c, 2,
Hier, Sota, fol, 20, c, 4,) and otiiers, were ofthe same opinion,
" See Hitzig, Esaias, p, 285, sq.

THE END,

c;
O